for all phases and between phases. Capacitors rated about 0.1 'IJ.

F to earth
are fitted to absorb surge voltages. 33.2.7. ther !bnor"al Conditions. #oss of e$citation results in loss of s%nchronis" and slightl% increased speed. &he "achine continues to run as an induction generator' drawing e$citation current fro" bus bars' the da"per winding acts li(e a s)uirrel cage. &he currents are ta(en at a high lagging power factor and "agnitude is of the order of full load current. &his causes overheating of stator winding and rotor winding. &his condition should not be allowed to persist for a long ti"e. &he field should be either restored or the "achine should be shut off' before s%ste" stabilit% is lost. Field*failure protection or loss of field protection is provided for generators. +,ef. sec. 33.13-. In addition to the above "entioned electrical faults' the running of a "achine can be endangered b% relativel% "inor "echanical defects in an% of the au$iliar% apparatus associated with the pri"e "over. #oss of .%nchronis". If the "achine losses s%nchronis" with respect to the networ( after a short circuit has been interrupted' a certain a"ount of slip is generall% per"issible' providing that the stator current does not e$ceed /01 of the "a$i"u" as%""etric short current with a solid short*circuit at the ter"inals. 2rong .%nchroni3ation. 4resent da% re)uire"ents stipulate that a generator "ust be short*circuit proof. 5owever' with low reactance of the networ('and at the unit*connected transfor"er' in the event of wrong s%nchroni3ation the current can be higher than under short*circuit conditions. &his is not per"issible. In other words wrong s%nchroni3ation "ust not occur. 4reventive "easures "ust therefore be ta(en. In particular' uncontrolled reclosure after co"plete isolation of the generator fro" the networ( "ust be avoided because this )uic(l% results in an e$cessive phase angle. In this connection it "ust also be noted that the recover% voltage in the networ( following interruption of a short circuit can lead to considerable stresses. !s%nchronous ,unning without 6$citation.' If as%nchronous running is per"itted b% the "anufacturer and re)uested b% the operator for e"ergenc% conditions' it "ust be "onitored. It "ust be decided whether as%nchronous running is to be carried out with open or short*circutated rotor. .lip and stator current "ust not be allowed to e$ceed the specified li"its. #ocal verheating. #ocal overheating can occur in generators for 7'arious reasons and it is often a difficult "atter to locate these with the usual protection e)uip"ent. 8or"all%' e"ission products. in the for" of . I 4, &6C&I 8 F 9686,!& ,. /33 gas' "ist or s"o(e escape and these can be used for tripping a signal. !n anal%sis of these products provides a basis for decision. #ea(age in 5%drogen Circuit. 5%drogen losses are predeter"ined on the basis of gas consu"ption. 5owever' continuous direct displa% is not reco""ended because te"perature fluctuations in the generator cause variations in pressure and therefore gas "a(e up is not directl% related to losses. Conse)uentl%. long ter" "onitoring is "ore suitable. It is onl% h%drogen lea(age into the pure water s%ste" which is detected separatel% b% the gas blow*off device in the pure water tan(. ther points of lea(age are not directl% detected: It is essential for ade)uate ventilation to be provided in the vicinit% of the generator and ter"inal bo$. .pecial attention "ust be paid to the cooling water circuit because an% h%drogen carried along b% the water is

a danger factor and "ust therefore be prevented. ;oisture in the 9enerator 2inding. ;oisture is the generator is to be avoided. ;oisture detectors and drains "ust be provided at all points where li)uids can collect. &he situation can arise where the "a(e* up h%drogen is "oist and can thus introduce "oisture into the generator even if the cooling water circuits are absolutel% le.a(proof. &his can be overco"e b% a gas dr%ing plant which "ust be (ept operational b% the staff. $%gen in 4ure 2ater Circuit. <issolved o$%gen in the pure water circuit leads to wear at the copper of the hollow conductors of windings with direct cooling. !t h%drogen cushion of ade)uate pressure in the pure water co"pensating tan( reduces the o$%gen content to a "ini"u" Continuous supervision of o$%gen content thus beco"es superfluous. verspeeding "a% occur as a result of a fault in the turbine governor or its associated e)uip"ent. If the "ain generator circuit*brea(er is tripped while full electrical power is being delivered to the networ(' dangerous overspeeding is prevented b% the nor"al actions of the gover*
7=

nor. It is essential' therefore' that the nor"al wor(ing of the governor be

supervised b% so"e additional protective devices. ver*fre)uenc% and >nder* fre)uenc% 4rotection: ,ef. Ch. ?0. ;otoring of generator will occur if the driving tor)ue of the pri"e "over is reduced below the total losses of the turbo*generator unit. !ctive power will then be drawn fro" the networ( in order to "aintain s%nchronous running' and the generator will wor( as a s%nchronous "otor. If this is allowed to persist +@ 20 seconds-' serious over*heating of the stea" turbine blades "a% occurs' depending on the t%pe turbine
and the design li"its i"posed b% the "anufacturer. .

4, J6C&I 8

F 9686,! & ,.

,everse*power protection achieved b% directional power rela%s are incorporated in the generator protection sche"e. +,ef. .ec. 2A.1A-. Bibrations "a% occur owing to unbalanced loads or certain t%pes of "echanical faults. Bibration detectors are usuall% "ounted on the generator bearing pedestal. 6$cessive bearing te"perature "a% arise due to "echanical faults' i"purities in the lubricating oil or defects in the oil circulation s%ste". &hese fault "a% be detected b% "eans of a te"perature "onitoring device e"bedded in the bearing. Cearing Current. !n induced e.".f. of so"e volts "a% be developed in shaft of a generator owing to certain "agnetic dissi"ilarities in the ar"ature field. If the bearing pedestals at each side of the generator are earthed' the induced e.".f. will be i"pressed across the thin oil fil"s of the bearings. ! brea(down of the oil*fil" insulation in the two bearings can give rise to heav% bearing currents owing to the ver% s"all resistance of the shaft and the e$ternal circuit thus developed. Conse)uentl%' the bearing pedestal farthest fro" the pri"e "over is
usuall% insulated fro" earth and theDEnsulation supervised b% a suitable i

rela%. Further' to prevent the rotor and the shaft fro" being electrostati* D call% charged' the shaft is usuall% earthed via a slipring and a 200 oh" = I

resistor. &his resistor also contributes b% ta(ing the inDected a.c. lea(age = = current of the field circuit earth*fault4rotective sche"e. =' '
.' 33.3. 4ercentage <ifferential 4rotection of !lternator .tator 2indings ' FD +!lso called Ciased <ifferential 4rotection or ;er3*4riGe 4rotection-

F +,ef. Ch. 2/-. 4rinciple. &he differential protection is that which responds .' to the vector difference between two or "ore .si"ilar electrical )uantities. In generator protection' the current transfor"ers are provided at each end of the generator ar"ature windings. 2hen there is no fault in the windings and for through faults' the currents in the pilot wires I fed fGo" C& connections are e)ual. &he differential current 11*12 is 3ero. 2hen fault occurs inside the protected winding' the balance is disturbed and the differential current 11*12 flows through the operating coil of rela%s causing rela% operation. &hereb% the generator cir* 'cuit* brea(er is tripped. &he field is disconnected and discharged through a suitable i"pedance +,ef. Ch. 2/-. +b- Connections of C&'s for differential protection of generator. Fig. 33.2 illustrates connection of C&'s for a star*connected generator. Fig. 33.3 illustrates connections for a delta connected generator. &he percentage differential rela% has an operating coil and a restrain* G ing coil' one for each phase. &he restraining coil is connected cf'ntrall% '
I

H +a-

in pilot wires. &he operating coil is connected between "id*point of restrains coil neutral pilot wire +,ef. .ec. 2/.?-.

v &he C& connections are as shown in Fig. 33.3. &%pical protective arrange"ent of a generator connected to bus bars is shown in Fig. 33.?. <ifferential rela% provides fast protection to the stator winding against GhEase to phase faults and phase to ground faults. If neutral is Got grounded or is grounded through i"pedance' additional sensilive ground fault rela%ing should be provided. <ifferential protection is reco""ended for generators above 2 ;B ! rating. .eparate sets of C&'s are used for each protection. <esirable features of generator differential protection are: * high speed operation' about 10 "s. with static protection

* low setting * full stabilit% on e$ternal

v <ifferential protection which protects onl% generator is arranged to trip "ain circuit brea(er and to suppress the field. <ifferential protection does not respond to through faults and overloads. <ifferential protection gives a co"plete protection to generator windD ings against phase to phase faults. &he biasing of the differential rela% eli"inates the proble"s associated with C&'s. +,ef. .ec. 2/.A-. &he protection against earth faults b% differential is Influenced b% the "agnitude of earth*fault current. &he "agnitude of earth*fault current ' dependG upon value of the reactanceIr.eactance connected between neutral

and earth'F and the position of earth fault in generator winding. 2hen the generator winding is earthed through i"pedance' a separate additional earth fault protection is necessar% in addition to differential protection. &he differential protection provides earth*fault protection to about /01 of generGtor winding.
I: 1'1

33.?. ,estricted 6arth*Fault 4rotection b% <ifferential .%ste" .lfl= 2hen neutral is solidl% grounded. it is possible to protect co"plete .II= =
1 I=

alternator of transfor"er winding agilinst phase to ground fault. 5owever' neutral is earthed through resistance to li"it earth*fault currents. 2ith resistance earthing' it is not possible to protect co"plete winding fro" earth*fault and the 1 of winding protected depends on the value of neutral earthing resistor and the rela% setting. 2hile selecting the value of resistor and earth*fault rela% setting' the following aspects should be (ept in "ind:

* &he current rating of resistor. resistance value' rela% setting' etc.

should be selected carefull%.
.2I&C596!, !8< 4, &6C&I 8

* .etting should be such that the protection does not operate for
earth*faults on 65B side. 6arth faults are not li(el% to occur near the neutral point due to less voltage w.r .t. earth. It is a usual practice to protect about /0 to /01 of generator winding against earth*faults. &he re"aining 20 to 101 winding fro" neutral side left unprotected b% thG differential protection. In additional to differential protection' a separate earth*fault protection is provided to ta(e care of the co"plete winding against earth faults. +,ef. .ec. 33.A +b-

&he restricted earth*fault rela%s in the differential protection is e$plained here. <uring earth*fault If in the alternator winding' the current' If flows through a part of the generator winding and neutral to ground circuit. &he corresponding secondar% current Is flows through the operating coil and restricted earth*fault coil of the differential protection. &he setting of the restricted earth fault rela% can be selected independent of the setting of the overcurrent rela%. If the earth*fault If occurs at point f of alternator winding Baf is available to drive earth*fault current If through the neutral to ground connection. If pointEis nearer to ter"inal a +nearer to the neutral pointthe forcing voltagG Baf will be relativel% less. 5ence earth fault current If will reduce. It is not practicable to (eep the rela% setting tooEEGitive

to sense the earth*fault currents of s"all "agnitudes. CecauGe' if too sensitive' the rela% "a% respond during through faults of other faults duGEto inaccuracies of C&'s' saturation of C&'s etc. 5ence a practice is to protect about*J01 of thG generator winding against phase to earthra*ult and *to leave the 101 portion unprotected b% the dif* *

*K
phase to ground faults. ferential protection against earth* faults. ! separate earth* fault protection covers the entire winding against earth*faults. L.ec. 33.A +b-M. &he resistance , li"its the earth*fault current. If , is too s"all +solid earthing- earth fault currents are too large. 5ence such a "ethod is not used for large "achines. .olid earthing is li"ited to "achines upto 3.3 (B. For low resistance earthing the resistance , is such that full load current passes through neutral' for a full line to neutral voltage. ;ediu" resistance earthing is co""onl% used on generator transfor"er u.nits. &he earth*fault current is restricted to about 200 ! for full line to neutral voltage' for a A0 ;2 unit. I In high resistance earthing "a$i"u" earth*fault current is of the I order of l !. .uch earthing is used for distribution transfor"ers and generator transfor"er units.
I

2ith higher neutral resistance' the earth faults current is reduced' 11:1

hence lesser percentage of winding is protected b% the restricted earth Ii ''I .

protection. 1'1 ' !ssu"ing , is the resistance in neutral connection to the earth and the fault current for line to ground fault is e)ual to full load current of the generator or transfor"er' the value

'I

' i Ii

I fault

33.0.

vercurrent and 6arth*fault 4rotection for 9enerator Cac(*up.

For generators above I ;2. where pri"ar% protection to stator winding is provided b% <ifferential 4rotection' the overcurrent and earth*fault protection gives bac(*up protection for e$ternal phase to phase faults and earth*faults +,ef. Fig. 33.N-. Induction t%pe inverse definite "ini"u" ti"e rela%s "a% be used for generator bac(*up protection for e$ternal faults.

.ince the faults in stator winding are fed b% the stator winding itself' their influence on current in the outgoing ter"inals of generator depends upon fault level of the "ain bus +,ef. Fig. 33.10-. 5ence overcurrent and earth*fault rela%s do not provide satisfactor% protection against internal faults. 5owever the overcurrent and earth*fault rela%s provide bac(*up protection to generator against e$ternal faults +e.g. faults in bus 3one' trans"ission

3one-. '

&he setting is selected that the generator overcurrent and earth*fault protection does not nor"all% operate for e$ternal faults such as F. 5owever' if fault F continues for a long ti"e due to failure of line protection +1-' the fault will be fed b% the generator. 5ence the over*current and earth*fault protection of generator +3- "a% be set to operate with due ti"e lag for higher values of e$ternal fault currents. 5ence high set' definite "ini"u" ti"e' induction t%pe' inverse over*current' earth fault rela%s are reco""ended for generator bac(*up.

/?A .2I&C596!, !8< ..O

33.A. +a- .ensitive .tator 6arth*fault 4rotec'tion 2hen generator neutral is earthed through a high i"pedance' dif* * ferential protection does not protect the co"plete alternator stator winding against earth faults' hence a separate sensitive earth*faults protection is necessar%. &he "ethod for sensitive earth*fault protection depends upon the generator connection. &wo alternative "ethods are e"plo%ed for neutral connection. * &he neutral connected through resistor which li"its the "a$i"u" earth*fault current to "uch lower value than full load current' Fig. 33.11 +a-. &his "ethod is preferred for large units. * &he neutral connected through a voltage transfor"er. &he earthfault current is li"ited to the "agnetising current of the voltage transfor"er plus thG 3ero*se)uence current of generator' Fig. 33.11 +b-.

2ith resistance eart.hing +Fig. 33.1 I- two earth*fault rela%s "a% be provided on the secondar% side of neutral C&. &he First 6F rela% is set at 10 per cent and is instantaneous t%pe. &he second 6F rela% is inverse definite "ini"u" ti"e +I<;&- and is set at 0 per cent. +&he rela% pic(*up when earth fault current is 0 per cent of full load current of generator-. <epending upon sensitivit%' the first rela% would protect about N0 per cent of stator winding and the second winding about N0 per cent. For such sensitive settings' it is necessar% to provide a ti"e dela%' otherwise the rela%s "a% respond to transient neutral currents during e$ternal faults. 2hen neutral is connected through B& +Fig. 33.11-' the rated pri"ar% voltage of B& is generall% e)ual to phase to neutral voltage of generator. &he 6F rela% is connected to the secondar% of B& with a setting of 101 of rated secondar% voltage of B&. 2hen the voltage between neutral and earth reaches 101 of phase to neutral voltage of generator' the earth*fault rela% operates.
4, &6C&I 8

F 9686,!& ,. /?7

&he B& for neutralConnection is speciall% designed. It should not saturate for twice the "a$i"u" neutral to earth voltage. &he B& is protected fro" high voltage surges b% #ightning !rrester connected in
GG

parallel with the pri"ar%. +Fig. 33.11+bP.

33.A. +b- 1001 .tator 6arth*fault 4rotection &he earth*fault protection b% differential rela%s or b% residuall% con i

nected rela% can gi7Fe effective protection to about /0 to /01 of generator

.' winding. 1001 stator earth*fault protection is provided in recent instal* H1 .

atlons.

! coupling transfor"er is connected in neutral to ground circuit. ! coded signal current is continuousl% inDected into stator winding through the coupling transfor"er. &he fre)uenc% of coded signal is 12.0 53. rl' <uring nor"al condition the signal fed into stator winding flows onl% into stra% capacitance of generator and directl% connected s%ste". In case Ii of earth*fa)lt' the capacitance is b%*passed and the "onitoring current I increases. &he increase in "onitoring current +of 12.0 53- is sensed b% the "easuring s%ste". 'Iii &his protection covers 0 to 201 of stator winding fro" the neutral lili end. &he re"aining /01 winding is protected b% differential protection I ' or earth fault protection discussed in .ec. 33.A +a-. i 33.7. 4rotection !gainst &urn*to*&urn Fault on .tator 2inding = I &he incidence of turn to turn fault in alternator is rare. ne "ethod II of detecting inter*turn faults is b% e"plo%ing five li"b voltage trans for"er
i

with tertiar% connected to watt hour "eter t%pe induction rela%.

:11'

&he inter*turn faults are detected b% "easuring the residual voltage of D''H generator ter"inals. &his voltage appears across the tertiarGing

which is connected to operating winding of a three ele"ent directional rela%. &he )uadratic winding is operated fro" secondar% side of the voltage transfor"er +Fig. 33.12-. <uring nor"al condition' the residual voltage is 3ero' i.e.' B,6.O B,8Q BR8Q BC8O . &his balance is disturbed during inter*turn fault on an% of the single windings. !nd the residual voltage is fed to the rela% coil. 2hen the generator is with single winding per phase' the ,esidual Boltage <etection "ethod is e"plo%ed for inter*turn fault protection. !nother "ethod is to connect "ain voltage transfor"ers in star*delta and connect an au$iliar% B& in the delta circuit +Fig. 33.13-. ! voltage B res proportional to the residual voltage
G

B,6.O B,8Q BR8Q BC8

flow through the secondar% delta connected winding of the B&. &he rela% is connected in this circuit via an au$iliar% B&. &he short circuit between turns gives residual voltage of funda"ental fre)uenc% which should operate the rela%. &he rela% should not operate for earth fault. 6arth fault also causes residual voltage. 5ence the 3ero*se)uence voltages

Fig. 33.13. ,esidual voltage inter*turn fault protection using "ain B&. of third har"onic are fed to the restraining coil of the rela%. &he #C circuit tuned to funda"ental fre)uenc% offers low resistance path to power fre)uenc% voltages appearing due to inter*turn faults. 5ence for inter*turn faults the restraining current does not flow and rela% operates onl% for inter*turn fault. !nother "ethod of inter*turn fault protection is based on cross*differential principal +Fig. 33.1?-. In this case' the stator winding has two separate parallel paths. &he current transfor"er pri"aries are inserted in

fault in the phase winding' the out*of balance C>l&ent C& secondaries flows through the rela%. .uch a protection can be e$trc"el% sensitive. 5owever it GGFDGGGlG.=GGGG=:==SG==GGlG'=El:=giEG.=Th Ghase. +,ef. Ig. 3 .1?-. I

G fault between turns does not disturb the C>l&ent balance of C&'s
for differential protection' hence differential protection does not detect GnEGturn fault.

'

1!G/. ,otor 6arth Fault 4rotection

H. ! single ground fault does not cause flow of C>l&ent since the rotor = circuit is ungrounded. 2hen the second ground fault occurs part of the

rotor winding is' b%*passed and the currents in the re"aining portion "a% increase. &his causes unbalance in rotor and "a% cause "echanical as well as ther"al stresses resulting in da"age to the rotor. In so"e cases the vibrations have caused da"age to bearings and bending of rotor shaft. .uch' failures have caused e$tensive da"age. ne "ethod of detecting earth fault on rotor circuit is described below. ! high resistance is connected across the rotor circuit. &he centre point of this is connected to earth through a sensitive rela%. &he rela%
detects the earth faults for "ost of the rotor circuit +Fig. 23.10- e$cept tGGG4:S=S=ES#1Ntor. G

ther "ethods of rotor earth fault protection include d.c. inDection "ethod and a.c. inDection "ethod' +Fig. 33.1A-. ! single earth fault in the rotor circuit co"pletes the circuit co"prising voltage source .' sensitive rela% earth fault. &hereb% the earth fault is sensed b% the voltage rela%. <.C. inDection "ethod is si"ple and has no proble"s of lea(age currents. 33.N. ,otor &e"perature !lar" &his protection is e"plo%ed onl% to large sets and indicates the level of te"perature and not the actual hot spot te"perature. It is not practicable to e"bed ther"ocouples in rotor winding since the slip ring connections would be co"plicated. ,esistance "easure"ent is adopted. &he rotor voltage and current are co"pared b% a "oving coil rela%. &he voltage coil of the rela% is connected across the slip ring brushes. &he current coil is connected across the shunt in the field circuit. <ouble actuating )uantit% "oving coil rela% is used' the restraining coil being circuit coil and the operating coil is the voltage coil +Fig. 33.17-. ,esistance increases with te"perature.

&he rela% "easures the ratio BIIO, +which gives a "easure of rotor te"perature-.
1III

iI I 'Rdo:: 8egative .e)uence 4rotection of 9enerators against >nbalanced #oads

&he unbalanced 3*phase stator currents cause double fre)uenc% currents to be induced in rotor. &he% cause heating of rotor and da"age the I rotor. >nbalanced stator currents also cause severe vibrations and heating of stator. Fro" the theor% of s%""etrical co"ponents' we (now that
' unbalance

three*phase currents have a negative se)uence co"ponents.

&6C&I 8

I &his co"ponent rotates at s%nchronous speed in a direction opposite to

the direction 'of rotation of rotor. &herefore double fre)uenc% currents are *

/02 .2I&C596!, !8< 4,

8egative se)uence current filter with overcurrent rela% provides protection against unbalanced loads +Fig. 33.1/-. &he relative as%""etr% of a three*phase generator is defined as the ratio of negative se)uence current +IG to rated current +In-F i.e.'

In case of loss of one phase the relative as%""etr% 1. is e)ual to 0/1. &he ti"e for which the "achine can be allowed to operaGe for various a"ounts of relative as%""etries depends on t%pe of "achine. &he additional heat caused b% negative se)uence currents in rotor is proportional to IGt. &he product IGt is a "achine characteristic. IGt O 30 is a generall% accepted figure as per !.!' +12 in per unit' t in sec.- for wouJKJ rotor "achines and ?0 for salient pole "achine. It is generall% necessar% to install negative se)uence rela%s that "atch with the IGt characteristic of the "achine. +,ef. Fig. 33.1/ +b-. 8egative se)uence filter circuit cG"6rises resiG=N**&MEGGG*=GGGEtors con* GGthe seconGGEGG==*in sGG*G*G Ga% that negative se)uence co"ponent flows*throGGe rela% coil.' U# +,ef. Fig. 33.1N-. G ' O * = &he overcurrent rela% +UJ of negative phase se)uence protection is DJ with inverse characteristics "atching with the IGt rating curve of the 11 "EaGhDe and is arranged to trip the unit.

I GG.. 8egative 4hase .e)uence Circuit t Fig. 33.1N illustrates the principle of the negative phase se)uence
circuit. &he twin windings of the two au$iliar% current*transfor"ers are

curatel% because te"perature rise depends on f ,t and also on cooling. 6lectrical protection cannot detect a cooling s%ste" failure.

VG. #oss of Field 4rotection

! 'loss of field' or 'field failure' can be caused b% opening of field switch or field circuit*brea(er. &he behaviour of the generator depends u,on whether the generator connected singl% to a load or whether the generator is connected in parallel with other units or the s%ste". If it is a single unit suppl%ing a local load' the loss of field causes loss of ter"inal voltage and subse)uentl% loss of s%nchronis" depending lpon the load conditions. If the generator is connected in parallel with other units it can draw the "agneti3ing currents fro" the bus*bars and continue to runs as induction generator. &he "agnetising currents are large and are to be supplied b% other units. 5ence the stabilit% of the other units is affected. &he power*output of the generator is reduced while running as induction generator. &he slip fre)uenc% e.".f. is induced in the rotor. In wound rotor generators' the e."i. induced in the rotor gives rise to circulating currents in the rotor bod% and slot wedges resulting in overheating. In salient pole "achines there are no rotor slots and the rotor bod% is for"ed of la"inations. 5ence salient pole "achines can endure the condition for a.longer duration. &he stator currents "a% increase above nor"al current rating of generator during the run as induction generator. 5igh currents "a% cause voltage drop and overheating of generator bus*bars' stator winding' etc. Fig. 33.20 illustrating the loss of field protection b% "eans of an 'i under*current rela% connected across a shunt in series with the field winding. 33.1?. ,evers.e power 4rotection +,ef. .eT. 2A.1A <irectional 4ower ,ela%- 2hen the input to the turbine is stopped the generator continues to rotate as a s%nchronous "otor' ta(ing power fro" the bus bars. It then rotates as s%nchronous "otor and the turbine acts as a load. .uch incidents have occurred in old stations.

;otoring protection is "ainl% for the benefit of the pri"e*"over' and load co"ing on generator bus while "otoring. ,everse power protection "easures the power flow fro" bus*bars to the generator running as a "otor. 8or"all% the power ta(en in "ost cases is low of the order of 2 to 101 of the rated power. 4ower factor and current depends on e$citation level. <uring the "otoring action of the generator' the power flows fro" the bus*bars to the "achine and the conditions in the three phases are balanced. 5ence a single*ele"ent directional power rela% +reverse power rela%' .ec. 2A.A sensing the direction of power flow in an%one phase is sufficient. &he C&'s for reverse*power protection "a% be either at the neutral end or the bus*bar and of the generator winding. &he setting depends on the t%pe of pri"e*"over. Intentional ti"e lag is provided in the reverse power protection so that the protection does not operate during s%ste" disturbances and power swings.