Staging and Ascent Trajectory

Prof. Guido Colasurdo

collects the state variables
( )
( )
r V V
z f p
V S C D
p p A v m T
r
g
rel
z z
rel z D
z e e e
=
=
=
+ =
=

,
2
1
2
2
The rocket is assumed as a mass-point
Rotational dynamics is neglected
] , , [ M V r x


=
Controls
The control permits the achievement of the desired
final state (i.e., the target orbit)
Thrust magnitude cannot be a control
- it cannot be adjusted in rocket motors T = f(t)
- optimal control suggests the maximum thrust level
- in liquid engines, thrust is reduced only to keep
dynamical pressure low
The available control is the thrust direction
T T u

=
] , , [ M V r x


=
( ) t u x f x , ,

=
u

Thrust direction
The desired thrust direction is obtained by purposely
orienting the rocket axis
By rotating the nozzle or the entire engine, a torque is
obtained
Angular velocity is created, exploited, and eventually
cancelled by means of an opposite rotation of the engine
when the desired axis orientation is achieved
Rocket Ideal Ascent
The best performance, in the ideal case of rotating Earth
without atmosphere, are obtained:
- launching Eastwards
- launching from an equatorial launch pad
- using a very high thrust level (impulsive maneuver)
- launching horizontally to execute a Hohmann transfer
from the Earth surface to the final orbit
Trajectory constraints
vertical take-off
longitudinal acceleration less than 4-6 g
low transverse forces (slender rocket)
low thermal flux (payload and structure protection)
They result into limits on
- initial acceleration T/M 1.2 g
- incidence
- dynamic pressure 1 bar
- altitude where the fairing is jettisoned 120 km
Rocket trajectory
Vertical ascent to reach the altitude of 50-100m
Pitch-over maneuver (time lenght about 10 s)
Atmospheric flight with low or zero incidence (zero-lift
gravity turn)
Thrust in the optimal direction only for z > 50 km
To reach orbits higher than 300 km, a Hohmann transfer
starts at an altitude of 150 200 km
The length of the coast arcs (but the last one) is quite
low in order
o to reduce gravitational losses
o to avoid uncontrolled flight
VEGA nominal trajectory
Stage Event Time Rel.Speed Altitude Mass Path angle
[s] [m/s] [km] [kg] []
1 Lift-Off 0,2 0,0 0,0 137251,7 90,0
1 Pitch-Over 3,9 31,2 0,1 133540,7 89,9
1 GravityTurn 16,3 173,0 1,3 120100,5 73,6
1 Separation 108,2 1825,5 46,1 49353,8 21,9
2 MotorStart 108,8 1823,4 46,5 40936,1 21,7
2 Separation 196,1 4087,0 106,0 17010,2 8,2
3 MotorStart 217,6 4061,8 116,9 14446,4 6,1
3 HS-Jettison 223,0 4161,6 119,2 13938,5 5,6
3 Separation 335,7 7626,8 147,5 3904,9 1,4
4 MotorStart 343,0 7625,2 148,9 2578,4 1,4
4 Cut-Off 709,1 7928,2 203,6 2288,6 1,2
4 MtrRestart 2942,9 7377,9 697,5 2288,6 0,4
4 Cut-Off 3079,0 7521,4 700,8 2180,8 0,1
Losses (1)
( )
} } } }
=
= = =
+

= = +
+
=
f
i
f
i
f
i
f
i
i f
t g t
M
D
t
M
T
t
M
T
V V
gV V g DV V D TV V T
V g
M
V D
M
V T
t
V
V
t
V
V g
M
D T
t
V
d sin d cos d cos - 1 d
sin cos cos
d
d
d
d
d
d
o
o

( ) o e cos r V
i
=
where
is the contribution of the Earth rotation depending on
geographical latitude o of the launch pad
Losses (2)
The capabilities of the propulsion system
must be equal to the AV characteristic of the mission
which is the sum of
increment of the rocket inertial velocity
misalignment losses
aerodynamic losses
gravitational losses
}
= A
f
i
id
t
M
T
V d
) (losses V V V
i f ch
+ = A
Misalignment Losses
( )
}
f
i
t
M
T
d cos - 1
the angle is the angle between thrust and inertial
velocity
in the initial part of the ascent trajectory, inertial velocity
is orthogonal to the relative velocity and to the thrust
total misalignment losses 600-800m/s
Aerodynamic Losses
}
f
i
t
M
D
d coso
the angle o is the angle between relative and inertial
velocity
the initial vertical ascent reduces the path inside the
densest part of the atmosphere
a low thrust level
o keeps the velocity low inside the densest part of the
atmosphere
o implies low weight of the propulsion system
drag losses are close to 100m/s
Gravitational Losses
} }
A
~ =
f
i
f
i
V
z g
z
V
g
t g d d sin
derive from the velocity reduction that is related to the
increment of potential energy
thrust is better exploited when it is used with high
rocket velocity
are less if higher thrust is available
total gravitational losses 800-1500m/s (depending on
orbit altitude)
trajectory optimization provides the best compromise
between atmospheric and gravitational losses
VEGA trajectory losses
(AV
ch
for injection into polar, 700 km altitude, circular orbit)
Stage Event Mass Dvchar Grav.Loss Aer.Loss Mis.Loss Dvinertial
[kg] [m/s] [m/s] [m/s] [m/s] [m/s]
1 Lift-Off 137251,7 0 0 0 0 0
1 Pitch-Over 133540,7 67,3 -1,1 0,0 -65,1 1,0
1 GravityTurn 120100,5 330,2 -26,0 -0,3 -274,0 29,9
1 Separation 49353,8 2689,3 -460,6 -100,2 -726,1 1402,4
2 MotorStart 40936,1 2689,3 -462,6 -100,3 -726,1 1400,3
2 Separation 17010,2 5151,7 -657,9 -102,5 -761,9 3629,4
3 MotorStart 14446,4 5151,7 -683,1 -102,5 -761,9 3604,2
3 HS-Jettison 13938,5 5256,7 -688,3 -102,5 -762,6 3703,3
3 Separation 3904,9 8771,7 -736,4 -102,5 -781,5 7151,4
4 MotorStart 2578,4 8771,7 -738,0 -102,5 -781,5 7149,7
4 Cut-Off 2288,6 9140,6 -798,9 -102,5 -782,7 7456,6
4 MtrRestart 2288,6 9140,6 -1358,7 -102,5 -782,7 6896,7
4 Cut-Off 2180,8 9289,9 -1361,8 -102,5 -784,5 7041,1
Rocket ideal V (propulsive V)
f
i
sp o
i
f
sp o
f
i
id
M
M
I g M
M
I g
t
M
T
V ln d d = = = A
} }
s u f p s u i
M M M M M M M + = + + =
where the initial mass is the sum of payload, rocket
structural mass, and propellant
s
s p
i
u
M
M M
M
M
+
= = c
By introducing payload ratio and structural coefficient
Rocket ideal V (2)
|
.
|

\
|

+ = = A

+ =
+
= =
c

c
c

1
ln ln
1
1
1 1
sp o sp o id
i
s u
i
f
I g K I g V
K
M
M M
M
M
K
Liquid-propellant rocket
8 6 s 470 280 = = c
sp
I
Solid-propellant rocket
12 9 s 295 265 = = c
sp
I
Single-stage Rocket
2 . 27 10 s 290 = = = K I
sp
c
sp o
id
I g
V
K
A
= exp
Liquid-propellant rocket (LH/LOX)
3 . 9 8 s 430 = = = K I
sp
c
Solid-propellant rocket
( ) c
c
= + =
max
0 1
1 1
K K
K
where
m/s 9400 = A = A
ch id
V V
Multi-stage Rocket
( )

= A = A
j j
sp o
j
j id
K I g V V ln
By assuming equal specific impulse
[
= = A
j
j sp o
j
j sp o id
K I g K I g V ln ln
Rocket performance are improved if one avoids to
accelerate useless mass
The propellant tanks are discharged as soon as they are
empty
Multi-stage Rocket (2)
When the structural coefficient is also the same, maximum
payload is obtained using equal K
j
= K for all stages
Velocity increment is equally split between N stages
Cryogenic propulsion two-stage rocket
Solid propulsion three-stage rocket
05 . 3 3 . 9
2
2 1
= = = K K K K
K I g N V V
sp o tot j
ln = A = A
00 . 3 2 . 27
3
3 2 1
= = = K K K K K
Rocket Preliminary Design (1)
Assumptions
First stage (solid) I
sp
= 270 s c = 11
Second stage (solid) I
sp
= 290 s c = 10
Third stage (liquid, storable) I
sp
= 315 s c = 8
Requirements
Payload mass M
u
= 2000 kg
Mission characteristic velocity V
ch
= 9400 m/s
( ) ( )

= = A
j j
sp o
j j
sp o
I K g K I g V ln ln
For each stage compute
By assuming the same mass ratio K for each stage
Rocket Preliminary Design (2)
( )

A
=
j j
sp o
I g
V
K exp
the payload M
u
is the initial mass of the following stage
c
c

u
i
M
M
K
=

=
1
1
Rocket Preliminary Design (3)
Stage 1 2 3 Payload %
Inert 7961 2370 794 2000 0.0170
Prop 79615 21333 5559 LV(excl PL)
Total 87576 23704 6353 2000 117633
Tot/in 11.00 10.00 8.00
Initial 119633 32057 8353 2000
Final 40018 10723 2794
Isp 270.0 290.0 315.0 875.0
DeltaV 2901 3115 3384 9400
Kappa 2.989 2.989 2.989
Lambda 0.268 0.261 0.239
Sensitivity coefficients (1)
The influence or sensitivity coefficients
are defined for each stage
express the gain in terms of ideal AV, which is
provided by a unit change of the related quantity
are numerically evaluated using Launcher_Tool.xls
2 are dependent on others via c
c c
A c
c
A c
c
A c
c
A c
c
A c V
M
V
M
V
M
V
I
V
t s p sp
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
A c

c
A c
=
c
A c
c
A c
+
c
A c
=
c
A c
s p
s
p s t
M
V
M
V M V
M
V
M
V
M
V
c c c
c
c
1 1
Stage 1 2 3 Payload
Inert Ms -0.0440 -0.2206 -0.9564 -0.9564
Propellant Mp 0.0221 0.0447 0.1493
Total Mt 0.0161 0.0182 0.0111
Total/inert
c /100
0.479 0.629 1.098
Specific Impulse Isp 10.89 10.89 10.89
The sensitivity to the payload is the same as the
sensitivity to the structural mass of the last stage
1 s less of specific impulse in any stage causes
the loss of 11 kg of payload
Sensitivity coefficients (2)
Sensitivity coefficients (3)
By reducing AV
ch
from 9400 m/s to the VEGA actual
value (9290 m/s)
By moving 1 kg of total mass from stage 3 to stage 2
The optimal split of of the launcher mass is obtained
when the total-mass sensitivity coefficients are equal
( ) ( ) ( ) kg 115 9564 . 0 / 110 = =
c
A c
A A = A
s
ch u
M
V
V M
g 2 . 7
2 3
=
c
A c
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
c
A c

|
|
.
|

\
|
c
A c
= A
s t t
u
M
V
M
V
M
V
M
Design Refinement (1)
Use the stage-total-mass sensitivity coefficients
Move 173 kg from stage 3 to stage 2
Move 1723 kg from stage 1 to stage 2
Stage 1 2 3 Payload
Coefficient 0.0161 0.0182 0.0111 2000
Stage 1 2 3 Payload
Coefficient 0.0161 0.0178 0.0140 2001
Stage 1 2 3 Payload
Coefficient 0.0163 0.0162 0.0163 2002
Design Refinement (2)
Stage 1 2 3 Payload %
Inert 7805 2560 773 2002 0.0170
Prop 78048 23040 5408 LV(excl PL)
Total 85853 25600 6180 2002 117633
Tot/in 11.00 10.00 8.00
Initial 119635 33782 8182
Final 41587 10742 2775
Isp 270.0 290.0 315.0
DeltaV 2799 3260 3342 9400
Kappa 2.877 3.145 2.949
Lambda 0.282 0.242 0.245
Cryogenic Third Stage (1)
replace third stage using LOX/LCH4 engine
assume I
sp
= 360 s c = 7
the payload increases to 2360 kg
the stage-total-mass sensitivity coefficients
suggest to increase the mass of the third stage
a heavier third stage is not advisable, as it may require
changes of the other stages
Stage 1 2 3 Payload
Coefficient 0.0163 0.0166 0.0439 2360
Stage 1 2 3 Payload %
Inert 7805 2560 883 2360 0.0201
Prop 78048 23040 5297 LV(excl PL)
Total 85853 25600 6180 2360 117633
Tot/in 11.00 10.00 7.00
Initial 119993 34140 8540
Final 41945 11100 3243
Isp 270.0 290.0 360.0
DeltaV 2784 3196 3420 9400
Kappa 2.861 3.076 2.633
Lambda 0.285 0.250 0.276
Cryogenic Third Stage (2)
Assumptions
First stage (solid) I
sp
= 272 s c = 11
Second stage (LOX/LCH4) I
sp
= 360 s c = 7
Results
Heavier launcher:
total initial mass grows from 120 to 158 tons
The first stage must be redesigned
Two-stage Rocket
Two-stage Rocket
Stage 1 2 3 Payload %
Inert 12327 2907 0 2000 0.013
Prop 123267 17444 0 LV(excl PL)
Total 135593 20351 0 2000 155944
Tot/in 11.00 7.00 8.00
Initial 157944 22351 2000 2000
Final 34678 4907 2000
Isp 272.0 360.0 0.0 632.0
DeltaV 4046 5354 0 9400
Kappa 4.555 4.555 1.000
Lambda 0.142 0.089 1.000
Assumptions
Cryogenic engine (LOX/LH) I
sp
= 430 s
Results
Minimum value required for the structural coefficient
c
min
= 9.28
Comparable initial mass (145 tons) requires
c = 10.5
Single-stage Rocket