The Restless Earth

Water on the Land The Coastal Zone Population Change

The Development Gap

Tourism

The Structure of the Earth

Beneath the crust temperatures starts to rise as you descend into the second of the Earth's zones, the Mantle, a zone of molten Silicates and other minerals. The Earth does have a solid core of Iron and Nickel, which is solid despite temperatures of 3700C because of the intense pressure there.

The Tectonic Plates

The Earth's crust is divided up into chunks of solid rock called tectonic plates. They vary in size and the Earth's surface can be likened to that of a boiled egg which has been cracked. The major plates include the Pacific, Eurasian, African, Antarctic, North American and South American, and the Indo-Australian. The plates are made up of different materials, and there are 2 broad types: Continental crust is thicker, older and lighter, and is composed mainly of Granite. It is less dense than oceanic crust. Oceanic crust is younger and heavier, and is mainly composed of basalt. it is mainly formed at constructive margins or spreading mid ocean ridges like the Mid Atlantic Ridge.

Continental Crust

Oceanic Crust

Types of plate margins

Destructive Margin Constructive Margin

Conservative Margin Collision Margin

Landforms found at plate margins There are 4 basic landforms that you need to know found at plate boundaries. These are fold mountains, mid ocean ridges, ocean trenches and types of volcano. Fold Mountains

As two plates of the same type of crust e.g. Continental Crust, move together, Any material between the two plates is folded and forced upwards to create mountains. The Indo Australian plate moving into the Eurasion plate created the Himalayas.

Ocean Trenches

Ocean Trenches are deep water areas that run along a coastline which has a destructive plate margin. They are created by subduction, and mark the point

where the Oceanic crust is being

pushed under the Oceanic crust.

Mid Ocean Ridges

As the Eurasian plate and North American plate move away from each other a ridge of small volcanoes force magma through to the surface creating new ocean floor.

Tyoes of volcanoes

How do People use an area of fold mountains? CASE STUDY

The Andes Mountains run the length of the West Coast of South America, rising in the North in Colombia and finishing in Chile and Argentina in the South. They are world's longest mountain range running for over 7,000km and covering 6 countries. The mountains have been formed as a result of the Nazca plate and the South American plate moving together. The heavier oceanic crust of the Nazca plate is pushed towards the South American plate, and because it is denser is subducted underneath. The South American plate is less dense so sits on top of this subduction zone, but the rocks of the South American plate have been folded upwards and crumpled into fold mountains. These areas are very hard to live in because of the physical geography. The relief is very steep making farming difficult, and the high altitude makes breathing difficult. The mountainous terrain makes it difficult to construct roads and railways to allow for communications.

Human activity in the Andes Mountains Farming The mountain slopes of the Andes are used for a variety of farming practises. The best land can be found on the valley floors, but an ingenious system of terraces dug into the valley sides and held up by retaining walls has been used to bring the lands on the valley sides into food production. The flat terraces help to hold up water in a region where there are marked shortages. Most crops are grown in the lower areas and include soya, maize, rice and cotton. However, the main staple crop of the Andes is the potato, and there are hundreds of different varieties found in the mountains. Most farming is subsistence, with the food grown for personal consumption, but there is some commercial farming. Llamas have historically been used a lot in the Andes, as a form of transportation and to carry goods. Alpaca, a relative of the Llama, has been used to produce some of the finest cloth known to man, and is also produced in the Andes mountains

Mining
The Andes mountains contains a rich mix of minable materials that are both very valuable and very useful to man. There exist large deposits of Coal, oil and natural gas, iron ore, gold, silver, tin, copper, phosphates and nitrates and Bauxite (for aluminium) within the Andes mountains. The Yanacocha gold mine in Peru is the largest gold mine in the world. It is an open cast mine and the rocks containing the gold are blasted with dynamite. The rock is then sprayed with toxic cyanide and the gold extracted from the resulting solution. This can contaminate water supplies. The nearby town of Cajamarca has grown from 30,000 when the mine started to 240,000 people in 2005.

Hydroelectric power
The deep valley and rivers of the Andes give it huge potential as a region to produce hydroelectric power. The narrow valleys are ideal to dam as it cuts costs, and the steep relief increases water velocities allowing electricity generation. Snow melt fuels most of the water provision, but this means that HEP production can be reduced to small amounts in winter. The Yuncan dam project dams the Puacartambo and Huachon rivers in northeast Peru, while the el Platinal project will begin construction in 2009

Tourism
There are many natural attractions in the Andes such as mountain peaks, volcanoes, glaciers and lakes. Some tourist attractions show how people settled in these inhospitable areas, such as the remains of early settlements built by the Incas like Machu Picchu

MT. ST HELENS VOLCANO, WASHINGTON, USA (MEDC) CASE STUDY

When/Where March 1980 Washington state, Cascade Mountains, USA. Located on the Ring of Fire Causes On a destructive plate boundary N. American and Pacific plates collide Pacific plate is sub-ducted and pressure/heat causes rock to "melt" into magma Increased pressure caused Mt St Helens to erupt.

Primary Effects 520km of pine forests flattened ash and mud blocked roads, chocked rivers, bridges destroyed ash cloud took 17 days to travel round the world 57 people died livestock, wildlife and crops destroyed the national park was closed Volcano triggered giant landslide 700mph

Secondary Effects national park partly destroy local tourism disrupted i.e. camp sites, hotels etc. farming community and locals suffered huge losses-land, , property Environment suffered - loss of trees, 1000s of birds and other animals (deer, elk and bear) lost their habitats Unemployment in the immediate region of Mount St. Helens rose tenfold and then returned to nearly normal levels once timber salvaging and ash-cleanup operations were underway

BUT souvenir ashtrays/T-shirts became an even bigger tourist attraction some financial compensation fertile soil rapid natural recovery huge tree planting and clean up programme

How can we monitor and predict volcanoes? An increase in earthquakes could mean that Magma is rising causing rocks in the volcano to crack and fracture. Tiltmeters can be put on the ground. The ground can swell if magma is pushing up underneath. Digital cameras can be put on the rim of the crater to record small eruptions or landslides. Gases emitted from a volcano such as sulphur dioxide can change in concentration just before an eruption.

Supervolcanoes

The volcano at Yellowstone is close to 100km across, and Yellowstone National park has hot springs and geysers and is known to be geothermal. Small eruptions have occurred every 20 to 30000 years at Yellowstone, and it is also certain that there will be another super eruption somewhere on the planet. However, it is difficult to know what to expect from a supervolcano because we have never seen one. If Yellowstone erupts it will be disastrous for the whole world. The magma will push the dome up, earthquakes will occur, allowing fissures to crack the surface allowing pressure release, lava to escape and columns of ash to be ejected 10s of kilometres into the air, pyroclastic flows would kill thousands of people. The ash would cover the Great Plains stopping grain production, economic activity in the US would be affected, and global climate would be changed, stopping the growing season. The consequences would be catastrophic.

Earthquakes

Earthquakes are caused by the tension that builds up where two plates meet. Earthquakes can happen on Destructive margins One plate gets stuck as it moves past the other into the mantle. Constructive margins Tension builds along cracks within the plates as they move away from each other. Conservative margins Tension builds up when plates get stuck as they grind past each other. How do can earthquakes be measured

The Mercalli Scale This measures earthquakes on a scale from 1 12 and uses observations of the damage from eyewitnesses. So 12 would be total destruction

Kobe Earthquake 1995 Japan (MEDC) CASE STUDY

Where/When January 17th 1995. Kobe region of central Japan. Causes Oceanic Philippines plate was subducted below continental Eurasian plate. Destructive plate boundary. 5am made it worse as most people were still asleep and were not prepared. 7.2 on the Richter Scale (BIG EARTHQUAKE!) $50 billion costs

Primary Effects Collapse of old wooden buildings, bridges and roads (Hanshin Highway the elevated road). During the 20 second earthquake the ground moved up to 50cm horizontally and up to 1m vertically. 6, 400 dead.

Secondary Effects Fires that broke out all over the city of Kobe because of broken gas pipes and electric lines. Many more people died in the fires Congestion and chaos on the roads damage to all types of transport including trains. Closure of businesses. Industry on the port was also badly affected. Problems made worse by the large number of aftershocks.

Responses SHORT TERM - people given emergency shelter in schools, town hall and parks LONG TERM - New laws were passed to make buildings and transport structures even more earthquake proof. More instruments were installed in the area to monitor earthquake movements.

Kashmir Earthquake 2005 Pakistan (LEDC) CASE STUDY

Where/When October 8th 2005. Kashmir region of Pakistan. Causes The Indo Australian plate colliding with the Eurasian plate. One mass of rock suddenly slipped upwards causing the earthquake. 7.6 on the Richter Scale.

Primary Effects Poorly constructed buildings collapsed 3.3 million homes destroyed Large cracks in the ground and landslides 79,000 people killed 100,000 people injured

Secondary Effects 3.3 million people made homeless Diseases such as diarrhoea spread from contaminated water. Respiratory infections like pneumonia. People also died of cold in the harsh winter due to living in thin tents.

Responses SHORT TERM The Indian Red Cross gives out 21,500 blankets, 300 kitchen sets and medical supplies. The army and emergency services arrived to help dig people out. It was difficult for them to get to the area due to it being a mountainous region. Tents were given out by charities like Muslim Aid. Rescue and medical teams arrived from other countries to try and find survivors and treat the injured. LONG TERM Schools and hospitals were rebuilt. Building regulations were improved to reduce damage and the death rate in future earthquakes.

Prediction, protection and preparation The three Ps The collective term for prediction, protection and preparation.

Prediction Attempts to forecast an event where and when it will happen based on
current knowledge.

Protection Constructing buildings so that they are safe to live in and will not collapse. Preparation Organising activities and drills so that people know what to do if an
earthquake happens. Japan tries to monitor earth tremors to predict when an earthquake will happen. This is very difficult though and when an earthquake is about to happen it doesnt gi ve enough warning to evacuate people to safety.

The Transamerica pyramid has a shape that can withstand seismic waves and withstood the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake which struck San Francisco

Preparation involves hospitals, emergency services and inhabitants practicing for major disasters so that people know what to do to reduce the impact and increase their chances of survival.

The Asian Tsunami 2004 CASE STUDY

When/Where December 2004 Earthquake Indian Ocean, off the coast of Sumatra, Indonesia. Places affected Indonesia, Thailand, India, Sri Lanka, Maldives, Malaysia, Somalia and others. Causes Pressure from the Indo-Australian plate pushing under the Eurasian plate (destructive plate). 8.9 magnitude 5th strongest earthquake ever recorded. Effects Number of people dead/missing 220 000+ Number of people displaced about 2 million Houses destroyed over 500 000 Indonesia Province of Aceh, lying closest to epicentre was worst hit. A mosque was the only building left standing in the town. Thailand tourist beaches and resorts such a Phuket took the main hit. A big loss of income to the Thai economy. India Livelihoods of poor coastal fishing communities wrecked. 4500 fishing boats destroyed in one coastal area alone. Sri Lanka whole island badly hit; southern city of Galle worst affected. Over a million homeless; 1700 killed in train swept off tracks.

Responses In a week over 450 million had been pledged from all over the world. Cargo planes from all over the world brought blankets and medicines. Trucks full of food, medicines and body bags reached places still accessible by road. Air drops to coastal communities that were cut off from outside world. Troops using bulldozers helped to clear the dead bodies into mass graves to reduce the risk of disease spreading.

Positive The international tsunami warning system between countries. Now governments and people are aware of potential dangers from strong earthquakes in oceans.

Erosion - the wearing away of the land by moving forces - in this case the river. Processes include; Hydraulic action - where the sheer force of the water erodes the stones, bed and banks of the river Corrasion or abrasion- where stones in transport are thrown into the bed and the banks eroding them Solution - where weak acids within the water react with the rocks and bed and bank of the river Attrition - where stones in transport are thrown into one another Transport - the movement of material, in this case by river water. Processes include; Solution - where material is dissolved within the water Suspension - where small particles are held up or suspended in the water Saltation - the bouncing motion of larger particles along the river bed Traction - the rolling motion of sediment along the bed - normally much larger sediment. Obviously the larger sediments will only be moved during periods of high river flow.

Deposition - this is the laying down of sediment in the river channel or on floodplains. This occurs when river velocities slow within the channel, or when velocities slow over floodplains or when the river enters a sea or lake.

The Drainage Basin

Landforms found along a rivers course

High Force Waterfall River Tees

Meanders

In this section of the valley the river erodes laterally and migrates across the valley floor over time, widening the valley. Within the river itself, the fastest current is found on the outside of a bend and the slowest current on the inside of the bend, this can be observed on diagram A. This is because the depth of the water on the outside of the bend is deeper, so there is less friction and hence higher velocities.

Oxbow lakes

Floodplains

Hydrographs

A storm or flood hydrograph

shows how a river responds to a period of rainfall. Rivers that respond rapidly to rainfall have a high peak and a short lag time and are referred to as flashy. A lower peak and longer lagtime

shows a delayed hydrograph.

River discharge is influenced by a number of factors. Rainfall Higher amounts of rainfall mean higher river levels, as the rainfall saturates the ground causing more water to runoff into a river. Temperature When temperatures are higher more water is evaporated so river levels go down. Steep slopes Steep slopes means that rainwater can runoff quickly into a river meaning higher levels. Rock type Areas with impermeable rock like granite means that more rainwater can runoff into a river. Areas with permeable rocks like chalk soak up rainwater. Landuse Urbanisation means that rainwater can be carried back to a river quicker through artificial drains. Deforestation means fewer trees to intercept and soak up rainwater allowing it to reach the ground and drain into a river.
River Flooding

Rivers flood for a variety of different reasons, and very few rivers have the same background characteristics. The reasons why rivers flood can be divided into HUMAN and PHYSICAL (or Natural) characteristics. Physical reasons for river flooding. Precipitation type, amount and duration is the most obvious reason for river flooding. Long steady prolonged rainfall will produce rivers which rise slowly but

can flood, whilst heavy short showers can cause rivers to rise quickly and burst their banks. Snowfall is another factor to take into account, river levels fall in the UK as precipitation is often stored as snow during cold snaps. However, when temperature warms and that snow melts many days worth of precipitation can end up in rivers and cause flooding. The relief of the land can also have an impact. Steep slopes tend to reduce the amount of infiltration of water into the ground, this water can then flow quickly down to rivers as overland flow. In addition, steep slopes also cause more through flow within the soil. Both can raise river levels. Gentle slopes or flat land allow water to penetrate into the soil and increase lag times. Vegetation type and coverage plays a big role, with forests intercepting more rainfall than grasses. This interception increases lag time and reduces the risk of a flood. Indeed, deforestation (the removal of trees) can increase soil erosion, reduce interception and increase flood risk. Afforestation, where trees are planted, can have the opposite effect. Soil and rock type can also influence what happens to precipitation when it reaches the ground. Impermeable soils and rocks such as clay or shale do not allow water to infiltrate, this forces water to run off reducing river lag times and increasing flood risk. Permeable rocks allow water to infiltrate into them. If permeable rocks allow water in through cracks, fissures and bedding planes but not through their pores they are said to be pervious (such as limestone). Porous rocks allow water to penetrate into their pores such as sandstone. Temperature can also have an impact as it governs evaporation. Hot days allow for more evaporation, reducing the risk of a flood. Human reasons for river flooding Urbanisation can cause flooding because many of the surfaces in towns and cities are Impermeable. The whole urban system is designed to move water from the surface into underground pipes and away from urban areas which have value. This can lead to floods in other regions. Deforestation(the removal of trees) can increase soil erosion, reduce interception and increase flood risk. Increases in population density can also have an impact as it places more people in flood risk areas. It is for this reason that we are building on floodplains and flood risk areas in the UK, this just increases the likelihood of a flood.

Tewkesbury Flooding UK (MEDC) 2007 CASE STUDY

Where/When August 1993 Tewkesbury UK Causes The months May to July were the wettest months ever recorded. Over 40cm of rain, over twice as much as usual. Two large rivers, the Severn and the Avon meet at Tewkesbury. Many of the towns buildings are built on the flat floodplain. Primary Effects 3 deaths The Mythe sewage treatment works was inundated with flood water, which then contaminated the drinking water supply to 1400 homes for 2 weeks. All 4 main access roads to the town were impassable. 1800 homes damaged by flood waters 200 families were still displaced 12 months later with 70 still living in caravans

Responses Army personnel supplied food to the cut-off town of Upton On Severn. RAF helicopters used in the rescue. 920 requests were made to recover flooded items 800 million spent on flood defences. Additional funds to protect important public utility buildings such as electricity substations and water purification plants.
Flooding in Bangladesh (LEDC) CASE STUDY Where/When 15th September 1998 Bangladesh. Causes

Effects

Flood waters swept away and caused severe damage to railways, roads and bridges. This cut communications and made rescue operations difficult. Water supplies were contaminated by dirty water and sewage and fresh water became scare. Farmland was flooded and over 50% of crops in flooded areas were lost. Many people lost their homes and belongings Many were killed (over 2000). Deaths were not only due to being swept away by the flood waters but also secondary effects of flooding, such as disease spread in contaminated waters and the lack of food resulting in starvation in some cases. There were great financial loses, such loss of income by shops and businesses which were unable to sell goods or services and the costs incurred due to damaged infrastructure (roads, buildings etc.)

BANGLADESH CONTINUED... RESPONSES Short Term

Farmers provided with free seed from the government Foreign aid was given (including 21 million from the UK government) Water Purification tablets were brought by money raised by the WHO (World Health Organisation) Food aid was given (including foreign and national aid)

Long Term

Flood protection shelters built (able to provide shelter in times of flood but have on other occasions been swept away by floods) Flood embankments built along the river. (7 500km built since 1947) Not always successful. Upstream dams proposed. These would hold back peak flow, but the costs of construction are very high. Reduce deforestation in headwater areas. Making provision for emergency flood warning systems to give warnings and organise sufficient rescue and relief services (provision of emergency medical and food supplies).

Protecting against flooding

Hard engineering This strategy involves the use of technology in order to try and control rivers. .
Dams Water can be held back after heavy rainfall and releaed slowly to prevent flooding

Flood walls and embankments Keep the river water in the river by raising the banks. Straightening meanders River water leaves an area quicker if the river is straighter rather than meandering.

Soft engineering This option tries to work within the constraints of the natural river system
Floodplain zoning The flood risk is assessed and the resulting land use takes this into account. In the diagram, the most expensive land uses are on higher land further away from the river.

Soft engineering also includes giving people advanced warning of flooding so that they can prepare for it. The Environment Agency issues flood warnings so that it gives people valuable time to move possessions, turn off services and take precautions

Three Gorges Dam, A multi purpose project China CASE STUDY

How are rivers in the UK managed to provide our water supply?

Water Supply River Vyrnwy CASE STUDY

Waves Waves are essentially the movement of water molecules within the ocean, and are restricted to the surface layers of our oceans and seas. They involve the circular orbit of water molecules and are the agents of coastal change. Waves vary enormously in size and character, from ocean to ocean.

Waves are created by the action of the wind blowing over the sea or ocean. The friction from the wind causes the surface water to move in ripples which eventually form full waves. The stretch of ocean water over which the wind blows is called the FETCH. Generally, the longer the fetch the larger the wave, and the faster the wind speed the larger the wave (this is why we generally get the largest waves during and just after storms). The South West of Britain is affected by waves that have an incredibly long fetch, as the South Westerly winds which blow the sea there travel uninterrupted for thousands of miles across the Atlantic Ocean. It is for this reason that the waves are large in Cornwall and generally great for surfing! In contrast, the waves along the North East of England coast are smaller, because the fetch across our cold North Sea is shorter.

Constructive and Destructive Waves When the swash is bigger than backwash material gets pushed up and accumulated on the beaches rather than removed. This gives a gentle beach profile. These waves are called CONSTRUCTIVE waves, and these waves tend to have low waves heights, lower wave frequencies (they break less often) and the waves are less steep. These waves are created by storms far out to sea which create a large swell which eventually reaches the coast. Where backwash is larger than swash more material is being eroded from the beach profile than is being accumulated. This carries material out to sea and makes for a steeper beach profile. These waves are called DESTRUCTIVE WAVES which have steeper profiles, larger and higher wave crests and come more frequently. These waves are generated during large storms, such as the depressions which affect the British Isles.

Wave refraction

Wave refraction refers to what happens to waves when they approach an uneven coastline. Very few coastlines are perfectly straight, and few sea beds have uniform height and shape. This is known as the varying Geomorphology of our coastline and it will affect the waves travelling above it and towards it in differing ways. As waves approach an uneven coastline they reach the headlands first, this focuses a lot of energy on those forelands and bends the waves into the bays where the energy expended is less.

Processes The erosion and transportation processes are the same as those for the Water on the Land topic. So once you have revised them you will know them for both topics.

Hydraulic action - where the sheer force of the water erodes the stones, bed and banks of the river Corrasion or abrasion- where stones in transport are thrown into the bed and the banks eroding them Solution - where weak acids within the water react with the rocks and bed and bank of the river Attrition - where stones in transport are thrown into one another Transport - the movement of material, in this case by river water. Processes include; Solution - where material is dissolved within the water Suspension - where small particles are held up or suspended in the water Saltation - the bouncing motion of larger particles along the river bed Traction - the rolling motion of sediment along the bed - normally much larger sediment. Obviously the larger sediments will only be moved during periods of high river flow.

Erosion landforms Bays and Headlands

Caves arches and stacks

Wave cut platforms 1. Waves cause most erosion at the foot of a cliff. 2. This forms a wave-cut notch, which is enlarged as erosion continues. 3. The rock above the notch becomes unstable and eventually collapses. 4. The collapsed material is washed away and a new wave cut notch starts to form. 5. Repeated collapsing results in the cliff retreating. 6. A wave cut platform is the platform thats left behind as the cliff retreats

Coastal transportation and deposition Longshore Drift

1) Waves follow the direction of the prevailing (most common) wind. 2) They usually hit the coast at an oblique angle (not at right angles) 3) The swash carries material up the beach, in the same direction as the waves. 4) The backwash then carries material down the beach at right angles, back to the sea. 5) Over time, material zig-zags along the coast. Deposition This is when material carried by the sea is dropped at the coast. This happens when waves lose energy. Constructive waves deposit more material than they erode.

Landforms created by deposition. Beaches are areas of sand, pebbles and shingle that are formed by deposition produced by wave processes. Beaches are by no means uniform and contain a huge variety of sediment types and sizes, and have many different shapes. Gently sloping beaches are formed by strong destructive waves that backwash more material away from the beach that they swash up the beach. Steeply sloping beaches occur by constructive waves that swash more material up the beach than they backwash away, building up a steep beach gradient. Spits A spit is formed by longshore drift.

This is an example of a spit. Dawlish Warren in Devon

Bars A bar is formed when a spit joins two headlands together. This means that a lagoon forms behind it.

This is Slapton Ley in Devon. Can you see the lagoon behind the bar?

Sea level rise

What could the impacts of sea level rise be?

The impact of sea level rise on the Maldives CASE STUDY

Sea level rise will have a number of impacts on the Maldives Impact Loss of tourism- Tourism is the largest industry in the Maldives. Disrupted fishing industry Fish are the Maldives largest export. Houses damaged or destroyed by coastal flooding. Less freshwater available Supplies of freshwater are already low on many of the islands as they are polluted with salty seawater. Islands may have to rely on rainwater to meet demand. Loss of beaches coastal flooding wears away beaches at a rapid rate. This destroys habitats and exposes the land behind the beach to flooding. The Government had to ask Japan for $60 million to build a sea wall around the capital city of Male. The government wants the Maldives to be carbon neutral so it doesnt contribute to global warming, the cause of rising sea levels. It wants other governments to do the same. The government is thinking about buying land in other countries and moving Maldivians there before the islands become uninhabitable.

Economic

Social

Environmental

Political

Coastal erosion Holderness CASE STUDY

Coastal Management
There are two types of strategy to defend the coastline from erosion. Hard engineering These use artificial structures to control the forces of nature and protect property from flooding and erosion. They are less commonly used today. Soft engineering These try and fit in and work with the natural coastal processes. They do not involve large artificial structures. They are sustainable and are usually the preferred option of coastal management. Each strategy has benefits and disadvantages. To defend a coastline, its good to have a mixture of both types

Coastal Management Holderness CASE STUDY

Saltmarshes Keyhaven saltmarsh CASE STUDY

Glasswort

Eel grass

1. Keyhaven marshes are located on the south coast of England, in the western Solent in Southern Hampshire. They have formed behind Hurst Castle Spit, which has formed because of longshore drift from the West. 2. This spit provided a sheltered place for sediment accumulation and for eel grass to accumulate away from the impact of strong winds and coastal erosion. 3. The pioneer colonising plant, eel grass, helps to stabilise the area further by trapping more sediment. 4. Gradually, halophytes (salt tolerant plants) such as glass wort and sea blite colonise the accumulating mudflats. 5. These plants trap more sediment and contribute organic matter when they die. These processes help the salty marsh to grow. 6. Eventually the salt marsh will grow further and an even more complex set of plants will colonise the area, until the climax community of alder and ash trees is reached, with a fully developed creek system. This is known as vegetation SUCCESSION.

Threats. Keyhaven salt marshes are under threat from the construction of groynes down current (to the West), which were designed to trap sediment for some of the South coast beaches. The effect of this has been to starve the spit behind which the salt marsh ecosystem has formed and relies upon for shelter. This human modification of the coastline had major ramifications for this ecosystem. This has weakened the spit and at times it has been eroded and breached by erosion. This has led to the die back of Spartina Anglica and threatens the overall health of the salt marsh. The marsh is retreating by up to 6m a year, and is threatened by sea level rise and storms. In 1989 a storm in December pushed part of the shingle onto the top of the salt marsh, exposing up to 80m of salt marsh to the sea. Over the next 3 months lots of erosion of this section of marsh took place.

Animals also graze on the marsh damaging the marsh, and tourism is becoming increasingly important. Conservation and management; A shoreline management plan was put in place in 1996 which added 300,000 cubic metres of shingle to the spit, and added 550m of rock armour at the western end of the spit. It is hoped that this will stabilise the salt marsh. The marsh is also a SSSI (Site of Special Scientific Interest) and part of a National Nature Reserve. This is to protect the biodiversity and plants of the area and so the area is carefully monitored and managed to help maintain this biodiversity.

World population growth

Over the years population has changed dramatically. In 1540 the population stood at 300 million. In 1750 the population was estimated at 791 million. In 1900 it had again grown to 1.7 billion. By 1950 it had reached 2.5 billion. More than a 50 % increase in the last 50 years. Between 1950 and 2000 the population grew to 6.2 billion. It is predicted in the next 50 years it will double again to almost 12 .5 billion. Problems which arise due to the rapid increase of population are that of over- crowding, resulting in shortages of food and water, not enough health care and fewer means of Education. It also decreases our natural habitat because we destroy woodlands, rain forests, forests and areas of natural beauty; as we need the space to build houses, schools and Health Centres. This is the concept of OVER POPULATION. LEDCs MEDCs

Most of the population growth is found in LEDCs (Less Economically Developed Countries) such as China and India. Africas population growth is large despite the Aids virus lowering life expectancy. Most rich countries have stable populations (e.g. France and the USA) while some others have declining populations (e.g. Russia). This growth is said to be EXPONENTIAL because it continually increases over time. It is predicted that growth will slow down in the future. NATURAL INCREASE, BIRTH AND DEATH RATES Birth Rate is the term used to define the number of babies born every year per 1000 people in a population. Death Rate is the term used to define the number of deaths every year per 1000 people in a population. Natural increase in a population occurs where Birth rate is greater than death rate. That is, that there are more births than deaths in that population in a year. Natural decrease occurs when death rate is greater than birth rate. This means that more deaths occur in a population than babies are born so population numbers decline. The Demographic Transition Model

The Demographic Transition Model graphs Birth rate, Death rate and Natural Increase. The word demographic simply means population, and transition relates to change. Therefore this model proposes what should happen to a population over time and how it should CHANGE. If birth rate is greater than death rate the population will increase. If the death rate is greater than birth rate the population will naturally decrease. The greater the difference the greater the rate of Natural Increase. The rate of Natural Increase is much higher in developing countries of the world and many countries in MEDCs are actually experiencing population decline. The demographic transition model is set out in 5 stages. Population Pyramids A population pyramid is a graph that allows us to see the gender and age structure of a population. The pyramid below shows the number of people in millions in each age group in the UK in 2010, the annotations reveal the key features typical of population pyramids.

There are different shapes to the pyramids which tell us different things about the population of the country. They are useful because they give a really visual idea of what the birth and death rates are like in a country, and because they show the life expectancy. They can also help governments plan for the future because they show change over time.

Rapid Growth or Youthful Population LEDCs have a triangular shaped pyramid. They have lots of children and people do not tend to live for a long time (low Life expectancy). These countries populations grow rapidly as many more children are added to the population than people die. The Philippines pyramid shows this perfectly and has a population growing at 2.1% per year. Slow Growth Most MEDCs have a space rocket shape, with old people living for a long time (high life expectancy), lots of workers and reasonable numbers of children. These populations are stable and are growing slowly as the number of young is just above the number of people dying. Declining or Ageing population Some MEDCs actually have declining populations where there are not enough children being born each year to replace those dying. Germany is experiencing a period of negative growth (-0.1%). As negative growth in a country continues, the population is reduced. A population can shrink due to a low birth rate and a stable death rate. Increased emigration may also be a contributor to a declining population.

Factors that affect population growth Agricultural Change Changes in agriculture occur early in a countries

development. Technology improves the amount of crops that can be grown and saves labour. This frees some workers for industry and more rapid economic growth. In the Industrial Revolution in the UK, factories needed a larger workforce, so for a while larger families were a benefit. Soon, however, technological advances reduced the need for labour, making smaller families more desirable and lowering the population. Urbanisation Rural to Urban migration is common in poorer countries as people believe that cities have better opportunities and quality of life. One reason is to find education for children. Child labour is therefore of less value in cities than rural areas. Highly urbanised countries tend to have lower rates of population growth. Education As levels of education increase, bringing improved standards of living. Children become an economic disadvantage i.e. they become expensive! Fewer children mean parents have more money to spend on each one, giving them better future chances in life. Emancipation and status of women As a country develops, opportunities for girls increase alongside boys. With development, a larger workforce is required so women must participate more in paid work outside home. Reaching a good standard of living often needs two incomes. However, achieving highly in any career demands a large time commitment. Leaving less opportunity to take maternity leave or caring for children. Some women make deliberate choices to either not have children or wait until later on in life. Managing rapid population growth If a population grows too rapidly there are a number of consequences.
Impact Social Services like health care and education cant cope so everyone wont have access to them. Children have to work to support large families so miss on their education. There wont be enough houses for everyone. People may be forced to lie in makeshift housing or over crowded settlements. This could lead to health problems. Food shortages could occur. There wont be enough jobs for everyone. There could be more poverty because more people are born into families that are already poor. Most of the population is made up of young people so the government focuses policies that are important to young people like education. Fewer older people means less policies focussed on them. E.g. pensions The government has to make policies to bring population growth under control so the problems already caused dont get worse.

Economic

Political

Managing population growth to make it sustainable A sustainable population is one that grows at such a rate that it doesnt create problems for future generations. The One Child Policy China CASE STUDY China has the worlds largest population and a history of very strict controls on that population. The Communist government of the 1960s had to cope with a massive famine which killed over 30 million people. This led to 2 important changes a government led farming policy and also a heavy handed approach to controlling population. Chinas one child per family policy was introduced in the 1970s amid fears of another 1960s style famine and changes to society as it moved from an agricultural to industrial economy. This policy started in 1979 and is where every family can have only one child, but they must ask permission from their bosses at work. They also have to be over 24 before they can get married. If allowed to have a baby the family are issued with a card; this card was very important, as the child could not be registered without it.

In addition, some women where sterilised after their first child and incentives were offered such as a 5 to 10% salary rise if the couple stuck to just one child. However families were allowed to have a second child, but the family must pay for everything; unlike the first child, where the government pays for everything. Salaries could also be cut, and the second child could not become a Chinese citizen. There were granny police who snooped on their neighbours and on people at work, checking the women of child bearing age. Some people do not agree with Chinas crash programme. If the new regime is followed for around 100 years chinas population will have halved. Problems with the policy
People were pressured by the granny police. Women could be persuaded to have an abortion as late as 7 months This is illegal in Britain. Female infanticide, where girls are aborted, was practiced. This was because Chinese society favoured sons. This has created a gender imbalance. Only children became spoilt They were nicknamed Little Emperors Children had no brothers or sisters, Aunts, Uncles or cousins

Benefits of the policy The forecast famine (where people do not get enough to eat) never happened. An estimate of 400 million fewer people have been born. Controlling the population allowed China to develop and reduce the strain on public services such as schools and hospitals. Standards of living have increased.

Controlling a population using a non-birth control programme Kerala India CASE STUDY You need to know an example where a country has controlled the population growth without enforcing rules such as China did by allowing only one child to be born. Kerala in India used alternative methods to create a sustainable population.

Ageing Populations Many countries across the world have what is known as an ageing population. This involves an increase in the average age of the population, an increasing proportion of people living to old age (and in many cases extreme old age above 85 years), increasing life expectancies and decreasing numbers of children as a proportion of the population.

This is what the UKs population structure could be in 2030. The pyramid has a wider top showing a higher proportion of older people. Benefits of an ageing population
People are living longer and enjoying longer fuller, healthier lives - this is a massive benefit. Older people could be given the choice to work longer. They could then use the benefit of their experience and knowledge to fully benefit society. For far too long older people have been undervalued in modern society. Younger retired people contribute lots to the economy. They have reasonable amounts of money and lots of leisure time hence are good consumers. We have already seen the rise of the "silver surfer", older people who surf the internet! Many retired people do voluntary work in schools and for charities that is essential work but done for FREE. Many retired grandparents are now fulfilling child care roles for their grandchildren as the cost of child care rises. This vital role unifies the extended family and allows parents to work and contribute to the economy.

Problems of an ageing population

The increasing number of very old people has put a strain on healthcare services and social care services. Very old people have particular needs (e.g. decreasing mobility, loss of eye sight etc.) that mean they need other people to do things for them. Health care is in ever increasing demand in the UK and it is proven that the elderly visit their doctor more often and have more home visits. They also occupy hospital beds for longer. The government of a country has to find money to pay for this care. Many countries face a pensions crisis whereby there is not enough money to cover the increasing pension demands of a population. In the UK the wages of the current generation pay the pensions of today's OAPs, but with decreasing numbers of young and working age and increasing numbers of elderly it will become more and more expensive to pay for this. Already the UK government has brought women's pensionable age in line with men's at 65, and this will rise to 67 over time. This is directly related to a countries dependency

ratio. The bill for social care is also increasing as the elderly often need care for feeding, bathing, collecting vital items etc. Maintaining a dignified quality of life for our elderly is also a big moral issue. Less people of working age means a lower number of workers so the economy shrinks and the Tax base of the country also shrinks.

How are ageing populations being managed? UK The government has a number of strategies to cope with an ageing population. Raise the retirement age. It is currently 65 for men and 60 for women. By 2046 it will be 68 for everyone. People will have to work longer, so there will be more people paying tax and fewer people. Encouraged the immigration of young people to the UK. This increases the number of people paying taxes which helps to pay for pensions and services. Encourage women to have children by offering benefits like working family tax credits for parents who go back to work after their children are born. This makes it more affordable to have children. Encourage people to take out private pensions. This means that people wont be so dependent on the pension provided by the government. France is also managing their ageing population with a number of different strategies.

Measuring development When a country develops it gets better for people living there Their quality of life improves (e.g their wealth, health and safety). The level of development is different in different countries e.g. The UK is more developed than Ethiopia There are lots of ways to measure development.

Just using wealth to compare development between countries can be misleading as they dont show differences within each country i.e. A small number of the population may be very rich whilst everyone else is poor. To get around this, The HUMAN DEVELOPMENT INDEX can be used instead. This uses GNP, Life expectancy and Literacy Rates together and gives each country a score between 0 and 1. This is a better way of showing the development of the whole population of a country.

Mapping development Different ways of classifying different parts of the world. An early method of classifying countries was by First, Second, Third and Fourth worlds. First World Europeans saw themselves as the first world. Second World The regions that Europeans colonised such as Australia and North America were referred to as second world. Communist countries were also added to this group Third World Poor countries. Fourth World The poorest countries were known as this as it was realised there were too many differences between the worlds poor countries. North and South The Brandt report divided the world into the rich north and the poor south using GNP (Gross National Product). There are weaknesses with this method as it is too simple.

Countries at different stages of development. Another simple classification was LDC Less Developed Country and MDC More Developed Country. This didnt take into account though that development is not only economic but also social and cultural. Many poor countries have a rich culture and society. Instead the terms became LEDC and MEDC, the E standing for economically. Some LEDCs grew rapidly and so a new category was introduced. They became known as NICs Newly Industrialised Countries. The five fold division based on wealth

Quality of Life and Standard of Living As a country develops the quality of life and standard of living of the population improves. Standard of living means the material wealth that someone has e.g. their income, whether they own a car etc. Quality of life includes standard of living and other things that arent easy to measure like how happy someone is, how nice and safe their environment is.

Global inequalities Environmental factors that affect how developed a country is. Poor climateIf a countries climate is too hot or too cold then it wont be able to grow much. This means that the population wont have enough food so will have a low quality of life. Fewer crops will be able to be sold so there will be less money spent on goods and services. A government will get less money from taxes so less money will be spent improving healthcare and education. Poor farm land If the land in a country is steep or the soils are poor (or no soil) then they wont produce a lot of food. This has the same effect as a poor climate. Limited water supplies Some countries dont have a lot of water. This makes it harder to produce food. Lots of natural hazards Countries that have a lot of natural disasters e.g. flooding in Bangladesh, have to spend money just to rebuild and repair the damage. This means less money to improve services like healthcare and education. Few raw materials Countries with fewer raw materials like coal or gas tend to make less water as theyve got fewer products to sell. Some countries do have lots of raw materials but dont have the money to develop the infrastructure e.g. roads to exploit them. Political factors If a country has an unstable or corrupt government then it may not spend money on healthcare, education or improving the economy. If theres a war then a country will lose money that could be spent on development. Weapons are expensive, buildings get destroyed and fewer people work as they are fighting the war.

Economic factors Poor trade links Trade is the exchange of goods and services between countries World trade patterns (Who trades with who) seriously influence a countrys economy and so affect their level of development. If a country has poor trade links (it trades a small amount with only a few countries) then it wont make a lot of money and will have less to spend on development. Lots of debt Very poor countries borrow money from other countries and international organisations to help them develop. This money has to be paid back, often with interest. This means less money to continue developing the country. An economy based on primary products Countries that export mostly primary products tend to be less developed. This is because they dont make much profit by selling these goods. Prices can also go up and down and sometimes fall below the cost of producing the goods. Countries that export manufactured goods tend to be more developed. This is because they make a decent profit by selling manufactured goods. Wealthy countries can also force down the price of raw materials that they buy from poorer countries. Social Factors Drinking water A country will be more developed if clean drinking water is available. Dirty water cause diseases which then means people cannot work because they are ill. It also costs money for medicine to treat them. This means less money for a country to develop. The place of women in society A country will be more developed if men and women are equal. In an equal society, women are more likely to be educated and to work. This means that more people are contributing towards developing the country. Child education The more children that go to school (rather than work) the more developed a country will be. This is because theyll get a better education and then a better job. This increases the amount of money for development.

How can a natural hazard affect a countries development? Hurrican Ivan CASE STUDY

Attempts to reduce imbalances in world trade & poverty Fair Trade This is a scheme designed to get a better deal for the producers of the primary products that MEDC countries need. The producers get access to the market for their goods, a contract (for extra financial security), better prices for their products and access to the Fair Trade Premium, which is a sum of money available from the Fair Trade foundation to be spent upon improving yields, farming practices, health care or education. You can find out more about the fair trade foundation and its producers here. Fair Trade is an international movement and its influence is growing, more than 4,500 products now bear the fair trade mark, and 72% of the UK population recognise the Fair Trade logo. In addition, more than 7 million people in Africa, Asia and Latin America benefit from Fair Trade - farmers, farm workers, and their families. Debt and its issues Many LEDCs took out huge loans (for Millions of pounds) during the 1970s, offered to them by banks and governments in rich MEDCs. The LEDCs wanted to use the money for various development projects such as building dams, roads, schools etc. The idea was to help countries to develop by improving their industries and infrastructure. The loans had to be paid back, and the longer the loan went unpaid the larger it got, because the MEDCs added a sum of money called interest every month. Over time these loans got so large because of interest that some LEDCs would never be able to pay them off. It also meant that some MEDCs spent more on loan payments than on health care and education for the people living in their countries. This has had a really damaging effect on the quality of life of people who live in these areas. Countries can borrow money from many sources, including other countries, banks and international organisations such as the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and World Bank. If a project succeeds debts are easily repaid and there is no issue. However, if a project fails debts can build up because of the interest and countries can get into huge financial trouble. This issue can massively affect the development of a country, which directly affects the standard of living of the people who live there.

In the run up the new millennium a campaign was started to drop the debt, which has had some success in cancelling some debt, freezing the interest on some debt and in some cases giving the poorer LEDCs more time to pay back their debts. This campaign was called Jubilee 2000. As a result of this campaign the UK government cancelled much but not all of the debts owed to it by poorer nations. Banks have not cancelled debts however, and many countries the world over suffer the effects of debt. Conservation swaps This is another way for poorer countries to make money and get themselves out of debt. Many poorer countries have abundant natural resources and these can be used or exploited in many ways. The rain forests are a good example; these are exploited in an unsustainable manner for wood, agriculture and mineral wealth. Conservation swaps offer an alternative to poorer countries to reckless exploitation of their natural wealth. These swaps basically see poorer countries have portions of their debts wiped out or paid for by richer nations or charities of richer nations in exchange for promising to protect or CONSERVE large parts of their natural environment. This has large scale global effects, by protecting the atmosphere and the hydrosphere. In 1984 the World Wildlife Fund came up with the idea of conservation swaps and in 1987 the first was launched in partnership between the Government of Bolivia and Conservation International (CI) for US$ 650000 which protected 3 natural areas. Many countries have since followed, including the Philippines, Sudan, Zambia, Ecuador and Uganda.

International aid and sustainable development Aid is basically a form of help given from one country to another; or one person to another, or from a charity (often called Non-Government Organisations or NGOs) to a country or region. It is most likely that you will have given aid at some point in your life! Aid can be given in the short term for emergencies, like during the 2004 Boxing Day Tsunami, when money poured into South East Asia to help the victims and the sick. Development aid is longer term, and seeks to help people in poorer countries raise their standard of living. Below is a table summarising the different types of aid; Types of aid Bilateral Aid given from one country to another. Multilateral Several countries pay money into a fund like the world bank and then the world bank distributes it as aid to other countries. Voluntary Money given to charities like the Red Cross or Oxfam.
Type of aid Medical assistance What it is During emergencies rich nations and charities like the Red Cross or Medecin sans frontiers can provide medical assistance to the affected country. This could take the form of qualified staff or medicines. Richer nations or charities might choose to send qualified people top help in poorer nations. In the short term during emergencies qualified medical staff People and trained pilots and the army can be of great assistance. In the longer term teachers, engineers, consultants can all play a role in advising and train in people within a poorer nation, to help its long term development. Money is often sent to LEDCs, for investment in projects and the local people. The UK sent 45million in aid to Tanzania to be spent on education. MEDCs can invest in large scale development projects, such as building roads, Large scale projects dams and factories. The idea behind these projects is that they act as a growth point for development, allowing industry and farming to develop and raise massive profits. This type of technology is designed to improve on current technology within Intermediate technology LEDC countries and to be manageable for local people to use. There is no point in sending machinery and technology into an area if the people can get no use of it because it is too complicated. Large scale equipment can also be provided in aid to LEDCs. Equipment such as Equipment tractors, irrigation equipment and earth movers have all been provided in the past.

Money

An evaluation of the types of aid

Type of aid Short term aid Donor countries Advantages People will give freely in a disaster this gives them a feel good factor Recipient countries Advantages Short term aid gives help which can save lives immediately

Disadvantages It costs money and uses up technical expertise and technology in the short term. This means that a donor countries resources are lost to the recipient country for a short period of time

Long term aid

Companies and individuals find satisfying and well paid work overseas

It costs the tax payer in the donor country money It costs the tax payer of the donor countries often those citizens wonder why their money is going to foreign countries.

Short term aid can develop into long term aid after a disaster, as people in MEDCs realise how poor people are in the affected zone. New industries can develop which improves peoples chances of getting skills and long term employment

Disadvantages Reduces the receiving country's ability to produce the items they get from us (i.e. if we send them short term food aid, then their farmers wont be able to sell their crops for higher prices)

Some foreign aid is given as military and weapons gifts, potentially fanning the flames of global wars instead of dealing with them

Trade may continue into the future after the initial stimulus of aid

It can lead to improvements in long term farming methods introducing new crops and better land management practises

Tied aid can make the recipient countries reliant on the donor country

It engenders good will towards the donor country and enhances its International reputation

Trade with the donor country may continue into the future

The senior posts created by the aid are often given to foreigners as local people do not have the necessary skills for those jobs

Aid can also be a good way of forming strong relationships with other countries; curb terrorism and gain political will for global issues and deals but these are in the purest sense of aid not its purpose.

Schools, hospitals, roads, dams and other infrastructure projects improve the lives of many people and will last for a long time

The funding for big projects is often just for the construction (e.g. of a hospital) but may not cover the long term maintenance costs for the recipient country

Top-down aid

It can boost employment in large industries in the donor countries in arms manufacturers and construction industries particularly. It feels controlled for the donor country as it is coordinated by the actual government or International Organisations such as the UK

Local people can lose their land to large projects such as dams

Large scale projects can use up huge amounts of money that donor countries may feel are wasted

Projects aim to solve large scale problems in a recipient country so are well coordinated and backed by money

Big projects are capital intensive and poor countries may have to add more money to the aid given to ensure that the projects are completed.

It allows for LARGE SCALE planning over large areas without having to worry about every Individuals

Corruption and the theft of aid has happened in the past, this makes donor countries less likely to give money to big top down projects

Large scale projects such as dams and superhighways improve the national infrastructure for the majority of people

Large scale projects are often part of TIED aid, where the LEDC has to either pay back loans or

needs

allow richer countries access to its resources.

Bottom up aid

More individuals in Donor countries are likely to give to Bottom up aid as it is organised by charities and gives a feel good factor

Lots of the money collected in richer donor nations by charities gets swallowed up by advertising and collection costs, and therefore never reaches the destination recipient country.

NGOs work with the recipient communities, gathering their ideas before starting projects

Projects often less sustainable, consuming large amounts of time, land and resources Less reliable, in times of recession people give less to charities.

Many bottom up charities have a direct link between the individual donor and the recipient through sponsorship, letter writing and websites

Local people are involved in Bottom up aid and projects are democratic

Often lacks coordination, with many charities competing in the same areas, so is therefore inefficient in delivering whole sale change to countries and regions

Less money is lost to corruption

Projects tend to be more sustainable

Aid can also be tied or untied. Tied aid is when the country giving the aid expects something in return for the aid - the host country may have to trade more with the donor country for example. Untied aid is where the receiving country does not have to give anything in return.

Cahora Bassa Dam, Mozambique CASE STUDY

Inequalities in the European Union

The global growth of tourism Tourism is the world's largest income earner and was worth $500 billion in 2007. Tourism has become a popular global leisure activity. In 2008, there were over 922 million international tourist arrivals, with a growth of 1.9% as compared to 2007.

The graph above shows the last 60 years of tourist growth, increasing from just tens of millions in 1950 to 694 million in 2004. The other massive trend is the continued dominance of Europe as a destination, but also the massive growth in numbers to East Asia and the Americas. It generates huge amounts of wealth for countries and generates jobs at countries of all stages of development. The reliance on tourism as a source of income varies across the globe and can be measured as a percentage of countries GDP. Most Caribbean countries get at least half of their GDP from tourism and France, Spain, the USA, China, Italy and the UK are the most visited countries. This can be seen below;

In addition, it can be seen that many MEDCs also dominate the income earned by tourism;

Tourism has grown massively as an industry over the past century for a variety of reasons: Advances in travel technology - There are a wider range of ways to travel as a tourist and these methods are widely available. You can be a tourist using a car, a boat and most importantly an airplane. Motorways have linked places together, whilst Budget airlines such as Easyjet and Ryanair have brought prices down and increased traffic volumes. Holiday entitlement in many rich nations has increased over the past century. This means that people can take more holidays during the year and swells the number of tourists. People have more disposable income now - this is income that people have to spend on themselves. This is partly because of salary rises and partly because the price for essential goods such as food and clothing has fallen. Many families now have 2 income earners rather than one; they have fewer kids and often have a car. All of these

factors increase the likelihood of people becoming tourists. The availability and type of holiday has increased - mass tourism and package holidays have opened up markets to huge numbers of people. Extreme and ecological tourism are also becoming popular, further swelling the choice. The Media - Extensive coverage of holiday types has increased the demand to travel. Most newspapers have a "holiday" section, whilst TV shows can show people the enormous choice on offer - shows such as Ray Mears and 71 degrees north can promote extreme tourism for example, whilst "Benidorm" promotes (???!) mass tourism. Gap years have also been pushed by the media and are popular. Tourism growth can be limited on a local scale. If there is civil unrest or a war tourist numbers can fall. If there is a fear of terrorism, similar declines in tourist numbers can happen. Bali was bombed and suffered a severe decline in tourist numbers, and global tourist numbers fell after the September the 11th terrorist attacks. The banking crisis of 2008 also hit tourist numbers as people had less money available to them to travel.

Potential for Tourism - cities, mountains and coastal environments There is huge potential for tourism worldwide and within the UK, and tourism covers a range of types and locations. People are all different, and seek different things from their vacation or leisure time. Tourism also varies by timescale; some people go for a day (day trippers), weekends and city breaks, whilst most people go for a week or 2. Some people are lucky enough to go on huge round the world adventures or take long breaks of 3 months or longer in a destination of their choice - a gap year working holiday is an example of this (you can get a working visa for Australia for 1 year as a UK citizen for example). In addition, people can go abroad on a package deal as a mass tourist (e.g. Jamaica), or to extreme environments (e.g. Antarctica) as an extreme tourist, or as a more sustainable tourist to ecological tourist areas (e.g. the Galapagos Islands). The most popular types of tourism include beach tourism, mountain tourism and city breaks. All three of these offer the tourist different activities and entertainments. Beach resort tourism will often occur in regions of high sunlight and low precipitation levels, be based around a picturesque beach and associated entertainments. Beach resorts often have water parks, a raft of bars and restaurants and marine based activities (e.g. banana boat!).

Above - Koh Samet Island, and example of Beach tourism in Thailand

Mountain tourism offers skiing in the winter and a range of summer activities such as hiking, camping, white water rafting and paragliding. Cities offer a different experience again. Here you have the usual hotels, bars, restaurants etc. associated with tourism but you also get museums, monuments, theatres, concert venues, galleries and other cultural or historical features. The Southern Alps in New Zealand, an example of mountain tourism. Skiing and hiking and the most popular activities here

The Eiffel Tower in Paris It is no surprise then that the most visited country in the world is France. This is because it has the summer climate to support beach tourism along its Atlantic and Mediterranean coastlines, whilst it has year round tourism in the Alps, Pyrenees and Massive Central mountain ranges. It also has major cities such as Paris to visit (one of the most visited cities in the world). A huge range then, in a very accessible country with lots of International airports and which is surrounded by heavily populated countries such as Germany, Holland, Italy and the UK. France also has other Global attractions such as Euro Disney, further boosting tourist numbers.

The economic importance of Tourism The economic importance of tourism varies from place to place but can be seen to make a significant contribution to many countries wealth. MEDCs benefit massively from tourism in terms of total wealth generated, even if the % of GDP that tourism generates is small. LEDCs are variable in their involvement in tourism but most see tourism as an extremely important way of getting money into their countries. Some LEDCs are reliant on tourism, and it can create more than 50% of GDP, more than exporting primary goods such as food stuffs or manufactured goods such as clothing. This can be problematic, as war, terrorism, or natural disasters could put people off visiting which would strip away a huge chunk of a countries income. These concepts link with the concepts of economy, sustainability and over reliance; Economy - The system or range of economic (money making) activity in a country, region, or community Sustainability To maintain something for a long period of time without damaging the environment or economy Over reliance - the state or fact of being too reliant (dependent) on someone or something

Some major patterns are evident; 1) Wealthy nations such as the USA, Spain and France all have huge tourist numbers and consequently high amounts of money made from tourism as an activity. However, as a percentage of GDP the contribution of tourism is small (but not insignificant. These countries receive lots of people as tourists because they have the infrastructure (hotels, airports, visitor facilities) to allow tourists to have a great visitor experience. They are also politically safe places. 2) Poorer nations receive far fewer tourists and earn less money from tourism as an activity. However, tourism can often make up a huge percentage of countries GDP. This is because those countries have fewer other industries to make money, and this makes them vulnerable to changes in their tourism industry. This is especially evident

in Island nations as shown on the graph above, where limited land space makes the development of other industries difficult. However, tourism generates jobs and a huge amount of foreign exchange, so governments like it! Tourism in the UK The UK offers fantastic range of tourist attractions and as a result earns a good amount of GDP from tourism. The UK is also a highly accessible place; it has a huge number of International Airports such as Heathrow and Newcastle International, an extensive road network, the Channel Tunnel and a (creaking) rail network. This means that lots of international tourists can join the healthy number of domestic UK tourists.

The types of tourism that occur are; Beach tourism - on the rare occasions that the UK is hot our beach resorts kick into action - from Blackpool in the North West to Newquay in the South. Mountain and hill tourism - the north of England, North Wales and Scotland offer fantastic mountain scenery from our glacial past - the Lake District National Park benefits from this. City Breaks - huge cities such as Newcastle and London offer a huge variety of activities, and most museums are free. London alone boasts the Imperial war museum, the National Portrait Gallery, the London Eye (the UK's most visited attraction with 3.7 million revolving visitors each year). Activity tourism - the UK offers a range of adventurous activities such as GoApe, white water rafting, rock climbing and pot holing. Cultural Tourism - the UK offers lots of architectural delights, museums, history and world renowned sites (e.g. Stone Henge). Ecological tourism - The UK has a range of protected environments, including SSSIs (sites of Special Scientific Interest) and National Parks. These have an emphasis on sustainability and conservation but are under pressure from visitor numbers.

All of these have contributed to the UK being a highly visited country. In the past nearly all UK tourism was domestic - the wealthy of the UK holidaying in the UK. During the 1950s to early 1970s the booming UK economy allowed companies to give their employees more time off and the employees had more disposable income to spend. However, a lot of our coastal resorts are now in decline, as wealthy people prefer to holiday abroad. The UK is the sixth most visited country in the World and received $30billion of international tourist wealth in 2009. Including domestic tourism, tourism was worth 115.4 billion to the UK economy once the direct and indirect impacts were taken into account. Indeed, 2.645 million people in the UK earn their money from tourism in 2009. Tourism life cycle model Butler proposed that most tourist resorts go through a six stage model and he called this the tourism life cycle model. It states that most tourist resorts start on a very small scale and get bigger and bigger until stagnation occurs. Within the 6 stages the following happens;

Lake District National Park CASE STUDY

The Lake District National Park is Englands largest park and includes Scafell Pike - its highest mountain, Wastwater - its deepest lake and thriving communities like Keswick and Bowness-on-Windermere. There are 42,400 permanent residents and a huge amount of activities for visitors on offer, including walking, climbing, cycling, boat cruises and various museums. Current surveys show that at least 15.8 million visitors come to the Lake District each year spending a total of 925 million! Most come to enjoy the scenery, peace and quiet and walking but many others visit specific attractions or take part in an outdoor activity. They stay in a mixture of self-catering and serviced accommodation. The National Park Authority's current challenge is finding ways of encouraging sustainable tourism without further damaging the very landscape

which visitors come to enjoy. Indeed public access to the uplands or fells is unrestricted, and this can pose problems.

Reasons for growth Scenery large lakes e.g. Windermere and mountains e.g. Scafell Pike Activities bird watching, walking, pony-trekking, boat riding, and rock climbing Cultural attractions Beatrix Potter and Wordsworth Museums Problems created by visitors to the Lake District
High number of visitors leads to parking problems, noise pollution and air pollution Footpath erosion One in six of Lakeland properties are second homes / holiday cottages. Demand has forced house prices to rise beyond the reach of most local people Shop keepers increase prices to take advantage of the tourists this is a problem for locals Employment may only be seasonal Honeypot sites become overcrowded during peak periods (e.g. Beatrix Potters house and Aira Force Waterfall)

Strategies Coping with extra traffic campaigns to encourage people to use new services e.g. Give the driver a break campaign. Provides leaflets that show the routes available and offers discounts at cafes. Coping with erosion encouraging visitors to use less vulnerable areas. Using hard-wearing material for paths. E.g. at Tarn Hows, severely eroded

footpaths have been covered with soil and reseeded, and the main route has been gravelled to protect it. Protecting wildlife and farmland there are signs to remind visitors to take their litter home. Campaigns to encourage visitors to enjoy the countryside responsibly e.g. by closing gates and keeping dogs on a lead.

Plans for the future The official tourism strategy for Cumbria is to attract and extra 2 million visitors by 2018: Public transport will be improved to make the lakes more accessible Widespread marketing and advertising for area Farms encouraged to provide services like quad biking and archery alongside traditional farming Timeshare developments (where people share the ownership of a property, but stay there at different times) are to be increased, to help bring people into the area all year round.

Mass Tourism Mass tourism is a form of tourism that involves tens of thousands of people going to the same resort often at the same time of year. It is the most popular form of tourism as it is often the cheapest way to holiday, and is often sold as a PACKAGE DEAL. A package deal is one in which all of the tourists needs are catered for by one company (such as Thomas Cook), these needs include travel/flights, activities, accommodation and sometimes food (called full board when all meals are included, half board includes 2 meals a day whilst self-catering means you cook for yourself.

There are many types of mass tourism, including skiing in the mountains, sunbathing on a beach, visiting a theme park (e.g. Euro Disney near Paris) or taking a cruise. Governments and local people often support mass tourism because it generates a lot of income for local areas. ADVANTAGES 1) Jobs are generated by tourism in many areas - in the initial construction of the resorts, in travel, in food provision and in other service related industries. 2) Local people benefit directly from employment 3) Roads, rail, facilities, electricity services etc. all need improving to accommodate the tourists - local people also benefit from these INFRASTRUCTURE developments. 4) Transport facilities are developed 5) The local tax base increases so the local government/council can invest in schools, healthcare and social services. 6) Tourists introduce new values and cultures and learn about new cultures- this causes cultural UNDERSTANDING DISADVANTAGES 1) TNCs (Trans National Corporations) from rich countries are often involved this can result in a lot of profits leaving the country. 2 Jobs can be seasonal - especially in beach and skiing based resorts. People can therefore find themselves out of work in the close season. 3) Tourists consume huge amounts of resources including food and water - this type of tourism is particularly UNSUSTAINABLE in this manner. 4) Tourists introduce new values and cultures - this causes cultural pollution. 5) Land is lost from farming to tourist developments.

Mass Tourism Jamaica CASE STUDY

Jamaica has mass tourism because many people visit every year (1.9 million stopover tourists in 2011) People visit for the beaches such as Montego Bay, deep sea fishing at Port Antonio, caves at Cockpit County, golf courses such as next to Kingston Town and water sports in Montego Bay. More cultural activities include various historic plantation houses such as at Port Maria and there are environmental tourist attractions such as bird sanctuaries inland from Montego Bay and Botanic Gardens and a National Park in the Blue Mountains.

POSITIVES Tourism brings in money to Jamaica 20% of its GDP this money can be spent on essential services such as health care and education which can boost the overall level of development. This does have a downside however, as Jamaica is dependent upon this income and if tourist numbers fall the economy would be affected. 220,000 Jamaicans work in tourism it is a vital employer. People work in a wide range of jobs, from the construction of hotels and tourist facilities, to service work cleaning, working in bars, caddying on golf courses amongst other jobs. Tourism benefits many sections of the economy as people spend money in bars, restaurants, and other local businesses, so tourism has a positive multiplier effect. NEGATIVES Many of the jobs created are seasonal, so people can become unemployed Large TNCs (Trans National Companies) such as Thomas Cook organise the holidays and make most of the money, so the profits go out of Jamaica and into MEDCs Local employees are paid low wages, whereas managers from other countries tend to earn more. There is cultural pollution/dilution; Jamaica has a problem with sex tourism and a problem with drugs. Land for the massive hotels takes away land from famers. Water use also increases for drinking water, washing and recreation, taking water from local people. Local people cannot afford the facilities put in place for the tourists. As a response to some of the problems and in an attempt to become more sustainable, Jamaica is branching tourism out into community tourism were tourists stay with locals in their homes, directly benefitting locals, and ecotourism, in the inland area of the

Blue Mountains with low densities and tourist lodges. There are also ecotourist lodges along the coastline. The features of these lodges include an approach to low or zero waste, solar panels to produce power, very low visitor numbers (many resorts have less than 16 lodges or huts) and recycling of water.

Extreme Tourism

An extreme environment is one in which there exist difficult environmental conditions for human survival. They include deserts, ice sheets, mountains and rainforests. All activities involved in these environments include an element of risk, and often include a lot of physical exertion. Tourist activities count as extreme tourism includes rock climbing, white water rafting, bungee jumping, ice walking and paragliding. Younger, adventurous people are often the target market, so called DINKS (Dual Income No Kids!) because they have the fitness and cash for such activities.
Extreme tourism has expanded in popularity in recent years, as people search adventure. Many people do not want packaged holidays in huge mass tourist resorts and are looking for something different in a holiday. This is where Extreme tourism comes in. As air travel expands and people have more disposable income, these types of holiday are becoming more available. In addition, companies are realising that people will pay a lot of money for a specialised extreme holiday, and are expanding as a result. This means that even more people can become extreme tourists

Antarctica CASE STUDY

Ecotourism Ecotourism is environmentally friendly tourism where the people involved seek to protect the environment as much as possible and to allow for some level of education as well. In many cases of ecotourism; some of the profits go back into protecting the environment and the tourism is small scale, with low visitor number densities and environmental approaches to accommodation and food. For example, I have stayed in an ecotourism lodge in Puerto Maldonado in Peru, where tours of the Amazon forest take place for tourists staying in small wooden huts there is limited electricity and waste is dealt with on site, and the food at the resort is sourced locally. The impact of ecotourism on the environment is low, but because the numbers of tourists allowed is low the price must be high to compensate. Ecotourism stems from 2 concepts - stewardship and conservation. Stewardship is careful management of the environment on a large scale across regions, nations and even internationally. All developments are planned sustainably. Conservation is more LOCAL in its nature allowing local people to be involved. Unfortunately not all people or governments are concerned about either!

Galapagos Islands CASE STUDY The Galapagos Islands are a small chain of islands found 1,000km from the West coast of South America. They are Ecuadorian, and are home to an incredible array of animals and plants.

The Galapagos Islands are most famous because many of the plants and animals found there are not found anywhere else in the world. This is because the islands are isolated or cut off from the rest of the Worlds land mass by the Pacific Ocean, allowing the plants and animals to EVOLVE in their own way for hundreds of thousands of years. This was noted by Charles Darwin, and spurred him on to form his famous theory of evolution. Approximately 90% of the Islands are designated as National parks and there are only 20,000 permanent human residents (although this has risen from 9,000 only 20 years ago), allowing for a high degree of protection of the environment. The area became the first UNESCO World Heritage site in 1979 and they are also a biosphere reserve.

The Galapagos Islands represent a place in the world were ECOTOURISM takes place. This is environmentally friendly tourism where the people involved seek to protect the environment as much as possible and to allow for some level of education as well. In many cases of ecotourism, some of the profits go back into protecting the environment and the tourism is small scale, with low visitor number densities and environmental approaches to accommodation and food. For example, I have stayed in an ecotourism lodge in Puerto Maldonado in Peru, where tours of the Amazon forest take place for tourists staying in small wooden huts there is limited electricity and waste is dealt with on site, and the food at the resort is sourced locally. The Galapagos are run along these lines because; Tourists visit under strict rules They can only visit on small ships of 10 to 16 tourists, most of which are owned by local people The tourists can only visit a limited number of places on the Islands, thus protecting the rest of the Islands The tourists are only allowed to visit in small numbers. Visitors also receive information on how to conserve the Islands prior to their departure to the Islands. They also have to pay a 25 fee to promote conservation on the Islands Despite all of this, there are still some problems from the overuse of some sites (honey pot sites), oil spills from boats, and pollution to the Islands water supply and the water supply is put under pressure from the tourists use. However, local people make a valuable living from tourism and there are few other employment opportunities available. Tourists also generate a lot of businesses in the local economy as guides, restraints, hotels, boats owners and cleaners all benefit.