GIS for Educators

Topic 7: Coordinate Reference Systems Objectives: Keywords: Understanding of Coordinate Reference Systems. Coordinate Reference System CRS!" #a$ %rojection" On t&e '(y %rojection" )atitude" )ongitude" *ort&ing" Easting

Overview: Map projections try to $ortray t&e surface of t&e eart& or a $ortion of t&e eart& on a f(at $iece of $a$er or com$uter screen. + coordinate reference system CRS! t&en defines" wit& t&e &e($ of coordinates" &ow t&e two, dimensiona(" $rojected ma$ in your GIS is re(ated to rea( $(aces on t&e eart&. -&e decision as to w&ic& ma$ $rojection and coordinate reference system to use" de$ends on t&e regiona( e.tent of t&e area you want to wor/ in" on t&e ana(ysis you want to do and often on t&e avai(abi(ity of data. Map Projection in detail + traditiona( met&od of re$resenting t&e eart&0s s&a$e is t&e use of g(obes. -&ere is" &owever" a $rob(em wit& t&is a$$roac&. +(t&oug& g(obes $reserve t&e majority of t&e eart&0s s&a$e and i((ustrate t&e s$atia( configuration of continent,si1ed features" t&ey are very difficu(t to carry in one0s $oc/et. -&ey are a(so on(y convenient to use at e.treme(y sma(( sca(es e.g. 2 : 233 mi((ion!. #ost of t&e t&ematic ma$ data common(y used in GIS a$$(ications are of considerab(y (arger sca(e. -y$ica( GIS datasets &ave sca(es of 2:453 333 or greater" de$ending on t&e (eve( of detai(. + g(obe of t&is si1e wou(d be difficu(t and e.$ensive to $roduce and even more difficu(t to carry around. +s a resu(t" cartogra$&ers &ave deve(o$ed a set of tec&ni6ues ca((ed map projections designed to s&ow" wit& reasonab(e accuracy" t&e s$&erica( eart& in two, dimensions. 7&en viewed at c(ose range t&e eart& a$$ears to be re(ative(y f(at. 8owever w&en viewed from s$ace" we can see t&at t&e eart& is re(ative(y s$&erica(. #a$s" as we wi(( see in t&e u$coming ma$ $roduction to$ic" are re$resentations of rea(ity. -&ey are designed to not on(y re$resent features" but a(so t&eir s&a$e and s$atia( arrangement. Eac& ma$ $rojection &as advantages and disadvantages. -&e best $rojection for a ma$ de$ends on t&e scale of t&e ma$" and on t&e $ur$oses for w&ic& it wi(( be used. 'or e.am$(e" a $rojection may &ave unacce$tab(e distortions if used to ma$ t&e entire +frican continent" but may be an e.ce((ent c&oice for a large-scale (detailed) map of your country. -&e $ro$erties of a ma$ $rojection may a(so inf(uence some of t&e design features of t&e ma$. Some $rojections are good for sma(( areas" some are good for ma$$ing areas wit& a (arge East,7est e.tent" and some are better for ma$$ing areas wit& a (arge *ort&,Sout& e.tent.

The three families of map projections -&e $rocess of creating ma$ $rojections can be visua(ised by $ositioning a (ig&t source inside a trans$arent g(obe on w&ic& o$a6ue eart& features are $(aced. -&en $roject t&e feature out(ines onto a two,dimensiona( f(at $iece of $a$er. 9ifferent ways of $rojecting can be $roduced by surrounding t&e g(obe in a cylindrical fas&ion" as a cone" or even as a flat surface. Eac& of t&ese met&ods $roduces w&at is ca((ed a map projection family. -&erefore" t&ere is a fami(y of planar projections" a fami(y of cylindrical projections" and anot&er ca((ed conical projections see I((ustration 2!

Illustration 1: The three families of map projections. They can be represented by a) cylindrical projections, b) conical projections or c) planar projections. -oday" of course" t&e $rocess of $rojecting t&e s$&erica( eart& onto a f(at $iece of $a$er is done using t&e mat&ematica( $rinci$(es of geometry and trigonometry. -&is recreates t&e $&ysica( $rojection of (ig&t t&roug& t&e g(obe. ccuracy of map projections #a$ $rojections are never abso(ute(y accurate re$resentations of t&e s$&erica( eart&. +s a resu(t of t&e ma$ $rojection $rocess" every ma$ s&ows distortions of angular conformity! distance and area. + ma$ $rojection may combine severa( of t&ese c&aracteristics" or may be a com$romise t&at distorts a(( t&e $ro$erties of area" distance and angu(ar conformity" wit&in some acce$tab(e (imit. E.am$(es of com$romise $rojections are t&e "in#el Tripel projection and t&e $o%inson projection see I((ustration 4 be(ow!" w&ic& are often used 4

for wor(d ma$s.

Illustration 2: The Robinson projection is a compromise where distortions of area, angular conformity and distance are acceptable. It is usua((y im$ossib(e to $reserve a(( c&aracteristics at t&e same time in a ma$ $rojection. -&is means t&at w&en you want to carry out accurate ana(ytica( o$erations" you need to use a ma$ $rojection t&at $rovides t&e best c&aracteristics for your ana(yses. 'or e.am$(e" if you need to measure distances on your ma$" you s&ou(d try to use a ma$ $rojection for your data t&at $rovides &ig& accuracy for distances. Map projections with angular conformity 7&en wor/ing wit& a g(obe" t&e main directions of t&e com$ass rose *ort&" East" Sout& and 7est! wi(( a(ways occur at :3 degrees to one anot&er. In ot&er words" East wi(( a(ways occur at a :3 degree ang(e to *ort&. #aintaining correct angular properties can be $reserved on a ma$ $rojection as we((. + ma$ $rojection t&at retains t&is $ro$erty of angu(ar conformity is ca((ed a conformal or orthomorphic projection.

Illustration : The !ercator projection, for e"ample, is used where angular relationships are important, but the relationship of areas are distorted. ;

-&ese $rojections are used w&en t&e preservation of angular relationships is im$ortant. -&ey are common(y used for navigationa( or meteoro(ogica( tas/s. It is im$ortant to remember t&at maintaining true ang(es on a ma$ is difficu(t for (arge areas and s&ou(d be attem$ted on(y for sma(( $ortions of t&e eart&. -&e conforma( ty$e of $rojection resu(ts in distortions of areas" meaning t&at if area measurements are made on t&e ma$" t&ey wi(( be incorrect. -&e (arger t&e area t&e (ess accurate t&e area measurements wi(( be. E.am$(es are t&e Mercator projection as s&own in I((ustration ; above! and t&e &am%ert 'onformal 'onic projection. -&e U.S. Geo(ogica( Survey uses a conforma( $rojection for many of its to$ogra$&ic ma$s. Map projections with e(ual distance If your goa( in $rojecting a ma$ is to accurate(y measure distances" you s&ou(d se(ect a $rojection t&at is designed to $reserve distances we((. Suc& $rojections" ca((ed e(uidistant projections" re6uire t&at t&e sca(e of t&e ma$ is #ept constant. + ma$ is e6uidistant w&en it correct(y re$resents distances from t&e centre of t&e $rojection to any ot&er $(ace on t&e ma$. )(uidistant projections maintain accurate distances from t&e centre of t&e $rojection or a(ong given (ines. -&ese $rojections are used for radio and seismic ma$$ing" and for navigation. -&e Plate 'arree )(uidistant 'ylindrical see I((ustration 5 be(ow! and t&e )(uirectangular projection are two good e.am$(es of e6uidistant $rojections. -&e *imuthal )(uidistant projection is t&e $rojection used for t&e emb(em of t&e United *ations see I((ustration < be(ow!.

Illustration #: The $nited %ations &ogo uses the '(imuthal )*uidistant projection.

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Illustration +: The ,late -arree )*uidistant -ylindrical projection, for e"ample, is used when accurate distance measurement is important. Projections with e(ual areas 7&en a ma$ $ortrays areas over t&e entire ma$" so t&at a(( ma$$ed areas &ave t&e same $ro$ortiona( re(ations&i$ to t&e areas on t&e Eart& t&at t&ey re$resent" t&e ma$ is an e(ual area map. In $ractice" genera( reference and educationa( ma$s most often re6uire t&e use of e(ual area projections. +s t&e name im$(ies" t&ese ma$s are best used w&en ca(cu(ations of area are t&e dominant ca(cu(ations you wi(( $erform. If" for e.am$(e" you are trying to ana(yse a $articu(ar area in your town to find out w&et&er it is (arge enoug& for a new s&o$$ing ma((" e6ua( area $rojections are t&e best c&oice. On t&e one &and" t&e (arger t&e area you are ana(ysing" t&e more $recise your area measures wi(( be" if you use an e6ua( area $rojection rat&er t&an anot&er ty$e. On t&e ot&er &and" an e6ua( area $rojection resu(ts in distortions of angular conformity w&en dea(ing wit& (arge areas. Sma(( areas wi(( be far (ess $rone to &aving t&eir ang(es distorted w&en you use an e6ua( area $rojection. l%er+s e(ual area" &am%ert+s e(ual area and Mollweide )(ual rea 'ylindrical projections s&own in I((ustration = be(ow! are ty$es of e6ua( area $rojections t&at are often encountered in GIS wor/. Kee$ in mind t&at ma$ $rojection is a very com$(e. to$ic. -&ere are &undreds of different $rojections avai(ab(e wor(d wide eac& trying to $ortray a certain $ortion of t&e eart&0s surface as fait&fu((y as $ossib(e on a f(at $iece of $a$er. In rea(ity" t&e c&oice of w&ic& $rojection to use" wi(( often be made for you. #ost countries &ave common(y used $rojections and w&en data is e.c&anged $eo$(e wi(( fo((ow t&e national trend.

Illustration .: The !ollweide )*ual 'rea -ylindrical projection, for e"ample, ensures that all mapped areas ha/e the same proportional relationship to the areas on the )arth. 'oordinate $eference ,ystem ('$,) in detail 7it& t&e &e($ of coordinate reference systems CRS! every $(ace on t&e eart& can be s$ecified by a set of t&ree numbers" ca((ed coordinates. In genera( CRS can be divided into projected coordinate reference systems a(so ca((ed Cartesian or rectangu(ar coordinate reference systems! and geographic coordinate reference systems. -eographic 'oordinate ,ystems -&e use of Geogra$&ic Coordinate Reference Systems is very common. -&ey use degrees of (atitude and (ongitude and sometimes a(so a &eig&t va(ue to describe a (ocation on t&e eart&>s surface. -&e most $o$u(ar is ca((ed "-, ./. &ines of latitude run $ara((e( to t&e e6uator and divide t&e eart& into 2?3 e6ua((y s$aced sections from *ort& to Sout& or Sout& to *ort&!. -&e reference (ine for (atitude is t&e e6uator and eac& hemisphere is divided into ninety sections" eac& re$resenting one degree of (atitude. In t&e nort&ern &emis$&ere" degrees of (atitude are measured from 1ero at t&e e6uator to ninety at t&e nort& $o(e. In t&e sout&ern &emis$&ere" degrees of (atitude are measured from 1ero at t&e e6uator to ninety degrees at t&e sout& $o(e. -o sim$(ify t&e digitisation of ma$s" degrees of (atitude in t&e sout&ern &emis$&ere are often assigned negative va(ues 3 to ,:3@!. 7&erever you are on t&e eart&>s surface" t&e distance between t&e (ines of (atitude is t&e same =3 nautica( mi(es!. See I((ustration A be(ow for a $ictoria( view.

Illustration 0: 1eographic coordinate system with lines of latitude parallel to the e*uator and lines of longitude with the prime meridian through 1reenwich. &ines of longitude" on t&e ot&er &and" do not stand u$ so we(( to t&e standard of uniformity. )ines of (ongitude run $er$endicu(ar to t&e e6uator and converge at t&e $o(es. -&e reference (ine for (ongitude t&e $rime meridian! runs from t&e *ort& $o(e to t&e Sout& $o(e t&roug& Greenwic&" Eng(and. Subse6uent (ines of (ongitude are measured from 1ero to 2?3 degrees East or 7est of t&e $rime meridian. *ote t&at va(ues 7est of t&e $rime meridian are assigned negative va(ues for use in digita( ma$$ing a$$(ications. See I((ustration A Error: Reference source not found for a $ictoria( view. +t t&e e6uator" and on(y at t&e e6uator" t&e distance re$resented by one (ine of (ongitude is e6ua( to t&e distance re$resented by one degree of (atitude. +s you move towards t&e $o(es" t&e distance between (ines of (ongitude becomes $rogressive(y (ess" unti(" at t&e e.act (ocation of t&e $o(e" a(( ;=3@ of (ongitude are re$resented by a sing(e $oint t&at you cou(d $ut your finger on you $robab(y wou(d want to wear g(oves t&oug&!. Using t&e geogra$&ic coordinate system" we &ave a grid of (ines dividing t&e eart& into s6uares t&at cover a$$ro.imate(y 24;=;.;=5 s6uare /i(ometres at t&e e6uatorBa good start" but not very usefu( for determining t&e (ocation of anyt&ing wit&in t&at s6uare. -o be tru(y usefu(" a ma$ grid must be divided into sma(( enoug& sections so t&at t&ey can be used to describe wit& an acce$tab(e (eve( of accuracy! t&e (ocation of a $oint on t&e ma$. -o accom$(is& t&is" degrees are divided into minutes (+) and seconds (0). -&ere are si.ty minutes in a degree" and si.ty seconds in a minute ;=33 seconds in a degree!. So" at t&e e6uator" one second of (atitude or (ongitude C ;3.?A=4< meters.

Projected coordinate reference systems + two,dimensiona( coordinate reference system is common(y defined by two a.es. +t rig&t ang(es to eac& ot&er" t&ey form a so ca((ed 12,$(ane see I((ustration ? on t&e (eft side!. -&e &ori1onta( a.is is norma((y (abe((ed 1" and t&e vertica( a.is is norma((y (abe((ed 2. In a t&ree,dimensiona( coordinate reference system" anot&er a.is" norma((y (abe((ed 3" is added. It is a(so at rig&t ang(es to t&e 1 and 2 a.es. -&e 3 a.is $rovides t&e t&ird dimension of s$ace see I((ustration ? on t&e rig&t side!. Every $oint t&at is e.$ressed in s$&erica( coordinates can be e.$ressed as an 1 2 3 coordinate.

Illustration 2: ,rojected coordinate reference systems. Two3dimensional with 4 and 5 coordinates 6left) and three3dimensional with 4, 5 and 7 coordinates 6right). + $rojected coordinate reference system in t&e sout&ern &emis$&ere sout& of t&e e6uator! norma((y &as its origin on t&e e6uator at a s$ecific &ongitude. -&is means t&at t&e D,va(ues increase sout&wards and t&e E,va(ues increase to t&e 7est. In t&e nort&ern &emis$&ere nort& of t&e e6uator! t&e origin is a(so t&e e6uator at a s$ecific &ongitude4 8owever" now t&e D,va(ues increase nort&wards and t&e E,va(ues increase to t&e East. In t&e fo((owing section" we describe a $rojected coordinate reference system" ca((ed 5niversal Transverse Mercator (5TM) often used for Sout& +frica. 5niversal Transverse Mercator (5TM) '$, in detail: -&e Universa( -ransverse #ercator U-#! coordinate reference system &as its origin on t&e e(uator at a s$ecific &ongitude4 *ow t&e D-va(ues increase Sout&wards and t&e 1,va(ues increase to t&e 7est. -&e U-# CRS is a g(oba( ma$ $rojection. -&is means" it is genera((y used a(( over t&e wor(d. Fut as a(ready described in t&e section Gaccuracy of ma$ $rojectionsH above" t&e (arger t&e area for e.am$(e Sout& +frica! t&e more distortion of angu(ar conformity" distance and area occur. -o avoid too muc& distortion" t&e wor(d is divided into 67 e(ual *ones t&at are a(( 6 degrees wide in (ongitude from East to 7est. -&e 5TM *ones are numbered 8 to 67" starting at t&e ?

international date line *one 8 at 2?3 degrees 7est (ongitude! and $rogressing East bac/ to t&e international date line *one 67 at 2?3 degrees East (ongitude! as s&own in I((ustration : be(ow.

Illustration 8: The $ni/ersal Trans/erse !ercator (ones. 9or :outh 'frica $T! (ones :, #:, +:, and .: are used. +s you can see in I((ustration : above and I((ustration 23 be(ow" Sout& +frica is covered by four 5TM *ones to minimi1e distortion. -&e *ones are ca((ed 5TM 99,! 5TM 9/,! 5TM 9:, and 5TM 96,. -&e , after t&e 1one means t&at t&e U-# 1ones are (ocated south of the e(uator.

Illustration 1;: $T! (ones :, #:, +:, and .: with their central longitudes 6meridians) used to project :outh 'frica with high accuracy. The red cross shows an 'rea of Interest 6'<I). Say" for e.am$(e" t&at we want to define a two,dimensiona( coordinate wit&in t&e rea of ;nterest ( O;) mar/ed wit& a red cross in I((ustration 23 above :

Dou can see" t&at t&e area is (ocated wit&in t&e 5TM *one 9:,. -&is means" to minimi1e distortion and to get accurate ana(ysis resu(ts" we s&ou(d use 5TM *one 9:, as t&e coordinate reference system. -&e $osition of a coordinate in U-# sout& of t&e e6uator must be indicated wit& t&e *one num%er ;5! and wit& its northing (y) value and easting (<) value in meters. -&e northing value is t&e distance of t&e $osition from t&e e(uator in meters. -&e easting value is t&e distance from t&e central meridian (ongitude! of t&e used U-# 1one. 'or U-# 1one ;5S it is =7 degrees )ast as s&own in I((ustration 23 above. 'urt&ermore" because we are sout& of t&e e6uator and negative va(ues are not a((owed in t&e U-# coordinate reference system" we &ave to add a so ca((ed false northing value of 23"333"333m to t&e nort&ing y! va(ue and a fa(se easting va(ue of 533"333m to t&e easting .! va(ue. -&is sounds difficu(t" so" we wi(( do an e.am$(e t&at s&ows you &ow to find t&e correct 5TM 9:, coordinate for t&e rea of ;nterest. The northing (y) value -&e $(ace we are (oo/ing for is ;"553"333 meters sout& of t&e e6uator" so t&e nort&ing y! va(ue gets a negative sign and is ,;"553"333m. +ccording to t&e U-# definitions we &ave to add a false northing value of 23"333"333m. -&is means t&e nort&ing y! va(ue of our coordinate is ="<53"333m ,;"553"333m I 23"333"333m!. The easting (<) value 'irst we &ave to find t&e central meridian (ongitude! for t&e 5TM *one 9:,. +s we can see in JJJA2JJJ it is =7 degrees )ast. -&e $(ace we are (oo/ing for is .:!777 meters "est from t&e centra( meridian. Kust (i/e t&e nort&ing va(ue" t&e easting .! va(ue gets a negative sign" giving a resu(t of -.:!777m. +ccording to t&e U-# definitions we &ave to add a false easting value of 533"333m. -&is means t&e easting .! va(ue of our coordinate is <25"333m , ?5"333m I 533"333m!. 'ina((y" we &ave to add t&e *one num%er to t&e easting va(ue to get t&e correct va(ue. +s a resu(t" t&e coordinate for our Point of ;nterest" $rojected in 5TM *one 9:, wou(d be written as: 9: /8:!777m) > 6!/:7!777m?. In some GIS" w&en t&e correct U-# 1one ;5S is defined and t&e units are set to meters wit&in t&e system" t&e coordinate cou(d a(so sim$(y a$$ear as /8:!777 6!/:7!777. On-The-@ly Projection +s you can $robab(y imagine" t&ere mig&t be a situation w&ere t&e data you want to use in a GIS are $rojected in different coordinate reference systems. 'or e.am$(e" you mig&t get a vector (ayer s&owing t&e boundaries of Sout& +frica $rojected in U-# ;5S and anot&er vector (ayer wit& $oint information about rainfa(( $rovided in t&e geogra$&ic coordinate system 7GS ?<. In GIS t&ese two vector (ayers are $(aced in tota((y different areas of t&e ma$ 23

window" because t&ey &ave different $rojections. -o so(ve t&is $rob(em" many GIS inc(ude a functiona(ity ca((ed On-the-fly $rojection. It means" t&at you can define a certain $rojection w&en you start t&e GIS and a(( (ayers t&at you t&en (oad" no matter w&at coordinate reference system t&ey &ave" wi(( be automatica((y dis$(ayed in t&e $rojection you defined. -&is functiona(ity a((ows you to over(ay (ayers wit&in t&e ma$ window of your GIS" even t&oug& t&ey may be in different reference systems. 'ommon pro%lems > things to %e aware of: -&e to$ic map projection is very com$(e. and even $rofessiona(s w&o &ave studied geogra$&y" geodetics or any ot&er GIS re(ated science" often &ave $rob(ems wit& t&e correct definition of ma$ $rojections and coordinate reference systems. Usua((y w&en you wor/ wit& GIS" you a(ready &ave $rojected data to start wit&. In most cases t&ese data wi(( be $rojected in a certain CRS" so you don0t &ave to create a new CRS or even re $roject t&e data from one CRS to anot&er. -&at said" it is a(ways usefu( to &ave an idea about w&at ma$ $rojection and CRS means. "hat have we learnedA )et0s wra$ u$ w&at we covered in t&is wor/s&eet:

Map projections $ortray t&e surface of t&e eart& on a two,dimensiona(" f(at $iece of $a$er or com$uter screen. -&ere are g(oba( ma$ $rojections" but most ma$ $rojections are created and optimi*ed to project smaller areas of t&e eart&0s surface. #a$ $rojections are never abso(ute(y accurate re$resentations of t&e s$&erica( eart&. -&ey s&ow distortions of angular conformity! distance and area4 It is im$ossib(e to $reserve a(( t&ese c&aracteristics at t&e same time in a ma$ $rojection. 'oordinate reference system CRS! defines" wit& t&e &e($ of coordinates" &ow t&e two,dimensiona(" $rojected ma$ is re(ated to rea( (ocations on t&e eart&. -&ere are two different ty$es of coordinate reference systems: -eographic 'oordinate ,ystems and Projected 'oordinate ,ystems. On the @ly projection is a functiona(ity in GIS t&at a((ows us to over(ay (ayers" even if t&ey are $rojected in different coordinate reference systems.

?ow you tryB 8ere are some ideas for you to try wit& your (earners:

Start LGIS and (oad two (ayers of t&e same area but wit& different $rojections and (et your $u$i(s find t&e coordinates of severa( $(aces on t&e two (ayers. Dou can s&ow t&em t&at it is not $ossib(e to over(ay t&e two (ayers. -&en define t&e coordinate reference system as Geogra$&icM 22

7GS ?< inside t&e %roject %ro$erties 9ia(og and activate t&e c&ec/ bo. 0enab(e On,t&e,f(y CRS transformation0. )oad t&e two (ayers of t&e same area again and (et your $u$i(s see &ow On,t&e,f(y $rojection wor/s. Dou can o$en t&e %roject %ro$erties 9ia(og in LGIS and s&ow your $u$i(s t&e many different Coordinate Reference Systems so t&ey get an idea of t&e com$(e.ity of t&is to$ic. 7it& 0On,t&e,f(y CRS transformation0 enab(ed you can se(ect different CRS to dis$(ay t&e same (ayer in different $rojections.

,omething to thin# a%out: If you don0t &ave a com$uter avai(ab(e" you can s&ow your $u$i(s t&e $rinci$(es of t&e t&ree ma$ $rojection fami(ies. Get a g(obe and $a$er and demonstrate &ow cy(indrica(" conica( and $(anar $rojections wor/ in genera(. 7it& t&e &e($ of a trans$arency s&eet you can draw a two,dimensiona( coordinate reference system s&owing E a.es and D a.es. -&en" (et your $u$i(s define coordinates . and y va(ues! for different $(aces. @urther reading: Coo#s:

C&ang" Kang,-sung 433=!: Introduction to Geogra$&ic Information Systems. ;rd Edition. #cGraw 8i((. ISF* 33A3=5?:?=! 9e#ers" #ic&ae( *. 4335!: 'undamenta(s of Geogra$&ic Information Systems. ;rd Edition. 7i(ey. ISF* :?2<24=2:5! Ga(ati" Ste$&en R. 433=!: Geogra$&ic Information Systems 9emystified. +rtec& 8ouse Inc. ISF* 25?35;5;;E!

"e%sites:

&tt$:MMwww.co(orado.eduMgeogra$&yMgcraftMnotesMma$$rojMma$$rojNf.&tm( &tt$:MMgeo(ogy.isu.eduMgeostacM'ie(dNE.erciseMto$oma$sMinde..&tm

-&e LGIS User Guide a(so &as more detai(ed information on wor/ing wit& ma$ $rojections in LGIS. "hat+s ne<tA In t&e section t&at fo((ows we wi(( ta/e a c(oser (oo/ at Map Production.

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