PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory

Stan Zochowski
December 17, 2011
PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory
2011 2
PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CONTENTS
Contents
1 Introduction 7
1.1 Mathematical Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2 Overview of PHAS2201 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2.1 Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2.2 Electrostatics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.2.3 Magnetostatics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.2.4 Electromagnetism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2 Macroscopic Fields 13
2.1 Reminder of PHAS2201 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.1.1 Electrostatics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.1.2 Dielectrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.2 Electric Field in Dielectric Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.3 Magnetic Fields Revision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.4 Magnetic Vector Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.5 Magnetic Intensity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.6 Interfaces and Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.7 Summary of Linear Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3 Atomic Mechanisms 29
3.1 Dipoles and Polarization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.2 Magnetic Dipole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.3 Magnetic Dipoles and Magnetization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.4 Diamagnetism and Paramagnetism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4 Ferromagnetism 47
4.1 Atomic-level Picture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
4.2 B & H: Macroscopic Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
4.3 Simple Examples of Electromagnetic Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
4.3.1 Solenoid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
4.3.2 Bar Magnet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
4.3.3 Toroid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
4.3.4 Fluxmeter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
4.4 Energy Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4.5 Summaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
5 Maxwells Equations and EM Waves 63
5.1 Displacement Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
5.2 Maxwells Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
5.2.1 Differential Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
5.2.2 Integral Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
5.2.3 Wave Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
5.3 Plane Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
5.4 Polarization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
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PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CONTENTS
6 Reection & Refraction 71
6.1 Refractive Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
6.1.1 Origin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
6.1.2 Phase velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
6.2 Reection & Refraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
6.2.1 Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
6.2.2 Two Laws: Reection & Refraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
6.2.3 Changes of Amplitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
6.2.4 Fresnel Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
6.3 Special Angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
6.3.1 Brewster Angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
6.3.2 Critical Angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
6.3.3 Total Internal Reection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
6.3.4 Intensities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
7 Waves in Conducting Media 81
7.1 Conductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
7.1.1 Origins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
7.1.2 Dispersion Relation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
7.1.3 Good Conductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
7.1.4 Skin depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
7.2 Reection At Metal Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
7.2.1 Refractive Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
7.3 Plasmas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
7.3.1 Plasma Frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
7.3.2 Dispersion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
8 Energy Flow and the Poynting Vector 89
8.1 Poyntings Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
8.1.1 Energy Densities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
8.1.2 Energy Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
8.1.3 Poyntings Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
8.1.4 Average ow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
8.2 Pressure due to EM Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
8.2.1 Photons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
9 Emission of Radiation 93
9.1 Retarded Potentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
9.1.1 Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
9.1.2 Lorentz Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
9.1.3 Wave Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
9.1.4 Retarded Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
9.2 Hertzian Dipole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
9.2.1 Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
9.2.2 Potentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
10 Relativistic Transformations 101
10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
10.1.1 Basic Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
10.1.2 Coordinate transforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
10.1.3 Interval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
10.1.4 Lorentz transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
10.2 Four-vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
10.2.1 Position-Time 4-vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
10.2.2 Other 4-vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
10.3 Transformations of Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
10.3.1 Current Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
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PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CONTENTS
10.3.2 Potentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
10.3.3 Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
10.3.4 Maxwells Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
10.3.5 Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
2011 5
PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CONTENTS
2011 6
PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
Chapter 1
Introduction
Ofce hours: anytime you can nd me, or email me ([email protected]) to set a time. Attendance sheets must be
lled in. Theyll be given out at the start of a lecture and collated over the weeks.
Problem sheets will be given out through the term, roughly every two weeks. As detailed in the Preliminaries, the best
three problem sheets will count for 10% of the nal course mark. N.B. There will be four sheets during term.
Full sets of lecture notes will be made available a few days after the lecture. A complete PDF le will be available at
the end of the course.
1.1 Mathematical Tools
The easy use of mathematical tools is vital to understanding electromagnetic theory.
The differential operators transform vectors and scalars:
Grad : scalar to vector F(r) = (r) (1.1)
=
_

i +

y

j +

z

k
_
(1.2)
Div : vector to scalar q(r) = F(r) (1.3)
=
F
x
x
+
F
y
y
+
F
z
z
(1.4)
Curl : vector to vector G(r) = F(r) (1.5)
=

i j k

z
F
x
F
y
F
z

(1.6)
These are also given in the Preliminaries handout for other coordinate systems;
They should be reasonably familiar.
These should be reasonably familiar from the courses in the rst and second years. Hopefully we wont have to spend
much time on them, but they are important.
Integrals of vectors can produce scalars or vectors;
There are 1-, 2- and 3-D integrals (line, surface and volume);
These are all important in Electromagnetic theory!
There are important theorems relating integrals of the differential operators:
Divergence Theorem:
_
V
Fdv =
_
S
F nda (1.7)
2011 7
PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
Stokes Theorem:
_
S
F nda =
_
C
F dl (1.8)
Notice the importance of
_
!
Its useful to understand how a line integral works by considering the basic denition in terms of small steps:
_
b
a C
F dl = lim
N
N

i=1
F
i
dl
i
, (1.9)
where C is the curve were integrating along. In other words, at each point along the curve we take the dot product
between the function were integrating and the tangent to the curve, and then sum over all these points. It should be easy
to see that, in general, the value of the line integral will depend on the curve chosen.
There are two standard ways of working out a line integral. If you are given F(x, y) along some line g(x, y), then
we can replace every occurrence of y and dy in the integral below with some functions of x (found from g(x, y)) and
integrate:
_
C
F dl =
_
C
F
x
(x, y)dx +F
y
(x, y)dy (1.10)
=
_
C
F
x
(x, y(x))dx +F
y
(x, y(x))
dy
dx
dx. (1.11)
The second way is using a parametric form. This is possible if the curve being used for the integral is given in terms
of a parameter (e.g. angle around a circle). Then we have a curve l(t) which depends on a single parameter t. So we
write:
_
C
F dl =
_
b
a
F(l(t))
dl
dt
dt (1.12)
=
_
b
a
F
x
(x(t), y(t))
dx
dt
dt +F
y
(x(t), y(t))
dy
dt
dt (1.13)
One important result is:
_
b
a
dl = (b) (a), (1.14)
so that the line integral of a gradient is independent of path.
Surface integrals can be evaluated in a similar way, and we expect to have a surface dened; one way is like this:
r(u, v) = x(u, v)i +y(u, v)j +z(u, v)k. (1.15)
Then we know that
r
u

r
v
is orthogonal to the surface. It is also useful to remember that for a plane passing through a
point r
0
, the normal is dened as:
n (r r
0
) = 0 (1.16)
(a, b, c) (x x
0
, y y
0
, z z
0
) = 0. (1.17)
Its clear that a plane whose equation is ax +by +cz = d has a normal vector given by (a, b, c).
1.2 Overview of PHAS2201
1.2.1 Fields
In a vacuum, the basic elds are E and B;
What are they? What are their units?
When they interact with matter, there are changes;
2011 8
PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
Why should this happen?
We have the the elds Dand H, with D =
0
E+P and B =
0
(H+M) where Mis the magnetization;
Be careful that you know what youre dealing with!
The electric and magnetic elds have SI units of newtons per coulomb (or volts per metre) and tesla (equivalent to
kilograms per coulomb second!). Be careful with units: Gaussian units are quite different. Note that B is often called the
magnetic induction eld, or simply the magnetic induction.
Matter responds to elds: the atoms of molecules polarize in an electric eld, and respond in varied ways to a magnetic
eld (both diminishing and amplifying it). The elds Dand Hreect this.
Figure 1.1: Denition of r (point) and r

(source)
1.2.2 Electrostatics
For two charges, q
1
and q
2
at rest at points r
1
and r
2
Force Field
F(r
2
) =
q
1
q
2
4
0
|r
2
r
1
|
2
r
12
E(r
2
) =
q
1
4
0
|r
2
r
1
|
2
r
12
Energy Potential
U(r
2
) =
q
1
q
2
4
0
|r
2
r
1
|
(r
2
) =
q
1
4
0
|r
2
r
1
|
(1.18)
How are the force and eld directed?
What are the values at r
1
?
What is
0
, and what are its units?
The force and eld are directed along a line joining the two charges; the values would have equal magnitude but the
opposite direction.
0
is the permittivity of free space (absolute permittivity), and is 8.854 10
12
Fm
1
where the units
are C
2
N
1
m
2
. This value has been chosen, not measured.
For a charge density (r)
First Maxwell Equation: Gauss Law
E(r) =
(r)

0
(1.19)
2011 9
PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
This can also be written for a collection of charges:
_
E nda =
1

i
q
i
(1.20)
The integral and differential forms are linked by the divergence theorem
Note that

i
q
i
=
_
V
dv
1.2.3 Magnetostatics
For an element of a current loop, dl, carrying current I at r

:
dB(r) =

0
I
4
dl (r r

)
[r r

[
3
(1.21)
We can perform a loop integral:
B =

0
I
4
_
C
dl (r r

)
[r r

[
3
(1.22)
Because F = 0, we can show that there is a magnetic vector potential Asuch that B = A, so
Second Maxwell Equation: No Magnetic Monopoles
B = 0 (1.23)
What is
0
, and what are its units?
Remember that the Biot-Savart lawis empirical: there is no underlying theory stating that there are no magnetic monopoles
in the universe. But we havent found any yet! The result derived from the Biot-Savart law is the second Maxwell equa-
tion.

0
is the permeability of free space, and is 410
7
T m A
1
(which is equivalent to kilograms metres per coulomb
2
).
1.2.4 Electromagnetism
For a surface S bounded by loop C,
_
c
B dl =
0
I, (1.24)
where I is the current passing through the surface S
We can write I as
_
S
J nda
Using Stokes Theorem, we nd:
_
c
B dl =
_
S
B nda =
0
I =
_
S

0
J nda (1.25)
Third Maxwell Equation: Ampres law
B =
0
J (1.26)
This is incomplete.
2011 10
PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
We will consider the detailed form of why Ampres law is incomplete later in the lectures, though you should already
have seen this and understood it at some level. This will form our third Maxwell equation when complete.
If a conducting circuit, C, is intersected by a B eld, then the ux is given by:

C
=
_
S
B nda (1.27)
The EMF induced around the circuit is
c =
d
dt
=
_
C
E dl (1.28)
As before, we can use Stokes Theorem to write:
_
S
dB
dt
nda =
_
C
E dl =
_
S
E nda (1.29)
and derive:
Fourth Maxwell Equation: Faradays Law
E =
dB
dt
(1.30)
As you can see, the derivation is almost trivial: substitute Eq. (1.27) into Eq. (1.28), and then apply Stokes theorem
to the loop integral of E. This is the nal Maxwell equation.
Ampres law as described above is incomplete: it needs to account for time-varying electric elds
When we do this, we can write (in a vacuum):
Maxwells Equations:
E =

0
(1.31)
B = 0 (1.32)
B =
0
J +
0

0
dE
dt
(1.33)
E =
dB
dt
(1.34)
To complete our set of equations, we have the force on a moving charge:
Lorentz Force
F = q (E+v B) (1.35)
Once Maxwells equations and the Lorentz force law have been specied, classical electromagnetism is essentially
complete: the basic physics has not changed, though the details of the interaction of the elds with matter are still being
understood.
2011 11
PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
2011 12
PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 2. MACROSCOPIC FIELDS
Chapter 2
Macroscopic Fields
Maxwells equations have two major variants: the microscopic set of Maxwells equations uses total charge and total cur-
rent including the difcult-to-calculate atomic level charges and currents in materials. The macroscopic set of Maxwells
equations denes two new auxiliary elds that can sidestep having to know these atomic sized charges and currents.
Unlike the microscopic equations, "Maxwells macroscopic equations", also known as Maxwells equations in matter,
factor out the bound charge and current to obtain equations that depend only on the free charges and currents. These
equations are more similar to those that Maxwell himself introduced. The cost of this factorization is that additional elds
need to be dened: the displacement eld D which is dened in terms of the electric eld E and the polarization P of
the material, and the magnetic-Held, which is dened in terms of the magnetic-Beld and the magnetization Mof the
material. In this chapter, we will look at these macroscopic elds, Dand H.
2.1 Reminder of PHAS2201
We begin this section of the course by going over electrostatic concepts which should be very familiar from PHAS2201,
including Gauss law and the effect of dielectrics on capacitance.
2.1.1 Electrostatics
We start with a single charge, q, at r

:
E(r) = q(r r

)/(4
0
[r r

[
3
) (2.1)
Taking a surface integral gives
_
S
E.nda = q/
0
Increasing the number of charges, and using the principle of superposition, we get:
_
S
E.nda =
_
dv/
0
(2.2)
This leads directly to Gauss law: E = /
0
We will now go through a few worked examples on the use of Gauss Law.
Ex. 1 Find the electric eld inside a sphere which carries a charge density proportional to the distance from the origin,
= kr, for some constant k.
Ex. 2 A long coaxial cable carries a uniform volume charge density on the inner cylinder (radius a), and a uniform
surface charge density on the outer cylindrical shell (radius b). This surface charge is negative and of just the right
magnitude so that the cable as a whole is electrically neutral. Find the electric eld in each of the three regions: (i) inside
the inner cylinder (r < a), (ii) between the cylinders (a < r < b), (iii) outside the cable (r > b). Plot [E[ as a function of
r.
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PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 2. MACROSCOPIC FIELDS
2.1.2 Dielectrics
A dielectric is an electrical insulator that can be polarized by an applied electric eld. When a dielectric is placed in an
electric eld, electric charges do not ow through the material, as in a conductor, but only slightly shift from their average
equilibrium positions causing dielectric polarization. Because of dielectric polarization, positive charges are displaced
toward the eld and negative charges shift in the opposite direction. This creates an internal electric eld which reduces
the overall eld within the dielectric itself.
Recall that capacitance is dened by Q = CV
Capacitance changes when a dielectric is added:
C
dielectric
= C
vacuum
(2.3)
A dielectric has no free charges: an insulator
The polarization is P =
0

e
E (and is dened as dipole moment per unit volume)
This gives the susceptibility,
e
The dielectric constant is = 1 +
e
Polarization reects the fact that the atoms which make up the dielectric consist of separate positive (nucleus) and
negative (electrons) charges. These respond differently to the electric eld, leading to a shift in the overall charge distri-
bution of the dielectric, while keeping it neutral. We will consider the microscopic origin of polarization in detail in next
section of the course.
Figure 2.1: Electronic polarization occurs due to displacement of the centre of the negatively charged electron cloud
relative to the positive nucleus of an atom by the electric eld.
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PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 2. MACROSCOPIC FIELDS
2.2 Electric Field in Dielectric Media
We want to develop a theory for electric elds in the presence of polarized media
We will start by consider the eld outside a piece of polarized dielectric
This will introduce the ideas of polarization charge densities
Then we will move onto the eld inside a piece of polarized dielectric
We will nd a useful reformulation of Gauss Law
Figure 2.2: Electronic polarization occurs due to displacement of the centre of the negatively charged electron cloud
relative to the positive nucleus of an atom by the electric eld.
We start by nding the potential at a point r due to a small volume of polarized material at a point r

. We will then
integrate this over the entire piece of dielectric material. First, note that the potential at r due to a dipole at r

is:
(r) =
1
4
0
p (r r

)
[ r r

[
3
(2.4)
Recall that p = qd and that P = p/v.
Then we use the fact that the polarization is the dipole moment per unit volume to write:
(r) =
v

P(r

) (r r

)
4
0
[r r

[
3
(2.5)
When we take the limit v 0 and sum over the elements, we get an expression for the total potential:
(r) =
_
V
dv

P(r

) (r r

)
4
0
[r r

[
3
(2.6)
We use the gradient of 1/ [r r

[, derived as (worth remembering!):

_
1
[r r

[
_
=
(r r

)
[r r

[
3
(2.7)
to transform this:
(r) =
1
4
0
_
V
P(r

_
1
[r r

[
_
dv

(2.8)
Using the formula for (F) from the Mathematical Identities,
(F) = () F + F (2.9)
and rearranging (we want F ) we can write, with F = P(r

) and =
1
|rr

|
,
(r) =
1
4
0
_
V
_

_
P(r

)
[r r

[
_

1
[r r

[
P(r

)
_
dv

(2.10)
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PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 2. MACROSCOPIC FIELDS
Finally, we use the divergence theorem on the rst term
__
V
Fdv =
_
S
F nda

, to give the potential outside a

polarized dielectric object:
(r) =
1
4
0
_
S
P(r

) n
[r r

[
da

+
1
4
0
_
V
P(r

)
[r r

[
dv

(2.11)
The surface polarization charge density is dened:

P
= P n (2.12)
The volume polarization charge density is dened:

P
= P (2.13)
We can write the potential as:
(r) =
1
4
0
__
S

P
[r r

[
da

+
_
V

P
[r r

[
dv

_
(2.14)
=
1
4
0
_
dq
P
[r r

[
(2.15)
For uniform polarization, P = 0, so there is no bound charge within the material, but there will be bound charge
on the surface.
Bound charge: The charge within a material that is unable to move freely through the material. Small displacements
of bound charge are responsible for polarization of a material by an electric eld.
Free charge: The charge in a conducting material associated with the conduction electrons that are free to move
throughout the material. These electrons can carry electric current.
Figure 2.3: Origin of surface charge density due to polarization.
We have considered the eld due to a polarized dielectric, but only outside the dielectric. What is the eld inside a
polarized dielectric?
Consider three (small) charged conductors embedded in a dielectric
They have charges q
1
, q
2
and q
3
(sum to Q)
Now use Gauss Law:
_
S
E nda =
1

0
(Q+Q
P
) (2.16)
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PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 2. MACROSCOPIC FIELDS
We start by noting that:
Q
P
=
_
S
1
+S
2
+S
3
P nda +
_
V
Pdv. (2.17)
It is important to realize that the arbitrary bounding surface S does not enter into this integral because there is no po-
larization charge density on it (it is not a real surface). We use the divergence theorem
__
V
Fdv =
_
S
F nda

to
transform the second integral into a surface integral. But we must take care: this time, we must include the surface S
because it bounds the volume V. It is also important to understand the directions of the surface normals. Explicitly, this
gives:
Q
P
=
_
S
1
+S
2
+S
3
P nda
_
S
P nda
_
S
1
+S
2
+S
3
P nda (2.18)
=
_
S
P nda (2.19)
Now we can use this is in Gauss law inside the dielectric, which was given as Eq. (2.16):
_
S
E nda =
1

0
Q
1

0
_
S
P nda. (2.20)
After a little manipulation, we can rewrite this in terms of the free or external charge, Q.
Using the divergence theorem yet again,
_
V
Fdv =
_
S
F nda, we nd that:
Q =
_
S
(
0
E+P) nda (2.21)
D =
0
E+P (2.22)
becomes
_
V
(v)dv =
_
Ddv (2.23)
The electric displacement Dis the eld whose divergence is the free (or external) charge density
So, if we consider a charge density, and use the divergence theorem, we get:
Divergence of D
D = (r) (2.24)
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PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 2. MACROSCOPIC FIELDS
External Charge
We have talked about free or external charge (as opposed to the bound charge)
With a dielectric, the difference is clear
Charge added from outside (external charge) is different to polarization charge
But it is not free to move
For a conductor, charge is free to move around
It is important to be aware of the difference between charge added and charge already present
In general, the polarization P is a function of the material and the external eld E
We write P =
0

e
E in linear, isotropic, homogeneous media
In these media, as
e
(the electric susceptibility) is constant:
D =
0
E+
0

e
E = E (2.25)
We call =
0
(1 +
e
) the permittivity, and /
0
the relative permittivity or dielectric constant
Linear: P depends linearly on E
Homogeneous:
e
does not vary with position
Isotropic: P and E are parallel
[Non-examinable material] [It is important to realize that a sufciently strong electric eld can break apart the charges
in a material which form the microscopic dipoles. At this point, called dielectric breakdown, all approximations discussed
to this point are invalid. For air, whose dielectric constant is 1.0006, the maximum eld sustainable without breakdown is
around 3 10
6
V/m.
The reason that we refer to an isotropic dielectric for the relation P =
0

e
(E) Eis that it implies that the polarization
has the same direction as the external eld. This is a good approximation for most media, but it is necessary in some media
to replace this with a tensor relationship, where the two vectors are not in the same direction. This type of behaviour is
more common in magnetic materials, which we will come to.]
Energy Density
What is the energy density of an electric eld?
We will consider this in two ways:
1. Charge owing into a capacitor;
2. Adding a small charge to a eld.
The nal result is the same:
Energy Density of an Electric Field
U =
1
2
D E (2.26)
Considering a capacitor rst, we assume that it is in the process of being charged. If we start with the expression for
power (which is rate of change of energy with time) for a current I(t) owing at a voltage V (t) at time t, P(t) = V (t)I(t).
Then the energy is:
W =
_
P(t)dt =
_
V (t)I(t)dt =
_
Q(t)
C
dQ
dt
dt =
1
2
Q
2
C
(2.27)
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PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 2. MACROSCOPIC FIELDS
For a parallel plate capacitor with plates of area A separated by a distance d, we know that the capacitance is given by
C =
A
d
. Using V = Q/C, we nd that the electric eld can be written:
E =
V
d
=
Q
Cd
=
Qd
Ad
=
Q
A
. (2.28)
Of course, as D = E, we nd that D =
Q
A
. So the energy density is given by:
U =
W
Ad
=
1
2
Q
2
CAd
=
1
2
Q
2
A
2
=
1
2
D E (2.29)
Another (more general) way to reach the same formula is to consider the work done bringing a charge from innity to
the point where the energy density is required. We know that the energy of a point charge, q, in a potential is W = q.
This can be generalized for a charge distribution given by the charge density (r):
W =
_
V
dv. (2.30)
Now, what would be change in electrostatic energy when adding a small amount of charge, ? We use our recent
result for Gauss theorem, D = :
W =
_
V
dv (2.31)
= D (2.32)
( D) = (D) D () (2.33)
W =
_
V
(D) D dv (2.34)
W =
_
S
D nda
_
V
D dv, (2.35)
where we have used the divergence theorem on the rst part of the integral in the nal line. But we know that E = ,
and we can notice that the rst term will fall off rapidly with distance (D with 1/r
2
and with 1/r). This means that we
can write overall, as the volume being integrated tends to innity:
W =
_
V
D Edv (2.36)
Now, if we assume a linear, dielectric medium, we know that D = E, and we can integrate over the eld going from 0
to D:
W =
_
D
0
W =
_
D
0
_
V
D Edv (2.37)
We can write:
W =
1
2
_
E
0
_
V

_
E
2
_
dv =
1
2
_
V
E
2
dv (2.38)
This of course gives us the result we derived above, namely U = E D/2.
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PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 2. MACROSCOPIC FIELDS
2.3 Magnetic Fields Revision
An important point to note as we start the area of magnetic elds is that this is where the essential link between elec-
tric elds and magnetic elds (leading to the unied area of electromagnetism) becomes apparent. Thus far we have
considered electrostatics only.
The magnetic eld at r
2
due to a circuit at r
1
, in both integral and differential forms:
Biot-Savart Field Law
B(r
2
) =

0
4
I
1
_
1
dl
1
r
12
[r
12
[
3
(2.39)
dB(r
2
) =

0
4
I
1
dl
1
r
12
[r
12
[
3
(2.40)
Note that this is empiricially derived.
For a current density, we nd:
B(r
2
) =

0
4
_
V
J(r
1
) r
12
[r
12
[
3
dv
1
(2.41)
This implies that
2
B = 0, which indicates a lack of magnetic monopoles.
We can show the last statement using the mathematical identity for (F G) = (F) G(G) F:

2
B =

0
4
_
V

2

_
J(r
1
) r
12
[r
12
[
3
_
dv
1
(2.42)
=

0
4
_
V
J(r
1
)
_

r
12
[r
12
[
3
_
dv
1
, (2.43)
where, since we are taking the divergence at point r
2
, the term involving
2
J(r
1
) is zero. But now we can use two
identities:
1. (1/r
12
) = r
12
/ [r
12
[
3
2. () = 0
This shows that the integral on the right-hand size of equation (2.43) is zero, and hence there are no magnetic monopoles
(though note that we started from just this assumption: that the magnetic eld arises from the line integral around a
circuit!).
The original, integral form of Ampres Law is:
_
C
B dl =
0
I, (2.44)
where the current is that owing through the area enclosed by the path.
The differential form comes from writing I =
_
S
J nda
B =
0
J (2.45)
But we have to account for time-varying E:
Ampre-Maxwell Law
B =
0
J +
0

0
E
t
(2.46)
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PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 2. MACROSCOPIC FIELDS
We can understand why this is incomplete by considering a capacitor being charged with a constant current, I. Using
Ampres law (in original form) we see:
_
B dl =
0
_
S
J nda (2.47)
Now consider a loop, C, around the wire leading to one plate of the capacitor, and two different surfaces, as shown in
Fig. 2.4:
1. A surface cutting the wire
2. A surface passing between the plates of the capacitor, and not cutting the wire
Figure 2.4: Amprian loops on a charging capacitor.
It is clear that these will give two different answers for the integral over the current density: in the rst, the answer will be
I, and in the second it will be zero. This is clearly wrong, as Ampres law insists that the choice of surface be arbitrary.
The resolution to the problem, using the continuity equation, will be considered later, in Chapter 5, on Maxwells
Equations.
Faradays Law
Electromotive force (emf) is equivalent to a potential difference
Often encountered in terms of circuits, with inductance
Around a circuit, the emf, c, is dened by:
c =
_
C
E dl (2.48)
Faradays Law (integral form):
c =
d
dt
(2.49)
We dene the magnetic ux, , as:
=
_
S
B nda, (2.50)
in other words the magnetic eld crossing a surface. Now, using the denition of emf we can related the electric eld to
the derivative of the magnetic eld:
_
C
E dl =
d
dt
_
S
B nda. (2.51)
Provided that the circuit being considered does not change with time, we can take the time derivative inside the integral.
We can also use Stokes theorem
__
C
F dl =
_
S
F nda

on the line integral of E to obtain the surface integral of

E:
_
s
E nda =
_
S
B
t
nda. (2.52)
Since this must be true for all xed surfaces S, we nd:
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PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 2. MACROSCOPIC FIELDS

The differential form of Faradays Law:

E =
B
t
(2.53)
When the magnetic eld is static, this reduces to the conservative eld E, E = 0.
Notice the minus sign: Lenzs law states that any induced magnetic eld opposes the change in ux that induced it
2.4 Magnetic Vector Potential
The solution of many electrostatic problems is made easier by working in terms of the potential rather than the electric
eld directly. The same idea can be applied to the magnetic eld, though the eventual solution is rather more complex.
Since = 0 we know that we can write E = when B/t = 0
Similarly, we know that B = 0
The relevant identity here is (A) = 0
We can then write generally:
The Magnetic Vector Potential:
B = A, (2.54)
where Ais the vector potential
When we consider the form of the vector potential, it should be immediately apparent (by analogy with the electric
eld as gradient of the potential) that there is a freedom in choosing it:
A

A+ f (2.55)
for any scalar function f results in the same B eld since (f) = 0. This invariance under a transformation is
called gauge invariance. It should not be surprising: the electrostatic potential, , is not dened up to an arbitrary additive
constant (and all potentials are actually potential differences.
[Non-examinable] [This vector potential is not just something weve dreamt up: for instance, when considering the
Schrdinger equation for a quantum particle in the presence of a magnetic eld (even if it never passes through the region
where B > 0, the momentum operator needs to be altered: p p
e
c
A).]
There are different ways of choosing the vector potential which help with different situations. Consider a situation
where the electric eld does not change with time. Then we write Ampres Law as:
B = A =
0
J (2.56)
( A)
2
A =
0
J. (2.57)
The Coulomb gauge is:
A = 0 (2.58)
It leads to the following expression for the vector potential:

2
A =
0
J (2.59)
By analogy with Poissons equation,
2
V = /
0
, we can write:
A(r
1
) =

0
4
_
V
J(r
2
)
[r
1
r
2
[
dr
2
(2.60)
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PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 2. MACROSCOPIC FIELDS
The current density determines the vector potential
There are other choices of gauge, for instance, the Lorentz gauge is A =
o

0
(V/t).
Gauge invariance is a more general phenomenon
Solving for vector potential is (generally) harder than solving for the electrostatic potential
The electric eld can no longer be expressed as the gradient of a scalar potential if there is a time-varying B eld:
E(t) =
A
t
(2.61)
This last change can be seen rather easily. Consider the Maxwell equation for the curl of the electric eld:
E =
B
t
(2.62)
and substitute in the form of B = A:
E+

t
A = 0 (2.63)
The vector E+A/t has zero curl. We know from identities that it can be written as a gradient of a scalar:
E+
A
t
= (2.64)
So, rearranging, we nd that E = A/t
2.5 Magnetic Intensity
As we saw with the electric eld, E, the introduction of a medium other than vacuum results in changes to Maxwells
equations. These changes can be handled by using an alternative eld which includes the effects of the medium implicitly.
We will now do the same for magnetic elds. A word of caution: non-linear magnetic media are much more common
than non-linear electric media; we will deal with these rather interesting materials in Chapter 4 on Ferromagnetism.
Magnetization
We introduced the polarization of a dielectric material, P E
Similarly, we introduce a quantity, proportional to the magnetic induction B
This is the magnetization, M
It describes the response of a material to the magnetic induction
Electrons can be modelled as moving in loops around atoms: we can use the magnetic dipole to model the response
Let us consider the vector potential at a point r
1
due to a small volume of magnetised material at a point r
2
(we will
see later that this is given by the expression below). This small volume will have magnetic moment m = M(r
2
) V
2
.
Then we can write:
A(r
1
) =

0
4
_
V
mr
12
[r
12
[
3
(2.65)
=

0
4
_
V
M(r
2
) r
12
[r
12
[
3
dV
2
(2.66)
=

0
4
_
V
M(r
2
)
2
1
r
12
dV
2
, (2.67)
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PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 2. MACROSCOPIC FIELDS
where weve used a standard result to get from Eq. (2.66) to Eq. (2.67). Now we use the expansion of (F), with
F = Mand =
1
r
12
to write:
F = F (F) (2.68)
A(r
1
) =

0
4
_
V
_

2
M(r
2
)
r
12

_
M(r
2
)
r
12
__
dV
2
(2.69)
Now we use the theorem
_
V
FdV =
_
S
n Fda to write:
A(r
1
) =

0
4
_
V

2
M(r
2
)
r
12
dV
2

0
4
_
S
n M(r
2
)
r
12
da
2
(2.70)
=

0
4
_
V

2
M(r
2
)
r
12
dV
2
+

0
4
_
S
Mn(r
2
)
r
12
da
2
(2.71)
This then leads us to the magnetization current densities:
We formally dene:
J
M
= M (2.72)
j
M
= Mn (2.73)
J
M
is the volume magnetization current density
j
M
is the surface magnetization current density
It is clear that there will be no bound current density where the magnetization is uniform. So within the bulk of the rod
there is a bound current density given by J
M
= M, and at the surface there is a bound surface current per unit length
given by j
M
= M n is a unit vector in the direction of the outward normal to the surface. J
M
is a current per unit
area, where the area is perpendicular to the direction of ow, and j
M
is a current per unit length, where the length is in the
plane of the surface and perpendicular to the direction of the surface current. These bound currents are the net effect of
the microscopic currents associated with magnetic dipoles.
Figure 2.5: Origins of the magnetization surface current
We move on to considering how linear magnetic media behave . . .
We know that B =
0
J
We also have J = J
M
+J
f
Here J
f
is due to the motion of free charges, and J
M
= M
So B =
0
(J
f
+ M) or
_
B

0
M
_
= J
f
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PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 2. MACROSCOPIC FIELDS
We then dene H, the magnetic intensity, as
Magnetic Intensity
H =
B

0
M (2.74)
This yields H = J
f
The magnetic intensity serves a similar purpose to the electric displacement, in accounting for the response of the
medium as well as the magnetic induction. We can rewrite this, using Stokes theorem:
_
S
H nda =
_
S
J
f
nda (2.75)
_
C
H dl =
_
S
J
f
nda (= I
f
) (2.76)
This tells us that the integral of the intensity along a closed loop is equal to the current owing across the surface dened
by that loop. It also gives the units as amperes per metre (the same units as the magnetization).
It is important to note that the three quantities that we have dened so far (the magnetic induction, B, the magneti-
zation, M and the magnetic intensity, H) are not necessarily parallel; this will be important when considering ferromag-
netism in particular.
Magnetic Susceptibility
For a linear, isotropic material, we assert (based on experimental observations):
M =
m
H (2.77)
where
m
is the magnetic susceptibility
We can write B =
0
(1 +
m
) H
If
m
> 0 we have a paramagnetic material
If
m
< 0 we have a diamagnetic material
Note that
m
can depend on temperature, but is generally small for these materials (less than 10
5
)
2.6 Interfaces and Boundary Conditions
Understanding how the different eld vectors change at interfaces is important
We need to consider both medium/vacuum and medium/medium interfaces
We will consider the electric and magnetic elds in two groups:
Dand B together
E and Htogether
We want to know what is conserved
Normal components
First notice that we can write similar equations for
Dand B:
D =
f
B = 0
2011 25
PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 2. MACROSCOPIC FIELDS
Figure 2.6: Small cylinder at interface
Consider an interface with no free charges
Consider the small cylinder of Fig. 2.6, height dh, area da.
Gauss theorem tells us:
_
V
Ddv =
_
v

f
dv (2.78)

_
S
D nda =
_
V

f
dv (2.79)
For the magnetic eld, we nd:
_
S
B nda = 0 (2.80)
What is the ux of Dthrough the box? Take the limit dh 0, and for an interface with no free charge we nd:
_
S
D nda = D
2
nda D
1
nda = 0 (2.81)
D
2
n = D
1
n (2.82)
D
1
= D
2
(2.83)
B
1
= B
2
(2.84)
where the opposite signs on the displacement vectors come from their opposing directions (compared to the surface
normals). This implies that the normal components of D are continuous across an interface with no free charges, while
the normal components of B are always continuous. This means that lines of Dand B are conserved at an interface with
no free charges.
Note that, in fact
D
2
D
1
=
f
(2.85)
Tangential components
Figure 2.7: Small loop at interface
2011 26
PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 2. MACROSCOPIC FIELDS
First notice that we can write similar equations for E and H:
E =
B
t
H = J
Consider an interface with no free current
Consider the small loop of Fig. 2.7, height dh, length dl.
Stokes theorem tells us
_
S
E nda =
_
S
B
t
nda (2.86)
_
C
E dl =
_
S
B
t
nda (2.87)
Taking the limit dh 0, da = dldh 0 we nd:
_
S
E nda =
_
C
E dl = 0 (2.88)
But this can be written as E
1

AB +E
2

CD. As the vectors from A to B and from C to D have opposite directions,

we write:
E
1
dl = E
2
dl (2.89)
E
1
= E
2
(2.90)
And for an interface with no free surface current (surface magnetization currents are irrelevant) we have a similar
result for H:
H
1
dl = H
2
dl (2.91)
H
1
= H
2
(2.92)
Note that, in fact
H
2
H
1
= I
fenc
(2.93)
This implies that the tangential components of the E and H elds are conserved subject to the conditions explained
above. This means that eld lines are not conserved in general across the interface for these elds.
Normal components of B are continuous across an interface
Normal components of Dare continuous across an interface with no free charges
Tangential components of E are continuous across an interface
Tangential components of Hare continuous across an interface with no free currents
Field lines of E and Hare not conserved across interfaces in general
2.7 Summary of Linear Media
Linear:
e
is independent of E (or
m
of B)
Isotropic: P is parallel to E (or Mto H)
Homogeneous:
e
is position independent
D =
0
E+P
P =
0

e
E so D = E, with =
0
(1 +
e
)
2011 27
PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 2. MACROSCOPIC FIELDS
D =
f
H = B/
0
M
M =
m
Hso B =
0

r
Hwith
r
= 1 +
m
H = J
f
continuous across an interface:
B

when no free charges

E

when no free currents

2011 28
PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 3. ATOMIC MECHANISMS
Chapter 3
Atomic Mechanisms
3.1 Dipoles and Polarization
Dipoles
A dipole is a pair of equal and opposite charges separated by a small distance
The microscopic effect of an electric eld on a dielectric can be modelled with dipoles
We can expand the eld or potential of an arbitrary charge distribution in terms of multipoles
This will be discussed after we have looked at a dipole
Notice that if we have a pair of equal but opposite charges separated by a vector l, then the dipole moment is p = ql.
Figure 3.1: Geometry of a simple dipole.
2011 29
PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 3. ATOMIC MECHANISMS
Dipole Geometry
E(r) =
q
4
0
_
r
+
r
2
+

r
2

_
(3.1)
V (r) =
q
4
0
_
1
r
+

1
r

_
(3.2)
r
+
= r l/2 (3.3)
r

= r +l/2 (3.4)
V (r) is easier to work with than E(r)
What is the electric eld at a point r due to a dipole (length l) at the origin, oriented along the z axis? (Note that
we have decided to put the dipole at the origin, and chosen an easy orientation; these can be generalized without much
difculty). Dene the vectors involved:
r
+
= r
l
2
(3.5)
r

= r +
l
2
(3.6)
We need to know the magnitude of r
+
and r

, so using Eqs. (3.5) and (3.6), we nd

[r
+
[ =

r
+
r
+
(3.7)
r
+
r
+
= r
2
rl cos +
l
2
4
(3.8)
= r
2
_
1
l
r
cos +
l
2
4r
2
_
(3.9)
[r
+
[ = r
_
1
l
r
cos +
l
2
4r
2
(3.10)
[r

[ = r
_
1 +
l
r
cos +
l
2
4r
2
(3.11)
(3.12)
We can now write down 1/ [r
+
[ and 1/ [r

[ and expand them to rst order in l/r:

1
[r
+
[
=
1
r
_
1
l
r
cos +
l
2
4r
2
_

1
2
(3.13)

1
r
_
1 +
l
2r
cos
_
(3.14)
1
[r

[

1
r
_
1
l
2r
cos
_
, (3.15)
where we have used (1 +)
n
1 +n to rst order in . Note that this is only valid when r l. Now,
1
[r
+
[

1
[r

[
=
l
r
2
cos , (3.16)
so the potential is given by:
Dipole Potential:
V (r) =
ql cos
4
0
r
2
=
p r
4
0
r
2
, (3.17)
where p is the dipole moment, dened as:
p = ql (3.18)
p =
_
V
r (r) dv, (3.19)
2011 30
PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 3. ATOMIC MECHANISMS
where the second form is for the dipole moment of a charge density in a small volume V . Now that we have the potential,
we can calculate the eld. Notice that we have naturally ended up working in spherical polar coordinates (with dened
as the angle from the z-axis), and that there is no dependence on .
[The following brief discussion of multipole expansion follows Grifths pp.149-150, and is not directly exam-
inable; however, it is extremely useful to understand, and is well within the capability of students.]
In outline, we start by considering the potential at a point r due to an arbitrary charge distribution, (r

). This can be
written as:
V (r) =
1
4
0
_
(r

)
[R[
dr

, (3.20)
where R = r r

. In order to make this simpler, we need to rewrite [R[ in terms of r and r

. The magnitude of Rcan be

found from a dot product:
R R = (r r

) (r r

) (3.21)
= r
2
+ (r

)
2
2rr

cos , (3.22)
where is the angle between r and r

. By taking a factor of r
2
outside, we see that we can write:
R
2
= r
2
_
1 +
_
r

r
_
2
2
_
r

r
_
cos
_
(3.23)
R = r

1 + (3.24)
=
_
r

r
___
r

r
_
2 cos
_
(3.25)
So we can expand 1/R using the binomial expansion; it is important to note that we will not make any approximation,
and inherently carry the full expansion with us (though it will not be shown).
1
R
=
1
r
(1 +)
1/2
=
1
r
_
1
1
2
+
3
8

5
16

3
+. . .
_
(3.26)
=
1
r
_
1
1
2
_
r

r
___
r

r
_
2 cos
_
+
3
8
_
r

r
_
2
__
r

r
_
2 cos
_
2
+. . .
_
(3.27)
Now gathering terms in
_
r

r
_
, this can be written:
1
R
=
1
r
_
1 +
_
r

r
_
cos +
_
r

r
_
2
3 cos
2
1
2
+
_
r

r
_
3
5 cos
3
3 cos
2
+. . .
_
(3.28)
=
1
r

0
_
r

r
_
n
P
n
(cos ), (3.29)
where P
n
(cos ) are the Legendre polynomials. Substituting this expression into Eq. (3.20) for the potential, we nd:
V (r) =
1
4
0
_
1
r
_
(r

)dv

+
1
r
2
_
r

cos (r

)dv

+
1
r
3
_
(r

)
2
(
3
2
cos
1
2
)(r

)dv

+. . .
_
(3.30)
=
1
4
0

0
1
r
n+1
_
(r

)
n
P
n
(cos )(r

)dv

(3.31)
This shows that for large distances, an arbitrary charge distribution behaves approximately like the total charge (the
rst term, which falls off with 1/r, is known as the monopole term). Other terms can be brought in to improve the
2011 31
PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 3. ATOMIC MECHANISMS
approximation (and will be important at shorter distances): the dipole term scales with 1/r
2
, the quadrupole term scales
with 1/r
3
, the octopole term with 1/r
4
etc.
[End of multipole discussion]
Starting from the potential we just derived, and working in spherical polar coordinates, we can write:
E(r) = V = r
V
r

1
r
V

1
r sin
V

(3.32)
V
r
= 2
ql cos
4
0
r
3
(3.33)
V

=
ql sin
4
0
r
2
(3.34)
V

= 0 (3.35)
Dipole Field and Potential
E
r
(r, , ) =
ql cos
2
0
r
3
(3.36)
E

(r, , ) =
ql sin
4
0
r
3
(3.37)
The potential is zero along the centre line (x-y plane)
The eld decays as 1/r
3
, potential as 1/r
2
As always, the electric eld is always perpendicular to equipotentials
Figure 3.2: Electric eld and equipotentials for a dipole.
Ultimately, we want to understand the response of matter to applied elds
We looked at the potential of an arbitrary charge distribution
Expanding 1/R we made the multipole expansion
We then derived the potential & electric eld for a dipole
The potential falls off as 1/r
2
, the eld as 1/r
3
2011 32
PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 3. ATOMIC MECHANISMS
Microscopic Dipoles
Dielectrics have no free charges
Atoms consist of nuclei and electrons which respond to an applied eld
Positive charge moves with eld, negative against it
But the displacement is limited by a restoring force
This results in a neutral material with a net dipole
Polarized Dielectric
Consider a small volume of a dielectric (Fig. 3.3)
Figure 3.3: A piece of unpolarised dielectric.
Apply a eld: there is a net displacement of a (Fig. 3.4)
Figure 3.4: A piece of polarised dielectric.
Polarization per unit volume
Charge element dq = (r) dv
In a dielectric, p(r) =
_
v
rdq
Dene macroscopic polarization
P(r) =
p(r)
v
(3.38)
How can we relate it to induced charge densities?
What is the eld due to a polarized dielectric?
2011 33
PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 3. ATOMIC MECHANISMS
There are two approaches: one simple (as found in Grant & Phillips), and one more rigorous. We consider the simple
one rst, then expand to the rigorous one.
In both cases, we must be very careful about using the expression for potential outside a dielectric inside the dielectric;
the problem is that we must average over some volume which is large enough that the effects of individual electrons and
ions are not considered but which is still smaller than the object considered. This then gives the macroscopic eld; note
that the potential and eld outside a polarized dielectric (which we derived earlier) also rely on this averaging, but we
are far enough away that the details of the microscopic dipoles dont need to be considered. It turns out that this same
potential can be used, and we will sketch a justication (see Grifths pp.173175 for a detailed discussion).
First, we need some results (I will quote them - they can be shown relatively easily); in both cases we need the average
potential over a sphere or radius R.
Figure 3.5: Looking at a sphere inside a dielectric.
1. The potential, averaged over a sphere, due to a polarized dielectric outside the sphere is equal to the potential to the
eld produced at the centre of the sphere (the same is true for the eld). Thus we can use the formula for potential
from before:
V
out
(r
1
) =
1
4
0
_
out
r
12
P(r
2
)
[r
12
[
3
dr
2
(3.39)
2. The eld due to a collection of charges inside a sphere averaged over that sphere is:
E
in
=
1
4
0
p
R
3
, (3.40)
where p is the dipole moment of the charges relative to the centre of the sphere.
The potential inside a polarized dielectric due to the dielectric itself can then be constructed as follows. We consider
a sphere of radius R within the dielectric (which will be large enough to contain a few hundred or thousand atoms), and
average the potential (or eld) over that sphere. The potential due to the charges outside is given above in Eq. (3.39), and
is the formula wed expect. The charges inside the sphere are a little harder: we need the total dipole moment, which is
simply p =
4
3
R
3
P. Then substituting into Eq. (3.40) we nd:
E
in
=
1
4
0
4
3
R
3
P
R
3
=
1
3
0
P (3.41)
which is just the eld for a uniformly polarized sphere (again, this result is easily proved). This means that, regardless
of the microscopic distribution of charges, the average eld or potential is that of a uniformly polarized sphere. When we
add the two contributions, its clear that the macroscopic potential (and eld) inside a polarized dielectric have the same
form as the potential (and eld) outside a polarized dielectric.
Now onto a simple demonstration. Consider a small block of material of size xyz, located at (x, y, z). Since the
polarization, P, is dened as the dipole moment per unit volume, the amount of charge which has crossed the plane at x
must be P
x
(x)yz, and at x + x it is P
x
(x + x)yz. The net charge entering the small cube in the x-direction is
then:
(P
x
(x +x)yz P
x
(x)yz) =
P
x
x
xyz. (3.42)
2011 34
PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 3. ATOMIC MECHANISMS
We can write similar equations for the y and z directions, and nd that the total charge is given by:
_

P
x
x

P
y
y

P
z
z
_
xyz (3.43)
If we divide this charge by the volume element xyz then we nd an effective polarization charge density:

P
= P. (3.44)
In uniform, bulk dielectrics this will tend to zero as the number of charges entering and leaving will be the same; near
surfaces or areas where the density varies rapidly then charges accumulate. These two effects are seen more clearly next.
[NOTE This derivation has already appeared in Section II on Macroscopic Fields, but its repeated here for complete-
ness; it may well not be repeated in the lectures.]
For the more rigorous demonstration, we start by nding the potential at a point r due to a small volume of polarized
material at a point r

. We will then integrate this over the entire piece of dielectric material. We write, using Eq. (3.17):
(r) =
p(r

) (r r

)
4
0
[r r

[
3
(3.45)
=
v

P(r

) (r r

)
4
0
[r r

[
3
(3.46)
When we take the limit v 0 and sum over the elements, we get an expression for the total potential:
(r) =
_
V
dv

P(r

) (r r

)
4
0
[r r

[
3
(3.47)
We use the gradient of 1/ [r r

[ to transform this:
(r) =
1
4
0
_
V
P(r

_
1
[r r

[
_
dv

(3.48)
Using the formula for (F) from the Mathematical Identities, and rearranging (we want F ) we can write:
(r) =
1
4
0
_
V
_

_
P(r

)
[r r

[
_

1
[r r

[
P(r

)
_
dv

(3.49)
Finally, we use the divergence theorem on the rst term to give the potential outside a polarized dielectric object:
(r) =
1
4
0
_
S
P(r

) n
[r r

[
da

+
1
4
0
_
V
P(r

)
[r r

[
dv

(3.50)
Polarization Charge Densities
The surface polarization charge density is dened:

P
= P n (3.51)
The volume polarization charge density is dened:

P
= P (3.52)
We can write the potential as:
(r) =
1
4
0
__
S

P
[r r

[
da

+
_
V

P
[r r

[
dv

_
(3.53)
=
1
4
0
_
dq
P
[r r

[
(3.54)
2011 35
PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 3. ATOMIC MECHANISMS
Does this mean that the dielectric is now charged? To understand this, consider a polarized dielectric, with volume V
0
.
We must consider the outside surface S
0
, and its associated polarization charge density. Using the divergence theorem we
can write:
Q
P
=
_
V
0

P
dv +
_
S
0

P
da (3.55)
=
_
V
0
Pdv +
_
S
0
P nda (3.56)
=
_
S
0
P nda +
_
S
0
P nda = 0. (3.57)
So the overall dielectric is electrically neutral (which we assumed at the start). However, the eld can be non-zero: in
particular, if there is an applied external eld inducing the polarization, then the dielectric itself will affect that eld. For
completeness, note that we can write:
E(r) =
1
4
0
_
_
S

P
(r r

)
[r r

[
3
da

+
_
V

P
(r r

)
[r r

[
3
dv

_
(3.58)
Polarization arises from alignment of microscopic dipoles
These give surface and volume polarization charge densities
We looked at potential inside and outside dielectric
3.2 Magnetic Dipole
We will now consider the magnetic eld due to a circular current loop at the origin.
Geometry
Current loop, radius a, current I at origin
We consider the magnetic induction at a point P
Using cylindrical polar coordinates, P = (R, , z)
Small element of loop dl at P

= (a,

, 0)
Vector from dl to P is r
There are two ways to do this derivation: rst, using a multipole expansion and approximating the loop by its dipole
moment (which will be given briey now); second, more fully and slowly, leading to a full expression for the vector
potential in terms of elliptic integrals. The approximation for the elliptical integral leads to the same result as the dipole
moment.
2011 36
PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 3. ATOMIC MECHANISMS
[Derivation of vector potential for arbitrary current loop]
In the Macroscopic Fields part of the course, we showed that, using the Coulomb gauge, the vector potential at a point
r due to a current density J(r) distributed over a volume at r

could be written:
A(r) =

0
4
_
J(r

)
[r r

[
dv

(3.59)
For a constant current I in an arbitrary loop, with Jdv Idl, we can rewrite the volume integral as a line integral.
Re-introducing the vector R = r r

, we write:
A(r) =

0
I
4
_
dl

[R[
(3.60)
As with the potential of a charge distribution, we now need to write [R[ in terms of r and r

. Using Legendre polynomials

again, and recalling that the angle between r and r

is , we nd by substituting into Eq. (3.60) that:

A(r) =

0
I
4

0
1
r
n+1
_
(r

)
n
P
n
(cos )dl

(3.61)
=

0
I
4
_
1
r
_
dl

+
1
r
2
_
r

cos dl

+
1
r
3
_
(r

)
2
_
3
2
cos
2

1
2
_
+. . .
_
(3.62)
Now notice that the rst term (the monopole term) is multiplied by a closed loop integral with integrand 1, which
is identically zero (it is not surprising that the monopole term disappears as we started from the assumption that there
are no monopoles). So the rst non-zero term in the expansion is a dipole term; we will use the identity
_
r

cos dl

=
_
(r r

)dl

= r
_
da

to simplify this. Then the dipole term only is:

A
dip
(r) =

0
I
4r
2
_
r

cos dl

(3.63)
=

0
I
4
_
da

r
r
2
=

0
4
mr
r
2
, (3.64)
where m = I
_
da

= Ia is the magnetic dipole moment. This derivation allows a full expansion to be made for an
arbitrary current loop; far from this loop it behaves like a dipole. This vector potential will be seen again below.
[End of multipole expansion for arbitrary current loop]
We now return to the derivation of the vector potential for a circular current loop. Let us consider rst how to write
the vector for the small element of loop, dl:
dl = d

a (sin

i + cos

j) (3.65)
Here weve used the standard two-dimensional formula for arc length, and projected it onto Cartesian vectors. Note that
we want the direction of dl to be tangential to the current loop; so at

= 0 it lies along y-axis, at

= /2 it lies along
the x-axis but in the opposite direction etc. Weve basically taken the gradient of the position on the unit circle.
We now consider the magnetic induction due to the current loop. One approach would be to use the Biot-Savart law,
and integrate around the current loop, but this quickly becomes very complicated. Instead, we will use the vector potential;
this isnt trivial, but its easier, and allows us to get further.
First we notice that we can change Jdv Idl for a constant current through the loop.
Vector Potential
We can write for the vector potential at P (a point, not polarization!):
A(P) =

0
4
_
V
J(P

)
[PP

[
dv (3.66)
=

0
I
4
_
dl
[r[
(3.67)
2011 37
PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 3. ATOMIC MECHANISMS
The vector potential is in the direction of the current element
Using our knowledge of the geometry of the system, we can deduce that the vector potential only has an azimuthal
component (i.e. one around the loop), A

. We can write A

= A i

with:
i

= sin i + cos j (3.68)

So we can write:
A

= A i

(3.69)
=

0
I
4
_
dl i

[r[
(3.70)
Remembering fromtrigonometry that cos ( ) = sin sin +cos cos , we expand the dot product, using Eqs. (3.65)
and (3.68), as:
dl i

= d

a [sin

sin + cos

cos ] (3.71)
= d

a cos (

) (3.72)
A

=

0
Ia
4
_
2
0
cos (

) d

[r[
(3.73)
This now seems to be quite an easy integral to evaluate. Using the cylindrical symmetry of the system, we know that A

must be independent of the value of , so we can evaluate the integral for any convenient choice of ; well take = 0.
However, we mustnt forget that [r[ must be written in terms of R, z, a, and

:
[r[ =
_
(PP

) (PP

) (3.74)
=
_
(Rcos a cos

)
2
+ (Rsin a sin

)
2
+z
2
(3.75)
A

=

0
Ia
4
_
2
0
cos (

) d

_
(Rcos a cos

)
2
+ (Rsin a sin

)
2
+z
2
_1
2
(3.76)
Setting = 0, we can simplify somewhat:
[r[ =
_
(R a cos

)
2
+ (a sin

)
2
+z
2
(3.77)
=
_
R
2
2aRcos

+a
2
cos
2

+a
2
sin
2

+z
2
(3.78)
=
_
R
2
+a
2
+z
2
2aRcos

(3.79)
A

=

0
Ia
4
_
2
0
cos

R
2
+a
2
+z
2
2aRcos

1
2
(3.80)
This expression, while somewhat complex, can be written in terms of special mathematical functions called elliptical
integrals which have been tabulated, and are implemented in packages such as Mathematica. However, with one approx-
imation we can nd simpler expressions.
[r[ =
_
R
2
+a
2
+z
2
_
1
2aRcos

R
2
+a
2
+z
2
_1
2
(3.81)
Let us make the approximation that 2aRcos

< R
2
+a
2
+z
2
. This is fullled if
R
2
+z
2
> a
2
: far from the current loop
a
2
+z
2
> R
2
: close to the axis
These are two important cases. Now we can write:
[r[
1
=
_
R
2
+a
2
+z
2
_

1
2
_
1
2aRcos

R
2
+a
2
+z
2
_

1
2
(3.82)

_
R
2
+a
2
+z
2
_

1
2
_
1 +
aRcos

R
2
+a
2
+z
2
_
(3.83)
A

=

0
Ia
4
_
2
0
cos

(R
2
+a
2
+z
2
)
1
2
_
1 +
aRcos

R
2
+a
2
+z
2
_
(3.84)
2011 38
PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 3. ATOMIC MECHANISMS
But we can simplify this, using some basic integrals:
_
2
0
cos d = 0 (3.85)
_
2
0
cos
2
d =
_
2
0
1
2
(1 + cos 2d) =
_
1
2

_
2
0
= (3.86)
Form of A
Far from the dipole (or near the axis), we can write:
A

=

0
I
4
a
2
R
(R
2
+a
2
+z
2
)
3
2
(3.87)
But spherical polars are easier
R = r sin and r =

R
2
+z
2
A

=

0
Ia
2
4
R
(R
2
+z
2
)
3
2
(3.88)
=

0
Ia
2
4
sin
r
2
(3.89)
Valid if R
2
+z
2
> a
2
Now that we have the vector potential, we can recover the magnetic induction, B. We write:
B = A =
1
r
2
sin

i
r
ri

r sin i

A
r
rA

r sin A

(3.90)
But we know that A only has a component in the direction, which simplies things considerably! We can write the
different components of B as follows:
B
r
=
1
r
2
sin
_

(r sin A

)
_
(3.91)
=
1
r
A

+
1
r
2
sin
r cos A

(3.92)
=

0
Ia
2
4
_
cos
r
3
+
cos
sin
sin
r
3
_
(3.93)
B

= 0 (3.94)
B

=
r
r
2
sin
_

r
(r sin A

)
_
(3.95)
=
1
r sin
_
sin A

r sin
A

r
_
(3.96)
=

0
Ia
2
4
_
sin
r
3
2
sin
r
3
_
(3.97)
2011 39
PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 3. ATOMIC MECHANISMS
Form of B
We nd for the components of B far from the dipole:
Components of B:
B
r
=

0
Ia
2
2
cos
r
3
(3.98)
B

= 0 (3.99)
B

=

0
Ia
2
4
sin
r
3
(3.100)
These are identical to the electric dipole far from the dipole
Close to the dipole, the elds differ
The electric dipole consists of two charge aligned along the dipole axis, while the magnetic dipole consists of a current
loop lying in the plane perpendicular to the dipole axis. Field lines for the electric dipole start and end on the charges,
while the eld lines for the magnetic dipole form closed loops (see Fig. 3.6).
Figure 3.6: Illustration of eld lines for an electric dipole (left) and for a magnetic current loop (right). The plane of the
current loop is perpendicular to the page, so that it would be coming out and going into the page.
3.3 Magnetic Dipoles and Magnetization
As we saw with the electric eld, E, the introduction of a medium other than vacuum results in changes to Maxwells
equations. These changes can be handled by using an alternative eld which includes the effects of the medium implicitly.
We derived various equations for this displacement using a dipole model of the polarizability of the atoms (or molecules)
making up the medium. We will now apply the same ideas to magnetic media. A word of caution: non-linear magnetic
media are much more common than non-linear electric media; we will deal with these rather interesting materials in the
next chapter (Chapter 4) on Ferromagnetism.
2011 40
PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 3. ATOMIC MECHANISMS
Magnetization
We introduced the polarizability of a dielectric material, P E
Similarly, we introduce a quantity, proportional to the magnetic induction B
This is the magnetization, M
It describes the response of a material to the magnetic induction
Electrons move in loops around atoms: we can use the magnetic dipole to model the response
Microscopic Origin
Consider a small piece of a material of volume V
If m
i
is the dipole due to the i
th
atom in V , we dene:
M = lim
V 0
1
V

i
m
i
(3.101)
This is analogous to the polarization (electric dipole moment per unit volume)
With no eld, the directions are random and M = 0
We will now consider magnetization currents arising from dipoles
Approach
We will consider a given body made up from adjacent current loops
We nd three simple limits:
1. Uniformly magnetised bulk: No net magnetization current
2. Non-uniformly magnetised bulk: volume magnetization current
3. Uniformly magnetised slab: surface magnetization current
Surface Magnetization Current
Consider a slab thickness t, surface area S shown in Fig. 3.7
Uniformly distributed (small) magnetic dipoles
If there is a net magnetization of M, then given that the volume of the sample is St, the magnetic eld (at large
distances) is the same as would come from a dipole of size StM. The magnetization is perpendicular to the surface of the
slab.
Now consider a small strip of current loops, ABCD, shown in the bottom of Fig. 3.7. For each loop with a component
to the right, there is an equal and opposite loop with a component to the left; for the strip PQRS, for each current going
up there is an equal and opposite current going down. From a distance which is large compared to the current loops, these
will cancel out (this can be shown with the Biot-Savart law).
However, at the boundary of the material there are no loops to cancel out the edge loops. This will give us a surface
magnetization current density j
M
, analogous to surface polarization charge density in a dielectric.
We know that the dipole moment is StM. The surface magnetization current density is equivalent to a current of
magnitude j
M
t. But a current loop has dipole moment of magnitude IS, so we know that StM = IS, and j
M
= I/t = M.
As j
M
is perpendicular to the magnetization, we can write:
j
M
= Mn (3.102)
2011 41
PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 3. ATOMIC MECHANISMS
Figure 3.7: Uniformly magnetised slab
Volume Magnetization Current
Consider the strip shown with dashed lines in Fig. 3.8
The net downward current is larger than the net upward current
There will be a net downward magnetization current J
m
This will give a non-uniform magnetization
Let us make a more rigorous derivation of the dependence of the magnetization on the volume magnetization current
density.
Figure 3.9 shows two small volumes in a piece of non-uniformly magnetised material. They have dimension dx, dy, dz,
and are located at (x, y, z) and (x, y +dy, z). The magnetization in the rst element will be taken as M(x, y, z), and we
assume that the materials behave linearly. Then the magnetization in the second material can be written:
M(x, y +dy, z) = M(x, y, z) +
M
y
dy +. . . (3.103)
As indicated in Fig. 3.9, we will concentrate on the x-component of magnetization, M
x
, which arises from small circu-
lating currents I
c
and I

c
. Now, the magnetic moment of the rst small element is Mdxdydz, which can be written as
I
c
dydz (since m =
1
2
I
_
r dl, we need the current multiplied by the surface area and 2a =
_
r dl). So we can write
for both elements:
M
x
dxdydz = I
c
dydz (3.104)
_
M
x
+
M
x
y
dy
_
dxdydz = I

c
dydz (3.105)
Now the net current owing in the z-direction on the boundary between the small elements is I
c
I

c
. Using
Eqs. (3.104) & (3.105) we can write:
2011 42
PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 3. ATOMIC MECHANISMS
Figure 3.8: Non-uniform magnetic material
Figure 3.9: Two small volumes of magnetised material
I
c
I

c
= M
x
dx
_
M
x
+
M
x
y
dy
_
dx
=
M
x
y
dydx (3.106)
There is another contribution to the current owing in the z-direction in the rst element (i.e. the one at (x, y, z)) that
comes from a similar consideration involving another small volume element, this time at (x +dx, y, z); this would be in
front of the rst element in Fig. 3.9. Here we write:
M
y
dxdydz = I

c
dxdz (3.107)
_
M
y
+
M
y
x
dx
_
dxdydz = I

c
dxdz (3.108)
This time were considering the current owing around the face perpendicular to the y-direction. The net current in the
z-direction this time is given by I

c
I

c
, which gives:
I

c
I

c
=
M
y
x
dydx (3.109)
2011 43
PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 3. ATOMIC MECHANISMS
From these two contributions to the current, and the knowledge of the surface area of the small element, we can write the
net current density:
J
Mz
=
M
y
x

M
x
y
(3.110)
Now this is easily recognised as part of the formula for a curl. We can perform similar calculations for the other two
directions.
Full Result
The nal result we obtain is, as before:
J
M
=
_
M
z
y

M
y
z
_
i +
_
M
x
z

M
z
x
_
j
+
_
M
y
x

M
x
y
_
k (3.111)
J
M
= M (3.112)
Again, notice the similarity to
P
= P
We have already considered another way of reaching this result using the vector potential
[NOTE This derivation has already appeared in Section II on Macroscopic Fields, but I repeat it for completeness; it
may well not be repeated in the lectures.]
Let us consider the vector potential at a point r
1
due to a small volume of magnetised material at a point r
2
. This
small volume will have magnetic moment m = M(r
2
) V
2
. Then we can write:
A(r
1
) =

0
4
_
V
mr
12
[r
12
[
3
(3.113)
=

0
4
_
V
M(r
2
) r
12
[r
12
[
3
dV
2
(3.114)
=

0
4
_
V
M(r
2
)
2
1
r
12
dV
2
, (3.115)
where weve used a standard result to get from Eq. (3.114) to Eq. (3.115). Now we use the expansion of (F), with
F = Mand =
1
r
12
to write:
F = F (F) (3.116)
A(r
1
) =

0
4
_
V
_

2
M(r
2
)
r
12

_
M(r
2
)
r
12
__
dV
2
(3.117)
Now we use the theorem
_
V
FdV =
_
S
n Fda to write:
A(r
1
) =

0
4
_
V

2
M(r
2
)
r
12
dV
2

0
4
_
S
n M(r
2
)
r
12
da
2
(3.118)
=

0
4
_
V

2
M(r
2
)
r
12
dV
2
+

0
4
_
S
Mn(r
2
)
r
12
da
2
(3.119)
Magnetization current densities
We formally dene:
Magnetization current densities:
J
M
= M (3.120)
j
M
= Mn (3.121)
2011 44
PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 3. ATOMIC MECHANISMS
J
M
is the volume magnetization current density
j
M
is the surface magnetization current density
We move on to considering how linear magnetic media behave
3.4 Diamagnetism and Paramagnetism
Magnetic Susceptibility
For a linear, isotropic material, we assert (based on experimental observations):
M =
m
H (3.122)

m
is the magnetic susceptibility
We can write B =
0
(1 +
m
) H =
0

r
H
If
m
> 0 we have a paramagnetic material
If
m
< 0 we have a diamagnetic material
Note that
m
can depend on temperature, but is generally small for these materials (less than 10
5
)
Diamagnetism
No intrinsic moments (no unpaired electrons): current loops
With H = 0, the loops are unexcited and M = 0
As [H[ increases, [B[ increases, so there is more ux through each loop
From Faradays and Lenzs laws, we can show that a voltage develops to oppose the change in ux
This results in
m
< 0 and B <
0
H
These arguments are purely electromagnetic: no T dependence
Care: magnetism is properly quantum mechanical!
Figure 3.10: M as a function of H and as a function of T for a diamagnet and paramagnet.
2011 45
PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 3. ATOMIC MECHANISMS
Paramagnetism
Some free intrinsic moments (e.g. unpaired electrons)
With no external eld, these are randomly aligned, M = 0 (thermal uctuation)
As H increases, they experience a torque aligning them with H
So
m
> 0 and B >
0
H, where m
0
is the magnetic moment on each component of the system
However, this is opposed by random thermal uctuations
Thermodynamic analysis gives Curies law:

m
=
Nm
2
0

0
3kT
(3.123)
There is also often competition between diamagnetic and paramagnetic effects, so
m
= Nm
2
0

0
/3kT +
dia
At low T, paramagnetic effects dominate
2011 46
PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 4. FERROMAGNETISM
Chapter 4
Ferromagnetism
A wonder of such nature I experienced as a child of 4 or 5 years, when my father showed me a compass. That
this needle behaved in such a determined way did not at all t into the nature of events which could nd a
place in the unconscious world of concepts (effects connected with direct touch). I can still remember - or at
least believe I can remember - that this experience made a deep and lasting impression upon me. Something
deeply hidden had to be behind things.
- A. Einstein
Ferromagnetism represents the earliest discovery of a phenomenon which results from quantum phenomena: lode-
stones were used in navigation by the Phoenicians several thousand years ago, while the detailed understanding of ferro-
magnetism was not worked out until 1928 (by Heisenberg). We will cover the details at a qualitative level only.
4.1 Atomic-level Picture
We start by considering the effect of the unpaired electron in the 3d shell.
Intrinsic Moments
There are intrinsic moments at the atomic level
Unpaired electron spins give the direction of the moments
There is a strong short range force between neighbouring atoms
The atoms will align in the lowest energy conguration
In ferromagnetic materials, the conguration which has the lowest potential energy is with the spins aligned parallel
to each other. This is not what would be expected from a simple picture of bar magnets, for instance. A full understanding
of the phenomenon requires a careful quantum mechanical treatment of the problem, which turns out to arise from an
exchange integral and the Pauli exclusion principle. An approximate, classical understanding was rst put forward by
Weiss who postulated the existence of an unspecied eld (now known as the Weiss, or mean, molecular eld) such that:
H
m
= M. (4.1)
In other words, there is some eld due to the magnetic moments at the atomic level. For a ferromagnetic material, the
value of M must arise to a large extent from the individual moments, Nm
0
(where m
0
is the individual moment). This
requires a value of to be around 1,000; a simple derivation similar to that used for dielectrics and polarization would
predict
1
3
. Nevertheless, if this theory is followed through, it predicts a change of magnetization with temperature which
is in approximate agreement with experimental measurements, including a prediction that there is a temperature at which
the spontaneous magnetization vanishes (the Curie temperature).
2011 47
PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 4. FERROMAGNETISM
Figure 4.1: Examples of ferromagnetic ordering
FM Orientations
Ferromagnetic ordering can take different forms
The dening characteristic is a local, parallel ordering
Ordering depends on temperature
Ordering may only be local
Figure 4.2: Examples of antiferromagnetic ordering
Other Orientations
Anti-ferromagnetic ordering has anti-parallel local ordering
Ferrimagnetic ordering shows both spin components but a net moment
Also known as ferrite materials
Important materials (more later)
It is important to note that the ordering only applies when the energy gained from aligning the spins in certain ways is
more than the random thermal energy available to the atoms; once this condition fails to hold, all these effects are washed
out and the materials behave as ordinary paramagnetic materials. The temperatures are known as the Curie temperature
(ferromagnetic) and the Nel temperature (anti-ferromagnetic).
2011 48
PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 4. FERROMAGNETISM
Figure 4.3: Examples of ferrimagnetic ordering
What will happen as a ferromagnetic material is cooled through this transition temperature without an external eld?
The system starts in a non-ordered state, where the random thermal motion has a large enough amplitude to overcome
the short-range forces between spins. There is a symmetry to the individual spins, in that there is no preferred direction
(hence a spherical symmetry). As the temperature passes through the Curie temperature for the material, local atomic
ordering in some arbitrary direction (there is no external eld, remember) will appear. This is an example of a rather
general phenomenon called spontaneous symmetry breaking (suddenly there is a preferred direction for the alignment of
the moment, and the spherical symmetry is broken).
Domains Locally, there will be a tendency for atoms to align, due to the short-ranged interaction between them. This
will lead to the formation of small groups (called domains) of aligned atoms. On a larger scale, these domains will not
have any relationship to each other initially. However, the circulation of the electrons (whose unpaired spins on the atoms
give rise to the local moments) also lead to a magnetic eld. Locally, this is much smaller than the moments, and have
no effect. However, at long ranges, the total magnetic eld of a domain can lead to a signicant eld. At this level, it is
better for domains to align in an opposed manner (by analogy to a bar magnet). In a ferromagnetic material, domains can
extend across tens of microns.
Figure 4.4: Ferromagnetic domains
Domains are a consequence of the conict between the short-range exchange interaction and the long-range mag-
netic force
The magnetic sample breaks up into small regions, or domains, typically 0.001 - 0.01 mm across
2011 49
PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 4. FERROMAGNETISM
The long-range magnetic energy is minimised and the exchange energy is sacriced only in the region of the walls
between the domains. In this region the loss of exchange energy is minimised by the dipoles twisting gently over
so that each dipole is very nearly parallel to its neighbour. This structure is called a Bloch wall
Figure 4.5: The structure of the Bloch wall separating domains. In Fe, the thickness of the transition region is about 300
lattice constants.
The magnetic properties of a ferromagnet are not determined by the intrinsic interactions between the atoms, but
by the ease or difculty with which the domain walls can move through the solid: very easy in a perfect crystal, but
pinned by crystalline defects
When cooled with no external eld, the domains are disordered
With an external eld, they align
The resulting magnetization is large (strong moments)
B =
0
(H+M) gives B H
Ferromagnetism amplies magnetic effects strongly
4.2 B & H: Macroscopic Effects
If we want to investigate magnetic properties of different materials, its useful to remember that H arises from free
currents only (i.e., those owing in wires or coils), so that we can always impose a value of Hon any sample (particularly
a ferromagnetic one). The resulting induction B will depend on H and M. As we change H, the magnetization will
change and we can detect the results using Faradays law to detect changes in B (we will discuss a circuit for this later).
Hysteresis First, we note that the response of a paramagnetic material would be almost invisible in Fig. 4.6; the response
of B essentially parallels the Haxis.
The normal magnetization curve (dotted line in Fig. 4.6) traces out the value of B reached for a given value of H
starting from an unmagnetised sample. So initially, we would measure a value of B which followed the normal magne-
tization curve. Now, when point 1 (H
1
, B
1
) is reached, imagine that the eld H is reversed. Initially, the magnetization
is not affected, and the normal curve is not traced; the B eld remains nearly constant, and cuts the H = 0 axis at point
2. If we continue to reverse H (with negative values) then the magnetization responds, and drops, so that at point 3 the
B eld is zero (with a nite H eld). As the H eld is decreased further, the magnetization continues to respond, and at
point 4 we reach (H
1
, B
1
). If H is again reversed (and brought back to zero) then as before, the magnetization does
not respond until the H eld is opposed to it (to a good approximation). As the H eld is increased back towards the
value H
1
, the B eld drops to zero (at point 5) and then increases until we return to point 1. This entire process is called
a minor hysteresis loop.
If we now increase the H eld beyond point 1, we will follow the normal magnetization curve until the material
cannot be magnetised any further (all domains are aligned). At this point (point 6) the magnitude of the magnetization
2011 50
PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 4. FERROMAGNETISM
Figure 4.6: B-H curves for a ferromagnetic material
[M[ M
s
, the saturation magnetization. To the right of this point (i.e. for larger values of the H eld) the B eld
increases slowly, due only to the term
0
H.
If we reverse Hfrom any point to the right of point 6 (whose coordinates are (B
s
, H
s
), the saturation values of Band
H) then we trace out the major hysteresis loop. The value of B when it crosses the H = 0 axis on this loop is called
the remanence, B
r
. The (negative) value of H required to reduce B to zero on the major loop is called the coercivity,
H
c
. When point 7 is reached, then the reverse saturation has been reached, and the loop continues back through point 8
to point 6.
Denitions
Saturation magnetization: value of M when domains are fully aligned
Saturation intensity, H
s
: magnetic intensity required to produce saturation
Saturation induction, B
s
: magnetic induction at saturation
Remanence, B
r
: value of B on the major loop when His returned to zero
Coercivity, H
c
: value of Hrequired to reduce B to zero after saturation
Effective relative permeability,
re
: maximum value of B/
0
H
Be careful with
re
: it is (sometimes) loosely dened as the point where a straight line from the origin is tangent
to the B/H curve. There is also the maximum differential permeability, taken as the maximum slope of the B-H curve.

re
can also be referred to as K
max
, with K = /
0
.
Real B-H curve
The B-H curve for steel (Fig. 4.7) also shows the curve B/H (which would be /
0
if the material were linear) and the
differential, dB/dH. For the normal magnetization curve, people often use the denition (H) = B/H despite the fact
that the relationship is non-linear in a ferromagnet.
Properties
Mumetal is 5% Cu, 2% Cr, 77% Ni, 16% Fe. Alnico varies but is majority Fe, with Al, Ni and Co alloyed. Note that we
have two different types of magnetic materials: soft ones (always have a low coercivity, and sometimes a low remanence
but high
re
) which are easy to magnetise and demagnetise (WHY?) and so are used in transformers (frequent changes
in magnetization) of in shielding; and hard ones (large coercivity and remanence) which are hard to demagnetise once
magnetised and are used as permanent magnets.
2011 51
PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 4. FERROMAGNETISM
Figure 4.7: Measured B-H curve for a thin steel sample, with /
0
(= B/H) and dB/dH calculated from the data
Soft
re
H
c
(A/m) B
s
(T)
3% Si-Fe 4.0 10
4
8.0 2.0
Mn-Zn ferrite 1.5 10
3
0.8 0.2
Mumetal 1.0 10
5
4.0 0.6
Supermalloy 1.0 10
6
0.2 0.8
Hard H
c
(A/m) B
r
(T)
5% Cr steel 5.0 10
3
0.94
Alnico 8.0 10
4
0.62
Co
5
Sm 1.0 10
6
1.50
Fe-Nd-B 1.0 10
6
1.30
Table 4.1: Table of properties of ferromagnetic materials
At this point, Ill describe three magnetization curves: one which is almost linear (very soft, low remanence and
coercivity for conventional transformers); a narrow, almost rectangular one (soft, low coercivity but high remanence for
magnetic memory, switching transformers); and a wide, standard one (for hard, permanent magnets).
The best steels used for electromagnets saturate with B
s
around 2T; looking at Table 4.1 and Figure 4.7, we can see
that this is several thousand times the induction that would be found for the same value of H without the ferromagnetic
materials (e.g. with a coil).
Ferrimagnets are dielectrics (in other words, while they still have some of the intrinsic moments that give strong mag-
netic amplication, they do not conduct well) and so will not dissipate energy through eddy currents, and are particularly
useful at high frequencies.
Figure 4.8: The hysteresis curves of (a) a hard and (b) a soft magnetic material.
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More Properties
Ferromagnets Curie T (K)
0
M
s
(T)
Fe 1043 2
Co 1388 1.6
Ni 627 0.6
Gd 293 1.98
Dy 85 3.0
Ferrimagnets Curie T (K)
0
M
s
(T)
Fe
3
O
4
858 0.51
CoFe
2
O
4
793 0.475
Antiferromagnets Nel T (K)
MnO 122
FeO 198
NiO 600
MnCl
2
2
Table 4.2: Table of critical temperatures and saturation magnetization for ferro-, antiferro- and ferrimagnetic materials
4.3 Simple Examples of Electromagnetic Systems
We will now consider some simple examples of electromagnetic systems, and applications of coils to generate H elds:
the solenoid, the bar magnet, the electromagnet (combining the two), the toroidal electromagnet and the uxmeter.
4.3.1 Solenoid
Figure 4.9: Geometry of a solenoid
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PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 4. FERROMAGNETISM
Tightly wound coil carrying current I;
N turns, length L, radius a;
We will calculate the B eld from the vector potential (we could also use the Biot-Savart Field Law, Eq. 2.39.
Lets start by considering the eld due to a small part of the solenoid; we will make the axis lie along the z-axis, and
consider a piece of width dz. From our earlier work (see Eq. 3.87), provided that R a, then we can write the vector
potential due to a current loop as:
A

=

0
Ia
2
4
R
(a
2
+z
2
)
3
2
(4.2)
Side note: recall that the full expression is:
A

=

0
Ia
4
_
2
0
cos

R
2
+a
2
+z
2
2aRcos

1
2
(4.3)
We note that for the very long solenoid this expression will result in an axial magnetic eld without the assumptions used
about being close to the axis. This could be understood by considering the radial component of Boff axis, which is an odd
function (
_
dzz/
_
z
2
+b
2
_3
2
) and will integrate to zero exactly for an innite solenoid. So we continue with the simpler
expression!
Using the expression for B = Ain cylindrical polar coordinates, we nd that, with
A =
1
R

i
R
Ri

i
z

z
A
R
RA

A
z

, (4.4)
then
dB
R
=

0
Ia
2
4
3zR
(a
2
+z
2
)
5
2
(4.5)
dB
z
=

0
Ia
2
4
2
(a
2
+z
2
)
3
2
(4.6)
dB

= 0 (4.7)
But this is just due to a current ring. For the full solenoid, integrating z over the length of the solenoid to nd a eld at ,
we need the expression:
B() =
_
L
0
N
L
dB(z )dz (4.8)
There are various important points to note about these equations above:
On the axis, the B eld is always axial (R = 0)
At the centre of any solenoid, the B eld is always axial (the integral of an odd function is zero)
For an innite solenoid, the B eld is always axial (as above, the integral of an odd function gives zero)
We dont expect the eld to remain axial near the ends of a solenoid: from far away it takes on the classic curved
eld of a bar magnet
The expression for B
R
shows that the eld remains nearly axial as we move away from the centre and the axis:
B
R
() =

0
Ia
2
N
4L
_
L
0
3 (z ) R
_
a
2
+ (z )
2
_5
2
dz (4.9)
and with b = z ,
=

0
Ia
2
RN
4L
_
1
(a
2
+b
2
)
3
2
_
b=L/2
b=L/2
0, (4.10)
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PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 4. FERROMAGNETISM
where weve assumed in the last line that the position = L/2+, in other words a little way away from the centre. Under
these circumstances (and remembering that the expression were using for the vector potential relies on the approximation
R a) we can see that the B eld remains axial. What then is the value of the axial eld?
B
z
() =

0
Ia
2
N
4L
_
L
0
2
_
a
2
+ (z )
2
_3
2
dz (4.11)
=

0
Ia
2
N
4L
_

2

1
(2/a
2
) cos d (4.12)
=

0
IN
2L
[sin ]

1
(4.13)
=

0
IN
L
as L (4.14)
We have used the substitution z = a tan to evaluate the integral, and noted that the limits
1
and
2
will tend to

2
and

2
respectively in the limit used.
Figure 4.10: Using Ampres Law with a long solenoid.
Note, if we apply Ampres Law to a rectangular loop outside the solenoid, loop 1 of Fig. 4.10, since I
enc
= 0, and
since B goes to zero for large R, it can be deduced that the eld is zero everywhere:
_
B d(l) = [B(a) B(b)] L =
0
I
enc
= 0 (4.15)
B(a) = B(b) (4.16)
And, using Ampres Law with a loop that straddles the solenoid wall, loop 2 of Fig. 4.10, we get
_
B d(l) = BL =
0
I
enc
=
0
NI (4.17)
as previously deduced.
Key Results
Far from the ends, eld is axial.
Remember that B =
0
J
But J = 0 inside the solenoid
We can show that this gives x
B
z
y
y
B
z
x
= 0
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PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 4. FERROMAGNETISM
Figure 4.11: Geometry of a bar magnet
This is only obeyed if the eld is uniform
The eld can be found to be B
z
=
0
IN/L from Ampres law
Outside a long solenoid B 0
4.3.2 Bar Magnet
Assume uniform magnetization, M = (0, 0, M
z
)
There will be an associated surface magnetization current, j
m
This will be j
m
= (0, M
z
, 0) in cylindrical polar coordinates
Compare this with j
f
= NI/L in the solenoid (free current)
Bar Magnet Field
We can use the same geometry for the solenoid and the bar magnet
Apply Ampres law around the loop ABCD

_
B dl =
0
I
loop
We let the segments BC and DA tend to zero, so that:
B
out
AB+B
in
CD =
0
jdl (4.18)
But if we are considering a very long solenoid, then we know that outside the system, near the centre (far from the ends)
the eld lines will spread out in space in a dipole pattern, on a scale equivalent to the length. This means that as the length
moves to innity, B
out
will tend to zero. [Because the eld lines are tending to be parallel to the solenoid axis so we can
extend the sides BC and DA without affecting the loop integral. The contribution from side AB is therefore a constant;
but it goes to zero at innity, hence B
AB
= 0 everywhere.]
Magnetic Field
We nd:
B
z
dl =
0
jdl (4.19)
For the long solenoid, j = NI/L, B
z
=
0
NI/L
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PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 4. FERROMAGNETISM
For the bar magnet, j = M
z
, B
z
=
0
M
For the solenoid, M = 0 so H = B/
0
For the long innite bar magnet, M = B/
0
, so H = 0
We would get this result using boundary conditions on H
Combining the two gives an electromagnet, with j = j
f
+j
m
We nd B
z
=
0
(NI/L +M
z
) but H
z
= NI/L
Figure 4.12: Field lines about a nite permanent magnet.
What is the eld around a permanent magnet consisting of a nite (not long) rod of uniformly magnetized material?
There are no free currents owing, and if we take the line integral
_
H dl around a loop passing through the magnet,
then
_
H dl = 0, which implies that Hinside the rod must be in a direction opposite to that outside, and opposite to B,
since the lines of Bare continuous. Also, since B =
0
(H+M), and Mchanges abruptly at the surface of the magnetic
material, then Hmust change abruptly as well, as B is continuous, as shown in Fig. 4.12.
4.3.3 Toroid
A toroidal, closed FM loop
Closed lines of B
Assume radius of ring R r, x-section radius
N turns total, current I
We assume that the curvature is small, so that locally B, H and M are parallel to each other, uniform across the
cross-section and tangential. A circular loop integral of radius R will have the same value of Hat every point, so:
_
H dl = H.2R = NI, (4.20)
so that H = NI/2R. In other words, we can impose any value of H that we like by varying N, I or R. However, note
that the magnetization, M, and the induction, B, will depend on the history, with MHand B =
0
(H+M)
0
H
for a ferromagnetic core.
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PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 4. FERROMAGNETISM
Figure 4.13: Geometry of a toroidal electromagnet
4.3.4 Fluxmeter
Figure 4.14: Fluxmeter
Wind an extra coil, with n
c
turns, over the magnetising coil
Connect to a uxmeter (op-amp circuit with low impedance R
c
)
V
out
= K
_
t
0
I
c
dt
I
c
ows because V
c
is induced by the changing B in the toroid. The ux through a cross-section of the core will be:
(t) = B(t)A = r
2
B(t) (4.21)
Faradays law gives us the voltage around one turn as:
V =
_
E dl (4.22)
=
d
dt
= r
2
dB
dt
(4.23)
V
c
(t) = n
c
V = r
2
n
c
dB
dt
= I
c
R
c
(4.24)
Now put this into the expression for V
out
:
V
out
(t) =
n
c
r
2
K
R
c
_
t
0
dB
dt
dt (4.25)
=
_
n
c
r
2
K
R
c
_
(B(t) B(0)) (4.26)
(4.27)
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PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 4. FERROMAGNETISM
So we have:
V
out
(t) = CB(t) (4.28)
with C a measurable constant
We impose Hvia current, toroidal loop
We measure B via uxmeter output
This provides direct evidence of B and H, and so M as well
Plot hysteresis loops etc
4.4 Energy Density
Here we think about the magnetic equivalent of the energy density in the electric eld. Consider a general circuit with
resistance R in a magnetic eld. Then V +c = IR, with c the induced EMF due to the magnetic eld, [c = d/dt].
Figure 4.15: Collection of circuits and magnetic media
Energy in circuit
Work done moving dq = Idt is:
V dq = V Idt = cIdt +I
2
Rdt (4.29)
If we ignore Ohmic losses (I
2
R), dW
b
= Id
This is the energy required to maintain the current I
We can generalise to many circuits, as illustrated in Fig. 4.15:
dW
b
=
n

i=1
I
i
d
i
(4.30)
We can assume (for rigid circuits in a linear magnetic medium) that we can start from a zero current state, and increase
all currents linearly with a parameter which will go from zero to one. Then:
I

i
= I
i
(4.31)
d
i
=
i
d (4.32)
_
dW
b
=
_
1
0
d
n

i=1
I
i

i
(4.33)
W
b
=

i
I
i

i
_
1
0
d =
1
2

i
I
i

i
(4.34)
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PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 4. FERROMAGNETISM
Energy Density in a Solenoid
We have the total energy, W =
1
2

i
I
i

i
Consider each turn as a circuit:
i
= = r
2
B,

i
I
i
= NI
But, from an Amprian loop, NI = Hl and V = r
2
l, so W =
1
2
HBV
The energy density is:
U =
1
2
HB (4.35)
More generally, U =
1
2
H B
We can write:

i
=
_
S
i
B nda =
_
C
i
A dl
i
(4.36)
for a single circuit. This gives us the total energy:
W =
1
2

i
_
C
i
I
i
A dl
i
(4.37)
But were interested in the magnetic energy density in a general medium, not a collection of circuits. So we will replace
I
i
dl
i
with Jdv (the same quantity as our circuits give as we go to a large number of closed loops through a medium) and
we replace

i
_
C
i
with
_
V
to get:
U =
1
2
_
V
J Adv (4.38)
But we want to convert this into an expression involving B and H. We can use H = J and (AH) =
H AA Hto write:
U =
1
2
_
V
H Adv
1
2
_
V
(AH) dv (4.39)
=
1
2
_
V
H Bdv
_
S
(AH) nda (4.40)
But as we take the volume we consider towards innity, the surface integral will tend to zero (H falls off like 1/r
2
, A like
1/r at least, but da r
2
). So the energy density is U =
1
2
H B
4.5 Summaries
Summary of Linear Media
Linear:
e
is independent of E (or
m
of B)
Isotropic: P is parallel to E (or Mto H)
D =
0
E+P
P =
0

e
E so D = E, with =
0
(1 +
e
)
D =
f
H = B/
0
M
M =
m
Hso B =
0

r
Hwith
r
= 1 +
m
H = J
f
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Summary of Non-Linear Media
Unpaired electrons give intrinsic moment
There is a short-range force which aligns these spins
If parallel, ferromagnetic ordering
If anti-parallel, anti-ferromagnetic ordering
Local domains of aligned atoms form (up to microns across)
Long-range forces arrange these opposed to each other
Highly non-linear B vs. H curves: hysteresis
Energy density, U =
1
2
B H
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PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 5. MAXWELLS EQUATIONS AND EM WAVES
Chapter 5
Maxwells Equations and EM Waves
5.1 Displacement Current
We already have most of the pieces that we require for a full statement of Maxwells Equations; however, we have not
considered the full derivation of all components. In particular, when considering magnetic elds, we mentioned that it is
important to account for time-varying electric elds in Ampres law. We will consider in detail where this requirement
comes from, and how it can be understood from the continuity equation.
Correcting Ampre
Consider a capacitor charging with a current, I
Figure 5.1: Amprian loops on a charging capacitor.
Ampres law in the original form gives:
_
B dl =
0
_
S
J nda (5.1)
Take a loop, C, around the wire to the left plate
Also consider two different surfaces:
1. A surface cutting the wire (co-planar with C)
2. A surface not cutting the wire (away from C)
These will give two different answers
For 1, we nd I, while for 2, we nd zero
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PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 5. MAXWELLS EQUATIONS AND EM WAVES
Where does the problem come from? Let us consider a closed surface integral over the current density by joining
together the two surfaces mentioned above. In this case, we note that there is a net inow of charge (which sits on the
plate of the capacitor inside the surface). We turn to the continuity equation to correct this problem, but where does it
come from? As with many parts of electromagnetism, it is an empirically derived observation. We can dene the current
density in a general volume of space as:
J =

i
N
i
q
i
v
i
, (5.2)
where we sum over the different types of charge carrier, and N
i
gives the number of charge carriers of type i per unit
volume. The current passing through an element of area, da, is dI = J nda. Then the current through an arbitrary
surface S can be written:
I =
_
S
J nda =
_
Jdv, (5.3)
where we have used the divergence theorem, and have a minus sign because charge is owing into the volume.
Here we have dened current in terms of the rate of ow of charge. But we could also dene something with the
dimensions of current as the rate of accumulation of charge in some region. Now the current is dened as I =
dQ
dt
which
we can write as:
I =
dQ
dt
=
d
dt
_
V
dv
=
_
V

t
dv, (5.4)
since the volume is xed in time. The law of conservation of charge says that these two currents are in fact the same thing,
so equating them we nd:
_
V

t
dv =
_
Jdv

_
v
_

t
+ J
_
dv = 0. (5.5)
There is only one way that this can be fullled for an arbitrary volume, V . We require:
J +

t
= 0. (5.6)
This is the continuity equation (which assumes that charge is conserved).
Let us return to Ampres law, and remind ourselves of the differential form:
H = J
f
. (5.7)
Now if we take the divergence, we nd
(H) (= 0) = J
f
, (5.8)
where we have used the identity that the divergence of a curl is zero. (Note that well use this idea again in little while.)
So we have to change eq. (5.7) to account for the change of charge density and its associated elds with time. Since
D =
f
, we can rewrite the continuity equation as follows:
J
f
+
D
t
= 0 (5.9)

_
J
f
+
D
t
_
= 0 (5.10)
(5.11)
It was Maxwells insight to suggest that if we replace the term J in Ampres law with J
f
+
D
t
then taking the
divergence of Ampres Law would make sense. This gives use the Ampre-Maxwell equation:
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PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 5. MAXWELLS EQUATIONS AND EM WAVES
Ampre-Maxwell Equation
J
f
+
D
t
= H (5.12)
Notice that weve now gone back to the more general form using D and H, which applies in a vacuum and in a
dielectric or magnetic medium; this is why we use J
f
throughout for the current density.
Returning briey to the capacitor illustration, we can now show that the two surfaces give the same result. The surface
integral in the rst case (cutting the wire) gives I, the total current owing through the wire. The surface passing between
the plates requires us to integrate D/t. The E eld will be given by /
0
if we ignore edge effects, with = It/A for
plates of area A. Integrating over surface area, scaling by
0
(to get D) and differentiating with respect to time we get the
result that the integral is I, as for the rst surface. This is a little qualitative, but serves to illustrate the effect of the extra
term which Maxwell added. No problem!
5.2 Maxwells Equations
We state Maxwells equations in differential and integral form, and derive a wave equation for H and E, generalising for
linear, isotropic materials.
5.2.1 Differential Form
We can now state the full set of Maxwells equations
Maxwells Equations - Differential Form
H = J
f
+
D
t
(Ampre-Maxwell) (5.13)
E =
B
t
(Faraday) (5.14)
D =
f
(Coulomb-Gauss) (5.15)
B = 0 (Biot-Savart+) (5.16)
5.2.2 Integral Form
In integral form (for completeness):
Maxwells Equations - Integral Form
_
C
H dl =
_
S
_
J
f
+
D
t
_
nda (5.17)
_
C
E dl =
_
S
B
t
nda =
d
dt
(5.18)
_
S
D nda =
_
v

f
dv (5.19)
_
S
B nda = 0 (5.20)
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PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 5. MAXWELLS EQUATIONS AND EM WAVES
5.2.3 Wave Equations
We now want to solve for the electric and magnetic elds
We need to nd an equation for each variable
Assume a uniform, linear, isotropic medium
Then D = E and B = H
We start with the Ampre-Maxwell equation
We also assume that the medium has uniform conductivity g, so that J
f
= gE
If we take the curl of the Ampre-Maxwell equation, we nd:
(H) =
_
J
f
+
D
t
_
(5.21)
( H)
2
H = gE+

t
E, (5.22)
where we have used the expression for curl of curl found in the Preliminaries. Now we will use two more of Maxwells
equations ( H = 0 and Faradays law).
Equation for H
We nd that:

2
Hg
H
t

2
H
t
2
= 0 (5.23)
This is a wave equation for H, with damping proportional to g
A nite resistance dissipates energy (e.g. metal, plasma)
As g 0 (a non-conducting medium), we recover:

2
H =

2
H
t
2
(5.24)
Repeat the procedure for Faradays law
Taking the curl of Faradays law, we nd:
E =

t
B (5.25)
( E)
2
E =
J
f
t

2
D
t
2
(5.26)
(5.27)
Again, we assume that J
f
= gE and further that there are no free charges (so E = 0).
Equation for E
We nd that:

2
Eg
E
t

2
E
t
2
= 0 (5.28)
This is a wave equation for E; as before, if g 0 we nd:

2
E =

2
E
t
2
(5.29)
Notice that the speed of the wave is c = 1/

.
We can get equations for Dand B from linearity: D = E and B = H
The solutions will be plane waves:
H(r, t) = H
0
e
i(k
H
r
H
t)
(5.30)
E(r, t) = E
0
e
i(k
E
r
E
t)
(5.31)
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PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 5. MAXWELLS EQUATIONS AND EM WAVES
5.3 Plane Waves
One general note: you will nd that people use i and j to represent

1 indiscriminately. Mainly engineers use j, but

you cannot guarantee this! Be on your guard.
Solution for H Using Eq. 5.30:
Assume that k = (0, 0, k) lies along z-axis

2
H = k
2
H

2
H/t
2
=
2
H
As we expect, we see that if k
2
/
2
= , then a plane wave solves the equation for H
The phase velocity is c = 1/

Faradays law links E and B: how are the solutions linked?

Let us write general waves for E and B:
B = B
0
e
i(k
B
r
B
t+
B
)
(5.32)
E = E
0
e
i(k
E
r
E
t+
E
)
(5.33)
We can then nd the link by applying Faradays law, E = B/t. First, some useful vector calculus results for
C = C
0
e
i(krt+)
:
C
t
= iC (5.34)
C = ik C (5.35)
C = ik C (5.36)
These are fairly obvious, and easily checked for Cartesian coordinates, e.g. :
C = i (C
0x
k
x
+C
0y
k
y
+C
0z
k
z
) e
i(krt+)
= ik C. (5.37)
Now, applying these results to Faradays law [E = B/t] and Eq. (5.32) and (5.33), we nd:
ik
E
E
0
e
i(k
E
r
E
t+
E
)
= i
B
B
0
e
i(k
B
r
B
t+
B
)
(5.38)
Since r and t are independent variables, and this equation must apply throughout space and time (i.e. for any values of r
and t) then we must have:
k
E
= k
B
(5.39)

E
=
B
(5.40)

E
=
B
(5.41)
Electromagnetic Waves
To full Faradays law, we have k
B
= k
E
= k
Also
B
=
E
= and
B
=
E
=
Then the link between electric and magnetic elds is:
k E
0
= B
0
(5.42)
k lies along the direction of propagation
2011 67
PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 5. MAXWELLS EQUATIONS AND EM WAVES
Figure 5.2: A linearly polarized or plane-polarized electromagnetic plane wave
Illustration
B is perpendicular to k, E
Since E = ik E = 0, k & E are perpendicular
A transverse electric & magnetic wave (TEM)
We can also relate the magnitudes of the elds:
B
0
= kE
0
. (5.43)
But we have already seen that v
p
= /k = 1/

, so we nd:
B
0
=
E
0
v
p
, (5.44)
and in a vacuum v
p
= c, the speed of light. We will see later that a refractive index, n = c/v
p
which is used in optics.
Notice that so far we have considered only monochromatic light: a single value of . However, this is not a restriction
as we can write:
E =

a
E(k
a
,
a
)e
i(k
a
r
a
t)
(5.45)
This superposition of electromagnetic waves of different frequency is, of course, just a Fourier series, and can represent
any propagating wave which is a periodic function. If we take the limit of the sum to get an integral we will recover the
Fourier transform E(k, ) and any function can be represented.
5.4 Polarization
The Vector E
0
We have discussed a special case: plane or linearly polarized light
In general, E
0
is complex and has freedom
We assume propagation along z-axis, k = (0, 0, k)
E
x
& E
y
have independent amplitude and phase
E
0
= E
0x
e
i
x
i +E
0y
e
i
y
j (5.46)
We can write E = E
0
e
i(kzt)
Sometimes you will see E
0
written as E
0
n, where the unit vector n is the polarization
How do the different components relate?
2011 68
PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 5. MAXWELLS EQUATIONS AND EM WAVES
Lets write out the full equation for E:
E(r, t) = e
i(kzt)
_
E
0x
e
i
x
i +E
0y
e
i
y
j
_
(5.47)
= e
i(kz+
x
)
_
E
0x
e
i(t)
i +E
0y
e
i(
y

x
t)
j
_
(5.48)
Now, physically we want to know what the real part of E is (though this must be done carefully: if you do this too early
you can throw away important solutions, like evanescent waves). We write:
Re [E(r, t)] = cos (kz +
x
) (E
0x
cos (t) i +E
0y
cos (
y

x
t) j)
+ sin (kz +
x
) (E
0x
sin (t) i E
0y
sin (
y

x
t) j) (5.49)
Phase Relation
The real part of E is:
E
Re
= cos (kz +
x
) (E
0x
cos (t) i +E
0y
cos (t ) j)
+ sin (kz +
x
) (E
0x
sin (t) i +E
0y
sin (t ) j) (5.50)
The phase difference between E
0x
& E
0y
is
The tip of the eld vector follows a spiral
Figure 5.3: The path traced by the tip of electric eld vector of an elliptically polarized electromagnetic plane wave
Types of Polarization
Figure 5.4: The path traced by the tip of the electric eld vector at a given plane in space over time for elliptical polariza-
tion; the propagation is out of the page.
= 0 or : plane or linear polarization
= /2 or 3/2 with E
0x
= E
0y
: circular polarization
E
0x
,= E
0y
, ,= 0: elliptical polarization
2011 69
PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 5. MAXWELLS EQUATIONS AND EM WAVES
Types
If E
0x
,= E
0y
for plane polarization, then the plane is at an angle = tan
1
(E
y0
/E
x0
)
Unpolarised light has the polarization varying randomly with time (only possible for spectral continuum)
Ordinary light sources (e.g. light bulb, sun) give this
Partially polarized light is a mix of specic kinds, or light which has had a plane imposed (e.g. using Polaroid lter)
Basic property is the relation of the x and y vectors in the eld
2011 70
PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 6. REFLECTION & REFRACTION
Chapter 6
Reection and Refraction at a Plane
Dielectric Surface
6.1 Refractive Index
6.1.1 Origin
Why do materials have a refractive index?
We have stated that n = c/v
p
In our solution for plane waves, we considered only vacuum
We will consider two cases with media:
- A non-conducting dielectric (
r
)
- A conducting system (briey)
Refractive index comes directly from Maxwells equations
Lets start with Ampres law, in a linear conducting medium of conductivity g (we can always set this to zero later
to recover a dielectric):
H = J +
D
t
(6.1)
J = gE (6.2)
Lets also assume that we can write the electric displacement and the magnetic intensity as plane waves, with a phase
between them:
D = D
0
exp i (k r t) (6.3)
H = H
0
exp i (k r t +) (6.4)
When these are substituted into Ampres law, using standard manipulations rst, and then asserting linear, isotropic
media (B =
0
H, 1 for most linear media, and D =
r

0
E) we can write:
ik H
0
= iD
0
+gE
0
(6.5)
k H
0
= D
0
+igE
0
(6.6)
k H
0
= D
0
igE
0
(6.7)
k
B
0

0
=
r

0
E
0
igE
0
(6.8)
k B
0
=

c
2
_

r
+i
g

_
E
0
, (6.9)
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PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 6. REFLECTION & REFRACTION
with
0

0
= 1/c
2
. Looking back to our solution for plane waves in vacuum, we would have seen k B
0
=

c
2

r
E
0
with
r
= 1. We can write:
=
r
+i
g

(6.10)
k B
0
=

c
2
E
0
(6.11)
We will assume that k E = 0 (i.e., that E = 0) and Eis transverse. This is true for a dielectric with no free charge
or a low frequency wave in a conductor where free charges disperse rapidly. There can be signicant local accumulation
of free charges, for example in a conductor with high frequency waves or certain modes of oscillation in a plasma.
6.1.2 Phase velocity
Now, using Faradays law on our elds, we can write:
k E
0
= B
0
(6.12)
k (k E
0
) = k B
0
(6.13)
(k E
0
) k k
2
E
0
=

2
c
2
E
0
(6.14)
We see, nally, that:
k
2
=

2
c
2
(6.15)
But the phase velocity,
v
p
=

k
=
c

=
c
n
.
Note that this means k = n/c
What about the two cases?
- A dielectric simply has n =

r
- A conducting system has a complex dielectric constant and refractive index
So the refractive index comes directly from the dielectric constant
6.2 Reection & Refraction
6.2.1 Geometry
We have incident, refracted and reected waves:
E(r, t) = E
0
exp i (k r t)
E

(r, t) = E

0
exp i (k

r t)
E

(r, t) = E

0
exp i (k

r t)
Phases in prefactors
Consider the boundary region: what will happen to E(r, t), E

(r, t) and E

(r, t) if we move from r to r +d? We can

write:
E(r +d, t) = E(r, t) exp i (k d) (6.16)
E

(r +d, t) = E

(r, t) exp i (k

d) (6.17)
E

(r +d, t) = E

(r, t) exp i (k

d) (6.18)
In other words, there is only a change of phase. Now, we know that there are boundary conditions of some kind at the
interface, by denition. We can get quite a long way just with this assumption. The whole of electromagnetism is assumed
2011 72
PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 6. REFLECTION & REFRACTION
Figure 6.1: Wave with wavevector k incident at point P travelling from medium with refractive index n to medium with
refractive index n

.
to be linear, so we assume that whatever the detailed form of the boundary conditions (which we will come to soon), some
specic linear combinations of components of the three elds will be equal. This can only be fullled if:
k d = k

d = k

d, (6.19)
for any vector d in the interface. Now write this vector as:
d = d

+d

, (6.20)
where d

lies in the plane of the diagram and d

perpendicular to it. By denition, k d

= 0, as the incident wave is in

the plane of the diagram. Unless we are dealing with an anisotropic material (which we assume that were not for now)
this implies that k

and k

are coplanar with k. Considering the angles, we can write:

k d

= k cos
_

2

_
= k sin (6.21)
k

= k

sin

(6.22)
k

= k

sin

(6.23)
But k = k

(as theyre in the same medium).

6.2.2 Two Laws: Reection & Refraction
This enables us to write:
Angle of incidence equals angle of reection
=

(6.24)
k sin = k

sin

but k
n
= n/c, so
Snells Law
n

sin

= nsin (6.25)
2011 73
PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 6. REFLECTION & REFRACTION
6.2.3 Changes of Amplitude
What happens to the energy of a reected and refracted wave?
We consider perfect plane waves, with innite extent
By using boundary conditions on the elds, we will follow the amplitudes, since Energy A
2
Two important new quantities:
r =
[E

[
[E[
(6.26)
t =
[E

[
[E[
(6.27)
We start with an incident electromagnetic plane wave, whose electric eld vector can be written as follows:
E = E
0
exp i (k r t) . (6.28)
We assume that we can write D = E, which implies that the two vectors are parallel. We can also write (using results
from Section 6):
B
0
= k E
0
, (6.29)
so the vector Bis perpendicular to E. For the magnetic induction and intensity, we write, using k = k

k and k = /c

:
B =

k E (6.30)
H = B/ =
_
/

k E. (6.31)
We must be careful about denitions now; the answers that we can derive for the electric eld will be different if the
electric eld vector lies in the plane of the wave vectors k, k

and k

and if it lies perpendicular to that plane (generally,

of course, we can resolve any eld into these two components). We will treat the components parallel (X

, where X
represents any vector) and perpendicular (X

) to the plane of incidence, the plane holding k, k

and k

, separately.
Some books talk about "s-polarization" and "p-polarization". The s-components are perpendicular to the plane of
incidence (s for senkrecht, the German word for "perpendicular"), i.e., X

X
s
. With p for "parallel", the p-components
are parallel to the plane of incidence, X

X
p
.
From Section 4, we know that components of Band Dperpendicular to the interface are conserved, as are components
of E and H parallel to the surface (though these should not be confused with the previous parallel and perpendicular
terms!).
Figure 6.2: Field directions for reected and refracted rays.
2011 74
PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 6. REFLECTION & REFRACTION
Consider rst the case of E

. The components parallel to the surface are:

E
0
cos E

0
cos = E

0
cos

. (6.32)
(Its important to notice that E
0
is perpendicular to k.) As His perpendicular to E, it must lie entirely in the plane of the
interface, so:
H
0
+H

0
= H

0
(6.33)

E
0
+
_

0
=

0
(6.34)
We assume that
r
=

r
= 1 (pretty good unless were dealing with ferromagnetic materials). With =
0

r
and
=
0

r
, we then get:

r
E
0
+

r
E

0
=
_

r
E

0
(6.35)
But we know that

r
= n, so:
n(E
0
+E

0
) = n

0
. (6.36)
Substituting into Eq. (6.32) for E

0
, we get:
cos
n
E
0
E

0
E
0
+E

0
=
cos

(6.37)
n

cos
_
1 r

_
= ncos

_
1 +r

_
(6.38)
n

cos ncos

= r

[ncos

+n

cos ] (6.39)
r

=
n

cos ncos

ncos

+n

cos
(6.40)
What about transmission for E

? From Eq. (6.36) and (6.32) we can write:

E

0
=
n

0
nE
0
n
(6.41)
E
0
cos
n

0
nE
0
n
cos = E

0
cos

(6.42)
ncos n

cos +ncos = t

ncos

(6.43)
t

[ncos

+n

cos ] = 2ncos (6.44)

t

=
2ncos
ncos

+n

cos
(6.45)
Now we turn to an electric eld whose vector is oscillating perpendicular to the plane of the wave vectors k, k

and
k

which we write as E

. This time, by contrast to Eqs. (6.32) and (6.33), we nd:

H
0
cos H

0
cos = H

0
cos

. (6.46)
E
0
+E

0
= E

0
. (6.47)
We also use
_

0
/
0
H
0
= nE
0
,
_

0
/
0
H

0
= n

0
and
_

0
/
0
H

0
= nE

0
. Together, we nd:
(E
0
E

0
) ncos = E

0
n

cos

(6.48)
n

cos

= ncos
E
0
E

0
E
0
+E

0
(6.49)
n

cos

= ncos
1 r

1 +r

(6.50)
n

cos

ncos = r

[ncos +n

cos

] (6.51)
r

=
ncos n

cos

ncos +n

cos

(6.52)
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PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 6. REFLECTION & REFRACTION
Finally we consider transmission for the perpendicular case:
[E
0
(E

0
E
0
)] ncos = E

0
n

cos

(6.53)
2E
0
E

0
= E

0
n

cos

ncos
(6.54)
2ncos = t

(n

cos

+ncos ) (6.55)
t

=
2ncos
n

cos

+ncos
(6.56)
6.2.4 Fresnel Relations
These are called the Fresnel Relations
Fresnel Relations
r

=
n

cos ncos

cos +ncos

(6.57)
r

=
ncos n

cos

ncos +n

cos

(6.58)
t

=
2ncos
n

cos +ncos

(6.59)
t

=
2ncos
ncos +n

cos

(6.60)
They tell us about amplitudes of waves
For power (or intensity) we need their square
We can see this by considering an electromagnetic wave with:
H =
B

=
_

k E. (6.61)
We will see later that the energy transmitted in an electromagnetic wave is proportional to E H, which (here) will be
proportional to
_
/E
2
0
. So the reection and transmission coefcients are proportional to the square root of the power.
It will be useful to rewrite r

and r

in a rather different form. We will not derive this form: its basic manipulation,
though quite long.
r

=
tan (

)
tan ( +

)
(6.62)
r

=
sin (

)
sin ( +

)
(6.63)
6.3 Special Angles
There are two particularly important angles where interesting things happen to the reection and transmission coefcients.
6.3.1 Brewster Angle
At some point, r

0 but r

,= 0
This is the Brewster angle,
B
, sometimes
p
All the power of the incident E

wave goes into the refracted wave

But in general the incident wave will have a E

component
2011 76
PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 6. REFLECTION & REFRACTION
Figure 6.3: The Brewster angle.
Thus, the reected light will be polarized perpendicular to the plane of incidence
If r

= 0 then we can write the Fresnel relation as:

n

cos
B
= ncos

, (6.64)
where
B
is the Brewster angle. But Snells law also tells us that n

sin

= nsin
B
.
Now, using our other expression for r

, tan(

)/ tan(+

), we can see that if +

=

2
then tan(+

)
so r

= 0. Then

=

2

B
. Substituting into Snells law we see:
n

sin
_

2

B
_
= nsin
B
(6.65)
n

cos
B
= nsin
B
(6.66)
(6.67)
The nal result is:
Brewster Angle

B
= tan
1
_
n

n
_
(6.68)
Many shiny dielectrics (paint, wet roads etc) have n

/n
air
1.5, so
B
50 to 60

Notice that r

changes sign, so direction of reected vectors changes

6.3.2 Critical Angle
Is there a situation where the transmission goes to zero?
The trivial solution is = /2, which explains glancing reection from still lakes and glass
If n > n

, Snells law gives:

sin

=
n
n

sin (6.69)
There will be some angle above which sin

> 1, which is unphysical

2011 77
PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 6. REFLECTION & REFRACTION
Figure 6.4: Reection coefcients of reected EM waves from air/glass interface (in both directions) as a function of
angle, for components parallel (R
p
) and perpendicular (R
s
) to plane of incidence.
We dene critical angle as
Critical Angle

C
= sin
1
_
n

n
_
. (6.70)
First, notice that:
sin
C
=
n

n
= tan
B
(6.71)
But there is an important difference between the two angles: there is always a physical, real value of the Brewster angle.
Also, as tan > sin (WHY?) then
B
<
C
. If >
C
, we must have sin

> 1, which is unphysical. The immediate

conclusion is that the reection coefcients, r

and r

, are unity: this is called total internal reection.

6.3.3 Total Internal Reection
Consider an air/glass interface: air has n = 1; glass has n 1.5
What are the Brewster angles from each side of the interface? What about the critical angles?
Figure 6.5: Total internal reection.
2011 78
PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 6. REFLECTION & REFRACTION
6.3.4 Intensities
But what is wrong with asserting that sin > 1? It would imply that cos =
_
1 sin
2
would be imaginary. Lets
assume that this is reasonable, and write:
cos

= iS, (6.72)
with S a real, positive number. What will this do to the reection coefcients? They will have the form:
r =
a ib
a +ib
=
exp (i)
exp (+i)
= exp (2i) (6.73)
The magnitude of this will always be one (as expected from before), meaning that all the power will be reected, but it
will insert a phase shift (as E

0
/E
0
will be complex).
Now, the phase for a plane wave below the interface, when the angle of incidence exceeds the critical angle, with
sin

=
n
n

sin - Snells Law, and using Eq. 6.72, is given by:

k

r = k

sin

x +k

cos

z (6.74)
= k

n
n

sin x +ik

Sz (6.75)
Evanescent Waves
Using Eq. 6.75, we write for the electric eld below the interface:
E

= E

0
exp i (k

r t) (6.76)
= E

0
exp i
_
k

n
n

sin x +ik

Sz t
_
(6.77)
= E

0
exp i (ik

Sz) exp i
_
k

n
n

sin x t
_
(6.78)
E

= E

0
exp (k

Sz) exp i (k

(n/n

) sin x t) (6.79)
This is a travelling wave along x which decays exponentially with z
It is called an evanescent wave
If another piece of material is brought up below the interface, a new wave can be excited, driven by the evanescent
wave
2011 79
PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 6. REFLECTION & REFRACTION
2011 80
PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 7. WAVES IN CONDUCTING MEDIA
Chapter 7
Waves in Conducting Media
7.1 Conductors
7.1.1 Origins
All effects stem from the wave equation:

2
Eg
E
t

2
E
t
2
= 0 (7.1)
In a conducting medium, J = gE, with conductance g
Now see the effect on the plane wave:
E = E
0
exp i (k r t) (7.2)
For the various components we can write:

2
E = k
2
E (7.3)
E
t
= iE (7.4)

2
E
t
2
=
2
E (7.5)
Combining these, we can form the following equation:
k
2
+ig +
2
= 0 (7.6)
7.1.2 Dispersion Relation
The dispersion relation is:
k
2
=
2
_
1 +
ig

_
(7.7)
We get a variation of k (or = 2/k) with
Remember that v
g
= d/dk and v
p
= /k
g 0: poor conductor, so k
2
=
2
and v
p
= v
g
7.1.3 Good Conductors
If g >> , we have a good conductor, and
k
2
ig k = +
_
ig (7.8)
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PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 7. WAVES IN CONDUCTING MEDIA
What is

i?
We can write:

i =
_
exp i

2
_1
2
= exp i/4 =
1

2
(1 +i) (7.9)
So we write k = k
r
+ik
i
Naturally, we nd:
k
r
= k
i
= +
_
g
2
(7.10)
Notice that both components of k are parallel to k itself. We can put this expression back into the expression for E.
7.1.4 Skin depth
When we put this into E, we nd:
E = E
0
exp i [(k
r
+ik
i
) r t] (7.11)
= E
0
(exp k
i
r) (exp i [k
r
r t]) (7.12)
This is a normal travelling wave
It is exponentially damped in the direction of k
We dene an attenuation:
E
0
(d) = E
0
(0) exp (d/) (7.13)
We dene the skin depth:
Skin Depth
=
1
k
i
=
_
2
g
(7.14)
An EM wave falling from air to good conductor will penetrate a few
For copper = 8.5 mm at 60 Hz, = 7.1 m at 100 MHz
Hence waveguides conne EM waves to the space around conductors
Figure 7.1: A pulse traveling along a good conductor is attenuated going into the conductor.
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PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 7. WAVES IN CONDUCTING MEDIA
Neither the electric eld (E) nor the magnetic eld (H) penetrate far into a "good" conductor. The point where these
elds are reduced by a factor of 1/e 1/2.71 is called the skin depth. Fig. 7.1 shows a good conductor and how a pulse
traveling along this conductor is attenuated going into the conductor.
Skin depth is dependent on the type of metal in the conductor and the frequency elds applied to the conductor. At
high frequencies the skin depth is very shallow, and the eld are often considered to be 0 in a few millimeters. A general
rule is that at ve times the skin depth the elds can be considered to be 0 (the actual value is (1/e)
5
= 0.00674, which
is indeed quite small).
Skin depth is important in many pulsed power applications because it changes the effective resistance in a conductor,
and that only the surface of the conductor matters.
7.2 Reection At Metal Surface
We start with the refractive index, n, which can be (and will be here!) complex.
7.2.1 Refractive Index
We know that n = ck/
If we substitute in from the results above, assuming =
0
we get:
n =
c

g
_
1 +i

2
_
=
_
g
2
0
(1 +i) (7.15)
A good conductor, as dened earlier, has g >> , so [n[ >> 1
Consider normal incidence at a metal surface:
There are two ways to get the result that we want. First, consider simply the Fresnel relation for = 0

:
r

=
ncos n

cos

ncos +n

cos

(7.16)
r

( = 0

) =
n n

n +n

(7.17)
If we are coming from air or vacuum to the metal, n = 1. Then in the limit of a good conductor, n

1, we have:
r

=
1 n

1 +n

1 (7.18)
This tells us that, provided we have a large conductivity and are not at high frequencies, the reected amplitude has the
same magnitude as the incident amplitude. However, this is not true at lower frequencies (e.g., optical frequencies, where
coloured reections from metal surfaces show that the amplitudes are changing; note that there are a number of causes for
the colour of metals which is a complex subject!).
The second way to nd this result is simply using the boundary conditions that we derived on the elds. Taking a
small loop which lies either side of the interface (ABCD as before), continuity of tangential components tells us that:
E
0
+E

0
= E

0
and H
0
H

0
= H

0
(7.19)
The minus sign on H

0
ensures that the reected wave goes in the opposite direction to the incoming wave, and reverses
the direction of energy ow. If we assume that =
0
, and shrink the sides of the small loop so that we can neglect the
free currents in the metal (which penetrate a few skin depths), then B
0
B

0
= B

0
. We also know that B
0
= E
0
k/, so,
with /k = c for air/vacuum:
k

E
0

0
=
k

0
(7.20)
E
0
E

0
=
ck

0
=
c
v

p
E

0
= n

0
(7.21)
If we eliminate E

0
between equations, we get, as before with before (Eq. 7.18):
E
0
E

0
= n

(E
0
+E

0
) (7.22)
r

=
E

0
E
0
=
1 n

1 +n

(7.23)
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PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 7. WAVES IN CONDUCTING MEDIA
7.3 Plasmas
A plasma is a condition of matter containing an appreciable fraction of freely moving charged particles. There are a
sufcient number of these charged particles to cause the electromagnetic properties of the medium to be signicantly
different from those of solids, liquids or gases. For this reason, plasmas are sometimes referred to as the fourth state of
matter.
It is believed that most of the matter in the Universe is in the form of plasma, rather than gas or liquid or solid. This
may come as a surprise to you, but our immediate environment is not typical of the Universe. The freely moving charged
particles in a plasma (especially electrons) readily interact with electromagnetic elds, so plasmas in their various guises
throughout the Universe exhibit interesting and important phenomena.
A neutral plasma can be thought of as a group of massive, slowly moving positive ions with a cloud of free electrons
surrounding it (of density N
e
electrons per unit volume) so that the whole system is neutral. The system is homogeneous
on macroscopic length scales, so that there are no large areas of positive or negative charge. If there is a local uctuation,
so that the electrons are displaced by x, there is a resulting polarization, P = N
e
ex, leading to a restoring force on the
electrons.
In taking this approach we are expressing the local build up of charge density due to an electromagnetic wave in
the same way as we did for a dielectric: as an induced polarization charge density. Its presence will later be expressed
through an effective permittivity, so we will be justied in setting D = 0 and also E = 0 for a linear medium.
The wave equation for E that we have used before will therefore remain valid.
7.3.1 Plasma Frequency
Figure 7.2: A slab of plasma in which the electrons have been displaced by a small amount x.
Consider a slab of plasma, width s, area A
Displace all electrons in slab by x
Produces charge build-up Q = N
e
exA (equivalent to dipole moment density P)
Equivalent to a capacitor with Q = N
e
exA on each plate
We will see that there are oscillations with frequency
P
=
_
N
e
e
2
/m
e

0
.
The dipole moment per unit volume is P = Qs/As = Q/A = N
e
ex (and note that in the diagram above it will
lie in the negative x direction). The electric displacement, D = Q/A for a capacitor. If we assume that
r
1, then we
write:
E =
Q

0
A
=
N
e
exA

0
A
=
P

0
=
N
e
ex

0
(7.24)
[Using the "no free charge" argument, as we did, does not really work since we can not say that D = 0, really, only that
D = 0.]
So there is an induced eld, which we assume will exert a force equally on all the electrons in the slab. We write:
F = eE =
N
e
e
2

0
x (7.25)
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PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 7. WAVES IN CONDUCTING MEDIA
If the electrons are free to move under the action of this force, we should recognize it as giving the equation for simple
harmonic motion. Applying Newtons Second Law:
d
2
dt
2
x =
N
e
e
2
m
e

0
x (7.26)
This allows us to identify the plasma frequency,
P
:
Plasma Frequency

P
=

N
e
e
2
m
e

0
, (7.27)
If we consider a charge density N
e
= 10
18
electrons per cubic metre, then the frequency is
P
5.7 10
10
s
1
.
7.3.2 Dispersion
For an EM wave in a plasma, how does k depend on ?
Collisions between electrons and ions are assumed infrequent
For a high frequency wave, consider free electrons
(only for a few cycles)
Compare to a metal where ohmic collisions dissipate energy
We will nd:
k
2
=

2
c
2
_
1

2
p

2
_
(7.28)
Derivation: Let us assume that we have a plane wave:
E(r, t) = E
0
exp i (k r t) (7.29)
The force on an electron in the plasma will be:
F = m
dv
dt
= e (E(r, t) +v B(r, t)) (7.30)
However, we can neglect the contribution from the magnetic eld in a non-relativistic plasma. We know that B
0
= E
0
/v
p
(from Faradays Law, for instance) so that the ratio of the two parts of the force in Eq. (7.30) is:
[v B[
[E[
=
v
v
p
(7.31)
But v
p
c >> v (as were in a non-relativistic plasma) so that vB
0
<< E
0
, and the magnetic term can be neglected.
So we now have:
m
dv
dt
= eE(r, t) = eE
0
exp i (k r t) (7.32)
This is simple enough to integrate directly with respect to time:
_
dv
dt
dt =
e
m
E
0
exp ik r
_
exp (it) dt (7.33)
v =
ei
m
E (7.34)
The electrons moving together as a group with this velocity gives a current, with a current density:
J = N
e
ev = i
_
N
e
e
2
m
_
E (7.35)
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PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 7. WAVES IN CONDUCTING MEDIA
The factor of i will introduce a phase shift between J and E of /2 (check that you understand why!).
If we return to the slab considered above (and illustrated in Fig. 7.2) we know that D =
0
E + P =
r

0
E. But the
polarization P = N
e
ex so:
J = N
e
ev = N
e
e
x
t
=
P
t
(7.36)
There is a contribution to the electric displacement, D, in the plasma from a time-dependent polarization, which in turn
arises from the movement of the electrons. There is also a contribution from the electric eld (which will also change
with time) so that we can write:
D
t
=
0
E
t
+J =
r

0
E
t
(7.37)
where we have dened an effective relative permittivity. Hence

0
(
r
1)
E
t
= J (7.38)
If we substitute in the plane wave expression, and Eq. (7.35), we then get:

0
iE+i
_
N
e
e
2
m
_
E =
r

0
iE (7.39)
Rearranging:

r
E =
_
1
1

2
N
e
e
2

0
m
_
E (7.40)
This gives a value for the relative permittivity:

r
= 1
1

2
N
e
e
2

0
m
= 1

2
p

2
(7.41)
This permittivity is frequency dependent and potentially less than one or even negative. Notice that something rather
interesting will happen if
p
. If we consider a eld with nite electric displacement magnitude, D
0
, then the electric
eld will have magnitude:
E
0
D
0
/
r
(7.42)
for the plasma. But as
p
,
r
0, and the amplitude of the oscillations in polarization tends to innity. This
is just like an undamped harmonic oscillator driven near its resonant frequency, where the amplitude of the oscillations
grows until something happens to the system. A mechanical system might break in some way, and in general systems will
become non-linear, and dissipate energy in some way not considered by the simple treatment for small amplitudes.
In a plasma, the electrons will eventually gain enough energy to further ionize or excite the atoms, dissipating the
incoming energy. The result is that the wave is absorbed rather strongly, and not transmitted for a range of frequencies
around
p
. All of the assumption that we made in this derivation break down when
p
.
If we assume that =
0
in the plasma, we can write for the phase velocity:
v
p
=

k
=
1

=
1

r
. (7.43)
This gives k
2
=
2

r
=
2

r
/c
2
. Substituting in from Eq. (7.41), we get:
Dispersion Relation for EM Waves in the Plasma
k
2
=

2
c
2
_
1

2
p

2
_
, (7.44)
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PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 7. WAVES IN CONDUCTING MEDIA
Phase/Group Velocities
Consider a wave with >
p
: then k
2
> 0, so k is real and there is no attenuation
If <
p
, k
2
< 0 and we have absorption of energy and damping over some attenuation length, L.
Let us consider the phase and group velocities, which are dened as:
v
p
=

k
(7.45)
v
g
=
d
dk
(7.46)
Now using the expression for the dispersion relation, Eq. (7.28), and differentiating, we nd:
2
d
dk
= 2kc
2
(7.47)
v
g
=
k

c
2
= c
2
/v
p
(7.48)
We nd:
v
p
v
g
= c
2
(7.49)
So either both velocities are equal to c, or v
p
> c. But this is all right: information and energy are transmitted at the group
velocity. We can see why the phase velocity is greater than c by considering the refractive index, n:
n = c/v
p
(7.50)
n
2
=
c
2
k
2

2
= 1

2
p

2
(7.51)
So n < 1 and v
p
> c.
An application: radio waves in the ionosphere.
2011 87
PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 7. WAVES IN CONDUCTING MEDIA
2011 88
PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 8. ENERGY FLOW AND THE POYNTING VECTOR
Chapter 8
Energy Flow and the Poynting Vector
8.1 Poyntings Theorem
We will be looking at the energy ow due to an electromagnetic wave.
8.1.1 Energy Densities
Recall the energy densities in static elds:
U
e
=
1
2
E D (8.1)
U
m
=
1
2
B H (8.2)
Consider EM energy dissipated via J in a medium
Rate of work (power, P) done is:
F v = qE v = E qv (8.3)
This is just E J per unit volume
We will analyze the ow and storage of energy.
Notice that if J is perpendicular to E, there will be no energy dissipation. This is equivalent to a body in orbit, where
the force is always perpendicular to the velocity (unless we include dissipation!) and there is no work done. Its also
useful to think about a ball thrown upwards in a parabolic trajectory moving under the gravitational force. The rate of
transfer of energy will be negative initially (as the ball slows down), zero at the top of the curve (any velocity will be
horizontal) and positive as the ball falls.
Now consider the rate of transfer of energy from EM eld to the current in a volume V :
P
V
=
_
V
J Edv (8.4)
(If the medium is one that obeys the law J = gE then we have P
V
=
_
V
gE
2
dv.) Now we use Maxwells equations (in
particular Ampres law and Faradays law) to transform the rate of transfer of energy:
H = J +
D
t
(8.5)
J = H
D
t
(8.6)
So in a situation with electric and magnetic elds, we have:
P
V
=
_
V
dv
_
E HE
D
t
_
(8.7)
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PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 8. ENERGY FLOW AND THE POYNTING VECTOR
But we can use a theorem from vector calculus to rework this expression:
(EH) = H EE H (8.8)
Now we can substitute for E H, and use Faradays law (E = B/t) to replace E. This gives:
P
V
=
_
V
dv
_
(EH) +H EE
D
t
_
(8.9)
=
_
V
dv
_
(EH) +H
B
t
+E
D
t
_
(8.10)
Assuming that were in a linear, isotropic medium, we can write B = Hand D = E. This also means that:
H
B
t
=
1
2

t
(H B) (8.11)
E
D
t
=
1
2

t
(D E) (8.12)
Remember that the energy densities in magnetic and electric elds were written as
1
2
H Band
1
2
D Erespectively. Using
Eq. (8.4) for P
V
we can now write:
_
V
dvJ E =
_
V
dv
_
(EH) +
1
2

t
(H B+E D)
_
(8.13)
8.1.2 Energy Flow
Finally, we nd:

_
V
dv (EH) =

t
_
V
dv
1
2
(H B+E D)
+
_
V
dvJ E (8.14)
The rst term on RHS is rate of change with time of stored energy in elds
The second term on RHS is rate of dissipation of energy
Dene:
Poynting vector
N = EH (8.15)
The Poynting vector can be thought of as representing the directional energy ux density (the rate of energy transfer
per unit area, in Wm
2
) of an electromagnetic eld.
8.1.3 Poyntings Theorem
First notice that we can use the divergence theorem to write:
_
V
dv N =
_
S
daN n (8.16)
Here, N n is the outward energy ux through area element da.
Assert that
_
S
daN n is the rate of ow of energy through the surface S as EM waves

_
S
daN n =
_
V
_

t
_
1
2
H B+
1
2
E D
_
+J E
_
dv (8.17)
2011 90
PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 8. ENERGY FLOW AND THE POYNTING VECTOR
This cannot be generally proven, but the derivation given above is a good reason for accepting and using N
As an example, lets consider the energy ow in a plane wave of the usual form E = E
0
exp i (k r t). Then we
have:
H =
k E

(8.18)
k

=
1
v
p
=

(8.19)
8.1.4 Average ow
But E
0

k E
0
_
= E
2
0

k, so:
N =
_

E
2
0

kcos
2
(k r t) (8.20)
This is in the direction of propagation, and varies with time.
The time average is:
N =
1
2
_

E
2
0

k (8.21)
=
1
2
1(EH

) (8.22)
where the second form is for complex vectors (are the results the same?)
We have used the time average over one period (T = 2/):

2
_ 2

0
cos
2
tdt =
1
2
(8.23)
8.2 Pressure due to EM Waves
While this derivation/demonstration could be done within the classical realm, its easier to do once we recognise that EM
waves are composed of photons. In a radio wave or light beam the energies of individual photons are small and phases are
coherent, so that the classical elds E(r, t) and H(r, t) describe with high precision the behaviour of all these particles.
The classical results involves relating current ow in a conductor to the electric eld strength in the wave impinging
on a surface, and then nding the Lorentz force acting on that current due to the magnetic eld of the wave.
8.2.1 Photons
We know that they have invariant mass m
0
= 0 and energy E = h = h
In special relativity, E
2
= p
2
c
2
+m
2
0
c
4
(more on this later)
So the momentum of one photon is:
p
i
=
E
c
=
h
c
(8.24)
The momentum in the wave will be the sum over the photons crossing a unit area in unit time:
p =

i
p
i
=
1
c

i
h
i
(8.25)
p =
E
c
=
N
c
, (8.26)
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PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 8. ENERGY FLOW AND THE POYNTING VECTOR
where, in the second equation, weve used the expression for energy ow from earlier.
If we assume that there is total reection (e.g. from a metal surfaceas will be discussed in the next section of the
lectures) then the change of momentum per unit area per unit time will be, using Eq. 8.21:
p = 2
N
c
=
0
E
2
0
, (8.27)
which is equal to the pressure on the surface (CHECK DIMENSIONS!). Notice that were assuming
r
= 1 =
r
. If the
photons are absorbed rather than reected we lose the factor of two.
2011 92
PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 9. EMISSION OF RADIATION
Chapter 9
Emission of Radiation
9.1 Retarded Potentials
We will consider the emission of electromagnetic waves from sources. The retarded potentials describe the scalar or
vector potential for electromagnetic elds of a time-varying current or charge distribution. The retardation of the inuence
connecting cause and effect is thereby essential; e.g. the signal takes a nite time, corresponding to the velocity of light, to
propagate from the source point of the eld to the point where an effect is produced or measured. Indeed, this ultimately
leads to the study of self-elds, where the motion of a particle (source) due to the elds generated by that same particle is
calculated sadly, beyond the scope of this course.
To start with, we will solve for the scalar and vector potentials in terms of charge and current densities.
9.1.1 Fields
How are elds determined by potentials?
B is easy (from B = 0):
B = A (9.1)
We get E from Faradays law:
E =
A
t
(9.2)
Use these to relate Aand to J and
Faradays law can be rewritten:
E+
B
t
= 0 = E+

t
A

_
E+
A
t
_
= 0
The last equality only holds if the elds are continuous. We know that the curl of a gradient is always zero, so we
write (as weve seen before):
E+
A
t
= (9.3)
E =
A
t
(9.4)
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PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 9. EMISSION OF RADIATION
If we assume a linear, isotropic medium, then we can write the Ampre-Maxwell equation (H = J +D/t), with
B = Hand D = E as:
1

B = J +
E
t
(9.5)

A+

t
_
+
A
t
_
= J (9.6)

2
A+

2
A
t
2
+ ( A) +

t
= J (9.7)
where we have used (A) = ( A)
2
A.
But this is rather messy! As we noted in Section III, there is considerable freedom in choosing A, since f = 0.
Before, we chose the Coulomb gauge: A = 0.
Summary
We wish to solve for elds E(r, t) and B(r, t)
It is easier to work in terms of potentials:
B = A (9.8)
E =
A
t
(9.9)
From Maxwells equations, we nd:

2
+

t
( A) =

0
(9.10)

2
A +

2
A
t
2
+ ( A) +

t
= J (9.11)
We can use gauges to simplify
9.1.2 Lorentz Condition
We will impose a condition on our potentials:
A+

t
= 0 (9.12)
This is known as the Lorentz condition.
Notice that we can always write A A+ and /t
So:

t
2
= 0 (9.13)
All potentials belonging to the Lorentz gauge satisfy this condition
9.1.3 Wave Equations
The vector potential now satises:

2
A+

2
A
t
2
= J (9.14)
The scalar potential can be shown to satisfy:

2
+

t
2
=

(9.15)
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PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 9. EMISSION OF RADIATION
How do we solve these equations?
We will consider the solution of the particular integral (which is the hard part!) for the scalar potential rst. If the
potential was time independent, then we know that:
(r) =
1
4
0
_
V
(r

)
[r r

[
dv

(9.16)
But this doesnt (quite) work. In vacuum,

2
+
1
c
2

t
2
=

0
.
We will solve for a point charge at the origin, and integrate over a volume (this is rather close to using a Greens function
technique). So we write:

2
+
1
c
2

t
2
= 0, (9.17)
except in a small volume v around the origin. If we dene a time dependent point charge purely as a mathematical
device (because a time-dependent point charge breaks charge conservation), then we can write:
_
v
dv
_

2

1
c
2

t
2
_
=
1

0
q(t) (9.18)
For this system, we can immediately see that there must be spherical symmetry, so (r) = ([r[). We can rewrite
Eq. (9.17) as:
1
r
2

r
_
r
2

r
_

1
c
2

t
2
= 0 (9.19)
If we wrote (r, t) = (r, t)/r then this would become:

r
2

1
c
2

t
2
= 0, (9.20)
which is of course just a one-dimensional wave equation. In general, we write:
(r, t) = f(r ct) +g(r +ct) (9.21)
However, we will ignore the second solution as we want a wave which propagates outward with time. Now we will write:
(r, t) =
f(r ct)
r
, (9.22)
and choose a form for f(r ct) which satises Eq. (9.18). We know that = q/4
0
r in the static case.
9.1.4 Retarded Time
We write t

= t r/c
This is called retarded time
We choose:
f(r ct) =
q(t r/c)
4
0
(9.23)
This means that we can write:
(r, t) =
q(t r/c)
4
0
r
(9.24)
This solves for a point charge at origin.
If we now apply this solution to Eq. (9.15) we can write:
2011 95
PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 9. EMISSION OF RADIATION
Form
Retarded scalar potential:
(r, t) =
1
4
0
_
V
(r

, t

)
[r r

[
dv

(9.25)
We have t

= t [r r

[/c
By considering the components of Awe can write:
A(r, t) =

0
4
_
V
J(r

, t

)
[r r

[
dv

(9.26)
Note that potentials at r, t are affected by charge at r

, t

, with spherical propagation outwards. In particular, we see

that the potentials at a given point r and a given time t are determined by the charge and current that existed at other points
in space r

at earlier times t

. In particular, the time appropriate for each point source is earlier than t by the time required
to travel over the intervening distance at a speed c.
9.2 Hertzian Dipole
9.2.1 Geometry
Figure 9.1:
Two small spheres connected by a short wire;
Each sphere has charge q(t);
Wire length l, no capacitance;
Use spherical polar coordinates, as shown.
We know that the current is given by:
I =
dq
dt
(9.27)
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PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 9. EMISSION OF RADIATION
Now we can use the results from the previous section to write the vector potential:
A
z
(r, t) =

0
4
_
l/2
l/2
I
_
z

, t

r z

/c
_
dz

r z

k

(9.28)
Jdv Idl

Idz

(9.29)
where the second set of equations follow from symmetry, and z

lies on the wire. We can write:

r z

=
_
(r z

cos )
2
+ (z

sin )
2
(9.30)
=
_
r
2
2rz

cos +z
2
_1
2
(9.31)
= r
_
1 2
z

r
cos +
z
2
r
2
_
1
2
(9.32)
r z

cos , r >> z

(9.33)
If were far away, then

r z

r. That takes care of the denominator; what about z

cos /c ?
z

cos
l
2
, (9.34)
by geometry. Now, if
l
2
<< Tc for some period T, then
l
2
<< ; this is the same as saying that we have a small dipole
(in this case, relative to the wavelength). This enables us to write:
A
z
(r, t)

0
4
_
l/2
l/2
I (z

, t r/c)
r
dz

(9.35)
=

0
4
_
I(t r/c)
r
__
l/2
l/2
dz

(9.36)
=

0
l
4
_
I(t r/c)
r
_
, (9.37)
as I is independent of z

. We can use the Lorentz condition, Eq. (9.12), to get the time variation of the scalar potential:
A+
0

t
= 0 (9.38)

t
=
l
4
0

z
_
1
r
I
_
t
r
c
_
_
(9.39)
There are various small results that we need:
r =
_
x
2
+y
2
+z
2
(9.40)
r
z
=
z
r
(9.41)

z
_
1
r
_
=
z
r
3
(9.42)

t
_
t
r
c
_
= 1 (9.43)
Using these, we can rewrite Eq. (9.39) as:

t
=
l
4
0
_

z
r
3
I
_
t
r
c
_

z
cr
2
I(t r/c)
(t r/c)
_
(9.44)
Finally we integrate with respect to time, remembering that, basically,
_
Idt = q.
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9.2.2 Potentials
The vector potential:
A
z
(r, t) =

0
l
4
_
I(t r/c)
r
_
(9.45)
The scalar potential:
(r, t) =
l
4
0
z
r
2
_
q(t r/c)
r
+
I(t r/c)
c
_
(9.46)
Choose:
q(t r/c) = q
0
cos (t r/c) (9.47)
This gives us the current:
I = q
0
sin (t r/c) (9.48)
= I
0
sin (t r/c) (9.49)
Then we can write for the vector potential in spherical polar coordinates (just reworking Eq. (9.45) again, taking the
components in the r and directions):
A
r
=

0
4
I
0
l
r
cos sin (t r/c) (9.50)
A

=

0
4
I
0
l
r
sin sin (t r/c) (9.51)
A

= 0 (9.52)
If we use the standard formula for curl in spherical polar coordinates, we can calculate the magnetic eld:
B
r
= 0 (9.53)
B

= 0 (9.54)
B

=
1
r

r
(rA

)
1
r
A
r

(9.55)
=

0
4
I
0
l
r
sin
_

c
cos (t r/c) +
1
r
sin (t r/c)
_
(9.56)

0
4
I
0
l
r
sin
_

c
cos (t r/c)
_
in the radiation zone, where r
c

, or r . (9.57)
We get the electric eld using:
E =
A
t
(9.58)
E
r
=

r

A
r
t
= 0 (9.59)
E

=
1
r

t
=
lI
0
sin
4
0
cos (t r/c)
rc
2
(9.60)
E

=
1
r sin

t
= 0, (9.61)
where we have neglected terms in 1/r
2
or higher.
For reference, remember that I
0
= q
0
and p
0
= q
0
l.
Important Points
These do not depend on
E and B are perpendicular
The power is radially outwards, as EB



= r
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The average power is:

P =
l
2

2
6
0
c
3
I
2
0
2
(9.62)
The radial components of E and B are zero
The radiated power is simply given by the surface integral of the Poynting vector.
W =
_
S
N nda (9.63)
=
1

0
_
2
0
_

0
B

r
2
sin dd (9.64)
=

2
I
2
0
l
2
16
2

0
c
3
_
2
0
d
_

0
sin
3
d cos
2
( (t r/c)) (9.65)
=

2
I
2
0
l
2
6
0
c
3
cos
2
( (t r/c)) (9.66)
When we average the cos
2
term we recover the formula for average power above.
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Chapter 10
Relativistic Transformations
We nish the course with a look at how the electric and magnetic elds are affected by transformations between different
inertial reference frames. This takes us into the realm of special relativity, and allows us both to see how the elds are
intimately connected, and to derive Maxwells equations in a new and elegant way.
Classical electrodynamics is already consistent with special relativity. Maxwells equations and the Lorentz force law
can be applied in any inertial system, although what one observer interprets as electrical another may regard as magnetic
with the actual particle motions identical. This section will hopefully give you a deeper appreciation of the structure of
electrodynamics laws that had seemed arbitrary and unrelated before take on a certain coherence and inevitability when
looked at from the point of view of relativity.
10.1 Introduction
10.1.1 Basic Principles
Laws of physics are the same in all inertial reference frames;
Speed of light in vacuum is the same in all reference frames;
It is also independent of the motion of the emitting body;
Inertial reference frame is not accelerating.
Start with sound: if we measure its speed relative to stationary air, then we get something around 330 metres per
second (note that this will depend on temperature and pressure). If we measure it in a moving inertial reference frame we
can get a different answer if the air is no longer stationary.
Any wave (or wave-like disturbance) which does not require a medium to propagate must travel at the same speed in
all reference frames (otherwise we could do an experiment to differentiate between them). This was the basis of Einsteins
principle of relativity.
What about coordinate systems? We must specify a set of axes associated with an inertial reference frame (notice that
if we were being exact, wed refer to a rigid inertial reference frame). Well call our frame S, and associate the distances
along axes x, y and z with the axes. In order to specify events, we must also specify a time, t. We will use the notation
S(x, y, z, t) to specify a reference frame and the coordinates in that frame.
10.1.2 Coordinate transforms
Two inertial frames: S(x, y, z, t) and S

(x

, y

, z

, t

)
S

moves with velocity v in the x direction of S

At t = t

= 0, x = x

= 0
An event P at (x, y, z, t) in S has coordinates (x

, y

, z

, t

) in S

The origins in S and S

coincide at t = t

= 0
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Figure 10.1: Galilean physics.
Now suppose that there is some event (e.g. a ash of light or collision between two particles) at (x, y, z, t) in S and
(x

, y

, z

, t

) in S

. In Galilean physics, the transformation between these two events is given by the Galiliean transform:
x

= x vt (10.1)
y

= y (10.2)
z

= z (10.3)
t

= t. (10.4)
But if we differentiate Eq. (10.1) with respect to time, we nd that, if were considering a light ash, the apparent
speed in S

is c v, in contradiction to the principle of relativity (and experiment, as it turns out).

10.1.3 Interval
Consider ash of light from origin of S at t = t

= 0
The location of a point on the wavefront in S at dt is:
dx
2
+dy
2
+dz
2
c
2
dt
2
= 0 (10.5)
This point on the wavefront in S

at a later time dt

:
(dx

)
2
+ (dy

)
2
+ (dz

)
2
c
2
(dt

)
2
= 0. (10.6)
Lets look at these by imagining that the event is specically a ash of light emitted from a point source located at the
origin of S at time t = 0 (so it will also be at the origin of S

at t

= 0). Then the location of the wavefront in S at a later

time dt will be dened by the following equation:
dx
2
+dy
2
+dz
2
c
2
dt
2
= 0 (10.7)
simply by rearranging the equation of motion. If this quantity was greater than zero, then we would be at a point ahead
of the wave, and if less than zero, wed be at a point behind the wave.
However, since the ash of light occurred at t

in S

, then we can also write the following equation for the wavefront
in S

at a later time dt

:
(dx

)
2
+ (dy

)
2
+ (dz

)
2
c
2
(dt

)
2
= 0. (10.8)
If we dene an arbitrary space-time interval as:
ds
2
= dx
2
+dy
2
+dz
2
c
2
dt
2
(10.9)
then we see that for an interval dened by two events separated by a light ray, ds
2
= 0 in any reference frame. The
principle of special relativity can be formulated by asserting the for any pair of events, the interval between them is the
same in any coordinate system. In other words, basically, special relativity can be stated in terms of the invariance of
space-time interval (between any two events) as seen from any inertial reference frame.
In physics and mathematics, Minkowski space or Minkowski spacetime (named after the mathematician Hermann
Minkowski) is the mathematical setting in which Einsteins theory of special relativity is most conveniently formulated.
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Figure 10.2: A diagram of Minkowski space.
In this setting the three ordinary dimensions of space are combined with a single dimension of time to form a four-
dimensional representation of spacetime.
Note that although we use the notation ds
2
for the interval, in general it can be either positive or negative. To nd ds
the modulus is taken before taking the square root; the spacetime interval is dened as time like (ds
2
< 0) or space like
(ds
2
> 0) or light like (ds
2
= 0).
The intervals are equal:
dx
2
+dy
2
+dz
2
c
2
dt
2
= (dx

)
2
+ (dy

)
2
+ (dz

)
2
c
2
(dt

)
2
(10.10)
10.1.4 Lorentz transformation
In physics, the Lorentz transformation or Lorentz-Fitzgerald transformation describes how, according to the theory
of special relativity, two observers varying measurements of space and time can be converted into each others
frames of reference. It is named after the Dutch physicist Hendrik Lorentz. It reects the surprising fact that
observers moving at different velocities may measure different distances, elapsed times, and even different orderings
of events.
The Lorentz transformation was originally the result of attempts by Lorentz and others to explain how the speed
of light was observed to be independent of the reference frame, and to understand the symmetries of the laws of
electromagnetism. Albert Einstein later re-derived the transformation from his postulates of special relativity. The
Lorentz transformation supersedes the Galilean transformation of Newtonian physics, which assumes an absolute
space and time, which is a good approximation only at relative speeds much smaller than the speed of light.
If space is homogeneous, then the Lorentz transformation must be a linear transformation. Also, since relativity
postulates that the speed of light is the same for all observers, it must preserve the spacetime interval between any
two events in Minkowski space.
Lorentz transformations can be derived (see the PHAS1246 notes on Special Relativity for a rigorous derivation of
these):
x

=
x vt
(1 v
2
/c
2
)
1/2
(10.11)
y

= y (10.12)
z

= z (10.13)
t

=
t vx/c
2
(1 v
2
/c
2
)
1/2
. (10.14)
Important: Notice that these forms assume that the components were dealing with are x, y, z, t. We will dene other
components below which are slightly different.
Recall, too, that we have time dilation,
t

=
_
1
v
2
c
2
t,
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PHAS3201: Electromagnetic Theory CHAPTER 10. RELATIVISTIC TRANSFORMATIONS
and length contraction:
L = L
0
_
1
v
2
c
2
,
where L
0
is the rest-length in S

.
In normal geometry, we are familiar with a dot product which is invariant with coordinate transforms: its just the
scalar product.
10.2 Four-vectors
10.2.1 Position-Time 4-vector
Dene a space-time 4-vector: (r, ct):
x

= (x, y, z, ict) , = 1 4. (10.15)

There are other ways of dening it
We require:

= x

= x
2
+y
2
+z
2
c
2
t
2
, (10.16)
This is invariant under the Lorentz transform.
Note that in Eq. 10.16 we have introduced the Einstein summation convention, where repeated indices are summed over
(without the

symbol).
Q: What is the inverse transform? What is it equivalent to?
Another Form
Often use these variables:
=
v
c
(10.17)
=
1
_
1
2
(10.18)
Rewrite Lorentz transforms:
Lorentz transformation
x

1
= x
1
+ix
4
(10.19)
x

2
= x
2
(10.20)
x

3
= x
3
(10.21)
x

4
= x
4
ix
1
(10.22)
Even though the four-dimensional nature may look unfamiliar, this ought to remind you of a matrix-vector multipli-
cation. We dene:
R =
_
_
_
_
0 0 i
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
i 0 0
_
_
_
_
(10.23)
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We can re-write the Lorentz transformations as:
x

= R

. (10.24)
As an example, lets look at x
4
, where we can write
x

4
= R
41
x
1
+R
42
x
2
+R
43
x
3
+R
44
x
4
(10.25)
= ix
1
+ 0 + 0 +x
4
, (10.26)
which is the Lorentz transformation of Eq. 10.22.
[Non-examinable: The use of an imaginary time coordinate here is a neat but rather out-dated way of getting the
minus sign in the interval. But be aware that the modern way to achieve this is to introduce two forms of 4-vector, called
co-variant and contra-variant, which are always combined together to make the scalar product. The price we are paying
for not having to learn a new vector formalism is the need for time-like components of 4-vectors to have a factor i in their
denitions.]
10.2.2 Other 4-vectors
There are other 4-vectors which are rather useful; they all combine space-like and time-like quantities (though the exact
denition of space-like and time-like will vary!).
We will see that there are many other 4-vectors
They have space-like and time-like components
For instance:
p

=
_
p
x
, p
y
, p
z
, i
E
c
_
(10.27)

=
_

x
1
,

x
2
,

x
3
,

x
4
_
(10.28)
=
_

x
,

y
,

z
,
i
c

t
_
(10.29)
Notice that their magnitudes are invariant
[Non-examinable: it is worth mentioning briey here the properties of tensors, which are a way to generalise scalar and
vector quantities to objects having more components. Tensors serve to isolate intrinsic geometric or physical properties
from those that depend on a choice of coordinates. They have different ranks (r): in an n-dimensional space (e.g. 4-
dimensional space-time), they have n
r
components. A rank 0 tensor has 1 component, and is called a scalar. A rank 1
tensor has n components and is called a vector (in 4-dimensional space-time, we get a 4-vector). A rank 2 tensor has n
2
components and can be written as a matrix (and it transforms like the outer product of two vectors).]
10.3 Transformations of Fields
The scalar product between two 4-vectors is always invariant under a Lorentz transform. We have seen above that

is a
4-vector; what can we dot it with?
10.3.1 Current Density
The continuity equation:
J +

t
= 0, (10.30)
We can dene a 4-vector in terms of the current density and charge density:
j

= (J
1
, J
2
, J
3
, ic) (10.31)
which gives us

= 0 (10.32)
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Since the differential operator

transforms as a 4-vector and the RHS is a scalar and this equation should be true
in any inertial frame, we must have that j

also transforms as a 4-vector. The 4-vector nature of j

can also be shown

by considering a distribution of moving point charges and nding how the current and charge densities vary in different
frames.
10.3.2 Potentials
We can now consider the electromagnetic potentials, which are related to the different components of the current density
4-vector:

2
A
1
c
2

2
A
t
2
=
0
J (10.33)

2

1
c
2

t
2
=
1

0
(10.34)
To put these in Lorentz invariant form, we dene the 4-dimensional Laplacian operator (or dAlembertian) as the dot
product between the

4-vector and itself.

Dene the 4D Laplacian (like
2
)

= 2 (10.35)
Now dene a 4-vector in terms of the vector and scalar potentials:
a

=
_
A
1
, A
2
, A
3
,
i
c
_
(10.36)
2a

=
0
j

(10.37)
We can write the Lorentz condition as:

= 0 (10.38)
As 2 is a scalar, and the right-hand side of Eq. (10.36) transforms as a 4-vector then a

must also transform as a

4-vector if the equation is to apply in all references frames.
This scalar product in Eq. (10.38) is manifestly invariant under Lorentz transforms, so that if we full the Lorentz
condition in one reference frame, we will full it in all frames. It can also be shown (though we dont have time) that the
solutions for the retarded potentials derived in Section 10 are parts of a 4-vector which transforms in the usual way.
10.3.3 Fields
Equations (10.36) and (10.38) correspond to Maxwells equations written in covariant form in terms of potentials. Now
we move on to the electric and magnetic elds, which we will nd that we can write in terms of a single tensor. How will
we arrive at this point?
Consider the denitions of the elds in terms of the potentials:
B = A (10.39)
E =
A
t
(10.40)
Write the components of elds in terms of potentials
B
1
=
a
3
x
2

a
2
x
3
(10.41)

i
c
E
1
=
a
4
x
1

a
1
x
4
(10.42)
Together they resemble the parts of a kind of 4-D curl
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Dene the electromagnetic eld tensor as:
F

=
a

, (10.43)
It is a tensor because it is written in terms of products of two 4-vectors.
This can be written out fully in matrix form as:
F =
_
_
_
_
0 +B
3
B
2

i
c
E
1
B
3
0 +B
1

i
c
E
2
+B
2
B
1
0
i
c
E
3
+
i
c
E
1
+
i
c
E
2
+
i
c
E
3
0
_
_
_
_
(10.44)
10.3.4 Maxwells Equations
Clearly, F is anti-symmetric: F

= F

. So there is a single tensor which contains both electric and magnetic elds:
can we write Maxwells equations in terms of it? In one sense, weve already done this, with Eq. (10.36). We can also
examine the properties of F.
Consider

. We nd:

(10.45)
=

_
a

_
(10.46)
=

2
a

x
2

+

x

(10.47)
= 2a

=
0
j

, (10.48)
where we have used the Lorentz condition to eliminate the second term in the third line.
Consider

=
0
j

From this, we recover two of Maxwells equations:

E =

0
(10.49)
B =
0
J +
0

0
E
t
(10.50)
Lets look at the rst of these, with = 4 so j
4
= ic. Then,

F
4
=
0
j
4
(10.51)

x
1
F
41
+

x
2
F
42
+

x
3
F
43
+

x
4
F
44
=
0
ic (10.52)

x
_
i
c
E
x
_
+

y
_
i
c
E
y
_
+

z
_
i
c
E
z
_
+ 0 =
0
ic (10.53)
i
c
_

x
E
x
+

y
E
y
+

z
E
z
_
=
0
ic (10.54)
E =
0
c
2
(10.55)
E =

0
(10.56)
where we have used c
2
= 1/
0

0
. The other is left as an exercise for the student to verify, as are the next two.
We can recover the other two from:
F

+
F

+
F

= 0 (10.57)
[Non-examinable: We can dene the dual tensor of F

, G

, by substituting iE/c B, B iE/c. In terms of

this tensor, Eq. (10.57) can be written

= 0.] Eq. (10.57) follows as an identity from the form of F

.
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Important Points
The electric and magnetic elds can be written as a single tensor
Maxwells equations can be written rather simply in terms of this tensor
They are manifestly invariant under Lorentz co-ordinate transforms
Transform F between frames using R:
F

= RFR
T
(10.58)
In terms of components, we can write:
F

. (10.59)
Then, for instance, we can nd transformations of the E and B elds, such as:
B

3
= F

12
=
4

=1
4

=1
R
1
F

R
2
.
10.3.5 Transformations
It is also possible to get the transformation by considering the elds in terms of the potentials and differentials, and
transforming them separately. This requires a little algebra.
In any case. we nd the transformations of E and B between frames:
Field transformations
E

= E

(10.60)
E

= E

+v B (10.61)
B

= B

(10.62)
B

= B

1
c
2
v E, (10.63)
The two frames move with velocity v relative to each other
the directions are parallel and perpendicular to the velocity.
Notice which components are left unchanged (by comparison to lengths) and how we can do a certain amount rather
easily. This transformation mixes the elds.
If we start with a set of potentials due to a stationary charge in frame S

, then we can write:

A

= 0 (10.64)

=
e
4
0
r

(10.65)
Now we transform to the frame S:
A
1
=
_
A

1
i
u
c

i

c
_
=
ue
4
0
c
2
r

(10.66)
A
2
= A

2
= 0 (10.67)
A
3
= A

3
= 0 (10.68)
i
c
=
_
i

c
+
u
c
A

1
_
=
i
c
e
4
0
r

(10.69)
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Notice how the movement of the charge due to the change in reference frame now gives a non-zero vector potential.
The nal form of the transformation is not quite as simple as it looks because the radial component r

needs to be
transformed as well.
[Non-examinable: The rigorous way to demonstrate the Lorentz invariance of electromagnetic theory is to begin with
the denition of the eld quantity F

and write the Lorentz force law for a moving charged particle in terms of this.
Then the requirement that the motion of this particle should transform according to the rules of Lorentzian mechanics for
a particle with constant rest mass leads to the assertion that F

indeed transforms like a tensor. It can be shown that

the fact that it is antisymmetric means that it can be written as the 4-curl of a 4-vector which then turns out to be the
4-potential a

. By this route the law of conservation of charge can be shown to be a consequence of Lorentz invariance.]
2011 109