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Algebra Formulas
1. Set identities
Definitions:
I: Universal set A: Complement
Empty set:

Identity

A = A A I = A
Set identities involving union, intersection and complement
complement of intersection and union

Union of sets
A B = { x | x A or x B}

A A = I A A =
De Morgans laws

Intersection of sets
A B = { x | x A and x B}

( A B ) = A B

Complement
A = { x I | x A}

( A B ) = A B
Set identities involving difference
B \ A = B ( A B)

Difference of sets
B \ A = { x | x B and x A}

Cartesian product
A B = {( x, y ) | x A and y B}

B \ A = B A A\ A=

( A \ B) C = ( A C) \ (B C)
A = I \ A

Set identities involving union

Commutativity

A B = B A
Associativity

2. Sets of Numbers
Definitions:
N: Natural numbers No: Whole numbers Z: Integers + Z : Positive integers Z : Negative integers Q: Rational numbers C: Complex numbers

A (B C ) = ( A B) C
Idempotency

A A = A
Set identities involving intersection
commutativity

A B = B A
Associativity

Natural numbers (counting numbers )

N = {1, 2, 3,... }

A (B C) = ( A B) C
Idempotency

A A = A
Set identities involving union and intersection
Distributivity

Whole numbers ( counting numbers + zero )

N o = {0, 1, 2, 3,... }

Integers

A (B C) = ( A B) ( A C)

Z + = N = {1, 2, 3,... } Z = {..., 3, 2, 1 } Z = Z {0} Z = .{ .., 3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3,... }

A (B C) = ( A B) ( A C)
Domination

A = A I = I

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Roots of complex numbers Irrational numbers:
Nonerepeating and nonterminating integers
1 + 2k + 2k n n r + + sin cos sin ( ) = r cos n n 1

Real numbers:
Union of rational and irrational numbers

From this the n nth roots can be obtained by putting k = 0, 1, 2, . . ., n - 1

Complex numbers:
C = { x + iy | x R and y R}

4. Factoring and product

Factoring Formulas
a 2 b 2 = ( a b )( a + b )

N Z QRC

3. Complex numbers
Definitions:
A complex nuber is written as a + bi where a and b are real numbers an i, called the imaginary unit, has the 2 property that i =-1. The complex numbers a+bi and a-bi are called complex conjugate of each other.

a 3 b3 = ( a b ) a 2 + ab + b 2 a3 + b3
2

( = (a + b)(a

) ab + b )
2

a 4 b 4 = ( a b)( a + b)( a 2 + b 2 )
a 5 b5 = ( a b ) a 4 + a 3b + a 2 b 2 + ab3 + b 4

Equality of complex numbers

a + bi = c + di if and only if a = c and b = d

Product Formulas
( a + b) 2 = a 2 + 2ab + b 2 ( a b) 2 = a 2 2ab + b 2

Addition of complex numbers

(a + bi) + (c + di) = (a + c) + (b + d)i

(a + b)3 = a3 + 3a 2b + 3ab2 + b3 (a b)3 = a3 3a 2b + 3ab 2 b3

4

Subtraction of complex numbers

(a + bi) - (c + di) = (a - c) + (b - d)i

Multiplication of complex numbers

(a + bi)(c + di) = (ac - bd) + (ad + bc)i

(a + b)

= a 4 + 4a 3 b + 6 a 2 b 2 + 4ab3 + b 4

( a b )4 = a 4 4a3b + 6a 2 b2 4ab3 + b4
(a + b + c)2 = a 2 + b2 + c 2 + 2ab + 2ac + 2bc
(a + b + c + ...) 2 = a 2 + b 2 + c 2 + ...2(ab + ac + bc + ...)

Division of complex numbers

a + bi a + bi c di ac + bd bc ad = = + i c + di c + di c di c 2 + d 2 c 2 + d 2
Polar form of complex numbers
x + iy = r ( cos + i sin ) r modulus, amplitude

5. Algebric equations
Quadric Eqation: ax2 + bx + c = 0
Solutions (roots):

Multiplication and division in polar form

r1 ( cos 1 + i sin 1 ) r2 ( cos 2 + i sin 2 ) = = r1r2 cos (1 + 2 ) + i sin (1 + 2 )

r cos (1 2 ) + sin (1 2 ) = 1 r2 ( cos2 + sin 2 ) r2

De Moivres theorem
n r ( cos + sin ) = r ( cos n + sin n ) n

r1 ( cos1 + sin1 )

x1,2

b b2 4ac = 2a
2

if D=b -4ac is the discriminant, then the roots are (i) real and unique if D > 0 (ii) real and equal if D = 0 (iii) complex conjugate if D < 0

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Cubic Eqation: x3 + a1 x 2 + a2 x + a3 = 0
Let

3a2 a12 Q= , 9 S = 3 R + Q3 + R2 ,
then solutions are:

9a1a2 27a3 2a13 R= 54

T = 3 R Q3 + R2

1 x1 = S + T a1 3 1 1 1 x2 = ( S + T ) a1 + i 3 ( S T ) 2 3 2 1 1 1 x3 = ( S + T ) a1 i 3 ( S T ) 2 3 2
if D = Q + R is the discriminant, then: (i) one root is real and two complex conjugate if D > 0 (ii) all roots are real and at last two are equal if D = 0 (iii) all roots are real and unequal if D < 0
3 3

Cuadric Eqation: x4 + a1x3 + a2 x2 + a3x + a4 = 0

Let y1 be a real root of the cubic equation

y3 a2 y2 + ( a1a3 4a4 ) y + 4a2 a4 a32 a12 a4 = 0

Solution are the 4 roots of

z2 +

1 1 a1 a12 4a2 + 4y1 z + y1 y12 4a4 = 0 2 2

) (

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Analytic Geometry Formulas

1. Lines in two dimensions
Line forms
Slope - intercept form:

Line segment
A line segment P 1P 2 can be represented in parametric form by

y = mx + b
Two point form:

x = x1 + ( x2 x1 ) t y = y1 + ( y2 y1 ) t

y y1 =

y2 y1 ( x x1 ) x2 x1

0 t 1
Two line segments PP 3P 4 intersect if any only if 1 2 and P the numbers

Point slope form:

y y1 = m ( x x1 )
Intercept form

x2 x1

y2 y1 y3 y1 y2 y1 y3 y4

x3 x1

y3 y1 y3 y4 y2 y1 y3 y4

x y + = 1 ( a, b 0 ) a b
Normal form:

s=

x cos + y sin = p
Parametric form:

x3 x1 x2 x1 x3 x4

and

t=

x3 x4 x2 x1 x3 x4

satisfy 0 s 1 and 0 t 1

x = x1 + t cos y = y1 + t sin
Point direction form:

2. Triangles in two dimensions

Area
The area of the triangle formed by the three lines:

x x1 y y1 = A B
where (A,B) is the direction of the line and P 1 ( x1 , y1 ) lies on the line. General form:

A1 x + B1 y + C1 = 0 A2 x + B2 y + C2 = 0 A3 x + B3 y + C3 = 0
is given by

A x + B y + C = 0 A 0 or B 0

Distance
The distance from Ax + By + C = 0 to P 1 ( x1 , y1 ) is

A1

B1

C1

d=

A x1 + B y1 + C

K= 2

A1 A2

A +B
Concurrent lines
Three lines

A2 B2 C2 A3 B3 C3 B1 A2 B2 A3 B2 A3 B3 A1

B3 B1

The area of a triangle whose vertices are P 1 ( x1 , y1 ) ,

P2 ( x2 , y2 ) and P3 ( x3 , y3 ) :
x1 1 K = x2 2 x3 y1 1 y2 1 y3 1

A1 x + B1 y + C1 = 0 A2 x + B2 y + C2 = 0 A3 x + B3 y + C3 = 0
are concurrent if and only if:

K=

A1 A2 A3

B1 B2 B3

C1 C2 = 0 C3

1 x2 x1 2 x3 x1

y2 y1 y3 y1

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Centroid
The centroid of a triangle whose vertices are P 1 ( x1 , y1 ) ,

3. Circle
Equation of a circle
In an x-y coordinate system, the circle with centre (a, b) and radius r is the set of all points (x, y) such that:

P2 ( x2 , y2 ) and P3 ( x3 , y3 ) :

x + x + x y + y + y3 ( x, y ) = 1 2 3 , 1 2 3 3

( x a )2 + ( y b ) 2 = r 2
Circle is centred at the origin

Incenter
The incenter of a triangle whose vertices are P 1 ( x1 , y1 ) ,

x2 + y 2 = r 2
Parametric equations

P2 ( x2 , y2 ) and P3 ( x3 , y3 ) : ax + bx2 + cx3 ay1 + by2 + cy3 ( x, y ) = 1 , a+b+c a+b+c

x = a + r cos t y = b + r sin t
where t is a parametric variable. In polar coordinates the equation of a circle is:

where a is the length of P2 P3 , b is the length of PP 1 3, and c is the length of PP 1 2.

r 2 2rro cos ( ) + ro2 = a 2

Area
A = r 2

Circumcenter
The circumcenter of a triangle whose vertices are

Circumference
c = d = 2 r

P 2 ( x2 , y 2 ) and P 3 ( x3 , y3 ) : 1 ( x1 , y1 ) , P
x12 + y12 y1 1 x1 x12 + y12 1 2 2 2 2 x2 + y2 y2 1 x2 x2 + y2 1 x2+y2 y 1 x x2+y2 1 3 3 3 3 3 3 ( x, y ) = , x1 y1 1 x1 y1 1 2 x2 y2 1 2 x2 y2 1 x3 y3 1 x3 y3 1

Theoremes:
(Chord theorem) The chord theorem states that if two chords, CD and EF, intersect at G, then:

CD DG = EG FG
(Tangent-secant theorem) If a tangent from an external point D meets the circle at C and a secant from the external point D meets the circle at G and E respectively, then 2

DC = DG DE

Orthocenter
The orthocenter of a triangle whose vertices are

P 2 ( x2 , y 2 ) and P 3 ( x3 , y3 ) : 1 ( x1 , y1 ) , P
y1 x2 x3 + y12 1 x12 + y2 y3 2 2 y2 x3 x1 + y2 1 x2 + y3 y1 y xx +y2 1 x2+y y 3 1 2 3 3 1 2 ( x, y ) = , x1 y1 1 x1 y1 2 x2 y2 2 x2 y2 1 x3 y3 1 x3 y3

(Secant - secant theorem) If two secants, DG and DE, also cut the circle at H and F respectively, then:

DH DG = DF DE
x1 1 x2 1 x3 1 1 1 1
(Tangent chord property) The angle between a tangent and chord is equal to the subtended angle on the opposite side of the chord.

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4. Conic Sections
Eccentricity:

The Parabola
The set of all points in the plane whose distances from a fixed point, called the focus, and a fixed line, called the directrix, are always equal.

e=
Foci:

a 2 b2 a

The standard formula of a parabola:

y 2 = 2 px

if a > b => F1 ( a 2 b 2 , 0) F2 ( a 2 b 2 ,0)

if a < b => F1 (0, b 2 a 2 ) F2 (0, b 2 a 2 )

Parametric equations of the parabola:

Area:
K = a b

x = 2 pt y = 2 pt

Tangent line
Tangent line in a point D( x0 , y0 ) of a parabola y = 2 px
2

The Hyperbola
The set of all points in the plane, the difference of whose distances from two fixed points, called the foci, remains constant.

y0 y = p ( x + x0 )
Tangent line with a given slope (m)

The standard formula of a hyperbola:

p y = mx + 2m

x2 y 2 =1 a 2 b2
Parametric equations of the Hyperbola

Tangent lines from a given point

Take a fixed point P ( x0 , y0 ) .The equations of the tangent lines are

x=

y y0 = m1 ( x x0 ) and y y0 = m2 ( x x0 ) where

a sin t b sin t y= cos t

x0 x y0 y 2 =1 a2 b

m1 =

y0 + y0 2 2 px0
2 x0

Tangent line in a point D ( x0 , y0 ) of a hyperbola:

and

m1 =

y0 y0 2 2 px0
2 x0

Foci:
if a > b => F1 ( a 2 + b 2 , 0) F2 ( a 2 + b 2 , 0)
if a < b => F1 (0, b 2 + a 2 ) F2 (0, b 2 + a 2 )

The Ellipse
The set of all points in the plane, the sum of whose distances from two fixed points, called the foci, is a constant.

Asymptotes:

The standard formula of a ellipse

x2 y 2 + =1 a 2 b2
Parametric equations of the ellipse x = a cos t
y = b sin t
Tangent line in a point D ( x0 , y0 ) of a ellipse:

b b x and y = x a a a a if a < b => y = x and y = x b b if a > b => y =

x0 x y0 y + 2 =1 a2 b

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5. Planes in three dimensions

Plane forms
Point direction form:
x x1 y y1 z z1 = = a b c
where P1(x1,y1,z1) lies in the plane, and the direction (a,b,c) is normal to the plane.

Equation of a plane
The equation of a plane through P1(x1,y1,z1) and parallel to directions (a1,b1,c1) and (a2,b2,c2) has equation

x x1 a1 a2

y y1 b1 b2

z z1 c1 c2
=0

General form:

The equation of a plane through P1(x1,y1,z1) and P2(x2,y2,z2), and parallel to direction (a,b,c), has equation

Ax + By + Cz + D = 0
where direction (A,B,C) is normal to the plane.

x x1 x2 x1 a

y y1 y2 y1 b

z z1 z2 z1 = 0 c

Intercept form:
x y z + + =1 a b c
this plane passes through the points (a,0,0), (0,b,0), and (0,0,c).

Distance
The distance of P1(x1,y1,z1) from the plane Ax + By + Cz + D = 0 is

Three point form

x x3 x1 x3 x2 x3 y y3 y1 y3 y2 y3 z z3 z1 z3 = 0 z2 z3

d=

Ax1 + By1 + Cz1

A2 + B 2 + C 2

Intersection
The intersection of two planes

A1 x + B1 y + C1 z + D1 = 0, A2 x + B2 y + C2 z + D2 = 0,
is the line

Normal form:

x cos + y cos + z cos = p

Parametric form:

x x1 y y1 z z1 = = , a b c
where

x = x1 + a1 s + a2 t y = y1 + b1 s + b2 t z = z1 + c1 s + c2 t
where the directions (a1,b1,c1) and (a2,b2,c2) are parallel to the plane.

a= b=

B1 B2

C1 C2

C1 C2

A1 A2

Angle between two planes:

The angle between two planes:

c=

A1 A2

B1 B2 D1 D2 D1 D2 D1 D2 C1 C2
2

A1 x + B1 y + C1 z + D1 = 0 A2 x + B2 y + C2 z + D2 = 0
is

b x1 =
2 2 2

c
2

D1 D2
2

B1 B2 C1 C2 A1 A2

a +b +c

arccos

A1 A2 + B1 B2 + C1C2
A + B +C
2 1 2 1 2 1

A2 + B2 + C2

c y1 = a z1 =

A1 A2
2

c
2

D1 D2
2

The planes are parallel if and only if

a +b +c B1 B2
2

A1 B1 C1 = = A2 B2 C2
The planes are perpendicular if and only if

b
2

D1 D2
2

A1 A2 + B1 B2 + C1C2 = 0

a +b +c

If a = b = c = 0, then the planes are parallel.

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Functions Formulas
1. Exponents
a = a a ... a if p N p > 0, a R
p p

3. Roots
Definitions:
a,b: bases ( a, b 0 if n = 2 k )

a = 1 if a 0

n,m: powers

ar as = ar+s
ar = a r s as

Formulas:
n

ab = n a n b

n
r s

(a )
r

a m b = nm a m bn
a = b
n n

=a
r

a b

(a b)
r

= a b

,b0

ar a = r b b 1 ar = r a
a = a
r s s
r

n m

a b

= nm
p

am bn

,b0

( )
n

am

= n a mp

( a)
n
n

=a
np

am =

a mp

2. Logarithms
Definition:
y = log a x a = x
y

m n

a = mn a
m

( a, x > 0, y R )

( a)
n

= n am
n

Formulas:
log a 1 = 0

1
n

a n 1 ,a0 a

log a a = 1

a b =
1

a + a2 b a a2 b 2 2 a b ab

log a mn = log a m + log a n

m log a = log a m log a n n

log a m n = n log a m
log a m = log b m log a b

a b

log a m =

logb m logb a 1 logb a

ln x = ( l og a e ) ln x ln a

l og a b =
l og a x =

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4. Trigonometry
Right-Triangle Definitions
Sum and Difference Formulas
sin ( + ) = sin cos + sin cos

sin =

Opposite Hypotenuse

sin ( ) = sin cos sin cos cos ( + ) = cos cos sin sin cos ( ) = cos cos + sin sin

Adjacent cos = Hypotenuse

tg =

Opposite Adjacent 1 Hypotenuse = sin Opposite

tan ( + ) =
tan ( ) =

csc =

tan + tan 1 tan tan

1 Adjacent cot = = tg Opposite

tan tan 1 + tan tan

sec =

1 Hypotenuse = cos Adjacent

Double Angle and Half Angle Formulas

sin ( 2 ) = 2sin cos

cos ( 2 ) = cos 2 sin 2

Reduction Formulas

sin( x) = sin x

tan ( 2 ) =
sin

cos( x) = cos x
sin( x) = cos x 2 cos( x) = sin x 2 sin( + x) = cos x 2 cos( x) = sin x 2 sin( x) = sin x

2tg 1 tg 2
1 cos 2

cos
tan

=
=

1 + cos 2

1 cos sin = sin 1 + cos

Other Useful Trig Formulae

Law of sines

cos( x) = cos x sin( + x) = sin x cos( + x) = cos x

sin sin sin = = a b c

Law of cosines

c 2 = a 2 + b 2 2ab cos
Area of triangle

Identities

sin x + cos x = 1 1 tg 2 x + 1 = cos 2 x 1 cot 2 x + 1 = sin 2 x

K=

1 ab sin 2

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5. Hyperbolic functions
Inverse Hyperbolic functions

Definitions:
e x e x sinh x = 2

sinh 1 x = ln x + x 2 + 1 cosh 1
2

e +e cosh x = 2
x

( x = ln ( x +

) x 1)

x ( , ) x [1, )

e e sinh x = x x e +e cosh x 2 1 csch x = x x = e e sinh x 2 1 sech x = x x = e +e cosh x

1 1+ x tanh 1 x = ln 2 1 x
coth 1 x =

x ( 1,1)
x ( , 1) (1, )

tanh x =

1 x +1 ln 2 x 1

1 + 1 x2 sech 1 x = ln x

x (0,1]

coth x =

e x + e x cosh x = e x e x sinh x

1 1 x2 csch 1 x = ln + x x

x ( ,0 ) ( 0, )

Derivates
d sinh x = cosh x dx d cosh x = sinh x dx d tanh x = sech 2 x dx d csch x = cschx coth x dx d sech x = sech x tanh x dx d coth x = csch 2 x dx

Inverse Hyperbolic derivates

d sinh 1 x = dx
d cosh 1 x = dx

x2 + 1
1

x2 1

d 1 tanh 1 x = dx 1 x2 d 1 csch x = dx x 1 + x2
d 1 sech 1 x = dx x 1 x2 d 1 coth 1 x = dx 1 x2

Hyperbolic identities

cosh 2 x sinh 2 x = 1

tanh 2 x + sech 2 x = 1 coth 2 x csch 2 x = 1 sinh( x y) = sinh x cosh y cosh x sinh y

sinh( x y) = cosh x cosh y sinh x sinh y

sinh 2 x = 2 sinh x cosh x

cosh 2 x = cosh 2 x + sinh 2 x 1 + cosh 2 x sinh 2 x = 2 1 + cosh 2 x cosh 2 x = 2

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Integration Formulas
1. Common Integrals
Indefinite Integral
Method of substitution

Integrals of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

ln x dx = x ln x x + C
n x ln x dx =

f ( g ( x)) g ( x)dx = f (u )du

Integration by parts

x n +1 x n +1 +C ln x 2 n +1 ( n + 1)

f ( x) g ( x)dx = f ( x) g ( x) g ( x) f ( x)dx

dx = e x + C

Integrals of Rational and Irrational Functions

n x dx =

x b dx =

bx +C ln b

x n +1 +C n +1

x dx = ln x + C
c dx = cx + C

sinh x dx = cosh x + C cosh x dx = sinh x + C

xdx =

x2 +C 2

x3 +C 3 1 1 x2 dx = x + C
2 x dx =

xdx = 1

2x x +C 3

1+ x

dx = arctan x + C

1 1 x2

dx = arcsin x + C

Integrals of Trigonometric Functions

sin x dx = cos x + C cos x dx = sin x + C tan x dx = ln sec x + C sec x dx = ln tan x + sec x + C

1 ( x sin x cos x ) + C 2 1 2 cos x dx = 2 ( x + sin x cos x ) + C

sin

x dx =

tan sec

x dx = tan x x + C x dx = tan x + C

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2. Integrals of Rational Functions

Integrals involving ax + b

( ax + b )n + 1 ( ax + b ) dx = a ( n + 1)
n

( for n 1)

ax + b dx = a ln ax + b x ( ax + b )
x
n

dx = a
x

a ( n + 1) x b
2

( n + 1)( n + 2 )

( ax + b )n+1

( for n 1, n 2 )

ax + b dx = a a 2 ln ax + b

( ax + b )2 dx = a 2 ( ax + b ) + a 2 ln ax + b ( ax + b )n dx = a 2 ( n 1)( n 2)( ax + b )n1

x a (1 n ) x b

( for n 1, n 2 )

2 x2 1 ( ax + b ) 2 = + + + 2 ln dx b ax b b ax b ( ) ax + b 2 a3

( ax + b )2 ( ax + b )3
x2

x2

1 b2 dx = 3 ax + b 2b ln ax + b ax + b a

dx =

1 2b b2 ln ax + b + ax + b 2 ( ax + b )2 a3

( ax + b ) n
1

x2

dx =

3n 2 n 1n b2 ( ax + b ) 2b ( a + b ) 1 ( ax + b ) + n3 n2 n 1 a3

( for n 1, 2,3)

x ( ax + b ) dx = b ln
1 1

ax + b x

x 2 ( ax + b ) dx = bx + b2 ln
x 2 ( ax + b )2
1
1

ax + b x

1 1 2 ax + b dx = a 2 + 2 3 ln b ( a + xb ) ab x b x

Integrals involving ax2 + bx + c

x 2 + a 2 dx = a arctg a
1

ax 1 ln 2a a + x x2 a 2 dx = 1 x a ln 2a x + a

for x < a

for x > a

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2 2ax + b arctan 2 4ac b 2 4ac b 1 2 2ax + b b 2 4 ac dx = ln 2 ax 2 + bx + c b 4ac 2 ax + b + b 2 4ac 2 2ax + b

for 4ac b 2 > 0 for 4ac b 2 < 0 for 4ac b 2 = 0

ax 2 + bx + c dx = 2a ln ax

+ bx + c

b dx 2 2 a ax + bx + c

m 2an bm 2ax + b 2 for 4ac b 2 > 0 arctan ln ax + bx + c + 2 2 2 a a 4ac b 4ac b mx + n 2an bm 2ax + b m 2 2 ax 2 + bx + c dx = 2a ln ax + bx + c + a b2 4ac arctanh b2 4ac for 4ac b < 0 m 2an bm ln ax 2 + bx + c for 4ac b 2 = 0 a ( 2 ax + b ) 2a

( ax

+ bx + c
1

dx =

2ax + b

( n 1) ( 4ac b2 )( ax 2 + bx + c )

n1

( 2 n 3 ) 2a 1 dx 2 ( n 1) ( 4ac b ) ( ax 2 + bx + c )n1

( ax

+ bx + c

dx =

1 x2 b 1 2 ln 2 dx 2c ax + bx + c 2c ax + bx + c

3. Integrals of Exponential Functions

cx xe dx =

ecx
c2

( cx 1)

2 2x 2 cx x 2 cx x e dx = e c c 2 + c3

n cx

e dx =

1 n cx n n 1 cx x e x e dx c c
i

cx ( ) ecx dx = x + ln i i! x i =1

cx

ln xdx =

1 cx e ln x + Ei ( cx ) c ecx
c 2 + b2

cx e sin bxdx = cx e cos bxdx =

( c sin bx b cos bx ) ( c cos bx + b sin bx )

2

ecx
c 2 + b2

cx n e sin xdx =

ecx sin n 1 x
c +n
2

( c sin x n cos bx ) +

n ( n 1)
c +n
2 2

cx

sin n 2 dx

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4. Integrals of Logarithmic Functions

ln cxdx = x ln cx x

ln(ax + b)dx = x ln(ax + b) x + a ln(ax + b)

( ln x ) dx = x ( ln x ) 2 x ln x + 2 x n n n 1 ( ln cx ) dx = x ( ln cx ) n ( ln cx ) dx
ln x ( ) dx = x + x + ln ln ln ln x n =2 i i !
i

( ln x )n

dx

( n 1)( ln x )

n 1

1 dx n 1 ( ln x )n 1

( for n 1)

1 m m +1 ln x x l xdx = x n m + 1 ( m + 1) 2

( for m 1)
( for m 1)

x ( ln x )
m

dx =

x m+1 ( ln x )
m +1

n n 1 x m ( ln x ) dx m +1

( ln x )n
x

dx =

( ln x )n+1
n +1

( for n 1)

ln x n ln x n ( for n 0 ) x dx = 2n ln x ln x 1 xm dx = ( m 1) xm1 ( m 1)2 xm1

( for m 1)
( for m 1)

( ln x )n
xm dx

( ln x )n ( ln x )n1 n dx = + dx ( m 1) x m1 m 1 x m

x ln x = ln ln x
( 1) xn ln x = ln ln x + i =1
dx
i

( n 1)i ( ln x )i
i i!

x ( ln x )n ln ( x
2

dx

( n 1)( ln x )n1

( for n 1)

+ a 2 dx = x ln x 2 + a 2 2 x + 2a tan 1 x

x a

sin ( ln x ) dx = 2 ( sin ( ln x ) cos ( ln x ) ) cos ( ln x ) dx = 2 ( sin ( ln x ) + cos ( ln x ) )

x

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5. Integrals of Trig. Functions

sin xdx = cos x cos xdx = sin x

x 1 sin 2 x 2 4 x 1 2 cos xdx = 2 + 4 sin 2 x 1 3 3 sin xdx = 3 cos x cos x 1 3 3 cos xdx = sin x 3 sin x

sin 2 x dx = sin x
x cos 2 x sin x dx = ln tan 2 + cos x

cos x

sin

xdx =

cot

xdx = cot x x

sin x cos x = ln tan x

+ sin 2 x cos x = sin x + ln tan 2 4 dx
1
x

dx

sin x xdx = ln tan 2

+ cos x xdx = ln tan 2 4
dx sin 2 x xdx = cot x dx cos2 x xdx = tan x

dx

sin x cos2 x = cos x + ln tan 2 sin 2 x cos2 x = tan x cot x

dx

dx

dx

sin mxsin nxdx = 2( m+ n)

sin( m + n) x sin( m n) x + 2( m n) cos ( m + n) x cos ( m n) x 2( m n)

m2 n2 m2 n2 m2 n2

sin mxcos nxdx = 2( m + n) cos mxcos nxdx = 2( m + n)

n sin x cos xdx = n sin x cos xdx =

cos x 1 dx x sin 3 x = 2sin 2 x + 2 ln tan 2

sin ( m + n) x sin ( m n) x + 2( m n)
cos n +1 x n +1

dx sin x 1 x + cos3 x = 2 cos2 x + 2 ln tan 2 4

1 sin x cos xdx = 4 cos 2 x 1 3 2 sin x cos xdx = 3 sin x 1 2 3 sin x cos xdx = 3 cos x x 1 2 2 sin x cos xdx = 8 32 sin 4 x

sin n +1 x n +1

arcsin xdx = x arcsin x + arccos xdx = x arccos x

1 x2 1 x2
1
2

arctan xdx = x arctan x 2 ln ( x

1

+1

tan xdx = ln cos x

cos
sin x 1 dx = 2 cos x x

arc cot xdx = x arc cot x + 2 ln ( x

+1

sin 2 x x + sin x cos x dx = ln tan 2 4

tan xdx = tan x x cot xdx = ln sin x

2

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Limits and Derivatives Formulas

1. Limits
Properties
if lim f ( x) = l and lim g ( x) = m , then
xa xa

Power rule

d n x = nx n 1 dx

( )
(

Chain rule

lim [ f ( x ) g ( x)] = l m
xa

lim [ f ( x) g ( x) ] = l m
xa

d f ( g ( x ) ) = f ( g ( x) ) g ( x) dx

Common Derivatives
d (c) = 0 dx d ( x) = 1 dx d ( sin x ) = cos x dx d ( cos x ) = sin x dx d 1 ( tan x ) = 2 = sec2 x dx cos x

f ( x) l where m 0 lim = x a g ( x) m

lim c f ( x) = c l
x a

lim
x a

1 1 = where l 0 f ( x) l

Formulas

1 lim 1 + = e x n

lim (1 + n ) n = e
x

sin x =1 lim x 0 x tan x =1 lim x 0 x cos x 1 =0 lim x 0 x

d ( sec x ) = sec x tan x dx d ( csc x ) = csc cot x dx d 1 ( cot x ) = 2 = csc2 x dx sin x

d 1 sin 1 x = dx 1 x2

lim

x a = na n 1 xa x a

( (
(

an 1 = ln a lim x 0 x

d 1 cos 1 x = dx 1 x2

2. Common Derivatives
Basic Properties and Formulas

( cf ) = cf ( x)

(f

g ) = f ( x) + g ( x)
f g + f g

Product rule

( f g ) =
f g

Quotient rule

f g f g = g2

d 1 tan 1 x = dx 1 + x2 d x a = a x ln a dx d x e = ex dx d 1 ( ln x ) = , x > 0 dx x d 1 ln x ) = , x 0 ( dx x d 1 , x>0 ( log a x ) = dx x ln a

( )
( )

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3. Higher-order Derivatives
Definitions and properties
Second derivative

f =

d dy d 2 y dx dx dx 2

Higher-Order derivative

f( ) = f(
n

n 1)

)
n n) n) n

(f
(f

+ g)
g)

( n)
(n)

= f ( ) + g(
= f ( ) g(

Leibnizs Formulas

( f g ) = ( f g ) =
( f g )(
(n)
n)

f g + 2 f g + f .g f g + 3 f g + 3 f g + f g
n n 1)

= f ( ) g + nf (

g+

n ( n 1)
1 2

f(

n 2)

g + ... + fg (

n)

Important Formulas

(x )
m

m! x mn ( m n )!

(x )
n

(n)

= n!
(n)

( log a x )
( ln x )
x

( 1) ( n 1)!
x n ln a
n 1

n 1

(n)

( 1) ( n 1)!
xn
x n

( a ) = a ln a ( ) (e ) = e ( ) ( a ) = m a ln
x

( n)
n

mx

mx

( sin x )( )
n

n = sin x + 2 n = cos x + 2

( cos x )( )
n

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Series Formulas
1. Arithmetic and Geometric Series 2. Special Power Series
Definitions:
First term: a1 Nth term: an Number of terms in the series: n Sum of the first n terms: Sn Difference between successive terms: d Common ratio: q Sum to infinity: S

Powers of Natural Numbers

k = 2 n ( n + 1)
k =1

k
k =1

=
=

1 n ( n + 1)( 2n + 1) 6
1 2 2 n ( n + 1) 4

k
k =1

Arithmetic Series Formulas:

an = a1 + ( n 1) d

Special Power Series

1 = 1 + x + x 2 + x3 + . . . 1 x 1 = 1 x + x2 x3 + . . . 1+ x

a + ai +1 ai = i 1 2 a + an Sn = 1 n 2

( for : 1 < x < 1)

( for : 1 < x < 1)

Sn =

2a1 + ( n 1) d
2

ex = 1 + x +

x 2 x3 + + ... 2! 3! x2 x3 x 4 x5 + + ... 2 3 4 5

Geometric Series Formulas:

an = a1 q n1

ln (1+ x ) = x

( for : 1 < x < 1)

sin x = x cos x = 1

ai = ai 1 ai +1

x3 x5 x 7 x9 + + ... 3! 5! 7! 9! x 2 x 4 x6 x8 + + ... 2! 4! 6! 8!

Sn =
Sn = S=

an q a1 q 1
a1 q 1 q 1 for 1 < q < 1

tan x = x +

x3 2x5 17x7 + + + ... 3 15 315 x3 x5 x 7 x 9 + + + ... 3! 5! 7! 9! x 2 x 4 x6 x8 + + + ... 2! 4! 6! 8!

for : < x < 2 2

sinh x = x + cosh x = 1 +

a1 1 q

tan x = x

x3 2x5 17x7 + +... 3 15 315

for : < x < 2 2

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3.

Taylor and Maclaurin Series

Definition:

f ( x) = f (a ) + f (a ) ( x a ) +
Rn =

f( f (a )( x a ) 2 + . . .+ 2!

n 1)

(a) ( x a )

n 1

( n 1)!
a x

+ Rn

f(

n)

( )( x a )
n!

Lagrange ' s form

n 1

Rn =

f(

n)

( )( x ) ( x a ) ( n 1)!

Cauch ' s form

a x

This result holds if f(x) has continuous derivatives of order n at last. If

lim Rn = 0 , the infinite series obtained is called

Taylor series for f(x) about x = a. If a = 0 the series is often called a Maclaurin series.

Binomial series

(a + x)

2! 3! n n n = a n + a n 1 x + a n 2 x 2 + a n 3 x3 + ... 1 2 3
= 1 x + x 2 x3 + x 4 ...

= a n + na n1 x +

n ( n 1)

a n2 x 2 +

n ( n 1)( n 2 )

a n 3 x3 + ...

Special cases:

(1 + x )

1 < x < 1

(1 + x ) (1 + x )
(1 + x )

= 1 2 x + 3 x 2 4 x3 + 5 x 4 ... = 1 3 x + 6 x 2 10 x3 + 15 x 4 ...
= 1 = 1+
1 1 3 2 1 3 5 3 x+ x x + ... 2 24 246

1 < x < 1 1 < x < 1

1 < x 1
1 < x 1

1 2

(1 + x ) 2

1 1 2 1 3 3 x x + x + ... 2 24 246

Series for exponential and logarithmic functions

ex = 1 + x +
x

x 2 x3 + + ... 2! 3!

a = 1 + x ln a +
ln (1 + x ) = x

( x ln a )
2!

( x ln a )
3!

+ ...

x 2 x3 x 4 + ... 2 3 4
2 3

1 < x 1

x 1 1 x 1 1 x 1 ln (1 + x ) = + + + ... x 2 x 3 x

1 2

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Series for trigonometric functions

sin x = x cos x = 1

x3 x5 x7 + + ... 3! 5! 7! x2 x4 x6 + + ... 2! 4! 6!

2 2 n 22 n 1 Bn x 2 n 1 x 3 2 x5 17 x 7 + + + ... + tan x = x + 3 15 315 ( 2n ) !

2 2 n Bn x 2 n 1 1 x x3 2 x 5 ... cot x = x 3 45 945 ( 2n )! sec x = 1 +

<x<

0< x <

E x2n x 2 5 x 4 61x 6 + + + ... + n + ... 2 24 720 ( 2n ) !

<x<

2 2 2 n 1 En x 2 n 1 x 7 x3 + ... + + ... csc x = + + x 6 360 ( 2n )! sin 1 x = x + 1 x 3 1 3 x5 1 3 5 x 7 + + + ... 2 3 24 5 246 7

0< x < 1 < x < 1

cos 1 x =

sin 1 x =

1 x3 1 3 x5 x+ + + ... 2 2 3 24 5

1 < x < 1
if 1 < x < 1 if x 1 if x < 1

x3 x 2 x3 + + ... x 3 5 7 1 1 1 tan 1 x = + + ... 3 5 x5 2 x 3x 1 1 1 + 3 5 + ... 2 x 3x 5x

x3 x 2 x 3 + + .. . x 3 5 7 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 cot x = tan x = + + ... 2 3 5 x 3x 5x 7 x7 1 1 1 1 + + ... + 3 5 x 3x 5x 7 x7

if

1 < x < 1

if x 1 if x < 1

Series for hyperbolic functions

sinh x = x +

x3 x5 x 7 + + + ... 3! 5! 7!

cosh x = 1 +

x2 x4 x6 + + + ... 2! 4! 6!
n 1 2 n

( 1) x3 2 x5 17 x7 + + ... + tanh x = x 15 315 3

( 1) 1 x x3 2 x 7 + + ... + coth x = + x 3 45 945
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( 22n 1) Bn x2n1 + ...

( 2n )!
+ ...
if 0 < x <

if

<x<

n 1 2 n

Bn x 2n1

( 2n ) !