Basic Concepts of Electronics and Electrical

NIELIT CHANDIGARH

Basic Concepts of Electronics and Electrical

CHAPTER 1 HUMAN SAFETY, POWER SOURCES AND BASIC INSTRUMENTS

High Voltage Test (Dielectric Voltage-Withstand Test) In this test, the insulation of a product, stressed to a greater extent than under normal working conditions, should not be breached for the product to pass. In most cases, the device is stressed to twice its normal operating voltage. For all electrical products, the high voltage test is a universal test, meaning that every unit should pass before it can be used. Insulation Resistance Test This test is used to measure the total resistance of a products insulation by applying a voltage of 500V 1000V. The minimum acceptable value of resistance for a product to pass an insulation resistance test is normally 2 Mega Ohms or 200 Mega Ohms. The insulation resistance test is not a substitute for the high voltage test. Many standards and safety agencies have specified this test as a universal test for all products. This test may also be carried out after every maintenance procedure or repair. Earth Bond Test This test is performed by measuring the resistance between the ground pin and metal body of the product which is to be test. The maximum acceptable value is generally 0.5 ohms, although certain standards may specify 0.1 ohms. This test is generally carried out at a slightly higher current (e.g. 25-60A) so that the ground bond circuit maintains safe voltages on the chassis of the product, even at a high current, before the circuit breaker trips. This test is essential so that the product does not cause an electric shock resulting from insulation failure. Leakage Current Test (Line Leakage Test): This test is used to measure the undesirable leakage current that flows through or across the surface of the insulation or the dielectric of a capacitor. This test is generally carried out at more than rated input voltage of the product under test. The maximum acceptable limit of a leakage current is generally 210 micro amperes. 1.2 Hazards and Preventions Effects of Electrical Shock on Human Body

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Basic Concepts of Electronics and Electrical Current 1-3Milliamps 3+Milliamps 10+Milliamps 30+Milliamps 60+ Milliamps 4+Amps 5+Amps Effects Itchiness feeling Shock (pain) Muscular Contractions (Cant let go) Respiratory Paralysis (may be fatal) Ventricular Fibrillation(Usually fatal) Heart Paralysis (fatal) Tissue Burning (fatal, vital organs destroyed)

1.3

Electrical Insulator

An electrical insulator is a material whose internal electric charges does not flow freely, and therefore does not conduct an electric current under the influence of voltage supply. A perfect insulator does not exist, but some materials such as glass, paper and Teflon, which have high resistivity, are very good electrical insulators. A much larger class of materials, are also good enough to insulate electrical wiring and cables. Examples include rubber-like polymers and plastics. Such materials can serve as practical and safe insulators for low to moderate voltages (hundreds, or even thousands, of volts).Various insulators are shown in fig 1.1

Ceramic insulator used in railway PVC-sheathed

Mineral insulated copper cable PVC-sheathed Fig 1.1. Electrical insulator

Mineral insulated copper cable

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Basic Concepts of Electronics and Electrical

1.4

Power Sources

Common Sources Of Electricity Electricity is energy that has been bind and refined from a wide range of sources and is suitable for various uses as shown in fig 1.2.

Fig 1.2. Common sources of electricity The following is a list of the most common ways to generate electrical current or electricity: Magnetically This includes the induction of electrons in a wire rotating within a magnetic field. An example of this would be generators turned by water, wind, or steam, or the fan belt in a car. Chemically This involves the electrochemical generation of electrons by reactions between chemicals and electrodes (as in batteries). Photovoltaic generation of electrons This occurs when light strikes semiconductor crystals, multiple electron hole pair generated (as in solar cells ). Thermal generation This uses temperature differences between thermocouple junctions. Thermal generation is used in generators on spacecrafts that are fuelled by radioactive material. Other sources of power generation Electrochemical reaction This occurs between hydrogen, oxygen, and electrodes (fuel cells). Piezoelectric- This involves mechanical deformation of piezoelectric substances. For example, piezoelectric material in the heels of shoes power LEDs that light up when we walk.fig 1.3 represents pi chart showing power capacity of different sources.

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Fig 1.3. Pi chart representing power capacity 1.5 Concept of Electrical Current and Voltage

Current Flow Electrical and electronic devices work because of an electric current. An electric current is a flow of electric charge. The electric charge usually consists of negatively charged electrons. However, in semiconductors, there are also positive charge carriers called holes. In the case of a battery, electrons are the electric charge carriers and they flow from the terminal that has an excess number of electrons (i.e negative terminal of battery) to the terminal that has a shortage (i.e. positive terminal of battery) of electrons. This flow takes place in any complete circuit that is connected to battery terminals. It is this difference in the charge that creates the potential difference in the battery. The electrons try to balance the difference. Because electrons have a negative charge, they actually flow from the negative terminal and return to the positive terminal. This direction of flow is called electron flow. Fig 1.4 shows the direction of current flow.

Fig 1.4. Direction of flow of current NIELIT, Chandigarh Centre

Basic Concepts of Electronics and Electrical Voltage / Potential Difference From the structure of a material (Conductor, semiconductor and insulator), each has more or less number of balance electrons. In a conductor, some of those electrons can jump from atom to atom. But electrons dont move from atom to atom without a reason. When electrons are flowing there is always an electrical force pushing them. We refer to this force as Voltage. Voltage or potential difference is the difference of electron concentration between two points; these two points may be two terminal of a battery plate (positive and negative, usually 1.5 Volt) or two wire of home supply (Mains and ground usually 220 Volt). A single cell from a flashlight creates an electrical potential of 1.5 Volts, a transistor radio battery creates an electrical potential of 9 Volts. (There are six little cells of 1.5 Volts each inside of the 9 Volt batteries.) And the household electrical outlets are 220 or 230 Volts. DC Voltage and Current Direct current or DC electricity is the continuous movement of electrons from an area of negative () charges to an area of positive (+) charges through a conducting material such as a metal wire. Whereas imbalance of electric charges consists of the sudden movement of electrons from a negative to positive surface, DC electricity is the continuous movement of the electrons through a wire. In reality, there are millions of electrons weaving their way among the atoms in the wire shown in fig 1.5.

Fig 1.5. Flow of charge carriers To produce current, the electrons must be moved by a potential difference. The symbol for current is (I). The basic measurement for current is the ampere (A). One ampere of current is defined as the movement of one coulomb of charge that passes through any conductor during one second of time. The figure 1.6 shown below is direct current.

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Fig 1.6. Direct current A DC circuit is necessary to allow the current or group of electrons to flow. Such a circuit consists of a source of electrical energy (such as a battery) and a conducting wire running from the positive end of the source to the negative terminal as shown in figure 1.7.

Fig 1.7.One way flow of current AC Current and Voltage AC is short for alternating current. This means that the direction of current flowing in a circuit is always being reverse and forward. This is done with any type of AC current/voltage source. Fig 1.8 shows below is alternating current.

Fig 1.8. AC current variation with respect to time The electrical current in your house is alternating current. This usually comes from power plants that are operated by the electric company. Those big wires you see stretching across different area are carrying AC current from the power plants to the power station. Then these lines are distributed in a city, town and village. The direction of current is switching back and forth 60 times each second.fig 1.9 shows the direction of current.

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Basic Concepts of Electronics and Electrical

Current flowing direction

in

forward

Current direction

flowing

in

reverse

Fig 1.9. Flow of current in forward and reverse direction This is a series circuit using an AC source of electricity. Notice that the light bulb in above figures still lights though the electron current is constantly reversing directions. This is because the change in direction of the current flow happens so fast that the light bulb does not have a chance to stop glowing. 1.6 Testing Guidelines Some basic guidelines for performing electrical safety tests are outlined below. Do not make any connections to a Device under test unless you have verified that the high voltage is OFF. Never touch a Device under test or its connections during a test. When connection leads to the Device under test, always connect the ground clip first. Never touch the metal of a High Voltage probe directly. Only touch the insulated parts. Verify all Devices under Test connections before starting a test. Make sure that no other objects are near the Device under test or the tester. Keep the area clean and uncluttered and avoid crossing test leads. Follow the prescribed procedure for each test exactly as written. Verify all setup conditions before starting a test and examine all leads for signs of wear. Have a hot stick useful when performing a DC test and use it to discharge any connection or device that may become disconnected during a test. This is necessary because unexpected, dangerous charges can build up during a test if a connection comes loose. At completion of a test turn OFF the High Voltage. If the test was DC, discharge the Device which is under test for the prescribed time. 1.7 Primary And Secondary Cells/Batteries Primary Cells/Batteries A primary cell is a battery that is designed to be used once and discarded, and cannot be recharged and reused. Primary cells are made in a range of standard sizes to power small household appliances. In the primary cell, a chemical reaction in the battery use up the chemicals that generate the power; when they are gone, the battery stops producing electricity and is useless. Some of the primary cells are shown below in fig 1.10.

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Fig 1.10. Pictorial views of different types of batteries Secondary Cells/Batteries A secondary cell is a battery that can be recharged. This reaction can be reversed by running a current into the cell with a battery charger to recharge it, regenerating the chemical reactants. Common types of rechargeable batteries include Li-ion (Lithium Ion), Ni-MH (Nickel Metal Hydride), and NiCd (Nickel Cadmium). Secondary batteries are shown below in fig 1.11:

Fig 1.11. Secondary cell is a battery 1.8 Testing of Capacity and Charging-Discharging

Testing of Capacity of Batteries Capacity test is the only way to get an accurate value of the battery. Testing can be done regularly to know the battery health and remaining life. When the battery is new its capacity might be lower than actually specified. All batteries have tables telling the discharge current for a specified time. Table below is an example from battery manufacturer. Nominal rates at 25*C (77*f) Amperes (includes connector voltage drop)

Model

Ah Ratings 100 120

DCU/DU-9 DCU/DU11

DCU/DU-13 150 Common test times are 5 or 8 hours and common end of discharge voltage for a lead acid cell is 1.75 or 1.80 V. NIELIT, Chandigarh Centre
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Basic Concepts of Electronics and Electrical During the test it is measured how much capacity the battery can deliver before the total discharge of cells. Testing of Charging-Discharging of Batteries Rechargeable, or secondary, batteries are commonly used in place of disposable batteries in electronic devices such as video game controllers, digital cameras, and remote controls. For both the charging and discharging cycles, a simplified circuit diagram is shown:

Charge Cycle

Discharge Cycle

Source Meter in Source Mode Vs > VB Source Meter functions as Power Supply Charge Current (i) is Positive

Source Meter in Sink Mode VS < VB Source Meter functions as Electronic Load Discharge Current (i) is Negative

Fig 1.12. Charging and discharging cycles A battery is usually charged using a constant current. At the start of the test, the battery voltage is less than the voltage output setting of the Model 2450. As a result, this voltage difference drives a current as the battery becomes fully charged, the current will decrease until it reaches zero or near zero. To prevent safety hazards or damage to the battery, care must be taken not to overcharge the battery. When discharging a battery, the Model 2450 Instrument operates as a load because it is dissipating power rather than sourcing it. The voltage source is set to a lower level than the battery voltage. When the output is enabled, the current from the battery flows into the HI terminal. As a result, the current readings will be negative. The discharge current should stay constant until the battery voltage decreases to the voltage source.

1.9

Transformer Its Types, Construction and Testing

The transformer is used to make power of one voltage level into power of another voltage level. High voltage is easier to send a long distance, but less voltage is easier and safer to use in the office or home. Transformers are used to increase or decrease alternating current, voltage in circuits.

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Basic Concepts of Electronics and Electrical Types of Transformer Constant Voltage Transformer By arranging particular magnetic properties of a transformer core, and installing a ferro-resonant tank circuit (a capacitor and an additional winding), a transformer can be arranged to automatically keep the secondary winding voltage relatively constant for varying primary supply without additional circuitry or manual adjustment. Saturating transformers provide a simple method to stabilize an AC power supply. Ferrite core Power Transformer Ferrite core power transformers are widely used in switched-mode power supplies (SMPSs). Ferrite transformers are not used as power transformers at mains frequency since laminated iron cores cost less than an equivalent ferrite core. Stray field transformer A stray field transformer has a stray field. It can act as a transformer with inherent current limitation which is unwanted in most cases. Stray field transformers are used for arc welding and high voltage discharge lamps. It acts both as voltage transformer and magnetic ballast. Air-core transformer These are used for high frequency work. The lack of a core means very low inductance. Such transformers may be nothing more than a few turns of wire soldered onto a printed circuit board. Construction For the simple construction of a trasformer, you need two coils having mutual inductance and a laminated steel core. The two coils are insulated from each other and from the steel core. The device will need some suitable container for the assembled core and windings, a medium with which the core and its windings from its container can be insulated. In order to insulate and to bring out the terminals of the winding from the tank, apt bushings that are made from either porcelain or capacitor type must be used. In all transformers that are used commercially, the core is made out of transformer sheet steel laminations assembled to provide a continuous magnetic path with minimum of air-gap included. Testing Of Transformer There are several tests that can be done on the transformer; however a few common ones are discussed here. Winding resistance test This is nothing but the resistance measurement of the windings by applying a small d.c voltage to the winding and measuring the current through the same. The ratio gives the winding resistance, more commonly feasible with high voltage windings. For low voltage windings a resistance-bridge method can be used. From the d.c resistance one can get the a.c. resistance by applying skin eect corrections.

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Basic Concepts of Electronics and Electrical Load Test Load Test helps to determine the total loss that takes place, when the transformer is loaded. Unlike the tests described previously, in the present case nominal voltage is applied across the primary and rated current is drown from the secondary. Load test is used mainly (i) (ii) To determine the rated load of the machine and the temperature rise To determine the voltage regulation and eciency of the transformer.

1.10 Basic Instruments 1.10.1 Multimeter A multimeter is a device used to measure voltage, resistance and current in electronics and electrical equipment. It is also used to test continuity between 2 points to verify if there are any breaks in circuit or line. Type of Multimeter Analog Multimeter: such type of Multimeter displays these values via moving pointer or needle as shown in fig 1.13

Fig 1.13 Analog multimeter Digital Multimeter: Digital Multimeter shown in fig 1.14 displays the values numerically. Red meter lead is connected to Voltage/Resistance or amperage port and is considered the positive connection. Black meter lead is always connected to the common port and is considered the negative connection.

Fig 1.14 Digital Multimeter

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Basic Concepts of Electronics and Electrical

Common Digital Multimeter Symbols These symbols are often found on multimeter and schematics. They are designed to symbolize components and reference values.

Use of Multimeter In Measuring Voltage: Figure 1.15. shown below shows multimeter measuring voltage across battery.

Fig 1.15.Measuring Voltage

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Basic Concepts of Electronics and Electrical

1.10.2 Breadboard Breadboards are one of the most fundamental pieces when learning how to build circuits. Breadboard comes in various shapes and sizes, but usually a rectangular one as shown below is used. The holes in the circuit are connected internally as shown in the figure in fig 1.16. The two rows at the two extremes are connected vertically as shown in the figure. While the holes in between are connected horizontally. This arrangement helps us to make connections easily.

Fig 1.16. Breadboard and IC placement on the breadboard When we need to place an IC on the breadboard it is placed in the centre as shown in the figure above. The two rows on the both extremes are usually connected with Vcc and Gnd of the battery. 1.10.3 Voltmeter A voltmeter is an instrument used to measure voltage For instance, a voltmeter can be used to see if there is more electricity left in a battery. Connecting a Voltmeter The voltmeter can be connected by joining two wires to where the voltage is. One wire is the positive one, and the other the negative. With some voltmeters, one must make sure that the wires are connected to the right spots: the positive connection on the voltmeter to the more positive "part" of the voltage source, and the negative to the more negative "part one should also be careful about handling the connection: If there is a

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Basic Concepts of Electronics and Electrical high voltage (many volts), one can get hurt or even killed by touching the metal connections with the voltage directly. Types of Voltmeter Analog voltmeter Digital voltmeter

Analog voltmeter shown in fig 1.17. has a needle, or pointer, that points to a number that tells the number of volts. This is the kind of voltmeter where one has to be careful about making the positive and negative connections correctly if the wrong connections are made, the voltmeter can be damaged.

Fig 1.17. Analog Voltmeter The second kind of voltmeter shows the numbers in a "digital" way, just like digital clocks and calculators. This kind of voltmeter is not damaged from "wrong" connections; instead, they show a negative number. Digital voltmeter gives a numerical display of voltage by use of an analog to digital converter as shown in Fig 1.18. below.

Fig 1.18. Digital voltmeter 1.10.4 Ammeters An ammeter is a measuring instrument used to measure the electric current in a circuit. Electric currents are measured in amperes (A) as shown in fig 1.19.

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Basic Concepts of Electronics and Electrical

Fig 1.19. Analog Ammeters

Connecting Ammeter Ammeters are always wired in series to the circuit. Since the current in a series circuit is the same all the way, the current you measure with the ammeter is also the current flowing through the resistor. If the ammeter was wired in parallel, part of the current would branch off into the ammeter, part into the resistor, and you wouldnt have an accurate reading of the current in the circuit of fig 1.20.

Fig 1.20. Circuit of Ammeter Since the ammeter is in series in the circuit you need to make sure that it has the lowest resistance possible. If it has very much resistance at all, it would increase the overall resistance of the circuit and will result in change of current you are measuring. Types of Ammeter Electrodynamics Ammeters An electrodynamics movement uses an electromagnet. This instrument can respond to both alternating and direct current. Digital ammeters Digital ammeter designs use a shunt resistor to produce a calibrated voltage proportional to the current flowing. This voltage is then measured by a digital voltmeter, through use of an analog to digital converter (ADC); the digital display is calibrated to display the current through the shunt.

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Basic Concepts of Electronics and Electrical

Fig 1.21. Digital ammeters 1.10.5 Testing of Earthing using a Multimeter Following steps should be followed in order to check out it. Step 1: Set the multimeter knob to 750V AC and connect the red probe into phase and neutral. Switch Off the mains switch, reading shows zero. black probe into

Step 2: Then, turn on the switch and measure the voltage across Phase and Neutral. It must read some value like 220,230, or 240 depending on the supply voltage. Let say, it reads 240V. Step 3: Measure by inserting the black test probe in earth and red test probe in phase. Some reading will be displayed. Say it reads 243V. Step 4: Next, measure by inserting the red probe in earth and black probe in neutral. It should not read more than 2V.For example it reads 1V. Step 5: Calculate the voltage difference between Step 3 and Step 2 i.e., 243V 240V = 3V Step 6: Calculate the voltage difference between Step 5 and Step 4 i.e., 3V 1V = 2V. (1V to 2V is an acceptable value) . 1.10.6 Voltage And Current In Series And Parallel Circuits Voltage Divider Rule The voltage divider rule states that the voltage across an element or across a series combination of elements in a series circuit is equal to the resistance of the element or series combination of elements divided by the total resistance of the series circuit and multiplied by the total impressed voltage.

Fig 1.22. Voltage divider circuit

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Basic Concepts of Electronics and Electrical For example, we know (1) (2) Put equation (1) into equation (2), so the voltage over the first resistor is

Current Divider Rule The current divider rule states that the current through one of two parallel branches is equal to the resistance of the other branch divided by the sum of the resistance of the two parallel branches and multiplied by the total current entering the two parallel branches.

Current divider circuit

For example, we know

On putting the value of V so the current over the first resistor is

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Basic Concepts of Electronics and Electrical 1.10.7 Rheostat The most common way to vary the resistance in a circuit is to use a rheostat at shown in fig 1.24, which is a two-terminal variable resistor. For low-power applications (less than about 1 watt) a three-terminal potentiometer is often used, with one terminal unconnected or connected to the wiper. The applications where the rheostat of higher power (more than about 1 watt) is required, it may be built with a resistance wire wound around a semi-circular insulator, with the wiper sliding from one turn of the wire to the next. Sometimes a rheostat is made from resistance wire wound on a heat-resisting cylinder, with the slider made from a number of metal fingers that grip lightly onto a small portion of the turns of resistance wire. The fingers can be moved along the coil of resistance wire by a sliding knob thus changing the tapping point. Wire-wound rheostats made with ratings up to several thousand watts are used in applications such as DC motor drives, electric welding controls, or in the controls for generators. The rating of the rheostat is given with the full resistance value and the allowable power dissipation is proportional to the fraction of the total device resistance in circuit.

Rheostat

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Basic Concepts of Electronics and Electrical

PRACTICAL COMPETENCY
1.1 AIM: Practice Procedure for Human Safety Measures 1. Never eat, drink, or smoke while working in the laboratory. 2. Read all the labels carefully. 3. Do not use any equipment unless you are trained and approved as a user by your supervisor. 4. Wear safety glasses or face shields when working with electrical spark generating hazardous materials and/or equipment. 5. Wear gloves when using any hazardous or toxic agent. 6. Clothing: When handling dangerous substances, wear gloves, laboratory coats, and safety shield or glasses. Shorts and sandals should not be worn in the lab at any time. Shoes are required when working in the machine shops. 7. If you have long hair or loose clothes, make sure it is tied back or confined. 8. Keep the work place clean of all materials except those needed for your work. Coats should be hung in the hall or placed in a locker. Extra books, purses, etc. should be kept away from equipment that requires air flow or ventilation to prevent overheating. 9. Dispose of Students used material if any in appropriate containers. 10. Equipment Failure - If a piece of equipment fails while being used, report it immediately to your lab assistant or faculty. Never try to fix the problem yourself because by this you could harm yourself and others. 11. If leaving a lab unattended, turn off all ignition and sources and lock the doors. 12. Never pipette anything by mouth. 1.2 1.2.1 Measurement of DC/AC Currents and Voltages AIM: Measurement of DC/AC Voltage using Multimeter. Procedure:Analog Multimeter 1. Move the range selector to proper DC/AC range. 2. Connect the multimeter in parallel with the circuit to be measured. 3. Read the deflection of the pointer on the DC/AC V scale.

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Basic Concepts of Electronics and Electrical

Fig 1.25. Range selector Examples of Reading 1,000V range: Multiply the indication on the 0-10 scale by 100 to obtain the actual voltage. 500V range: Multiply the indication on the 0-50 scale by 10 to obtain the actual voltage. 250V range: Directly read the indication on the 0-250 scale. 50V range: Directly read the indication on the 0-50 scale. 10V range: Directly read the indication on the 0-10 scale. 2.5V range: Multiply the indication on the 0-250 scale by 0.01 to obtain the actual voltage. 0.25V range: Multiply the indication on the 0-250 scale by 0.001 to obtain the actual voltage.

Fig 1.26. Analog display Digital multimeter 1. 2. 3. 4. 1.2.2 Set the power switch at on. Move the range selector to proper DC/AC V range. Connect the multimeter in parallel with the circuit to be measured. Pay attention to the position of decimal point while reading the indication

AIM: Measurement of DC/AC Current using Multimeter.

Procedure Measurement of DC Current

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Basic Concepts of Electronics and Electrical Analog Multimeter 1. Move the range to the proper DC range. 2. Cut the circuit to be measured and connect the black lead to the low potential side and red lead to the high potential side. 3. Read the deflection of the pointer on DC scale. Examples Of Reading 0.5A range: Multiply the indication on the 0-50 scale by 0.01 to obtain the actual current in ampere. 25Ma range: Multiply the indication on the 0-250 scale by 0.1 to obtain the actual current in Ma. 0.5A range: Directly read the indication in A on the 0-50 scale.

Fig 1.27. Range selector Digital multimeter 1. Set the power switch at ON 2. Cut the circuit to be measured. Connect the black test lead to the low potential side and connect the red test lead to the high potential side. 3. Pay attention to the position of the decimal point when reading the indication. 1.2.3 AIM: Measurement of DC/AC Voltage and Current using Oscilloscope

Theory: AC Voltage Alternating current or voltage, periodically changes its magnitude and direction of ow. It ows rst in one direction and then in the opposite direction. The waveform that represent an AC signal is shown in fig 1.28 below.

Fig 1.28. AC signal

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Basic Concepts of Electronics and Electrical Sinusoidal wave with its peak-to-peak voltage Vpp and its period T AC voltage and currents cannot be measured with a DC-meter because the pointer cannot change direction quickly enough. They can be measured either with an AC meter or an Oscilloscope. The Oscilloscope shows below in Fig 1.29 shows how voltage varies with time.

Fig 1.29. Cathode ray oscilloscope showing voltage variation

4.

Cathode ray oscilloscope

The magnitude of an AC voltage may be characterized by the amplitude Vo, but a more common practice is to use the root-mean-square voltage, which is indicated by Vrms. The root-mean-square voltage depends on the type of the AC signal. For an AC sinusoidal signal: Procedure Connect the probe to the Channel-1 of the CRO to the analog trainer as shown in Figure 1.30 below and switch it on

Fig1.30. Connection of channel 2) Focus the electron beam of the CRO in the middle of the screen (in the origin), using the buttons:

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Basic Concepts of Electronics and Electrical 1. 2. 3. 4. GND& X-Y to convert the signal to point. X-POS & Y-POS to move the point horizontally and vertically Connect the probe of the CRO to the Sin and GND of generator of the analog trainer. Adjust your CRO, so that you can see your Sin signal clearly on the CRO display. You should see between one complete cycle and two complete cycles. Your adjustments basically depends on two buttons, they are VOLTS/DIV and TIME/DIV. Notice that the VOLTS/DIV. button changes your scale vertically and the TIME/DIV changes your scale horizontally. Adjust the frequency of the AC power supply from the heath kit trainer using the button on the top right corner of the heath kit. From the CRO, measure the period T of the signal. To do so, measure (in divisions & subdivisions) the horizontal distance between two successive peaks or two successive points if they are in phase and multiply this distance by the reading of the TIME/DIV button which is the scale of the time axis. Record your data in Table 1. From the CRO, measure the voltage Vpp of the signal. To do so, measure (in divisions & subdivisions) the vertical distance between most top point and most bottom point peak-to-peak and multiply this distance by reading of the VOLTS/DIV button which is the scale of the voltage (amplit ude) axis. Record your data in Table 1. Compute the frequency f = 1/T and the root-mean-square voltage Vrms of the circuit, as indicated in Equation (2), and record your results in Table 1 Table 1 Frequency knob location Period T (S) Voltage Vp-p (V) Frequency f (Hz) Voltage Vrms (V)

5. 6.

7.

8.

1.3 (a)

Testing Of Components AIM: Testing of Passive Components

Theory: Passive devices are electronic components that provide no gain. They dont amplify. They only react to voltage and current. Resistors, capacitors fall in this category. Test Procedure for Resistor 1. 2. 3. 4. Connect the test probes to the meter. Set up the meter in the resistance mode. Connect the test leads across the resistor at the ends of the leads. Polarity is not important. Record the resistance value indicated by the meter.

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Basic Concepts of Electronics and Electrical Test Procedure for Capacitor 1. Connect the test probes to the meter. 2. Set up the meter in the capacitor mode. 3. Short out the test leads to the capacitor for at least a second to discharge it. 4. Connect the black test leads to the positive terminal of the capacitor. 5. Connect the red test leads to the negative terminal of the capacitor. 6. Observe what happens to the meter reading as the capacitor charges. 7. The measured value should be approximately equal to value marked on the capacitor. AIM: Testing of Active Components Test Procedure for Diode 1. Connect the test probes to the meter. 2. Set up the meter in the diode mode. To forward bias the diode 3. Connect the black test lead to the cathode of the diode. 4. Connect the red test lead to the other end of the diode. 5. Record the reading. To reverse bias the diode 6. Reverse the leads so that red lead is connected to the cathode and black lead to the anode. 7. Record the reading. 8. A good diode will show low resistance when it is forward biased and high resistance when it is reversed biased Test Procedure for LED 1. Connect the test probes to the meter. 2. Set up the meter in the diode mode. To forward bias the LED 3. Connect the black test lead to the cathode of the LED. 4. Connect the red test lead to the other end of the LED. 5. Record the reading. To reverse bias the LED 6. Reverse the leads so that red lead is connected to the cathode and black lead to the anode. 7. Record the reading. 8. A good LED will show low resistance when it is forward biased and high resistance when it is reversed biased

(b)

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