Transit NZ Bridge Manual 2nd Edition

BRIDGE MANUAL
Second Edition 2003

(IncIudes amendments
June 2004 and September 2004)
SBN 0-478-04132-2
Transit New Zealand
PO Box 5084
WELLNGTON
Telephone (04) 499 6600
Facsimile (04) 496 6666
Document Code: SP/M/022
Sponsor: Highway Strategy and Standards Manager
National OIIice Contact: Engineering Policy Manager
Regional OIIice Contact: Regional Manager
Prepared by: Opus International Consultants Ltd
Ior Transit New Zealand
ii BRIDGE MANUAL
September 2004
BRIDGE MANUAL
Second Edition 2003
(IncIudes amendments
June 2004 and September 2004)
ISBN 0-478-04132-2
NationaI Library of New ZeaIand CataIoguing-in-PubIication Data
Transit New Zealand.
Bridge manual. 2
nd
ed.
Previous ed. published as: Bridge manual / Stephen Stewart.
1994.
ncludes bibliographical references and index.
SBN 0-478-04132-2
1. BridgesDesign and constructionStandardsNew Zealand.
. Title: Stewart, Stephen. Bridge manual. . Opus nternational
Consultants. . Title.
624.25021893dc 21
Permission to reproduce: Transit New Zealand authorises reproduction of its
copyright work, in whole or in part, so long as no charge whatsoever is made for the
supply of copies, and the integrity and attribution of the work as a publication of
Transit New Zealand is not interfered with in any way. The integrity and attribution of
the copyright of the publishers noted in the 'Acknowledgements' must also not be
interfered with in any way. This includes the material where copyright is held by
others. They have agreed to further publication only on this basis.
Copyright Transit New ZeaIand, 2003
AII rights reserved
BRIDGE MANUAL iii
June 2003
AN IMPORTANT NOTE FOR THE READER
Transit New Zealand and its employees or agents involved in the preparation and publication
oI this manual cannot accept any liability Ior its contents or Ior any consequences arising Irom
its use. People applying this manual must ensure compliance with all relevant legislation and
regulations. They should apply and rely upon their own skill and judgment, and should not
rely on the manual's contents in isolation Irom other sources oI advice and inIormation. In
applying their own skill and judgment, the standards oI saIety and serviceability explicitly
required or implied by this manual shall not be reduced.
iv BRIDGE MANUAL
June 2003
FOREWORD
The overall mission oI Transit New Zealand is to promote policies and allocate resources to
achieve a saIe and eIIicient land transport system.
Our bridges are an important component oI the land transport system. It is through good
bridge design that Transit New Zealand can achieve saIety and the economic use oI resources.
This manual Ior the design and evaluation oI bridges carrying road and/or pedestrian traIIic
gives guidelines to meet that objective.
This manual has been produced Ior Transit New Zealand by Opus International Consultants
Limited, Wellington, New Zealand. It incorporates the TNZ Bridge Manual Iirst edition
published in 1994 and the version reprinted in 2000 with amendment Nos; 1, 2 & 3. The
subsequent amendment No.4, a new amendment to the Design Statement section, and
requirements Ior aesthetics are also introduced in this second edition. ReIormatting oI the
manual has been undertaken and allows Ior Iuture publication on the internet.
Bridge technology is an area oI ongoing research and reIinement. It is expected that this
manual will be reviewed and amended in whole or in part Irom time to time. Comments Irom
practitioners will thereIore be welcomed.
BRIDGE MANUAL v
September 2004
RECORD OF AMENDMENTS
Changes since the previous amendment are indicated by a vertical line in the margin. The
date oI issue or amendment oI a page appears in the header on each page. This page will be
updated and reprinted each time a new amendment is released.

-

(a) page v dated June 2003 replaced by page v
dated June 2004,
(b) Chapter 3: Design Loading, pages 3-1 to 3-16
dated June 2003 replaced by pages 3-1 to
3-18 dated June 2004,
(c) Appendix B: Side Protection, pages B-1 to
B-25 dated June 2003 replaced by pages B-1
to B-25 June 2004 version.

(a) page , , and dated June 2004 replaced
by page , , and dated September 2004,
(b) Chapters:
2 Design General Requirements
3 Design Loading
4 Analysis and Design Criteria
5 Earthquake Resistant Design
6 Evaluation oI Bridges and Culverts
replaced in their entirety by September 2004
version

vi BRIDGE MANUAL
June 2003

BRIDGE MANUAL vii
June 2003
AMENDMENT REGISTRATION
Instructions for HoIders
To ensure this Manual is kept up to date, it is necessary to record your name Ior amendments.
Amendments will be distributed to registered holders oI this Manual. Complete a post card
Irom the next sheet and return it to the Publications oIIicer, Transit New Zealand, PO Box
5084, Wellington, New Zealand, Ior registration.
Subsequent holders should advise the Publications OIIicer, Transit New Zealand immediately
the manual is obtained. Post cards are supplied on the next sheet Ior this purpose. Please
ensure all details requested are supplied. The name and address block below is to be amended
also.
Change of Address
In the case oI change oI address, amend the address block below and Iorward a post card cut
Irom the next sheet. Please ensure all details requested are supplied.
Amendments
Failure to Iorward registration card or notiIy change oI address will result in amendments not
being supplied and this Manual will then become out oI date. Back copies oI amendments are
not always readily available.
HoIder's name and address

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viii BRIDGE MANUAL
June 2003

BRIDGE MANUAL
September 2004
CONTENTS
Introduction
AcknowIedgements
Sections
1. Design Statement............................................................................... June 2003
2. Design General Requirements.............................................. September 2004
3. Design Loading........................................................................ September 2004
4. Analysis and Design Criteria.................................................... September 2004
5. Earthquake Resistant Design................................................... September 2004
6. Evaluation of Bridges and Culverts .......................................... September 2004
7. Structural Strengthening .................................................................... June 2003
Appendices
Appendix A: Bridge Widths and Clearances........................................ June 2003
Appendix B: Bridge Side Protection .................................................... June 2004
Appendix C: Toroidal Rubber Buffer.................................................... June 2003
Appendix D: Lightly Trafficked Rural Bridges ...................................... June 2003
Appendix E: Bridge Site nformation Summary ................................... June 2003
BRIDGE MANUAL
June 2003
INTRODUCTION
This Bridge Manual sets out the criteria Ior the design oI new structures and evaluation oI
existing structures. It covers those carrying road and/or pedestrian traIIic, in which the main
supporting members are oI reinIorced or prestressed concrete, structural steel, timber or
aluminium, utilising beam or arch action, and spanning up to 100 m. It includes the design oI
culverts. It does not include cable supported structures, nor bridges subject to railway
loadings.
It has been written as a perIormance speciIication, and methods have only been speciIied
where they are considered essential to achieving a satisIactory design.
This edition supersedes the Iollowing previously published documents:
1933: "Road Bridges: Loads and Allowable Stresses", Public Works Department.
1943: "Highway Bridge Design Loadings and Tentative Preliminary Code",
Technical Memorandum No.8, Public Works Department.
1956: "Bridge Manual", Ministry oI Works.
1971, 1972,
1973, 1978:
"Highway Bridge Design BrieI", CDP 701, Ministry oI Works and
Development.
1973: "Bridge ClassiIication and Deck Grading Ior Overweight Permits", CDP 703,
Ministry oI Works and Development.
1974: "Posting Weight Limits Ior Highway Bridges", CDP 704, Ministry oI Works
and Development.
1984: "Bridge Deck Widths and Side Protection", CDP 710, Ministry oI Works and
Development.
1989: "Bridge Manual", National Roads Board.
1991: "Bridge Manual : Design and Evaluation", (DraIt Ior comment), Transit New
Zealand.
1994, 2000: Bridge Manual, Transit New Zealand
This edition incorporates major amendments to Sections 1, and a new clause 2.6. The manual
has also been reIormatted to Iacilitate Iuture web based publication.
BRIDGE MANUAL
June 2003
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Section 5 contains text, Iigures and tables Irom NZS 4203:1992(4) with or without
modiIication. The main items adopted are Clause 5.2.1, Figures 5.2 (a), (b), and (c), Figure
5.3, and Figure 5.5 (replotted). Reprinted with permission oI Standards New Zealand.
Table 6.2 is taken Irom D B Owen, Handbook oI Statistical Tables, 1962, by Addison-
Wesley Publishing Co, Inc, Reading, Massachusetts, being part oI Table 5.3 on page 126.
Reprinted with permission oI the publisher.
Figures 6.1 - 6.5 are taken Irom the Ontario Highway Bridge Design Code, 3rd Edition.
Reprinted with the permission oI the Ministry oI Transportation oI Ontario.
Appendix B contains text, Iigures and tables taken Irom the DraIt Austroads Bridge Design
Code. Reprinted with the permission oI Vic Roads and Austroads Inc.
The assistance provided by Opus International Consultants Ltd in the preparation oI this
manual is acknowledged.
BRIDGE MANUAL
June 2003

BRIDGE MANUAL 1 - 1
SECTION 1DESIGN STATEMENT
June 2003
TabIe of Contents
1.1 Preliminary.................................................................................................. 1-3
1.2 Predesign lnformation................................................................................. 1-3
1.3 Design Statement Content.......................................................................... 1-4
1.4 Responsibility, Endorsement and Certification ........................................... 1-7
1.5 References ................................................................................................. 1-7
1 Design Statement
1 - 2 BRIDGE MANUAL
June 2003

BRIDGE MANUAL 1 - 3
June 2003
11 PreIiminary
The initial step in the design oI each structure shall be the consideration oI various
possible types oI bridge or other highway structure, and the preparation oI a Design
Statement. This shall be an engineering appreciation oI the need Ior the new bridge,
the Iactors which inIluence the design, the alternative Iorms the design can take, the
reasons Ior selection oI one oI these alternatives as being more suitable than the
others, and an assessment oI the cost.
The Design Statement, once endorsed by Transit New Zealand, sets out the agreed
Iorm and nature oI the structure to be designed during Iinal design Ior construction.
During Iinal design, should the designer deviate signiIicantly Irom the Iorm and
nature oI structure set out in the Design Statement, a revised Design Statement shall
be submitted Ior endorsement by Transit New Zealand.
A Design Statement shall be prepared Ior all new bridges and major culverts, bridge
alterations, and other major highway structures such as retaining walls and sign
gantries. A major culvert is deIined as a culvert with a waterway area greater than
3.4 m
2
. A major highway structure is deIined as a structure with a construction value
exceeding $200,000, or where the contingent liability cost associated with Iailure
could exceed $970,000, or where there is potential Ior signiIicant traIIic disruption
during construction resulting in traIIic delay costs exceeding $970,000. (Costs
quoted are at a -- - -
(1)
Construction Index 1908 as Ior March 2003).
Eor a bridge or other highway structure to be designed under a design and construct
contract, or oIIered as an alternative tender, a Design Statement shall be prepared Ior
the speciIic structural Iorm proposed. In the case oI a design and build contract, the
proposed solution, iI varied Irom the specimen design, need only be compared to the
specimen design. In the case oI a tendered alternative design, the alternative design
shall be compared against the conIorming design. The Design Statement may take
the Iorm oI being an amendment to, or update oI, a previously existing Design
Statement. The Design Statement should accompany the tender submission.
The Design Statement is to be addressed to the relevant executive oIIicer oI the road
controlling authority. In the case oI State Highway bridges, this is the Regional
Manager, Transit New Zealand.
12 Predesign Information
(a) Scheme Assessment
Prior to a brieI being issued Ior design oI a structure, a Scheme Assessment
will generally have been prepared, to establish the need, requirements and
constraints on construction oI the new structure. Depending on the situation,
the Scheme Assessment may address a length oI highway oI which the
structure is a part, or it may reIer only to the structure itselI.
The Scheme Assessment will generally establish preIerred geometry Ior the
alignment, deIine roadway and Iootpath widths (iI any), and identiIy speciIic
1 - 4 BRIDGE MANUAL
June 2003
matters to be addressed during the design. It may be based on limited site
investigations, where unknown geological conditions might inIluence the
Ieasibility oI scheme options. Where appropriate, it will include input Irom
other authorities such as a regional authority.
(b) Site Information
The designer shall ensure that there is suIIicient site inIormation to Iorm the
basis oI the Design Statement. The Bridge Site InIormation Summary given in
Appendix E is a suitable checklist. However, it is the designer's responsibility
to ensure that the inIormation is suIIiciently comprehensive to enable sound
judgement to be made on all aspects oI the design. This applies particularly to
subsurIace and hydrological inIormation, and iI these or other data are not
adequate, the designer shall obtain the necessary inIormation beIore the Design
Statement is Iinalised.
13 Design Statement Content
The Design Statement shall provide suIIicient data to permit a Iull review oI the
proposal, and shall consist oI the Iollowing sections:
(a) Introduction
Reasons Ior the construction oI the bridge shall be given, and a general
description oI the site provided.
(b) Factors Which InfIuence the Design
All signiIicant Iactors that aIIect the design shall be discussed. These include:
Service requirements (e.g. traIIic volume, pedestrians, cyclists, utilities to
be provided Ior)
Geometrics
Hydrology
Eoundation conditions
Constraints on span arrangement and clearances
Constraints on construction methods
Constraints on construction materials
The interaction oI construction with traIIic Ilows
Site seismic hazard, including subsoil conditions, and the potential Ior
site instability or liqueIaction
Environmental considerations and constraints (including the inIluence
these have on aesthetic requirements Ior the structure)
Side protection requirements
Eor a bridge over a road or railway, exposure to potential vehicle/train
collision with the bridge supports or superstructure
Access Ior inspection and maintenance
Any territorial authority requirements additional to the requirements oI
BRIDGE MANUAL 1 -
June 2003
(c) Design Options
Generally, at least two design options shall be considered. Principal Ieatures oI
the design options considered shall be described, including:
the structural Iorm and its mode oI behaviour
how the design addresses each oI the above Iactors inIluencing the design
likely methods oI construction
construction materials and durability
the tolerance oI the structure to overloading under critical load conditions
aesthetics oI the structure, and their suitability Ior the location
maintenance requirements.
In the event that an alternative design is tendered, the Design Statement Ior the
alternative design shall identiIy the primary variance/s Irom the conIorming
design and the eIIect that each oI these will have on durability, seismic
perIormance, waterway design, structural integrity, ability oI the structure to
resist the loads speciIied in Section 3, and, where relevant, the ability oI the
bridge supports and superstructure to resist collision by vehicle and or train, as
compared with the conIorming design. Evidence shall be presented that shows
the alternative design is oI superior quality and perIormance compared with the
conIorming design.
An estimate oI cost shall be given Ior each option, showing the total cost and
cost per m
2
oI overall deck area. The date oI the estimate Ior each option shall
be stated. Eor the purpose oI economic comparison between options, including
any diIIerences in the approaches, the requirements oI the
(2)
shall be met, and includes consideration oI Iuture maintenance costs.
(d) Recommendation
An option shall be recommended Ior Iinal design with supporting justiIication
provided. This shall be the design that is the most appropriate solution and
gives the best value Ior money, taking account oI both construction and
maintenance costs. This is not necessarily the cheapest. The designer shall
also recommend such Iurther investigation as is considered necessary Ior
completion oI the Iinal design.
(e) Design Statement Drawings
The recommended option shall be shown on the Design Statement drawings.
Other options considered may also be shown in less detail. The drawings oI the
recommended option shall include a plan, elevation and cross-section oI the
bridge showing all relevant geometric, traIIic clearances (as appropriate),
hydrological (as appropriate), Ioundation, structural layout, and side protection
data. Seismic design Ieatures, materials, Iinishes, and Ieatures important to the
structures aesthetics, shall be identiIied. A locality plan shall also be included.
1 - BRIDGE MANUAL
June 2003
(f) Recommended Option - AdditionaI Information
Eor the recommended option, the Iollowing shall also be stated or described:
Details oI the Proposed Structure
Proposed details relevant to the structural behaviour, including details
related to the provision oI seismic protection, accommodation oI thermal
and settlement eIIects, and articulation oI the structure
Proposed arrangements Ior inspection and maintenance
Proposed detailing in respect to the aesthetic design oI the structure.
Design Criteria
Design codes and standards to be applied to the design
Any proposed departures Irom design codes and standards, together with
reasons Ior the departures Ior Transit approval
Proposed methods Ior dealing with aspects not covered by design codes
or standards
Structural Modelling and Analysis
Methods oI analysis Ior the superstructure, substructure and Ioundations
The Iorm oI analysis models
Assumptions Ior calculation oI structural stiIIness
Soil parameters and earth pressure coeIIicients adopted Ior the modelling
oI soil-structure interaction and Ior design oI soil retaining structures.
Ground Conditions and Eoundations
Extent oI geotechnical investigations undertaken and proposed
Acceptance oI the geotechnical interpretive report recommendations, or
reasons Ior departures
Description oI the strata in which Iounding, and proposed allowable or
limiting bearing pressures Ior end bearing and lateral bearing, and skin
Iriction on piles
DiIIerential settlement to be allowed Ior in design
Anticipated ground movements or settlements due to embankment
loading, etc.
Results oI groundwater tests and any counteracting measures proposed
Categorisation oI the site subsoil conditions Ior earthquake loading
derivation.
Aesthetics oI the Structure
Where required by the contract or design brieI, Ior structures that are
expected to have a signiIicant visual impact on their environment,
perspective drawings, a photomontage, or a scale model shall be
provided.
BRIDGE MANUAL 1 - 7
June 2003
14 ResponsibiIity, Endorsement and Certification
Each Design Statement shall be approved, signed and dated by a senior design
representative who has the authority to sign on behalI oI the consultancy or
contractor providing the design service. The names oI the author(s) oI the Design
Statement shall also be included on the cover page. Space shall be leIt at the end Ior
endorsement and comments by Transit New Zealand's oIIicer.
On completion oI the Iinal design Ior the structure, the designer shall supply
certiIication to Transit New Zealand that the design complies with the Design
Statement and any subsequent amendments agreed with Transit New Zealands
oIIicer.
1 References
(1) ____, - -, Department oI Statistics, published quarterly.
(2) ____, 1997, , Manual No.PEM2, TransIund New Zealand,
Wellington.
BRIDGE MANUAL 2 - 1
SECTION 2GENERAL REUIREMENTS
September 2004
TabIe of Contents
2.1 Design Philosophy ...................................................................................... 2-3
2.1.1 General....................................................................................................2-3
2.1.2 Definition of Terms ..................................................................................2-3
2.1.3 Basis of Design........................................................................................2-3
2.1.4 Design Codes ..........................................................................................2-8
2.1.5 Design Working Life Requirements .........................................................2-8
2.1.6 Limit State Requirements.........................................................................2-8
2.1.7 Durability Requirements...........................................................................2-8
2.1.8 Structural Robustness .............................................................................2-8
2.2 Geometric and Side Protection Requirements............................................ 2-9
2.3 Waterway Design........................................................................................ 2-9
2.3.1 General....................................................................................................2-9
2.3.2 Design Floods..........................................................................................2-9
2.3.3 Hydrology ..............................................................................................2-10
2.3.4 Hydraulics..............................................................................................2-11
2.3.5 Scour .....................................................................................................2-13
2.4 Site nvestigations..................................................................................... 2-13
2.5 nfluence of Approaches........................................................................... 2-13
2.6 Aesthetics ................................................................................................. 2-13
2.7 Special Studies ......................................................................................... 2-14
2.8 References ............................................................................................... 2-14
2 Design - GeneraI Reuirements
2 - 2 BRIDGE MANUAL
September 2004

BRIDGE MANUAL 2 - 3
September 2004
21 Design PhiIosophy
211 GeneraI
Bridges shall be designed to satisIy the requirements oI both the ultimate and the
serviceability limit states when acted on by any oI the combinations oI loading
deIined in this document.
During the design process all relevant Iactors aIIecting the design, such as those
listed in broad terms in 1.3(b), shall be taken into account to ensure compliance with
all relevant legislation and regulations, including the Resource Consent Ior the
project and the
(1)
. Detailing shall be such
that it promotes ease oI construction and ease oI maintenance.
Construction methods shall be considered, in order to avoid undue expense due to
unnecessarily complicated procedures. However, methods shall not be speciIied
unless they contain Ieatures essential to the design assumptions.
212 Definition of Terms
The state at which a structure becomes unIit Ior its
intended use through deIormation, vibratory response, degradation, or other
operational inadequacy.
The state at which the strength or ductility capacity oI the
structure is exceeded, or when it cannot maintain equilibrium and becomes unstable.
- The design working liIe oI a bridge is that liIe beyond which
the bridge will be expected to have become Iunctionally obsolete or to have become
uneconomic to maintain in a condition adequate Ior it to perIorm its Iunctional
requirements.
Major renovation is maintenance work necessary to maintain
the strength, ductility capacity, or serviceability oI a bridge to enable it to IulIill its
Iunctional requirements, which exceeds 20 oI the replacement value oI the bridge.
213 Basis of Design
Design to this document is based on limit state principles adopting where possible a
statistical approach to the derivation oI design loads and material strengths.
Design actions other than earthquake, wind, snow and Iloodwater are based on a
statistical distribution appropriate to a 100 year design working liIe. Where statistical
distributions are not available, design actions are based on judgment and experience.
For dead and live load, the target probability oI exceedance within 100 years that has
been adopted is 5.
For wind, snow and Ilood water actions, bridges shall be categorised into an
importance level Ior which the assigned annual probabilities oI exceedance Ior these
actions shall be as given in Table 2.1. ReIer to 2.1.6 Ior deIinitions oI the ultimate
and serviceability limit states. The bridge shall remain operationally Iunctional
2 - 4 BRIDGE MANUAL
September 2004
Iollowing Ilood events up to an SLS I event, and both the structure and non-structural
elements shall remain undamaged Iollowing wind, snow and Ilood events up to an
SLS II event. SLS I and SLS II events are serviceability limit state events deIined by
the annual probabilities oI exceedance given in Table 2.1(a) and 2.1(b). Earthquake
actions are included in Section 5: Earthquake Resistant Design.
-
-

-

-

-

Permanent 1/5000 1/100 1/25
Bridges oI high importance to
post-disaster recovery (e.g.
bridges in major urban areas
providing direct access to
hospitals and emergency
services, or to a port or airport
Irom within a 10 km radius.)
Bridges with a construction cost
exceeding $10 million (as at
2004)
4
Temporary 1/1000 1/100 1/25
Permanent 1/2500 1/100 1/25
Bridges on the primary liIeline
routes identiIied in Figure
2.1(a), 2.1(b), and 2.1(c),
categorised on the basis oI
volume oI traIIic carried
route strategic importance
(e.g. inter-connection oI
centres oI population)
redundancy oI the regional
roading network
3
Temporary 1/500 1/25
Permanent 1/1000 1/50 1/25
Normal bridges, not Ialling into
other levels
2
Temporary 1/250 1/25
Permanent 1/500 1/25 1/25
Bridges on no-exit or loop rural
roads, not serving a through
road Iunction, and serving
populations 50
Footbridges
1
Temporary 1/25
* Permanent bridge: design working liIe 100 years
Temporary bridge: design working liIe 5 years
BRIDGE MANUAL 2 -
September 2004
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2 - BRIDGE MANUAL
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BRIDGE MANUAL 2 - 7
September 2004
- -
2 - 8 BRIDGE MANUAL
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214 Design Codes
This document deIines design loadings, load combinations and load Iactors, together
with criteria Ior earthquake resistant design, and other miscellaneous items. It does
not deIine detailed design criteria Ior the various materials, but reIers to standard
codes such as those produced by Standards New Zealand, Standards Australia and the
British Standards Institution. The standards reIerred to shall be the editions
reIerenced, including all current amendments. The speciIied portions oI these
standards are to be read as part oI this document, but any reIerences in such standards
to speciIic loads or load combinations shall be disregarded.
21 Design Working Life Reuirements
For the purpose oI assessing probabilistic eIIects oI loading such as wind,
earthquake, Ilood and live load Iatigue, and Ior consideration oI long term eIIects
such as corrosion, creep and shrinkage, the design working liIe oI a bridge is
assumed to be 100 years in normal circumstances. This may be varied by the
controlling authority iI circumstances require it, Ior example Ior temporary structures
or Ior strengthening oI existing structures. It should be noted that the 100 year design
working liIe exceeds the minimum requirement oI the
(1)
and the design liIe adopted as the basis Ior durability requirements by
Standards New Zealand materials design standards.
21 Limit State Reuirements
The structure and its component members shall be
designed Ior the serviceability limit state by limiting deIlection, vibration, cracking
and structural damage, as appropriate, providing adequate durability, and maintaining
operational Iunction in accordance with the requirements oI this document and the
material design standards reIerred to in this document.
The structure and its component members shall be designed
Ior the ultimate limit state by providing adequate strength and ductility, ensuring
stability, and providing adequate durability, in accordance with the requirements oI
this document and the material design standards reIerred to in this document.
217 DurabiIity Reuirements
The structure and its component members shall be designed to provide adequate
durability in accordance with the requirements oI the material design codes, except
where speciIic requirements are included in this document, which shall take
precedence.
Structures shall be suIIiciently durable to ensure that, without reconstruction or major
renovation, they continue to IulIill their intended Iunction throughout their design
liIe.
218 StructuraI Robustness
All parts oI the structure shall be interconnected, in both horizontal and vertical
planes, to provide the structure with the robustness to adequately withstand
BRIDGE MANUAL 2 -
September 2004
unanticipated extreme loading events such as extreme Ilood, earthquake or vehicle
collision.
The Designer, in detailing the various elements oI a structure, shall consider the
eIIect oI that detailing on the robustness oI the structure as a whole to unanticipated
extreme loading events and seek to ensure robustness oI the structure.
22 Geometric and Side Protection Reuirements
Roadway and Iootpath widths and horizontal and vertical clearances shall comply
with Appendix A as a minimum.
(a) Side protection to all new bridges, and where it is decided to replace side
protection on existing bridges, shall be provided in accordance with the
requirements oI AS/NZS 3845 --
(2)
as implemented
by TNZ M/23 --
(3)
and modiIied by
Appendix B oI this manual.
(b) Side protection is deIined as the rail or barrier systems by which users oI the
bridge are restrained Irom leaving the area oI deck or approach roadway
allotted to them. A risk management approach to side protection selection is
described in Appendix B, Clause B2. Means oI compliance with the
requirements, which are mandatory Ior Transit New Zealand Iunded work, are
given in Clauses B3 to B5.
(c) Clearances over railways shall comply with the requirements oI Tranz Rail
Limited and other network operators.
23 Waterway Design
231 GeneraI
The waterway design oI bridges and culverts shall comply with the requirements oI
the Austroads publication: - -
- - -
(4)
except as amended below:
232 Design FIoods
(a) GeneraI
- - - -
-
(4)
provides recommendations Ior the recurrence intervals oI the
Iloods that should be used Ior the various aspects oI design, but does not
provide speciIic standards, instead leaving these to roading authorities to
deIine. This clause details Transit New Zealands standards Ior the recurrence
intervals oI Iloods Ior waterway design.
In designing a stream crossing, consideration should be given to the type oI
structure, typically a bridge or culvert, and to the impact oI the structure on the
waterway and surrounding environment, due to the structure and its
approaches.
2 - 10 BRIDGE MANUAL
September 2004
(b) OveraII Design of TotaI Waterway
In the design oI a stream crossing, the total waterway shall be designed to pass
a 100 year Average Recurrence Interval (ARI) Ilood without signiIicant
damage to the road and waterway structure(s). The Regional Council or
Territorial Authority responsible Ior the waterway shall be consulted to
determine iI the waterway needs to be designed Ior a Ilood greater than the 100
year ARI event. Although the minimum total waterway design Ilood is a 100
year ARI event, the Level oI Serviceability to TraIIic may provide Ior the
crossing to be impassable with a lower ARI Ilood.
(c) ServiceabiIity Limit State
State highway stream crossings shall pass
Iloods oI the ARI corresponding to the annual probability oI exceedance Ior the
SLS I given in Table 2.1 without interruption or disruption to traIIic.
(ARI 1/(annual probability oI exceedance))
Bridges shall be designed to withstand the eIIects oI a 25
year ARI Ilood without sustaining damage.
(d) UItimate Limit State
For the Ultimate Limit State, bridges shall be designed Ior the eIIects oI the
ARI Ilood corresponding to the importance oI the bridge and the annual
probability oI exceedance given in Table 2.1.
In situations where the design Ilood Ior the Ultimate Limit State will
substantially overtop the bridge structure, the design engineer shall also
investigate the intermediate stages in the Ilood height and consider those stage
heights that are most critical.
233 HydroIogy
(a) FIood Estimation Methods
The Iollowing two methods replace the methods outlined in Section 3 oI
- - - -
-
(4)
:
The Rational Method in which a peak Ilow oI a selected ARI is estimated
Irom the average rainIall intensity oI the same ARI.
The Regional Method -
(5)
by McKerchar
and Pearson.
(b) RationaI Method
The Rational Method is only applicable to small catchments, because oI its
inability to account Ior the eIIects oI catchment storage in attenuating the Ilood
hydrograph. The recommended maximum size oI the catchment to which the
method should be applied is 25 km
2
in urban catchments, and between 3 and
10 km
2
Ior rural catchments. The Rational Method is described in -

(6)
and the
(7)
.
BRIDGE MANUAL 2 - 11
September 2004
(c) RegionaI Method

(5)
is a regional method suitable Ior all rural
catchments except those in which there is snow-melt, glaciers, lake storage or
ponding. It should be used Ior rural catchments greater than 10 km
2
, and can
also be used Ior rural catchments between 3 km
2
and 10 km
2
, but should be
checked against the Rational Method.
(d) For Catchments Other Than Those Covered by (b) and (c) Above
For catchments other than those covered by (b) and (c) above, the
determination oI design Iloods should be the subject oI detailed hydrological
investigation.
(e) Estimation of the UItimate Limit State Design FIood
The estimation oI the ULS design Ilood shall be made based on a probability
analysis oI available data using more than one recognised probability analysis
method. Wherever possible the data shall be obtained Irom a hydrology Ilow
station at or near the site oI the proposed bridge. Recognised probability
analysis methods include the Gumbel, Log Pearson and Generalised Extreme
Value (GEV) methods. Probability analysis methods are described in the

(7)
. It should be noted that predictions beyond the 100
year ARI are not precise and estimates Ior the ULS event shall be checked
against other nearby gauging stations and inIormation Irom other nearby
catchments and rivers.
II there is no hydrology Ilow inIormation available at the bridge site, then an
upstream site on the same river, or alternatively a gauging site on a nearby river
with similar hydrological characteristics, should be used. Data Irom more than
one site should be used to ensure that a degree oI smoothing oI extreme values
occurs. Scaling oI Ilood Ilows should be perIormed to adjust Ior diIIerences in
catchment areas. Flood Ilows should be scaled by the ratio oI the catchment
area to the power 0.8, as discussed in
(5)
,
Section 3 - Mean Annual Floods, i.e.
8 . 0
2 1 2 1
) / ( /
where is the Ilood discharge and is the catchment area.
234 HydrauIics
(a) Freeboard for LeveI of ServiceabiIity to Traffic
When considering the Level oI Serviceability to TraIIic required by 2.3.2 (c),
the Iollowing Ireeboards given in Table 2.2 shall be used.
September 2004

- -
Normal circumstances 0.6
Bridge
Where the possibility
that large trees may be
carried down the
waterway exists
From the predicted
Ilood stage to the
underside oI the
superstructure
1.2
Culvert All situations
From the predicted
Ilood stage to the road
surIace
0.5
(b) Waterways
In low-gradient silt- and sand-bed rivers, determinations oI Mannings Irom
sets oI photographs, Ior example, Irom -- --
-
(8)
, or Irom tables oI values such as Table 4.1 oI
- - - -
-
(4)
, should be taken as approximate only. Any possible backwater
eIIects Irom downstream Ieatures should be investigated. Direct measurements
should be obtained whenever possible.
In gravel-bed rivers, estimates oI Mannings shall be made using at least one
Iormula, (Ior example, one oI the rigid bed Iormulae by GriIIiths, reIer (c)
below), as well as using -- -- -
(8)
.
- - - -
-
(4)
, Table 4.1 is not appropriate to New Zealand rivers with gravel
beds and shall not be used. II the Iormula in
(9)
is used, a
Iactor oI 1.2 should be applied to the calculated values oI Mannings .
In all other rivers, the estimation oI Mannings shall be the subject oI a
detailed hydraulic investigation.
(c) Griffiths FormuIae
The GriIIiths Iormulae noted above are taken Irom -- -
-
(10)
. The two rigid-bed Iormulae recommended by GriIIiths
are:
287 . 0
50
/ 33 . 1 1
0.76 R/d 1.98log I 1/
50 10
where is the Darcy-Weisbach Iriction Iactor, is the hydraulic radius and
50
is the size Ior which 50 oI the bed material is smaller. is related to
Mannings by the Iollowing Iormula:
6 / 1
113 . 0
September 2004
23 Scour
The estimation oI scour should be based on the
(11)
. This
publication replaces section 6 oI -
- - - -
(4)
.
24 Site Investigations
All bridge sites shall be subject to appropriate geotechnical and geological
investigations, suIIicient to ensure that a saIe, economical and practical design can be
developed. The investigations shall establish the characteristics oI the surIace and
subsurIace soils, their behaviour when loaded, the nature and location oI any Iaulting,
and the groundwater conditions. Site conditions and materials aIIecting the
construction oI the structure shall also be determined.
Investigations normally consist oI three phases:
(a) Preliminary investigations, consisting oI compilation oI general data, walkover
survey, and where appropriate, some boreholes and laboratory tests.
(b) Detailed Iield investigations and laboratory tests usually aIter completion oI the
Design Statement and beIore Iinal design.
(c) Investigations during construction, as appropriate.
InIormation obtained Irom site investigations shall be presented in an Investigation
Report. Borelogs, soil descriptions and testing shall comply with current practice, as
presented in documents published by Standards New Zealand, New Zealand
Geotechnical Society, or similar. These investigations shall include interpretation oI
all available data by suitably qualiIied personnel, and recommendations as to
Ioundation types and design parameters, and the need Ior prooI testing, pilot drilling
or other conIirmatory investigation during construction.
2 InfIuence of Approaches
The designer shall consider the inIluence oI approach embankments and cuttings on
the bridge structure, including:
immediate gravity eIIects;
seismic eIIects;
long term settlement eIIects;
loading Irom slope material, which may Iall onto the deck.
The eIIects oI approach settlement and stability on the riding characteristics, traIIic
saIety and perIormance oI abutment components shall be considered.
2 Aesthetics
The designer shall give careIul consideration to the aesthetics oI the structure.
Guidance on the principles involved may be obtained Irom the Iollowing reIerences:
September 2004
Fdration Internationale du Bton publication:
-
(12)
Hong Kong Government Highways Department publication: - -
- -
(13)
(available Irom the internet website:
http://www.hyd.gov.hk/publications/index.htm - Chapter 17, Figures 21 29
and Plates 1 - 11).
UK Department oI Transportation Advice Note: BA 41/98, -
-
(14)
.
UK Highways Agency publication: -
-
(15)
.
27 SpeciaI Studies
Special studies are required when:
A structural Iorm or method oI construction is proposed which is not covered
by accepted standards or design criteria (eg. to determine design parameters,
saIety Iactors or durability).
New materials are to be applied, the technology oI which is still undergoing
signiIicant development.
Special studies shall be documented in complete reports, included as Appendices to
the Design Statement. This documentation shall include, as appropriate:
The source oI all data.
Demonstration that the study has provided appropriate evaluation oI the
particular structural perIormance being investigated.
ReIerence to relevant national and international standards and guidelines, and
published peer reviewed papers.
Comparison oI the results with other data.
A description oI the analytical methods used.
28 References
(1) BIA, 1992, , Building Industry Authority,
Wellington.
(2) AS/NZS 3845, 2002, --, Standards Australia and Standards
New Zealand, jointly.
(3) TNZ M/23, 2002, --, Transit New
Zealand.
(4) Austroads, 1994, - - -
- -, Austroads Inc., Sydney.
(5) McKerchar, A.I., Pearson, C.P., 1989, , Hydrology
Centre Publication 20, Hydrology Centre, DSIR Division oI Water Sciences,
Christchurch.
BRIDGE MANUAL 2 - 1
September 2004
(6) IEA, 1987, - , Volume 1, Institution oI Engineers
Australia.
(7) Maidment, D.R., 1993, , McGraw- Hill Inc.
(8) Hicks, D.M., Mason, P.D., 1991, -- -- -,
DSIR Marine & Freshwater, Wellington
(9) Henderson, F.M., 1996, , MacMillan, New York.
(10) GriIIiths, G.A., 1981, -- - -, Proc. ASCE
107HY7, pp 899-918.
(11) Melville, B., Coleman, S., 2000, , Water Resources
Publications, LLC.
(12) FIB, 2000, - Fdration Internationale du Bton,
Lausanne, Switzerland.
(13) , 1997, - - - -, (2
nd
Ed.), Hong
Kong Government Highways Department (available Irom the internet website:
http://www.hyd.gov.hk/publications/index.htm - Chapter 17, Figures 21 29 and
Plates 1 - 11).
(14) DOT (UK), 1998, - - UK Department oI
Transportation Advice Note: BA 41/98.
(15) , 1996, - -, The
Highways Agency, London.
BRIDGE MANUAL 3 - 1
SECTION 3DESIGN LOADING
September 2004
TabIe of Contents
3.1 ntroduction................................................................................................. 3-3
3.2 Traffic Loads - Gravity Effects..................................................................... 3-3
3.2.1 General....................................................................................................3-3
3.2.2 Loads.......................................................................................................3-3
3.2.3 Transverse Load Position ........................................................................3-5
3.2.4 Combination of Traffic Loads...................................................................3-6
3.2.5 Dynamic Load Factor...............................................................................3-6
3.2.6 Fatigue ....................................................................................................3-7
3.3 Traffic Loads - Horizontal Effects................................................................ 3-8
3.3.1 Braking and Traction................................................................................3-8
3.3.2 Centrifugal Force.....................................................................................3-8
3.4 Loads Other Than Traffic............................................................................ 3-8
3.4.1 Dead Load...............................................................................................3-8
3.4.2 Superimposed Dead Load .......................................................................3-8
3.4.3 Earthquake ..............................................................................................3-9
3.4.4 Shortening ...............................................................................................3-9
3.4.5 Wind........................................................................................................3-9
3.4.6 Temperature Effects ..............................................................................3-10
3.4.7 Construction Loads................................................................................3-11
3.4.8 Water Pressure......................................................................................3-12
3.4.9 Groundwater on Buried Surfaces...........................................................3-13
3.4.10 Water Ponding.......................................................................................3-13
3.4.11 Snow......................................................................................................3-13
3.4.12 Earth Loads ...........................................................................................3-14
3 Design Loading
3 - 2 BRIDGE MANUAL
September 2004
3.4.13 Loads on Kerbs, Guardrails, Barriers and Handrails ..............................3-14
3.4.14 Loads on Footpaths and Cycle Tracks...................................................3-14
3.4.15 Vibration ................................................................................................3-15
3.4.16 Settlement, Subsidence and Ground Deformation .................................3-15
3.4.17 Forces Locked-n by the Erection Sequence .........................................3-15
3.4.18 Collision Loads ......................................................................................3-16
3.5 Combination of Load Effects.....................................................................3-17
3.6 References................................................................................................3-20
BRIDGE MANUAL 3 - 3
September 2004
31 Introduction
All structures shall be designed Ior the Iollowing loads, which shall be considered to
act in various combinations, as set out in 3.5, except Ior lightly traIIicked rural
bridges - reIer to Appendix D.
32 Traffic Loads - Gravity Effects
321 GeneraI
TraIIic loading shall be HN-HO-72. A detailed description oI this loading and its
application is given below. The loads described shall be used Ior design oI all
members Irom deck slabs to main members and Ioundations.
322 Loads
(a) HN (NormaI) Loading
An element oI normal loading represents a single stream oI legal traIIic, and is
the load applied to a 3m wide strip oI deck, running the entire length oI the
structure. It is shown diagrammatically in Figure 3.1. The element consists oI
two parts.
The Iirst is a uniIorm load oI 3.5 kN/m
2
, 3m wide, which may be continuous or
discontinuous over the length oI the bridge, as necessary to produce the worst
eIIect on the member under consideration.
In addition to the uniIorm load, a pair oI axle loads oI 120 kN each, spaced at
5m, shall be placed to give the worst eIIect on the member being designed.
Only one pair oI axle loads shall exist in each load element, regardless oI the
length oI bridge or number oI spans. For design oI deck slabs, the wheel
contact areas shown shall be used, but Ior design oI other members, such detail
is unnecessary and point or line loads may be assumed.
(b) HO (OverIoad) Loading
An element oI overweight loading is also shown diagrammatically in Figure
3.1. It consists oI, Iirstly, the same uniIorm load as described above. In
addition, there is a pair oI axle loads oI 240 kN each, spaced at 5m. In this
case, there are two alternative wheel contact areas, and the one that has the
most adverse eIIect on the member being considered shall be used.
3 - 4 BRIDGE MANUAL
September 2004

BRIDGE MANUAL 3 -
September 2004
323 Transverse Load Position
(a) The above load elements shall be applied to an area deIined as the roadway.
The roadway includes carriageway and shoulders. II the bridge carries a cycle
track adjacent to and on the same level as the carriageway and shoulders, the
cycle track shall also be included in the roadway Ior design purposes, whether
or not it is in the Iirst instance separated by a guardrail. A raised median shall
not be included in the roadway. The roadway is bounded by either the Iace oI a
kerb or the Iace oI a guardrail or other barrier.
(b) The roadway shall be divided into a number oI load lanes oI equal width as
Iollows:-
-
Less than 6.0m 1
6.0m but less than 9.7m 2
Note: Load lanes as deIined above are not to be conIused with traIIic lanes as
physically marked on the road surIace.
(c) For design oI main members, the load elements shall be applied within each
load lane as deIined above, but may have as much eccentricity within the lane
as their width oI 3m allows. Even iI the number oI traIIic lanes as Iinally
marked on the bridge will be diIIerent Irom that obtained Irom the table above,
the number tabulated shall be used Ior design purposes.
(d) For design oI deck slabs and median slabs and their immediate supporting
members, load elements are not restricted by the lanes as above, but shall be
placed anywhere within the roadway and on the median, at such spacing as will
give the worst eIIect, but not less than 3m centres transversely.
In order to represent a vehicle which has penetrated the guardrail or handrail
and mounted the kerb, iI any, the slab shall also be checked under an HN wheel
load Iactored by the dynamic load Iactor. The wheel shall be positioned with
its outer edge at the outer edge oI the slab or kerb. This may be treated as a
Group 4 (overload) combination.
3 - BRIDGE MANUAL
September 2004
324 Combination of Traffic Loads
Two combinations oI traIIic loads shall be used Ior design purposes.
(a) NormaI Live Load
In this combination, as many elements oI HN loading shall be placed on the
bridge as will give the worst eIIect on the member being considered, complying
with the rules Ior positioning set out in 3.2.3.
(b) OverIoad
In this combination, any one element oI HN loading in the live load
combination shall be replaced by an element oI HO loading, chosen so as to
give the most adverse eIIect on the member being considered.
To allow Ior the improbability oI concurrent loading, where appropriate, the total
loading may be multiplied by a Iactor varying according to the number oI elements in
the load case, thus:
-
1 1.0
2 0.9
3 0.8
4 0.7
5 0.6
6 or more 0.55
This reduction Iactor shall be applied to the overload as well as the normal live load.
The number oI design lanes that are loaded shall be selected to maximise the load
aIIect on the structural member under consideration.
32 Dynamic Load Factor
Normal live load and overload shall be multiplied by the dynamic load Iactor
applicable to the material and location in the structure oI the member being designed.
The dynamic load Iactor Ior use in the design oI all components which are above
ground level shall be taken Irom Figure 3.2.
The dynamic load Iactor Ior use in the design oI components which are below ground
level shall be 1.0, to allow Ior the Iact that vibration is damped out by the soil, except
that Ior top slabs oI culvert type structures, the dynamic load Iactor shall be reduced
linearly with depth oI Iill, Irom 1.30 Ior zero Iill to 1.00 Ior 1m oI Iill.
BRIDGE MANUAL 3 - 7
September 2004
L is the span length Ior positive moment, and the
average oI adjacent span lengths Ior negative moment.
-
-
32 Fatigue
The loading used in the Iatigue assessment shall at least represent the expected
service loading over the design liIe oI the structure, including dynamic eIIects. This
should be simulated by a set oI nominal loading events described by the distribution
oI the loads, their magnitudes, and the number oI applications oI each nominal
loading event.
A standard Iatigue load spectrum Ior New Zealand traIIic conditions is not available.
The loading in BS 5400: Part 10: 1980
(1)
clause 7.2.2 may be used, but is likely to
predict Iatigue lives shorter than those which would be achieved in practice.
In a case where Iatigue details signiIicantly inIluence the design, an appropriate
loading spectrum shall be developed, taking account oI current and likely Iuture
traIIic.
3 - 8 BRIDGE MANUAL
September 2004
33 Traffic Loads - HoriontaI Effects
331 Braking and Traction
For local eIIects, a horizontal longitudinal Iorce, equal to 70 oI an HN axle load,
shall be applied across the width oI any load lane, at any position on the deck surIace,
to represent a skidding axle.
For eIIects on the bridge as a whole, a horizontal longitudinal Iorce shall be applied
at deck surIace level in each section oI superstructure between expansion joints. The
magnitude oI the Iorce shall be the greater oI two skidding axle loads as above, or
10 oI the live load which is applied to the section oI superstructure, in each lane
containing traIIic headed in the same direction. In some cases, e.g., on the approach
to an intersection, or Ior a bridge on a grade, it may be appropriate to allow Ior a
greater Iorce.
Consequent displacement oI the structure shall be allowed Ior.
332 CentrifugaI Force
A structure on a curve shall be designed Ior a horizontal radial Iorce equal to the
Iollowing proportion oI the live load. The reduction Iactors oI 3.2.4 shall be applied,
but the dynamic load Iactor oI 3.2.5 shall not be applied.
/ 008 . 0
2
Where : centriIugal Iorce as a proportion oI live load
design speed, km/h
radius, m.
The Iorce shall be applied 2m above the road surIace level, but the consequent
variation in wheel loads need not be considered in deck design. Consequent
displacement oI the structure shall be allowed Ior.
34 Loads Other Than Traffic
341 Dead Load
This shall consist oI the weight oI the structural members, and any other permanent
load added or removed beIore the structural system becomes complete. When
calculating the weight oI concrete members, care shall be taken to use a density
appropriate to the aggregates available in the area, plus an allowance Ior embedded
steel.
342 Superimposed Dead Load
This shall consist oI all permanent loads added aIter the structural system becomes
complete. It shall include handrails, guardrails, lamp standards, kerbs, services and
BRIDGE MANUAL 3 -
September 2004
road surIacing. SurIacing shall be allowed Ior at 1.5 kN/m
2
, whether the intention is
to surIace the bridge immediately or not.
An allowance shall be made Ior Iuture services in addition to the weight oI actual
services installed at the time oI construction. A minimum allowance oI 0.25 kN/m
2
shall be applied as a uniIormly distributed load over the Iull width and length oI the
bridge deck.
343 Earthuake
The design shall allow Ior the eIIects oI earthquakes, by considering:
The possibility oI earthquake motions in any horizontal direction
The potential eIIects oI vertical earthquake motions
The available structure ductility.
The magnitude oI the Iorce and the required structure ductility shall be obtained Irom
Section 5.
344 Shortening
The eIIects oI shrinkage and creep oI concrete, and shortening due to prestressing
shall be taken into account. Transmission oI horizontal Iorces Irom superstructure to
substructure by bearing restraint shall be allowed Ior.
The section rigidity assumed Ior a reinIorced concrete pier which resists the resulting
Iorces shall be that oI the cracked section. The eIIects oI creep in the pier in reducing
the Iorces may be taken into account.
In composite structures, diIIerential shrinkage between elements shall be allowed Ior.
The secondary eIIects oI shrinkage, creep and prestressing shall be allowed Ior in
continuous and statically indeterminate structures.
34 Wind
(a) Wind load shall be applied to a bridge in accordance with the principles set out
in BS 5400, Part 2, SpeciIication Ior Loads
(2)
, Clause 5.3, contained within BD
37/01 Appendix A
(3)
, giving consideration to wind acting on adverse and
relieving areas as deIined in Clause 3.2.5 oI that standard. For Iootbridges with
spans exceeding 30 m, Ior which aerodynamic eIIects may be critical, the
principles Iorming the basis oI BD 49/01, - -
- -
(4)
shall be applied.
(b) The design gust wind speeds acting on adverse areas oI a bridge without live
load being present, Ior the ultimate and serviceability limit states, shall be
calculated in accordance with AS/NZS 1170, Part 2
(5)
, Clause 2.2 to 2.3 Ior the
annual probability oI exceedance corresponding to the importance oI the bridge
as deIined in 2.1.3.
September 2004
The design gust wind speeds acting on relieving areas oI a bridge without live
load being present shall be derived Irom the Iollowing equation:
Where:
design gust wind speed acting on relieving areas
design gust wind speed acting on adverse areas
, and
are Iactors deIined in, and derived Irom, BS 5400, Part

2
(2)
, Clause 5.3.
The height oI a bridge shall be measured Irom ground level or minimum water
level to the deck level.
For the case where wind load is applied to a bridge structure and live load on
the bridge, as deIined in (a) above, the maximum site gust wind speed acting on
adverse areas shall be the lesser oI 37 m/s and
m/s as speciIied above, and

the eIIective coexistent value oI wind gust speed acting on parts aIIording relieI
shall be taken as the lesser oI
m/s and
m/s, as speciIied above.

(c) Wind Iorces shall be calculated using the method oI BS 5400, Part 2,
SpeciIication Ior Loads
(2)
, Sections 5.3.3 to 5.3.6, contained within BD 37/01
Appendix A
(3)
.
34 Temperature Effects
(a) OveraII Temperature Changes
Allowance shall be made Ior both Iorces and movements resulting Irom
variations in the mean temperature oI the structure, as below:
For steel structures + 25
o
C
For concrete structures + 20
o
C
The section rigidity assumed Ior a reinIorced concrete pier that resists the
Iorces shall be that oI the cracked section.
(b) DifferentiaI Temperature Change
Allowance shall be made Ior stresses, both longitudinal and transverse,
resulting Irom the temperature variation through the depth oI the structure
shown in Figure 3.3.
The criteria shall be used Ior all structural types and all materials except timber.
In the case oI a truss bridge, the temperature variation shall be assumed to
occur only through the deck and stringers, and any chord members attached to
the deck, and not through web members or chord members remote Irom the
deck.
September 2004

Note that:
(i) For structures shallower than 1400mm, the two parts oI the solid curve are
to be superimposed.
(ii) On a bridge that is to be surIaced, the temporary unsurIaced condition shall
also be checked. For this condition, the value oI T may be reduced to
27C. Load Group 5B should be used, with the above reduced temperature
load replacing the term "0.33TP".
For analysis oI reinIorced concrete members under diIIerential
temperature, the properties oI the cracked section shall be used.
347 Construction Loads
Allowance shall be made Ior the weight oI any Ialsework or plant that must be
carried by the structure, because oI the anticipated method oI construction. This does
not obviate the necessity oI checking, during construction, the capacity oI the
structure Ior the contractor's actual equipment.
September 2004
348 Water Pressure
(a) All piers subject to the Iorce oI Ilowing water shall be designed to resist a
pressure acting on their Iace area normal to the Ilow, varying with depth below
surIace level, as below:
2

Where: pressure in kPa on projected area
water velocity in m/s at the level being considered
pier shape Iactor x angle oI attack Iactor, as below
For pressures acting on Iaces normal to the direction oI Ilow, the pier shape
Iactor shall be taken as:
0.7 For a square ended pier
0.35 For a circular pier
0.35 For a pier with semi-circular ends
0.4 For a pier with angled ends (i.e. wedge-nosed,
sharper than 90)
1.1 For a superstructure
Slab or wall type piers angled to the direction oI the Ilow and partially or Iully
submerged superstructures inclined by superelevation shall also be designed Ior
pressure perpendicular to their plane due to the water Ilow acting on their area
parallel to the water Ilow.
For pressures acting normal to the direction oI Ilow, the angle oI attack Iactor is
dependent on the angle oI attack oI the pier or superstructure to the direction oI
the water Ilow and shall be taken as Iollows, with coeIIicients Ior intermediate
angles being interpolated:
Angle oI attack Factor
0 0
5 0.25
10 0.45
20 0.45
30 or greater 0.5
The Ilood Ilows Ior which water pressure shall be considered shall be as
speciIied in 2.3.2. The Ilow producing ordinary water pressure shall be taken as
the Ilow with an average recurrence interval (ARI) oI 1 year.
(b) Buoyancy shall be allowed Ior in assessing vertical reactions with which water
pressure must be combined. Calculations oI water pressure under Ilood
September 2004
conditions shall make allowance Ior scour, with a suitable margin on the scour
depth.
(c) Where a signiIicant amount oI driItwood is carried, water pressure shall also be
allowed Ior on a driItwood raIt lodged against the pier. The size oI the raIt is a
matter oI judgement, but as a guide, dimension A in Figure 3.4 should be halI
the water depth, but not greater than 3m. Dimension B should be halI the sum
oI adjacent span lengths but not greater than 15m. Pressure shall be calculated
using the Iormula in (a) above, with 0.5.
- -
34 Groundwater on Buried Surfaces
Groundwater pressures shall be based on the groundwater levels and pressures
measured Irom an appropriate programme oI site investigations, with allowance Ior
seasonal, long term and weather dependent Iluctuations, and considering the
reliability and robustness oI any drainage measures incorporated in the design.
Consideration shall also be given to Ilood situations and also incidents such as
possible break in any water pipes or other drainage services.
The groundwater pressure shall correspond to not less than the ground water level
with a 1/50 probability oI exceedance. Conservatively the ground water level may be
taken as being at the ground surIace provided that artesian or sub-artesian pressures
are not present.
3410 Water Ponding
The load resulting Irom water ponding shall be calculated Irom the expected quantity
oI water that can collect when primary drainage does not Iunction.
3411 Snow
Snow loading need only be considered at the ultimate limit state Ior Iootbridges.
The design snow load shall be determined Irom AS/NZS 1170 Part 3 Ior the annual
probability oI exceedance corresponding to the importance oI the bridge as deIined in
2.1.3.
September 2004
3412 Earth Loads
(a) Earth loads shall include horizontal static earth pressure (active, at-rest and
passive), horizontal earthquake earth pressure, vertical earth pressure,
surcharge pressure and hydrostatic pressure Irom groundwater. It also includes
negative skin Iriction (downdrag) loads on piles.
(b) Earth retaining members shall be designed Ior either static earth pressure plus
live load surcharge where appropriate, or earthquake earth pressure in
accordance with 5.6, whichever is more severe. Water pressure shall also be
allowed Ior unless an adequate drainage system is provided. Live load eIIects
may be assumed equal to those oI a surcharge pressure caused by 0.6m oI Iill.
In calculating static earth pressures, consideration shall be given to the
inIluence oI wall stiIIness, Ioundation and tie-back stiIIness (where
appropriate) and the type, compaction and drainage provisions oI the backIill.
Active, at-rest or passive earth pressure shall be used as appropriate.
In some structures, Ior example concrete slab Irame bridges, an increase in
static earth pressure reduces total moment in some positions in the structure.
When calculating the total design moment at those positions, a maximum oI
halI the beneIit due to static earth pressure shall be used in the load
combination. Loads on Ioundations due to downdrag (or negative Iriction) and
to plastic soil deIormation, shall be included.
(c) The eIIects oI earthquake induced site instability, diIIerential movements and
liqueIaction shall be considered.
3413 Loads on Kerbs, GuardraiIs, Barriers and HandraiIs
Kerbs, guardrails, barriers and handrails shall be designed in accordance with
Appendix B.
3414 Loads on Footpaths and CycIe Tracks
(a) A Iootpath or cycle track on the same level as the roadway (whether or not
separated by a guardrail) shall be included as part oI the roadway, and designed
Ior the loads in 3.2.
(b) A Iootpath or cycle track raised above the roadway behind a kerb (whether or
not separated by a guardrail) shall be designed Ior a uniIormly distributed load
as Iollows:
when traIIic loads are not considered in the same load case, 5.0 kPa;
when traIIic loads are considered in the same load case, between the limits
oI 1.5 and 4.0 kPa as given by the expression 5.0 - S/30, where S, the loaded
length in metres, is that length oI Iootpath or cycle track which results in the
worst eIIect on the member being analysed.
BRIDGE MANUAL 3 - 1
September 2004
The structure shall also be checked Ior an overload case consisting oI the HN
wheel loads positioned with wheel outer edges at the outer edge oI the slab.
(c) A Iootpath or cycle track on a highway bridge, positioned out oI reach oI the
traIIic, e.g., underneath the roadway, shall be designed as in (b), but without the
overload.
(d) A Ioot or cycle track bridge without traIIic shall be designed Ior a uniIormly
distributed load between the limits oI 2.0 and 5.0 kPa, as given by the
expression 6.2 - S/25, where S is as deIined in (b).
(e) In all cases where there is a likelihood oI crowd loading, the maximum value oI
5.0 kPa should be considered, regardless oI the loaded length. Examples are
access to a sports stadium, or where the bridge could become a vantage point to
view a public event.
341 ibration
All highway bridges shall be checked Ior the eIIects oI vibration due to traIIic loads.
The criteria below shall be complied with Ior bridges carrying signiIicant pedestrian
or cycle traIIic, and those where vehicles are likely to be stationary Ior a signiIicant
portion oI the time (i.e. near intersections, with or without traIIic signals). Other
bridges should comply with the criteria where economically justiIiable.
The maximum vertical velocity during a cycle oI vibration due to the design load
shall be limited to 0.055 m/s. The design load Ior this purpose shall be taken as the
two 120 kN axles oI one HN load element.
Pedestrian and cycle bridges shall conIorm to the requirements oI BS 5400, Part 2
(2)
,
Appendix B, contained within BD 37/01 Appendix A
(3)
.
341 SettIement, Subsidence and Ground Deformation
Horizontal and vertical Iorces and displacements induced on or within the structure
as a result oI settlement, subsidence or ground deIormation in the vicinity oI the
structure or approach embankment shall be taken into account.
Where there is potential Ior subsidence oI the ground, such as due to groundwater
changes, mining, liqueIaction etc, the eIIects oI this on the structures, and the
perIormance requirements Ior the road link shall be taken into consideration in the
development and design oI appropriate mitigation measures.
3417 Forces Locked-In by the Erection Seuence
Forces that are locked-in to a structure due to the erection sequence shall be allowed
Ior. These may arise due to the weight oI Iormwork, Ialsework and construction
equipment acting on structural elements as they are built-in.
The secondary eIIects oI prestressing shall be included with the eIIects oI shortening
in 3.4.4.
3 - 1 BRIDGE MANUAL
September 2004
3418 CoIIision Loads
(a) GeneraI
Piers and abutments supporting road bridges over other roads, railways or navigable
rivers shall be designed to resist accidental collision loads. Alternatively, a
protective barrier system shall be provided.
Collision loads need only be considered at the ultimate limit state, except that their
eIIect on elastomeric bearings shall be considered at the serviceability limit state.
(b) CoIIision Load from Road Traffic
Where the piers or abutments supporting an overbridge are not located behind rigid
or Ilexible traIIic barriers meeting perIormance level 4 or higher, as set out in
Appendix B, and they are located within 5.0 m oI the edge oI the underlying road
carriageway, they shall be designed to resist a nominal equivalent static load oI 1000
kN applied at an angle oI 10 degrees Irom the direction oI the centreline oI the road
passing under the bridge. The load shall be applied 1.2 m above ground level.
Flexible barriers shall be positioned to allow Ior the dynamic deIlection oI the
barrier.
The requirements oI the Transit New Zealand Geometric Design Manual Ior clear
zones shall also be met. Where piers and abutments are located within clear zones,
suitable protective barriers shall be provided.
A nominal collision load oI 50kN (equivalent static load) shall be considered to act
as a single point load on the bridge superstructure at any location along the bridge
and in any direction between the horizontal and vertically upwards. The load shall be
applied at the level oI the soIIit oI the outside girders, or at the level oI the outer
soIIit corners oI a box girder or slab superstructure.
Vehicle collision load on the supports and on the superstructure shall be considered
to act non-concurrently.
Vehicle collision loads on bridge abutments need not be considered when abutments
are protected Irom collision by earth embankments.
An exception to the above requirements will be considered where providing such
protection would be impractical or the costs would be excessive, providing that the
structure has suIIicient redundancy to prevent collapse. Such cases require
justiIication, and any variations to the requirements oI this Manual are subject to the
agreement oI Transit New Zealand.
(c) Bridge Piers Adacent to RaiIways
Where possible, rail crossings should be a clear span between abutments.
Where piers are necessary, and they are situated within 5.5 m oI a rail track
centreline, they shall be designed to resist the Iollowing minimum impact loads
applied simultaneously (equivalent static loads):
September 2004
2000 kN parallel to the rails
1000 kN normal to the rails
Both loads shall be applied horizontally, at 2 m above rail level.
In addition, any requirements oI the appropriate railway authority shall be satisIied.
(d) Ship Impact on Bridge Piers
Possible impact loads Irom shipping shall be considered. Bridge piers shall either be
protected by auxiliary structures designed to absorb the impact energy, or they shall
be designed to resist impact Irom vessels operating under both normal conditions and
extreme events that could occur during the liIe oI the bridge. Design loads shall be
assessed and included in the Design Statement.
3 Combination of Load Effects
The eIIects oI the loads described in 3.2 to 3.4 shall be combined in groups as shown
in Tables 3.1 and 3.2, and as speciIied below.
(a) In any group, iI a worse eIIect is obtained by omitting one or more oI the
transient items, this case shall be considered.
(b) The required seismic resistance oI structures during construction is diIIicult to
speciIy in a general manner. Variables such as duration oI construction stage,
vulnerability oI the structure and surroundings at each stage, and cost to
temporarily improve the seismic resistance shall all be taken into account. The
designer shall be satisIied that the load components oI Group 5C give adequate
protection in the circumstances being considered.
(c) The load groups speciIied cover general conditions. Provision shall also be
made Ior other loads where these might be critical, e.g., vehicle or ship impact
on piers.
(d) In the tables, the Iollowing abbreviations are used:
CF CentriIugal eIIects oI traIIic loads
CN Construction loads, including loads on an incomplete structure
CO Collision loads
DL Dead load, including superimposed dead load
EL Locked-in Iorces due to the erection sequence
September 2004
EP Earth pressure
EQ Earthquake eIIects
FP Pedestrian and cycle track live load
FW Flood water pressure and buoyancy, with scour
GW Ground water
HE Horizontal eIIects oI traIIic loads
I Dynamic load Iactor
LL Normal live load (gravity eIIects)
OL Overload combination oI traIIic loads (gravity eIIects)
OW Ordinary water pressure and buoyancy
PW Water ponding
SG Shortening eIIects
SN Snow load
ST Settlement
TP Temperature eIIects, overall and diIIerential
U Design load Ior consideration oI member strength
WD Wind load
-
-
1A DL EL GW EP OW SG ST CF 1.35LLxI FP
1B DL EL GW EP OW SG ST TP
2A DL EL GW EP OW SG ST CF 1.35LLxI FP HE TP
2B DL EL GW EP OW SG ST CF 1.35LLxI FP HE WD
2C DL EL GW EP FW PW SG ST CF 1.35LLxI FP HE
3A DL EL GW EP OW SG ST EQ 0.33TP
3B DL EL GW EP FW PW SG ST WD
3C DL EL GW EP OW SG ST CO 0.33 TP
4 DL EL GW EP OW SG ST OLxI 0.5FP 0.33TP
5A DL EL GW EP OW SG 0.33WD CN
5B DL EL GW EP OW SG 0.33TP CN
5C DL EL GW EP OW SG 0.33EQ CN
: Where the eIIect oI a possible reduction in permanent load is critical,
replacement oI the "permanent load" by "0.9 x permanent load" shall be
considered.
For combinations 1A, 2A, 2B and 2C, the 1.35 Iactor applied to normal live
load (LL) is to allow Ior the eIIects oI closed-up stationary vehicles.
Combination 3C only applies to the design oI elastomeric bearings.
BRIDGE MANUAL 3 - 1
September 2004
- -

- -
1A U 1.35 (DL EL 1.35EP OW SG ST 1.67(CF LLxI)
1.30FP) GW
1B U 1.35 (DL EL 1.35EP OW SG ST 1.25TP) GW
2A U 1.20 (DL EL EP OW SG ST CF LLxI FP HE TP)
GW
2B U 1.35 (DL EL EP OW SG ST CF LLxI FP HE) GW
WD
2C U 1.35 (DL EL EP SG ST CF LLxI FP HE) GW FW
PW
3A* U 1.00 (kDL EL 1.35 (EP OW) SG ST EQ 0.33TP) GW
3B U 1.10 (DL EL 1.25 EP SG ST) GW FW PW WD
3C U 1.00 (DL EL 1.35 (EP OW) SG ST 2.00CO 0.33TP)
GW
3D U 1.20 (DL EL EP OW SG ST TP) GW PW SN
0.33WD
4 U 1.35 (DL EL EP OW SG ST 1.10(CF OLxI) 0.70FP
0.33TP) GW
5A U 1.35 (DL EL EP OW SG 1.10CN) GW 0.33WD
5B U 1.35 (DL EL EP OW SG 0.33TP 1.10CN) GW
5C U 1.35 (DL EL EP OW SG 0.33EQ 1.10CN) GW
* k 1.3 or 0.8 whichever is more severe, to allow Ior vertical acceleration. k1.0
when considering the vertical earthquake response speciIied by clause 5.2.6
: Where the eIIect oI a possible reduction in a permanent load is critical,
replacement oI "permanent load" by "permanent load/j" shall be considered
(where j is the load Iactor outside the bracket).
Combination 3D applies only to the design oI Iootbridges.
September 2004
3 References
(1) BS 5400: - -, Part 10:1980, Code oI Practice Ior
Fatigue, British Standards Institute.
(2) BS 5400, - -, Part 2:1978, SpeciIication Ior
Loads, British Standards Institute.
(3) BD 37/01, - - 2001, The Highways Agency, London.
(4) BD 49/01, - - - -, 2001, The Highways
Agency, London
(5) AS/NZS 1170.2:2002 - -, Part 2: Wind Actions, Standards
Australia and Standards New Zealand jointly,
BRIDGE MANUAL 4 - 1
SECTION 4ANALSIS AND DESIGN CRITERIA
September 2004
TabIe of Contents
4.1 Analysis....................................................................................................... 4-5
4.2 Reinforced Concrete and Prestressed Concrete ........................................ 4-5
4.2.1 General....................................................................................................4-5
4.2.2 Reinforced Concrete Deck Slab Design...................................................4-7
4.3 Structural Steel and Composite Construction............................................. 4-9
4.3.1 General....................................................................................................4-9
4.3.2 Application of NZS 3404 ........................................................................4-10
4.3.3 Application of BS 5400...........................................................................4-10
4.3.4 Seismic Resistance ...............................................................................4-10
4.3.5 Fatigue Design ......................................................................................4-10
4.4 Timber....................................................................................................... 4-11
4.4.1 General..................................................................................................4-11
4.4.2 Strength Reduction Factors, Characteristic Stress/Strength
Modification Factors and Live Load Factor ............................................4-11
4.4.3 Seismic Resistance ...............................................................................4-11
4.4.4 Durability................................................................................................4-11
4.5 Aluminium................................................................................................. 4-12
4.6 Other Materials ......................................................................................... 4-12
4.7 Bearings and Deck Joints ......................................................................... 4-12
4.7.1 General..................................................................................................4-12
4.7.2 Modifications and Extensions to the AS 5100: Bridge Design, Part 4:
Bearings and Deck Joints Criteria for Bearings.....................................4-13
4.7.3 Modifications to the AS 5100: Bridge Design, Part 4: Bearings and
Deck Joints Criteria for Deck Joints .......................................................4-14
4.7.4 Additional Criteria and Guidance for Deck Joints...................................4-16
4 AnaIysis and Design Criteria
4 - 2 BRIDGE MANUAL
September 2004
4.8 Foundations ..............................................................................................4-17
4.8.1 Loads on Foundations ...........................................................................4-17
4.8.2 Design Standards ..................................................................................4-18
4.8.3 Strength Reduction Factors for Foundation Design ...............................4-18
4.8.4 Capacity Design of Foundations ............................................................4-19
4.8.5 Foundation Capacity Determination.......................................................4-19
4.8.6 Confirmation of Foundation Conditions during Construction ..................4-20
4.9 Earth Retaining Systems...........................................................................4-20
4.9.1 Loads.....................................................................................................4-20
4.9.2 Design Standards ..................................................................................4-21
4.9.3 Factors of Safety....................................................................................4-21
4.9.4 Common Highway Retaining Structures ................................................4-22
4.9.5 Gravity and Reinforced Concrete Cantilever Walls ................................4-23
4.9.6 Anchored Walls .....................................................................................4-23
4.9.7 Soil Nailed Walls....................................................................................4-25
4.9.8 Reinforced Soil Walls.............................................................................4-26
4.10 Design of Earthworks ................................................................................4-27
4.10.1 Design of Embankments........................................................................4-27
4.10.2 Design of Approach Cuttings .................................................................4-29
4.10.3 Natural Ground lnstability ......................................................................4-29
4.11 lntegral and Semi-lntegral Abutments.......................................................4-29
4.11.1 Definitions..............................................................................................4-29
4.11.2 Design Criteria.......................................................................................4-29
4.12 Buried Corrugated Metal Structures..........................................................4-30
4.13 Miscellaneous Design Requirements ........................................................4-31
4.13.1 Proprietary ltems ...................................................................................4-31
4.13.2 Settlement Slabs....................................................................................4-31
4.13.3 Deck Drainage.......................................................................................4-31
4.13.4 Services.................................................................................................4-32
BRIDGE MANUAL 4 - 3
September 2004
4.13.5 Date and Loading Panels.......................................................................4-32
4.13.6 Load Limiting Devices and Shock Load Force Transfer Devices ...........4-32
4.14 References ............................................................................................... 4-35
4 - 4 BRIDGE MANUAL
September 2004

BRIDGE MANUAL 4 -
September 2004
41 AnaIysis
Structural components shall be designed Ior the most adverse eIIects arising Irom
eccentricity oI loading or curvature oI the bridge. The analysis method used shall
take account oI the relative stiIIness oI longitudinal and transverse members, and the
stiIIness used Ior reinIorced concrete members shall take account oI the eIIects oI
Ilexural cracking.
42 Reinforced Concrete and Prestressed Concrete
421 GeneraI
Design shall be in accordance with NZS 3101, -
-
(1)
, with the Iollowing provisos:
(a) Crack Widths (TabIe 34), and Stresses for Prestressed Concrete (TabIe
11)
Load Category II shall be applied to Group 1A loads, and Load Category IV
shall be applied to all other load groups as deIined in Tables 3.1 and 3.2 oI this
document.
(b) Design for DurabiIity (Section )
All parts oI bridges shall be considered to be in an "external" type oI
environment.
Minimum concrete covers Ior a design liIe oI 100 years shall be not less than
those set out in Table 4.1.
*
*
Table 4.1 is an interim requirement pending Iurther study.
4 - BRIDGE MANUAL
September 2004
- - -
The Iollowing tables are replacements Ior NZS 3101: Part 1:1995 Table 5.5. The Iollowing covers apply
to concrete construction incorporating type GP Portland cement complying with NZS 3122
(2)
. Concrete
construction incorporating alternative cement types are not covered by the Iollowing tables and shall be
evaluated to establish their perIormance. The Iollowing tables do not apply to concrete construction where
protective coatings are applied. Exposure classiIications are as deIined in NZS 3101
(1)
Section 5, and in
all other respects the durability requirements oI NZS 3101
(1)
Section 5 shall apply.

Exposure SpeciIied compressive strength I
c
ClassiIication 25 30 40 50
Minimum required cover (mm)
A1 30 25 20 20
A2 35 30 25 25
B1 50 40 35 30
B2 65 60 50 40
C*** 70
Cast in contact with non-aggressive ground 75 75 75 75
Cast with damp prooI course in contact with non-aggressive ground 50 50 50 50
- - -
Exposure SpeciIied compressive strength I
c
ClassiIication 25 30 40 50
Minimum required cover (mm)
A1 25 20 20 20
A2 35 30 25 25
B1 45 35 30 30
B2 55 50 40 35
C*** 70

-
*
Part A shall apply where concrete is cast in Iormwork complying with AS 3610
(3)
and is transported,
placed and compacted so as to:
- limit segregation or loss oI materials;
- limit premature stiIIening;
- produce a monolithic mass between joints, the extremities oI members, or both;
- completely Iill the Iormwork to the intended level, expel entrapped air, and closely surround
all reinIorcement, tendons, ducts, anchorages and embedments; and provide the speciIied
Iinish to the Iormed areas oI the concrete.
** Part B shall apply where the concrete is cast in rigid Iorms and subjected to intense compaction, such
as obtained with vibrating tables or Iorm vibrators.
*** In addition to the speciIied cover, a type GP Portland cement content oI 350 kg/m3 and water cement
ratio not exceeding 0.4 is required.
Standards oI Iormwork and compaction are as adopted by the AS 5100: -
(4)
(reIer
clause 5.4.10.3)
BRIDGE MANUAL 4 - 7
September 2004
(c) Friction Losses (CIause 132)
It should be noted that the apparent coeIIicient oI Iriction Ior post-tensioned
cables deIlected at isolated points is likely to be signiIicantly higher than that
Ior equivalent cables curved over their whole length.
(d) Reinforced Concrete Deck SIab Thickness (TabIe 33)
For a uniIorm concrete slab, monolithic with concrete webs,
-
shall be taken
as the clear span.
For a haunched slab, monolithic with concrete webs, or tied down to steel
girders, where thickness at root oI haunch is at least 1.5 times thickness at
centre oI slab,
-
shall be taken as the distance between midpoints oI opposite
haunches.
For a uniIorm slab on steel girders,
-
shall be taken as the average oI the
distance between webs and the clear distance between Ilange edges.
For deck slabs designed by the empirical method oI 4.2.2 oI this document, the
minimum slab thickness requirements oI 4.2.2 oI this document shall take
precedence over the requirements oI NZS 3101
(1)
.
422 Reinforced Concrete Deck SIab Design
Two methods oI deck slab panel design are available Ior reinIorced concrete deck
slabs on beams or girders.
The methods are an empirical design based on assumed membrane action, and design
based on an elastic plate bending analysis, as outlined below. Where the dimensional
and structural limitations oI the empirical design method are not met, or Ior deck
cantilevers, the elastic plate bending analysis design method shall be used.
(a) EmpiricaI Design Based on Assumed Membrane Action
Slabs satisIying the requirements below and designed in accordance with this
method need not be analysed, and the requirements oI NZS 3101
(1)
clauses
3.3.2.5 and 3.3.3 and Sections 8 and 9 shall be waived. The requirements oI
NZS 3101
(1)
clauses 3.7.2.1 and 3.7.2.2 shall not be applied to the
reinIorcement aligned perpendicular to the direction oI traIIic Ilow unless that
reinIorcement contributes to the strength oI a member supporting the deck slab.
The durability requirements oI NZS 3101
(1)
shall otherwise be satisIied.
Empirical design may be used only iI the Iollowing conditions are satisIied:
the supporting components are made oI steel and/or concrete,
there are at least three longitudinal girder webs in the system,
the deck is Iully cast-in-place,
the deck is oI uniIorm depth, except Ior haunches at beam Ilanges and
other local thickening,
the deck is made composite with the supporting structural components,
4 - 8 BRIDGE MANUAL
September 2004
all cross Irames or diaphragms extend throughout the cross section oI the
bridge between external girders, and the maximum spacing oI such cross
Irames or diaphragms shall be as Iollows:
Steel I and Box Girders: 8.0m
ReinIorced and prestressed concrete girders: at support lines
the ratio oI span length,
-
, to slab thickness, (excluding a sacriIicial
wearing surIace where applicable), shall not exceed 15,
the maximum span length,
-
, does not exceed 4.0m,
the minimum slab thickness is not less than 165mm excluding a sacriIicial
wearing surIace where applicable,
the core depth is not less than 90mm. The core depth slab thickness -
(wearing surIace top and bottom cover thicknesses),
there is an overhang beyond the centreline oI the outside beam oI at least 5
times the slab thickness. This condition may be considered satisIied iI the
overhang is at least 3 times the slab thickness and a structurally continuous
concrete kerb or barrier is made composite with the overhang,
the speciIied 28 day compressive strength oI the deck concrete is not less
than 30 MPa.
For slabs meeting the above conditions, the deck reinIorcement shall comprise:
two layers oI isotropic reinIorcement
reinIorcing steel shall be Grade 430 or better
the outer layer oI reinIorcement in each Iace oI the slab shall be placed
normal to the beams
the minimum amount oI reinIorcing shall be 0.3 in each layer oI each
orthotropic direction. The reinIorcement ratio shall be determined using
the eIIective depth oI slab, , being the distance Irom the extreme
compression Iibre (excluding any wearing surIace) to the centroid oI the
tension reinIorcement. For the purposes oI a layer oI isotropic
reinIorcement, shall be the average oI the eIIective depths, at the
midspan oI the slab, in the two reinIorcing directions.
the maximum spacing oI the reinIorcement shall be 300mm
bars shall be spliced by lapping or by butt welding only
Ior skew angles greater than
20 the end regions oI each span shall be

reinIorced with 0.6 isotropic reinIorcement in two layers. The span end
regions are as deIined in Figure 4.1.
The longitudinal bars oI the isotropic reinIorcement may be assumed to resist
negative moments at an internal support in continuous structures.
BRIDGE MANUAL 4 -
September 2004
-
(b) Design Based on EIastic PIate Bending AnaIysis
The moments in deck slabs due to the local eIIects oI wheels shall be
determined by an elastic analysis, assuming the slab to act as a thin plate.
Adequate allowance shall be made Ior the eIIects oI the rotation oI the edges oI
slabs monolithic with beams, due to torsional rotation oI the beams, and the
eIIects oI relative displacement oI beams.
Where the deck slab resists the eIIects oI live load in two ways (e.g., the top
Ilange oI a box girder also Iunctioning as the deck slab, or a transverse
distribution member integral with the deck slab) the slab shall be designed Ior
the sum oI the eIIects oI the appropriate loading Ior each condition.
Where slabs are haunched at Iixed edges, allowance Ior the increase in support
moment due to the haunch shall be made either by modiIying the moments
determined Ior slabs oI uniIorm thickness, or by a rational analysis that takes
into account the varying section.
43 StructuraI SteeI and Composite Construction
431 GeneraI
Design shall be in accordance with NZS 3404 -
(5)
Ior all
bridge types Ialling within the scope oI the standard, with the provisos set out in
4.3.2.
September 2004
Steel box girders are not within the scope oI NZS 3404
(5)
. Design Ior these bridge
elements shall be in accordance with the AS 5100: -
(4)
, Part 6, Steel and
Composite Construction, Ior box girders with composite concrete decks, or otherwise
to BS 5400: - -
(6)
, Parts 3, 5 and 10.
Design oI deck slabs Ior composite bridges shall be in accordance with 4.2.2.
432 AppIication of NZS 3404
(a) Design Loadings (CIause 323)
The design load combinations Ior the ultimate and serviceability limit states
shall be those speciIied in this document.
(b) Seismic Design StructuraI Performance Factor (CI 12221)
The structural perIormance Iactor,
, shall be as speciIied in this document.

(c) Damping aIues and Changes to Basic Design Seismic Load (CIause
122)
Within this clause, the wording - shall be replaced by -
.
(d) Methods of AnaIysis of Seismic-Resisting Systems (CIause 1232)
Within this clause, the wording shall be replaced by -
. For bridges it is not generally necessary to
consider seismic response at the serviceability limit state.
433 AppIication of BS 400
In clause 4.3.3 oI BS 5400
(6)
: Part 3, and clause 4.1 oI Part 5, the value oI the product
3
,
Ior the ultimate limit state Ior each load eIIect shall be taken as equal to the
product . These shall be taken Irom Table 3.2 oI this document, where is the
Iactor outside the bracket, and is the Iactor attached to the load eIIect in each case.
In design oI composite sections, the value oI
in BS 5400
(6)
: Part 5 shall be taken
as 1.4
. The term
is the speciIied strength oI the concrete, as deIined in NZS

3101
(1)
.
434 Seismic Resistance
Where materials design codes other than NZS 3404
(5)
are applied, iI steel members
are required to provide the ductility and energy dissipating capability oI the structure,
the principles set out in Section 12 oI NZS 3404, -
(5)
, shall
be Iollowed. The recommendations oI the NZNSEE study group on - -
-
(7)
shall also be Iollowed where applicable.
43 Fatigue Design
Assessment oI the Iatigue resistance oI steel structures shall be based on NZS 3404:
Parts 1 and 2:1997
(5)
. For comment on the Iatigue loading, see 3.2.6 oI this
document.
September 2004
44 Timber
441 GeneraI
Design shall be in accordance with the appropriate Iollowing standards, except as
modiIied by 4.4.2:
NZS 3603 -
(8)
, Ior the timbers that it covers.
AS 1720.1 -, Part 1: Design Methods
(9)
, Ior the timbers that it
covers that are not covered by NZS 3603.
Characteristic stresses adopted Ior design to AS 1720.1
(9)
shall be in accordance with
AS 1720.2 - , Part 2: Timber Properties
(9)
and AS 2878
-- -
(10)
.
442 Strength Reduction Factors, Characteristic StressStrength Modification
Factors and Live Load Factor
Strength reduction Iactors shall conIorm to those given in AS 1720.1
(9)
, Table 2.5,
corresponding to the type oI timber product (e.g. sawn timber, round timbers, etc.)
and type oI grading (e.g. visually graded, machine graded, prooI graded, etc.).
For bridges carrying less than 2500 vehicles per day, the duration oI load Iactor may
be increased to 0.94 Ior the Group 1A load combination oI Table 3.2.
For the grid system or parallel support system modiIication Iactor (k
4
, k
5
or k
6
in
NZS 3603
(8)
, or k
9
in AS 1720.1
(9)
to apply, in the event oI the Iailure oI a single
supporting member, the overlying members or sheathing material shall be capable oI
transIerring loads to the adjacent supporting members. Otherwise the grid system or
parallel support system modiIication Iactor shall be taken as 1.0.
Where a bridge possesses smooth sealed approaches, the live load impact Iactor may
be taken as Iollows:
Impact Iactor 1.0 (I 1.0) x 0.7
Where I is the impact Iactor deIined by 3.2.5.
443 Seismic Resistance
Design shall comply with NZS 3603
(8)
Clause 2.12 Ior seismic resistance except that
the design loading shall be in accordance with this document.
444 DurabiIity
In order to ensure long-term durability in timber bridge members, particular attention
shall be given to the Iollowing:
in-service moisture content, and the eIIects oI its variation;
member deIlections;
connection design
September 2004
4 AIuminium
Design shall be in accordance with AS/NZS 1664.1: 1997 -,
Part 1: Limit State Design
(11)
, with the Iollowing provisos:
(a) Loading (CIause 23)
The loads on the structure shall be in accordance with this document.
(b) Loading Combinations and Load Factors (CIause 24)
The required Iorces, moments and stresses Ior the applicable loads shall be
determined by structural analysis Ior the load combinations as indicated in this
document.
(c) Earthuake (CIause 2)
All structures shall be designed Ior the loads and load combinations speciIied
in this document. The limitations on structural ductility Iactor given in AS/NZ
1664.1
(11)
Clause 2.4 (b) (i) and (ii) shall apply. The structural perIormance
Iactor (
) shall be as speciIied in this document.

4 Other MateriaIs
The criteria applying to the use oI materials not mentioned in this document will be
subject to the approval oI the General Manager, Transit New Zealand.
47 Bearings and Deck Joints
471 GeneraI
(a) Design Code
The design and perIormance oI bearings and deck joints shall comply with the
AS 5100: -
(4)
, Part 4: Bearings and Deck Joints except as
modiIied herein. Where there may be conIlict between the requirements oI AS
5100.4
(4)
and this document, this document shall take precedence.
(b) EIastomeric Bearings
ReIerence to elastomeric bearings herein shall also include laminated
elastomeric bearings Iitted with a lead cylinder, commonly reIerred to as lead-
rubber bearings, used Ior the dissipation oI earthquake energy.
(c) Deck Joints
The number oI deck joints in a structure shall be the practical minimum.
In principle, deck slabs should be continuous over intermediate supports, and
bridges with overall lengths oI less than 60 m and skews oI less than 30
o
should
have integral abutments. It is accepted deck joints may be necessary in larger
bridges to cater Ior periodic changes in length.
September 2004
472 Modifications and Etensions to the AS 100Bridge Design, Part 4Bearings
and Deck Joints Criteria for Bearings
(a) Limit State Reuirements and Robustness
Pot bearings shall be designed Ior both the serviceability and ultimate limit
states. Elastomeric bearings shall be designed Ior serviceability limit state
eIIects, with the bearing Iixings and overall bridge structure stability checked at
the ultimate limit state.
Particular consideration shall be given to the robustness oI bearings and their
Iixings to damage or loss oI stability due to earthquake actions.
(b) Design Loads and Load Factors
ReIerence in the AS 5100 -
(4)
, Part 4, Bearings and Deck Joints
to design loads and load Iactors given in AS 5100.2 shall be replaced by
reIerence to Chapter 3 oI this manual.
(c) Anchorage of Bearings
Bearings, other than thin elastomeric strip bearings less than 25 mm in
thickness, shall be positively anchored to the bridge structure above and below
to prevent their dislodgement during response to the ultimate limit state design
intensity or greater earthquake unless the bridge superstructure is Iully
restrained by other means against horizontal displacement relative to the
support. Reliance shall not be placed on Iriction alone to ensure saIety against
sliding. The bearing restraint system Ior horizontal load shall be designed to
resist the Iull horizontal Iorce to be transmitted by the bearing Irom the
superstructure to the substructure.
For laminated elastomeric bearings, horizontal restraint shall be provided by
dowels or bolts engaging in thick outer shims within the bearing or by
vulcanising the bearings to external plates that are Iixed in position to the
structure by bolts. External restraining cleats shall not be used. Dowels shall
generally be located as close to the centre oI the bearing (in plan) as
practicable, to prevent them Irom disengaging due to deIormation oI the edges
oI the bearing under the high shear strain that may be developed during
response to a strong earthquake. Dowels, as a means oI bearing lateral restraint,
do not need to be removable to allow bearing replacement provided that the
bridge superstructure can be jacked suIIiciently to enable the bearings to be
liIted, disengaged Irom the restraining dowels, and slid out oI position.
(d) Bearing Set Back from the Edge of Concrete Bearing Surfaces and
Confinement of Bearing Surfaces
Bearings shall be set suIIiciently Iar back Irom the edge oI concrete bearing
surIaces to avoid spalling oI the corner concrete, and where bearing pressures
are high, conIining reinIorcement shall be provided to prevent tensile splitting
oI the concrete. Consideration shall be given to the redistribution oI pressure
on the concrete bearing surIace due to horizontal loads such as Irom earthquake
action.
September 2004
(e) EIastomeric Bearings
Elastomeric bearings shall conIorm with the requirements oI either AS 1523
- - - -
(12)
, or BE 1/76, -
- - -
(13)
, except that steel reinIorcing
plates may be a minimum oI 3 mm thick.
Wherever Ieasible, bearings shall be chosen Irom those commercially available,
but this does not preclude the use oI individual designs where circumstances
justiIy it.
Under service conditions that exclude earthquake eIIects, the maximum shear
strain in a bearing (measured as a percentage oI the total rubber thickness being
sheared) shall not exceed 50. Under response to the ultimate limit state
design intensity earthquake, plus other prevailing conditions such as shortening
eIIects, the maximum shear strain shall not exceed 100.
In the design oI elastomeric and lead-rubber bearings, the Iollowing
considerations shall be given particular attention:
In evaluating the stability against roll-over, consideration shall be given to
the sensitivity oI the stability to an extreme earthquake, as saIety Iactors
can be rapidly eroded.
In bridges with prestressed concrete superstructures and the spans either
continuous or tightly linked, consideration shall be given to the long term
eIIects oI creep shortening oI the superstructure due to the prestress on the
bearings.
473 Modifications to the AS 100Bridge Design, Part 4Bearings and Deck Joints
Criteria for Deck Joints
(a) GeneraI Reuirements
The maximum opening oI a deck joint will generally be determined by
earthquake conditions at the ultimate limit state. No limitation applies to the
maximum design width oI an open gap joint under these conditions.
(b) Design Loads
Deck joints and their Iixings shall be designed at the ultimate limit state Ior the
Iollowing loads in place oI those speciIied by the AS 5100: -
(4)
,
Part 4: Bearings and Deck Joints:
(i) Vertical
The vehicle axle loads deIined in 3.2.2 together with a dynamic load Iactor oI
1.60. The ultimate limit state load Iactors to be applied shall be 2.25 to an HN
axle load, and 1.49 to an HO axle load
BRIDGE MANUAL 4 - 1
September 2004
(ii) Longitudinal
The local vehicle braking and traction Iorces speciIied in 3.3.1, combined with
any Iorce due to the stiIIness oI, or Iriction in, the joint. The ultimate limit
state load Iactor to be applied to the combined Iorce shall be 1.35.
(c) Movements
(i) Deck joints shall be designed to accommodate the movements due to
temperature, shortening and earthquake speciIied in 5.5.1(b), and to
otherwise satisIy the requirements oI 5.5.1(b).
(ii) Design Ior longitudinal movements shall include the eIIect oI beam end
rotation under live load
(d) Anchorage
The second paragraph oI AS 5100.4
(4)
, Clause 17.4 shall be replaced by the
Iollowing:
Where the deck joint is attached by bolts Iixing into a concrete substrate or
screwed into cast-in anchor Ierrules, Iully tensioned high tensile bolts shall be
used. The spacing oI the bolts shall not be greater than 300mm and the bolts
shall develop a dependable Iorce clamping the joint to the concrete substrate, oI
not less than 500 kN per metre length on each side oI the joint.
(e) Drainage
The AS 5100.4
(4)
, Clause 17.5 shall be replaced by the Iollowing:
Deck joints shall be watertight unless speciIic provision is made to collect and
dispose oI the water. Sealed expansion joints, where the gap is sealed with a
compression seal, elastomeric element or sealant, are preIerred.
Open joints, where the gap is not sealed, shall be slightly wider at the bottom
than at the top to prevent stones and debris lodging in the joint, and shall
include a speciIic drainage system to collect and dispose oI the water. Such
drainage systems shall be accessible Ior cleaning.
The design oI drainage systems shall accommodate the movement across the
deck joints oI the bridge oI not less than one quarter oI the calculated relative
movement under the ultimate limit state design earthquake conditions, plus
long term shortening eIIects where applicable, and one third oI the temperature
induced movement Irom the median temperature position, without sustaining
damage. Under greater movements, the drainage system shall be detailed so
that damage is conIined to readily replaceable components only.
(f) InstaIIation
Deck joints and the parts oI the structure to which they are attached shall be
designed so that the joint can be installed aIter completion oI the deck slab in
the adjacent span(s).
4 - 1 BRIDGE MANUAL
September 2004
474 AdditionaI Criteria and Guidance for Deck Joints
(a) Joint Type and Joint System SeIection
Deck joints shall be designed to provide Ior the total design range and direction
oI movement expected Ior a speciIic installation. The design engineer shall
consider the guidance provided by the UK Highways Agency publication:
BD33/94 - - - -
(14)
with respect to
the movement capacity oI common joint types.
Acceptance oI a proprietary joint system shall be subject to that system
satisIying the requirements oI this manual and the additional project-speciIic
perIormance requirements. The design engineer shall speciIy all dimensional
and perIormance requirements, including movement capacity, to enable
manuIacturers to oIIer joints that are best suited to meet the requirements.
The characteristics and perIormance history oI a particular joint shall be
reviewed to determine the suitability oI the joint Ior a speciIic installation. The
design engineer shall consider inIormation provided in TransIund New Zealand
Research Report No.186 - -
-
(15)
and Burke, (1989), -
(16)
with
respect to the perIormance history oI deck joints.
Proprietary deck joint suppliers shall provide a warranty on the serviceability oI
their joint/s Ior a period oI ten years aIter installation. The warranty shall cover
all costs associated with rectiIication oI a joint, including traIIic control costs.
(b) Joint SeaIing EIements
Joint sealing elements (e.g. compression seals, elastomeric membrane seals,
sealants) shall be resistant to water, oil, salt, stone penetration, abrasion and
environmental eIIects and shall be readily replaceable. Compression seals shall
not be used in situations where concrete creep shortening and/or rotation oI the
ends oI beams under live loading will result in decompression oI the seal.
Sealants shall be compatible with the materials with which they will be in
contact. Irrespective oI claimed properties, sealants shall not be subjected to
more than 25 strain in tension or compression. The modulus oI elasticity oI
the sealant shall be appropriate to ensure that, under the expected joint
movement, the tensile capacity oI the concrete Iorming the joint is not
exceeded. The joint shall be sealed at or as near the mean oI its range oI
movement as is practicable. Base support Ior joint sealants shall be provided
by durable compressible joint Iillers with adequate recovery and without
excessive compressive stiIIness.
Joint seals or sealant shall be set 5mm lower than the deck surIace to limit
damage by traIIic.
September 2004
(c) Nosings
New bridges and deck replacements shall be designed with a concrete upstand
the height oI the carriageway surIacing thickness and at least 200 mm wide
between the deck joint and the adjacent carriageway surIacing. This is to act as
a dam to retain the surIacing and to isolate the surIacing Irom any tensile Iorces
imposed on the deck by the joint system.
(d) AsphaItic PIug (EIastomeric Concrete) Joints
Asphaltic plug joints are in-situ joints comprising a band oI specially
Iormulated Ilexible material, commonly consisting oI rubberised bitumen with
aggregate Iillers. The joint is supported over the gap by thin metal plates or
other suitable components.
Except in retroIit applications where the existing structural conIiguration
prevents these joint dimensional requirements being met, elastomeric concrete
plug joints shall be designed and speciIied to have a minimum thickness oI 75
mm and a minimum width oI bond with the structure on either side oI the joint
gap oI 200 mm. Such joints shall be designed by the supplier or the suppliers
agent to take account oI the predicted movements at the joint including rotation
oI the ends oI the bridge decks to be joined due to traIIic loads.
Where proposed Ior use in retroIit situations with dimensions less than those
speciIied above, evidence shall be supplied to Transit oI satisIactory
perIormance oI the joint system under similar or more demanding traIIic
conditions with a similar joint conIiguration over periods oI not less than 5
years.
48 Foundations
481 Loads on Foundations
Foundations shall be designed Ior bearing capacity and stability to resist combined
horizontal and vertical loadings with acceptable displacements and settlement.
Consideration shall be given to the behaviour oI the Iounding soils under static and
dynamic loading and during construction.
Foundations shall be designed to resist loads that may arise Irom negative Iriction
(down-drag) associated with settlement or ground subsidence. Lateral loads
associated with slope movements shall be considered, although wherever practicable
the designer shall isolate the structure and Ioundations Irom such Iorces.
The eIIects oI live load may normally be ignored in the evaluation oI Ioundation
settlement, except in special cases where the live load is sustained over long periods
oI time. The repetitive nature oI live load shall be taken into consideration, where it
has the potential to aIIect Ioundation perIormance.
September 2004
482 Design Standards
(a) Foundation design shall be based on appropriate sound design methods and
shall satisIy
(17)
.
(b) The Iollowing standards and codes oI practice provide guidance on the design
oI Ioundations:

(17)
, VeriIication Method B1/VM4
BS 8004: -
(18)
(it should be noted that this
document does not cover earthquake resistant design aspects).
CAN/CSA-S6-00 -
(19)
AASHTO -, Code HB-17
(20)
.
AS 2159: 1995 Piling Design and Installation
(21)
The Transit New Zealand shall take precedence where there is a
conIlict.
483 Strength Reduction Factors for Foundation Design
Strength reduction Iactors Ior ultimate limit state design shall lie within the ranges in
Table 4.2 unless speciIic conditions justiIy lower or higher values. Adoption oI
lower or higher values shall be justiIied in the design statement, Ior Transit New
Zealands acceptance.
-
-
----

Plate bearing strength (to Iailure) 0.55 0.65
Pile static load tests (to Iailure) 0.65 0.80
Static prooI load tests (not to Iailure)
0.55 0.65
Geotechnical analyses using in situ test
results and correlations
0.45 0.55
Geotechnical analyses using laboratory test
results Ior cohesive soils
0.45 0.55
Geotechnical analyses based on visually
assessed parameters Irom borehole logs or
engineering geology description oI rock
0.40 0.45
Dynamic pile load tests using wave
analyses
0.50 0.75
Dynamic pile Iormula
(Hiley)
0.45 - 0.50
BRIDGE MANUAL 4 - 1
September 2004
The strength reduction Iactors Ior design shall be careIully chosen by the designer
Irom within the ranges speciIied in Table 4.2, giving consideration to:
The extent oI redundancy in the Ioundations
Complexity oI the geology and variability oI the ground conditions
Extent and quality oI site investigations carried out
Level oI uncertainty as to the ground conditions and strength parameters
Proximity oI site investigation to particular Ioundations
Mode oI Iailure
Design method adopted
Experience with similar conditions
The method oI design analyses and method oI acceptance testing
The number oI load tests or acceptance tests carried out
Level oI construction control
Level oI perIormance monitoring during and aIter construction
Consequences oI Ioundation Iailure to the structure, the road link, the road
users and the community.
Particular care should be taken in the use oI the high end oI the strength reduction
Iactors used Ior pile static load tests and dynamic tests using wave analyses,
depending on the variability oI the ground and number oI tests carried out, and the
conIirmation oI dynamic tests using static load tests.
Strength reduction Iactors Ior assessment or conIirmation methods not included in
the above table shall not be higher that that given in the table Ior the closest method,
and shall be highlighted in the Design Statement Ior consideration by Transit New
Zealand.
484 Capacity Design of Foundations
Capacity design shall be applied to the design oI Ioundations to resist Iorces induced
in the structure by yielding structural elements developing their over-strength
capacity under the action oI earthquake acting in combination with gravity loads. The
strength oI the Ioundations to be provided shall be determined on the basis oI the
nominal ultimate strength oI the Ioundation (
) Iactored by the strength reduction

Iactor derived Irom 4.8.3, and divided by 0.85, i.e.:
Foundation Iorces mobilized

by over-strength actions
0.85
48 Foundation Capacity Determination
The load capacity oI Ioundations shall be assessed using geotechnical parameters
Irom geotechnical investigations and tests, and soil / rock mechanics theory or semi-
empirical geotechnical methods. The capacity shall be conIirmed during construction
as speciIied in Section 4.8.5.
September 2004
48 Confirmation of Foundation Conditions during Construction
The designer shall clearly state on the drawings and the in the speciIications, the
Ioundation conditions assumed in the design, or ensure that the designer is consulted
during construction to ensure that the design requirements are being met.
The Ioundation conditions shall always be veriIied during construction, against the
ground conditions assumed in the design, as site investigations cannot Iully deIine
the actual ground conditions at each Ioundation. The designer shall speciIy measures
to be used to veriIy the ground conditions.
Appropriate measures to conIirm Ioundation conditions may comprise one or more oI
the Iollowing, depending on the particular situation:
Inspection, logging and possibly testing oI the ground by a geotechnical
engineer or engineering geologist.
Plate bearing tests
Static pile load tests
Pilot hole drilling and testing
Down-hole Inspection oI pile shaIt, particularly in bedrock
Dynamic pile load tests
The Hiley Iormula has traditionally been used to conIirm the pile capacities in
cohesionless soils, by relating the pile driving energy and the pile set
(displacement per hammer blow) to pile capacities. The limitations oI this
method are now recognised. A more sophisticated method involves analysis oI
the pile response to hammer driving, using a Pile Driving Analyser. Usually
the pile response data should be Iurther interpreted using a signal matching
program such as CAPWAP or similar. Such methods still have their
limitations, and these should be recognised by the designer.
Pile integrity tests to conIirm the structural integrity oI the pile, the relative
shape oI the pile shaIt or the continuity oI the pile.
Pile integrity tests shall be speciIied where the piles are not permanently cased
and where there is a risk oI collapse oI the ground during construction oI bored
piles, particularly below the water table, or where there is signiIicant potential
Ior damage to the pile shaIt during pile driving.
The type oI pile integrity testing to be used shall be speciIied by the designer.
4 Earth Retaining Systems
41 Loads
Earth retaining systems shall be designed to ensure overall stability, internal stability
and bearing capacity under appropriate combinations oI horizontal and vertical loads,
with acceptable displacements and settlement.
September 2004
The designer shall derive the design loads on the structure, taking into consideration
the Ilexibility and likely deIormation oI the structure, and the allowable displacement
or deIormation oI the system. CareIul consideration shall be given to the interaction
between the structure, the ground and Ioundations, under static, dynamic, earthquake
and construction conditions. The deIormation and displacement oI the structure shall
be compatible with the perIormance requirements Ior the structure and its interaction
with adjacent or supported structures and Iacilities. Earthquake displacement criteria
are speciIied in Section 5.7.
42 Design Standards
The Iollowing standards and codes oI practice provide guidance on the design oI
retaining structures:
Road Research Bulletin 84, - - ,
Volume 2: Seismic Design oI Bridge Abutments and Retaining Walls. (Transit
New Zealand, 1990)
(22)
.
BS 8002: 1994, -
(23)
(note that
this does not cover earthquake resistant design issues).
AS 4678-2002 -
(24)
. (Standards Australia, 2002).
CAN/CSA-S6-00 -
(19)
.
AASHTO -, Code HB-17
(20)
.
FHWA NHI-99-025 Earth Retaining Structures
(25)
.
CIRIA C580 - -
(26)
.
Road Research Bulletin 84
(22)
shall be used in preIerence to the other documents,
particularly Ior earthquake resistant design. The Transit New Zealand
shall take precedence over all other documents.
43 Factors of Safety
The minimum Iactors oI saIety Ior a Iree-standing retaining structure shall be as set
out in Table 4.3.
The Iactor oI saIety Ior sliding is the ratio oI Iorces resisting sliding to those causing
sliding.
The Iactor oI saIety Ior overturning is calculated as the ratio oI restoring moments to
disturbing moments, Ior overturning oI the wall.
September 2004
-

-
Sliding
1.5 1.2*
Overturning
2.0 1.5
Overall Stability against soil Iailure
1.5 1.25
* Unless the wall is designed Ior permanent displacement under earthquake
loads, see Section 5.7.
44 Common Highway Retaining Structures
DiIIerent common retaining wall systems used Ior highway construction are listed in
Table 4.4.
-

--
Gravity and ReinIorced Concrete
Cantilever Walls
Gravity walls (concrete, gabion, crib)
ReinIorced concrete cantilever walls
Anchored Walls
Anchored gravity walls
Anchored cantilever walls
Anchored soldier pile walls
Mechanically Stabilised Earth
(MSE) Walls
Soil nailed walls
ReinIorced soil walls
- inextensible reinIorcement
- extensible reinIorcement
Mechanically stabilised earth (MSE) walls comprise reinIorcement elements in the
ground to stabilise the soil against Iailure. A wall Iace (eg reinIorced concrete panels
or blocks) connected to the reinIorcement is generally provided.
MSE walls can be divided into two types :
Soil nailed walls, where the reinIorcement is inserted into the ground, with top-
down construction as excavation Ior the wall Iace proceeds.
ReinIorced soil walls, where the reinIorcement is incorporated within Iill as the
Iill is placed and compacted, to build the wall using bottom-up construction.
SpeciIic requirements Ior diIIerent retaining wall systems in common use are
speciIied in the Iollowing sections.
September 2004
4 Gravity and Reinforced Concrete CantiIever WaIIs
Gravity and reinIorced concrete cantilever walls are relatively rigid and are less
tolerant oI settlements. ThereIore they shall be Iounded on an appropriate stratum
which will minimise settlements.
These walls may be designed to undergo limited sliding displacement under strong
earthquake shaking as speciIied in Section 5.7.
4 Anchored WaIIs
(a) Walls that are restrained using anchors, are designed to transIer some oI the
loads on walls to the ground outside the zone oI inIluence oI the wall.
Anchors transIer the loads into the ground through :
Deadman structures
Grouting anchors into drilled holes
Mechanical systems
(b) Anchored walls are generally rigid systems, and shall be designed to resist the
Iull ground, groundwater and earthquakes Iorces on the walls. They shall not
be designed to allow outward displacement by sliding in earthquakes or other
conditions. An exception may be when the wall is anchored to a deadman that
is designed to undergo limited displacement under strong earthquake shaking.
(c) Ground anchors shall generally be designed and installed in accordance with
established design standards such as BS 8081:1989
-
(27)
, BS EN 1537; 2000
-
(28)
, and FHWA-IF-99-015 -
--
(29)
, except as provided in this document.
(d) The anchor system shall be designed to ensure a ductile Iailure oI the wall,
under earthquake overloads as discussed in Section 5.7.
(e) The anchor system shall be corrosion protected to ensure its durability over the
design working liIe oI the structure.
Two classes oI protection are provided Ior general use Ior anchors, as deIined
in Table 4.5 below.
September 2004
-- - - -
Class oI
Protection
Corrosion Protection Standard
Class I
Double corrosion protection by encapsulation oI the tendon or
bar pre-grouted under Iactory conditions inside a corrugated
plastic sheath to minimise crack widths in the pre-grouted
grout as deIined in BS 8081. The whole assembly is grouted
into the anchor hole.
A higher class oI protection, such as using multiple sheaths,
may be chosen, depending on the aggressiveness oI the
environment, the consequences oI anchor Iailure and the
importance oI the structure.
Class II
Single corrosion protection using a galvanized (to AS/NZS
4680
(30)
) or Iusion bonded epoxy-coated (to ASTM A934
(31)
or ASTM D3963
(32)
) bar grouted into the anchor hole.
The class oI corrosion protection shall be chosen based on the decision tree
shown in Figure 4.2.
AGGRESSIIT
Non-Aggressive
CONSEUENCES OF
FAILURE
Aggressive
CLASS l PROTECTlON
Not Serious
COST-BENEFIT
Serious
Small Cost to Provide
Encapsulation
Significant Cost to Provide
Encapsulation
CLASS l PROTECTlON
CLASS ll PROTECTlON CLASS 1 PROTECTlON
Guide for Selecting the Class of Corrosion Protection for a Ground Anchor
(after FHWA, 1998)
-
-
BRIDGE MANUAL 4 - 2
September 2004
In the decision tree, a serious consequence oI Iailure shall arise when Iailure
oI the anchor and wall could:
AIIect nearby buildings or other structures
Lead to closure oI one or more lanes oI the road causing major traIIic
disruption
Lead to disruption to a road that has a liIeline Iunction
Lead to destabilisation oI a landslide or slope that has experienced past
instability.
(f) In Figure 4.2 Aggressive shall be deIined as where:
the maximum pitting corrosion rate oI unprotected steel is greater than
0.1mm/year or,
soil resistivity is greater than 2000 ohm-cm or,
pH oI either the groundwater or soil is less than 5.0 or,
total SO
3
in the soil is greater than 1 or,
sulphates in groundwater is above 2500 ppm or,
chlorides in the groundwater are above 2000 ppm.
(g) Pull-out tests shall be speciIied to be carried out on trial anchors to be installed
prior to the Iinal wall anchors being constructed. The pullout tests shall be
used to conIirm the design grout-ground bond strengths. The number oI tests
shall be chosen and speciIied by the designer based on the variability oI the
ground conditions and the number oI anchors required.
(h) On-site suitability tests shall be carried out on a selected number oI initially
installed special anchors production anchors in accordance with BS EN
1537
(28)
, to conIirm the perIormance oI the anchors and their suitability to
ensure perIormance oI the wall. A small number oI representative Iull-scale
anchors shall be installed and tested to conIirm the suitability and perIormance
oI the anchors, prior to installation oI the remainder oI the anchors.
(i) On site acceptance tests shall be carried out on all anchors installed in
accordance with BS EN 1537
(28)
.
() The designer shall provide Ior Iuture inspection, re-testing and replacement oI
the anchors supporting structures, iI there is any reason Ior concern about their
long-term perIormance.
47 SoiI NaiIed WaIIs
Soil nailed walls shall be designed and constructed in accordance with appropriate
design codes such as FHWA-SA-96-069R - -
-
(33)
, except as provided Ior in this Bridge Manual.
Soil nailed walls are acceptable subject to the Iollowing criteria:
(a) Soil nailing shall be carried out only on drained slopes Iree oI groundwater, or
with an adequate level oI drainage to ensure that the Iacing and the soil nailed
block are Iully drained.
4 - 2 BRIDGE MANUAL
September 2004
(b) Soil nailed walls shall not support abutments oI bridges, except where it can be
demonstrated that the deIormation associated with mobilisation oI the soil nail
capacities, or any displacements associated with earthquakes can be tolerated or
catered Ior in the design oI the bridge structure.
(c) Overall limited block displacement in strong earthquakes may be allowed
subject to the criteria in Section 5.7.
(d) Soil nails shall only be allowed to intrude into property outside the road
reserve, iI sub-surIace rights Ior the design liIe oI the structure are obtained to
prevent disturbance oI the reinIorced soil block by Iuture sub-surIace (eg
Ioundation, drainage) construction activities.
(e) The soil nail reinIorcement shall be subject to the corrosion protection
requirements speciIied in Section 4.9.6 Ior anchors.
(f) Pull-out tests shall be speciIied to be carried out on trial soil nails to be
installed prior to the Iinal wall anchors being constructed. The pullout tests
shall be used to conIirm the design grout-ground bond strengths. The number
oI tests shall be chosen and speciIied by the designer based on the variability oI
the ground conditions and the number oI anchors required.
(g) On-site suitability tests shall be carried out on a selected number oI production
soil nails as per BS EN 1537
(28)
, to conIirm their perIormance oI the soil nails
and their suitability to ensure perIormance oI the wall. A small number oI
representative Iull-scale soil nails shall be installed and tested to conIirm the
suitability and perIormance oI the soil nails, prior to installation oI the
remainder oI the soil nails.
(h) On site Acceptance tests shall be carried out in accordance with BS EN
1537
(28)
, on at least 25 oI all installed soil nails. A higher proportion oI nails
shall be tested, iI the ground conditions are variable and the consequences oI
Iailure is high.
The designer shall provide Ior Iuture re-testing oI the soil nails supporting structures,
iI there is any concern about their long-term perIormance.
48 Reinforced SoiI WaIIs
ReinIorced soil walls usually comprise either inextensible (usually steel) or
extensible (usually geogrid) reinIorcement. ReIerence should also be made to
requirements with respect to earthquake design given in Section 5.7.
The Iollowing criteria shall be used in the design and construction oI reinIorced soil
walls:
(a) Inextensible (steel) reinIorcement shall be used Ior reinIorced soil walls
supporting bridge abutments, or where limiting the deIormation oI the wall is
critical due to the presence oI adjacent structures. Geogrid reinIorcement may
be used, provided that the bridge abutment seat is supported on piles, and the
design takes into account the expected deIormation oI the wall system.
(b) Design oI geosynthetic-reinIorced structures shall comply with appropriate
design codes or manuals such as the recommendations oI the TransIund New
September 2004
Zealand Research Report No 239 - - -
- -
(34)
, except as
otherwise provided in this manual.
(c) The long-term durability, strength and creep perIormance oI the reinIorcement,
and the environmental conditions associated with the site, backIill and
groundwater shall be considered in the selection and use oI appropriate types oI
reinIorcement and backIill.
(d) Steel reinIorcement shall have an adequate level oI corrosion protection and
sacriIicial steel content to ensure the required perIormance over the design liIe
oI the structure.
(e) The strength oI the connections between the soil reinIorcement and the Iacing
panels or blocks shall exceed by a suitable margin the upper bound pullout
strength oI the reinIorcement through granular Iill, or the post-yield over-
strength capacity oI the reinIorcement, whichever is lower. Design shall
ensure that brittle Iailures oI the connections will not occur.
410 Design of Earthworks
4101 Design of Embankments
(a) PhiIosophy
The design oI approach embankments shall be based on adequate site
investigations and shall ensure acceptable perIormance oI the embankment
under gravity, live and earthquake loads and under Ilood and post-Ilood
drawdown conditions. Appropriate measures shall be speciIied to ensure that
post-construction settlements will be within acceptable limits compatible with
the perIormance expectations Ior the road. Such limits shall be agreed with
(b) Static Behaviour
Under static conditions (including appropriate live load surcharge) the
completed embankment shall have a minimum calculated Iactor oI saIety oI
1.5, unless speciIic justiIication Ior a lower value set out in the geotechnical
engineering design report Ior the embankment has been accepted by Transit
New Zealand. A suitable monitoring programme shall be implemented by the
designer to check embankment perIormance during and aIter construction. The
designer shall speciIy acceptable limits Ior monitoring measurements.
During construction, Iactors oI saIety less than the long-term values may be
accepted but the value shall generally exceed 1.2. Where preloading,
surcharging, staged loading, vertical drains or other techniques are required to
permit construction oI embankments or to accelerate settlement, a suitable
monitoring programme shall be speciIied and the results shall be reviewed by
the designer.
September 2004
Factors oI saIety shall be calculated using loads and combinations Ior the
serviceability limit state as speciIied in Table 3.1.
(c) Behaviour in Seismic and FIood Events
Assessments shall be made oI the potential oI embankment materials and
underlying Ioundation materials to lose strength during or aIter Ilooding or
earthquake. The presence oI liqueIiable, collapsible, sensitive or erodible
materials shall be determined by appropriate site investigations and testing.
Where such materials are present, assessments shall be made oI the risk
presented by them and the Ieasibility and cost oI eliminating or reducing risks
and/or damage.
Where it is not practical or economically justiIiable to signiIicantly reduce the
risk oI embankment Iailure due to earthquake or Ilooding, and the eIIect oI
such Iailure on the perIormance oI the road network is acceptable to Transit
New Zealand, considering the required levels oI service and liIeline
requirements, then the design may allow Ior Iailure to occur in such large
events. This shall have the written acceptance Irom Transit New Zealand.
Where Transit New Zealand accepts that mitigation oI Iailure oI the road
embankment in speciIied large events is acceptable, then the manner and extent
oI such Iailure shall be assessed and the bridge structure and Ioundations shall
be designed to accommodate the embankment Iailure without damage to the
structure.
Where embankments may act as water retaining structures during Ilooding, the
ability oI the embankment to sustain eIIects oI seepage and drawdown shall be
examined. In such cases the embankment shall have a minimum Iactor oI
saIety against Iailure oI between 1.25 and 1.5, depending on the consequences
oI Iailure in terms oI potential downstream damage or loss oI liIe. The
-
(35)
published by the New Zealand Society on Large Dams
provides guidance on embankments that may act as water retaining structures.
Factors oI saIety shall be calculated using loads and combinations Ior
serviceability limit state as speciIied in Table 3.1.
Adequate protection Irom erosion during Ilooding or Irom adjacent waterways
shall be incorporated into the design oI embankments.
Where it is proposed to accept Iailure oI the embankment under the design
earthquake or Ilood conditions, or to adopt a Iactor oI saIety less than 1.5,
justiIication Ior doing so shall be set out in a design report Ior Transit New
Zealands consideration and acceptance in writing, beIore the proposal is
adopted.
BRIDGE MANUAL 4 - 2
September 2004
(d) Loadings on Associated Bridge Structures
Earth pressure loadings, lateral loads due to ground deIormation or
displacement and negative Iriction eIIects on Ioundations that arise Irom the
presence oI the embankment shall be taken into account. Appropriate load
Iactors shall be applied in accordance with 3.4 and 3.5.
4102 Design of Approach Cuttings
Approach cuttings shall be designed in accordance with recognised current highway
design practice with provision oI benches, and appropriate measures to mitigate the
eIIects oI rock Iall and minor slope Iailures as appropriate. Factors oI saIety given in
4.10.1 may be used as appropriate. Slope geometry shall be designed to ensure that
any slope Iailure material will not be deposited against or over the bridge structure.
Where this is not practicable, provision shall be made in the bridge design Ior
additional dead load or earth pressure to represent the eIIect oI slope Iailure material.
Where it is proposed to accept a signiIicant risk oI instability, justiIication Ior doing
so shall be set out in the Design Statement Ior Transit New Zealands consideration
and acceptance beIore the proposal is adopted.
4103 NaturaI Ground InstabiIity
Where the bridge and associated structures can be aIIected by instability or creep oI
natural ground, measures shall be taken to either isolate the structure, or remedy the
instability, or design the structure to accommodate displacements and loads arising
Irom the natural ground. Factors oI saIety given in 4.10.1 may be used, as
appropriate.
411 IntegraI and Semi-IntegraI Abutments
4111 Definitions
(a) An integral abutment is deIined as one that is built integrally with the end oI
the bridge superstructure and with the supporting piles. The abutment thereIore
Iorms the end diaphragm oI the superstructure and the retaining wall Ior the
approach Iilling. The supporting piles are restrained against rotation relative to
the superstructure, but are Iree to conIorm to superstructure length changes by
pile Ilexure.
(b) A semi-integral abutment is deIined as an integral abutment that contains
provision Ior relative rotation, but not translation, between the superstructure
and the supporting piles.
4112 Design Criteria
Integral and semi-integral abutments are acceptable Ior bridges that meet the
Iollowing criteria:
September 2004
(a) Length over abutments not exceeding:
with concrete superstructure- 70 m
with steel superstructure main members- 55 m
These values may be doubled Ior a length oI superstructure that contains an
intermediate temperature movement deck joint.
(b) The abutment piles, and surrounding soil, shall possess adequate Ilexibility to
enable superstructure length changes to occur without structural distress.
(c) An approach settlement slab, at least 2 m long, shall be attached to the back
Iace oI the abutment, sloped to divert surIace water Irom Ilowing down the
abutment/soil interIace. The slab shall be deep enough below the road surIace
at the end remote Irom the bridge to distribute soil strains due to length changes
without signiIicant surIace cracking.
Integral and semi-integral abutments are acceptable Ior longer bridges provided
rational analysis is applied to evaluate the eIIect oI the superstructure length change
on the supporting piles. Adequate measures shall also be taken to ensure the bridge
approach remains serviceable.
412 Buried Corrugated MetaI Structures
Design oI these structures shall be in accordance with the relevant Iollowing
standards as deIined by their statement oI scope:
AS/NZS 2041 -
(36)
AS 1761 -
(37)
and
AS 1762 - - -
(38)
(adopted by Standards New Zealand as NZS 4405 and NZS 4406)
AS 3703 -
(39)
,
Part 1: Materials and ManuIacture
Part 2: Design and Installation
Consideration shall be given to the eIIect oI possible earthquake induced ground
deIormation or liqueIaction on the structure.
Unless a soil - structure interaction analysis (which takes structure stiIIness,
Ioundation stiIIness and the type, compaction and drainage oI the backIill into
account) is undertaken then the HN-HO-72 live load pressure to be applied to the
crown oI the buried corrugated metal structure shall be determined as Iollows:
32
-1.852
3.5
Where:
vertical pressure in kPa on the plan projected area oI the structure

due to HN-HO-72 live loads including dynamic load eIIects
minimum depth oI cover in m measured Irom the traIIicked surIace
level to the crown oI the corrugations
September 2004
413 MisceIIaneous Design Reuirements
4131 Proprietary Items
Wherever proprietary items are required as part oI the structure, allowance shall be
made as Iar as possible Ior any brand to be used. Brand names shall not be quoted in
the documents unless it is essential to the design that a particular brand is used.
4132 SettIement SIabs
A settlement slab shall be provided at every abutment supporting earth Iilling. The
slab shall be simply supported along one edge by the abutment, and shall be designed
Ior dead and live load, assuming that it spans at least three-quarters oI its actual
length, in the longitudinal direction oI the bridge. Slabs shall be at least 2 m in
length, and the top surIace oI a slab shall not be above Iormation level at the end
remote Irom the bridge. The eIIects set out in 2.5 shall be considered.
4133 Deck Drainage
On spans wholly over water, stormwater may be discharged over the edge oI the deck
unless there is a particular reason Ior not doing so. In all other situations (including
spans over batter slopes) the stormwater shall be collected and speciIic provision
made Ior its disposal. Stormwater channels and pipes shall be designed to be selI-
cleaning where possible, and shall include access Ior cleaning.
Deck drainage shall be designed to the standards adopted Ior the highway drainage
system. In particular, the outlet pipes and pipe system shall be designed Ior a rainIall
event with a 20-year return period. Guidance on the design Ior surIace drainage may
be obtained Irom the National Roads Board publication:
- - - -
(40)
, except that more
up-to-date sources oI inIormation to that reIerenced should be drawn on Ior the
estimation oI rainIall precipitations, such as:
Tomlinson, A.I., 1980, - -
, Water and Soil Technical Publication No. 19, Ministry oI
Works and Development, Wellington.
(41)
Thompson, C.S, 2002, - - -,
(Version 2), National Institute oI Water and Atmospheric Research,
Wellington (A computer soItware system)
(42)
Databases that may be held by the Regional Council responsible Ior the
locality under consideration.
Detailing shall ensure that water does not leak onto signiIicant visible structural
surIaces to cause staining or corrosion, or onto bearings or energy dissipating
devices. Drip grooves shall be provided to achieve this where necessary. Sumps in
the bridge deck shall be positioned and detailed in a manner that will ensure traIIic
ride is not aIIected and that will provide Ior Iuture resurIacing oI the bridge deck.
September 2004
Deck expansion joints shall be watertight unless speciIic provision is made to collect
and dispose oI the water.
4134 Services
Agreement shall be reached with network utility operators oI services, over support
conditions required Ior services. Network utility operators shall be made aware oI
the extent and direction oI movement at expansion joints, due both to length changes
and seismic acceleration.
Designers shall consider the implications oI possible bridge overloading due to
leakage or rupture oI pipes carrying water or other Iluids inside a box girder, and
shall provide adequate drainage.
Special approvals and conditions apply to the installation oI pipelines carrying
Ilammable Iluids (including gas). ReIer to Section 6 oI

(43)
. Such pipelines shall not be carried inside box girders.
413 Date and Loading PaneIs
All bridges shall have displayed details oI date oI construction and design live
loading.
Each bridge designed to HN-HO-72 loading shall have this inIormation displayed on
two panels, as shown in Figure 4.2. The panels shall be oI bronze or other approved
material oI equivalent durability.
The panels shall be located one at each end oI the bridge on the leIt hand side oI
approaching traIIic and in a conspicuous location, eg, on the top surIace oI Iootpaths
or saIety kerbs, on the roadway Iace oI concrete barriers, or on the deck behind the
line oI the guardrail clear oI any subsequent sealing work.
Bridges designed to other loadings shall have similar panels.
413 Load Limiting Devices and Shock Load Force Transfer Devices
(a) Abutment Knock-OffEIements and Deck SIab Knock-UpEIements
Abutment knock-oII elements and deck slab knock-up elements , at deck
joints, designed to be displaced under response oI the bridge to strong
earthquakes, thereby allowing Ireedom oI movement oI the bridge
superstructure without signiIicant interaction with adjacent structure, shall be:
stable under traIIic loads at the ultimate limit state
able to resist the Iorces imposed on the knock-oII or knock-up element by
an attached deck joint at the ultimate limit state displacements under
service conditions that exclude earthquake eIIects
able to be dislodged without signiIicant damage to adjacent structural
elements
September 2004
(b) Earthuake Energy Dissipating Devices
Devices Ior dissipating earthquake energy, that also act to limit the earthquake
Iorces mobilised within the structure shall comply with 5.4.9.
(c) Shock Load Force Transfer Devices
Devices, designed to accommodate slow rates oI movement between adjacent
structural elements interconnected by the device without signiIicant transIer oI
Iorce due to the movement, but designed to lock-up and provide Iorce
transIer under shock loading Irom an earthquake, shall be designed with
suIIicient ideal strength to resist the Iorces imposed on them. The Iorces
imposed on the devices shall be assessed Irom a rational analysis oI the
structure assuming overstrength to have developed in plastically yielding
elements oI the structure.
September 2004

BRIDGE MANUAL 4 - 3
September 2004
414 References
(1) NZS 3101:1995, - , Standards New Zealand.
(2) NZS 3122:1995, -
-, Standards New Zealand.
(3) AS 3610:1995, , Standards Australia.
(4) AS 5100: 2004, -,
Part 4: Bearings and Deck Joints
Part 5: Concrete
Part 6: Steel and Composite Construction
Standards Australia.
(6) BS 5400, , C - -
Part 3:1982, Code oI Practice Ior Design oI Steel Bridges
Part 5:1979, Code oI Practice Ior Design oI Composite Bridges
Part 10:1980, Code oI Practice Ior Fatigue
(7) NZNSEE, 1985, - - -, Deliberations oI the Society's
Study Group, Bulletin oI New Zealand National Society Ior Earthquake Engineering,
December 1985.
(9) AS 1720: , -
Part 1: 1997 Design Methods
Part 2: 1990 Timber Properties
(10) AS 2878-1986, -- -, Standards Australia.
(11) AS/NZS 1664.1:1997, -, Part 1: Limit State Design, Standards
Australia and Standards New Zealand jointly.
(12) AS 1523:1981, - - - -, Standards Australia.
(13) DOE(UK), 1976, BE 1/76, - - - -,
Technical Memorandum (Bridges), UK Department oI the Environment, Highways
Directorate.
(14) , 1994, BD 33/94, - - - -, UK
Highways Agency.
(15) Bruce, SM, and Kirkcaldie, DK, 2000, - -
-, Research Report No. 186, TransIund New Zealand,
Wellington.
(16) Burke, MP, 1989, - -, National Cooperative Highway
Research program Synthesis oI Highway Practice 141, Transportation Research
Board, Washington DC.
(17) BIA, 1992, Building Industry Authority,
Wellington
(18) BS 8004: 1986, -, British Standards Institution,
(Iormerly CP 2004).
(19) CSA, 2000, CAN/CSA-S6-00 - , and CSA,
2001, - ,
Canadian Standards Association, Toronto, Ontario.
(20) AASHTO, 2002, - -, Code HB-17, 17th
Edition, American Association oI State Highway and Transportation OIIicials,
Washington DC.
(21) AS 2159: 1995, - -, Standards Australia

4 - 3 BRIDGE MANUAL
September 2004
(22) Wood, JH and Elms, DG, 1990, Seismic Design oI Bridge Abutments and Retaining
Walls, - - , RRU Bulletin 84. Volume 2,
Transit New Zealand, Wellington, New Zealand.
(23) BS 8002:1994, -, British Standards
Institute
(24) AS 4678-2002, -, Standards Australia
(25) MunIakh, GA, Samtami, NC, Castelli, RJ, and Wang, JN, 1999,
-, Publication No. FHWA NHI-99-025, Federal Highway Administration,
Washington DC.
(26) CIRIA, 2003, CIRIA C580 -
- Construction Industry Research and InIormation Association, London.
(27) BS 8081: 1989. -, British Standards
Institution
(28) BS EN 1537: 2000, -,
British Standards Institution.
(29) Federal Highway Administration, 1999, - --
Geotechnical Engineering Circular No.4, Publication No. FHWA-IF-99-015, US
Department oI Transportation, Washington DC.
(30) AS/NZS 4680:1999, - -
-, Standards Australia and Standards New Zealand jointly.
(31) ASTM A934/A934M-03,
- ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, USA.
(32) ASTM D3963/D3963M-01, -
- ASTM International, West
Conshohocken, PA, USA.
(33) Bryne, RJ, Cotton, D, PorterIield, J, Wolschlag, C and Ueblacker, G, 1998,
- - -, Publication No. FHWA-
SA-96-069R, Federal Highway Administration, Washington DC.
(34) Murashev, AK, 2003, - - - -
- , Research Report No. 239, TransIund New
Zealand, Wellington.
(35) NZSOLD, 1995, -, New Zealand Society on Large Dams,
Wellington
(36) AS/NZS 2041:1998, -, Standards Australia and
Standards New Zealand jointly.
(37) AS 1761-1985, -, Standards Australia,
(adopted by Standards New Zealand as NZS 4405: 1986).
(38) AS 1762-1984, - - -,
Standards Australia, (adopted by Standards New Zealand as NZS 4406: 1986).
(39) AS 3703: 1989, -
Part 1: Materials and ManuIacture
Part 2: Design And Installation
(40) Oakden, G.J., 1977, - -
- - Roading Division, Ministry oI Works and Development,
Wellington
(41) Tomlinson, A.I., 1980, - -
, Water and Soil Technical Publication No. 19, Ministry oI
Works and Development, Wellington.

September 2004
(42) Thompson, C.S, 2002, - - -, (Version 2),
National Institute oI Water and Atmospheric Research, Wellington (A computer
soItware system)
(43) TNZ, 1989, - , Transit New Zealand,
Wellington.
BRIDGE MANUAL - 1
SECTION EARTHUAKE RESISTANT DESIGN
September 2004
TabIe of Contents
5.1 Design Philosophy ...................................................................................... 5-3
5.1.1 Objective..................................................................................................5-3
5.1.2 Background and Commentary .................................................................5-5
5.1.3 Structural Action ......................................................................................5-5
5.2 Design Earthquake Loading and Ductility Demand..................................... 5-6
5.2.1 Site Subsoil Categories............................................................................5-6
5.2.2 Horizontal Loading...................................................................................5-7
5.2.3 Displacement Ductility Factor.................................................................5-14
5.2.4 Risk Factor, ........................................................................................5-16
5.2.5 Structural Performance Factor...............................................................5-17
5.2.6 Vertical Seismic Response ....................................................................5-17
5.2.7 Limitations on Displacement ..................................................................5-17
5.2.8 P-Delta Effects.......................................................................................5-18
5.3 Liquefaction .............................................................................................. 5-18
5.4 Analysis Methods...................................................................................... 5-19
5.4.1 General..................................................................................................5-19
5.4.2 Equivalent Static Force Analysis............................................................5-19
5.4.3 Dynamic Analysis...................................................................................5-20
5.4.4 Member Properties for Analysis.............................................................5-21
5.4.5 Seismic Displacements..........................................................................5-22
Earthuake Resistant Design
- 2 BRIDGE MANUAL
September 2004
5.5 Member Design Criteria and Foundation Design ......................................5-22
5.5.1 Ductile Structure ....................................................................................5-22
5.5.2 Partially Ductile Structure.......................................................................5-23
5.5.3 Structure Remaining Elastic at Design Earthquake Loading..................5-23
5.5.4 Structure Anchored to a Friction Slab ....................................................5-23
5.5.5 Structure 'Locked-ln' to the Ground Longitudinally.................................5-23
5.5.6 Structure on Pile/Cylinder Foundations..................................................5-24
5.5.7 Structure On Spread Footing Foundations.............................................5-25
5.5.8 Structure on Rocking Foundations.........................................................5-25
5.5.9 Structure With Energy Dissipating Devices............................................5-26
5.6 Structural lntegrity and Provision for Relative Displacements...................5-26
5.6.1 Clearances.............................................................................................5-26
5.6.2 Horizontal Linkage Systems...................................................................5-27
5.6.3 Holding Down Devices...........................................................................5-29
5.6.4 Effects of Concurrent Orthogonal Movement .........................................5-29
5.7 Earth Retaining Structures ........................................................................5-29
5.7.1 General ..................................................................................................5-30
5.7.2 Earth Pressures and Structure lnertia Forces ........................................5-31
5.7.3 Design Performance..............................................................................5-32
5.7.4 Culverts and Subways ...........................................................................5-36
5.8 References................................................................................................5-39
BRIDGE MANUAL - 3
September 2004
1 Design PhiIosophy
11 Obective
The primary objective oI seismic design shall be to ensure that the bridge can saIely
perIorm its Iunction oI maintaining communications aIter a seismic event. The
extent to which this is possible will depend on the severity oI the event, and thus by
implication on its return period. For design purposes, bridges shall be categorised
according to their importance, and assigned a Risk Factor related to the seismic
return period. This will then result in an equivalent design earthquake hazard and
consequent loading as deIined in 5.2. II the behaviour at this design intensity meets
the criteria oI (a), it is expected that with appropriate detailing, behaviour at other
intensities as in (b) and (c) will also be satisIactory, and no Iurther speciIic check is
required.
The seismic perIormance requirements are as Iollows:
(a) AIter the design return period event, the bridge shall be usable by emergency
traIIic, although damage may have occurred, and some temporary repairs may
be required. Permanent repair to reinstate the design capacities Ior both vehicle
and seismic loading should be Ieasible.
(b) AIter an event with a return period signiIicantly less than the design value,
damage should be minor, and there should be no disruption to traIIic.
(c) AIter an event with a return period signiIicantly greater than the design value,
the bridge should not collapse, although damage may be extensive. It should be
usable by emergency traIIic aIter temporary repairs and should be capable oI
permanent repair, although a lower level oI loading may be acceptable.
The design oI any bridge located in an area which is susceptible to earthquake
induced liqueIaction, or which is over an active Iault with a recurrence interval oI
2000 years or less, shall recognise the large movements which may result Irom
settlement, rotation or translation oI piers. To the extent practical and economic, and
taking into consideration possible social consequences, measures shall be
incorporated to mitigate against these eIIects.
- 4 BRIDGE MANUAL
September 2004
Figure 5.1: Idealised Force/Displacement
Relationships for Various Structural Categories
BRIDGE MANUAL -
September 2004
12 Background and Commentary
The earthquake provisions included in this edition oI the Bridge Manual have been
developed with reIerence to NZS 4203:1992
(1)
. Where appropriate, text, Iigures and
tables have been included with or without modiIication. The reader is reIerred to
NZS 4203:1992, Volume 2, Commentary Ior background inIormation relating to
NZS 4203:1992
(1)
.
13 StructuraI Action
For design purposes, each structure shall be categorised according to its structural
action under horizontal seismic loading. Categories are deIined in (a) to (h) below,
with reIerence to the relationship between the total applied horizontal loading and the
resulting displacement oI the centre oI mass oI the whole superstructure. Figure 5.1
illustrates the Iorce/displacement relationships, and deIines yield Iorce, yield
displacement ) (
y
and displacement ductility Iactor ( ).
The maximum allowable values oI design ductility ( ) are speciIied in 5.2.3.
In cases where large ductility demands are placed on concrete members due to
Ilexibility oI Ioundations or bearings, special analyses shall be made and steps taken
to limit the likelihood oI damage during less severe shaking.
(a) DuctiIe Structure
Under horizontal loading, a plastic mechanism develops. AIter yield,
increasing horizontal displacement is accompanied by approximately constant
total resisting Iorce. A ductile structure must be capable oI sustaining a
ductility Iactor oI at least six, through at least Iour cycles to maximum design
displacement, with no more than 20 reduction in horizontal resistance. For
the purpose oI determining the design load, the design ductility value is
restricted to six or less, as speciIied in 5.2.3 and Table 5.4.
(b) PartiaIIy DuctiIe Structure (Types I and II)
Under horizontal loading, a plastic mechanism Iorms in only part oI the
structure, so that aIter yield there is a signiIicant upward slope in the
Iorce/displacement relationship.
In a Type I structure, this continues up to design displacement.
In a Type II structure, a complete mechanism will Iorm aIter Iurther
displacement, but the load at which this happens may not be predictable iI it is
due to hinging in piles.
(c) Structure of Limited DuctiIity Demand
This structure is subjected to limited ductility demand under design earthquake.
It may otherwise qualiIy as Ductile or Partially Ductile, but its proportions are
such that its yield strength exceeds the design load, and consequently the
ductility demand is less than the maximum value oI six.
- BRIDGE MANUAL
September 2004
(d) Structure of Limited DuctiIity Capacity
This structure may otherwise qualiIy as Ductile or Partially Ductile, but its
proportions or detailing mean that its ductility capacity is less than six. The
design load shall be determined according to the relevant curve on the seismic
hazard response spectrum, Iactored as speciIied in 5.2.2.
(e) EIastic Structure
This structure remains elastic up to or above the design load. It might have
little or no reserve ductility aIter reaching its load capacity, which, while
undesirable, may be unavoidable. In this case, detailing shall be such that
while there may be a low standard oI post-elastic behaviour, the risk oI collapse
is not greater than Ior a ductile structure.
(f) Structure Incorporating MechanicaI Energy Dissipating Devices
This structure may be ductile, partially ductile, or oI limited ductility demand,
depending on the type oI dissipator or mounting used.
(g) Structure Locked into the Ground
This is an elastic structure which relies on the integrity oI the abutment
approach material, usually Ior longitudinal seismic resistance. It is assumed to
move with ground acceleration.
(h) Structure on Rocking Piers
This is a special case oI ductile structure, in which spread Iooting Ioundations
tend to liIt at alternate edges and the deIormation oI the soil and impact eIIects
provide energy dissipation. Because oI the lack oI experimental or practical
experience oI the system, a maximum value oI 3 shall be adopted, unless a
larger value can be speciIically justiIied.
2 Design Earthuake Loading and DuctiIity Demand
21 Site SubsoiI Categories
Site subsoil category (a) (Rock or very stiII soil sites)
Sites where the low amplitude natural period is less than 0.25 s, or sites with
bedrock, including weathered rock, with unconIined compressive strength greater
than or equal to 500 kPa, or with bedrock overlain by:
(i) Less than 20 m oI very stiII cohesive material with undrained shear strength
exceeding 100 kPa; or
(ii) Less than 20 m oI very dense sand, with 30
1
N , where
1
N is the SPT (N)
value corrected to an eIIective overburden pressure oI 100 kPa; or
(iii) Less than 25 m oI dense sandy gravel with 30
1
N .
BRIDGE MANUAL - 7
September 2004
Site subsoil category (b) (Intermediate soil sites)
Sites not described as category (a) or (c) may be taken as intermediate soil sites.
Site subsoil category (c) (Flexible or deep soil sites)
Sites where the low amplitude natural period exceeds 0.6 s, or sites with depths oI
soils exceeding the values given in Table 5.1.
Table 5.1: Site Subsoil Category (c)
Soil type and description
Depth of soil (m)

Cohesive soil
Representative undrained shear
strengths (kPa)
SoIt 12.5 25 20
Firm 25 50 25
StiII 50 100 40
Very stiII 100 200 60

Cohesionless soil
Representative
SPT (N) values
Loose 4 10 40
Medium dense 10 30 45
Dense 30 50 55
Very dense ~ 50 60

Gravels ~ 30 100

22 HoriontaI Loading
The design earthquake hazard is deIined by the response spectrum appropriate to the
site subsoil categories deIined in 5.2.1. The spectra are shown in Figures 5.2 (a), (b)
and (c). Response spectral accelerations shall be Iactored by the zone, risk and
structural perIormance Iactors speciIied. The method oI application depends on the
type oI analysis adopted Ior the structure, as reIerred to in 5.2.2 (a), (b) and (c).
The need to increase the design earthquake loading due to possible local site eIIects
or location shall be considered. For bridges in importance category 1 oI Table 5.5
costing more than $1.07 million, or in category 2 costing more than $2.15 million, or
in category 3 costing more than $3.22 million, iI the site lies within 10 km oI an
active Iault with an average recurrence interval oI 1000 years or less, the design
loading shall be derived using a site speciIic study. Site speciIic studies shall be
treated as Special Studies in accordance with 2.7. Where signiIicant these aspects
and their implications Ior the design shall be discussed in the Design Statement. The
values stated are at a Statistics New Zealand Producers Price Index (Outputs)
(2)
- 8 BRIDGE MANUAL
September 2004
Construction Index oI 1908, as Ior March 2003. Values shall be corrected to the
current index.
A combination oI the eIIects oI orthogonal seismic actions shall be applied to the
structural elements to account Ior the simultaneous occurrence oI earthquake shaking
in two perpendicular horizontal directions. Seismic Iorces and moments on each oI
the principal axes oI an element shall be derived as set out below. The absolute
values oI eIIects (Iorces or moments) resulting Irom the analyses in two orthogonal
directions shall be combined to Iorm two load cases as Iollows:
LOAD CASE 1: 100 oI the eIIects resulting Irom analysis in direction x (eg,
longitudinal) plus 30 oI the eIIects resulting Irom analysis in the
orthogonal direction y (eg, transverse).
LOAD CASE 2: 100 oI the eIIects resulting Irom analysis in direction y (eg
transverse) plus 30 oI the eIIects resulting Irom analysis in the
orthogonal direction x (eg longitudinal).
(a) EuivaIent Static Force AnaIysis
For a structure represented as a single-degree-oI-Ireedom oscillator, the
minimum horizontal seismic base shear Iorce, V, Ior the direction being
considered, shall be calculated as:
J C Z R
P
S
d
W , but not less than 0.05W
d

Where: C basic acceleration coeIIicient, Irom Figure 5.2 and Table
5.2, according to the value oI T and the site subsoil category.
Z zone Iactor Irom Figure 5.3
R risk Iactor, deIined in Table 5.5
P
S structural perIormance Iactor, deIined in Table 5.6
d
W total dead weight plus superimposed dead weight (Iorce
units) assumed to participate in seismic movements in the
direction being considered.
1 the Iundamental natural period (1st translational mode) oI
the structure in the direction being considered. The
calculation oI T shall be based on the combined stiIIness oI
all supports in the direction being considered, and on elastic
material properties as deIined in 5.3.4 (a).
BRIDGE MANUAL -
September 2004
Period, T
Seconds
Structural ductility factor,
1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0
0 0.40 0.68 0.41 0.30 0.23 0.19 0.16
0.2 1.00 0.41 0.30 0.23 0.19 0.16
0.45 0.68 0.41 0.30 0.23 0.19 0.16
0.5 0.63 0.37 0.26 0.20 0.16 0.14
0.6 0.55 0.30 0.20 0.15 0.13 0.10
0.7 0.48 0.24 0.16 0.12 0.10 0.082
0.8 0.42 0.21 0.14 0.11 0.084 0.071
0.9 0.37 0.19 0.12 0.093 0.074 0.063
1.0 0.33 0.17 0.11 0.083 0.066 0.056
1.5 0.23 0.12 0.076 0.058 0.046 0.039
2.0 0.17 0.085 0.056 0.043 0.034 0.029
2.5 0.13 0.065 0.043 0.033 0.026 0.022
3.0 0.11 0.055 0.036 0.028 0.022 0.019
Figure 5.2(a) and Table 5.2(a): Basic Seismic Hazard Acceleration Coefficient, C
Site subsoil category (a) (Rock or very stiff soil sites)
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September 2004
Structural ductility factor, Period, T
Seconds
1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0
0 0.42 0.80 0.49 0.35 0.27 0.22 0.19
0.2 1.00 0.49 0.35 0.27 0.22 0.19
0.45 0.80 0.49 0.35 0.27 0.22 0.19
0.5 0.77 0.45 0.32 0.25 0.20 0.17
0.6 0.71 0.38 0.26 0.20 0.16 0.13
0.7 0.65 0.33 0.22 0.17 0.13 0.11
0.8 0.60 0.30 0.20 0.15 0.12 0.10
0.9 0.55 0.28 0.18 0.14 0.11 0.094
1.0 0.50 0.25 0.17 0.13 0.10 0.085
1.5 0.33 0.17 0.11 0.083 0.066 0.056
2.0 0.25 0.13 0.083 0.063 0.050 0.043
2.5 0.20 0.10 0.066 0.050 0.040 0.034
3.0 0.17 0.085 0.056 0.043 0.034 0.029
Figure 5.2(b) and Table 5.2(b): Basic Seismic Hazard Acceleration Coefficient, C
Site subsoil category (b) (Intermediate soil sites)
BRIDGE MANUAL - 11
September 2004
Period, T
Seconds
Structural ductility factor,
1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0
0 0.42 1.00 0.54 0.37 0.28 0.23 0.19
0.2 1.00 0.54 0.37 0.28 0.23 0.19
0.45 1.00 0.54 0.37 0.28 0.23 0.19
0.5 1.00 0.54 0.37 0.28 0.23 0.19
0.6 1.00 0.54 0.37 0.28 0.23 0.19
0.7 0.94 0.47 0.31 0.24 0.19 0.16
0.8 0.88 0.44 0.29 0.22 0.18 0.15
0.9 0.81 0.41 0.27 0.20 0.16 0.14
1.0 0.75 0.38 0.25 0.19 0.15 0.13
1.5 0.52 0.26 0.17 0.13 0.10 0.088
2.0 0.38 0.19 0.13 0.095 0.076 0.065
2.5 0.30 0.15 0.099 0.075 0.060 0.051
3.0 0.25 0.13 0.083 0.063 0.050 0.043
Figure 5.2(c) and Table 5.2(c): Basic Seismic Hazard Acceleration Coefficient, C
Site subsoil category (c) (Flexible or deep soil sites)
- 12 BRIDGE MANUAL
September 2004
Figure 5.3: Zone Factor, Z
BRIDGE MANUAL - 13
September 2004
(b) ModaI AnaIysis
For modal analysis the design load shall be derived Irom the basic elastic
seismic hazard spectrum ( 1) in Figure 5.2, appropriate to the site subsoil
category. The resulting moments and Iorces shall be Iactored by the zone, risk
and structural perIormance Iactors speciIied in Figures 5.3, and Tables 5.5 and
5.6 respectively, and by the design spectrum scaling Iactor S
m
, which shall be
the maximum oI S
m1
and S
m2
Irom (i) and (ii) below:
(i) S
m1
shall be obtained Irom Table 5.3 using T, the Iundamental
translational period oI the structure Ior the direction being considered.
(ii) S
m2
V/V
base(1)
where V is as given in 5.2.2(a) and V
base(1)
is the combined modal base
shear Ior the direction being considered and taking S
m
1.
In applying Figure 5.2, the Iollowing shall be noted:
The dotted portion oI each curve shall be used instead oI the plateau to
obtain ordinates Ior the higher mode responses oI inelastically
responding structures analysed by elastic techniques, and Ior elastically
responding structures. Ordinates Ior Iirst mode response shall not be
less than the plateau values.
Table 5.3 : Design Spectrum Scaling Factor, S
m1
Structural ductility factor, T
(seconds)
1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0
0.45 1.0 0.61 0.44 0.34 0.28 0.24
0.50 1.0 0.58 0.41 0.32 0.26 0.22
0.60 1.0 0.54 0.37 0.28 0.23 0.19
0.70 1.0 0.50 0.33 0.25 0.20 0.17
T is the Iundamental translational period oI the structure Ior the direction being
considered.
(c) IneIastic Time History AnaIysis
For inelastic time history analysis, earthquake data appropriate to the site shall
be used. The 5 damped elastic response spectra Ior the earthquake records
used shall be compared with the basic elastic seismic hazard spectrum ( 1)
in Figure 5.2 and Table 5.2 appropriate to the site subsoil category, Iactored Ior
the aspect oI design being undertaken by the Iollowing Iactors:
(i) For determination oI minimum strength requirements:
zone, risk, structural perIormance and design spectrum scaling Iactors,
as speciIied in Figure 5.3 and Tables 5.5, 5.6 and 5.3 respectively.
- 14 BRIDGE MANUAL
September 2004
(ii) For determination oI inelastic eIIects, displacements and capacity
actions (eg strain hardening eIIects):
zone and risk Iactors, as speciIied in Figure 5.3 and Table 5.5
respectively.
The ordinates oI the input ground motion spectra shall not be less than 90 oI
the Iactored hazard spectrum over the range oI the Iirst three periods oI
vibration oI the structure in the direction being considered.
The records shall contain at least 15 seconds oI strong ground shaking or have
a strong shaking duration oI 5 times the Iundamental period oI the structure,
whichever is greater. At least 3 diIIerent earthquake records oI acceleration
versus time shall be used.
23 DispIacement DuctiIity Factor
Structure displacement ductility Iactor ( ) is deIined in Figure 5.1.
The maximum value oI to be used Ior design oI any structure is six. Under certain
circumstances shall be restricted Iurther. Maximum allowable values oI Ior
various structural Iorms are listed in Table 5.4, and examples are shown
diagrammatically in Figure 5.4. In all cases, the designer shall check that the
structure as detailed is capable oI sustaining the design value oI .
Table 5.4: Design Displacement Ductility Factor,
Maximum Allowable Values
Energy dissipation system:
Ductile or partially ductile structure (Type I), in which plastic hinges Iorm at
design load intensity, above ground or normal (or mean tide) water level.
6
Ductile or partially ductile structure (Type I), in which plastic hinges Iorm in
reasonably accessible positions, e.g., less than 2 m below ground, but not
below normal (or mean tide) water level.
4
Ductile or partially ductile structure (Type I), in which plastic hinges are
inaccessible, Iorming more than 2 m below ground or below normal (or
mean tide) water level, or at a level reasonably predictable.
Partially ductile structure (Type II).
Spread Iootings designed to rock (unless a larger value can be speciIically
justiIied).
3
Hinging in raked piles in which earthquake load induces large axial Iorces. 2
"Locked in" structure (T 0)
Elastic structure.
1
Note: The design ductility Iactor Ior structures oI limited capacity or demand is to be
determined Irom actual structure characteristics.
BRIDGE MANUAL - 1
September 2004
Figure 5.4: Examples of Maximum Values of
Allowed by Table 5.4
- 1 BRIDGE MANUAL
September 2004
24 Risk Factor,
The value oI R shall be not less than that speciIied in Table 5.5, according to the
importance oI the bridge.
Table 5.5: Risk Factor,
Minimum Allowable Values for Bridges
Importance Category
1 Bridges carrying more than 2500 vpd
Bridges carrying or crossing motorways or railways
Bridges on State Highways Nos: 1,2,3,3A,4,5,6,8,8A
1.30
2 Bridges carrying between 250 and 2500 vpd.
Bridges on State Highways, iI not in Category 1
1.15
3 Bridges carrying less than 250 vpd
Non-permanent bridges.
1.00
The choice oI category in Table 5.5 shall be based on the average number oI vehicles
per day at the time oI design. However, judgement must be used, taking account oI
the road Iunction and lack oI an alternative route, or other Iactors which may justiIy
higher importance than vehicle Ilow would indicate.
For design purposes, the relationship between the Risk Factor, R, and the return
period oI the equivalent earthquake may be assumed to be as shown in Figure 5.5
(1)
.
For shorter return periods, the relationship is indicative only.
For assessment oI the probability, p, oI the design earthquake oI return period
s
t
years being exceeded in any given period, t years, the Iollowing relationship may be
used:
t
s
t p ) 1 ( 1
1
Figure 5.5 : Earthquake Return Period and Risk Factor
BRIDGE MANUAL - 17
September 2004
2 StructuraI Performance Factor
The value oI the structural perIormance Iactor S
p
shall be as speciIied in Table 5.6.
Table 5.6: Structural Performance Factor,
Site subsoil category
A Rock or very stiII soil sites 0.90

B Intermediate soil sites 0.80
C Flexible or deep soil sites 0.67
2 erticaI Seismic Response
(a) GeneraI
Bridge superstructures shall be designed to remain elastic under both positive
and negative vertical acceleration. The vertical seismic response speciIied in
(b) below shall be considered to act non-concurrently to horizontal seismic
response.
(b) erticaI AcceIeration Response
Peak vertical acceleration Ior regular structures may be taken as:
v
a 0.67 C
E
Z R g
Where:
E
C basic horizontal Iorce coeIIicient Ior elastic structure (ie,
C Ior 1), taken Irom Figure 5.2, and 1 is the natural
period oI vertical vibration.
Z
zone Iactor Irom Figure 5.3
R
risk Iactor Irom Table 5.5
g
acceleration due to gravity
27 Limitations on DispIacement
DeIlections oI the structure under the eIIects oI the design earthquake shall not be
such as to:
(i) Endanger liIe
(ii) Cause loss oI Iunction
(iii) Cause contact between parts iI such contact would damage the parts to the
extent that persons would be endangered, or detrimentally alter the response
oI the structure or reduce the strength oI structural elements below the
required strength
(iv) Cause loss oI structural integrity
- 18 BRIDGE MANUAL
September 2004
28 P-DeIta Effects
An analysis Ior P-delta eIIects shall be carried out unless any one oI the Iollowing
criteria is satisIied:
(a) The Iundamental period does not exceed 0.45 seconds;
(b) The height oI the structure measured Irom its base (i.e., top oI Iooting, pile cap
or Ioundation cylinder) does not exceed 15 m and the Iundamental period does
not exceed 0.8 seconds;
(c) The structural ductility Iactor does not exceed 1.5;
(d) The ratio oI the design deIlection at the level oI the superstructure divided by
the height above the base does not exceed ) 5 . 7 /(
d
W J ,
Where: J Horizontal shear Iorce acting at the base oI the structure
d
W Total dead weight plus superimposed dead weight assumed
to participate in seismic movements in the direction being
considered
Where an analysis Ior P-delta eIIect is required, a rational analysis, which takes into
account the post elastic deIlections in the structure, shall be used to determine the
P-delta eIIects.
Unless otherwise included in the analysis method adopted, increases in displacements
due to P-delta eIIects shall be added to the displacements calculated by the analysis
method.
3 Liuefaction
The liqueIaction oI loose saturated predominantly cohesionless soils (generally sand,
silt and loose sandy gravels) during strong earthquake shaking shall be taken into
consideration in the design oI highways.
SuIIicient geotechnical investigations, Iield and laboratory tests shall be carried out
to assess the potential Ior liqueIaction and consequential eIIects at the site.
LiqueIaction assessment shall be carried out using appropriate state-oI-the-art
methods such as those given in the Proceedings of the NCEER Workshop on
Evaluation of Liquefaction Resistance of Soils
(3)
.
All possible consequences oI liqueIaction shall be taken into consideration in the
design oI bridges and highways. These may include :
Foundation Iailure
Loss or reduction oI pile lateral and vertical load capacities;
Subsidence
Down-drag on piles due to subsidence;
Floatation or upliIt pressures on buried structures and chambers;
Lateral spreading oI ground towards Iree surIaces such as river banks, with
consequential additional lateral loads on Ioundations;
Lateral spreading oI bridge approaches and other embankments.
BRIDGE MANUAL - 1
September 2004
LiqueIaction hazards at the site shall be mitigated to a level consistent with the
perIormance requirements Ior the particular road link. Measures to mitigate
liqueIaction hazard by ground improvement, such as using densiIication by dynamic
compaction or vibroIloatation, drainage, or combined densiIication and drainage
using vibro-replacement or stone columns, shall be considered to reduce the risk to
the highway Irom liqueIaction oI the soils.
The design shall mitigate the risk associated with potential damage to highway
structures Irom liqueIaction, through ground improvement or provision oI suIIicient
strength in the structures to resist liqueIaction eIIects.
The risk Irom liqueIaction and the consequences to the road away Irom structures
shall be assessed. The liqueIaction risk shall be mitigated consistent with the
perIormance expectation Ior that road link in the road network, and any liIeline
perIormance requirements. II the perIormance expectations Ior the road link and the
network allow temporary loss oI the road link aIter a major earthquake event, then
risk oI loss oI the road Irom liqueIaction may be acceptable. Recommendations to
mitigate or manage the risk shall be presented in a geotechnical design report, and the
written acceptance oI Transit New Zealand shall be obtained, beIore such an
approach is adopted.
4 AnaIysis Methods
41 GeneraI
Design Iorces on members shall be determined Irom analyses which take account oI
the stiIIness oI the superstructure, bearings, piers and Ioundations. The design load
shall be applied to the whole structure. Consideration shall be given to the eIIects on
structural response oI likely variation in both structural and Ioundation material
properties. Consideration shall also be given to the consequences oI possible yielding
oI components oI the Ioundation structure or soil and oI rocking or upliIt oI spread
Iootings on the response and energy dissipation characteristics oI the structure. The
type oI analysis used shall be appropriate to the Iorm oI structure being designed.
42 EuivaIent Static Force AnaIysis
(a) Distribution of StructuraI Mass
Where the equivalent static Iorce analysis is used, the mass oI the
superstructure plus the pier caps and halI the mass oI the piers shall be
considered concentrated at the level oI the superstructure centroid.
The horizontal distribution oI mass shall be taken into account in the analysis
Ior transverse earthquake.
(b) HoriontaI Torsion
Provision shall be made Ior variation in the seismic eIIect at supports, due to
the centre oI resistance and/or the centre oI mass oI the bridge not being in their
calculated horizontal positions. A torsional moment in the horizontal plane, in
- 20 BRIDGE MANUAL
September 2004
either direction, shall be added to the seismic loading already described, equal
to:
J (1 0.025b)
Where: J is as deIined in 5.2.2 (a)
b is the overall dimension, in metres, perpendicular to the applied
seismic load, oI the part oI the structure considered to be
continuous under that load.
The design seismic eIIect at any support shall not be less than that obtained by
ignoring the eIIects oI torsion.
(c) RotationaI Inertia Effects
For superstructures supported on single-stem piers with wide hammerheads, the
eIIects oI superstructure and hammerhead rotational inertia in generating
additional moments in the pier shall be considered, and provided Ior by
appropriate detailing.
43 Dynamic AnaIysis
(a) Criteria Under Which Dynamic AnaIysis is Recommended
Dynamic analysis to obtain maximum horizontal Iorces and displacements or
ductility demand, should be carried out where it is not appropriate to represent
the structure as a single degree oI Ireedom oscillator. Such cases are:
(i) Bridges where the mass oI any pier stem (including any allowance Ior
hydrodynamic eIIects) is greater than 20 oI the mass oI that part oI the
superstructure assumed to contribute to the inertia loading on the pier.
(ii) For transverse analysis, where the bridge or an independent length oI
bridge between expansion joints has abrupt changes in mass distribution,
horizontal stiIIness or geometry along its length, or is substantially
unsymmetrical.
(iii) Bridges which describe a horizontal arc subtending more than 45.
(iv) Bridges in which the seismic load resistance is provided by structural
systems other than conventional piers and abutments.
(v) Suspension, cable-stayed and arch bridges.
(vi) Bridges with piers designed to rock.
(b) GeneraI
Dynamic analysis shall be undertaken Ior two orthogonal horizontal directions.
For horizontally curved bridges one oI these directions shall be the chord
between the two abutments. Concrete member section properties shall be as
deIined in 5.3.4(a).
BRIDGE MANUAL - 21
September 2004
(c) Response Spectrum AnaIysis
The total maximum response shall be assessed using an appropriate method oI
combination, such as the square root oI the sum oI the squares, but taking
account oI the eIIect oI closely spaced modes where necessary. Modes shall be
considered to be closely spaced iI their Irequencies are within 15.
SuIIicient modes shall be included in the analysis to ensure that the eIIective
mass included in the results is at least 90 oI the total mass oI the structure.
The mass and stiIIness oI the total seismic load resisting system shall be
included in the analysis.
(d) IneIastic Time History AnaIysis
The bridge shall be analysed using at least three diIIerent input motions Ior
each direction and the maximum computed responses Irom at least the two
most appropriate inputs shall be adopted Ior design.
Inelastic moment curvature and Iorce displacement idealisations shall be
appropriate to the materials being considered and the likely structural
perIormance.
The overall damping in the bridge system expressed as a percentage oI critical
equivalent viscous damping shall generally be taken as 5, to take account oI
the structural damping. The damping arising Irom radiation and inelastic
behaviour in the Ioundation is included in the structural perIormance Iactor, S
p
.
For special structures such as long span steel cable supported bridges which
remain elastic under earthquake loading, a lower value oI damping may be
appropriate.
The overall ductility demand computed by an inelastic time history analysis and
accepted Ior the design shall not be greater than that permitted by Table 5.4.
44 Member Properties for AnaIysis
In calculating natural period, Iorces and deIlections under seismic loading the
Iollowing values shall be used:
(a) Concrete Member Section Properties
For highly stressed cracked sections (eg, piers and piles), the sectional rigidity
EI value equivalent to the member having just reached yield oI tensile
reinIorcement shall be assumed to apply over its whole length.
For uncracked sections (eg, prestressed concrete superstructures), the gross
uncracked section value shall be assumed.
(b) PTFEStainIess SteeI SIiding Bearings
The coeIIicient oI Iriction to be used Ior analysis shall be assessed on a
conservative basis Ior the situation being considered. 0.02 shall be assumed as
the coeIIicient oI Iriction Ior situations where a minimum Irictional Iorce is
appropriate. For situations where a maximum Irictional Iorce is appropriate a
coeIIicient oI Iriction oI at least 0.15 shall be used.
- 22 BRIDGE MANUAL
September 2004
(c) ariation of MateriaI Properties
The eIIects oI actual material properties varying signiIicantly Irom those
assumed Ior analysis and design shall be taken into account. The likely
variation in Ioundation properties in particular shall be considered.
4 Seismic DispIacements
(a) Where the structural system can be simulated as a single-degree-oI-Ireedom
oscillator, the maximum seismic displacement, , oI the centre oI mass shall be
taken as Iollows, unless a more detailed study is undertaken:
) 4 /(
2 2
1 gZRS C
P
Where: is in metres
1 the Iundamental natural period, in seconds
g 9.81 m/s
2
R Z C , , and
p
S are as deIined in 5.2.2 (a).
Allowance shall be made at superstructure movement joints Ior out-oI-phase
response oI two adjacent sections oI a structure, by providing clearance derived
Irom the square root oI the sum oI the squares oI the maximum displacements.
(b) Where a response spectrum analysis is used, displacements derived Irom the
analysis based on the basic elastic seismic hazard spectrum ( 1) shall be
Iactored by
P
S R Z .
(c) Where time history analysis is used, displacements may be taken directly Irom
the analysis results.
Member Design Criteria and Foundation Design
1 DuctiIe Structure
In a ductile structure, where the ductility is provided by plastic hinges, the hinge
design
*
Ilexural strengths shall be at least equal to the moments Irom an analysis as
described in 5.3. Hinge shear strength and design oI members resisting the hinge
moments shall be according to capacity design principles as deIined in NZS 4203
(1)
.
Capacity design requirements will be considered satisIied iI the over strength Ilexural
capacity oI a hinge is matched by at least its own nominal
**
shear strength, and the
nominal shear and moment strength oI resisting members.
Pile analysis shall also consider the consequences oI Ilexure due to seismic ground
distortions. Pile caps shall be designed to resist the vertical shear resulting Irom
plastic hinging at pile tops, where this is considered likely.
*
Design Strength. 1he nominal strength multiplied by the strength reduction factor specified by the
appropriate materials code.
**
Nominal Strength. 1he theoretical strength of a member section, calculated using section dimensions as
detailed and the lower 5 percentile characteristic material strengths.
BRIDGE MANUAL - 23
September 2004
2 PartiaIIy DuctiIe Structure
Plastic hinges which Iorm near design loading, and their resisting members, shall be
designed as in 5.4.1 where practicable. Members which resist Iorces Irom plastic
hinges which Iorm at greater than design loading shall be designed on the same basis.
The nominal shear strength oI piles should preIerably exceed the shear developed by
a possible mechanism at over strength. Judgement shall be used, taking into account
the economic eIIect oI such provision. At positions oI potential lower plastic hinges,
these members shall be detailed to ensure that they can sustain the likely limited
rotations without signiIicant damage.
3 Structure Remaining EIastic at Design Earthuake Loading
The pier and Ioundation member design Iorces shall be determined on the basis oI an
analysis as described in 5.3. II practicable or economically justiIiable, to induce
possible damage during seismic overload to occur in accessible locations, the design
strengths oI members below ground shall at least match the nominal Ilexural
strengths oI members above ground. II hinge Iormation is likely at greater than
design loading, capacity design principles shall generally be applied, as in 5.4.1.
4 Structure Anchored to a Friction SIab
(a) Friction slabs may be assumed to provide seismic anchorage to a bridge
abutment only iI the integrity oI the embankment within which the Iriction slab
is located can be relied upon under earthquake conditions. The eIIect oI
seismic load transmitted by the Iriction slab to the embankment shall be taken
into account in assessing the integrity oI the embankment.
(b) The design value oI horizontal restraint provided by a Iriction slab shall at least
match the design Iorce on the abutment speciIied in Figure 5.7.
(c) The design value oI horizontal restraint provided by a Iriction slab shall be
calculated as the lesser oI the design value oI Iriction between the slab and the
underlying bedding, and the design value oI Iriction between the bedding and
the underlying natural ground or Iill. The design value oI Iriction shall be
calculated assuming an appropriate strength reduction Iactor , as deIined in
Table 4.2. Allowance shall be made Ior inertia Iorces arising Irom the weight
oI the Iriction slab and overlying soil.
(d) The design strength oI the connection between the Iriction slab and the
abutment shall be at least 1.2 times the nominal sliding resistance oI the
Iriction slab.
Structure 'Locked-In' to the Ground LongitudinaIIy
A `locked-in' structure shall have integral or semi-integral abutments, as described in
4.10. The peak horizontal ground acceleration coeIIicient to be used in computing the
seismic inertia Iorce shall be not less than as Iollows:
Peak acceleration g ZRS C g C
p o 0 T 1,
- 24 BRIDGE MANUAL
September 2004
Where:
o
C peak ground acceleration coeIIicient
0 T 1,
C basic seismic hazard acceleration coeIIicient at 1 and
T 0 Irom Figure 5.2
g acceleration due to gravity
R risk Iactor Irom Table 5.5
S
p
structural perIormance Iactor Irom Table 5.6
Resistance to longitudinal seismic loads shall be provided by pressure oI soil against
each abutment alternately. Earth pressure shall be determined as in 5.6, but to allow
Ior possible seismic overload, greater pressure shall be allowed Ior, up to a maximum
equivalent to passive pressure, iI practicable or economically justiIied.
Forces in the Ioundations due to consequent soil deIormation shall be determined by
an elastic analysis, including the eIIects oI soil stiIIness. Such a structure shall not be
assumed to be locked-in Ior transverse earthquake, unless a speciIic resisting system
is designed.
Structure on PiIeCyIinder Foundations
(a) When estimating Ioundation stiIIness to determine the natural period(s) oI
vibration oI the structure and the curvature ductility demand on plastic hinges,
a range oI soil stiIIness parameters typical Ior the site shall be considered.
Allowance shall be made Ior:
residual scour;
pile/soil separation in cohesive soils to a depth oI two times pile diameter;
liqueIaction oI soil layers.
the potential Ior soil stiIIness and strength degradation under repeated
cyclic loading associated with earthquakes.
The non-linear stress-strain properties oI the resisting ground.
(b) The design oI pile Ioundations shall take account oI:
pile group action;
strength oI the Ioundation as governed by the strength oI the soil in which
the piles are embedded;
the eIIect oI liqueIaction-induced lateral spreading oI the ground.
additional loads on piles such as negative skin Iriction (down drag) due to
subsidence induced by liqueIaction or settlement oI the ground under
adjacent loads (such as the approach embankment).
The horizontal support provided to piles by liqueIied soil layers and overlying
non-liqueIied layers shall be assessed using appropriate current methods Ior
BRIDGE MANUAL - 2
September 2004
determining liqueIied or post-liqueIied soil strength and stiIIness.
Alternatively, Ior liqueIied soil layers their horizontal support to piles may be
conservatively ignored.
(c) The required strength oI the piles, pile caps and the connection between these
elements to resist the loads induced by seismic action shall be in accordance
with the criteria above as appropriate. In addition:
(i) the design tensile strength oI the connection between a pile and the pile
cap shall not be less than 10 oI the tensile strength oI the pile;
(ii) the region oI the pile extending Ior the larger oI one pile diameter or 500
mm Irom the underside oI the pile cap shall be reinIorced Ior
conIinement as a plastic hinge.
(d) In the region oI a steel shell pile immediately below the pile cap, the
contribution oI the shell (aIter deducting corrosion losses) may be included
with respect to shear and conIinement but shall be neglected in determining
moment strength unless adequate anchorage oI the shell into the pile cap is
provided.
(e) Analyses oI the eIIect oI seismic loading on groups oI raked piles shall take
account oI the simultaneously induced axial Iorces and Ilexure in the piles and
rotation oI the pile cap due to lateral displacements.
7 Structure On Spread Footing Foundations
The soil stress induced by Group 3A loading shall not exceed the product oI the
nominal bearing capacity oI the soil and the appropriate strength reduction Iactor
given in Table 4.2. The Ioundations shall be considered under the combined static
and earthquake loads.
8 Structure on Rocking Foundations
(a) II pier spread Iootings are expected to rock under design earthquake conditions,
a time history dynamic analysis shall be perIormed to study the structure's
behaviour, in accordance with 5.3.3. The structure shall be proportioned to
limit the ratio oI the total displacement oI the centre oI mass oI the structure to
the displacement oI the centre oI mass oI the structure at initiation oI rocking,
to less than 3, unless evidence to justiIy a higher value can be produced.
(b) The nominal moment strength at the base oI the pier stem shall be greater than
1.3 times the corresponding Iorces determined by analysis, as in 5.3. The
Iooting and pier stem shall be designed on capacity design principles, to ensure
that any yielding occurs in the pier stem, assuming design soil bearing strength.
Capacity design requirements will be satisIied iI the over strength Ilexural
capacity oI the pier hinge is matched by at least its own nominal shear strength,
and the design moment and shear capacity oI the Iooting.
The potential plastic hinge region at the base oI the pier stem shall be detailed
to ensure that it can sustain the possible limited rotation.
- 2 BRIDGE MANUAL
September 2004
(c) The interaction oI the structure and Ioundation during rocking shall be careIully
considered in the assessment oI a rocking Ioundation, and the potential Ior
Ioundation strength and stiIIness degradation shall be taken into account.
(d) An assessment shall be made oI the perIormance oI both the structural and non-
structural components oI the bridge as a consequence oI the vertical and
horizontal movements associated with the rocking motion oI the piers, to
ensure that structural integrity will be maintained under both design, and more
extreme earthquake conditions.
Structure With Energy Dissipating Devices
A structure incorporating energy dissipating devices shall be designed in a similar
manner to a ductile structure, as in 5.4.1. The energy dissipating devices shall be
treated similarly to plastic hinges, and members resisting the Iorces induced in them
designed, using capacity design principles.
Energy dissipating devices shall have had their perIormance substantiated by tests.
Their long term Iunctioning shall be assured by protection Irom corrosion and Irom
water or debris build-up. The devices shall be accessible Ior regular inspection and
maintenance, and to enable them to be removed and replaced iI necessary.
Design guidance is contained in RRU Bulletin 84, Vol 3
(4)
.
StructuraI Integrity and Provision for ReIative DispIacements
1 CIearances
(a) StructuraI CIearances
At locations where relative movement between structural elements is designed
to occur, suIIicient clearance shall be provided between those elements and
around such items as holding down bolts, to permit the calculated relative
movement under design earthquake conditions to occur Ireely without inducing
damage. Where two components oI earthquake movement may be out oI
phase, the earthquake component oI the clearance provided may be based on
the square root oI the sum oI the squares approach. Long term shortening
eIIects and one third oI the temperature induced movement Irom the median
temperature position shall be taken into account as implied by the load
combinations in Table 3.2.
On short skew bridges, consideration shall be given to increasing the clearance
between spans and abutments by up to 25 to counter possible torsional
movement oI the span with respect to the substructure.
(b) Deck Joints
At temperature movement deck joints, clearances may be less than speciIied in
(a), provided damage due to the design earthquake is limited to sacriIicial
devices (knock-up or knock-oII devices), which have intentional weakness
which permits minor damage to occur in a predetermined manner. In such
circumstances the range oI movement to be accommodated by the joint shall
BRIDGE MANUAL - 27
September 2004
not be less than one quarter oI the calculated relative movement under design
earthquake conditions, plus long term shortening eIIects where applicable, and
one third oI the temperature induced movement Irom the median temperature
position. Damage to deck joint seal elements due to the joint opening under
this reduced earthquake movement is acceptable, provided mechanical damage
is avoided.
2 HoriontaI Linkage Systems
(a) GeneraI
The security oI all spans against loss oI support during seismic movement shall
be ensured either by a positive horizontal linkage system between the span and
the support, or by speciIic provision Ior large relative displacements, as in the
situations described below.
Linkage may be either tight or loose as described in (b) and (c), according to
whether relative longitudinal movement is intended.
Requirements Ior provision oI linkage are as Iollows:
Longitudinal linkage is required between all simply supported span ends
and their piers, and between the two parts oI the superstructure at a hinge
in the longitudinal beam system.
Longitudinal linkage is not required at an abutment, provided that the
overlap requirements oI 5.5.3 are complied with.
Longitudinal linkage is not required at a pier, Ior a superstructure with Iull
moment continuity, provided the displacement oI the reaction point would
not cause local member distress.
Transverse linkage is not required Ior any type oI superstructure, provided
that the transverse strength and stability oI the span is suIIicient to support
an outer beam or truss iI it should be displaced oII the pier or abutment.
Acceptable means oI linkage are linkage bolts. Shear keys and bearings are not
an acceptable means. Linkage elements shall be ductile, in order to ensure
integrity under excess relative movement.
(b) Tight Linkage
A tight linkage shall be used, where relative horizontal movement is not
intended to occur under either service loads or seismic loading. The linkage
system shall be designed to have a design strength not less than the Iorce
induced therein under design seismic conditions, nor less than that prescribed
below Ior loose linkage. Where applicable, rubber pads shall be provided
between the two elements oI the bridge linked together in this Iashion, to
enable relative rotation to occur.
(c) Loose Linkage
At a position where relative horizontal movement between elements oI the
bridge is intended to occur under earthquake conditions, the linkage shall be
designed to be `loose', ie, suIIicient clearance shall be provided in the system so
- 28 BRIDGE MANUAL
September 2004
that it does not operate until the relative design seismic displacement is
exceeded. Loose linkage is intended to act as a second line oI deIence against
span collapse in earthquakes more severe than the design event or in the event
oI pier top displacement resulting Irom excessive pier base rotation. Toroidal
rubber buIIers as shown in Appendix C shall be provided between the elements
oI the bridge which are loosely linked. The elements oI loose linkage between
a span and its support shall have a design strength not less than that required to
resist a Iorce equal to at least 0.2 times the dead load oI the contributing length
oI superstructure. The contributing length oI superstructure shall generally be
the smaller oI two unequal lengths, except in the case oI a short length (e.g., a
suspended span) between two longer lengths. In this case, the strength shall be
based on the longer lengths.
(d) OverIap Reuirements
Overlap dimensions are deIined in Figure 5.6. They apply in both longitudinal
and transverse directions.
To minimise the risk oI a span being displaced oII either its bearings or the pier
or abutment under earthquake conditions in excess oI the design event, the
bearing overlap at sliding or potentially sliding surIaces and the span/support
overlap given in Table 5.7 shall be provided.
On short skew bridges, overlap requirements shall be increased by up to 25.
Where there are two components oI earthquake movement which may be out oI
phase, the earthquake component oI the overlap requirements may be based on
the square root oI the sum oI the squares approach.
Table 5.7: Minimum Overlap Requirements
Linkage system Span/Support Overlap Bearing Overlap
No linkage system
2.0 E 100 mm
(400 mm minimum)
1.25 E
Loose linkage system
1.5 E 100 mm
(300 mm minimum)
1.0 E
Tight linkage system 200 mm -
Where: E relative movement between span and support, Irom median
temperature position at construction time, under design
earthquake conditions, EQ SG TP/3
E equivalent relative movement at which the loose linkage
operates, ie, E E
EQ, SG and TP are displacements resulting Irom load conditions
described in Section 3, and combined as in Table 3.2.
BRIDGE MANUAL - 2
September 2004
Figure 5.6: Overlap Definition
3 HoIding Down Devices
Holding down devices shall be provided at all supports and structural hinges where
the net vertical reaction under design earthquake conditions is less than 50 oI the
dead load reaction. The holding down device shall have suIIicient strength to prevent
upliIt oI the span Irom its support, or separation oI the two hinged members under
design earthquake conditions and shall have a minimum design strength to resist a
Iorce equal to 20 oI the dead load reaction. An elastomeric bearing shall not Iorm
part oI a holding down device. In the case oI a cantilever span, either Iree or
propped, the minimum design strength oI the holding down device at the end oI the
cantilever shall be calculated on the basis oI 20 oI the dead load reaction which
would exist iI the cantilever span was simply supported.
4 Effects of Concurrent OrthogonaI Movement
Provision shall be made Ior the eIIects on linkage and bearing assemblies oI relative
horizontal seismic movement between bridge members occurring concurrently in the
longitudinal and transverse directions.
7 Earth Retaining Structures
This section covers:
(a) non-integral bridge abutments (as compared with integral or semi-integral
abutments deIined in 4.11) and independent retaining walls that are associated
with bridges. An abutment is deIined as a substructure system that incorporates
earth retaining members, and also supports part oI the superstructure. Wing
walls are part oI the abutment iI they are integral with it. Independent walls
that are associated with bridges are deIined as those walls that are not integral
with the bridge abutment and which iI removed would result in collapse or
major settlement oI approach Iills at the bridge abutments.
- 30 BRIDGE MANUAL
September 2004
(b) Walls not associated with bridges.
71 GeneraI
(a) The design horizontal ground acceleration and velocity to be used in computing
inertia Iorces and displacements oI non-integral abutments and independent
walls shall be as Iollows:
Design acceleration g C
o
0.25 Z R g
Design velocity
o
v 0.36 Z R
Where:
o
C design ground acceleration coeIIicient
g
acceleration due to gravity
o
v design ground velocity (m/s)
R risk Iactor Irom Table 5.8.
Note: The design ground acceleration has been derived using the basic
acceleration coeIIicient Ior 1 0, Irom Figure 5.2 Ior the appropriate
site subsoil category.
Table 5.8: Risk Factor,
Minimum Allowable Values for Retaining Walls
Where a wall satisIies the criteria oI more than one importance category, the
requirements oI the higher category shall apply.
Importance Category
1 Non-integral bridge abutment walls and independent walls
associated with bridges
See
Table 5.5
2 Walls not associated with bridges
(a) Wall supporting roadway carrying more than 2500 vpd.
Wall providing protection or support to motorway or
railway. Wall supporting State Highway. Wall providing
protection to adjacent property, the consequential
reinstatement cost oI which would exceed $970,000
*
.
1.15
(b) Wall supporting roadway carrying between 250 and 2500
vpd. Wall providing protection to adjacent property, the
consequential reinstatement cost oI which would be less
than $970,000
(*)
. Wall exceeding 3 m in height.
1.0
(c) Wall not in categories (a) or (b) speciIic seismic design is
not required.
-
*
Values quoted are at a Statistics New Zealand Producers Price Index (Outputs)
(2)
, Construction Index 1735 as
Ior 30 June 1992. Values shall be corrected to the current index.
BRIDGE MANUAL - 31
September 2004
(b) All structural components oI abutments and walls shall have a design strength
not less than the Iorces calculated using the relevant ultimate limit state load
combinations speciIied in 3.5. The wall shall be checked Ior stability subject to
the appropriate load combinations and a strength reduction Iactor Ior the soil
not exceeding 0.9, except that where the wall is designed to sustain permanent
displacements during earthquake, the load Iactors may be taken as unity.
(c) Structural design oI abutments and walls shall generally Iollow capacity design
principles.
72 Earth Pressures and Structure Inertia Forces
(a) The Iollowing earth pressure eIIects shall be taken into account:
s
P - Force due to static earth pressure (including compaction Iorce,
c
P where appropriate);
E
P - Increment or decrement in earth pressure due to earthquake;
F
P - Increment oI Iorce on wall due to its displacement towards the
static backIill.
In assessing earth pressure eIIects, due account shall be taken oI the relative
stiIInesses oI the wall, backIill, Ioundations and any tie-back anchors.
The earthquake increment oI earth pressure ( P
E
) shall be derived using the
rigid, stiII or Ilexible wall pressure distributions, depending on the wall
movements, given in the Transit New Zealand Road Research Unit Bulletin No
84
(5)
. As recommended in the document, the widely used Mononobe-Okabe
earthquake pressure increments shall be used only when there is suIIicient wall
movement Ior the wall to be Ilexible. Passive earth pressure decrements due
to earthquake shaking shall be applied Ior the earthquake load case where
passive pressures are relied on to provide stability, and these can be derived
using the approach provided in the Bulletin.
(b) The structural inertia Iorces to be taken into account shall include:
1
P - The inertia Iorce on the abutment or wall due to ground
acceleration acting on the wall, and the soil block above the
heel oI the wall;
d o
W C - The inertia Iorce on a locked-in superstructure, oI seismic
weight
d
W , moving at ground acceleration,
o
C ;
B
P - The Iorce, iI any, transmitted between the superstructure and
the abutment. This Iorce is the sum oI that transmitted by the
bearings, and that transmitted by a load limiting device iI any.
The Iorce due to sliding bearings shall be calculated assuming the maximum
likely Iriction coeIIicient. A value oI 0.15 shall be assumed unless another
value can be justiIied. The Iorce due to other bearings shall be the product oI
the total support stiIIness and the seismic displacement, . The calculation oI
- 32 BRIDGE MANUAL
September 2004
shall take account oI the relative stiIIness oI the various supports, and the
relative stiIIness oI the abutment bearings and Ioundations.
(c) The appropriate Iorces shall be combined as shown in Figure 5.7. The
structures shown in (a) and (b) represent extremes oI relative resistance
provided by the abutment piles and the backIill. Designs shall take account oI
intermediate conditions applying as appropriate. In both abutment cases the
probability oI
B
P being out oI phase with
I E
P P may be taken account oI by
applying the square root oI the sum oI the squares oI the Iorces.
73 Design Performance
(a) Permanent DispIacement of WaIIs in Earthuakes
Retaining structures may be designed to remain elastic under the design earthquake
or to allow limited controlled permanent outward displacement under strong
earthquake shaking.
Walls designed on the basis oI permissible permanent outward displacement under
strong earthquake shaking shall comply with all relevant recommendations oI the
Road Research Unit Bulletin 84
(5)
. The design displacement shall be assessed based
on appropriate current methods such as those based on the Newmark Sliding Block
approach as presented in this bulletin, or the methods provided by Ambraseys and
Srbulov, (1995)
(6)
. The design peak ground acceleration Ior assessment oI the
displacements shall be based on Section 5.5.5, with a structural perIormance Iactor
(Sp) oI 1, or on site-speciIic seismicity studies as required under Section 5.2.2, and
not the design acceleration given in Section 5.7.1 (a).
It shall be noted that signiIicant vertical accelerations shall be taken into
consideration in the design oI retaining structures. The energy and Irequency content
oI earthquake shaking as well as the vertical earthquake motions (which tend to be
high particularly in near Iield situations) have a signiIicant eIIect on retaining wall
perIormance in strong earthquakes. The eIIects oI vertical shaking have been
observed in recent overseas earthquakes as well as in recent research sponsored by
the Earthquake Commission Research Foundation (Brabhaharan et al, 2003
(7)
).
The uncertainty in the assessment oI wall displacements using peak ground
accelerations shall be taken into consideration in the assessment oI likely wall
displacements, although the peak ground acceleration based estimates remain the
only quantitative estimation methods currently available.
In the design oI retaining structures that are allowed limited permanent outward
displacement in the design earthquake:
(i) The soil strength parameters used Ior assessment oI sliding displacement shall
be consistent with large soil strains Irom displacements (eg residual strength
Ior cohesive soils).
(ii) Walls shall be proportioned to ensure sliding, rather than overturning or
internal instability (in the case oI mechanically stabilised earth structures).
BRIDGE MANUAL - 33
September 2004
Figure 5.7: Seismic Force Combinations on Abutments and Retaining Walls
- 34 BRIDGE MANUAL
September 2004
(iii) The expected displacement due to the design earthquake shall not encroach
into minimum clearances Irom road carriageways and railway tracks or inIringe
property boundaries, or cause damage to services that may exacerbate
movements or cause instability.
(iv) The probable ranges oI soil parameters shall be considered when estimating the
upper and lower bounds oI threshold acceleration to cause wall displacement.
(v) It shall be recognised that, in near-Iield situations, the vertical accelerations
associated with strong earthquake shaking would lead to larger displacements
than assessed using peak ground accelerations alone.
(vi) The assessed likely displacements oI the structure arising that would arise
Irom sliding due to the design earthquake shall not exceed the values given in
Table 5.9.
Table 5.9: Maximum Allowable Displacement
Wall Situation Wall Type
Maximum
Displacement
Wall supporting bridge
abutments
All types Nil
Walls above road level
supporting structures
within 2 H* oI wall
Iace at top oI wall
All types Nil
Rigid Wall 100 mm
Walls supporting road
carriageway with
AADT ~ 2500 Flexible wall capable oI
displacement without
structural damage
150 mm
Rigid Wall 100 mm
Walls supporting road
carriageway with
AADT 2500
Flexible wall capable oI
displacing without
structural damage
200 mm
BRIDGE MANUAL - 3
September 2004
Notes :
(i) H is the height oI the retaining wall including the height oI any slope
above.
(ii) The designer shall ensure that the displacements will not cause damage
to adjacent structures or services.
(b) WaIIs Supporting Abutments
Abutments walls shall be designed to prevent permanent displacement under
the design earthquake load, except where the bridge abutment and
superstructure can be designed to remain serviceable with limited abutment
displacement and without damage to the bearings, and can retain adequate
allowance Ior temperature change, vibration, etc. This shall be substantiated in
the design statement and the designer shall obtain the acceptance oI Transit
New Zealand.
(c) Gravity and Reinforced Concrete CantiIever WaIIs
Gravity and reinIorced concrete cantilever walls may be designed so that either:
(i) The wall remains elastic and does not suIIer any permanent displacement
under the design earthquake load;
or
(ii) Limited permanent outward movement due to soil deIormation is
accepted, and the wall is designed to avoid yielding oI the structural
elements wherever practicable. In this case provision shall be made to
accommodate the calculated displacement with minimal damage, and
without encroaching on clearances. Walls other than those supported on
piles shall be proportioned to slide rather than rotate. Due account shall
be taken oI the probable range oI soil strength when estimating the upper
and lower bounds oI the threshold acceleration to cause wall
displacement. The design resistance to overturning shall be greater than
1.25 times the overturning moment derived Irom the upper bound
combination oI Iorces to cause sliding.
(d) Anchored WaIIs
Anchored walls shall be designed to remain elastic under the seismic loading
speciIied in 5.7.1(a). Consideration shall be given to the consequences oI tie
and wall Ilexibilities under design conditions. Walls shall be detailed to ensure
that under seismic overload, controlled displacement oI the wall will occur
through yielding oI the anchor material, and sudden Iailure will be avoided.
Particular attention shall be given to the post-earthquake eIIectiveness oI the tie
corrosion protection.
(e) MechanicaIIy StabiIised Earth WaIIs
(i) The Road Research Unit Bulletin 84
(5)
provides a basis Ior the seismic
design oI mechanically stabilised earth walls, and shall be complied with.
The TransIund New Zealand Research Report No 239 Guidelines for
- 3 BRIDGE MANUAL
September 2004
Design & Construction of Geosynthetic-Reinforced Soil Structures in
New Zealand
(8)
also provides guidelines Ior the seismic design oI such
walls. Section 4 provides guidance on the design oI soil nailed walls and
design codes such as FHWA-SA-96-069R Manual for the Design and
Construction Monitoring of Soil Nailed Walls
(9)
also provide guidance.
(ii) A wall required to avoid permanent displacement shall be designed to
remain elastic and stable under the design loading.
(iii) The connection strengths between the reinIorcements and the Iacing shall
be such that the Iailure under earthquake overload is always ductile, that
is, by either pull out oI the reinIorcement through granular materials
without loss oI pullout capacity with displacement, or by yielding or
deIormation oI the reinIorcement, and not by Iailure oI the connections.
The strength margin over connection Iailure shall be at least 1.3.
(iv) A wall intended to undergo permanent displacement shall be designed so
that the outward movement results Irom block sliding oI the reinIorced
block as a whole and not due to internal instability or pull out oI the
reinIorcement.
(v) Using Strip reinIorcement, under earthquake overload, deIormation shall
preIerably be by pull out oI the reinIorcement strips or, where this is
impractical, by ductile extension oI the reinIorcement strips.
(vi) Using grid reinIorcement, particularly geogrids with closely spaced
transverse members, under earthquake overload, any internal deIormation
shall be through ductile elongation oI the reinIorcement rather than
pullout oI the reinIorcement through the soil.
(vii) Where design is Ior pull out, the nominal strength oI the connection
between the reinIorcement and the wall Iacing shall be at least twice the
pull out Iorce calculated Irom the probable apparent coeIIicient oI
Iriction. Upper and lower bounds oI the threshold acceleration required
to produce incipient Iailure shall be calculated by considering the
reinIorcement acting both horizontally and along the Iailure surIace and
allowing Ior probable variations in the pull out resistance and yield
strength oI the reinIorcement. Stability shall be checked under the upper
bound acceleration. Design displacements shall not encroach on required
clearances.
74 CuIverts and Subways
(a) SmaII Structures (Maimum cross-section dimension Iess than 3 m)
Detailed analysis Ior earthquake induced Iorces is not required Ior small
culverts and subways. Concrete reinIorcement shall be detailed to provide
structural tolerance to ground deIormation, with particular attention to corner
details and bar termination.
BRIDGE MANUAL - 37
September 2004
(b) Large Structures (Maimum cross-section dimension 3 m or more)
(i) Where the soil cover is less than the height oI the structure, rigid
structures shall be designed Ior the Iorces shown in Figure 5.8(a). In this
Iigure,
s
W is the static Iorce due to the weight oI soil above the culvert.
Other symbols are deIined in 5.6.2.
(ii) Where the depth oI the soil over the structure exceeds the height oI the
structure, earthquake induced stresses on the cross-section may be
determined by applying the static orthogonal stresses at "inIinity" as
shown in Figure 5.8(b). Comments are made on this method in Earth
Retaining Structures
(10)
.
(iii) Flexible corrugated steel plate structures may be assumed to interact with
the soil to produce a uniIorm distribution oI earth pressure around the
periphery.
- 38 BRIDGE MANUAL
September 2004
(Ex NZNSEE Bulletin
(10)
)
Figure 5.8: Forces on Large Underground Structures
BRIDGE MANUAL - 3
September 2004
8 References
(1) NZS 4203:1992, Code of Practice for General Structural Design and Design
Loadings for Buildings, Standards New Zealand.
(2) , Producers Price Index (Outputs), Department oI Statistics, published quarterly.
(3) NCEER, 1997, Proceedings of the NCEER Workshop on Evaluation of Liquefaction
Resistance of Soils, (Edited by Youd, TL and Idriss, IM,) Technical Report NCEER-
97-0022, National Center Ior Earthquake Engineering Research , BuIIalo, NY, USA.
(4) RRU, 1990, Seismic Design of Base Isolated Bridges Incorportating Mechanical
Energy Dissipators, Bulletin 84, Vol 3, Road Research Unit, Transit New Zealand,
Wellington.
(5) Wood, JH and Elms, DG, 1990, Seismic Design oI Bridge Abutments and Retaining
Walls, RRU Bulletin 84, Bridge Design and Research Seminar 1990. Vol. 2, Transit
New Zealand, Wellington, New Zealand.
(6) Ambraseys, N and Srbulov, M., 1995, Earthquake Induced Displacements oI
Slopes, Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering, Vol 14.
(7) Brabhaharan, P, Fairless, GJ, and Chapman, HE, 2003, EIIect oI vertical earthquake
shaking on displacement oI earth retaining structures, Proceedings of the Pacific
Conference on Earthquake Engineering, New Zealand Society Ior Earthquake
Engineering. Christchurch. New Zealand.
(8) Murashev, AK, 2003, Guidelines for Design & Construction of Geosynthetic-
Reinforced Soil Structures in New Zealand, Research Report No 239, TransIund New
Zealand, Wellington
(9) Federal Highway Administration, 1998, Manual for the Design and Construction
Monitoring of Soil Nailed Walls, Publication No. FHWA-SA-96-069R, US
Department oI Transportation, Washington DC
(10) NZNSEE, 1980, Papers Resulting from the Deliberations of the NZNSEE Discussion
Group on Seismic Design of Bridges, Bulletin oI the New Zealand National Society
Ior Earthquake Engineering, September 1980 also published in Bulletin 56, Road
Research Unit, National Roads Board, 1981.
Section 9: Mathewson, M.B., Wood, J.H., and Berrill, J.B., Earth Retaining
Structures.
- 40 BRIDGE MANUAL
September 2004
BRIDGE MANUAL - 1
SECTION EALUATION OF BRIDGES AND CULERTS
September 2004
TabIe of Contents
6.1 lntroduction................................................................................................. 6-3
6.1.1 General....................................................................................................6-3
6.1.2 Definitions................................................................................................6-4
6.1.3 Rating Requirements...............................................................................6-4
6.1.4 Posting Requirements .............................................................................6-5
6.1.5 Evaluation Procedure...............................................................................6-5
6.2 lnspection ................................................................................................... 6-7
6.2.1 General....................................................................................................6-7
6.2.2 lmpact Factors.........................................................................................6-7
6.3 Material Strengths....................................................................................... 6-7
6.3.1 Concrete..................................................................................................6-8
6.3.2 Steel Reinforcement ................................................................................6-8
6.3.3 Prestressing Steel....................................................................................6-9
6.3.4 Structural Steel ........................................................................................6-9
6.3.5 Timber .....................................................................................................6-9
6.3.6 Analysis of Test Results.........................................................................6-10
6.4 Main Member Capacity and Evaluation .................................................... 6-12
6.4.1 General..................................................................................................6-12
6.4.2 Section Capacity....................................................................................6-12
6.4.3 Live Loading and Analysis .....................................................................6-14
6.4.4 Assumptions for Specific Structural Situations.......................................6-15
6.4.5 Evaluation..............................................................................................6-17
6.4.6 Highway Permits Data ...........................................................................6-17
EvaIuation of Bridges and
CuIverts
- 2 BRIDGE MANUAL
September 2004
6.5 Deck Capacity and Evaluation ..................................................................6-17
6.5.1 General ..................................................................................................6-17
6.5.2 Reinforced Concrete Decks: Empirical Evaluation Method ....................6-18
6.5.3 Reinforced Concrete Decks: Plate Bending Analysis.............................6-26
6.5.4 Timber Decks ........................................................................................6-27
6.5.5 Deck Grade ...........................................................................................6-29
6.5.6 Highway Permits Data ...........................................................................6-30
6.6 Proof Loading............................................................................................6-30
6.6.1 Preliminary.............................................................................................6-30
6.6.2 Analysis .................................................................................................6-30
6.6.3 Load Application, lnstrumentation and Procedure..................................6-31
6.6.4 Load Limit Criteria..................................................................................6-32
6.6.5 Evaluation..............................................................................................6-33
6.7 References................................................................................................6-33
BRIDGE MANUAL - 3
September 2004
1 Introduction
11 GeneraI
(a) Obective
The objective oI evaluation oI an existing bridge or culvert is to obtain
parameters which deIine its load carrying capacity. Two parameters are
required - one Ior main members and one Ior the deck.
The overall procedure is summarised in 6.1.5. The process shall take account
oI the actual condition oI the structure and the characteristics oI the traIIic and
other loads. II at some Iuture date, any oI the conditions change signiIicantly,
the structure shall be re-evaluated accordingly.
(b) Rating and Posting
Evaluation may be carried out at two load levels (see deIinitions in 6.1.2):
(i) Rating Evaluation
Rating parameters deIine the bridge capacity using overload load Iactors
or stress levels, i.e., those appropriate Ior overweight vehicles.
(ii) Posting Evaluation
Posting parameters deIine the bridge capacity using live load Iactors or
stress levels, i.e., those appropriate Ior conIorming vehicles.
Because much oI the procedure is identical Ior these two types oI evaluation,
the criteria are presented together, and where appropriate, the diIIerent
procedures are set out side by side on the page.
(c) CuIverts
Culverts shall be treated on the same basis as bridges, except that Iurther
evaluation oI a culvert is not required, provided the Iollowing apply:
(i) it has a span less than 2 m, and
(ii) it has more than 1 m oI Iill over it, and
(iii) it is undamaged, and
(iv) there are no unusual circumstances.
Eor most culverts, evaluation oI the top slab as a deck will be suIIicient.
- 4 BRIDGE MANUAL
September 2004
12 Definitions
Rating: The proportion oI the Rating Load which the bridge can
withstand under overload criteria. It is expressed as a
percentage, deIined as the Class Ior main members, and an
alphabetic symbol deIined as the Grade Ior decks.
Rating Load: A load consisting oI one lane oI conIorming vehicles (taken as
0.85 HN), plus one lane containing an overweight vehicle loaded
to the maximum which would be allowed to cross a Class 100
Grade A bridge unsupervised, as set out in the Overweight
Permit Manual
(1)
(taken as 0.85 HO), including impact. See
6.4.3.
Overweight
Vehicle:
A vehicle which exceeds the load limits set out in the Heavy
Motor Jehicle Regulations
(2)
, and thereIore requires an
overweight permit.
Overload
Capacity:
The section capacity, in terms oI the net unIactored service load,
oI a critical member or group oI members at load Iactors or
stress limits appropriate to overweight vehicles. See 6.4.2.
Posting: The proportion oI the Posting Load which the bridge can
withstand under live load criteria. It is expressed as a percentage
Ior main members, and a speciIic axle load Ior decks.
Posting Load: A load consisting oI conIorming vehicles in each oI two lanes,
taken to be 0.85 HN, including impact. See 6.4.3.
ConIorming
Vehicle:
A vehicle loaded to the limits set out in the Heavy Motor Jehicle
Regulations
(2)
.
Live Load
Capacity:
The section capacity, in terms oI the net unIactored service load,
oI a critical member or group oI members at load Iactors or
stress limits appropriate to conIorming vehicles. See 6.4.2.
13 Rating Reuirements
(a) These requirements apply to all bridges on roads controlled by authorities
participating in the Transit New Zealand policy Ior overweight permits as set
out in the Overweight Permit Manual
(1)
. This requires an inventory oI
structural capacity Ior overload to be maintained Ior each bridge. This is
expressed as the Rating, deIined in 6.1.2. By comparing a speciIic overweight
vehicle with the Rating Load, and use oI the Bridge Rating, an estimate oI the
eIIect oI the vehicle on the bridge can be made, as described in the Overweight
Permit Manual
(1)
.
In the case oI State Highways, and some oI the major alternative routes, the
inventory is in the Iorm oI basic moment and shear, or other capacities oI
bridge members, stored in the Highway Permits computer system
(3)
. This
enables the eIIects oI a speciIic overweight vehicle on any bridge to be
determined more accurately than by use oI the Rating alone.
BRIDGE MANUAL -
September 2004
(b) The procedures set out in Section 6 are intended to be used Ior existing bridges
which require evaluation. New bridges designed to HN-HO-72 and Iully
complying with the design requirements oI this document also require rating,
and the methods could be used Ior this. However, unless rating inIormation is
readily available, or there are unusual circumstances, all new bridges shall be
evaluated on their design capacities. Since the rating load is 0.85 times the
design load, the Class is 100/0.85 (say) 120, and the grade is A. Capacities
entered into the Highway Permits system should be the design values oI HO or
HO HN moment, shear or other parameters as appropriate, with impact and
eccentricity.
14 Posting Reuirements
II a bridge has insuIIicient capacity to sustain loads at normal live load Iactors or
stress levels, up to the maximum allowed by the Heavy Motor Jehicle Regulations
(2)
,
it is required to be posted with a notice showing its allowable load, or Posting, as
deIined in 6.1.2.
1 EvaIuation Procedure
The steps necessary Ior a Iull evaluation, either Ior rating or posting, are shown in
Table 6.1. Details oI each step will be Iound in the clauses reIerenced.
- BRIDGE MANUAL
September 2004

Carry out site inspection, (6.2).
Determine appropriate material strengths, (6.3).
IdentiIy critical section(s) oI the main supporting members, and the
critical eIIect(s) on them, (6.4.1).
Determine the overload capacity and/or the Live Load Capacity, at each
critical main member section, (6.4.2).
If rating is being done manually.
Analyse the structure Ior eIIects
oI rating or posting load at each
critical section, (6.4.3).
If data is to be entered into the
Highway Permits system.
Eollow the requirements Ior main
member element data in the
Highway Permits Assurance
Manual
(3)
, (6.4.6)
Determine rating or posting
percentage, (6.4.5)
Concrete deck.
Determine iI the empirical method is
applicable, (6.5.2(a)).
1imber deck.
-
If empirical method
is applicable.
Determine ultimate
wheel load,
(6.5.2(b)).
If empirical method is
not applicable.
Determine section
capacity per unit width
at critical locations in
slab, (6.5.3(a)).
Determine section
capacity oI the
nominal width oI deck
considered to carry
one axle, (6.5.4(a)).
- Analyse the deck Ior
rating or posting loads,
(6.5.3(b)).
Determine moments
due to rating or
posting axle loads,
(6.5.4(b)).
Determine Deck Capacity Eactor and/or allowable axle load.
(6.5.2(c)) (6.5.3(c)) (6.5.4(c))
II data is to be entered into Highway Permits System, Iollow the
requirements Ior deck element data in Highways Permits Assurance
Manual
(3)
.
BRIDGE MANUAL - 7
September 2004
2 Inspection
21 GeneraI
Appropriate inspection shall be carried out as a part oI the evaluation oI the load
carrying capacity oI any bridge, to determine member condition, and to veriIy
dimensions. Where necessary, the extent oI corrosion or decay shall be determined
by physical measurement.
The Iollowing signiIicant characteristics oI the roadway and traIIic shall be assessed:
position oI lane markings;
roughness oI deck and approaches;
mean speed oI heavy traIIic;
heavy traIIic type, and proportion oI the total vehicle count.
Some guidelines on inspection are contained in Bridge Inspection Guide
(4)
.
22 Impact Factors
Appropriate impact Iactors shall be determined Ior the various bridge members.
Each value shall be:
either (i) the design value Irom 3.1.5, or in the case oI timber elements, Irom
4.4.2.
or (ii) a value derived Irom site measurements.
A measured value shall be used iI the design value is considered to be unrealistic.
Dynamic measurements shall be made under heavy loads which are representative oI
actual traIIic, in terms oI both mass and speed, at either rating load level or posting
load level or both. A suIIicient number oI vehicles shall be included to give
conIidence in the statistical values chosen. The impact values derived shall be those
which are exceeded by less than 5 oI vehicles in either category.
3 MateriaI Strengths
Material strengths Ior calculation oI section capacity shall be determined as described
below. The strengths used shall be characteristic values, as deIined in the relevant
material code, or determined as in 6.3.6. Where testing is undertaken, a TELARC
registered laboratory or other appropriate agency shall be used.
- 8 BRIDGE MANUAL
September 2004
31 Concrete
Concrete compressive strength shall be determined by one oI the Iollowing methods:
(a) Erom drawings, speciIication or other construction records.
(b) Erom the Iollowing nominal historical values:
-
Up to 1932 14
1933 to 1940 17
1941 and later 21
(c) Erom cores cut Irom the bridge.
Cores shall be taken Irom areas oI low stress, in the members being analysed,
and so as to avoid reinIorcing and prestressing steel. Cutting and testing shall
be in accordance with NZS 3112, Part 2
(5)
.
Where core tests are carried out, the statistical analysis described in 6.3.6 shall
be applied to determine the compressive strength value to be used in
calculations.
32 SteeI Reinforcement
The characteristic yield strength oI reinIorcement shall be determined by one oI the
Iollowing methods. It should be noted that iI the steel is oI unusually high strength,
sections may in Iact be over-reinIorced, and the restriction reIerred to in 6.4.4(a) shall
apply.
- -
Up to 1932 210
1933 to 1966 250
1967 and later 275
(c) Erom tensile tests oI bar samples oI appropriate diameter removed Irom the
bridge members being analysed. Testing shall be in accordance with BS EN
10002-1
(6)
.
(d) Erom non-destructive tests oI bars oI appropriate diameter in-situ, aIter
removal oI cover concrete. The method used shall have been authenticated by
correlation with tests in accordance with BS EN 10002-1
(6)
.
Test locations shall be on the members being analysed, chosen so as to be
unaIIected by bends or welded splices in bars.
BRIDGE MANUAL -
September 2004
Where testing is perIormed as in (c) or (d), the statistical analysis described in 6.3.6
shall be applied to determine the characteristic value to be used in calculations. A
separate analysis shall be perIormed Ior each bar diameter.
33 Prestressing SteeI
The characteristic yield strength or the 0.2 prooI stress oI prestressing steel shall be
determined by one oI the Iollowing methods:
(b) Erom the lowest alternative value speciIied in BS 5896
(7)
Ior the wire or strand
diameter.
34 StructuraI SteeI
The characteristic yield strength oI structural steel shall be determined by one oI the
Iollowing methods:
- -
Up to 1940 210
1941 and later 230
(c) Erom tensile tests oI coupons removed Irom the members being analysed, in
areas oI low stress. Testing shall be in accordance with BS EN 10002-1
(6)
.
(d) Erom non-destructive tests oI the steel in-situ.
Where testing is perIormed as in (c) or (d), the statistical analysis described in 6.3.6
shall be applied to determine the characteristic value to be used in calculations.
3 Timber
Characteristic stresses shall be in accordance with NZS 3603
(8)
, or where applicable,
AS 1720.2
(9)
and AS 2878
(10)
. Where the species oI timber is unknown, it may be
determined by removing 10 mm diameter core samples Irom the bridge and
submitting them Ior expert analysis.
Characteristic stresses shall be based either on the lowest grading oI any member in
the bridge, or on the actual grading oI each timber member, according to the visual
grading rules oI NZS 3631
(11)
or, where applicable, AS 2082
(12)
or AS 2858
(13)
. The
moisture content shall be determined Irom core samples cut Irom the bridge.
Characteristic stress/strength modiIication Iactors shall comply with the applicable
standard, NZS 3603
(8)
or AS 1720.1
(9)
, except as modiIied by 4.4.2.
- 10 BRIDGE MANUAL
September 2004
Determination oI design stresses Ior timber is discussed in Strength and Durability of
1imber Bridges
(14)
.
3 AnaIysis of Test ResuIts
In order to obtain characteristic strength values Ior calculation purposes, results oI
steel and concrete tests shall be analysed statistically. Each test result shall be the
mean oI tests on at least two samples taken Irom one location in the structure, or the
mean oI two (or more, as required by speciIic test procedures) non-destructive tests
Irom one location on a bar or member. Eor analysis, a group oI test results shall all
originate Irom similar members or Irom identical bar diameters as appropriate. Tests
shall be taken at suIIicient locations to ensure that results are representative oI the
whole structure, or the entire group oI similar members, as appropriate.
An acceptable method oI analysis is to determine a value X - ks, where:
X is the mean oI the group oI test results
k is a one-sided tolerance limit Iactor
s is the standard deviation oI the test results
k shall be determined on the basis that at least a proportion, P, oI the population will
be greater than the value calculated, with a conIidence, .
Values oI k Ior various values oI P, and n, the number oI test results, are given in
Table 6.2.
It is recommended that Ior structural and reinIorcing steel, P and should both be
0.95, and that Ior concrete, P and should both be 0.90.
BRIDGE MANUAL - 11
September 2004
- - -
- 12 BRIDGE MANUAL
September 2004
4 Main Member Capacity and EvaIuation
41 GeneraI
The bridge Overload and/or Live Load Capacity shall be determined in terms oI the
net unIactored service load at the critical section oI any member or group oI identical
members which could be critical under any live loading. The capacity oI a member
may be in any terms - i.e., moment, shear, torsion, direct Iorce, bearing, or an
interaction relationship between any oI these.
Assumptions which may be made about the behaviour oI speciIic structures in
deIined circumstances are set out in 6.4.4.
42 Section Capacity
The gross section capacity shall be calculated using the criteria speciIied in 4.2 to 4.6
Ior design, except that load Iactors shall be taken Irom Tables 6.3 and 6.4. The
measured eIIects oI corrosion or other deterioration shall be taken into account iI
appropriate.
Erom the gross section capacity shall be subtracted the dead load eIIect, and any
other eIIect considered to be signiIicant, all Iactored as necessary to give the overload
capacity or the live load capacity as required.
Other eIIects to be considered shall be those included in the Iollowing load groups oI
Tables 3.1 and 3.2:
Eor Rating Eor Posting
Group 4 Group 1A or 2A
(a) Eor members Ior which the Ultimate Limit State is critical:
o
R
) ( ( ) ( cts Other Effe DL R
D i
L
R
) ( ( ) ( cts Other Effe DL R
D i
o
L
Where:
o
R Overload Capacity
L
R Live Load Capacity
i
R Section strength, using material strength determined
Irom 6.3
Strength reduction Iactor Irom Table 6.5
DL Dead load eIIect
o
Overload load Iactor Irom Table 6.3
L
Live load Iactor Irom Table 6.3
D
Dead load Iactor Irom Table 6.4
Load Iactor(s) on other eIIects, taken Irom Table 3.2,
being the product oI the Iactors inside and outside the
brackets.
BRIDGE MANUAL - 13
September 2004
(b) Eor prestressed concrete members Ior which the Serviceability Limit State is
critical:
Effects
Other
DL
f stress at
capacity Gross
R
o
o
) (
Effects
Other
DL
f stress at
capacity Gross
R
L
L
) (
or Ior members constructed in stages, where section properties vary between
stages.
F
o n
n
o o
Z
Z
Effects Other
Z
DL
f R
F
o n
n
L L
Z
Z
Effects Other
Z
DL
f R
Where :
o
f Allowable stress appropriate to overweight vehicles
L
f Allowable stress appropriate to conIorming vehicles
n
DL DL eIIect Ior construction stage n
n
Z Section modulus applicable to stage n
o
Z Section modulus applicable to other eIIects
F
Z Section modulus in Iinal condition
Allowable stress shall be taken Irom Table 3.1, that is Group 4 Ior Rating, and
Group 1A Ior Posting.
-
Rating Ior overloads:
o
1.49
Posting Ior conIorming loads:
L
1.90
* In no case shall the load Iactor on the total oI all gravity load eIIects be less than 1.25.
-
D
Wearing surIace, nominal thickness 1.40

In situ concrete, nominal sizes
Wearing surIace, measured thickness
1.20
In situ concrete, measured dimensions and veriIied density
Eactory precast concrete, veriIied density. Structural steel
1.10
* In no case shall the load Iactor on the total oI all gravity load eIIects be less than 1.25.
- 14 BRIDGE MANUAL
September 2004
-
- -
-

- -
---- -

- --
-
-
- -

- --
Good or Eair 1.00
D
1.00
D
Deteriorated 0.80
D
0.90
D
Seriously Deteriorated 0.70
D
0.80
D
Where
D
is the applicable strength reduction Iactor given by the materials design
standard, or Ior timber, given by 4.4.2.
43 Live Loading and AnaIysis
The bridge shall be considered to be loaded with elements oI live loading at their
most adverse eccentricity on the roadway, as deIined in 3.2.3(a), except that iI the
bridge has a carriageway width oI less than 6.0m, and is marked out Ior two lanes, it
shall be assessed on the basis oI both lanes being loaded. Impact shall be included,
as described in 6.2.2.
(a) A one-lane bridge shall be loaded as Iollows:
0.85 HO 0.85 HN
A bridge shall be considered as one-lane iI its width between kerbs or
guardrails is less than 6 m, except that a motorway ramp with one marked lane
plus shoulders shall be considered as one-lane even iI the width is more than
6m.
(b) A bridge with two or more lanes shall normally be loaded as Iollows:
0.85 HO in the most adverse lane,
together with 0.85 HN in one other
lane
0.85 HN in each oI the two most
adverse lanes
II the case oI one lane loaded is more critical, this conIiguration shall be used.
A bridge with multiple lanes shall be considered loaded in more than two lanes
iI this is more realistic due to heavy traIIic Ilow.
The bridge shall be analysed assuming elastic behaviour to determine the
eIIects oI the above loads at the critical locations Ior which capacities have
BRIDGE MANUAL - 1
September 2004
been determined. Analysis shall take into consideration the relative stiIInesses
oI the various members, and their end conditions. StiIIness values Ior
reinIorced concrete members shall allow Ior the eIIects oI cracking.
44 Assumptions for Specific StructuraI Situations
(a) Over-reinforced Concrete Sections
The intent oI Clause 8.4.2 oI NZS 3101
(15)
shall be complied with. The
capacity oI a reinIorced concrete section shall not be taken as more than that
derived using the area oI tension steel which would correspond to a distance
Irom the extreme compression Iibre to the neutral axis oI 0.75
b
C .
b
C is the distance Irom extreme compression Iibre to neutral axis at balanced
strain conditions, as deIined in 8.4.1.2 oI NZS 3101
(15)
.
(b) Concrete Kerbs Cast onto a Composite Deck
Where a kerb has been cast directly onto the deck over its Iull length, and has at
least a nominal amount oI reinIorcing steel connecting it to the deck, and is
within the eIIective Ilange width oI the beam, the moment capacity oI the outer
beam may be calculated assuming that the kerb is an integral part oI it, with the
Iollowing provisos:
The area oI concrete in the kerb shall be assumed to be 50 oI its actual
area, to allow Ior shear lag eIIects, unless tests indicate otherwise.
The neutral axis shall not be taken to be above the level oI the deck
surIace.
(c) Concrete HandraiIs
No reliance shall be placed on the contribution to longitudinal bending capacity
oI beams by concrete handrails.
(d) SteeI Beams with Non-Composite Concrete Deck
No account shall be taken oI such a non-composite deck in determining the
bending capacity oI the beams, except insoIar as it may stiIIen the beam top
Ilanges, and thus increase their buckling load. Eriction shall not be considered
to contribute to composite action, nor to the stiIIening oI top Ilanges.
(e) SteeI Beams with Timber Deck
EIIective lateral support oI the beam Ilanges by the deck shall only be assumed
iI the timber deck Iastenings are adequate in number and condition.
(f) Continuous or Framed-in Beams
Eor beams with Iull moment continuity between spans, oI normal proportions
and showing no signs oI distress, the Iollowing simpliIied procedure may be
Iollowed. The overall moment capacity oI each span may be converted to that
oI an equivalent simple span by subtracting (algebraically) the midspan positive
moment capacity Irom the mean oI the two negative moment capacities at its
supports. This will give the overall ordinate oI the moment oI resistance
diagram, and both dead and live load moments may then be calculated as
- 1 BRIDGE MANUAL
September 2004
though it were a simple span. This procedure shall not be Iollowed Ior a short
span whose length is less than 60 oI an adjacent long span, nor Ior live load
eIIect on a span adjacent to a Iree cantilever span. The possibility oI upliIt at
an adjacent support shall be considered.
(g) Spans BuiIt Into Abutments
ReinIorced concrete T-beam spans built monolithically with their abutments
may be considered Ior treatment as in (I), with the Iollowing provisos:
(i) iI negative moment yield at abutments can be shown to occur at a load
greater than 85 oI that at which midspan positive moment yield
occurs, the working load capacity may be based on the Iull yield
capacity oI the section at all locations;
(ii) iI negative moment yield at abutments occurs at a lesser load than 85
oI that at which midspan positive moment yield occurs,
Either: the net unIactored service load capacity may be based on the
Iull yield capacity at the abutments, with a reduced yield
capacity at midspan, corresponding to the actual moment
when abutment yield occurs,
or: the net unIactored service load capacity may be calculated
assuming zero abutment moment capacity.
In any case, where negative moment capacity is to be relied on, the ability oI
the abutments to resist the overall negative moments, without excessive
displacement, either by Ioundation reaction or by earth pressure, or both, shall
be assured.
(h) HoriontaI Support Restraint
Where the bearings and supports oI a beam possess suIIicient strength and
stiIIness horizontally, the horizontal support reaction to live loading may be
taken into account where appropriate.
BRIDGE MANUAL - 17
September 2004
4 EvaIuation
Eor each critical location in the bridge, the evaluation percentage shall be calculated
as described below. In both calculations, the denominator shall include the eIIects oI
eccentricity oI load and oI impact.
o
R and
L
R are the section capacities calculated as
6.4.2.
II data is to be entered into the Highway Permits system, the CLASS calculation is
not necessary. See 6.4.6.
100
min
effect load Rating
x R
CLASS
o
100
min
effect load Posting
x R
GROSS
L
The minimum value Ior any member in
the bridge except the deck, shall be
recorded in a structural inventory as the
CLASS Ior manual calculations during
processing oI overweight permits in
accordance with the Overweight Permit
Manual
(1)
. Eor this purpose, any value oI
CLASS more than 120 shall be
recorded as 120.
The minimum value Ior any member in
the bridge except the deck, shall be
rounded to the nearest 10. II this value
is less than 100, it shall be recorded
aIter the word GROSS in Panel 2 oI the
Heavy Motor Vehicle Bridge Limit Sign,
shown in Diagram 4 oI the 4th Schedule
oI the Heavy Motor Jehicle
Regulations
(2)
.
II the speed is restricted by inserting a
value in Panel 3 oI the sign, the impact
Iactor used in the calculation may be
reduced as Iollows:
Speed Impact Eactor
30 km/h
10 km/h
(I - 1) x 0.67 1
(I - 1) x 0.33 1
Where I is the Impact Eactor appropriate
Ior unrestricted heavy traIIic.
4 Highway Permits Data
In the particular case oI State Highway bridges, and some bypass routes, the basic
Rating data described above is stored in the Highway Permits system database. A
description oI the Iorm in which the data is required, and the calculations which the
program perIorms, is contained in Highway Permits Assurance Manual
(3)
.
Deck Capacity and EvaIuation
1 GeneraI
The Iollowing three procedures are given in this clause:
ReinIorced concrete decks by empirical method, based on assumed membrane
action
- 18 BRIDGE MANUAL
September 2004
ReinIorced concrete decks by elastic plate bending analysis
Timber decks.
Generally, a reinIorced concrete deck panel which is supported on Iour sides should
be evaluated by the empirical method iI it meets the criteria listed in 6.5.2(a). All
other reinIorced concrete deck panels should be evaluated by the elastic plate
bending analysis method. In addition, reinIorced concrete deck slabs shall be
evaluated Ior their punching shear capacity Ior wheel loads, taking into account
deterioration oI the bridge deck using the Iactors in Table 6.5.
It shall be assumed that vehicle wheels can be transversely positioned anywhere
between the kerbs or guardrails, but not closer to them than the restriction imposed
by the 3m wide load lane oI HN-HO-72 loading (Eigure 3.1).
2 Reinforced Concrete DecksEmpiricaI EvaIuation Method
(a) Criteria for Determining AppIicabiIity of the EmpiricaI Method
The empirical method takes account oI membrane action in the slab, and is
based on test results. Evaluation oI both composite and non-composite
reinIorced concrete deck slab panels may be determined by this method
provided the Iollowing conditions are satisIied:
the supporting beams or girders shall be steel or concrete,
cross Irames or diaphragms shall be continuous between external beams
or girders, and the maximum spacing oI such cross Irames or diaphragms
shall be as Iollows:
Steel I beams and Box Girders oI steel or concrete: 8.0 m
ReinIorced and prestressed concrete beams: at supports
the ratio oI span length (
s
L ) to minimum slab thickness shall not exceed
20. In skew slabs where the reinIorcing has been placed parallel with the
skew, the skew span, Cos L
s
/ shall be used, where angle oI skew.
the span length (
s
L ) or Cos L
s
/ shall not exceed 4.5 m,
the concrete compressive strength shall not be less than 20 MPa,
the slab thickness, or Ior slabs oI variable thickness the minimum slab
thickness, shall be not less than 150 mm.
there shall be an overhang beyond the centreline oI the outside beam oI at
least 0.80 m, measured perpendicular to the beam. The overhang shall be
oI the minimum slab thickness used to determine the span to thickness
ratio above. This condition may be considered satisIied iI there is an
integral continuous concrete kerb or barrier which provides a combined
cross sectional area oI slab and kerb or barrier not less than the cross
sectional area oI 0.80 m oI deck slab.
BRIDGE MANUAL - 1
September 2004
(b) Deck Strength in Terms of WheeI Load
Eor rating (HO wheel contact area Alternative (b) oI Eigure 3.1 assumed), the
unIactored ultimate resistance,
i
R , oI a composite or non-composite deck slab
shall be obtained Irom Eigures 6.1 to 6.5.
Eor posting (HN wheel contact area assumed), the value Irom the charts shall
be multiplied by 0.6.
The value oI reinIorcement percentage, q, used to determine
i
R shall be the
average oI the lower layer reinIorcement percentages at the mid span oI the
slab, in the two directions in which the reinIorcement is placed. Values oI
i
R
Ior slab depths or concrete strengths intermediate between those on the charts
shall be obtained by interpolation. The dead load and other load eIIects are
ignored in this method.
The strength reduction Iactor,
D
, Ior design by the empirical method is 0.5.
The strength reduction Iactor, , used Ior evaluation shall be taken Irom Table
6.6, by multiplying
D
by the appropriate Iactor. In this table, deck
deterioration is quantiIied by the Crack-to-ReinIorcing Ratio, CRR, deIined as
Iollows:
CRR 1otal length of visible cracks x 100
1otal length of bottom reinforcement in both directions
The above lengths shall be measured in a 1.2 m square area on the bottom oI
the slab, central between supports.
- -

Slab Section Properties based on:
Superstructure
Condition
Construction drawings
and assessed sound
material
Measured dimensions
or veriIied as-built
drawings, and
measured sound
material
Good or Eair
(CRR 40)
0.90
D
1.00
D
Deteriorated
(CRR 70)
0.60
D
0.70
D
Seriously Deteriorated
(CRR 100)
0.30
D
0.40
D
- 20 BRIDGE MANUAL
September 2004
(c) EvaIuation
Eor each type oI slab panel in the bridge, the parameters shall be calculated as
Iollows. Rating and posting wheel loads shall be taken Irom Tables 6.7 and
6.8. Impact Iactor, I, shall be as described in 6.2.2.
o
and
L
shall be taken
Irom Table 6.3.
Deck Capacity Eactor (DCE) Allowable Axle Load (kg)
min
effect load Rating
capacity load wheel Overload
min
8200 x
effect load Posting
capacity load wheel Liveload
min
95 I x x
R
o
i
min
8200
40
) 6 . 0 (
x
I x x
R x
L
i
BRIDGE MANUAL - 21
September 2004

- 22 BRIDGE MANUAL
September 2004

BRIDGE MANUAL - 23
September 2004

- 24 BRIDGE MANUAL
September 2004

BRIDGE MANUAL - 2
September 2004

- 2 BRIDGE MANUAL
September 2004
3 Reinforced Concrete DecksPIate Bending AnaIysis
(a) Section Capacity at CriticaI Locations
The deck slab live load or overload Ilexural capacity shall be determined using
serviceability limit state criteria, in moment per unit width at critical locations
in the slab. A simpliIication may be made in the case oI a slab which is
considered to act as a one-way slab, that is, iI it has an aspect ratio oI at least 4.
Provided it has a positive moment capacity in the long span direction at least
50 oI that in the short span direction, all moment capacities in the long span
direction may be ignored.
(b) Live Loading and AnaIysis
The deck shall be considered to be
loaded with the most adverse oI the
axles or axle groups listed in the
Overweight Permit Manual
(1)
, at a
Vehicle Axle Index oI 1.3. Eor deck
spans up to 3 m, these may be reduced
to the three alternatives described in
Table 6.7.
The deck shall be considered to be
loaded with the most adverse oI the
axles or axle sets described in the
Heavy Motor Jehicle Regulations
(2)
,
Second Schedule, Tables 1, 2 and 3,
as amended by Amendment No 5. Eor
deck spans up to 3 m, these may be
reduced to two alternatives described
in Table 6.8.
-

Twin-tyred 105 As Ior HN axle
Single tyred, large tyres 190* As Ior HO axle,
alternative (b)
2/8-tyred oscillating
axles, spaced 1.0 m
133 As Ior HO axle,
alternative (a)
- -

Twin-tyred 80* As Ior HN axle
Eour-tyred oscillating 93 4/250 x 150 mm areas
equally spaced within
2500 mm overall width
* Wheel loads Irom these axles are used Ior evaluation by the empirical
method in 6.5.2(c).
BRIDGE MANUAL - 27
September 2004
The slab shall be analysed Ior the loads given in Tables 6.7 and/or 6.8
assuming elastic behaviour, and shall be assumed to act as a thin plate in which
membrane action is not taken into account. The moment eIIects oI the various
loads on the critical locations shall be calculated.
(c) EvaIuation
Eor each critical location in the slab, the evaluation shall be calculated as
described below. In both calculations, the denominator shall include impact
aIIects as in 6.2.2, and the numerator shall be as described in (a). The value oI
DCE or axle load adopted shall be the minimum Ior the bridge.
min
effect load Rating
Location Critical
at Capacity Overload
min
8200 x
effect load Posting
Location Critical
at Capacity Load Live
The minimum value Ior the bridge
shall be recorded as the DCE Ior the
bridge.
shall be rounded to the nearest 500
kg, and iI less than 8200 kg, shall be
recorded aIter the word AXLES, in
Panel 1 oI the Heavy Motor Vehicle
Bridge Limit sign, shown in
Diagram 4 oI the 4th Schedule oI the
Heavy Motor Jehicle Regulations
(2)
.
4 Timber Decks
(a) Section Capacity of NominaI Width
It is assumed that timber decks generally consist oI a plank system spanning
transversely between longitudinal main beams. Other systems shall be
evaluated using the principles described, varying the details to suit.
Unless data are to be entered into the Highway Permits system (see 6.4.6), the
live load or overload moment capacity Ior timber decks consisting oI planks
spanning transversely between main beams shall be determined Ior the nominal
width oI section considered to carry one axle. The nominal widths given in (i)
to (vi) below may be assumed unless investigations indicate other criteria. II
the timber deck planks are continuous over two or more spans, the section
capacity may be assumed increased by 25, provided live load moments are
calculated on a simple span basis.
- 28 BRIDGE MANUAL
September 2004
Terms are deIined as Iollows:
Plank Width is the larger cross sectional dimension oI a deck plank,
regardless oI its orientation, in metres. It is the actual
dimension, not the call dimension.
Deck Span is the span oI the planks between the centres oI areas oI
bearing, in metres.
Contact Length is the dimension, perpendicular to the plank span, oI a
wheel contact area, and is assumed to be 0.250 m.
Nominal Width
(i) Eor planks laid Ilat, without running planks at least 50 mm thick, the
nominal width is equal to the width oI a whole number oI planks, and is
greater than the contact length by not more than one plank width.
(i) Eor planks laid Ilat, with running planks at least 50 mm thick, the
nominal width is equal to the width oI a whole number oI planks, and is
greater than the contact length by not more than two plank widths.
(ii) Eor nail laminated deck, with planks on edge, Iabricated into baulks with
no shear connection between them, the nominal width is:
0.250 m 0.4 x (Plank width) x (Deck span).
(iii) Eor nail laminated deck, with planks on edge, end laminations well
supported and:
either Iabricated in baulks with shear connection between them by
steel dowels or other means; or
Iabricated in baulks and having running planks over them more than
50 mm thick; or
Iabricated in-situ, continuously across the beam span, with no
unconnected joints between laminations, the nominal width is:
0.250 m 0.8 x (Plank width) x (Deck span)
(iv) Eor glue laminated deck, with planks on edge, Iabricated in baulks with
no shear connection between them, the nominal width is:
(v) Eor glue laminated deck, with planks on edge, otherwise as Ior (iv), the
nominal width is:
Dead load may be neglected in the above calculation.
(b) Live Loading and AnaIysis
The transverse moments due to the various axles described in Tables 6.7 and/or
6.8 on the span between beams shall be calculated assuming the deck planks
are simply supported.
BRIDGE MANUAL - 2
September 2004
(c) EvaIuation
Eor the nominal width at the mid-span section oI a timber deck span, the
evaluation shall be calculated as described below. In both calculations, the
numerator shall be as described in (a).
The value oI DCE or axial load adopted shall be the minimum Ior the bridge.
min
eIIect load Rating
Width Nominal oI Capacity Overload
min
8200
eIIect load Posting
Width Nominal oI Capacity Load Live
x
shall be recorded as the DCE Ior
the bridge.
The minimum value Ior the bridge shall
be rounded to the nearest 500 kg, and iI
less than 8200 kg, shall be recorded aIter
the word AXLES, in Panel 1 oI the
Heavy Motor Vehicle Bridge Limit sign,
shown in Diagram 4 oI the 4th Schedule
oI the Heavy Motor Jehicle
Regulations
(2)
.
Deck Grade
In 6.5.2(c), 6.5.3(c) and 6.5.4(c), the rating calculation has produced a Deck Capacity
Eactor (DCE). Eor issue oI permits by the manual method, the DCE shall be
converted to a Grade, using the relationship given in Table 6.9.
-

Grade
DCE 1.00 A
1.00 > DCE 0.89 B
0.89 > DCE 0.78 C
0.78 > DCE 0.67 D
0.67 > DCE E
- 30 BRIDGE MANUAL
September 2004
Highway Permits Data
The statement in 6.4.6 applies but, Ior decks, the Deck Capacity Eactor is required in
addition to the moment capacity and geometric data.
Proof Loading
ProoI loading may be undertaken in addition to the procedure described in 6.1 to 6.5,
either to veriIy the theoretical Iindings and assumptions made, or to extend the load
limits where the results oI the procedure are considered to be not representative oI the
structure's actual behaviour.
ProoI loading shall not be relied on to determine load limits Ior bridges with Ieatures
such as those described in 6.6.2(a)(vi) and (v), without either modiIying the structure,
or multiplying the load Iactors oI 6.4.2 by 1.5.
1 PreIiminary
(a) Obective
The objective oI prooI loading shall be to determine experimentally the saIe
load limit Ior either overweight loads or normal loads or both, expressed as
deIined in 6.4.5, 6.5.2(c), 6.5.3(c) and 6.5.4(c).
(b) Scope
These requirements apply to main member spans oI all materials up to 30 m,
and to decks. ProoI loading oI spans larger than 30 m may require additional
criteria.
(c) AnaIysis
BeIore testing oI any bridge, adequate analysis shall be perIormed to determine
its likely behaviour, including its Iailure mode.
(d) PersonneI
Personnel engaged in prooI loading shall be experienced and competent, in
order to minimise the risk associated with loading beyond the linear range.
(e) Risk
The risk oI Iailure or damage being induced by testing shall be clearly stated to
the controlling authority.
2 AnaIysis
(a) Obectives
The objectives oI the analysis shall be:
(i) To model the structural behaviour up to yield level.
(ii) To assess the amount oI redundancy in the structural system, and its
implications Ior behaviour.
(iii) To determine iI the bridge Iailure mode is likely to be ductile or not.
BRIDGE MANUAL - 31
September 2004
(iv) To identiIy and evaluate Ieatures which would give an apparent
enhancement oI strength up to prooI load level, but which could be
Iollowed by sudden Iailure. Such Ieatures may include a non-composite
deck as described in 6.4.4(d).
(v) To identiIy and evaluate Ieatures which are likely to aIIect the
distribution oI loads diIIerently at prooI load level and at yield load level,
such as a stiII concrete handrail, as described in 6.4.4(c).
(b) EvaIuation of Main Members
The bridge shall be analysed Ior the rating and/or posting load as described in
6.4.3, to determine the load eIIects at the critical location. It shall also be
analysed Ior the actual test loading conIiguration proposed to be used. This
shall be chosen so that it will produce approximately the same relative eIIects
on critical members as the evaluation loading described in 6.4.3. II there is
more than one critical eIIect to be monitored, the load may need to be applied
in more than one place, e.g., to induce both maximum moment and shear in a
beam.
(c) EvaIuation of Decks
SuIIicient analysis shall be carried out to determine which oI the axle
conIigurations in Table 6.7 or 6.8 is most critical, and the critical load
position(s). The likely Iailure mode(s) shall be determined.
3 Load AppIication, Instrumentation and Procedure
(a) The nature and magnitude oI the prooI load, and/or any prior modiIication oI
the structure, shall be consistent with the objectives oI 6.6.2 (a).
(b) Eor evaluation oI main members lanes shall be loaded to represent the eIIects
oI the evaluation loads described in 6.4.3, including impact Iactors as in 6.2.2.
Eor evaluation oI decks, contact areas corresponding to the most critical oI the
axle loads oI Tables 6.7 or 6.8 shall be loaded, to represent the evaluation load
including impact.
(c) II the Iailure mode is likely to be non-ductile or there is little redundancy in the
structure, a jacking system shall be used to apply the load in preIerence to
gravity because oI the added control it gives against inadvertent Iailure.
(d) Appropriate strains, deIlections and crack widths shall be recorded, and
correlated with the applied load. Care shall be taken to eliminate errors due to
thermal movement. A plot oI critical eIIect(s) against load, shall be monitored,
to ensure that the limits set in 6.6.4 are not exceeded. The test load shall be
applied in approximately equal increments, at least Iour oI which shall lie on
the anticipated linear part oI the response curve. Critical eIIects shall be
recorded in a consistent manner, immediately aIter the application oI each load
increment.
- 32 BRIDGE MANUAL
September 2004
(e) During incremental loading, the next increment oI load shall not be applied
until displacement under the previous increment oI load has stabilised.
Eollowing application oI the Iinal increment oI load the total prooI load shall
be applied Ior not less than IiIteen minutes aIter the displacement has
stabilised.
4 Load Limit Criteria
(a) Main Members
Loading shall not exceed either:
(i) the load which, together with dead load eIIects, produces 80 oI the
yield load on the critical member, as determined by the analysis oI
6.6.2.
(ii) that at which the response oI the critical member deIlection exceeds the
value which would be predicted by linear extrapolation oI the initial
part oI the load/response curve by the Iollowing percentage
-
Structural Steel 10
Prestressed Concrete 15
ReinIorced concrete,
composite steel/concrete
20
Timber 25
(b) Decks
Loading shall not exceed either:
(i) 80 oI the load (on the same contact area) calculated to produce yield
in the deck.
(ii) that at which the deck local deIlection exceeds a value determined as in
(a)(ii) above.
(c) Concrete Cracking Criteria
At the maximum load, critical crack widths oI reinIorced concrete and
prestressed concrete shall be recorded. II such cracks either:
(i) are wider than allowed under Category IV oI Table 3.4 in NZS 3101
(15)
;
or
(ii) in reinIorced concrete, do not close to less than one-third oI the values
in (i) aIter load removal; or
(iii) in prestressed concrete, do not close completely aIter load removal;
BRIDGE MANUAL - 33
September 2004
then regular inspection shall be instituted, speciIically to detect possible
corrosion.
EvaIuation
(a) CorreIation of AnaIysis and Test ResuIts
The results oI testing shall be compared with predicted results Irom the analysis
oI 6.6.2. The reasons Ior major diIIerences between predicted and actual
behaviour shall be resolved beIore adoption oI rating or posting parameters
based on tests.
(b) Main Members
Rating and Posting parameters shall be calculated as in 6.4.5. In the
calculations,
L
R shall be the calculated eIIect at the critical location, oI the
maximum applied test load, divided by (0.8 x
L
).
o
R shall be the same value
divided by (0.8 x
o
).
Rating and Posting Load eIIects shall be taken Irom the analysis oI 6.6.2, and
shall include impact.
(c) Decks
Parameters shall be calculated as Iollows:
I x x x
1
o
o
Load Rating 8 . 0 I x x x
x 1
L
L
Load Posting 8 . 0
8200
where
o
1 and
L
1 are the maximum applied wheel or axle loads on the contact
areas speciIied in Tables 6.7 and 6.8 respectively. Rating and posting loads are
the appropriate wheel or axle loads Irom Tables 6.7 and 6.8.
7 References
(1) TNZ, 1994, Overweight Permit Manual, Transit New Zealand, Wellington.
(2) NZ Government, 1974, Heavy Motor Jehicle Regulations, Order in Council,
Government Printer, Wellington.
(3) VCS, 1994, Highway Permits Assurance Manual, Vogel Computing Services
Limited, Wellington.
(4) DOT (UK), 1983, Bridge Inspection Guide, Department oI Transport, HMSO,
London.
(5) NZS 3112:1982, Methods of 1ests for Concrete, Part 2 Tests Relating to the
Determination oI Strength Concrete, Standards New Zealand.
(6) BS EN 10002-1:1990, 1ensile 1esting of Metallic Materials. Method of 1est at
Ambient 1emperature, British Standards Institution.
(7) BS 5896:1980, Specification for High 1ensile Wire and Strand for the Prestressing of
Concrete, British Standards Institution.
(8) NZS 3603:1993, 1imber Structures Standard, Standards New Zealand.
- 34 BRIDGE MANUAL
September 2004
(9) AS 1720:____, 1imber Structures,
Part 1: 1997 Design Methods
Part 2: 1990 Timber Properties
(10) AS 2878:1986, 1imber Classification into Strength Groups, Standards Australia.
(11) NZS 3631:1988, New Zealand National 1imber Grading Rules, Standards New
Zealand.
(12) AS 2082:1979, Jisually Stress-Graded Hardwood for Structural Purposes, Standards
Australia.
(13) AS 2858:1986, 1imber Softwood Jisually Stress-Graded for Structural Purposes,
(14) RRU, 1989, Strength and Durability of 1imber Bridges, RRU Bulletin 80, Road
Research Unit, Transit New Zealand, Wellington.
(15) NZS 3101:1995, Concrete Structures Standard, Standards New Zealand.
BRIDGE MANUAL 7 - 1
SECTION 7STRUCTURAL STRENGTHENING
June 2003
TabIe of Contents
7.1 lntroduction................................................................................................. 7-3
7.2 Approvals.................................................................................................... 7-3
7.3 Durability..................................................................................................... 7-3
7.3.1 General....................................................................................................7-3
7.3.2 Fibre Reinforced Polymer Composites and Adhesives ............................7-4
7.4 Existing Structure Material Strengths.......................................................... 7-4
7.5 Strengthening of Flexural Members............................................................ 7-4
7.5.1 General Requirements for the Strengthening of Reinforced Concrete
and Prestressed Concrete Members .......................................................7-4
7.5.2 General Requirements for the Strengthening of Steel Members..............7-4
7.5.3 Flexural Strengthening of Plastic Hinge Zones ........................................7-4
7.5.4 Strengthening Using Bonded Steel Plates ...............................................7-5
7.5.5 Strengthening Using Bonded Fibre Reinforced Composite Materials.......7-8
7.5.6 Strengthening Using External Prestressing............................................7-12
7.6 Shear Strengthening and Ductility Enhancement of Reinforced
Concrete Columns .................................................................................... 7-14
7.6.1 General..................................................................................................7-14
7.6.2 Shear Strengthening and Ductility Enhancement of Reinforced
Concrete Columns Using Steel Sleeves ................................................7-14
7.6.3 Shear Strengthening and Ductility Enhancement of Reinforced
Concrete Columns Using Fibre Reinforced Polymer Composite
Materials................................................................................................7-15
7.7 References ............................................................................................... 7-15
RUCTU
7 StructuraI Strengthening
7 - 2 BRIDGE MANUAL
June 2003
(Blank Page)
BRIDGE MANUAL 7 - 3
June 2003
71 Introduction
Strengthening or increase in ductility oI bridge members may be required Ior a
variety oI reasons including increasing capacity Ior vehicle loads and improving
earthquake resistance.
This chapter sets out criteria Ior the design oI strengthening Ior concrete or steel
bridge members Ior the Iollowing situations, materials and techniques:
the strengthening oI members using bonded steel plates or Iibre reinIorced
polymer composite materials;
the strengthening oI members using external prestressing;
the shear strengthening and ductility enhancement oI reinIorced concrete
columns using steel sleeves or Iibre reinIorced polymer composite materials.
72 ApprovaIs
Technologies Ior the strengthening oI structures are continually under development.
This chapter provides design criteria and guidance based on published inIormation
available at the time oI preparation.
Where a bridge is to be strengthened, a Design Statement, as set out in Section 1 oI
this manual, shall be prepared and submitted Ior Transit New Zealand approval. The
materials and procedures Ior the proposed strengthening shall be Iully described,
including the criteria Iorming the basis oI the design. The Iollowing shall be
included:
the mode oI Iailure at the ultimate limit state, and measures to be taken to
ensure that other modes oI Iailure are precluded;
the strength reduction Iactors to be adopted Ior the various modes oI action;
design standards and reIerence papers setting out and / or supporting the design
criteria and design approach proposed;
durability issues, and proposed mitigation measures;
intended remaining liIe oI the structure and design liIe oI the strengthening
system.
73 DurabiIity
731 GeneraI
The requirements oI 2.1.7 oI this manual shall be satisIied. Design liIe in this
context shall be taken to be the intended remaining liIe oI the strengthened structure.
Consideration shall be given to the vulnerability oI the strengthening system to
harmIul hazards associated with the operational environment, including, but not
limited to: exposure to water (marine, Iresh, or Irom industrial sources, and including
the eIIects oI wetting and drying), the eIIects oI ground water and soil chemistry, the
passage oI water and abrasion Irom material transported, abrasion by traIIic, cycles oI
7 - 4 BRIDGE MANUAL
June 2003
temperature variation, Ireeze-thaw cycles, heat or cold associated with the
construction, maintenance or operation oI the structure, Iatigue, stress corrosion,
strain aging, galvanic corrosion, exposure to Iire, exposure to lightening and stray
electric currents, acts oI vandalism, accidental impact, and chemical spillage.
Appropriate mitigation measures shall be implemented.
732 Fibre Reinforced PoIymer Composites and Adhesives
In addition to the requirements oI 7.3.1, consideration shall be given to the eIIects oI
exposure to the Iollowing, as appropriate:
ultra violet light
contact with alkaline materials
creep
stress rupture
74 Eisting Structure MateriaI Strengths
Where the characteristic strengths oI the existing concrete and reinIorcement or
structural steel are not known they shall be determined Irom testing as set out in 6.3.
The characteristic strength oI prestressing steel shall be determined as set out in
6.3.3.
7 Strengthening of FIeuraI Members
71 GeneraI Reuirements for the Strengthening of Reinforced Concrete and
Prestressed Concrete Members
Strengthening shall, where appropriate, comply with, and be consistent with the
requirements oI the NZS 3101, Concrete Structures Standard
(1)
.
Strength reduction Iactors used Ior assessment oI the reliable strength at the ultimate
limit state shall not exceed those given by NZS 3101
(1)
Cl. 3.4.2.2.
72 GeneraI Reuirements for the Strengthening of SteeI Members
Strengthening shall, where appropriate, comply with, and not be inconsistent with the
requirements oI the relevant standard Ior structural steel design as set out in 4.3.1.
Strength reduction Iactors or partial saIety Iactors used Ior the assessment oI reliable
strength at the ultimate limit state shall not exceed those given by the relevant
structural steel standard set out in 4.3.1.
73 FIeuraI Strengthening of PIastic Hinge Zones
Bonded steel plates, providing Ilexural strengthening at member sections at which
plastic hinging is likely to occur under response to a design intensity earthquake
event, shall be Iully anchored outside the zone oI plastic hinging. The bonded steel
plates shall be Iully conIined over their length against buckling in accordance with
BRIDGE MANUAL 7 -
June 2003
the principles on which NZS 3101
(1)
requirements Ior conIining reinIorcement are
based.
Elexural strengthening using Iibre reinIorced polymer composites as primary Ilexural
reinIorcement, or using prestressing to increase the axial load on the section, shall not
be applied at member sections at which plastic hinging is likely to occur under
response to a design intensity earthquake event.
74 Strengthening Using Bonded SteeI PIates
(a) GeneraI and Design PrincipIes
Design Ior the strengthening shall be undertaken at the serviceability limit
state, based on the principles oI elastic superposition and strain compatibility,
and also at the ultimate limit state to ensure adequacy oI strength and Iactor oI
saIety against Iailure, with consideration to the mode oI Iailure. The adequacy
oI the strengthened member Ior shear shall be conIirmed.
The United Kingdom Department oI Transport Advice Note BA 30/94,
- -
-
(2)
, provides guidance on design Ior strengthening using bonded steel
plates and may be adopted subject to the modiIications noted herein.
(b) AppIicabiIity of Strengthening using Bonded SteeI PIates
In the event oI unexpected Iailure oI the strengthening system, the structure
shall remain capable oI supporting its permanent loads plus nominal live load.
A member shall only be considered suitable Ior strengthening by plate bonding
iI it can be shown to be at least capable oI supporting 1.20 (DL EP OW
SG ST) LLxI EP when checked at the ultimate limit state. (ReIer to 3.5
Ior deIinitions oI the individual loadings).
(This amends BA 30/94 Cl. 2.1).
Bonded steel plates shall not normally be used to provide resistance Ior
signiIicant permanent loads on the structure.
(c) Strength Reduction Factors
Strength reduction Iactors Ior section design at the ultimate limit state shall not
exceed those given in NZS 3101
(1)
Cl. 3.4.2.2 or the relevant standard Ior
structural steel design as appropriate. Where the structure is deteriorated, the
design strength reduction Iactors shall be modiIied as set out in Table 6.5. The
strength reduction Iactor, , shall not exceed 0.75 Ior the Iollowing aspects oI
design:
(i) plate peeling
(ii) plate development
7 - BRIDGE MANUAL
June 2003
The strength reduction Iactors adopted shall ensure that a Ilexural mode oI
Iailure (i.e. by plate yielding or concrete crushing) precedes Iailure by plate
peeling or bond Iailure.
(d) BrittIe FaiIure
The over-reinIorcement oI a concrete section can result in brittle Iailure.
Sections to be strengthened should thereIore be checked to ensure that this does
not occur. NZS 3101
(1)
Cl. 8.4.2 shall be complied with.
(e) Fatigue
Eatigue oI the bonded steel plate, the bonding material, and the reinIorcement
or structural steel section oI the original member, under Irequently repetitive
imposed loads and Iorces on the structure shall be considered. Eor concrete
members, NZS 3101
(1)
Cl. 3.7.2 shall be complied with. Cl. 3.7.2.2 shall also
apply to the stress range within the bonded steel plates. Eor steel members, the
requirements oI the relevant standard Ior structural steel design shall be
complied with.
Where the strengthening is applied to the top surIace oI a bridge deck,
consideration shall also be given to the Iatigue eIIect Irom individual vehicle
wheels applying normal and traction Iorces to the strengthening.
(f) ieIding of OriginaI Member Reinforcement or Section
The manner oI strengthening shall be such that the reinIorcement oI an original
concrete member, or part oI the section oI an original steel member, shall not
be subjected to yielding under service loads to be imposed on the strengthened
member.
(g) PIate PeeIing
The phenomenon oI premature Iailure oI the bonded steel plates by plate
peeling shall be taken into account and guarded against. The Iollowing
principles are relevant:
(i) When a beam is subjected to a load perpendicular to its length, reactions
are developed at its supports and the beam takes up a deIlected shape. II
strengthening in the Iorm oI bonded plates are added to the beam, to
enable it to resist the load, then the plates must also take up a compatible
deIlected shape to that oI the beam. This is brought about through the
mobilisation oI normal Iorces acting across the interIace between the
beam and the bonded plate, compressive towards the centre oI the span,
and tensile in the end regions oI the plate.
BRIDGE MANUAL 7 - 7
June 2003
(ii) Eor the bonded plate to act as composite strengthening, it must take up
strain such that as the beam deIlects, plane sections remain plane,
developing longitudinal shear stresses on the interIace between the plate,
adhesive and the Iace oI the beam to achieve strain compatibility.
Eixings shall be used to develop the normal Iorces and longitudinal shear
stresses involved. In reinIorced concrete members, tension in the cover
concrete shall not be relied on Ior these actions. Where BA 30/94
(2)
Cl. 3.7 is
adopted as the basis Ior the design oI Iixings, the requirements oI BA 30/94
(2)
Cl. 3.4 shall also be satisIied. Eixings detailed in accordance with BA 30/94
(2)
Cl. 3.7 shall be conIirmed to provided adequate Iixing Ior the normal Iorces in
addition to the longitudinal shear Iorces, and shall also be detailed and
conIirmed to satisIy the other requirements oI this clause, including (h) below.
In addition, the eIIect oI yielding oI the reinIorcement in the original concrete
member, or oI the original section oI a steel member, at the ultimate limit state,
on the level and distribution oI bond stress along the member shall be taken
into account and provided Ior. ( - -
- -
(3)
provides a presentation oI this eIIect in
respect to reinIorced concrete members.)
(h) Truss AnaIogy for Reinforced Concrete Members
The mode oI behaviour oI a reinIorced concrete beam can be considered to be
analogous to a truss. When plate reinIorcement is added to the soIIit Iace oI a
reinIorced concrete beam it lies outside the beam shear reinIorcement, and in
eIIect, the truss web. A mechanism, other than tension in the cover concrete,
shall be provided to incorporate that plate into the truss action oI the concrete
beam.
Approaches that may be used to incorporate the plate into the truss action oI
the concrete beam, eIIectively by extending the truss web down to the level
oI the strengthening plate, include:
bolting, lapped a development length with the beam shear reinIorcement;
plates bonded to the side Iaces oI the beam and attached to the Ilexural
strengthening soIIit plate, lapped a development length with the beam
shear reinIorcement; or
Iibre reinIorced polymer strips wrapped around the Ilexural strengthening
soIIit plate and bonded up the side Iaces oI the beam, lapped a
development length with the beam shear reinIorcement.
Where plates or Iibre reinIorced polymer strips bonded up the side Iaces oI the
beam are used to incorporate the soIIit plate into the beams truss action, the
top ends oI these plates or strips shall be mechanically Iixed to prevent them
Irom also peeling. On wide beams, a combination oI side plates / strips and
bolting may be necessary to prevent the soIIit plate cross-section Irom bowing
and to adequately incorporate the soIIit plate into the beams truss action.
7 - 8 BRIDGE MANUAL
June 2003
(i) Effect of Loading During Curing on Adhesive Strength
Where the structure is subjected to live loading or other environmental loadings
during curing oI the adhesive, Iollowing installation oI the steel plates, the
eIIect oI such loading on the Iinal strength oI the adhesive shall be taken into
account.
() IrreguIarity of the Surface to Which PIates are to be Bonded
The eIIect oI irregularity oI the bonding surIace on the strengthening shall be
taken into account, including the eIIects arising Irom deviation oI the
strengthening plate Irom perIect alignment (giving rise to a tendency Ior the
plate to initially straighten when taking up load). The eIIect on the bond
stresses Irom the strengthening plate not being perIectly aligned shall also be
taken into account.
(k) MateriaIs
Materials shall comply with BA 30/94
(2)
Section 4.
(I) Surface Preparation and Corrosion Protection
SurIace preparation oI the concrete and steel surIaces shall comply with BA
30/94
(2)
Section 5.
InterIace steel surIaces may be protected against corrosion using a primer that
is compatible with the initial bond primer and adhesive. Where a corrosion
protection system is used, its eIIect on the bond strength oI the interIace shall
be taken into account.
7 Strengthening Using Bonded Fibre Reinforced Composite MateriaIs
(a) GeneraI
Eibre reinIorced polymer composite materials encompass a wide range oI
materials, manuIactured by a number oI diIIerent processes. The most
commonly used Iibre and resin materials, used to make up the composite
materials covered by this clause, include the Iollowing:
Eibre types: carbon, aramid, glass, and polyethylene;
Resins: epoxy and vinyl ester.
Strengthening using bonded Iibre reinIorced polymer composites shall be in
accordance with the same principles and requirements as set out in 7.5.4 Ior
strengthening using bonded steel plates, except as modiIied below.
- - -
-
(3)
provides useIul guidance on Ilexural and shear strengthening using
Iibre reinIorced polymer composite materials, but note that 7.5.4 (a) Iirst
paragraph and 7.5.4 (b) shall apply.
BRIDGE MANUAL 7 -
June 2003
(b) Track Record, Manufacturing Processes and uaIity ControI
The Iibre reinIorced polymer composite material to be used shall have a track
record oI use in service that has demonstrated adequate durability, or
alternatively the durability oI the material shall be substantiated by test data.
The material shall be oI adequate quality. This requires the choice oI
appropriate Iibres and resins, combined in an appropriate manuIacturing
process with the necessary quality controls. The strength properties adopted Ior
design shall be statistically based and have a conIidence limit oI not less than
95, (i.e. not more than 5 oI the test results will Iall below the adopted
design properties). The elastic modulus assumed Ior design shall be the mean
value.
(As a guide to quality, reIerences (4) and (5) present tables oI typical Iibre
properties Ior the diIIerent types oI Iibre reinIorced polymers. Eibres oI a Iibre-
reinIorced polymer would be expected to conIorm to these typical properties.
Some diIIerences exist between the tables contained in the two reIerences.)
(c) MateriaI Characteristics, Mode of FaiIure, and Strength Reduction
Factors
In general, Iibre reinIorced polymer composite materials behave in a linearly
elastic manner up to Iailure. They also, generally, have a signiIicantly lower
strength in compression than in tension. Externally bonded laminates or sheets
are generally unsuitable Ior use in compression due to the impracticality oI
providing suIIicient restraint against buckling.
The elastic modulii oI Iibre reinIorced polymer composite materials vary
widely dependent on the particular Iibre type and on the mode oI manuIacture
oI the Iibre reinIorced polymer material. The elastic modulus oI the particular
composite material to be used Ior the strengthening shall be taken into account
in the design.
Eor a reinIorced or prestressed concrete beam strengthened using a Iibre
reinIorced polymer composite material, three modes oI Iailure are possible:
(i) by extensive yielding oI the beams original steel reinIorcement, spalling
oI the compression cover concrete and moment capacity drop-oII;
(ii) by rupture oI the Iibre reinIorced polymer composite Ilexural
strengthening material; or
(iii) by brittle Iailure oI the concrete in the member compression zone.
Where possible, Ior a strengthened concrete or steel section, the desired mode
oI behaviour is Ior the Ilexural steel reinIorcement or structural steel section to
yield prior to Iailure oI the section, providing a noticeable increase in deIlection
and thereby warning oI imminent Iailure.
June 2003
In the case oI Iailure oI a concrete member by rupture oI the Iibre reinIorced
polymer composite Ilexural strengthening, the strain in the extreme concrete
Iibre in compression may be 0.003 when the ultimate tensile strain in the
Iibre reinIorced polymer composite material is reached. As a result, the
equivalent rectangular stress block adopted Ior concrete in the standard design
procedure cannot be used.
A moment-curvature analysis, involving calculation oI the neutral axis depth
and strains in all the contributing materials, should be used Ior the analysis oI
the strengthened section.
Strength reduction Iactors appropriate to Iibre reinIorced polymer materials are
currently undergoing development. Appropriate strength reduction Iactors Ior
application at the ultimate limit state and serviceability limit state Ior the
diIIerent modes oI behaviour shall be developed Irom a review oI current
international literature Irom reputable sources (e.g. American Concrete
Institute, UK Concrete Society, Eederation International du Beton) and on the
basis oI sound engineering principles. The strength reduction Iactors proposed
to be applied in the design shall be submitted to Transit Ior approval.
Eor reinIorced concrete, prestressed concrete, and structural steel members, the
strength reduction Iactors Ior Ilexural design oI Iibre reinIorced polymer
composite strengthening, at the ultimate limit state, shall be as Iollows:
(i) Where Iailure is preceded by a signiIicant amount oI ductile yielding,
the strength reduction Iactor shall not be greater than 0.85.
(ii) Where the mode oI Iailure is non-ductile, the strength reduction Iactor
shall not be greater than 0.75.
The strength reduction Iactor, , shall not be greater than 0.75 Ior the
Iollowing aspects oI design:
(i) Laminate or sheet peeling;
(ii) Laminate or sheet development.
The strength reduction Iactors adopted shall ensure that a Ilexural mode oI
Iailure (e.g. by rupture oI the Iibre reinIorced polymer composite material or
concrete crushing) precedes Iailure by peeling or bond Iailure.
(d) Method of AnaIysis
Elastic analysis shall be used to analyse the structure, and no redistribution oI
the elastic bending moments and shear Iorces is permitted in view oI the lack oI
ductility oI the Iibre reinIorced polymer composite material.
(This amends NZS 3101 Cl. 4.3.3.3).
June 2003
(e) Strengthening of Concrete Members for Shear
Concrete members strengthened Ior shear by using strips oI Iibre reinIorced
polymer composite material shall be designed Ior shear in accordance with the
requirements oI NZS 3101
(1)
Chapter 9. Under these requirements, Iibre
reinIorced polymer composite strip reinIorcement shall be treated in the same
manner as steel reinIorcement with the stress in the Iibre reinIorcement
corresponding to a strain oI 0.004 substituted in place oI the steel yield stress.
Under these conditions, the contributions to shear reinIorcement oI the existing
steel reinIorcement and oI the Iibre reinIorced polymer composite strip
reinIorcement may be considered additive.
The ends oI Iibre reinIorced polymer composite strips shall be adequately
anchored to develop the design Iorces in the strips. In situations where a slab
overlies a beam being strengthened (as with a T- beam), the preIerred approach
is Ior intermittent slots to be cut in the slab and the Iibre reinIorced polymer
strips passed through the slab and anchored on the slab top surIace. Where the
strips are to be terminated below a slab, consideration shall be given to the
transIer oI the Iorce in the Iibre reinIorced polymer strips to the truss
mechanism oI the reinIorced concrete member, and to the shear that may be
induced in the concrete member above the level oI the ends oI the strips.
(ReIerence 3 provides guidance on this issue.) Where proprietary mechanical
anchors or clamps are used to develop the design Iorce in the strips, the
perIormance oI proprietary mechanical anchors or clamps shall have been
substantiated by testing and their reliability established by statistical analysis.
Anchor capacities adopted as the basis Ior design shall have a probability oI
being exceeded oI not less than 95.
Depending on the manuIacturing process, the strength oI Iibre reinIorced
polymer composite material shear reinIorcement may be signiIicantly less
locally at corners than within straight portions. This shall be taken into account
in the design.
(f) Design GuideIines
A number oI design guidelines related to bonded Iibre reinIorced composite
materials have been published internationally. There are diIIerences in
approach between the guidelines, and it is recommended that reIerence be
made to several guidelines and reIerences in seeking guidance on the
application oI these materials. These design guidelines are reIerences 3, 4, 5
and 6.
It should be noted that the latter three publications have been published since
preparation oI this section.
June 2003
7 Strengthening Using EternaI Prestressing
(a) AppIicabiIity
This clause is applicable to strengthening by externally prestressing members
using conventional systems based on steel prestressing. This clause does not
cover the use oI Iibre-reinIorced polymer prestressing systems.
(b) Inspection, Maintenance and DemoIition
Adequate provision shall be made Ior the inspection and maintenance oI
external tendons.
All external and unbonded tendons shall be individually replaceable without
having to restrict traIIic on the highway wherever possible. Where the
detailing does not enable tendons to be removed and replaced without damage
to either the tendons or the structure, or without restricting traIIic, a method
statement deIining how the tendons can be replaced shall be provided in the
Design Statement. A method statement deIining how the structure can be
demolished shall also be provided.
(c) Strengthening of Concrete Members
NZS 3101, -
(1)
, provides explicitly Ior the design
oI structures with unbonded high strength steel tendons and shall be complied
with Ior this Iorm oI strengthening, except as modiIied herein.
Conventionally reinIorced, non-prestressed concrete members, that are
strengthened by external unbonded prestressing, shall satisIy the serviceability
limit state crack width criteria Ior reinIorced concrete set out in NZS 3101
(1)
Cl.
3.3.3.3. The more stringent criteria Ior prestressed concrete need not be
complied with.
(d) Strengthening of SteeI and Composite SteeI - Concrete Members
7.5.2 shall apply in respect to stresses induced in the steel sections and to the
design oI anchorages and deviators. In the consideration oI buckling oI the
steel section, the prestress Iorce may be considered as an externally applied
load.
Eor the design oI the stressing tendons, the principles and requirements oI NZS
3101
(1)
Clauses 16.3.1 to 16.3.6 should be applied as appropriate.
The strengthened members shall meet both the serviceability and ultimate limit
state requirements oI the relevant standard Ior structural steel design, and
where the members include a composite concrete element, the relevant
serviceability and ultimate limit state requirements oI NZS 3101
(1)
.
The strength reduction Iactor, , adopted Ior determining the reliable Ilexural
capacity at the ultimate limit state shall be derived Irom the relevant standard
Ior structural steel design.
June 2003
(e) Anchorages and Deviators
Anchorages and deviators Ior external tendons shall be designed at the ultimate
limit state Ior a load equal to at least the 95 oI the ultimate tensile strength oI
the tendons with a value oI 0.85 Where serviceability checks are required,
as Ior Ilexural cracking in concrete deviator beams, the design service load in
the tendons shall be taken as the tendon load beIore long-term losses.
The design shall ensure that bi-metallic corrosion between the tendons and
their anchorages is prevented.
(f) Tendons Pretensioned Before Being DefIected
Eor single tendons the deIlector in contact with the tendon shall produce a
radius oI not less than 5 times the tendon diameter Ior wire, or 10 times the
diameter Ior strand. The total angle oI deIlection should not exceed 15.
(g) Post-Tensioned Tendons ProfiIe
In the absence oI test results or other investigation justiIying smaller values, the
radius oI curvature oI tendons in deviators should not be less than the Iollowing
minimum values:
Table 7.1: Radius of Curvature for Tendons
Tendon (Strand Number Size) Minimum Radius (m)
19 13mm and 12 15mm 2.5
31 13mm and 19 15mm 3.0
53 13mm and 37 15mm 5.0
(h) Tendon Restraint
External tendons shall be restrained in all necessary directions to avoid
unacceptable second order eIIects due to beam deIlections and tendon
vibration.
(i) Corrosion Protection
Tendons shall be protected to ensure that their liIe is compatible with the liIe oI
the structure.
() Further Considerations to be Taken Into Account
The design takes into account the Iollowing:
The eIIects oI end restraint oI the spans / beams being stressed, whether
due to the spans being constructed integral with supports, or due to Iriction
or elastomeric shear strain oI bearings.
June 2003
The distribution oI the prestress Iorce and induced moment across all the
beams making up the total cross-section, as inIluenced by:
which beams are to be prestressed and by how much;
the relative stiIIness oI the beam elements making up the total cross-
section;
within each span, the length over which the prestressing is to be applied
and shear lag eIIects across the bridge deck.
The eIIects oI secondary moments arising Irom continuity oI the span or
Irom spans being constructed integral with supports.
The eIIects oI shortening oI the spans due to the initial prestress Iorce and
long term creep.
(k) Guidance Documents
General guidance on considerations related to the design oI systems Ior
external prestressing is - --
---
(7)
7 Shear Strengthening and DuctiIity Enhancement of Reinforced

Concrete CoIumns
71 GeneraI
Strengthening shall, where appropriate, comply with, or not be inconsistent with the
requirements oI the NZS 3101, -
(1)
.
Strength reduction Iactors used Ior the assessment oI reliable strength at the ultimate
limit state shall not exceed those given by NZS 3101
(1)
Cl. 3.4.2.2.
Extensive design guidance is provided by - - -
(8)
covering both strengthening using steel plate sleeves and using Iibre reinIorced
polymer composite materials. The design approaches and recommendations
contained therein may be adopted in place oI the requirements oI NZS 3101
(1)
, and
will generally result in a more economical design.
72 Shear Strengthening and DuctiIity Enhancement of Reinforced Concrete
CoIumns Using SteeI SIeeves
Concrete members strengthened Ior ductility or shear by using steel sleeves shall be
designed in accordance with the requirements oI NZS 3101
(1)
. Alternatively, the
design recommendations oI - - -
(8)
may be
adopted.
Strengthening to ensure the integrity oI Ilexural reinIorcing bar lap splices shall
comply with the design recommendations oI - -
-
(8)
.
BRIDGE MANUAL 7 - 1
June 2003
73 Shear Strengthening and DuctiIity Enhancement of Reinforced Concrete
CoIumns Using Fibre Reinforced PoIymer Composite MateriaIs
Concrete members strengthened Ior ductility or shear by using Iibre reinIorced
polymer composite material shall be designed in accordance with the requirements oI
NZS 3101
(1)
. Under these requirements, Iibre reinIorced polymer composite strip
reinIorcement shall be treated in the same manner as steel reinIorcement with the
stress in the Iibre reinIorcement corresponding to a strain oI 0.004 substituted in
place oI the steel yield stress. Under these conditions, the contributions to
conIinement or shear reinIorcement oI the existing steel reinIorcement and oI the
Iibre reinIorced polymer composite strip reinIorcement may be considered additive.
Alternatively, the design recommendations oI - -
-
(8)
may be adopted.
Strengthening to ensure the integrity oI Ilexural reinIorcing bar lap splices shall
comply with the design recommendations oI - -
-
(8)
.
77 References
(1) NZS 3101: 1995, - , Standards New Zealand.
(2) DOT (UK), 1994, BA 30/94, - -
-, UK Department oI Transport Advice Note.
(3) Wang YC, 2000, - -
- -, Department oI Civil Engineering Research Report 2000-3,
University oI Canterbury, Christchurch.
(4) The Concrete Society, 2000, - -
- - -, Concrete Society Technical Report
No.55, United Kingdom.
(5) EIB, 2001, - -
-, Eederation International du Beton Bulletin No.14.
(6) ACI, 2000, - - --
- (DraIt: 12 July 2000), ACI Committee 440,
American Concrete Institute, United States oI America.
(7) EIP, 1996, - -- ---, Eederation Internationale
de la Preconstrainte, SETO, London.
(8) Priestly MJN, Seible E, and Calvi GM, 1996, - - -,
John Wiley & Sons Inc., New York.
BRIDGE MANUAL A - 1
APPENDI ABRIDGE WIDTHS AND CLEARANCES
June 2003
TabIe of Contents
A1 General ....................................................................................................... A-3
A2 Bridge Deck Widths .................................................................................... A-6
A3 Vertical And Horizontal Clearances ............................................................ A-8
A4 References ............................................................................................... A-10
Appendi ABridge Widths and
CIearances
A - 2 BRIDGE MANUAL
June 2003

BRIDGE MANUAL A - 3
June 2003
A1 GeneraI
(a) Typical bridge deck details Ior various one and two lane situations are
illustrated in Figure Al.
(b) The geometric requirements presented in Tables A1, A2, A3, A4, A5 and
Figures A1 and A2 apply to State Highways. Any variation Irom these
requirements shall be at the discretion oI the Road Controlling Authority.
(c) Consideration shall be given to providing Ior cyclists, on the bridge and on the
approaches, especially in urban areas. For guidelines on the design and use oI
cycle Iacilities reIer to the Austroads
Part 14: Bicycles, 1993
(1)
.
(d) -
-
The width oI traIIic lanes Ior State Highways shall be as speciIied in the

(2)
unless speciIied otherwise by the Road
Controlling Authority. Normal good geometric design practice including
curve widening criteria should be applied to determine appropriate bridge
and approach traIIic lane widths.
3.50m (preIerred
minimum)
(e) -- -

-
Internal non-rigid traIIic barrier
(actual dimension governed by barrier system employed).
390 mm
(nominal)
External rigid traIIic barrier (e)
(actual dimension governed by barrier system employed)
350 to 460 mm
(nominal)
Footpath width (I):
1. Behind a non-rigid barrier post:
(i) Minimum
(ii) PreIerred
2. All other situations:
(i) Minimum
(ii) PreIerred
1.00m
1.70m
1.30m
2.00m
Kerb 500 mm
(minimum)
Inside Iace oI pedestrian barrier to edge oI deck (top Iixing) 240 mm
(minimum)
Inside Iace oI non-rigid saIety barrier to edge oI deck (top Iixing)
500mm
(minimum)
A - 4 BRIDGE MANUAL
June 2003
-
BRIDGE MANUAL A -
June 2003
(f) - - -

(a) Kerbed approach road Align bridge kerb with
approach road kerb
(b) No approach road kerb 600 mm (minimum)
Note: 1. For cycle Iacilities reIer to A1 (c).
(g) - -
-

(a) Low volume 1 or 2 lane roads
(AADT 500)
600 mm preIerred minimum,
300 mm absolute minimum.
(b) Medium volume 2 lane roads:
(i) AADT 500 2000 750 mm preIerred minimum,
(ii) AADT 2000 4000 1000 mm preIerred minimum,
(c) High volume 2 lane roads
(AADT ~ 4000)
1200 mm preIerred minimum,
(d) Divided roads and Motorways 1200 mm preIerred minimum,
Notes: 1. TraIIic volumes are expected AADT 30 years ahead.
2. PreIerred minimum clearances shall apply unless there are compelling reasons to
use lesser clearances. Absolute minimum clearances should only be used in
extreme conditions, e.g. where it is physically impracticable to provide the
normal clearance.
3. For cycle Iacilities reIer to A1(c).
4. Clearances apply to bridge side protection and median barriers.
5. Clearances do not include shy-line requirements to AS/NZS 3845
(3)
.
(h) -

The 500 mm distance Irom the Iace oI a non-rigid traIIic barrier is required
to accommodate the designed deIlection oI the barrier under vehicle
impact and keep the vehicle wheels on the deck, as described in B8.1. The
distance may be reduced to 270 mm Ior single lane bridges (Case 6), where
the slab is suIIiciently deep Ior the barrier posts to be Iixed to the side oI
the deck. This is on the basis that the vehicle angle oI attack will usually
be smaller due to the restricted width oI roadway, resulting in smaller
guardrail deIlections.
A - BRIDGE MANUAL
June 2003
Handrail posts may be Iixed to the side oI the deck in all cases where the
slab is suIIiciently deep.

The need Ior Iootpaths on a bridge shall be determined individually
according to the pedestrian traIIic, generally at scheme plan stage. The
normal Iootpath width shall be between 1.3 m and 2.0 m. A Iootpath
behind a non-rigid barrier may be reduced to be 1.0 m to 1.7 m wide at the
posts, on the basis that there is 1.3 m to 2.0 m clearance to the barrier rail.
A2 Bridge Deck Widths
(a) Deck width is the sum oI the carriageway width and the individual elements
required to make up the desired bridge cross-section. A Ilowchart to aid in the
determination oI bridge widths is shown in Figure A3. Bridge carriageway
requirements are:
(i) Full Approach Road Carriageway
The Iull width oI the approach traIIic lanes and shoulders required Ior a
road carrying the expected AADT 30 years ahead shall be provided across
bridges oI lengths given in Table A5, except where:
1. The approach road is kerbed or the bridge has a Iootpath(s), in which
case the edge clearance selection criteria A2 (a) (ii) 1 and 2 below shall
apply, or
2. The approach road shoulder width is less than the clearance between
the barrier and the adjacent traIIic lane given in Table A4. In this case
the clearance tabulated in Table A4 shall be provided.

Motorway
Divided Road
2-lane road where the expected AADT is:
75
30
~ 4000 30
2000 4000 15
500 2000 9
500 6
Note: TraIIic volumes are expected AADT 30 years ahead.
BRIDGE MANUAL A - 7
June 2003
(ii) All Other Situations
The carriageway width required shall be determined by the minimum
traIIic lane width given in Table A1 (Note that traIIic lanes may need to be
widened on curved bridges to accommodate the tracking widths required
by large commercial vehicles) and edge clearances selected using the
Iollowing criteria:
1. Align bridge kerbs with any approach road kerbing;
2. Provide a minimum clearance oI 600 mm Irom the Iace oI a bridge
Iootpath kerb and the edge oI the adjacent traIIic lane where the
approach road is not kerbed;
3. Where there is no kerbing on the approach road and no approach
Iootpath then provide a clearance between a saIety barrier and the
adjacent traIIic lane in accordance with Table A4.
(b) The carriageway widths required Ior standard, straight, 2 x 3.5 m lane, State
Highway bridges, in terms oI the traIIic volume and bridge length criteria given
in A2 (a) (i) and (ii) above, are summarised in Table A6. Note that Ior AADT
2,000 vpd, the current standards Ior carriageway widths may be less than
those recommended Ior bridges widths.
-

|vpd|

|m|

|m|
30 10.0
~4000 ~30 9.4
15 10.0
2000-4000 ~15 9.0
500-2000 All 8.5
500 All 8.2
Notes: 1. TraIIic volumes are expected AADT 30 years ahead.
2. Carriageway widths should reIlect widening where necessary.
3. For cycle Iacilities reIer to A1 (c).
A - 8 BRIDGE MANUAL
June 2003
A3 erticaI And HoriontaI CIearances
Vertical and horizontal clearances at all overhead obstructions shall conIorm with
Figure A2.
-
-
1Where the Transit New Zealand Authority has resolved
that a state highway, or part of a state highway, is an
Overdimension Load Route, all new structures crossing
the route shall provide a minimum vertical clearance of
6.0 m over a carriageway width of at least 10.0 m, to
allow the passage of overdimension loads.
2All overhead clearances shall be measured vertically.
3Lateral clearances shall also be checked for sight
distance on curved alignments.
4Overhead clearances to footpaths shall be as large as
possible, but not less than 2.5 m.
Vertical Clearances at Structures:
DMENSON Absolute Preferred
Minimum Minimum *
(m) (m)
A 4.9 6.0
B 4.5 5.6
C 4.5 5.6
* Minimum for Overdimension Routes. May be
used on other routes, when economically justified.
Design vertical clearances shall make provision for
settlement and road surfacing overlays. As a guideline,
provide a minimum of 100 mm more than the design
vertical clearance where an overlay is anticipated.
7Vertical Clearances at Pedestrian Bridges:
(a) At least 200 mm greater than adjacent traffic
bridges, but not less than 5.1 m.
(b) At least 6.2 m when there are no adjacent traffic
bridges.
BRIDGE MANUAL A -
June 2003
START
Determine the bridge design cross-
section
Accommodate traffic at year 30
(viz for AADT
yr30
)
and
Allow for extra widening of bridge on curves
Consider requirements for pedestrians and
cyclists
Is the bridge kerbed
Are the
bridge approach
roads kerbed
Align the bridge kerbs
with the approach
road kerbs
Use an edge clearance
of at least 600 mm
Is a fuII
width deck
reuired
(Refer to Table A5)
Use the
preferred clearances given
in Table 4 for the bridge if they
are greater than the approach
road shoulder widths,
otherwise
align with the approach
shoulder width
Use the preferred
clearances given in
Table A4
to determine the
bridge width
Determine the bridge deck detaiIs
Refer to Figure A1 for typical bridge deck details or agree variation with road
controlling authority
Determine geometric aIignment
List
the bridge cross-section eIements
and their corresponding widths
CaIcuIate
bridge width sum of the cross-section eIement widths
FINISH
es
No
es
No
es No

A - 10 BRIDGE MANUAL
June 2003
A4 References
(1) Austroads, 1999, -, Part 14,
Austroads, Sydney.
(2) TNZ, 1999, , Transit New Zealand, Wellington.
(3) AS/NZS 3845, 1999, --, Standards Australia and Standards
New Zealand jointly.
BRIDGE MANUAL B - 1
SECTION BBRIDGE SIDE PROTECTION
June 2004
TabIe of Contents
B1 General ....................................................................................................... B-3
B2 Types of Side Protection and their Applications ......................................... B-3
B2.1 Non-Rigid Barrier .................................................................................... B-4
B2.2 Rigid Barrier............................................................................................ B-4
B2.3 Pedestrian Barrier................................................................................... B-4
B2.4 Combination Pedestrian/Traffic Barrier ................................................... B-5
B2.5 Kerb........................................................................................................ B-5
B3 Barrier Performance Selection Method....................................................... B-5
B3.1 Performance Levels................................................................................ B-6
B3.2 Adjusted AADT Method for Barrier Performance Level 3, 4 and 5
Selection................................................................................................. B-8
B4 Barrier Acceptance Criteria....................................................................... B-10
B5 Standard Solutions ................................................................................... B-10
B6 Side Protection Design Criteria................................................................. B-18
B6.1 Equivalent Lateral Forces and Height of Application for Rigid Traffic
Barriers................................................................................................. B-18
B6.2 Design of Deck Slabs to Resist Barrier Forces ..................................... B-19
B6.3 Pedestrian and Cyclist Barrier............................................................... B-20
B6.4 Combination Pedestrian / Traffic Barrier ............................................... B-20
B6.5 Kerb...................................................................................................... B-20
B6.6 Deck Adjacent to Non-Rigid or Rigid Barrier ......................................... B-20
B7 Geometric Layout, End Treatment & Transitions - Transit New Zealand
Requirements............................................................................................ B-21
B7.1 Rigid Barrier.......................................................................................... B-21
B7.2 Non-Rigid Barrier nstallation................................................................ B-21
Appendi BBridge Side Protection
B - 2 BRIDGE MANUAL
June 2004
B7.3 Bridge Approaches ............................................................................... B-21
B7.4 End Treatment ...................................................................................... B-22
B7.5 Kerb...................................................................................................... B-22
B8 Barrier Performance Level 3 Standard Designs - Transit New Zealand
Requirements for Bridge Guardrail........................................................... B-22
B8.1 Bridge Guardrail.................................................................................... B-22
B8.2 Guardrail Layout ................................................................................... B-23
B8.3 Bridge Guardrail Performance .............................................................. B-23
B8.4 Bridge Guardrail Length Changes and Anchorage - Transit New
Zealand Requirements.......................................................................... B-24
B9 References............................................................................................... B-25
BRIDGE MANUAL B - 3
June 2004
B1 GeneraI
This Appendix provides a method Ior determining appropriate Barrier PerIormance
Levels and guidance on types oI side protection, their application and design. The
Iollowing is a summary oI the topics covered:
B2 Types oI Side Protection and their Applications
B3 Barrier PerIormance Selection Method
B4 Barrier Acceptance Criteria
B5 Standard TraIIic Barrier Solutions
B6 Side Protection Design Criteria
B7 Geometric Layout (End Treatment and Transitions)
B8 Barrier PerIormance Level 3 Standard Designs (Bridge Guardrail)
Median barriers on separated structures shall be treated as side protection, but the
barrier level provided shall not be less than the median barriers on the approaches to
the bridge.
B2 Types of Side Protection and their AppIications
Side protection shall consist oI one oI the alternatives listed below Ior each situation
except where a No Barrier solution is deemed acceptable in accordance with
Section B3.1.6. The required Barrier PerIormance Level and subsequent barrier
selection shall be in accordance with Sections B3 (traIIic) and B2.3 (pedestrian).
Barrier applications Ior speciIic situations are:
(a)
Non-Rigid Barrier
Rigid Barrier (concrete or metal post and rail)
Kerb with 500mm wide verge and Combination Pedestrian/TraIIic
Barrier at the outer edge.
(b)
Non-Rigid Barrier between the carriageway and the Iootpath, with a
Pedestrian Barrier at the outer edge oI the Iootpath
Rigid Barrier (concrete or metal post and rail) between the carriageway
and the Iootpath, with a Pedestrian Barrier at the outer edge oI the
Iootpath
Kerb, with Combination Pedestrian/TraIIic Barrier at outer edge oI
Iootpath.
(c)
Pedestrian Barrier at the outer edge and a Non-Rigid Barrier or Rigid
Barrier at the inner edge
Combination Pedestrian/TraIIic Barrier at the outer edge with a Kerb at
the inner edge.
The standard cross-sections shown in Figure A1 illustrate various possible
combinations oI these alternatives.
B - 4 BRIDGE MANUAL
June 2004
Applications and design criteria Ior each alternative are given below.
B21 Non-Rigid Barrier
A Non-Rigid Barrier is deIined as a post and continuous rail system which restrains
vehicles by absorbing energy during deIormation oI the system and oI the vehicle.
B22 Rigid Barrier
A Rigid Barrier is deIined as a barrier designed so that there will be no movement oI
the device, other than elastic straining during a crash involving the design vehicle.
They include continuous concrete barriers and metal post and rail systems that
behave in a rigid manner. Rigid Barriers shall be used in preIerence to Non-Rigid
Barriers in the Iollowing situations:
(i) For architectural consistency, where Rigid Barriers are used on the
approaches.
(ii) Where it is necessary to protect a particularly vulnerable structural element.
(iii) Where deIlection oI a Non-Rigid Barrier system cannot be accommodated.
B23 Pedestrian Barrier
A Pedestrian Barrier is deIined as a post and rail system that restrains pedestrians.
Pedestrian Barriers may be oI two types, subject to compliance with requirements oI
the current Building Act:
General type, which consists oI a series oI posts supporting a top rail, below
which is any system oI members between which the spaces are not more than
300 mm in at least one direction.
Vertical bar type, which consists oI a series oI posts supporting a top rail,
below which are vertical bars spaced apart not more than 130 mm. The vertical
bars shall be attached only at the top and bottom.
Pedestrian Barriers shall be used at the outer edge oI Iootpaths as speciIied in Figure
B1B. The vertical bar type shall be used in the Iollowing situations:
(i) In locations where children less than six years oI age are expected to Irequent
the bridge.
(ii) Where the bridge crosses over building properties, city streets, main
highways, motorways, or railways.
(iii) Where the Iootpath is at a general height oI more than 5 m above ground or
water level.
(iv) Where the volume oI pedestrian traIIic is exceptionally heavy or likely to
become so.
(v) Where there are circumstances likely to cause alarm to pedestrians, such as a
river prone to violent, rapid Ilooding, that demand a higher level oI pedestrian
protection be provided.
The general type may be used elsewhere.
BRIDGE MANUAL B -
June 2004
B24 Combination PedestrianTraffic Barrier
A Combination Pedestrian/TraIIic Barrier shall satisIy the requirements Ior a
pedestrian barrier, (reIer Section B6), with the traIIic barrier portion oI the
combination satisIying the appropriate traIIic Barrier PerIormance Level.
A Combination Pedestrian/TraIIic Barrier shall be used in accordance with Figure
B1B at the outside edge oI a Iootpath when a kerb is the only separation oI a Iootpath
Irom the carriageway.
B2 Kerb
A kerb is deIined as a low barrier that protects pedestrians by restraining the wheels
oI vehicles. A kerb shall always be associated with a Iootpath equal to or exceeding
1.3 m in width when no other Iorm oI traIIic barrier separates the carriageway Irom
the Iootpath.
A kerb can be used on a bridge in any oI the Iollowing situations:
As the sole separation oI a Iootpath Irom the carriageway only where the posted
speed limit is 70 km/h or less.
Where there is also a kerb on the bridge approaches.
When required to prevent rainwater runoII Irom discharging over the edge oI
the bridge deck.
The kerb proIile on the bridge shall match that on the approaches, except as
necessary to comply with the shape requirements below and shall be used in the
locations indicated in Figure A1 oI Appendix A.
The kerb height above the road surIace shall be between 150 and 200 mm. There
shall be a vertical Iace over at least the upper 100 mm oI its height, and no projection
below that. The preIerred kerb shape is illustrated below:
B3 Barrier Performance SeIection Method
A risk management approach as speciIied in AS/NZS 3845
(1)
shall be used to
determine the appropriate Barrier PerIormance Level at a bridge site. The
350
(2)
test level corresponding to each Barrier PerIormance Level is presented
in Table B1.
B - BRIDGE MANUAL
June 2004
-
- -

-
SPECIAL No Equivalent Test
6 TL-6
5 TL-5
4 TL-4
3 TL-3
This method applies to barriers Ior new bridges and replacement barriers Ior existing
bridges. It provides a barrier selection method based on a risk approach that
encompasses traIIic conditions and the bridge environment. Figure B1A is to be
Iollowed Ior the selection oI an appropriate barrier at a particular bridge location.
The method is based on the DraIt Austroads -
(3)
and AASHTO
(1989) -
(4)
with minor amendments Ior New
Zealand conditions.
B31 Performance LeveIs
B311 SpeciaI Performance LeveI
A Special PerIormance Level, non-penetrable barrier shall only be provided at
speciIic locations where agreed by the Road Controlling Authority, where vaulting by
high mass and high centre oI gravity vehicles must be prevented. Such a barrier shall
be considered iI the commercial traIIic count and at least two oI the site conditions
stated in Section B3.1.2 apply at the same time, subject to beneIit-cost justiIication.
There is no equivalent
(2)
test level Ior this perIormance level. A
44t articulated heavy commercial vehicle (HCV) shall be the controlling vehicle in
determining barrier strength with the remaining test requirements as per TL-6
(NCHRP-350
(2)
.
B312 Barrier Performance LeveI
A Barrier PerIormance Level 6 barrier shall only be provided at speciIic locations
where agreed by the Road Controlling Authority, where there is a high probability oI
loss oI liIe or serious injury due to a vehicle penetrating the barrier. A Barrier
PerIormance Level 6 barrier shall be considered iI:
The volume oI heavy commercial vehicles (reIer B3.2.4 Ior deIinitions) passing over
the bridge equals or exceeds the Iollowing values:
BRIDGE MANUAL B - 7
June 2004
2000 heavy commercial vehicles per day on roads with a speed environment ~
60 km/h, or
4000 heavy commercial vehicles per day on urban roads with a speed
environment ~ 60 km/h.
And any oI the site conditions in (i), (ii) and (iii) apply.
(i) Bridges over major roads with an AADT oI 10,000 vpd/lane, or over roads
with an AADT oI 40,000 or more vehicles per day.
(ii) Bridges over electriIied railways, or over goods lines carrying signiIicant
quantities oI either noxious or Ilammable substances.
(iii) Bridges over high occupancy land such as houses, Iactories, areas Ior
congregating, etc.
Or, any oI the conditions (iv), (v) and (vi) apply, subject to an appropriate beneIit-
cost analysis justiIication to the -
(5)
.
(iv) Bridges more than 10 metres high.
(v) Bridges over water greater than 3 metres deep.
(vi) Bridges on horizontal curves with a radius oI 600m or less.
The AADT reIerred to above is the estimated construction year AADT. (ReIer to
Section B3.2 Ior Iurther explanation oI this).
The equivalent 350
(2)
Test Level Ior Barrier PerIormance Level 6
barriers is TL-6.
B313 Barrier Performance LeveI
A Barrier PerIormance Level 5 barrier may be provided at speciIic locations where
agreed by the Road Controlling Authority, Ior the containment oI buses and medium
mass vehicles on high speed carriageways, major carriageways, and urban roads with
a medium to high level oI mixed heavy vehicles, and site speciIic risk situations.
B314 Barrier Performance LeveI 4
A Barrier PerIormance Level 4 barrier is generally provided Ior the appropriate
containment oI cars, heavy utilities and light to medium mass commercial vehicles
on main carriageways.
B31 Barrier Performance LeveI 3
A Barrier PerIormance Level 3 barrier is generally provided Ior the saIe containment
oI light vehicles. These barriers shall generally be used Ior:
bridges on rural roads with low volume traIIic
bridges in low speed environments
short bridges with low height above ground, or shallow water.
B - 8 BRIDGE MANUAL
June 2004
B31 No Barrier Option
For certain bridge or culvert sites, conditions may be such that barriers may
constitute a higher risk than not providing any barrier. Barriers may be omitted
where all the Iollowing conditions are satisIied:
the bridge or culvert is less than 1.5m above the ground
traIIic volumes are less than 150 vehicles per day
the radius oI curvature at the bridge site is greater than 1500m and the road
approaches have a sight distance greater than the stopping distance
the location is rural and without provision Ior pedestrian traIIic
conditions under and near the bridge do not increase the level oI risk to the
occupants oI the vehicle leaving the bridge
water beneath the bridge is less than 1m deep.
the bridge is less than 5m long and the deck extends at least 1.2m beyond the
carriageway edge.
Or, when the edge oI the bridge or culvert is greater than 9 metres Irom the edge oI
the carriageway, or when the cross sectional area oI a culvert is less than 3.5 m2 and
with ends Ilush with the embankment batter.
B32 Adusted AADT Method for Barrier Performance LeveI 3, 4 and SeIection
B321 GeneraI
Once it has been determined that a barrier is required, other than Ior a Barrier
PerIormance Level 6 or Special PerIormance Barrier, the appropriate perIormance
level can be determined using the Adjusted AADT Method outlined below and as
indicated in Figure B1A. The method is also described in reIerences
(3)
and
(4)
although it has been adjusted slightly in this Manual to account Ior New Zealand
conditions. This method assumes 2 traIIic growth per annum over 30 years.
The Adjusted AADT method shall be used as Iollows:
(i) II the estimated traIIic growth is 2 per annum then this Section and the
charts provided can be used directly.
(ii) For growth rates other than 2 per annum the construction year AADT Ior
use in this Section can be estimated by dividing the 30-year aIter construction
AADT by 1.81. The error in using this estimation is acceptable and within the
assumptions oI this methodology.
Four Iactors accounting Ior risk are used to adjust the estimated traIIic volume
(AADT) Ior the bridge at the time oI construction. This Adjusted AADT is then used
to determine the appropriate Barrier PerIormance Level.
For sites with a design speed greater than 80km/h the construction year AADT need
not be taken as greater than 10,000 vehicles per day per lane (i.e. 40,000 AADT Ior a
4 lane bridge).
BRIDGE MANUAL B -
June 2004
The Adjusted AADT shall be calculated as Iollows:
Adjusted AADT RT x GD x CU x US x AADT
Where: RT Road type Iactor, Irom Figure B2
Road types are: Type A: Divided carriageway, or undivided carriageway with 5 or
more lanes
Type B: Undivided carriageway with up to 4 lanes
Type C: One way (Single lane bridges that cater Ior traIIic
travelling in both directions shall be treated as one way)
GD Road grade Iactor, Irom Figure B3
This Iactor is applicable to sites with a down slope approach to the bridge in the
direction oI the traIIic Ilow.
CU Curvature Iactor, Irom Figure B4
This Iactor relates to the maximum horizontal curvature oI the road alignment at the
bridge site, including immediate approaches. For radius oI curvature less than 600m
reIer to Section B3.1.2.
US Under structure land use and hazard Irom Ialling Iactor, Irom Figure B5
This Iactor encompasses two Iorms oI risk: that associated with the vehicle
impinging on the land use beneath the bridge, and that to the vehicle occupants
associated with Ialling Irom height onto the underlying ground or into water.
AADT Annual average daily traIIic in construction year
B322 Under Structure Land Use and Haard from FaIIing
The modiIication Iactor graph in Figure B5 plots three risk levels related to land use
beneath the bridge structure against the hazard associated with Ialling. The three
land use risk levels are deIined as:
- - reIers to land where there is signiIicant risk to persons or
property due to the land use below the structure. Examples are major roadways,
railways, houses, Iactories, etc.
- - reIers to land used in such a way that there is an
occasional risk to persons or property below the structure, e.g. over roads with a
construction year AADT10,000 vpd, country rail lines with occasional services,
walking trails or areas with occasional human populations.
- - reIers to land used in such a way that there is minimal or
insigniIicant risk to persons or property below the structure e.g. over open Iields,
bush land, etc.
B323 FinaI Barrier Performance LeveI SeIection
The Iinal Barrier PerIormance Level is selected by comparing the Adjusted AADT
with the threshold limits Ior the appropriate design speed given in Figures B6 to B9.
These threshold graphs also include an additional variable to cater Ior the oIIset Irom
B - 10 BRIDGE MANUAL
June 2004
the Iace oI the barrier to the edge oI the traIIic lane, described as rail oIIset in the
charts.
The design speed should be taken as the design speed Ior new bridges on new
highways or new alignments, or the 85 percentile operating speed where a new bridge
is replacing an existing structure with no change to the road alignment or where
replacement barriers are to be provided to an existing bridge.
B324 ehicIes and Traffic Mi
The percentage oI commercial vehicles in Figures B6 to B9 includes medium to
heavy commercial vehicles. (i.e. MCV to HCV-II as described in the -

(6)
).
For locations where the commercial vehicle (MCV to HCV-11) traIIic mix exceeds
40 the designer shall determine the appropriate Barrier PerIormance Level based on
a site-speciIic beneIit-cost analysis. The perIormance level selected shall not be less
than that required by these charts.
B4 Barrier Acceptance Criteria
Only barriers that comply with one oI the Iollowing three perIormance criteria shall
be used Ior bridge side protection:
The barrier system has undergone satisIactory crash testing to the appropriate
test level in accordance with NCHRP Report 350 with a maximum deIlection
not greater than 600mm.
The barrier system is based on similar crash tested barriers used elsewhere with
a maximum deIlection not greater than 600mm, subject to Transit New Zealand
approval.
The barrier system is one that is deemed to comply by Transit New Zealand.
Crash testing/perIormance oI the proposed barrier shall be to the appropriate level as
determined in Section B3.
The 600mm maximum deIlection criteria shall be adopted unless the additional cost
oI a wider bridge deck can be justiIied.
B Standard SoIutions
Table B2 gives standard non-proprietary solutions that meet the PerIormance Levels
indicated. Equivalent lateral Iorces Ior each PerIormance Level are given in Section
B6 Ior design oI the bridge deck Ior rigid barrier systems, and reinIorcement Ior
continuous rigid concrete barrier systems, where the proIile has been approved Ior
the appropriate PerIormance Level. The standard solutions listed are not intended to
be a complete list oI acceptable solutions. The designer may speciIy alternative
barrier systems subject to the acceptance criteria oI Section B4 and elsewhere in this
manual.
BRIDGE MANUAL B - 11
June 2004
Select
appropriate
barrier
Determine initial design inIormation
including AADT, CV, land use, deck
height, depth oI water, barrier oIIset, width
between kerbs, curvature and other Iactors.
Does bridge site comply with:
(a) requirements Ior a Special, or Barrier
PerIormance Level 6 barrier ?
and
(b) Clause B3.1.1 or B3.1.2 ?
Does the bridge site
comply with requirements Ior No
Barrier provision?
Barrier not
required
Determine:
85 percentile operational speed / design speed, road type, and
down grade in direction oI traIIic.
Calculate Adjusted AADT
Adjusted AADT RT x GD x CU x US x AADT
Determine Barrier PerIormance Level Irom
Figures B6, B7, B8 and B9 as appropriate.

Yes No
Yes
No
Does bridge site comply with:
(a) requirements Ior a
Barrier PerIormance Level 5 barrier ?
and
(b) Clause B3.1.3 ?
Yes No
June 2004
-
Follow barrier perIormance selection
Ilow chart ignoring pedestrian
requirement (Fig B1A Flowchart)
Required TraIIic Barrier PerIormance
Level
Any pedestrians
present?
SuIIicient pedestrians to
warrant a Iootpath (reIer
A1(h)).
Pedestrian numbers less
than threshold required to
warrant a Iootpath
150-200 kerb 500 strip
Combination Barrier to
appropriate PerIormance Level
Select appropriate TraIIic
Barrier Ior PerIormance
Level Required.
Yes
No
Cases 3 & 4 (Figure A1) with
Pedestrian Barriers and TraIIic
Barriers to appropriate
PerIormance Level
Case 5 (Figure A1) with Combination
Barrier to appropriate PerIormance Level and
kerb 150-200 high
70 km/hr
70 km/hr
All Speeds
June 2004

June 2004

-
BRIDGE MANUAL B - 1
June 2004
- -
- -
B - 1 BRIDGE MANUAL
June 2004
- -
- -
June 2004
-

-
-
3 TL-3 (a) W Section Transit Bridge
Guardrail (3.4mm thick,
grade 500 MPa steel)
Fig B12 and B22
(b) G9 Thrie Beam, posts 2.0m
centres, 805 high.
ReIer AS/NZS
3845
(1)
- See
Note 2
4 TL-4 (a) 820 High VCB Barrier AS/NZS 3845
(1)
Fig 3.12(6) See
Note 1
(b) 820 High Type F Barrier AS/NZS 3845
(1)
Fig 3.12(7) See
Note 1
(c) Any other FHWA TL-4
approved barrier, subject to
Transit approval
FHWA web site -
See Note 2
(d) G9 modiIied Thrie Beam
with modiIied blockout,
posts 2.0m centres, 865 high
ReIer AS/NZS
3845
(1)
- See Notes 3 & 4
5 TL-5 (a) Texas HT barrier modiIied
to F-shape proIile. This is
the TL-5 barrier preIerred by
Transit.
FHWA web site -
See Note 2
(b) Any other FHWA TL-5
approved
(2)
barrier, subject
to Transit approval
FHWA web site -
See Note 2
6 TL-6 Any FHWA TL-6
approved
(2)
system, subject
to Transit approval
FHWA web site -
See Note 2
SPECIAL Requires SpeciIic Design
-
1. ProIile only Irom AS/NZS 3845
(1)
. For TL-4 to TL-6 reinIorcement must be determined using the
equivalent lateral Iorces given in Section B6 oI the Bridge Manual.
2. Only barriers that meet the deIlection criteria in Section B4. A listing oI FHWA approved barriers
can be Iound on the FHWA website at the Iollowing URL:
http://saIety.Ihwa.dot.gov/Iourthlevel/hardware/bridgerailings.htm
3. Only where the additional cost oI a wider bridge deck can be justiIied to accommodate deIlections
greater than 600mm as speciIied in Section B4.
4. For TL-4 the posts shall be I-sections in accordance with the details shown on drawings PWE01-04
and PWB03. These drawings are available through the internet. URLs Ior the drawings are:
PWE01-04: http://cee.wpi.edu/roadsaIe/hardwareguide/plots/Posts/pwe01-04.pdI
PWB03: http://cee.wpi.edu/roadsaIe/hardwareguide/plots/Posts/pwb03.pdI
Note that on PWB03 the modiIied spacer block length is incorrectly given as 554mm. The correct
length is 432mm.
June 2004
B Side Protection Design Criteria
B1 EuivaIent LateraI Forces and Height of AppIication for Rigid Traffic Barriers
The Iorces in Table B3 can be used to determine the reinIorcement required in
continuous rigid concrete barriers where the proIile has been approved Ior the
appropriate PerIormance Level. The transverse and longitudinal Iorces shall be
applied at height H
e
. The Iorce F
v
shall be applied along the top oI the barrier as
indicated in Figure B10. All loads shall be applied to the longitudinal barrier
elements.
Design oI reinIorcement Ior rigid concrete barriers using the Iorces in Table B3
requires detailed analysis. Loads should be applied uniIormly over the speciIied
contact lengths. Design oI rigid concrete barriers shall be carried out in accordance
with 4.2 oI this manual.
Rigid barrier reinIorcement details provided in Section 3 oI AS/NZS 3845
(1)
shall not
be used.
- - - -
Barrier
PerIormance
Level
Transverse
Outward
Load
F
t
(kN)
Longitudinal
Load
F
L
(kN)
Transverse
and
Longitudinal
Vehicle
Contact
Lengths
L
t
and L
L
(m)
Vertical
Down
Load
F
V
(kN)
Vehicle
Contact
Length Ior
Vertical
Loads
L
V
(m)
Minimum
EIIective
Barrier
Height
H
e
(mm)
3 250 80 1.1 80 5.5 600
4 250 80 1.1 80 5.5 800
5 500 170 2.4 355 12 1100
6 780 260 2.4 355 12 1400
SPECIAL 1000 330 2.5 380 15 1700 to
2000
The Iollowing load combinations shall be considered when using the loads in Table
B3 Ior the design oI the barrier:
(i) Transverse and longitudinal loads acting simultaneously
(ii) Vertical loads only.
Either the transverse or longitudinal load shall be considered as acting concurrently
with the vertical load Ior the design oI the deck slab and supporting structure,
whichever is critical.
The eIIective height oI a barrier is the height oI the resultant oI the lateral resistance
Iorces oI the individual components oI the barrier. Barriers must have suIIicient
height to ensure that the minimum eIIective heights quoted above are achieved.
BRIDGE MANUAL B - 1
June 2004
Actual heights oI rigid concrete barriers may be marginally higher than the required
eIIective height.
Barrier PerIormance Level 3 barriers shall have a minimum eIIective height (H
e
) oI
600mm. However, Ior metal, concrete, or combined barriers with a vertical or near
vertical Iace, the actual height (H) shall not be less than 700mm.
- -
H is the height oI barrier Irom the level oI the adjacent deck, Iootpath or verge to
the top oI the barrier.
B2 Design of Deck SIabs to Resist Barrier Forces
Design oI the deck slab shall ensure that Iailure is conIined to the barrier and that the
Iixings to the deck, the deck slab and supporting structure are not damaged during
Iailure oI the barrier (except where holding down bolts are speciIically designed to
break away in Non-Rigid Barrier applications).
For rigid barrier systems, the equivalent ultimate limit state Iorces and contact
lengths set out in Table B3 shall be used Ior the calculation oI Iorces in the bridge
deck Ior the required PerIormance Level. A load Iactor oI 1.2 shall be applied to the
loads in Table B3 Ior the design oI the deck slab.
For Ilexible barrier systems, the deck slab shall be designed to withstand the Iorces
mobilised by the yielding components oI the barrier post (i.e. either the post Iixings
or post base acting in Ilexure or shear) developing their overstrength capacity. A load
Iactor oI 1.2 shall be applied to the overstrength Iorce Irom the barrier post Ior the
design oI the deck slab.
June 2004
B3 Pedestrian and CycIist Barrier
In the Iollowing cases:
on a Iootbridge
on a Iootpath protected by a Non-Rigid Barrier or a Rigid Barrier
the Pedestrian Barrier shall be designed to resist horizontal and vertical service loads
oI 1.75 kN/m applied to the top rail. Other members shall resist a horizontal service
load oI 1.5 kN/m
2
applied to the gross area, and a point load oI 0.5 kN in any
direction at any point. Horizontal and vertical loads need not act concurrently. The
load Iactor Ior pedestrian loads Ior the ultimate limit state shall be 1.7 Ior design oI
the barrier, Iixings and supporting deck.
The minimum height to the top edge oI the top rail shall be 1100 mm, or 1200 mm
where a cycle path is present. Where the bridge is greater than 5 m above ground
level and a cycle path is present, the minimum height to the top edge oI the top rail
shall be 1400 mm. Where a cycle path is present, the barrier shall present a smooth
surIace to cyclists, without snagging points.
B4 Combination Pedestrian Traffic Barrier
In the Iollowing cases:
On a Kerb with 500 mm wide strip,
On a Iootpath with a kerb shaped as described in B2.5 (Combination
Pedestrian/TraIIic Barrier).
The Combined Pedestrian / TraIIic Barrier shall be designed to resist the Iorces
appropriate to the Barrier PerIormance Level required Irom B6.1.
Where the Vehicle Barrier portion oI the Combined Barrier is lower in height than
the requirements oI B6.2, rails shall be added to accommodate pedestrian/cyclists as
described in B2.3. The pedestrian/cyclist portions oI the barrier shall resist loads oI
4.4 kN/m horizontally and 1.75 kN/m vertically, applied to the top rail. Other
members shall resist, as a minimum, the loads described in B6.2 above. The load
Iactor Ior pedestrian/cyclist loads Ior the ultimate limit state shall be 1.7. DeIlection
oI the barrier shall not allow the impact side wheels oI the crash vehicle to have less
than a 100 mm contact width with the bridge deck. The requirements oI B2.3 (b) do
not apply.
B Kerb
A Kerb shall resist, concurrently, a vertical HN wheel load with impact and a
horizontal service load oI 7.3 kN/m at a height oI 200 mm, treated as Group 1A
(reIer to Section 3.4).
B Deck Adacent to Non-Rigid or Rigid Barrier
The deck adjacent to a Non-Rigid or Rigid Barrier shall be designed Ior the loads
speciIied in Section 3.1 oI this manual.
June 2004
B7 Geometric Layout, End Treatment Transitions - Transit New ZeaIand
Reuirements
B71 Rigid Barrier
For crossIall up to 3 barriers shall be orientated vertically in the transverse
direction. II the crossIall exceeds 3, the barrier shall be rotated so that its axis is
perpendicular to the road surIace.
B72 Non-Rigid Barrier InstaIIation
Installation oI proprietary Non-Rigid Barrier systems shall be in accordance with the
manuIacturers instructions Ior the PerIormance Level prescribed.
For Transit New Zealand standard highway and bridge guardrails, posts shall be
erected normal to the road surIace in the longitudinal direction, but vertical in the
transverse direction Ior crossIalls or super elevations up to 3. II the crossIall or
super elevation exceeds 3, the posts shall be rotated about a horizontal axis so that
the barrier axis is perpendicular to the road surIace.
Holding down bolts shall be speciIically designed to be easily removed and replaced
aIter Iailure or damage.
B73 Bridge Approaches
A transition barrier shall be provided to all bridge barriers. The length oI approach
transition shall not be less than 31.8m, unless justiIied by a detailed assessment oI the
length oI need.
A smooth continuous tensile Iace shall be maintained along the transition. Any
exposed rail ends, posts or sharp changes in barrier component geometry shall be
avoided, or sloped outwards or downwards with a minimum splay oI 1 in 10 Ior
barrier components and 1 in 20 Ior kerb discontinuities.
The strength and stiIIness oI the barrier shall transition between any Ilexible roadside
barrier and rigid, or semi-rigid bridge barrier to avoid vehicle pocketing at the
interIace.
Transition details given in AS/NZS 3845
(1)
Appendix F Ior rigid bridge barriers are
acceptable up to NCHRP Report 350
(2)
Test Level 3 (Barrier PerIormance Level 3).
Non-rigid wire rope barriers are not acceptable on bridge approaches.
The PerIormance Level selection Ior the transition barrier shall be based on a risk
management approach as indicated by AS/NZS 3845
(1)
, but shall not be less than
NCHRP 350
(2)
Test Level 3 where bridge side protection is present. The Barrier
Selection method in B3 may be used to determine the appropriate PerIormance Level
Ior the transition barrier. This should be applied to successive sections along the
transition taking into account the risk Iactors present at each section.
ReIer to Figure B12 Ior a typical approach layout Ior a Test Level 3 barrier using
Bridge Guardrail.
June 2004
B74 End Treatment
The approach end oI a barrier shall have a crashworthy conIiguration, or be shielded
by a crashworthy barrier or impact attenuation device.
Terminals shall comply with the evaluation criteria oI NCHRP Report 350
(2)
Test
Level 3 or greater, or be listed by the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) oI
the US Department oI Transport, Ior use on the National Highway System at Test
Level 3 or higher.
Terminals detailed in Appendix F oI AS/NZS 3845
(1)
are acceptable Ior Test Level 3
except those excluded by Transit SpeciIication M/23.
B7 Kerb
Where the width between approach kerbs is diIIerent Irom that on the bridge, the
transition between the two shall be an S-curve at a minimum radius oI 260m on a
single lane bridge and 800 m on a two-lane bridge.
B8 Barrier Performance LeveI 3 Standard Designs - Transit New ZeaIand
Reuirements for Bridge GuardraiI
B81 Bridge GuardraiI
In this section, Group 1A and 4 loadings are reIerred to. They are deIined in Section
3.4.
The Transit New Zealand Bridge Guardrail is deemed to comply with NCHRP
Report 350
(2)
Test Level 3 and is thereIore approved Ior use in situations only
requiring a Barrier PerIormance Level 3 barrier and where deIlection can be
accommodated. Design criteria Ior the Bridge Guardrail are as Iollows:
The post and rail system oI a Bridge Guardrail shall be designed to redirect a 2 tonne
passenger vehicle which strikes it at an angle oI 25
o
and a speed oI 100 km/h without
serious injury to its occupants or interIerence with traIIic in other lanes. Lateral
deIlection oI the guardrail shall be limited to 600 mm. Damage to both vehicle and
guardrail is expected, but the latter shall be readily repairable.
The minimum tensile strength oI the rail and its splices shall be 450 kN.
The height oI the top edge oI the rail shall be 700 mm above the underlying road
surIace to within a tolerance oI 0 mm, 20 mm.
In addition to the above perIormance requirements, each guardrail post shall resist
the Iollowing transverse ultimate horizontal loads at a height oI 550 mm (note: this is
less than the dimension speciIied in Table B3 Ior Barrier PerIormance Level 3
barriers):
45 kN outwards
19 kN inwards.
June 2004
The design shall include speciIic provision:
to enable post holding down bolts which Iail to be easily removed and replaced.
to allow Ior diIIerential length changes between the bridge and the rail. Devices
which use rubber components to absorb longitudinal movement shall not be
used.
In addition, a top rail may be added where extra security is required Ior occasional
pedestrians or Ior stock. A top rail shall be provided where the bridge deck is more
than 10 m above ground or water level, or where the bridge crosses a road or railway.
The top rail shall be at a height oI 1100 mm to its top edge, and shall resist non-
concurrent horizontal and vertical service loads oI 1.75 kN/m at a load Iactor oI 1.7.
The bridge deck shall be designed to resist the combination oI the ultimate load
reaction Irom the guardrail post together with an adjacent HN wheel load with
impact. Group 4 load Iactors shall be applied to the dead load and the wheel load
shall be treated as an overload.
B82 GuardraiI Layout
The geometric layout Ior the guardrail on the approach to single and two lane bridges
is shown on Figure B12. Where the bridge guardrail is linked to highway guardrail,
the bridge guardrail shall extend at least 28 m oII the end oI the bridge.
B83 Bridge GuardraiI Performance
The principle oI operation oI standard Transit New Zealand Bridge Guardrail is
shown in Figure B11. The details oI components are given in Figures B12 to B22. It
should be noted that, in this design, the use oI holding down bolts with a speciIic
minimum and maximum strength is essential.
- -
June 2004
B84 Bridge GuardraiI Length Changes and Anchorage - Transit New ZeaIand
Reuirements
(a) -
No Iree longitudinal movement shall take place in joints between lengths oI
guardrail.
The guardrail is assumed to be Iixed in space between its end anchors, while
the bridge deck (and the guardrail posts) move relative to the guardrail as a
result oI temperature, shrinkage, and creep eIIects. Provision shall be made in
the guardrail at each post connection to enable relative movement to occur at
this location. It is also assumed that longitudinal Iorces due to temperature
changes can be resisted by the guardrail.
Guardrail expansion joints shall be used only on bridges where long lengths oI
continuous superstructure between deck expansion joints give length changes
which cannot be accommodated within the normal post expansion provision.
Where the distance Irom a guardrail anchor point to the nearest deck expansion
joint, exceeds 100 m then an expansion joint is to be provided in the guardrail
itselI. The expansion joint shall enable slow movements to take place without
restraint, but act as a rigid connection under impact loading. Expansion joints
or other devices which use rubber components to absorb movement shall not be
used.
Details oI a suitable hydraulic joint are shown on Figures B21 and B22.
(b) -
Unless linked to highway guardrails on the approaches, a bridge guardrail shall
be provided with end anchors capable oI resisting its speciIied ultimate load. A
bridge guardrail more than 150 m long shall be provided with intermediate
anchors as described below, capable oI resisting the same load. The Iollowing
types oI anchors shall be used in the situations described:
(1) Buried Anchor
Where the approach to a bridge is in soIt rock or a soil cutting, the anchor
to an approach guardrail should, iI possible, be buried. Soil covering the
anchor shall be well compacted. Details oI a standard Transit New
Zealand anchor are shown on Figure B19.
(2) Anchor in a Rock Cutting
Where the approach to a bridge is in rock cutting, the guardrail should, iI
possible, be anchored to rock. Details oI a standard Transit New Zealand
anchor are shown in Figure B19.
(3) End Treatment
ReIer to Section B7.4.
BRIDGE MANUAL B - 2
June 2004
(4) Intermediate Anchor on a Bridge
The anchor posts shall be designed to break away Irom the deck at their
bases in the event oI direct vehicle impact. When this occurs restraint oI
the guardrail ribbon is provided by the adjacent anchors.
Details oI a standard Transit New Zealand anchor are shown on Figure
B20.
(c) -
Guardrail anchor location requirements are as Iollows. They are shown
diagrammatically in Figure B18.
The maximum distance between adjacent anchors shall be 150 m.
The maximum length over three consecutive anchors shall be 200 m.
Intermediate anchors shall be located at neutral points. Neutral points are
deIined as points on the bridge length which do not move longitudinally
with length changes. II this is not possible, due to location oI two or
more anchors between consecutive expansion joints, the eIIect oI the
movement oI the anchors relative to the guardrail due to creep and
shrinkage shall be taken into account in the design by providing Ior
adjustments in the anchor cable connections.
II there is a high proportion oI very heavy traIIic and/or severe curvature,
consideration should be given to providing guardrail anchors at every
neutral point.
End anchors shall be located at least 32 m Irom the bridge abutment.
The location oI buried anchors or anchors in rock cuttings will depend on
the local terrain and geology.
B References
(1) AS/NZS 3845; 1999, --, Standards Australia and Standards
New Zealand jointly.
(2) NCHRP, 1993, -
-, National Cooperative Highway Research Program Report No.
350, National Academy Press, Washington DC.
(3) Austroads, 1999, - - , Part 1 General,
Austroads Inc, Sydney.
(4) AASHTO, 1989, -, American Association oI
State Highway and Transportation OIIicials, Washington DC.
(5) , 1997, , Manual No. PFM2, TransIund New Zealand,
Wellington.
(6) , 1997, , Manual No. PFM2, TransIund New Zealand,
Wellington.
SECTION B: BRIDGE SIDE PROTECTION

- -
BRIDGE MANUAL C - 1
APPENDI CToroidaI Rubber Buffers

-
Appendi CToroidaI Rubber
Buffers
BRIDGE MANUAL D - 1
APPENDI DLIGHTL TRAFFICKED RURAL BRIDGES
June 2003
TabIe of Contents
D1 General .......................................................................................................D-2
D2 Specific Requirements................................................................................D-2
D2.1 Geometric and Side Protection Requirements (2.2)................................ D-2
D2.2 Traffic Loads - Gravity Effects (3.2) ........................................................ D-3
D2.3 Combination of Load Effects (3.5) .......................................................... D-3
D2.4 Earthquake Resistant Design : Risk Factor (Tables 5.2 and 5.4)........... D-4
Appendi DLightIy Trafficked RuraI
Bridges
D - 2 BRIDGE MANUAL
June 2003

BRIDGE MANUAL D - 3
June 2003
D1 GeneraI
For State Highways, use oI the criteria in this appendix will be subject to approval oI
Transit New Zealand's Land Transport Manager.
(a) Note that this appendix provides minimum design standards.
These criteria cover one-lane bridges on lightly traIIicked roads. Such bridges
may be on public or private roads.
On public roads, the criteria shall only be used where all the Iollowing criteria
are met:
(i) the traIIic count is less than 100 vpd; and
(ii) the road cannot become a through route; and
(iii) the alignment is such that speeds are generally below 70 km/h; and
(iv) use oI the route by logging trucks is unlikely; and
(v) no signiIicant overloads are expected to occur, or the bridge can be
bypassed.
(b) Following each clause title below, is the number oI the clause in the main body
oI this document which is modiIied by this appendix. Where no modiIication
is detailed below, the original clauses shall apply in Iull.
D2 Specific Reuirements
D21 Geometric and Side Protection Reuirements (22)
The speciIic requirements oI Appendix A may be waived, but the Iollowing width
limits apply:
(a) Bridges without handrails or traIIic barriers: 3.0 m minimum, 3.7 m maximum
between kerbs or wheel guards.
(b) Bridges with pedestrian barriers: 3.0 m minimum, 3.7 m maximum between
kerbs or wheel guards, 3.7 m minimum between pedestrian barriers.
(c) Bridges with traIIic barriers: 3.7 m minimum, 4.3 m maximum between
guardrails.
On private roads, traIIic barriers are not required provided either kerbs complying
with B2.5 and the loading set out in B6.4 or wheel guards to the same criteria are
provided. Footpaths and Pedestrian Barriers are only required iI pedestrians are
likely to Irequent the bridge. Pedestrian barriers shall comply with B2.3 Ior type and
B6.2 Ior loading.
Since agricultural vehicles up to 3.7 m width may use a public road without permit,
the choice oI type and height oI side protection should be made aIter consideration oI
D - 4 BRIDGE MANUAL
June 2003
the actual vehicles using the road, and the clearance to any overhanging portions oI
the vehicles.
D22 Traffic Loads - Gravity Effects (32)
(a) For design oI both main members and decks, the HN design load may be
replaced by 0.85 HN. The dimensions oI the loaded areas remain the same as
Ior Iull HN load. HO load need not be considered.
(b) Areas oI deck where wheels cannot normally travel, due to dimensional
limitations or physical barriers need not be designed Ior the wheel loads oI (a)
above, but shall be designed Ior one 15 kN wheel load, using the same contact
area as an HN wheel, placed anywhere on the deck.
(c) Note that the uniIormly distributed part oI the reduced HN load covers the
eIIect oI a stock load.
D23 Combination of Load Effects (3)
(a) In prestressed concrete design, the tension limit Ior concrete may be taken as
0.50 ' Ior monolithic members and 0.20 ' across construction joints, in
all load groups.
-
-
1A DL EP OW SG ST LlxI
1B DL EP OW SG ST TP
2A DL EP OW SG ST LLxI HE TP
2B DL EP OW SG ST LLxI HE WD
2C DL EP FW SG ST LLxI HE
3A DL EP OW SG ST EQ 0.33 TP
3B DL EP FW SG ST WD
4 Not applicable
5A DL EP OW SG 0.33 WD CN
5B DL EP OW SG 0.33 TP CN
5C DL EP OW SG 0.33 EQ CN
BRIDGE MANUAL D -
June 2003
- -

- -
1A U 1.10 (DL 1.35 EP OW SG ST 1.67 LLxI)
1B U 1.10 (DL 1.35 EP OW SG ST 1.25 TP)
2A U 1.20 (DL EP OW SG ST LLxI HE TP)
2B U 1.20 (DL EP OW SG ST LLxI HE) WD
2C U 1.20 (DL EP SG ST LLxI HE) FW
3A* U 1.00 (kDL 1.25 (EP OW) SG ST EQ 0.33 TP)
3B U 1.00 (DL 1.25 EP FW SG ST WD)
4 Not applicable
5A U 1.20 (DL EP OW SG 1.1 CN) 0.33WD
5B U 1.20 (DL EP OW SG 0.33 TP 1.1 CN)
5C U 1.20 (DL EP OW SG 0.33 EQ 1.1 CN)
* k 1.3 or 0.8, whichever is more severe, to allow Ior vertical acceleration.
D24 Earthuake Resistant Design Risk Factor (TabIes 2 and 4)
In determining the risk Iactor Ior obtaining the seismic design Iorce, the importance
category may be 3, except in the case oI any bridge crossing a railway, State Highway
or motorway, when the importance category shall be 1.
BRIDGE MANUAL E - 1
APPENDI EBRIDGE SITE INFORMATION SUMMAR
June 2003
TabIe of Contents
Notes..E3
Section 1: Basic lnformation..E4
Section 2: River Data..E8
Section 3: Site lnvestigations.. E17
Section 4: Recommendations. E19
Section 5: Approvals ObtainedE20
Appendi EBridge Site Information
Summary
E - 2 BRIDGE MANUAL
SECTION EBRIDGE SITE INFORMATION SUMMAR
June 2003

BRIDGE MANUAL E - 3
June 2003
(1) This summary, together with accompanying drawings and documents, contains the basic
data needed Ior the start oI detailed design action Ior the proposed structure.
(2) Both the scheme plan and the site plan shall accompany the bridge site inIormation
summary.
(3) Section 2 can be omitted in its entirety Ior road and railway overbridges and
underpasses.
(4) The "Designated Person" reIerred to at the start oI Sections 1 to 5 below would typically
be:
Section 1, Basic InIormation: An engineering consultant Iamiliar with the site
Section 2, River Data
2.1 to 2.4:
2.5 to 2.8:
An engineering consultant Iamiliar with the site.
Regional Council or Territorial Authority
Section 3, Site Investigations: A site investigator
Section 4, Recommendations: A senior proIessional engineer
Section 5, Approvals: A senior proIessional engineer
E - 4 BRIDGE MANUAL
June 2003

To be completed by the Designated Person

.01 Name oI bridge or culvert
.02 State Highway number and section, or other route
deIinition
.03 Route position; ie reIerence station plus
displacement
.04 Name oI river to be bridged or name and position oI
road or railway to be crossed
.05 Roads District
.06 Local Authorities
Regional Council and / or Territorial Authority
.07 Scheme plan
(a) Number
(b) Date oI submission to TNZ
(c) TNZ approval date
.08 Site plan number
.09 Level datum used Ior
(a) Scheme plan
(b) Site Plan
.10 Map ReIerence (NZMS 260 series)
Map number
Date
East North
Co-ordinates oI bridge site
.11
Photographic reIerences
(a) TNZ State Highway aerial strip
photographs
Survey number
Run number
Photograph number
(b) Supply site photographs with date/s taken
BRIDGE MANUAL E -
June 2003

.01 Details
(a) Plan number
(b) Where held
(c) When built
(d) Deck level or reIerence level on deck using site
plan datum
(e) SoIIit level
.02 Where drawings are not available, provide brieI
description oI existing bridge
.03 Overload rating
(a) Bridge classiIication
(b) Deck grading
.04 Bridge posting limits
(a) Wheel base load
(b) Axle load
(c) Speed restriction
.05 Eoundations
(i) Type
(ii) Has perIormance been adequate?
(iii) Any known problems during construction?
(iv) Append detailed inIormation iI available, e.g.,
pile size, length, penetration, driving records,
borelogs, design bearing values, or other as
appropriate.
(v) Do existing Ioundations restrict the location oI
new piers and abutments?
(vi) Should they be removed?
(vii) To what level?
(viii) Why?
.06 Are there special problems at the site oI the existing
bridge, e.g.:
(a) Scour
(b) Settlement
(c) Eill stability
(d) Eloating debris
(e) Corrosion
(f) Other. SpeciIy. (Provide report as appropriate).
E - BRIDGE MANUAL
June 2003
1.3

.01 Nature and volume oI present traIIic
.02 Vehicle Route Importance Category
Level oI Serviceability to TraIIic
Is this diIIerent Irom the recommended value.
II yes, speciIy.
YES/NO
.03 Nature and extent oI stock traIIic
.04 Is stock or other access required under the
bridge?
.05 Services to be carried on the bridge
Side oI
Bridge
Number Nominal
Diameter
Diameter
Over
Joints
Eixing
Methods
(a) Sewer mains

(b) Telecom cables

(c) Water mains

(d) Gas mains, state high or low pressure

(e) Power cables

(f) Other services

.06 Has each authority been inIormed oI Transit
NZ policy Ior cost sharing?
.07 Lighting requirements
.08 Extreme shade temperatures
o
C
.09 Has an environmental impact assessment been
prepared? II so, attach copy
.10 Does the appearance oI the bridge in elevation
warrant special consideration?
.11 PreIerred construction materials
.12 PreIerred deck surIace material and Iinish
.13 Restrictions on transport and access to site
.14 Construction restraints at the site, e.g., Ilash
Iloods, dewatering etc.
.15 Other Iactors to be considered
BRIDGE MANUAL E - 7
June 2003
.16 Waterway recommendation. Suggested
length oI bridge Ior consistency with:
(a) the existing channel OR
(b) Any existing or planned river training
works
.17
Elood clearance recommendation Irom natural
Ilood stage to underside oI superstructure.
.18
Clearances Ior tidal and navigable waterways
(a) Type oI craIt, e.g. yachts, jet boats,
barges, etc.
(b) Recommend the highest water level at
the stie above which navigational
clearance should be provided. Use site
plan datum. Give reasons Ior choice.
(c) What is the minimum clearance and
width restriction imposed by:
(i) existing bridge
(ii) other nearby structures
(d) Irom the local knowledge, what is your
recommendation Ior the navigational
channel/s
(i) vertical clearance
(ii) centreline location and width oI
navigation channel

Prepared by: Designation:
CertiIied by: Designation:
Date:
E - 8 BRIDGE MANUAL
June 2003

To be completed by the Designated Person and the
Regional Council or Territorial Authority as appropriate

.01 (a) Area oI catchment above site
(b) How was area obtained?
.02 General slope (e.g. Ilat, gently rolling, rolling,
hilly, mountainous, etc)
.03 Range oI heights above sea level
.04 Shape oI catchment (e.g. long, circular, pear, Ian
etc)
.05 SurIace soil and subsoil (e.g. pumice, clay, loam,
sand, rock etc). Give approximate percentage oI
catchment area Ior each type.
.06 Percentage cover:
(a) in bush, scrub or Iorest
(b) in pasture
(c) in cultivation
(d) cleared but reverting
(e) in urban development
.07 Are these percentages likely to vary in the liIe oI
the structure?
.08 Any general comments on catchment
characteristics?

.01 (a) Normal water level, i.e. water level
exceeded Ior 30 oI the time, using site
plan datum
(b) Mean velocity and orientation oI this Ilow
(show on diagram)
(c) How was this assessed?
BRIDGE MANUAL E -
June 2003
.02 (a) Lowest known water level using site plan
datum
(b) Date
(c) How was value obtained?
.03 (a) List highest known Ilood levels using site
plan datum
(b) Orientation oI Ilow (show on diagram)
(c) Date/s
(d) How were values obtained?
.04 Tidal sites: Levels at the site in terms oI site
plan datum. Give as many oI the Iollowing
levels as possible and state how data were
obtained, including tide gauge reIerence.
(a) Highest known tide and data
(b) Lowest known tide and data
(c) Mean high water spring tide
(d) Mean high water neap tide
(e) Mean low water neap tide
(f) Mean low water spring tide
.05 What is the approximate maximum wave height
at the site?
.06 Is water level aIIected by wind? Give details.
.07 Maximum size oI driItwood carried at high Ilood
Ilow.
.08 Bed gradient/Length over which measurements
were taken.
.09 Gradient oI water surIace at proposed site Ior:
(a) Low to medium Ilow, speciIy water level at
site when gradient obtained
(b) High Ilow, speciIy water levels at site when
gradient obtained
(c) Gradients measured over what length oI
channel?
(d) Is length oI Iloodway straight? II not,
provide details.
E - 10 BRIDGE MANUAL
June 2003
.10 (a) Are there diIIerences between low and high
water surIace slopes?
(b) II so, what are they and what are the reasons?

.01 (a) Waterway area to highest known Ilood level
at existing or nearby bridge on same stream,
normal to Ilow.
(b) Has this proved adequate? Give wetted
perimeter
(c) Is Ilood gradient at this site similar to that
in 2.2.09(b)? II not, speciIy.
.02 (a) Cross section area oI channel to highest
known Ilood level at site oI new bridge
(b) Is cross-section at proposed site typical oI
channel and Iloodway over a length up and
downstream oI at least Iive times width oI
Ilood waterway in each direction?
(c) II not, comment on variation and supply
typical sections with the site drawings.
.03 Bed material at bridge site (eg, silt, sand, Iine or
coarse gravel etc), provide typical grading oI bed
materials.
.04 Preliminary estimate oI Mannings Ior
(a) Channel
(b) Berm
(c) how were values obtained?
.05 (a) Summarise measurements or records oI
local scour measured Irom general bed
level with corresponding location, water
levels and general bed level in terms oI site
plan datum.
(b) How were values obtained?
.06 Is the depth oI scour aIIected by:
(a) direction oI Ilow?
(b) local riverbed shape?
(c) other local eIIects (speciIy)?
.07 Are moderate Ilood conditions critical Ior scour?
e.g., with the main channel at bank Iull Ilow.
BRIDGE MANUAL E - 11
June 2003

.01 Is the river channel braided, meandering,
incised?
.02 (a) Are the banks stable over a length oI 1 km
upstream and downstream oI bridge site
(erosion, slumping, slips, etc)?
(b) Are the banks stable at the existing bridge
site (erosion, slumping, slips etc)?
(c) Is there any existing protection or riverbed
control work aIIecting conditions at the
proposed site?
(d) Is bank/abutment protection suggested? II
so, indicate type oI protection.
.03 Is there any possibility oI river tending to cut oII
approaches?
.04 Is there any escape oI Iloodwaters upstream, and
is there any possibility oI this being reduced or
prevented in Iuture by a river control scheme?
Give appropriate details.
.05 Give details oI current and/or projected
extraction oI riverbed material.
.06 Is the riverbed aggrading, degrading or stable?
Give results oI measurements or estimates, the
period involved and indicate how results were
obtained.
.07 Describe the inIluence oI any Iuture river
improvement or catchment control or
development works or other activities likely to
aIIect bridge location, area oI waterway, Ilood
stages, scour depths, layout etc.
June 2003

.01 Indicate variability oI rainIall distribution
expressed as a percentage oI the average over the
entire catchment.
.02 (a) Location and map reIerence Ior the nearest
rain gauge
(b) Length oI time that records have been taken
(c) Type oI gauge
(d) Relationship oI records to catchment
average intensity
.03 Maximum recorded or known rainIall in mm
(a) in 1 hour
(b) in 2 hours
(c) in 12 hours
(d) in 24 hours
(e) above to catchment average intensity. How
were records obtained?
(f) corresponding return period.
.04 (a) Where is the nearest staII gauge or recorder
station on this river?
(b) What is its number?
(c) Period over which water level records have
been kept
(d) Supply stage/discharge stage/velocity and
stage/area curves iI available

.01 Is discharge aIIected by:
(a) snow on catchment?
(b) ponding upstream?
(c) overIlow Irom other catchments?
(d) backwater Irom major river downstream, or
Irom lake, sea or beach barrier?
.02 Estimated time oI concentration at the site (Ior
Rational Method).
June 2003
.03 Eor Ilood levels given in 2.2.03:
(a) Elood discharge
(b) Elood velocity
(c) Orientation oI Ilow (show on diagram)
(d) Method used, i.e., estimate, timing debris,
special measurements, rating curve,
calculation
(e) Give estimate oI reliability oI results
(f) Average Recurrence Interval (ARI) oI
Ilood.

.01 Design rainIall in mm per hour Ior the time oI
concentration (2.6.02) on the basis oI catchment
average intensity. SpeciIy standard deviation iI
possible.
.02 Total Waterway Design Elood
Design Ilood at the site with the recommended
structure in place.
Non Tidal Sites Tidal Sites

MHWST MLWST
(a) Discharge
(b) Average Recurrence Interval (ARI)
(c) Mean velocity
(d) Water level in terms oI site plan datum
(e) Orientation oI Ilow (show on diagram)
Attach calculations.

.03 Level oI Serviceability to TraIIic Design Ilood
Design Ilood to be passed without Interruption to
TraIIic

MHWST MLWST
(a) Discharge
(c) Mean velocity
Attach calculations

June 2003
.04 Serviceability Limit State Design Elood
Design Ilood to be used Ior the Serviceability
limit state oI the bridge
MHWST MLWST
(a) Discharge
(c) Mean velocity
Attach calculations
.05 Ultimate Limit State Design Elood
Design Ilood to be used Ior the Ultimate Limit
State oI the bridge
MHWST MLWST
(a) Discharge
(c) Mean velocity
(f) How was the estimate oI the Ultimate Limit
State Design Elood obtained?

Design Ilood to be used Ior the Ultimate limit
state oI the bridge when the bridge deck level is
overtopped by 200mm

(a) Discharge
(c) Mean velocity
(f) Detail the nature oI any elements oI the
bridge likely to cause retention oI debris at
overtopping oI the deck.

BRIDGE MANUAL E - 1
June 2003
.06 State the calculated level oI general scour at the
proposed site (in terms oI the site plan datum)
under the design Ilood conditions assuming that
the proposed structural elements constrict Ilow
less than 10. In addition, Ior cases where
proposed approaches and Iills are likely to
constrict Ilow, the eIIects oI these constrictions
are to be calculated. Attach calculations and
sketches.
.07 State the calculated levels oI local and abutment
scour at the proposed site (in terms oI the site plan
datum) under the design Ilood conditions.
Calculations are to take into account the eIIect at
constrictions. Attach calculations and sketches.
.08 Are the estimates oI scour Ior the design Iloods
appropriate Ior the site and the nature oI the
recommended structure?
Should a more conservative level oI scour be
considered? SpeciIy
.09 General comments on the determination oI scour
and bank stability.
.10 Describe the anticipated levels oI scour under
Ultimate Limit State Design Eloods.
Is the structure overtopped at a lower ARI Ilood
than the Ultimate Limit State Design Elood?
Describe the anticipated levels oI scour under the
overtopping Design Elood.

.01 (a) Are Resource Consents required?
(b) II so, what is the status oI the application?
.02
Any general comments on river characteristics or
problems?
E - 1 BRIDGE MANUAL
June 2003

Date:
June 2003


.01 Where some investigations have been carried out on
the site:
(a) Type oI investigations:
(i) Walkover survey
(ii) Test pits
(iii) Penetrometer tests
(iv) Bores
(v) Test piles
(vi) Other, speciIy
(b) Show locations on site plan and provide a record
oI number, locations, depths, results,
interpretation and conclusions.
(c) Outline Iurther investigations proposed.
.02 Where no investigations have been carried out at the
site:
(a) Describe the surIace and anticipated subsurIace
conditions at the site Ior design report purposes.
(b) What investigations are proposed?
.03 What is the depth oI scourable material in the
riverbed?
.04 (a) Are atmospheric, water and soil conditions
likely to be aggressive to construction
materials?
(b) II so, state details.
.05 Position oI abutments to provide saIety against
Iailure oI banks caused by superimposed loading.
.06 Recommended saIe batter slopes Ior approach
earthworks (with allowance Ior seismic conditions)
.07 Is consolidation or diIIerential settlement likely at the
bridge or approaches? II so, give details
.08 Density oI concrete made Irom local materials
.09 Probable abrasive eIIect oI material transported by
the river on concrete and steel.
.10 Comment on presence oI active geological Iaults
June 2003

Date:
BRIDGE MANUAL E - 1
June 2003


.01 State any speciIic environmental (including aesthetic)
considerations which should be allowed Ior in the
design
.02 Is a landscape design required? II so, who will be
responsible?
.03 Length oI bridge or size oI culvert
.04 Clearance Irom natural Ilood stage to soIIit oI
superstructure
.05 State the preIerred construction material and
structural Iorm
.06 Do site conditions indicate speciIic pier or abutment
locations? II so, show on site plan and state reasons
.07 Suggested bridge Ioundations:
(a) Type
(b) Depth
(c) Capacity
(d) General comments
.08 (a) PreIerred type oI surIace drainage layout Ior
bridge and approaches.
(b) Type, size, location oI channels.
(c) PreIerred type and size oI kerb.
(d) PreIerred type and size oI side protection.
Provide sketches as appropriate.
.09 General comment
June 2003


.01 Have proposals been discussed in detail with:
(a) Regional Council
(b) Territorial Authority. SpeciIy.
(c) Other interested parties. SpeciIy.
.02 Give Iile reIerence and date oI the agreement or
approval:
(a) Regional Council
(b) Territorial Authority. SpeciIy.
(c) Other interested parties. SpeciIy.
.03 (a) Where over tidal or navigable waters have
details been submitted to the Maritime SaIety
Authority Ior marine approval?
(b) Has marine approval in Iact been granted?
.04 General comments and Iactors arising Irom 5.01 and
5.02 which should be considered in the design

Date:
SPM022
ISBN0-478-04132-2
June 2003

Transit NZ Bridge Manual 2nd Edition

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BRIDGE MANUAL

Second Edition 2003

design gust wind speed acting on relieving areas

design gust wind speed acting on adverse areas

are Iactors deIined in, and derived Irom, BS 5400, Part

m/s as speciIied above, and

m/s, as speciIied above.

20 the end regions oI each span shall be

, shall be as speciIied in this document.

is the speciIied strength oI the concrete, as deIined in NZS

) shall be as speciIied in this document.

) Iactored by the strength reduction

Foundation Iorces mobilized

vertical pressure in kPa on the plan projected area oI the structure

Site subsoil category

A Rock or very stiII soil sites 0.90

Wearing surIace, nominal thickness 1.40

7 Shear Strengthening and DuctiIity Enhancement of Reinforced

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