A national laboratory of the U.S.

Department of Energy
Office of Energy Efficiency & Renewable Energy

National Renewable Energy Laboratory

Innovation for Our Energy Future

Modeling and Testing of

Unbalanced Loading and
Voltage Regulation
Final Report
M.W. Davis
DTE Energy
Detroit, Michigan

R. Broadwater
Electrical Distribution Design Inc.
Blacksburg, Virginia

J. Hambrick
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University
Blacksburg, Virginia

NREL is operated by Midwest Research Institute Battelle

Contract No. DE-AC36-99-GO10337

Subcontract Report
NREL/SR-581-41805
July 2007

Modeling and Testing of

Unbalanced Loading and
Voltage Regulation
Final Report
M.W. Davis
DTE Energy
Detroit, Michigan

R. Broadwater
Electrical Distribution Design Inc.
Blacksburg, Virginia

J. Hambrick
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University
Blacksburg, Virginia
NREL Technical Monitor: Thomas Basso
Prepared under Subcontract No. ZAT-5-32616-06

National Renewable Energy Laboratory

1617 Cole Boulevard, Golden, Colorado 80401-3393
303-275-3000 www.nrel.gov
Operated for the U.S. Department of Energy
Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy
by Midwest Research Institute Battelle
Contract No. DE-AC36-99-GO10337

Subcontract Report
NREL/SR-581-41805
July 2007

The National Renewable Energy Laboratory is a national laboratory of the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) managed by
Midwest Research Institute for the U.S. Department of Energy under Contract Number DE-AC36-99GO10337. This report
was prepared as an account of work sponsored by the California Energy Commission and pursuant to a M&O Contract
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herein to any specific commercial product, process, or service by trade name, trademark, manufacturer, or otherwise does
not necessarily constitute or imply its endorsement, recommendation, or favoring by the United States government or any
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List of Acronyms

ANSI
BL
CAP
CC
CP
CT
DG
DR
EL
GMD
HL
HV
LL
LTC
LV
ML
PF
VDC
VR
VRR
VT

American National Standards Institute

beginning location
capacitor
constant current
constant power
current transformer
distributed generation/distributed generator
distributed resource(s)
end location
geometric mean distance
heavy load
high voltage
light load
load tap changer/load tap-changing
low voltage
midlocation
power factor
voltage-dependent current
voltage regulator
voltage regulating relay
voltage transformer

iii

Executive Summary
Introduction
A distributed generation (DG) penetration limit study (Davis 2003) indicated a range of DG
sizes can be interconnected with a distribution circuit. The DG size limit is dependent on
system voltage, the location of the DG on the circuit, and system protection, voltage
regulation, and other issues related to DG and circuit characteristics. The study showed that
the DG could be larger if it was allowed to actively regulate voltage, rather than operate at a
fixed unity power factor.
Fixed power factor operation of the DG has a minimum effect on the existing traditional
voltage regulation controls of the circuit because, as the system voltage changes, the field
current of the DG synchronous generator is adjusted to bring the kilovar output typically back
to zero and maintain the desired kilowatt setpoint. Therefore, the only effect on the system
voltage is the kilowatt injection at that point on the distribution circuit. However, if the DG
synchronous machine is allowed to absorb or export volt-amperes reactive, the voltage can be
decreased or increased at that point on the circuit, and much larger kilowatt injectionsand
thus, larger DGcan be installed on the circuit.
A number of problems are associated with interconnecting DG with a distribution circuit.
Some are related to circuit design and operation, and others are related to the analytical tools
used to evaluate DG operation. Distribution circuits are primarily designed for radial, oneway power flow, and distribution line voltage regulators are typically designed to regulate
voltage based on a unidirectional flow of power. When DG is interconnected with the circuit,
two-way flows can result. In addition, most of the load served on a distribution circuit is
single-phase, yet most of the analytical tools used to evaluate circuit performance are based
on balanced three-phase loads and balanced three-phase line circuit impedances. When
balanced three-phase power flow programs are used to calculate the voltage profile on a
distribution circuit and determine if voltage limits are being violated by DG, the accuracy of
the service voltages at the individual single-phase loads on the single-phase laterals is a
concern because only the three-phase portion of the circuit is modeled. American National
Standards Institute Standard C84.1 voltage limits may be satisfied based on three-phase
balanced load/impedance analysis, but the voltages at single-phase loads may be violated
when the DG operates or shuts down.
This is a significant concern for utilities because liability issues arise when customer
equipment is damaged because of HV or LV on a circuit. Therefore, it is critical to evaluate the
effects of DG on the distribution circuit voltage profile to ensure customers do not receive
service voltages (at the customer billing meter) outside Range A or Range B of American
National Standards Institute C84.1. This can be accomplished by using modeling and
simulation tools that recognize single-phase loads, unsymmetrical distribution transformer
connections, and unbalanced line impedances.

iv

Purpose
The purpose of the project is to:
Explain how voltage regulation reduces voltage spread
Define the effects of unbalanced loading and voltage on system protection and DG
output ratings
Develop models for an actual distribution circuit, its voltage regulation equipment,
and all the DG generator types, recognizing unbalanced loading and unbalanced
circuit impedances
Validate these models by comparing power flow simulations and voltage profiles with
actual measured circuit data
Determine the optimum generator operating conditions (i.e., P and Q) to provide the
greatest improvement in released capacity, reduced energy losses, and voltage regulation
Determine the maximum DG penetration limits with synchronous generator real and
reactive power injections.
Project Objectives
The project objectives are five-fold:
To develop a load model for an actual 13.2-kV distribution circuit that represents how
the real and reactive load on the circuit changes when the voltage is raised or lowered
with capacitor switching, distribution line voltage regulator step changes, and load tap
changer and DG voltage regulation
To develop models for distribution overhead and underground circuit line elements,
transformers, shunt capacitors, step voltage regulators, and synchronous, induction,
and inverter DG generators
To verify the models by comparing the power flow simulated data with actual circuit
measured data
To determine the maximum DG size that can be interconnected with the circuit
To determine the optimum generator operating conditions for maximum released

capacity savings, reduced energy losses, and voltage regulation improvement.

Project Results
The circuit load was modeled using constant current, constant power, and a voltagedependent current. The voltage-dependent current model best represented the load
characteristics of the circuit, with a variance of only 2%. The constant current model
had a variance of 3.9%, and the constant power model, which is typically used, had a
variance of 12.5%.

The voltage-dependent current model that best represents how the load changes with
changes in source voltage is:
%P
= 1.26
%V

%Q

= 4.66.
%V

During heavy load conditions when all voltage regulation equipment was turned on,
the circuit tag end voltage improvement was 14.87 V over only the load-tap changing
transformer voltage. When the first step regulator was turned on, the tag end voltage
improved 4.11 V. With the second, the voltage increased another 11.34 V. With the
first capacitor turned on, the voltage increased only 0.97 V. When the second was
turned on, the total voltage gain was 1.75 V. When the third was turned on, another
1.66-V rise occurred at the tag end. It may be necessary to operate DG to absorb voltamperes reactive to prevent high voltage during light-load conditions.
The highest unbalanced voltage of 1.52% occurred during heavy load conditions with
load tap changer regulation and one step regulator turned on. Because most
synchronous generators trip when the unbalanced voltage is more than 3%,
unbalanced three-phase power flow studies should always be conducted on the circuit
to ensure unbalance does not exceed 3% at the point of interconnection (not the point
of common coupling). Adding load tap changer regulation during heavy load
conditions lowered the maximum unbalanced voltage to 1.44%; adding step regulators
worsened the unbalanced voltage. This was to be expected because an increase in
voltage causes an increase in load and unbalance. When all three capacitors were
turned on, the maximum unbalanced voltage was reduced to 1.31%. Turning all
regulation on lowered the maximum unbalanced voltage to 1.31%. The 13-utility
unbalanced voltage survey showed a maximum measured voltage unbalance of 5.94%.
The high imbalances occurred on open delta transformer connections.
The highest voltage unbalance during light-load conditions was 1.26%.
At many locations on the circuit, the current imbalance exceeded 20%. Most
synchronous machines trip at 10%20% current imbalance; therefore, studies must
determine the current imbalance at the location where the DG is to be sited.
Otherwise, it may never operate without tripping. The load imbalance at the substation
reached 4% at heavy load and 6% at light load.
The causes of unbalanced voltage and current and how unbalanced conditions affect
protective relaying are described. The neutral relay is set to trip for ground faults, and
the trip value may have to be increased to account for increased neutral current
because of unbalance.
Significant unbalanced loading can occur even though voltages are balanced at the
source. Reclosers and the substation breaker with ground fault-sensing circuits are
affected by load imbalance. Unequal single-phase load connected line-to-line does not
produce neutral current in the ground relay.
vi

 Fuse preload because of unbalanced loading can cause fuses to become unselective
with other protective devices such as reclosers and lead to misoperation.
Reducing unbalanced loading reduces the losses created by the neutral current in the
neutral conductor.
Unbalanced three-phase voltages have a significant effect on the heating of induction
and synchronous generators. For example, a 5.5% voltage unbalance can cause an
approximate 25% increase in temperature. The phase currents with unbalanced
voltages are greatly unbalanced, on the order of four to five times the voltage
unbalance. If overload relay protection settings are raised because of unbalance, the
generator may not be protected against overload and open phases.
Heating of induction generators because of voltage unbalance is affected by phase
rotation because it affects which phase has the highest line currents. This means that
negative sequence current protection must be used to protect the induction generator
from failure because of voltage unbalance. The negative sequence losses are
proportional to the square of the negative sequence voltage. The generator may have
to reduce output below nameplate rating to avoid overheating with voltage unbalance.
An equation was developed to determine machine rating under unbalanced voltages if
one knows the unbalanced voltage and the ratio of the positive-to-negative sequence
impedances of the induction generator. A 5% voltage unbalance causes a 3.2%10.7%
power output derate, depending on the positive-to-negative sequence impedance ratio.
Models were developed for:
o Line impedance
o Line voltage drop
o Line loss (which was validated using unbalanced and balanced line
configurations and unbalanced and balanced load conditions)
o Transformers for three-phase and single-phase and different loading
combinations
o Secondary and service impedances
o Shunt capacitors and step regulators
o Synchronous, induction, and inverter generation.
The models were validated by measuring power quantities throughout the circuit on the
peak day and comparing these data with simulation data. The percent variance between
field-measured data and simulation data for phase currents at eight nodes throughout
the circuit were within 6%. The highest phase voltage variance was only 1.5%.

vii

 The voltage spread, measured as the difference between the highest three-phase
voltage and the lowest single-phase voltage for the heavy-load condition, was 25.2 V
with no regulation at the substation and on the distribution circuit. When all regulation
was implemented, the voltage spread was reduced to only 10.4 V, and there were no
voltage criteria violations. For the light-load condition, the voltage spread was 16.65 V
for no regulation. With all regulation operating, the spread was only 2.91 V.
The load imbalance at the substation was 4% for heavy load and 5.45% for light load.
Adding step regulators always worsened the voltage unbalance because of the effect of
the voltage-dependent current model.
Three voltage control strategies were tested for the 400-kW induction generator at low
and high substation primary voltage, for a total of six simulations. Three voltage
control strategies were tested for the 400-kW inverter-based generation at low and
high substation primary voltage, for a total of six simulations. Thirteen voltage control
strategies were tested for high voltage, and 13 were tested for low voltage, for the
synchronous generator at the beginning, mid-, and end locations of the circuit, for a
total of 78 simulations. The maximum released capacity of 10.44% was achieved with
the 1,000-kW synchronous generator with P = 100% and Q = 100%. The voltage
improvement was 0.82%, and the loss reduction was 0.56% out of a 5.4% base.
The optimum location for the DG with the highest released capacity of 10.44% is at
the source of the circuit because it directly offsets the load current and load losses of
the circuit. The optimum DG location for loss reduction is at the end of the circuit.
Adding generation here reduces, on a prorata basis, the load and the length of the
circuit. To improve voltage regulation, there is little difference between locating the
DG at the midpoint or end of the circuit. However, there is a slightly better
improvement at the midpoint for circuits on which the conductor size of the entire
three-phase backbone is the same.
The DG penetration study showed synchronous DG had a real power limit of 13,980
kW at the tag end of the circuit. The optimum location was at the midpoint, with the
lowest single-phase voltage improvement of 1.7% and a real power loss savings of
2.04%. The base case real power losses were 5.4%. The DG penetration study found
that the maximum real and reactive power output limit was 14,490 kW and 2,007
kVAr, which allows a larger DG to be installed than when only real power is injected.
Again, the optimum location was at the midpoint of the circuit. However, in this case,
the lowest single-phase voltage was improved 4.55% versus only 1.7% in the real
power limit case. The real power loss savings were marginally better, with a 2.3%
savings versus 2.04%.
Conclusions
The voltage-dependent current model best represents how the real and reactive
components of the load change with changes in voltage. This model, which had an
error of only 2%, should always be used in lieu of the constant power model, which
had an error of 12.5%.

viii

 Heavy-load conditions produce the highest voltage unbalance, and adding a load tap
changer and one step voltage regulator caused the maximum percent voltage
unbalance to be 1.52%. The typical limit for voltage unbalance is 3%. It is
recommended that a three-phase unbalanced power flow study be conducted on a
circuit before a synchronous generator is installed because the unit may be installed at
a location where the voltage unbalance causes the unit to trip. In this case, it will never
operate at that location. Furthermore, the current imbalance cannot exceed 10%20%,
or the synchronous DG will trip. There were many locations on the distribution circuit
at which the current imbalance exceeded 20%. Inverter-based generation was not
sensitive to voltage or current unbalance and operated up to 100% current imbalance.
The models developed for the line elements, distribution equipment, and generation
and the simulations conducted during peak load conditions compared favorably with
the actual phase currents, phase voltages, and power factors measured at eight
locations throughout the circuit. However, it is essential to know the phasing of the
loads on the circuit to obtain this high degree of accuracy. The variance between
simulated and measured data was less than 6% for phase currents and did not exceed
1.5% for phase voltages. These low variances indicate the models are accurate enough
to represent actual circuit operation under unbalanced load conditions. The only
measured circuit data needed to perform accurate simulations are the phase voltages
and currents at the source of the circuit and the regulator, capacitor, and DG locations.
Unbalanced load can cause neutral relaying trip settings to be increased and

preloading on fuses, which results in inselectivity with other protective devices.

Unbalanced voltage can derate the output of synchronous and induction generators up
to 10.7%.
The optimum location of DG on a circuit for the highest released capacity of 10.44% is
at the source of the circuit. The greatest loss reduction of 0.56% occurs when the DG is
located at the tag end of the circuit. There is little difference between locating the DG at
the midpoint or the tag end for the greatest improvement in voltage regulation.
The maximum DG real and reactive output was 14,490 kW and 2,007 kVAr, and
the optimum location was at the midpoint of the circuit. The real power loss savings
were 2.3% versus the base case of 5.4%. The lowest single-phase voltage was
improved 4.55%.
Recommendations
Always model distribution circuit loads with a voltage-dependent current, and use a
validated unbalanced three-phase power flow to determine the percent unbalanced
load and voltage during the peak load and at the locations where DG is planned. Using
a balanced three-phase power flow or simplified single-phase power flow will not
indicate the unbalanced load and voltage at locations where DG is planned. A location
may be selected where a synchronous or induction generator may never operate
because of circuit unbalance conditions.

ix

Successful modeling of a distribution circuit using an unbalanced three-phase power

flow requires knowledge of which phases the loads are connected to. Otherwise,
incorrect unbalanced load and voltage data will result. The use of three-phase metering
is not warranted because the highest load imbalance occurs during light load and the
highest unbalanced voltage occurs during heavy load. It is not practical to install
metering at various locations throughout the circuit to capture light and heavy load
unbalanced power quantities over a long period of time (such as a year) when
simulations can produce similar information with nearly the same accuracy in
considerably less time.
The optimum voltage regulation method for the least voltage spread used the
substation transformer load tap changer, step regulators, capacitors, and DG. The
maximum released capacity is achieved when the DG is located at the beginning of the
circuit, the maximum loss reduction is achieved at the end, and the best voltage
regulation occurs at the middle. It is recommended that the DG be located at the
midpoint of the circuit to produce the best overall improvements in voltage regulation,
loss reduction, and released capacity.
The circuit selected had voltage unbalance conditions that closely agreed with the
average voltage unbalance measurements taken at 13 major utilities. Therefore, the
results should be representative of the average distribution circuit.
It was shown that single-phase DG connected to the appropriate phases can improve
the phase unbalanced conditions. Simulation studies can be used to determine to which
phases to connect single-phase DG.
Voltage regulation and system protection issues are the most difficult for
interconnecting DG with a distribution circuit. It is recommended that inverter-based
generation be considered as the preferred DG type where the level of unbalanced
voltage and current may prevent synchronous and induction generators from operating
on the circuit.
It is recommended that future research develop an optimal control algorithm to control
the substation transformer load tap changer, the bidirectional step regulators, the
switched capacitors, and the DG. This could be accomplished for less than $500,000
because the equipment is already installed on the Milford Circuit 8103.
Benefits to California
Test data indicate the models developed for this project accurately represent the operation of a
distribution circuit. Applying these models results in DG siting that ensures the DG will
perform its intended function and produce the highest released capacity savings, lowest
energy losses, and improved voltage regulation.

Table of Contents
1

I ntroduction........................................................................................................................................... 1

Project Approach ................................................................................................................................. 2

3 Project Results: Traditional Voltage Regulation Methods............................................................... 3

3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9
3.10
3.11
3.12
3.13
3.14
3.15
3.16
3.17
3.18
3.19
3.20
3.21
3.22
3.23
3.24
3.25
3.26
3.27
3.28
3.29
3.30

Introduction ................................................................................................................... 3

Distributed Generation Installed at Substation ............................................................. 3

Substation Voltage-Regulating Equipment................................................................... 4

Balancing Loads............................................................................................................ 4

Increased Primary System Voltage ............................................................................... 4

Increased Conductor Size or Reduced Conductor Spacing........................................... 4

Conversion of Single-Phase Sections to Three-Phase .................................................. 4

Voltage-Regulating Equipment..................................................................................... 9

Shunt Capacitors ......................................................................................................... 11

Load Tap-Changing Transformers.............................................................................. 11

Voltage Regulator Theory of Operation ..................................................................... 12

Bridging Reactor or Preventive Autotransformer ....................................................... 16

Equalizer Windings..................................................................................................... 17

Types of Step Regulators ............................................................................................ 19

Bidirectional Voltage Regulator ................................................................................. 22

Step Voltage Regulator Control System ..................................................................... 25

Voltage and Current Equations ................................................................................... 26

Equivalent Circuits...................................................................................................... 30

Line Drop Compensator.............................................................................................. 30

Regulator Ratings........................................................................................................ 32

Closed Delta Leading Current and Lagging Current Connections .......................... 37

Compensator Settings ................................................................................................. 41

Other Compensator Settings and Corrections ............................................................. 44

Step Regulators in Series ............................................................................................ 44

Fixed Capacitors on Circuits with Regulators ............................................................ 45

Switched Capacitors on Circuits with Regulators....................................................... 46

Switched Capacitors Downstream from Regulators ................................................... 48

Capacitor Application ................................................................................................. 48

Capacitor Controls ...................................................................................................... 50

Capacitor Connections ................................................................................................ 52

4 Project Results Effects of Unbalanced Loading and Voltage on System Protection and

Distributed Generation ...................................................................................................................... 54

4.1
4.2
4.3

Introduction ................................................................................................................. 54

System Protection Design Philosophy for Grounded and Ungrounded Systems ....... 54

4.2.1 Four-Wire Grounded Wye Systems ................................................................ 58

4.2.2 Three-Wire Ungrounded Delta Systems ......................................................... 58

Unbalanced Voltage Effects on Protective Relaying .................................................. 59

xi

4.4

4.5

Project Results Development of Models....................................................................................... 92

5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6

5.7
5.8
5.9
5.10
5.11
5.12
5.13
5.14
5.15
5.16
6

Unbalanced Current Effects on Protective Relaying .................................................. 60

4.4.1 S
ingle-Phase Operation of Protective Devices ............................................... 60

4.4.2 Operation of Circuit Protective Devices for Ground Faults ........................... 61

4.4.3 Single-Phase Operation of Disconnect and Isolation Devices........................ 62

4.4.4 Unbalanced Load Connected Line-to-Line..................................................... 62

4.4.5 Fuse Preload Because of Unbalanced Loading or Unbalanced Voltages ....... 64

Unbalanced Voltage Conditions ................................................................................. 67

4.5.1 Induction Machines Operating on Unbalanced Voltages................................ 68

4.5.2 Synchronous Generators Operating on Unbalanced Voltages ........................ 88

Introduction ................................................................................................................. 92

Three-Phase Substation Transformer Models............................................................. 92

Three-Phase and Single-Phase Distribution Transformer Connections for

Distribution Circuit ..................................................................................................... 94

Distribution Transformer Impedance.......................................................................... 97

Distribution Transformer Voltage Drop...................................................................... 98

Distribution Transformer Losses............................................................................... 100

5.6.1 L
oad Losses................................................................................................... 100

5.6.2 N
o-Load Losses ............................................................................................ 101

5.6.3 Total Losses .................................................................................................. 101

L
ine Impedance Model ............................................................................................. 102

Line Voltage Drop Model ......................................................................................... 105

Line Losses Model and Validation ........................................................................... 106

Secondary and Service Impedances and Voltage Drops........................................... 124

Secondary and Service Real Losses.......................................................................... 125

Shunt Capacitor Models............................................................................................ 127

Step Voltage Regulator Models ................................................................................ 130

S
ynchronous Generator Model ................................................................................. 131

S
elf-Excited Induction Generator Model .................................................................. 132

5.15.1 Resistive Load............................................................................................... 133

5.15.2 RLC Load...................................................................................................... 135

Inverter-Based Generator Model............................................................................... 136

Project Results Circuit Voltage Profiles Under Different Loading Conditions ....................... 139

6.1
6.2

I ntroduction ............................................................................................................... 139

Circuit Simulations and Voltage Profiles.................................................................. 144

6.2.1 Heavy Load Circuit Voltage Profiles (First Set 95% and 105%

Primary Voltage)........................................................................................... 174

6.2.2 Heavy Load Comparison Circuit Voltage Profiles (Second Set 95%

Primary Voltage)........................................................................................... 182

6.2.3 Voltage Profile Data as a Function of Distance from Substation to

Tag End ......................................................................................................... 189

6.2.4 Light Load Circuit Voltage Profiles (Third Set 95% and 105%

Primary Voltage)........................................................................................... 189

6.2.5 Light Load Comparison Circuit Voltage Profiles (Fourth Set 95%

Primary Voltage)........................................................................................... 200

xii

6.3
6.4
7

Distribution Circuit Simulation Summary Data for Tests 1 8................................. 206

6.3.1 Unbalanced Voltage ...................................................................................... 206

6.3.2 Unbalanced Loading ..................................................................................... 208

Significant Results and Conclusions......................................................................... 208

Project Results Design of Field Voltage Regulation and Metering Equipment ...................... 211

7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4

Introduction ............................................................................................................... 211

Voltage Regulation Equipment ................................................................................. 211

Major System Protection Equipment ........................................................................ 213

Metering Equipment and Accuracy of Measurements.............................................. 214

7.4.1 Substation Metering ...................................................................................... 214

7.4.2 Synchronous Generator Metering ................................................................. 214

7.4.3 Capacitor Location Metering ........................................................................ 215

7.4.4 Voltage Regulator Locations......................................................................... 215

7.4.5 Single-Phase Voltage Customer Metering .................................................... 215

8 Project Results Distributed Generation Control Strategies for Field Verification.................. 216

8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
9

Introduction ............................................................................................................... 216

1,000-kW Synchronous Generator............................................................................ 216

400-kW High-Speed Generator and Inverter ............................................................ 216

400-kW Self-Excited Induction Generator ............................................................... 216

Voltage Regulation Simulations and Field Verification Strategy 17........................ 216

Project Results Field Verification of Models .............................................................................. 223

9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
9.5
9.6

Introduction ............................................................................................................... 223

Circuit and Generation Measured Data..................................................................... 223

Bidirectional Voltage Regulator Measured Data ...................................................... 225

Circuit Equipment (Capacitors) and Customer-Measured Data ............................... 225

Percent Variance Between Simulated and Field-Measured Data ............................. 225

Summary of Variance Results................................................................................... 231

10 Project Results Distributed Generation Penetration Limits Using Maximum Real Power

and Maximum Real and Reactive Power Methods of Voltage Control ....................................... 232

10.1
10.2
10.3
10.4

Introduction ............................................................................................................... 232

Real Power Distributed Generation Size Limitation................................................. 232

Real and Reactive Distributed Generation Size Limitation ...................................... 234

Findings..................................................................................................................... 234

11 Project Results Distributed Generation Voltage Regulation and Optimum Generator

Conditions for Maximum Improvement of Voltage Regulation, Loss Reduction, and

Released Capacity............................................................................................................................ 235

11.1
11.2

Introduction ............................................................................................................... 235

Factors to Consider for Test Result Evaluation ........................................................ 235

11.2.1 Regulator Dead Band .................................................................................... 235

11.2.2 Voltage-Dependent Current Source .............................................................. 236

xiii

11.3 Interpreting the Distributed Generation Voltage Regulation Application Results .. 236

11.3.1 Induction Generator Voltage Regulation Application (High Voltage)

Heavy Load, Table 44 ................................................................................... 236

11.3.2 Inverter Generator Voltage Regulation Application (High Voltage)

Heavy Load, Table 45 .................................................................................. 238

11.3.3 Synchronous Generator Voltage Regulation Application (Beginning

Location, High Voltage) Heavy Load, Table 46........................................ 239

11.3.4 Synchronous Generator Voltage Regulation Application (End Location,

High Voltage) Heavy Load, Table 47 ........................................................ 239

11.3.5 Synchronous Generator Voltage Regulation Application (Midlocation,

High Voltage) Heavy Load, Table 48 ........................................................ 240

11.3.6 Synchronous Generator Voltage Regulation Application (Beginning

Location, Low Voltage) Heavy Load, Table 49 ........................................... 240

11.3.7 Synchronous Generator Voltage Regulation Application (End Location,

Low Voltage) Heavy Load, Table 50......................................................... 240

11.3.8 Synchronous Generator Voltage Regulation Application (Midlocation,

Low Voltage) Heavy Load, Table 51......................................................... 240

11.4 Plotted Performance Data ......................................................................................... 249

11.5 Findings and Conclusions ......................................................................................... 266

11.5.1 Synchronous Generator (Low Voltage on Primary of Substation) Heavy

Load Condition ............................................................................................. 266

11.5.2 Synchronous Generator (High Voltage on Primary of Generator

Substation) Heavy Load Condition............................................................ 267

11.5.3 Induction Generator for Heavy Load Condition ........................................... 268

11.5.4 Inverter Generator for Heavy Load Condition.............................................. 269

11.6 Optimum Generator Conditions for Maximum Improvements Heavy

Load Conditions ........................................................................................................ 269

11.7 Optimum Generator Conditions for Maximum Improvements Light

Load Conditions ........................................................................................................ 269

12 Conclusions and Recommendations ............................................................................................. 280

12.1 C
onclusions ............................................................................................................... 280

12.2 Recommendations ..................................................................................................... 283

12.3 Benefits to California ................................................................................................ 284

13 References ........................................................................................................................................ 285

Appendix A .............................................................................................................................................. 287

Appendix B .............................................................................................................................................. 295

xiv

List of Figures

Figure 1.
Figure 2.
Figure 3.
Figure 4.
Figure 5.
Figure 6.
Figure 7.
Figure 8.
Figure 9.
Figure 10.
Figure 11.
Figure 12.
Figure 13.
Figure 14.
Figure 15.
Figure 16.
Figure 17.
Figure 18.
Figure 19.
Figure 20.
Figure 21.
Figure 22.
Figure 23.
Figure 24.
Figure 25.
Figure 26.
Figure 27.
Figure 28.
Figure 29.
Figure 30.
Figure 31.
Figure 32.
Figure 33.
Figure 34.
Figure 35.
Figure 36.
Figure 37.
Figure 38.
Figure 39.
Figure 40.
Figure 41.

Single-phase equivalent circuit .......................................................................... 6

Single-phase phasor diagram ............................................................................. 6

Two-phase lateral voltage drop for load connected from A and B to neutral. 7

Two-phase lateral voltage drop for load connected from A and C to neutral. 8

VRs in series .................................................................................................... 10

Step-up transformer.......................................................................................... 12

Step-down transformer..................................................................................... 12

Step regulator ................................................................................................... 13

Step VR sequence of operation ........................................................................ 15

Step VR with reversing switch......................................................................... 16

Non-bridging no load ....................................................................................... 17

Bridging position no load................................................................................. 17

Non-bridging load ........................................................................................ 17

Bridging position load...................................................................................... 17

Application of equalizer windings ................................................................... 18

Case A without equalizer windings............................................................... 18

Case B without equalizer windings............................................................... 18

Case C with equalizer windings bridging position ....................................... 18

Case D with equalizer windings non-bridging position................................ 19

ANSI Type A series winding located on load side ....................................... 19

ANSI Type B series winding located on source side.................................... 20

DR sources create bidirectional flows through a step VR ............................... 21

Reverse power flow additional VT required VT1 ......................................... 21

Reverse power flow differential transformer ................................................ 21

Examples of unidirectional VRs and DR ......................................................... 23

Examples of bidirectional VRs and DR ........................................................... 24

Control circuit of step VR ................................................................................ 25

Type A step regulator raise position ............................................................. 26

Type A step regulator lower position............................................................ 26

Type B regulator raise position..................................................................... 27

Type B regulator lower position ................................................................... 29

Control system and line drop compensator...................................................... 31

Phasor diagram for line drop compensator ...................................................... 31

Three single-phase VRs connected wye on a four-wire, three-phase circuit ... 33

Voltage phasor diagram of wye-connected, three single-phase VRs............... 34

Two single-phase VRs connected open delta on a three-wire,

three-phase circuit ............................................................................................ 35

Voltage phasor diagram of open delta-connected two single-phase VRs....... 36

Voltage diagram of closed delta-connected three single-phase VRs .............. 38

Closed delta-connected three single-phase VRs leading connection............ 39

Closed delta-connected three single-phase VRs lagging connection............ 40

Current at the regulator is not equal to current in the last section before the

regulation point ................................................................................................ 42

xv

Figure 42.
Figure 43.
Figure 44.
Figure 45.
Figure 46.
Figure 47.
Figure 48.
Figure 49.
Figure 50.
Figure 51.
Figure 52.
Figure 53.
Figure 54.
Figure 55.
Figure 56.
Figure 57.
Figure 58.
Figure 59.
Figure 60.
Figure 61.
Figure 62.
Figure 63.
Figure 64.
Figure 65.
Figure 66.
Figure 67.
Figure 68.
Figure 69.
Figure 70.
Figure 71.
Figure 72.
Figure 73.
Figure 74.
Figure 75.
Figure 76.
Figure 77.

Phasor diagram of the effect of capacitors on the line drop compensator

and regulator output voltages before and after relay settings are revised ........ 46

Control system and line drop compensator with use of a shunt capacitor

at the location of the regulator ......................................................................... 47

Voltage across impedance Z in relay circuit is equal to voltage rise

because of capacitor current Ic ......................................................................... 48

Application of shunt capacitors........................................................................ 49

Phasor diagram of the reduction in the sending-end voltage with a

shunt capacitor ................................................................................................. 51

Voltage and current control of capacitor switching ......................................... 51

Wye-connected capacitor bank ........................................................................ 52

Delta-connected capacitor bank ....................................................................... 52

Series resonance condition with open phases .................................................. 53

Radial distribution circuit with typical system protection devices .................. 54

Radial distribution circuit showing load .......................................................... 55

Radial distribution circuit showing protection zones....................................... 55

Relative tripping times for protective devices ................................................. 56

Relative time-current curves for protective devices......................................... 57

Three-phase diagram of a four-wire grounded system .................................... 58

Three-phase diagram of a three-wire ungrounded system ............................... 59

Single-phase operation of protective devices on a four-wire wye circuit of

resistive loads ................................................................................................... 60

Diagram of substation breaker and relays with ground-sensing circuit........... 61

Current flow in phase-to-phase-connected load............................................... 63

Reduced melt time because of preloading of universal K link fuses ............... 64

Fuse preloading causes inselectivity ................................................................ 65

Coordination of 50K and 80K fuses ................................................................ 66

Inselectivity of 80K and 50K fuses for unbalanced loading of 20% ............... 67

Positive and negative sequence system of voltages ......................................... 71

Positive sequence equivalent circuit for induction motor/generator................ 73

Positive sequence induction motor/generator equivalent circuit for

copper losses and shaft power.......................................................................... 73

Simplified positive sequence induction motor/generator equivalent circuit.... 73

Slip of rotor with respect to negative sequence field and positive

sequence field................................................................................................... 74

Negative sequence equivalent circuit for induction motor/generator .............. 76

Negative sequence induction motor/generator equivalent circuit for copper

losses and shaft power...................................................................................... 76

Simplified negative sequence induction motor/generator equivalent circuit

operating at small values of slip....................................................................... 76

Phasor diagram for minimum heating in Phase A, = 180............................ 87

Phasor diagram for maximum heating in Phase A, = 0 ............................... 87

Round rotor synchronous machine showing negative sequence current paths

in the rotor surface ........................................................................................... 89

Typical time-current curves for the Type SGC relay....................................... 91

Delta-wye-grounded three-phase transformer.................................................. 92

xvi

Figure 78.
Figure 79.
Figure 80.
Figure 81.
Figure 82.
Figure 83.
Figure 84.
Figure 85.
Figure 86.
Figure 87.
Figure 88.
Figure 89.
Figure 90.
Figure 91.
Figure 92.
Figure 93.
Figure 94.
Figure 95.
Figure 96.
Figure 97.
Figure 98.
Figure 99.
Figure 100.
Figure 101.
Figure 102.
Figure 103.
Figure 104.
Figure 105.
Figure 106.
Figure 107.
Figure 108.
Figure 109.
Figure 110.
Figure 111.

Four-wire, wye-grounded, overhead distribution line with multi-grounded

neutral............................................................................................................. 103

Flat line spacing configuration....................................................................... 104

Configuration, Phase, and Neutral Spacings; Phase and Neutral Sizes; and

Conductor Types ............................................................................................ 107

Line transposition and load ............................................................................ 108

Total line losses versus load imbalance for each line configuration.............. 118

Percent losses versus load imbalance for each line configuration ................. 118

Voltage imbalance versus load imbalance for each line configuration.......... 119

Sequence currents versus load imbalance for each line configuration .......... 119

Voltage imbalance versus current imbalance equilateral spacing line........... 120

Voltage imbalance versus current imbalance non-transposed line ................ 120

Voltage imbalance versus current imbalance transposed line........................ 121

Sequence currents versus current imbalance equilateral-spaced line ............ 121

Sequence currents versus current imbalance for non-transposed line ........... 122

Sequence currents versus current substance for transposed line.................... 122

Distribution transformer servicing secondaries and services......................... 124

Distribution service drop................................................................................ 124

Steady-state synchronous machine model ..................................................... 131

Two-phase primitive machine to be interconnected with an RLC load......... 132

Stator direct axis with an R load added.......................................................... 133

RLC load RL, LL, and CL connected to the self-excited capacitor CS ............ 135

One-line diagram of 400-kW inverter-based generator and prime mover..... 136

Voltage pullback curves................................................................................. 137

Inverse time-current characteristic................................................................. 138

Milford Substation one-line diagram ............................................................. 140

Milford Circuit DC 8103................................................................................ 142

HL circuit voltage profiles for all tests

(first set 95% and 105% substation primary voltage) ................................. 174

Test 1 HL circuit voltage profiles for 95% and 105% substation primary

voltage (no LTC)............................................................................................ 175

Test 2 HL circuit voltage profiles for 95% and 105% substation primary

voltage (LTC)................................................................................................. 176

Test 3 HL circuit voltage profiles for 95% and 105% substation primary

voltage (LTC and VR 1) ................................................................................ 177

Test 4 HL circuit voltage profiles for 95% and 105% substation primary

voltage (LTC, VR 1, and VR 2)..................................................................... 178

Test 5 HL circuit voltage profiles for 95% and 105% substation primary

voltage (LTC and CAP 1) .............................................................................. 179

Test 6 HL circuit voltage profiles for 95% and 105% substation primary

voltage (LTC, CAP 1, and CAP 2) ................................................................ 180

Test 7 HL circuit voltage profiles for 95% and 105% substation primary

voltage (LTC, CAP 1, CAP 2, and CAP 3).................................................... 181

Test 8 HL circuit voltage profiles for 95% and 105% substation primary

voltage (LTC, VR 1, VR 2, CAP 1, CAP 2, and CAP 3)............................... 182

xvii

Figure 112.
Figure 113.
Figure 114.
Figure 115.
Figure 116.
Figure 117.
Figure 118.
Figure 119.
Figure 120.
Figure 121.
Figure 122.
Figure 123.
Figure 124.
Figure 125.
Figure 126.
Figure 127.
Figure 128.
Figure 129.
Figure 130.
Figure 131.

Comparison A: Test 2 and Test 3 HL circuit voltage profiles for 95%

substation primary voltage (LTC versus LTC and VR 1).............................. 183

Comparison B: Test 3 and Test 4 HL circuit voltage profiles for 95%

substation primary voltage (LTC and VR 1 versus LTC, VR 1, and VR 2).. 184

Comparison C: Test 2 and Test 5 HL circuit voltage profiles for 95%

substation primary voltage (LTC versus LTC and CAP 1)............................ 185

Comparison D: Test 5 and Test 6 HL circuit voltage profiles for 95%

substation primary voltage (LTC and CAP 1 versus LTC, CAP 1,

and CAP 2)..................................................................................................... 186

Comparison E: Test 6 and Test 7 HL circuit voltage profiles for 95%

substation primary voltage (LTC, CAP 1, and CAP 2 versus LTC, CAP 1,

CAP 2, and CAP 3) ........................................................................................ 187

Comparison F: Test 2 and Test 8 HL circuit voltage profiles for 95%

substation primary voltage (LTC vs. LTC, VR 1, VR 2, CAP 1, CAP 2,

and CAP 3)..................................................................................................... 188

Comparison G: Test 7 and Test 8 HL circuit voltage profiles for 95%

substation primary voltage (LTC, CAP 1, CAP 2, and CAP 3 versus LTC,

VR 1, VR 2, CAP 1, CAP 2, and CAP 3) ...................................................... 189

LL circuit voltage profiles for all tests

(third set 95% and 105% substation primary voltage) ................................ 191

Test 1 LL circuit voltage profiles for 95% and 105% substation primary

voltage (no LTC)............................................................................................ 192

Test 2 LL circuit voltage profiles for 95% and 105% substation primary

voltage (LTC)................................................................................................. 193

Test 3 LL circuit voltage profiles for 95% and 105% substation primary

voltage (LTC and VR 1) ................................................................................ 194

Test 4 LL circuit voltage profiles for 95% and 105% substation primary

voltage (LTC, VR 1, and VR 2)..................................................................... 195

Test 5 LL circuit voltage profiles for 95% and 105% substation primary

voltage (LTC and CAP 1) .............................................................................. 196

Test 6 LL circuit voltage profiles for 95% and 105% substation primary

voltage (LTC, CAP 1, and CAP 2) ................................................................ 197

Test 7 LL circuit voltage profiles for 95% and 105% substation primary

voltage (LTC, CAP 1, CAP 2, and CAP 3).................................................... 198

Test 8 LL circuit voltage profiles for 95% and 105% substation primary

voltage (LTC, VR 1, VR 2, CAP 1, CAP 2, and CAP 3)............................... 199

Comparison A: Test 2 and Test 3 LL circuit voltage profiles for 95%

substation primary voltage (LTC versus LTC and VR 1).............................. 200

Comparison B: Test 3 and Test 4 LL circuit voltage profiles for 95%

substation primary voltage (LTC versus LTC, VR 1, and VR 2) .................. 201

Comparison C: Test 2 and Test 5 LL circuit voltage profiles for 95%

substation primary voltage (LTC versus LTC and CAP 1)............................ 202

Comparison D: Test 5 and Test 6 LL circuit voltage profiles for 95%

substation primary voltage (LTC and CAP 1 versus LTC, CAP 1,

and CAP 2)..................................................................................................... 203

xviii

Figure 132.
Figure 133.
Figure 134.
Figure 135.
Figure 136.
Figure 137.
Figure 138.
Figure 139.
Figure 140.
Figure 141.
Figure 142.
Figure 143.
Figure 144.
Figure 145.
Figure 146.
Figure 147.
Figure 148.
Figure 149.
Figure 150.

Comparison E: Test 6 and Test 7 LL circuit voltage profiles for 95%

substation primary voltage (LTC, CAP 1, and CAP 2 versus LTC, CAP 1,
CAP 2, and CAP 3) ........................................................................................ 204

Comparison F: Test 2 and Test 8 LL circuit voltage profiles for 95%

substation primary voltage (LTC versus LTC, VR 1, VR 2, CAP 1, CAP 2,

and CAP 3)..................................................................................................... 205

Comparison G: Test 7 and Test 8 LL circuit voltage profiles for 95%

substation primary voltage (LTC, CAP 1, CAP 2, and CAP 3 versus LTC,
VR 1, VR 2, CAP 1, CAP 2, and CAP 3) ...................................................... 206

Milford Circuit DC 8103................................................................................ 212

Milford substation one-line diagram.............................................................. 213

DR control strategies for a 1,000-kW synchronous machine ........................ 217

DR control strategies for a 400-kW high-speed generator and inverter

current mode................................................................................................... 218

DR control strategies for a 400-kW self-excited induction generator ........... 219

Daily circuit load profile and time stamps ..................................................... 224

HL condition voltage rise or drop (in volts on a 120-V base) as a function

of induction generator +/- reactive power with a constant real power

output of 400 kW ........................................................................................... 254

HL condition reduction or increase in voltage (in percent on a 120-V

base) as a function of induction generator +/- reactive power with a

constant real power output of 400 kW ........................................................... 254

HL condition reduction or increase of real power (in percent of total

circuit kilowatts) as a function of induction generator +/- reactive power

with a constant real power output of 400 kW ................................................ 255

HL load condition reduction or increase of capacity (in percent of total

circuit kilovolt-amperes) as a function of induction generator +/- reactive

power with a CP output of 400 kW................................................................ 255

HL condition voltage rise or drop (in volts on a 120-V base) as a

function of inverter generator +/- reactive power with a constant real

power output of 400 kW ................................................................................ 256

HL condition reduction or increase in voltage (in percent on a 120-V

base) as a function of inverter generator +/- reactive power with a

constant real power output of 320 kW or 400 kW ......................................... 256

HL condition reduction or increase of real power (in percent of total

circuit kilowatts) as a function of induction generator +/- reactive power

with a constant real power output of 320 kW or 400 kW .............................. 257

HL condition reduction or increase of capacity (in percent of total

circuit kilovolt-amperes) as a function of induction generator +/- reactive

power with a CP output of 320 kW or 400 kW.............................................. 257

High substation primary voltage, HL condition voltage rise or drop

(in volts on a 120-V base) as a function of location and synchronous

generator +/- reactive power with a constant real power output of 984 kW. 258

Low substation primary voltage, HL condition voltage rise or drop

(in volts on a 120-V base) as a function of location and synchronous

generator +/- reactive power with a constant real power output of 984 kW.. 258

xix

Figure 151. High substation primary voltage, HL condition voltage rise or drop
(in volts on a 120-V base) as a function of location and synchronous
generator +/- reactive power with a constant real power output of 246 kW.. 259
Figure 152. Low substation primary voltage, HL condition voltage rise or drop
(in volts on a 120-V base) as a function of location and synchronous
generator +/- reactive power with a constant real power output of 246 kW.. 259
Figure 153. High substation primary voltage, HL condition reduction or increase in
voltage (in volts on a 120-V base) as a function of location and
synchronous generator +/- reactive power with a constant real power
output of 984 kW ........................................................................................... 260
Figure 154. Low substation primary voltage, HL condition voltage rise or drop
(in volts on a 120-V base) as a function of location and synchronous
generator +/- reactive power with a constant real power output of 984 kW.. 260
Figure 155. High substation primary voltage, HL condition reduction or increase in
voltage (in volts on 120-V base) as a function of location and synchronous
generator +/- reactive power with a constant real power output of 246 kW.. 261
Figure 156. Low substation primary voltage, HL condition reduction or increase in
voltage (in volts on a 120-V base) as a function of location and
synchronous generator +/- reactive power with a constant real power
output of 246 kW ........................................................................................... 261
Figure 157. High substation primary voltage, HL condition reduction or increase of
real power loss (in percent total circuit kilowatts) as a function of location
and synchronous generator +/- reactive power with a constant real power
output of 984 kW ........................................................................................... 262
Figure 158. Low substation primary voltage, HL condition reduction or increase of
real power loss (in percent total circuit kilowatts) as a function of location
and synchronous generator +/- reactive power with a constant real power
output of 984 kW ........................................................................................... 262
Figure 159. High substation primary voltage, HL condition reduction or increase of
real power loss (in percent total circuit kilowatts) as a function of location
and synchronous generator +/- reactive power with a constant real power
output of 246 kW ........................................................................................... 263
Figure 160. Low substation primary voltage, HLcondition reduction or increase of
real power loss (in percent total circuit kilowatts) as a function of location
and synchronous generator +/- reactive power with a constant real power
output of 246 kW ........................................................................................... 263
Figure 161. High substation primary voltage, HL condition reduction or increase of
capacity (in percent total circuit kilowatts) as a function of location and
synchronous generator +/- reactive power with a constant real power
output of 984 kW ........................................................................................... 264
Figure 162. Low substation primary voltage, HL condition reduction or increase of
capacity (in percent total circuit kilowatts) as a function of location and
synchronous generator +/- reactive power with a constant real power
output of 984 kW ........................................................................................... 264

xx

Figure 163.

Figure 164.

Figure A-1.
Figure A-2.
Figure A-3.
Figure A-4.
Figure B-1.
Figure B-2.
Figure B-3.
Figure B-4.
Figure B-5.
Figure B-6.

High substation primary voltage, HL condition reduction or increase of

capacity (in percent total circuit kilowatts) as a function of location and
synchronous generator +/- reactive power with a constant real power
output of 246 kW ........................................................................................... 265

Low substation primary voltage, HL condition reduction or increase of

capacity (in percent total circuit kilowatts) as a function of location and

synchronous generator +/- reactive power with a constant real power
output of 246 kW ........................................................................................... 265

Normal leakage currents to ground because of distributed capacitance ........ 287

Normal leakage currents to ground because of distributed capacitance

phasor diagram ............................................................................................... 288

Increased leakage current on the unfaulted phases and resultant ground

current IG and resultant zero sequence voltage 3 VO ..................................... 288

Increased leakage current on the unfaulted phases and resultant ground

current IG and resultant zero sequence voltage 3 VO phasor diagram......... 289

Percent change in kilovolt-amperes or current from percent change

in P and Q....................................................................................................... 296

Percent change in kilovolt-amperes or current............................................... 296

Zero sequence current on load side becomes negative sequence current

to the generator............................................................................................... 299

Determining IAG1 ............................................................................................ 300

Determining IAG2 ............................................................................................ 301

Determining IAG0 ............................................................................................ 301

xxi

List of Tables

Table 1.
Table 2.
Table 3.
Table 4.
Table 5.
Table 6.
Table 7.
Table 8.
Table 9.
Table 10.
Table 11.
Table 12.
Table 13.
Table 14.
Table 15.
Table 16.
Table 17.
Table 18.
Table 19.
Table 20.
Table 21.
Table 22.
Table 23.
Table 24.
Table 25.
Table 26.
Table 27.
Table 28.

Comparison of National Electrical Manufacturers Association Standard

Method with Correct Voltage Unbalance Calculations Using
Symmetrical Components ................................................................................ 70

Per-Unit Line Currents for Percent Negative Sequence Voltage

Single-Cage Induction Motor........................................................................... 79

Per-Unit Line Currents for Percent Negative Sequence Voltage

Double-Cage Induction Motor ......................................................................... 79

Double- and Single-Cage Characteristics for 10-hp, Four-Pole, 220-V,

Three-Phase, Wye-Connected Ungrounded Motors ........................................ 80

Single-Cage Induction Motor 10 hp, 220 V, Four Pole,

Wye-Connected Ungrounded........................................................................... 81

Double-Cage Induction Motor 10 hp, 220 V, Four Pole,

Wye-Connected Ungrounded........................................................................... 81

Maximum Allowable Power Output in Percent of Rated While Operating

at Unbalanced Voltages.................................................................................... 86

Comparison of Gafford, Duesterohoeft, and Mosher (1959) and Tracey

(1954) Motor Derate Data Operating at Unbalance Voltage ........................... 86

Unbalance Voltage Survey Results of Closed and Open Delta

Transformer Connections................................................................................. 88

Distribution Transformer No Load (Core Losses) and Load

(Copper Losses) ............................................................................................... 99

Equilateral Spacing Kilowatt Loss Evaluation .............................................. 112

Non-Transposed Kilowatt Loss Evaluation ................................................... 114

Transposed Kilowatt Loss Evaluation ........................................................... 116

The Effects of Circuit Spacing and Unbalanced Load on Percent

Kilowatt Losses.............................................................................................. 123

Voltage Drop Summary Transformer, Secondary, and Service Drop ........ 125

Peak Day Real Losses Comparison................................................................ 127

Circuit Customer Load Characteristics .......................................................... 140

Measurement Locations and Data Collection ................................................ 144

Matrix of Voltage Regulation Simulations .................................................... 145

Voltage Profile Data for HL Tests 1 Through 8 at 95% and 105%

Substation Primary Voltage ........................................................................... 149

Voltage Profile Data for Light Load Tests 1 Through 8 at 95% and 105%

Substation Primary Voltage ........................................................................... 158

Simulation Summary Data for Tests 1 Through 8 ......................................... 167

Simulation Summary Data for Unbalanced Loading (Tests 1 Through 8) .... 172

HL Circuit Voltage Profiles (First Set) .......................................................... 175

Voltage Profile Comparison for HL and 95% Primary Voltage .................... 183

LL Circuit Voltage Profiles (Third Set) ......................................................... 190

Highest Unbalanced Voltages ........................................................................ 207

Voltage Regulation Equipment ...................................................................... 211

xxii

Table 29.
Table 30.
Table 31.
Table 32.
Table 33.
Table 34.
Table 35.
Table 36.
Table 37.
Table 38.
Table 39.
Table 40.
Table 41.
Table 42.
Table 43.
Table 44.
Table 45.
Table 46.
Table 47.
Table 48.
Table 49.
Table 50.
Table 51.
Table 52.
Table 53.
Table 54.
Table 55.
Table 56.
Table 57.
Table 58.
Table 59.
Table 60.
Table 61.
Table 62.
Table 63.
Table B-1.
Table B-2.
Table B-3.
Table B-4.

Major System Protection Equipment ............................................................. 213

Measurement Locations and Data Collection ................................................ 214

Accuracy of 3720 ACM ................................................................................. 214

Matrix of Voltage Regulation Simulations and Control Strategy 17

for Field Verification...................................................................................... 220

Test Dates and Data Collection Periods......................................................... 223

Circuit and Generation Measured Data.......................................................... 226

Bidirectional VR Measured Data ................................................................... 227

Circuit Equipment and Customer-Measured Data ......................................... 228

Field Verification Data July 17, 2006 DR Generation On....................... 229

Field Verification Data July 29, 2006 DR Generation On....................... 229

Field Verification Data July 31, 2006 DR Generation Off ...................... 230

Percent Variance Between Actual and Simulated Currents, Voltages,

and Power Factors .......................................................................................... 231

Maximum Limit for Real Power Injection..................................................... 233

Maximum Limit for Real and Reactive Power Injection ............................... 233

Explaining the Meaning of Positive and Negative Improvements for

DG Applications ............................................................................................ 238

Induction Generator Voltage Regulation Application (LV, HV) HL ......... 241

Inverter Generator Voltage Regulation Application (LV, HV) HL............ 242

Synchronous Generator Voltage Regulation Application (BL, HV) HL.... 243

Synchronous Generator Voltage Regulation Application (EL, HV) HL .... 244

Synchronous Generator Voltage Regulation Application (ML, HV) HL ... 245

Synchronous Generator Voltage Regulation Application (BL, LV) HL .... 246

Synchronous Generator Voltage Regulation Application (EL, LV) HL..... 247

Synchronous Generator Voltage Regulation Application (ML, LV) HL ... 248

Distributed Generator Voltage Regulation Application Summary HL....... 250

Distributed Generator Voltage Regulation Application Summary LL ....... 252

Optimum Generator Conditions for Maximum Improvements HL ............ 270

Optimum Generator Conditions for Maximum Improvement LL .............. 271

Induction Generator Voltage Regulation Application (LV, HV) LL.......... 272

Inverter Generator Voltage Regulation Application (LV, HV) LL ............ 273

Synchronous Generator Voltage Regulation Application (BL, HV) LL .... 274

Synchronous Generator Voltage Regulation Application (EL, HV) LL..... 275

Synchronous Generator Voltage Regulation Application (ML, HV) LL ... 276

Synchronous Generator Voltage Regulation Application (BL, LV) LL..... 277

Synchronous Generator Voltage Regulation Application (EL, LV) LL ..... 278

Synchronous Generator Voltage Regulation Application (ML, LV) LL.... 279

Simulation Summary Data for Tests 7 and 8 at 95% Voltage and HL

Conditions and a Comparison of Modeling Results for CC, CP, and VDC .. 303

Comparison of Line Currents for Simulated and Actual Measurements

for Each Load Model and Each Test 7 and 8 ................................................. 304

Sequence Currents for Each Test ................................................................... 305

Simulation Data by Node for Test 8 at 95% HL with LTC, VR 1, VR 2,

and Capacitors 1, 2, and 3 Regulation Methods Implemented (CC Model) .. 306

xxiii

xxiv

1 Introduction
An earlier study (Davis 2003) reported that the maximum-sized distributed generation (DG)
that can be installed on a distribution circuit depends on:

Circuit system voltage

The location of DG on the circuit
Circuit configuration and characteristics
System protection issues
Voltage regulation issues
DG characteristics.

The study also found that larger DG units can be installed on higher-system-voltage
circuits and at the substation with fewer effects on system protection and voltage regulation.
If the DG actively regulates voltage, larger units can be interconnected because high-voltage
(HV) conditions during light-load (LL) conditions can be curtailed if the DG absorbs voltamperes reactive.
These findings were the results of tests that used (3) balanced power flows on distribution
circuits with balanced loads. However, most distribution circuits have unbalanced loading
conditions, unbalanced line impedances, and unbalanced voltage conditions. Therefore, there
is no assurance that these results represent what happens on the single-phase (S) laterals of a
three-phase circuit.
The single-phase portion of the circuit may serve more than 90% of the load. Just because the
voltage limits are satisfied on the three-phase portion of the circuit does not mean there are no
voltage limit violations on the single-phase loads. Installing DG on the circuit adds another
level of complexity to the analysis of the distribution system, but it can also contribute added
benefits of released capacity, lower energy losses, and improved voltage regulation.
The objectives of this project are to:
1. Select a distribution circuit and install DG to reduce an overload and improve

voltage regulation

2. Develop models and run simulations to calculate voltage profiles on the distribution
circuit with the load tap changer (LTC), step regulators, capacitors, and DG regulating
the voltage
3. Install metering on the circuit and DG installations and compare actual measured data
with simulations to verify the models
4. Determine the maximum-sized DG and the optimum DG operating conditions that
will provide the greatest released capacity, lowest energy losses, and most improved
voltage regulation.

2 Project Approach
The approach of the project is to:
1. Develop a load model of a distribution circuit to represent how circuit load changes
with changes in voltage
2. Develop circuit line elements and circuit equipment models
3. Develop DG models for synchronous, induction, and inverter generation
4. Model an entire 13.2-kV distribution circuit with all three-phase and single-phase
loads connected to the correct phases of the distribution circuit
5. Install a 1,000-kW synchronous generator on the circuit and install the appropriate
metering equipment to measure the power quantities of the circuit, including
single-phase loads
6. Validate the models by conducting a multitude of power flow simulations and
comparing the simulations with circuit-measured data on the circuit peak day (with
DG on and off)
7. Report the variance between simulated and measured power quantities
8. Determine the largest DG that can be installed on the circuit without violating voltage,
thermal, and reverse power criteria
9. Determine the optimum DG operating conditions to give maximum released capacity,
reduced energy losses, and improved voltage regulation.

3 Project Results: Traditional Voltage Regulation Methods

3.1 Introduction
A number of methods can improve voltage regulation. Some use voltage regulation equipment
to raise or lower voltage at the substation or on the distribution circuit to reduce the voltage
difference between LL and heavy-load conditions. Others reduce the impedance of the circuit
to reduce the voltage difference or spread, and still others reduce the load current (i.e.,
improve the power factor) to reduce the voltage drop and, thus, the voltage spread.
Methods that can be applied at the substation include:
Use DG voltage regulators (VRs).
Apply capacitors at the distribution substation.
Apply voltage-regulating equipment, such as LTC transformers and bus or circuit
voltage-regulating equipment, at the substation.
Balance the loads on the circuits.
Transfer loads to other substations.
Install new substations and circuits.
Install substation transformers with reduced reactance.
Methods that can be used on the distribution circuit include:
Increase the primary system voltage of the circuit.
Increase the conductor size of the circuit or reduce conductor spacing and,

consequently, reduce reactance.

Change circuit sections from single-phase to three-phase.

Transfer loads to other circuits.
Apply voltage-regulating equipment on the circuit.
Install DG on the circuit.
Apply shunt (or series) capacitors on the circuit.
Balance loads.
Increase the distribution transformer size.
Increase the conductor size of secondaries and services.
3.2 Distributed Generation Installed at Substation
The generator bus voltage can be regulated to maintain a fixed voltage for changes in load and
reactive requirements. The generator field current can be varied to match the changes in load
current. The voltage can be increased or decreased as the load increases or decreases.

3.3 Substation Voltage-Regulating Equipment

One of the most common types of substation voltage-regulating equipment is the load tap
changing (LTC) transformer. Step- or induction-type VRs may be installed between the
secondary of the transformer and the secondary bus or on the secondary bus. Also, step- or
induction-type regulators may be installed on individual circuits. Because circuit voltage is a
function of voltage spread at the secondary of the substation bus, voltage-regulating
equipment allows for a greater voltage drop in the circuit.
3.4 Balancing Loads
If a circuit has poor voltage regulation, it could be due to a significant difference in phase
loading. A 20% or more load imbalance on the primary of a circuit, especially during HL
conditions, is not uncommon. In addition, a high load imbalance can cause substation
transformers and VRs to overload, based on the highest phase load. Balanced loading should
be achieved throughout the circuit, not just at the substation.
3.5 Increased Primary System Voltage
Increasing the system voltage reduces the load by the inverse ratio of the voltage change, but
the voltage regulation changes as the square of the voltage change. Changing from a threewire ungrounded delta to a four-wire grounded wye increases the voltage by the 3 but
reduces the voltage drop to 1/3 of the drop in the three-wire delta. However, it is common to
increase the allowable load when this conversion is made to a higher system voltage;
therefore, the voltage drop improvement is less than 2/3. This method is more expensive than
using supplemental voltage regulation because it involves re-insulating the line and changing
out electric transformation (i.e., transformers) and other equipment.
3.6 Increased Conductor Size or Reduced Conductor Spacing
Increasing conductor size is another expensive method to achieve improved voltage
regulation. Increasing the size of the conductor reduces the resistance and, thus, the voltage
drop and real losses. However, it may necessitate a rebuilding of the line because of the larger
and heavier conductor. An alternative is to reduce the spacing between the phase conductors,
which reduces the reactance and lowers the voltage drop.
3.7 Conversion of Single-Phase Sections to Three-Phase
Most general-purpose circuits are single-phase. For single-phase circuits, voltage drop occurs
in both the phase conductor and the neutral for the wye systems and in both the phase
conductors for the delta systems. Adding two conductors to a single-phase wye system, and
assuming the existing load is evenly distributed among the three phases, results in 1/6 of the
voltage drop that occurs on the single-phase wye lateral. This is demonstrated below.
Vs = 2 Is Z and

Equation 3.1

% Vs = 2 Is Z/VLN x 100

Equation 3.2

where
Vs = Voltage drop per unit length
Is = Line current
Z = Impedance per unit length
VLN = Line-to-neutral voltage.
For the three-phase case,
V3 = I3 Z

Equation 3.3

%V3 = (I3 Z)/VLN x 100

Equation 3.4

I3 = IS/3.

Equation 3.5

where

Using equations 3.2, 3.4, and 3.5, the ratio of percent voltage drops is thus:
% VS / % V3 = [(2 IS Z)/VLN]/[(I3 Z)/VLN]
= (2 IS)/I3
= [(2) (3) (I3)]/I3 = 6.

Equation 3.6

Therefore, the voltage drop is six times less for the three-phase circuit than for the singlephase circuit for the same load. Of course, undoubtedly, the load will increase over time after
the single-phase lateral is converted to three-phase. However, this does illustrate the concerns
when single-phase DGs and three-phase DGs are added to the circuit.
If only one phase conductor, rather than two, is added to a single-phase wye system, the
problem becomes more complicated because the voltage drop depends on the two phases
selected, the R/X ratio of the conductor, and the load power factor (PF).
To describe the differences between the single-phase case and the two two-phase cases,
circuit diagrams and phasor diagrams are used. Figure 1 and Figure 2 show the single-phase
case, in which IA is the phase current that is equal to the neutral current IN.

IA
VS

VR

Load
R

IN
Figure 1. Single-phase equivalent circuit

VS
VR

AR

IAX + INX
+I

NR

IA or
IN

Figure 2. Single-phase phasor diagram

The approximate voltage drop consists of four components:

V = |IA|R Cos + |IN|R Cos + |IA|X Sin + |IN|X Sin .

Equation 3.7

In each of the two-phase cases, the single-phase load is divided equally among the two phases;
therefore, IA of the single-phase case is twice the magnitude of IA in the two-phase cases.
In Figure 3 and Figure 4, it should be noted that the sending-end voltage VSA for Phase A with
loads connected to phases A and C to neutral, as in Figure 4, is less than the sending-end
voltage VSA for Phase A with loads connected to phases A and B to neutral, as shown in
Figure 3. The primary reason is because the INX term is in phase with VRA in Figure 3,
whereas it is rotated counterclockwise in Figure 4. Also, the load power factors and the R/X
ratios must be taken into account when calculating the voltage drop.

IA

VRA

VSA
R

Load
2

X
VRB

Lo
ad
2

IN

VSB
R

Rotation ABC
IB

VSA
Phase A
A

(A and B to
to

Neutral Loads)
Loads)

VSA

Phase A
(A and C to
Neutral Loads)
See Figure 3.3

VSA

INR
=30
IB

IA

IAX

VRA
IAR

INX

VSA
Phase A
(A and B to
Neutral Loads)

IN
120
VRB

Figure 3. Two-phase lateral voltage drop for load connected from A and B to neutral

Rotation ABC
X

VSC

ad
Lo
2

VRC

Load
2

VRA

VSA

P
Ph
hase
ase A
(A and C to V
SA
Neutral Loads)

VRC
IC

INX

120

INR
IN

IAX

30

VRA
IAR

IA

Figure 4. Two-phase lateral voltage drop for load connected from A and C to neutral

3.8 Voltage-Regulating Equipment

VRs may be installed at the substation secondary voltage bus, at the circuit position of the
substation, or out on the circuit. Their primary purpose is to reduce voltage spread so voltage
is maintained within American National Standards Institute (ANSI) C84.1 Range A for
normal conditions and Range B for infrequent operating conditions. Regulators may be used
to boost the voltage for heavily loaded circuits or buck the voltage for lightly loaded
circuits or circuits that have fixed shunt capacitors. For this reason, it may be necessary to use
switched shunt capacitors to prevent (LV, switched on) during heavily loaded conditions and
HV (switched off) during lightly loaded conditions.
VRs may be applied in series, as shown in Figure 5. Where two or more are needed, fixed
boost regulators may solve the LV problem if HV is not experienced during LL conditions.
Fixed boost can be achieved by adding taps on the distribution transformers. In the upper
portion of Figure 5, the voltage profile is given with the LTC VR installed at the substation.
The voltage profile drops below the minimum voltage at the second and third loads. When the
first (1) bus VR is added, the voltage at load (2) is within limits, but the voltage at load (3) is
still below the minimum level. Adding the second (2) line regulator puts the voltage spread
within limits for all three loads.

Substation
1

Voltage Regulators
2

Load

Load

Load

V
Substation
Regulator
Voltage
Spread

Variable
Primary
Voltage

Maximum Voltage

V
Variable
Primary
Voltage

Minimum Voltage
Substation
Regulator
Voltage
Spread

Maximum Voltage
2
1
Minimum Voltage

Figure 5. VRs in series

10

3.9 Shunt Capacitors

Installing shunt capacitors causes a voltage rise or a reduced voltage drop. The capacitor
current is leading and, when multiplied by the series circuit (inductive) reactance, causes a
voltage rise. This rise is not dependent on load current and is highest at the capacitor location.
The percentage of voltage rise is calculated as
% V rise = [(3kVAr) (l) (X)] / [kV2 (10)]

Equation 3.8

where
3 kVAr = The three-phase capacitor kVAr or kVA because, for the capacitor, kVAr
= kVA
X = Inductive line reactance in per unit length
kV = Line-to-line voltage
l = Distance in unit length from the substation source to the capacitor.
When the capacitor installed is single-phase, S kVAr is used in Equation 3.8. However, the
X is multiplied by two because there are two conductors, and kV is the line-to-line voltage
between these two conductors. As an example, if a 600-kVAr, three-phase capacitor is
installed on a 13.2-kV wye system at 3 miles and the line reactance of a 636-k cmil, allaluminum conductor is 0.536 /mile/conductor, then
% V rise = [(600) (3) (0.536)]/[(13.2)2 (10)] = 0.554%.

Equation 3.9

For single-phase,
% V rise = [(200) (3) (0.536) (2)]/[(7.62)2 (10)] = 1.108%,

Equation 3.10

or twice the percent voltage rise. As noted earlier, the voltage rise will be the same for LL and
HL conditions. Therefore, it may be necessary to install capacitor switches. The amount of
capacitors needed to correct an LV problem is dependent on the conductor size, load power
factor, and how the load is distributed on the circuit.
3.10 Load Tap-Changing Transformers
LTC transformers are often referred to as tap-changing under load. Load tap changers are
applied to power transformers at the substation. They are used to control the voltage on the
LV or secondary side to a fixed value with a variable primary voltage input, as shown in
Figure 5. Also, LTCs may be used to control reactive power flow by shifting the phase angle
of the transformer secondary voltages. The regulation range is typically 8, 16, and 32 steps
with 10% of rated voltage. The 32-step LTC is the most common for LTC transformers in
substations. The 32 steps are divided into 16 steps raise and 16 steps lower, or a 5/8% change
per step based on 10% voltage range. The change in steps is made without interrupting the
circuit by using a mid-tapped autotransformer, called a preventive autotransformer. The steptype VR theory of operation is similar to the LTC transformer.

11

3.11 Voltage Regulator Theory of Operation

In general, the VR is a transformer. If two windings are wound on a common magnetic core
and the numbers of turns is different, then the voltages across these windings will be different.
The alternating voltage applied to the first coil will induce a voltage in the second coil, and
the magnitude of voltage induced will be dependent on the turn ratio between these two
windings. In the case of a regulator, the first coil is referred to as the primary, or exciting,
winding and the second as the regulating, or series, winding.
The step regulator is an autotransformer, the windings of which are connected in series and
wound on the same magnetic core. There are two types of autotransformers: step-up and stepdown. Figure 6 shows a step-up transformer with a turn ratio of 10. For example, if N1 = 100
and N2 = 10, then a = N1/N2 = 10. If the series winding is connected in series with the exciting
or shunt winding that has the polarity, as shown in Figure 6, then 120 V applied to the
exciting winding will result in 12 V on the series winding, which, when added to the primary
voltage, results in a 132-V output. When the polarity of the series winding is reversed, as
shown in Figure 7, then the 12 V on the series winding is subtracted from the 120 V primary
voltage, and the output is 108 V. This is called a step-down transformer. To obtain a smaller
change in voltage, the series winding is divided into eight equal parts, called taps, as shown in
Figure 8.

V 1 = 120V
primar
primary
y or
exciting
exciting
w
winding
indi
inding
ng

12 + 120 = 132V
V 2 =132V
regulating or
or
series winding
winding

a = 10:1
10:1

Figure 6. Step-up transformer

+
120 - 12 = 108V
V 2 =108V

V 1 = 120

- V = 108
2

Figure 7. Step-down transformer

12

+
+
10
10%
% x 120 = 12V

V1

12V/8 st
steps
eps = 1.5V per st
step
ep
10%/8
10
%/8 steps = 1 % per step

Figure 8. Step regulator

The output voltage can be varied from 120 V if tapped at the neutral position, N, up to 132 V,
with steps of 12 V divided by 8 or 1.5 V per step, or 1 1/4% changes in voltage per tap setting.
The problem with this arrangement is the interruption of the circuit each time the tap changes.
To avoid this, the moving tap can be broken into two fingers such that, as the moving tap
changes from one tap position to the next, one finger is always in contact with a tap. This is
shown in Figure 9. To prevent shorting out the turns of the series winding, as shown in Figure
9b, when one finger is on one tap and the other finger is on the next tap, a preventive
autotransformer is midtapped and connected to each finger. The center tap of this
autotransformer is connected to the load bushing (L). In Figure 9a, when both fingers are on
the neutral tap 0, they are at the same voltage, and the center tap of the preventive auto is at
the same voltage. When 120 V is applied to the primary, the voltage from the preventive auto,
sometimes referred to as a bridging reactor, is at 120 V. When the moving fingers move toward
Tap 1, the top finger is on Tap 1, while the bottom finger is on Tap 0. As shown in Figure 9b,
there is a 1 1/4% voltage difference between Tap 0 and Tap 1 and the two fingers. But when
the bridging reactor is connected between these two fingers and its center tap is connected to
the load, the load will see one half of the 1 1/4%, or 5/8%, as shown in (2) of Figure 9b. This is
called the bridging position 5/8%. When the top finger moves farther up and is resting on Tap
1, and the bottom finger is resting on Tap 1, then the center tap is at the same voltage as the
two fingers and Tap 1. Now the voltage at the load is up 1 1/4% voltage (see Figure 9c). For
higher-voltage outputs, this process repeats where the fingers are in non-bridging and bridging
positions until the top tap is reached and a full 10% voltage increase is attained.

13

a. Non-bridging position 0%

1.25%

2
5/8%

b. Bridging position 5/8%

14

bridging
reactor
1

0%

8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0

1 1/4%

c. Non-bridging position 1 1/4%

Figure 9. Step VR sequence of operation

For decreases in voltage, the process is reversed until both fingers are resting on Tap 0. This
process has addressed only increases in voltage above the primary voltage. To lower the
voltage below the primary voltage, it is necessary to reverse the polarity, which is similar to
the step-down transformer of Figure 7. This is accomplished by adding the reversing switch
of Figure 10, which changes the polarity of the series winding. Now, the regulator can raise
or lower the voltage by 10%.

15

8
7

Reversing
Switch

4
3
2
1

Figure 10. Step VR with reversing switch

3.12 Bridging Reactor or Preventive Autotransformer

Before, the bridging reactor was introduced to achieve one-half of a voltage step between
taps and eliminate shorted turns when the moving fingers were on different taps. The current
in these fingers is not the same when moving from non-bridging and bridging positions.
Four conditions are examined: (1) non-bridging no-load, (2) bridging no-load, (3) non-bridging
load, and (4) bridging load. Figure 11 illustrates the non-bridging no-load condition. When both
fingers are on the same tap (1) and no load, there is no voltage difference across the bridging
reactor and the load current IL = 0. When the top finger moves to Tap 2, and the bottom finger
remains on Tap 1 (bridging position), a voltage appears across the reactor. A circulating current
(IC) flows from the higher voltage of Tap 2 to the lower voltage of Tap 1. See Figure 12. The
current through the top finger is the same as the bottom-finger current because there is no load.
With no load, there is a current in the reactor for every bridging position. This explains why
current is flowing even though there is no load current on the circuit.
When load (IL) is applied and the top and bottom fingers are on the same tap (Figure 13), the
current is equal in the two fingers because since the ampere turns in the reactor are balanced
and Ia = 1/2 IL and Ib = 1/2 IL. When the fingers are on different taps, such as the bridging
position of Figure 14, a circulatory current flows. Now, the top-finger current Ia = 1/2 IL + IC,
and the bottom-finger current Ib = 1/2 IL IC. The circulatory current is approaching 50% of
the value of the load current and flows from the higher voltage on Tap 2 to the lower voltage
on Tap 1.

16

The current in the top finger is higher than the current in the bottom finger because of this
circulating current. This difference can be reduced with equalizer windings.
Series
Ser
Seriies
es Winding
Windin
Winding

I a= 0

IL= 0

No Load
Load

I b= 0

Figure 11. Non-bridging no load

3
F
2
F
1
F

Ia

IL

Ia

I L= 0

IC

No Load
Load

IB
I a= IC
I b = IC

Figure 12. Bridging position no load

3
F
2
F
1

1
F

Load
Loa
Load
d

Ib
I a= I L
I b= I L

Ia
IC

3
F
2
F
1
F

3
F
2
F
1
F

Stationary
S
tationary
tationary Contacts
Contac
Contacts

ts

IL
Loa
Load
d

Ib

Ia = I L + I c
Ib =IL -Ic

Figure 13. Non-bridging load

Figure 14. Bridging position load

3.13 Equalizer Windings

Equalizer windings are wound on the same central core as the primary and series windings
and equal about 1/2 the number of turns between each tap on the series winding. These
windings reduce the voltage during switching and thus prolong the life of the tap changer and
equalize the current on the fingers because the net circulating current reverses for odd- and
even-numbered taps. Figure 15 shows the application of the equalizer windings.
Four cases are studied: one set without equalizer windings and one set with equalizer
windings. Case A, Figure 16, shows what happens when the lower finger moves from Tap 2
to Tap 1. When the lower finger, b, moves off Tap 2, the voltage between b and 2 is V, which
causes an arc on b and contact erosion. But when the lower finger, b, moves from Tap 2 of
Case B to Tap 3 (Figure 17), there is no arc because there is no voltage difference.
When equalizer windings are present in Case C (Figure 18) and finger b moves to Tap 1, the
voltage difference between b and 2 is 1/2 V. Therefore, the contact erosion is reduced. Case
D (Figure 19) shows the non-bridging case, in which finger b moves from 2 to 3. Here,
when b moves off of 2, a voltage difference of 1/2 V appears between 2 and b, so that the
arcing is the same as in Case C. The contact wear is thus equalized between bridging and
non-bridging positions.

17

Equalizer Winding

2
F

Load
Preventive
Auto
Equalizer Winding

3
F

Series Winding

Figure 15. Application of equalizer windings

a
V

Load

Figure 16. Case A without equalizer windings

2 b

Load

3
Figure 17. Case B without equalizer windings

a
V

b
V

Load

Preventive
Auto

Figure 18. Case C with equalizer windings bridging position

18

Load
b

Preventive
Auto

Figure 19. Case D with equalizer windings non-bridging position

3.14 Types of Step Regulators

There are three types of VRs: Type A, Type B, and bi-directional (or cogeneration). For Type
A, the primary is connected to the exciting winding or the shunt winding. See Figure 20. The
series winding is connected to the shunt winding via the reversing switch, as shown in Figure
10. Therefore, the series winding is connected to the load side. Type B, shown in Figure 21,
is more common. Its series winding is connected to the source side.

Series Winding

CT

power flow

VT

Substation
V1
Source

Control
System
N1

Exciting
Winding
(Shunt)
N

N2

V1 V2
=
N1 N 2

Figure 20. ANSI Type A series winding located on load side

19

V 2 Load

Series Winding

CT
V1
Substation
Source

VT
N

Exciting
Winding
(Shunt)

Control
System

V2 Load

Figure 21. ANSI Type B series winding located on source side

When applying Type A and B regulators, there is only one source of power (e.g., the
substation source). However, there are applications in which power may flow from either
direction through the regulator, as shown in Figure 22. In this figure, the regulator is located
between two power sources: the substation and a distributed resource (DR). In Figure 23,
assume the power flows from left to right. The voltage transformer (VT) VT2 is connected
across the load side. When the VT2 senses LV and the regulator voltage is adjusted up, the
voltage at the output is increased. Now, suppose the power flows in the reverse direction
because of the operation of the DR in Figure 22. Because VT2 is now connected across the
source side, it will measure the V2 voltage. When the V2 voltage is low, the control system
will cause the voltage to rise and thus insert more series winding, N2. The voltage turns ratio
equation,

V1 V2
=
,
N1 N 2

Equation 3.11

shows that increasing N2 will cause V1/N1 to change. Because N1 is the turns on the exciting
winding, which is a constant, V1 voltage will drop even further, thus lowering voltage V1
rather than raising the voltage. This will cause the regulator to go to the maximum raised
position. If the voltage V2 changes, then the regulator will chase up and down continuously
between all raise and all lower.
Changes must correct this problem. First, the regulator must recognize the power flow has
reversed. This can be accomplished using the current transformer (CT) input to the control
system. Second, the VT must sense the voltage on the V1 side or the load side for the reversepower use. Third, there must be a change in the line drop compensator settings because the
regulation point has now changed to a different location with different circuit R and X values
and voltage settings. Another solution is shown in Figure 24, in which the change in power
flow is sensed, but a differential transformer reads the difference between V1 and V2. Here,
the control system will compensate for the voltage difference between V1 and V2 and correct
for the LV or HV problem, which is independent of the power flow. This is called a
bidirectional VR.

20

Substation
Sou
Sourrce
ce

DR Source
Load

Load

Load

Regulator

power flow

Load

power flow

Figure 22. DR sources create bidirectional flows through a step VR

Reverse
Power Flow
CT
Forward
Power Flow

VT 2
Control
System

VT1

V2

V1

Notes: (1) Reverse flow - use VT1 voltage

(2) Logic controls motor rotation direction

Figure 23. Reverse power flow additional VT required VT1

Reverse
Power Flow
CT

V 2 - V1 = V

Control
System
V2
V1

Figure 24. Reverse power flow differential transformer

21

3.15 Bidirectional Voltage Regulator

The bidirectional VR may use either of the methods outlined in Figure 23 or Figure 24, but a
VT must be added for the method shown in Figure 23. Therefore, it is common to have the
logic, based on the direction of current flow, calculate the voltage on either the source or load
side based on one VT voltage measurement. Also, the logic in the control system knows the
position of the reversing switch and the tap position number by counting the number of tap
positions from neutral, either raise or lower. This results in a lower-cost regulator for DR
applications. In addition, the RL and XL settings are usually different when the current
reverses direction; therefore, this regulator must have a set of forward settings and a set of
reverse settings.

Figure 25 shows four application casesa, b, c, and dfor the unidirectional step VR. The
first case (a) is a simple application of an LTC transformer (1) at the substation. The voltage
drop in the feeder to the feed point is compensated using the R1 and X1 values of the circuit
to provide a fixed voltage VR1 at the regulation point as the load current and load power
factor change and as the primary voltage on the LTC transformer changes. The second case
(b) shows the LTC transformer regulation device (1) regulating to VR1 and a DR (2)
regulating voltage at VR2. The third case (c) uses an LTC transformer (1) regulating to VR1
and a unidirectional step regulator (2) regulating to voltage VR2. It is not necessary to know
the R2 and X2 values for this case, but they must be known for cases e, f, and g, which follow
in Figure 26. For consistency, these values are shown in all the latter application cases. The
fourth case (d) has three methods of voltage regulation: the LTC (1), the unidirectional
regulator (2), and a capacitor (3). All of these cases are used in the modeling and circuit
simulation studies to determine resultant voltage profiles.
Figure 26 consists of three additional casese, f, and gin which bidirectional VRs and DR
are applied to regulate the voltage on the circuit. The fifth case, e, shows LTC regulation (1),
bidirectional voltage regulation (2), DR regulation (3), and a reactive compensation capacitor
(4). If the DR is an induction generator, a capacitor is often used to provide the voltage if it
becomes isolated from the circuit because an induction generator does not create voltage.
But, the kilowatt injection at 3 will improve the voltage because less load current flows
through the circuit elements. The sixth case, f, adds an additional bidirectional regulator (3).
The final case, g, involves the addition of a second DR, which does not regulate voltage.
However, the DR at 4 does provide Var production and Var absorption to regulate voltage. It
should be remembered the loads in Figure 25 and Figure 26 are shown as lumped loads. In
actual applications, the loads are distributed throughout the circuit. All these cases will be
analyzed in detail to show the effects of DR generation, DR voltage regulation on a normal
voltage- regulated circuit that contains an LTC, step regulators, and capacitors.

22

Power
er Flow
Pow

LTC
R1

X1

Load

VR1
Load

Load

(a)
Forward
Power Flow

LTC
R1

X1

Reverse
Power Flow
Load

VR1

VR2

Load

Load

DR

(b)

Power Flow

LTC
R1

X1

VR1

R2

X2

VR2

X3

Load

R3

R4

X4

Load

V3
Load

(c)

LTC

1< 2

Power Flow
R1

X1

VR1

R2

X2

R3
2

Load

X3

VR2
Load

(d)

Figure 25. Examples of unidirectional VRs and DR

23

R4

X4
3

V3
Load

Reverse
Power Flow

Forward
Power Flow
LTC
R1

VR1

X1

R2

X2

VR2

X3

Load

R3

R4

VR3

X4

(e)

Forward
Power Flow

LTC
R1

X1

VR1

R2

X2

Reverse
Power Flow
VR3

VR2

X3

Load

R3

R4

X4

Load

R5

X5

R1
1

Forward
Power Flow

X1

VR1
Load

R2

X2

R3

X3

VR2

Reverse
Power Flow
VR3
R4

X4

R5
3

No Regulation

Load
(g)

DR

Figure 26. Examples of bidirectional VRs and DR

24

DR
4

Load

(f)

LTC

DR
3

Load

Load

X5
DR
4

Load
5

3.16 Step Voltage Regulator Control System

Four settings are required to control voltage:

Set point voltage The voltage required at the load on a 120-V base
Voltage bandwidth The voltage variation from the set point voltage at the load. If
the set point voltage is 125 V and the bandwidth is 2 V, the regulator will control the
voltage within 126 V and 124 V
1V
Set point = 125V

Bandwidth

1V

Time delay The time between when a change in voltage is sensed and when the
change in voltage occurs. The time delay allows for the short-term surge currents,
such as motor-starting currents, to occur so that tap changing does not occur during
these temporary periods of voltage drop
Line drop compensator The compensator for the voltage drop in the circuit between
the regulator and the load. The R and X values of the line are set to determine the
voltage drop in the line.

VT
VS

Line Drop
Compensator

VL

Voltage
Relay

Time Delay

Reactor
Circuit

Figure 27. Control circuit of step VR

The components of the control circuit are illustrated in Figure 27. The kilovolt-ampere rating
of the regulator is determined using the same approach as that used for the autotransformer
because since the shunt and series windings form an autotransformer. The kilovolt-ampere
rating is usually 10% of the rated current flowing through the series winding.

25

3.17 Voltage and Current Equations

As previously noted, there are three types of VRs: Type A, Type B, and bidirectional. The
most common is Type B. Figure 28 shows Type A. Here, the preventive autotransformer
winding is connected to the load terminal (L). The regulator is in the raise, r, position; the I2
current is up; and the excitation current of the shunt winding, I1, is down. The exciting
current varies because it is connected to the source, S. When the reversing switch is
connected to the lower terminal (l), the I2 current is reversed (down), as in Figure 29, and
the I1 current is up. This is because the polarity of the series winding has changed because
of the reversing switch changing its polarity.
Series Winding

CT

IL

N2
S

I2

Is

VT

N1
Substation
VS
Source

E2

Control
System

V LLoad

E1

I1
N2

N
SL

Figure 28. Type A step regulator raise position

Series Winding

CT

IL

N2
S

N1
Substation
VS
Source

I2

Is

VT
E2

Control
System

E1

I1
N

N2

SL
Figure 29. Type A step regulator lower position

For the Type B regulator, the preventive auto is connected to the source terminal (S). Figure
30 shows the Type B regulator in the raise position (r).

26

Series Winding
Is
N2
E2
VS

I2

Substation
Source

IL
I1

N1

CT

VT

E1

Control
System

Exciting
Winding
(Shunt)

VLLoad

SL

Figure 30. Type B regulator raise position

Here, the excitation current is constant because the shunt winding is connected to the load
side (L) or the regulated circuit side.
For the Type B regulator in the raise position of Figure 30, the voltage and current equations
may be written as:
Raise Position Equations

N1I1 = N2I2

Equation 3.12

E1 E 2
=
N1 N 2

Equation 3.13

IL = IS I1

Equation 3.14

VS = E1 E2

Equation 3.15

IL = IS I1

Equation 3.16

E1 = VL

Equation 3.17

IS = I2

Equation 3.18

From equations 3.13 and 3.17,

E2 = (N2/N1) E1 = (N2/N1) VL.

Equation 3.19

27

From Equations 3.12 and 3.18,

I1 = (N2/N1) I2 = (N2/N1) IS.

Equation 3.20

From Equations 3.15, 3.17, and 3.19,

VS = E1 E2 = E1 (N2/N1) VL = VL (N2/N1) VL
VS = (1 (N2/N1) VL.

Equation 3.21

From Equations 3.16 and 3.20,

IL = IS I1 = IS (N2/N1) IS
IL = (1 N2/N1) IS.

Equation 3.22

Defining the raise turns ratio term as

ar = (1- N2/N1)

Equation 3.23

and substituting into equations 3.21 and 3.22,

VS = ar V
IL = ar IS.

Equation 3.24
Equation 3.25

Using Figure 31, the voltage and current equations for the lower regulator position may be
defined as:
Lower Position Equations

N1 I1 = N2 I2

Equation 3.26

E
E1
= 2
N1 N 2

Equation 3.27

IL = IS + I1

Equation 3.28

VS = E1 + E2

Equation 3.29

E1 = VL

Equation 3.30

IS = I2.

Equation 3.31

28

Series Winding

S
Is

N2
E2
VS
Substation
Source

I2
N

CT

IL
N1
l

E1

VT
Control
System

Exciting
Winding
(Shunt)

V LLoad

I1
SL

Figure 31. Type B regulator lower position

From equations 3.27 and 3.30,

E2 = (N2/N1) E1 = (N2/N1) VL.

Equation 3.32

From equations 3.26 and 3.31,

I1 = (N2/N1) I2 = (N2/N1) IS.

Equation 3.33

From equations 3.29, 3.30, and 3.32,

VS = E1 + (N2/N1) E1 = VL + (N2/N1) VL
VS = (1 + N2/N1) VL.

Equation 3.34

From equations 3.28 and 3.33,

IL = IS + I1 = IS + (N2/N1) I2
IL = IS (1 + N2/N1).

Equation 3.35

Defining the lower position turns ratio term as

al = (l + N2/N1), then

Equation 3.36

VS = al VL

Equation 3.37

IL = al IS.

Equation 3.38

29

Notice that the only difference between voltage and current raise equations 3.21 and 3.22 and
voltage and current lower equations 3.34 and 3.35 is the sign of the turns ratio N2/N1. The
sign of the raise position is negative, and the sign of lower position is positive. It is not
necessary to know the turns ratio of equations 3.21, 3.22, 3.34, and 3.35 because each tap
represents a voltage change of 5/8% or 0.00625 p.u. Therefore, ar and al can be described as
ar, al = 1 -, + (0.00625) tap position for a Type B regulator.

Equation 3.39

For the Type A regulator, the ar and al are

ar, al = 1 +, - (0.00625) tap position.

Equation 3.40

3.18 Equivalent Circuits

Because the series impedance and shunt admittance of a step VR are negligible, their effects
can be ignored. But if desired, this effect can be included in the same manner as the
equivalent circuit for an autotransformer.
3.19 Line Drop Compensator
For VRs to operate properly, when applied at a substation or on a circuit, and maintain voltage
at the regulation point, line drop compensators are required. The voltage at the regulation point
is to be constant even through the load power factor and the load change. This is achieved by
setting the resistance and reactance controls on the control panel of the regulator.

The voltage-regulating relay of Figure 32 causes the regulator to return to the preset voltage,
VR, when a change in voltage occurs. For the VR to compensate for the voltage drop in the
circuit to the regulation point, an additional voltage must be added between the VT output
and the voltage-regulating relay (VRR) so that the VRR sees a reduced voltage proportional
to the load current and load power factor. The current from the VT is almost in phase with
the voltage because the resistance of its secondary circuit is high compared with the
reactance of this circuit. The current from the CT adds current through the RL and XL that has
the same phase angle as the load current and is proportional to the load current. The VRR is
adjusted so that, with no load current, the regulator output is equal to the set point voltage at
the regulation point. The compensator RL and XL elements are adjusted so they are
proportional to the RL and XL of the circuit between the regulator and regulation point. The
phasor diagram of Figure 33 shows how the regulation point voltage, VR, or the voltage
across the VRR is determined from the output voltage of the regulator, VO (from the VT),
and the RL and XL values of the circuit. IL is the load current, and is the power factor angle
of the load current from the CT. The ILRL voltage drop is the voltage drop across the RL of
the compensator, and ILXL is the voltage drop across the XL of the compensator.

30

Voltage
Regulator

CT

IL
RL

to
load

XL
Regulation
Regulation
Point

Line Drop
Compensator shown dotted

Source
VO

RLset

XLset

VRR

VR

RL = Line resistance
XL = Line reactance
= Load Power Factor
RLset = Compensator resistance
XLset = Compensator reactance

VO = Regulator output voltage

voltage
Voltage
VR = Relay Voltage
IL = Load Current
Current

Figure 32. Control system and line drop compensator

VO
I L XL

VR

IL RL

IL
Figure 33. Phasor diagram for line drop compensator

The values RL and XL are calibrated in volts on the dials of the compensator panel. When the
dial is set at a voltage value, this is the voltage compensation at rated current in the secondary
of the CT. The regulator rating must be determined before the RL and XL settings can be
defined.

31

3.20 Regulator Ratings

If VO is the output voltage and Vi is the input voltage for a single-phase regulator, then the
percent regulation range is

% R = [(|Vo| |Vi|)/|Vi|] x 100

Equation 3.41

in either the buck or boost direction. The regulation kilovolt-amperes is defined as

kVARegulation = [(|Vo| |Vi|)/|Vo|] kVA S circuit,

Equation 3.42

and the regulator kilovolt-amperes rating is

{[(|Vo| |Vi|)/| Vi|][100 x kVA S circuit]}/100

Equation 3.43

kVA S Rating = [% R (kVA S circuit)]/100 = (% R |kVLL| |IL|)/100,

Equation 3.44
where kVLL is line-to-line voltage, and IL is the load current. For the three-phase, four-wire
wye system of Figure 34, Equation 3.44 is used, but the kilovolt-amperes of the circuit are
now three-phase.
kVA 3 Rating = [% R (kVA 3 circuit)]/100 or
kVA 3 Rating = [% R 3|kVLL| |IL|]/100.

Equation 3.45

Figure 35 shows the phasor diagram for the wye connection. Notice that the regulated
voltages are in phase with the input voltages. For a 13.2-kV three-phase, four-wire wye
system and an 8,000-kVA circuit load, IL = 350 A. With 10% regulation, the rating is
kVA 3 Rating = [(10) ( 3) (13.2 kV) (350 amps)]/100 = 800 kVA.

32

Equation 3.46

A'
A'

Regulator 1
A

IA
Regulator 2

IB
B'

Regulator 3
IC
C

C'

N
Figure 34. Three single-phase VRs connected wye
on a four-wire, three-phase circuit

33

Load

VNA'

A'

VNA

B
VNB

V NC

VNC'

B'
VNB'

C
C'

Figure 35. Voltage phasor diagram of wye-connected, three single-phase VRs

Notice, from Equation 3.46, that the kilovolt-ampere three-phase rating of the 10%

regulator is just 10% times the three-phase circuit load. For a three-phase, three-wire circuit,

Equation 3.46 applies because the regulator is connected in wye, but there is no connection to

the neutral of the regulator.

Sometimes, two single-phase regulators are connected open delta or vee to obtain voltage

regulation on a delta three-wire system. This connection is shown in Figure 36. For its phasor

diagram, see Figure 37. The same percentage increase in voltage on VCB to VCB and VBA to

VBA causes the same percentage increase on VAC to VAC. The input to the regulator is the

line voltage, not the line-to-neutral voltage, as in Figure 34. From Equation 3.44, the single-

phase rating can be used because the voltage is line-to-line. The-three phase circuit kVA =

3 kVLL IL, and each single-phase regulator kilovolt-ampere rating is

kVA S Rating = [(%R 3 | kVLL | | IL | )]/[(100) ( 3 )].

34

Equation 3.47

IA

Regulator 1

A
B

IB

IC

Regulator 2
Figure 36. Two single-phase VRs connected open delta
on a three-wire, three-phase circuit

35

A
A

VBA

VAC

VAC

VCB

C
C
Regulator Input Voltages VBA VCB VAC
Regulator Output Voltages VBA VCB VAC
Figure 37. Voltage phasor diagram of open delta-connected
two single-phase VRs

The 3 is needed in the denominator to obtain the phase current. When a 10% regulation is
substituted for %R in Equation 3.47., the kilovolt-ampere rating is
kVA S Rating = [(10) (kVA 3 circuit)]/[(1003)]
= (kVA 3 circuit)/(17.32).

Equation 3.48

For a 4.8-kV, three-phase, three-wire delta system and a 2,000-kVA, three-phase circuit load,
the load current is 241 A. Applying Equation 3.48 and using 10% regulation, each singlephase unit connected in open delta is
kVA S Rating = [(10) (2,000)]/[(100) (17.32)] = 115 kVA.

Equation 3.49

In this case, the rating is 6% of the three-phase circuit load, not the 10% calculated for the
four-wire wye system above.

36

Three-phase regulation can be achieved for a closed delta. Closing the delta with the third
regulator does not allow more circuit load, but it does increase the percentage regulation
from 10% to 15%. This is shown in the phasor diagram of Figure 38. Each regulator of the
closed delta carries the phase load current, as was the case for the open delta, and the
regulator rating is determined from equations 3.47 and 3.48, which is identical to the
regulator rating obtained in the open delta configuration. There are two possible connections
for the closed delta: the load current leading the line-to-line voltage across the shunt winding
by 30 and current lagging the line-to-line voltage by 30. Each of these will be explained.
3.21 Closed Delta Leading Current and Lagging Current Connections
The leading current connection and its phasor diagram are shown in Figure 39, and the
lagging current connection and its phasor diagram are shown in Figure 40. A phase shift
results between the input and output voltages, as shown in Figure 38, and different phase
shifts occur depending on the tap and boost or buck positions. The smaller phase shifts occur
for the lower tap positions. Although there are no advantages to either 30 leading or lagging
connections, it may be necessary to go beyond the range of the compensator settings for one
versus the other connection. Therefore, one of these connections may be chosen to solve this
problem. It is generally not recommended to use wye-connected, single-phase regulators for
the delta system because the neutral will shift for unbalanced loads. Because there are
separate controls for each regulator, this may cause a different response and result in a
neutral shift.

37

C'
C'

A
10%
115%

100%
A

10%

11
115
5%
%

A'

100%
100%

115%

B'

10%
Figure 38. Voltage diagram of closed delta-connected
three single-phase VRs

38

C'
C'

IC

C'

A
A'

Regulator 3

Re
gu
lat
or

VC'
VA'

g
Re
B

B'

C'

B'

IB
B'

2
or
t
a
ul

VB' A'

A'
IA

Regulator 3
VC
CB
B

IC

Current leads
the voltage

30

30

IA

30
VBA

IB

VAC

Regulator 2

Regulator 1
1

Figure 39. Closed delta-connected three single-phase VRs leading connection

39

C'
Re
g

IC

C'

VB'C'
B'C'

A'

Re
Regul
Regulator
gulator
ator 3

u la
tor

VC'A'

gu
Re

la

IB
B'

2
to r

VA ''B'
B'

B'

A'
IA

Regulator 1
VCA

Regulator 2
IC

VAB

30
30

IB

IA

Current lags
the voltage

30

VB
BC
C
Regulator 3
Figure 40. Closed delta-connected three single-phase VRs lagging connection

40

3.22 Compensator Settings

If no load is connected between the regulator and the regulation point, it is easy to determine
the settings of RL and XL. This is the case for a typical substation step regulator, as in Figure
32 and Figure 33. The RL setting and XL settings are determined from equations 3.50 and
3.51 as

RLset = [(CTP/NVT)] (RL) (l)

Equation 3.50

XLset = [(CTP/NVT)] (XL) (l)

Equation 3.51

where
RLset = Dial setting for the resistance in the feeder portion of the circuit given in volts
XLset = Dial setting for the reactance in the feeder portion of the circuit given in volts
NVT = VT ratio of primary voltage/secondary voltage
CTP = Primary rating of the CT given in amperes
RL = Resistance per conductor in unit length from the LTC to regulation point,
normally given in ohms per mile
XL = Reactance per conductor in unit length from the LTC to regulation point,
normally given in ohms per mile
l = Unit length in miles to the regulation point.
The settings for RLset and XLset can now be determined. But first, the regulator rating must
be calculated.
From Equation 3.46, the rated amperes for three single-phase regulators connected wye and
rated 13.8 kV, 1,000 kVA, and 10 regulation is 418 A. The CT ratio is 500:5, and the VT
ratio is 13.8 kV/3 = 7,960:120. The regulator is located 3 miles from the regulation point, and
the conductor size is 636 kcmil all aluminum. From the resistance and reactance values of
X = 0.536 /mile/conductor (see Equation 3.9)
R = 0.164 /mile/conductor,
and using equations 3.50 and 3.51,
XLset = [(500)/(7960/120)] [(0.536) (3)] = 12.12 V

Equation 3.50

RLset = [(500)/(66.3)] [(0.164) (3)] = 3.71 V.

Equation 3.51

41

The control panel dial settings are based on the rated current of 500 A for the CT primary,
not the load current or the rated current for the regulator. For step regulators installed on the
circuit, the primary rating of the CT is the same as the regulator current rating. Hence, the
regulator current rating can be substituted for the CT primary current rating in equations 3.50
and 3.51. Load may be connected between the regulator and the voltage regulation point;
therefore, the magnitude of the current flowing through the CT of the regulator does not
equal the magnitude of the current flowing through the balance of the RL and XL of the
circuit to the regulation point. This is especially true for regulators installed beyond the feed
point voltage VR. Equations 3.50 and 3.51 can be corrected with the aid of Figure 41.

IL = 400 A
Regulator

1 mile
Section (1)
I1 = 400A

1 mile
Section (2)
I2 = 350A

V1

V2

50A

1 mile
Section (3)
I3 = 300A VR
V3
Feed Point or
Regulation
Poin
Pointt

50A

Load2

Load1

Other
Loads

Figure 41. Current at the regulator is not equal to current

in the last section before the regulation point

The RL set and XL set can be changed to consider the effect of load being served before the
regulation point.
RLset = (CTP/NVT) / (RLE),

Equation 3.52

where the effective resistance RLE when multiplied by IL gives the same voltage drop as the
sum of the drops through the various sections of line (e.g., Section 1, Section 2, and Section 3
in Figure 41). Thus, RLE can be written as
n
RLE = ( | ViR | )/IL
i=1
n
|ViR| = | I1 | RL1 l1 + | I2 | RL2 l2 + | I3 | RL3 l3 | In | RLn ln.
i=1

Equation 3.53

Equation 3.54

n
| ViR| = The total voltage drop from regulator to the regulation point.
i=1

42

RLE = Effective resistance

| IL | = Load current flowing through the regulator
| I1 |, | I2 |, | I3 |, | In | = The load current in each line section to the regulation point
RL1, RL2, RL3 RLn = The resistance in ohms per mile of each section from regulator
to the regulation point
l1, l2, l3, ln = The length of conductor in miles for each section from regulator to
the regulation point
n = number of line sections.
The
XLset = CTp/NVT (XLE),

Equation 3.55

where XLE takes on the same form as equations 3.53 and 3.54 for RLE. Based on Figure 41,
and Equation 3.54, the RLE is found as follows:
3

|ViR | = (400) (0.164) (1) + (350) (0.164) (1) + (300) (0.164) (1)

i=1

= 65.6 + 57.4 + 49.2 = 172.2 V.

Equation 3.56
From Equation 3.53,
RLE = 172.2/400 = 0.4305

Equation 3.57

RLset = (500/66.3) 0.4305 = 3.25 V.

Equation 3.58

In reference to the RLset values of equations 3.53 and 3.58, the value of Equation 3.58 is
lower because the load current has stepped down after having served loads 1 and 2. Thus, the
total voltage drop is less and the compensation is less.
Equation 3.54 has considered the power factor angle to be the same for each section.
However, in fact, this angle may not be the same for each section. A more practical approach
is to measure the load current at the regulator, the load power factor, and the voltages at the
regulation point and the regulator output at the same time. From these data and the X/R ratio
out to the regulation point, and by applying the voltage drop equation, the effective values of
RLE and XLE can now be calculated.
V = IL RLE Cos + IL XLE Sin

Equation 3.59

43

3.23 Other Compensator Settings and Corrections

Settings for three-phase regulators connected wye and three single-phase regulators
connected wye are determined using the same approach as that outlined above. However,
when single-phase regulators are connected in open delta, the control voltage and current in
the compensator do have the same phase relationship as the wye-connected regulators. For
example, the open delta connection described in Figure 36 and Figure 37 show the control
voltage and current as VBA and IA for Regulator 1 and as VCB and IC for Regulator 2, which
are 30 out of phase with the wye connection shown dashed in Figure 37. The current of one
regulator lags the voltage by 30 plus the power factor angle, and the current of the other
regulator leads the voltage by 30 minus the power factor angle. Therefore, phase-shifting
networks are used, or corrections are made to the settings. On the control panel of substation
regulators, a 30 shift forward or 30 shift back is selected to correct this problem.
For single-phase connected open delta regulators applied to the circuit, corrections are made
to the settings by using a 30 phase shift in the voltage on the compensator circuit. For the
lead unit regulator in an open delta connection, the corrected settings are determined by
multiplying the original settings obtained earlier by the quantity cos 30 j sin 30, or

RLC + jXLC = (0.866 j0.5) (RL + jXL),

Equation 3.60

where RLC + jXLC are the corrected values.

For the lag unit regulator in an open delta connection, the corrected settings are found by
multiplying the original settings by the quantity cos 30 + j sin 30, or
RLC + jXLC = (0.866 j0.5) (RL + jXL).

Equation 3.61

Because these new, corrected settings require the phase angle to be moved back 30 or
forward 30, negative RL values result when increasing the phase angle, and negative XL
values result when decreasing the phase angle.
3.24 Step Regulators in Series
Often, to obtain the needed voltage profile on a circuit and not subject customers to LV or
HV, two or more regulators are installed. This was illustrated in Figure 5. The solutions to
the problems associated with these installations are dependent on the time delay settings, the
bandwidth settings, and the voltage magnitude of the tap position steps. Other factors include
changes in voltage at the primary side of the substation transformer, size of loads, location of
loads, and the rate of change of load current and the resultant voltage.

Generally, the best solution is a short first regulator time delay, so the voltage is changed
before the second regulator begins to make a change. The second regulator then completes its
change before the third regulator begins to make a change, and so on. However, the time
delay on the last regulator should not be long enough to subject customers to a long period of
LV or HV.

44

However, there are exceptions to this rule if large loads are installed on the tag end of a
circuit. In this case, the preferred solution is to have the last regulator respond first to the
voltage correction and then readjust after the regulators upstream have operated. The
optimum solution is the least number of regulator voltage adjustments for all the regulators
on the circuit. The application of capacitors complicates the problem because, when
capacitors are switched on, the input voltage to the nearby regulators goes up, and the
regulators may operate to control the voltage within limits.
3.25 Fixed Capacitors on Circuits with Regulators
When a fixed capacitor is installed at the regulation point or downstream on the circuit, no
changes to the compensator settings of equations 3.50 and 3.51 are needed. This is because
the capacitor current IC is included with the IL current, and the current in the CT of the
compensator includes both IL and IC. This assumes no load is connected between the
regulator at the substation and the regulation point or between the regulator on the circuit and
the regulation point. When load is connected between the regulator and the regulation point,
then equations 3.52 and 3.55 for the RLset and XLset are not correct. This is because the ICRE
and ICXE are not equal to the ICRa and ICXa, where the actual line resistance is Ra and the
actual line reactance is Xa. This is shown in Figure 42. This phasor diagram shows the
received voltage difference before and after the fixed capacitor is installed is

| VRC | - | VRC | = | IC | (Xa XE).

Equation 3.62

This equation applies when the capacitor is located at the regulation point or downstream.
This effect can be taken into account by changing the compensator settings or the VRR
setting. The easiest and most common solution is to change the VRR setting. However, if the
compensator settings are to be revised, then equations 3.53, 3.54, and 3.55 must be modified
to include IC, or
n
RLE = [ | Vir |]/( | IL+ IC | )
i=1
n

Equation 3.63

XLE =[ | Vix |]/( | IL+ IC | ).

i=1

Equation 3.64

45

IC (Xa - XE)

ICXa
V'RC

IC

ICXE

VRC

I C Ra
I C RE

VR

IL R E

IL XE

IL
Figure 42. Phasor diagram of the effect of capacitors on the line drop compensator
and regulator output voltages before and after relay settings are revised

VR = Relay setting and regulation point voltage without capacitors

Ra = Actual resistance from regulator to regulation point
RE = Effective line resistance from the regulator to regulation point or the resistive
voltage drop to regulation point.
IL = Load current at regulator
Xa = Actual reactance from regulator to regulation point
XE = Effective line reactance from the regulator to the regulation point
VRC = Regulator output voltage (relay R and X settings) after capacitors are on
VRC = Regulator output voltage to have VR at regulation point after capacitors are
on or VR IC (XL XE)
V = Voltage at regulation point with adjusted relay settings because of capacitors
If a fixed capacitor is installed between the regulator and the regulation point, the IC current
flows only to the capacitor and is not in the IL current at the regulation point. Again, the best
method to correct this problem is to change the VRR setting.
3.26 Switched Capacitors on Circuits with Regulators
When a switched capacitor is switched on, the effect on the regulator settings is the same
as that of a fixed capacitor. If a switched capacitor is installed at the same location as the
regulator, then the regulator can be operated properly when the capacitor is turned on or
off. If the switched capacitor is installed on the source side of the regulator, regulator
operation is not affected by the capacitor because the IC current does not flow through the
regulator. However, it is common practice to locate the capacitor on the load side because the
capacitive current will lower the IL current through the regulator. In this case, regulator
operation is affected by the capacitor current, and the compensating circuit must be modified.
This is explained in Figure 43. If the switched capacitor is voltage-controlled and the

46

capacitor is located on the load side of the regulator, the VT of the capacitor control should
be located on the source side because the regulator operation will not affect the capacitor
operation. Notice in Figure 43, with a CT in the capacitor circuit connected to the CT of the
regulator control, that there is no IC current in the compensator RL and XL.
Another method of control is shown in Figure 44, in which an impedance has been added in
series with the RL and XL of the compensator circuit that has a voltage drop equal to the
voltage rise because of the capacitor. When the capacitor is switched on, the auxiliary
contact is open, which adds a voltage drop in the compensator circuit. When the capacitor is
switched off, the contact shorts out the impedance Z, and the regulator operation reverts
back to normal, as though the capacitor were not there.
A third method of control is to change the VRR setting or the compensator settings as
described earlier. The VRR setting is determined with the capacitor on, but a full setting
increase should not be used because too low of a voltage will now occur at LL when the
capacitor is off.
IL
Voltage
Regulator

(IL + IC)

CT

RL

IC

IL

to
load
XL

SW

IC

IC
IL
Source
VO

VO = Regulator output voltage

VR = Relay Voltage
IL = Load Current

RLset

XLset

IC
VRR

VR

RL = Line resistance
XL = Line reactance
= Load Power Factor

Figure 43. Control system and line drop compensator with use
of a shunt capacitor at the location of regulator

47

Capacitor
Bank

Voltage Regulator
(IL + IC)

IL

IL
SW

IC
Source

VT

RL

XL
Aux. contact

IC

VRR

Figure 44. Voltage across impedance Z in relay circuit

is equal to voltage rise because of capacitor current Ic

3.27 Switched Capacitors Downstream from Regulators

When switched capacitors are installed downstream from the regulators, the compensator
settings or the voltage setting on the VRR can be changed. The easiest approach is to change
the VRR setting. Coordination of regulators and switched capacitors on the same circuit is
generally not a problem because the bandwidth on the capacitor voltage control relay is
greater than the regulator bandwidth and the time delay for the capacitor control is more than
the regulator time delay (which is similar to regulators installed in series, in which the
downstream regulators have a greater time delay than the upstream regulators). Also, the
voltage change at the capacitor when it switches on is high compared with what the upstream
regulators see.
3.28 Capacitor Application
As noted earlier, capacitors can be added to distribution circuits to improve voltage
regulation. Equation 3.8 showed that voltage rise (a reduction in load current IL) can be
calculated if one knows the single-phase kilovolt-amperes reactive or three-phase kilovoltamperes reactive, the distance from the source to the capacitor, the inductive line reactance,
and the line-to-line voltage. The voltage rise is independent of the load magnitude. Therefore,
it is common to install switches to turn them on and off to not subject customers to HV
during LL conditions, when the voltage drop in the circuit is low.

Capacitors are rated in kilovars, the value of which is derived from the capacitance C in
microfarads, the rms voltage V, and the frequency, or
kVAr = (V2 2 C x 10 6)/1,000.

Equation 3.65

Notice the kilovar value is proportional to the square of the voltage. As voltage drops on a
circuit, the kilovar value decreases, and the voltage rise decreases.

48

There are two types of capacitors: series and shunt. Series capacitors are not discussed here
because their application can cause a sub-synchronous resonance condition. Often, additional
resistance must be added to correct this problem. Shunt capacitors supply a source of kilovars
similar to an overexcited synchronous generator. They are often applied to induction
generators to supply a source of voltage. Shunt capacitors lower or counteract the lagging
component of circuit current and, thus, increase the voltage at their location. This improves
the voltage regulation. Because the lagging component of current is reduced, capacitors
reduce the I2RL real losses and the I2XL reactive losses. They are a low-cost solution to
improving the power factor of load because synchronous generator volt-amperes reactive are
about four times the cost of static capacitors. This reduces the kilovolt-ampere loading on
synchronous generators, which in turn, allows more kilowatt generation (if this is not limited
by the prime mover kilowatt output). When capacitors are added to a circuit, they reduce the
load current, release capacity to serve future load, and reduce the cost to serve kilowatts.
Correction to unity power factor where no reactive current exists in the load current is
generally not economical. Power factors ranging from about 0.975 up to 0.980 are normally
the most economic, as seen by the generation source. The diminishing return effect is
illustrated in Figure 45.

Shunt Capacitors
kV

Tota
Totall
Load
kVAr

low P.F.
high P.F.
0
Load kW

Change in kVA
Figure 45. Application of shunt capacitors

Applying enough kilovar shunt capacitance to offset just half the load kilovars results in a
large kilovolt-ampere reduction of A. If an additional equal amount of kilovars is added, it
results in only a small kilovolt-ampere reduction of B. Thus, the lower the power factor,
the more benefit that is derived from installing shunt capacitors.

49

The voltage drop V in a circuit can be approximated by

V = IrR + IxX, or

Equation 3.66

V = I (R Cos + X Sin ),

Equation 3.67

where:
I = Load current

Ir = Real component of current

Ix = Reactive component of current

= Load power factor angle.

When a capacitor is added, Equation 3.66 becomes

V = IrR + IxX IcX,

Equation 3.68

where:
Ic = Capacitive reactive components of current.
If too many volt-amperes reactive are added to the circuit during LL conditions, the circuit
can become overcompensated because IC is proportional to V, not the load.
Figure 46 shows the phasor diagram when a shunt capacitor is added at the load. The
sending-end voltage with the capacitor applied (VSC) is less than the sending-end voltage
without the capacitor (VS).
3.29 Capacitor Controls
Capacitor control can be accomplished through the:

Time clock
Voltage
Current
Temperature
Time clock with voltage override
Time clock with different VRR settings
Current with voltage override
Radio or other communication medium
Power factor.

The most common and simplest control is time clock control because the load profile on
most circuits is predictable. As such, the time clock turns the capacitor on at a set time in the
morning and off at a set time at night.
Figure 47 shows a voltage-current control in which the voltage can be measured at the
capacitor or another location on the circuit and the VRR signals the capacitor switch to close.

50

VS

VR

Source

Load

Shunt
Capacitor

VSC
ICR

ICX

VS
Ir

IX

IXR

IrX
VR

IrR

IXX

I
The
The IxX Component is parallel to and opposite to the IcX component.
VR = voltage at the load or receiving end voltage.

voltage.
voltage

VS = sending end voltage

capacitor
VSC = sending end voltage with capacitor

Figure 46. Phasor diagram of the reduction in the sending-end voltage with a shunt capacitor

The resistor R is chosen so that its voltage drop represents the drop in voltage to the
regulation point. If the power factor varies, it may be necessary to add a reactance with the
resistance.
CT

To Load

VT
Source

Capacitor
Bank

VRR

Figure 47. Voltage and current control of capacitor switching

51

3.30 Capacitor Connections

Three-phase capacitor banks are normally connected delta or wye with the neutral grounded
as in Figure 48 or wye with the neutral ungrounded as in Figure 49. Delta-connected
capacitors or ungrounded wye-connected capacitors may result in a resonant condition when
one or more of the phase conductors on the source is open, as shown in Figure 50. The
capacitor bank can provide voltage to the loads when an open phase (or phases) occurs.
IC

VAN

BA
N

neutral

VBN
BC

IC

VCN

BB

IC

Figure 48. Wye-connected capacitor bank

ICA

IC

IC

CA

VCA

AB

ICC

VAB

C
VBC

IC

BC

Figure 49. Delta-connected capacitor bank

52

Source

Load

C
B

Figure 50. Series resonance condition with open phases

Putting capacitors in series with transformers feeding load may create a series resonant
circuit. For this reason, it is not recommended that capacitor banks be put on the load side of
single-phase fuses, sectionalizers, or reclosers. Grounded wye capacitors are used on fourwire wye systems. Grounded wye capacitors applied to ungrounded wye or ungrounded delta
systems cause ground currents and overvoltages during ground faults. Therefore, grounded
wye banks are not used on delta systems or ungrounded wye systems. Delta-connected banks
are used on delta systems and ungrounded wye systems.

53

4 Project Results Effects of Unbalanced Loading and

Voltage on System Protection and Distributed Generation
4.1 Introduction
This section describes the effects of unbalanced voltage and load on system protection. The
effects of unbalanced voltage and load on sensitive ground relaying were studied for a
selected circuit, and adequate protective relaying limits were determined for different levels
of unbalance and different energy conversion devices.

This section includes an overview of system protection philosophy, focused on the issues
associated with unbalanced loading. Descriptions of the operation of protective devices under
unbalanced conditions are also provided. For a detailed discussion of protective relay theory
and operation, consult Elmore (1994), Electrical Distribution (2005), and Mason.
4.2 System Protection Design Philosophy for Grounded and
Ungrounded Systems
Substation Substation
Transformer Breaker

3 Phase
Recloser

3-Single Phase

Reclosers

3-Single Phase
Reclosers

3 Single Phase
Lateral Fuses

Figure 51. Radial distribution circuit with typical system protection devices

Figure 51 shows overcurrent relaying application for the entire circuit. The protective
devices must be capable of carrying the intended load (loadability), sensing and clearing
faults (sensitivity), and selectively de-energizing the minimum amount of load to isolate
faults (selectivity).
Typical loads, as seen by major protective devices, are shown in Figure 52. Devices at the
substation must carry the load of the entire circuit; devices downstream carry less load. The
amount of unbalance in the phase currents may or may not be greatest at the substation breaker.

54

Substation Substation
Transformer Breaker

3 Phase
Recloser

3-Single Phase
Reclosers

LOAD

LOAD

3-Single Phase
Reclosers

LOAD

LOAD

3 Single Phase
Lateral Fuses

LOAD

Figure 52. Radial distribution circuit showing load

Figure 53 shows the portions of the circuit where the protective device must sense faults.
Note that, for full circuit protection, the zone of protection for the upstream device must
extend beyond (overlap) the beginning of the next downstream device.
Substation
Breaker

3 Phase
Recloser

3-Single Phase
Reclosers

3-Single Phase
Reclosers

3 Single Phase
Lateral Fuses

Figure 53. Radial distribution circuit showing protection zones

Figure 54 shows the relative tripping times for the substation breaker, the three-phase
recloser, and the single-phase recloser. As the distance between a protective device and a
fault increases, tripping time increases. For a fault downstream at point A, the single-phase
recloser will trip in about 0.5 seconds. The three-phase recloser will trip in about 0.8 seconds.
If the single-phase recloser operates correctly, the three-phase recloser should not operate,
and only load beyond B will be interrupted.

55

0.7
0.6
0.5

Substation

Breaker

3 Phase
Recloser

(B) 3-Single Phase

Reclosers

Fault "A"

3-Single Phase
Reclosers

3 Single Phase
Lateral Fuses

Figure 54. Relative tripping times for protective devices

Figure 55 shows the time-current characteristics for a typical breaker and reclosers. For any
specific value of current, the device closest to the substation operates last, and the device
furthest from the substation operates first.

56

Figure 55. Relative time-current curves for protective devices

57

4.2.1 Four-Wire Grounded Wye Systems

Four-wire grounded wye systems have a substation transformer with a grounded wye
winding sourcing the circuit bus. The primary of the transformer is typically connected in a
delta. The neutral point of the transformer secondary is grounded and taken out on the circuit
as the neutral with the three-phase conductors. The three-phase diagram in Figure 56 shows
details of the connections at the substation and load on the circuit. A single-phase load
connected line-to-ground will cause current to flow in the neutral of the system unless it is
balanced by equal amounts of other single-phase loads connected to the alternate phases.
SUBSTATION

TRANSFORMER

CURRENT
TRANSFORMERS
SUBSTATION
AND RELAYS
BREAKER

LINE TO GROUND LOAD

A
B
C

NEUTRAL

Figure 56. Three-phase diagram of a four-wire grounded system

4.2.2 Three-Wire Ungrounded Delta Systems

Three-wire ungrounded delta systems have a substation transformer with an ungrounded
delta winding sourcing the circuit bus. The primary of the transformer may be configured in
an ungrounded wye, grounded wye, or delta. Figure 57 shows details of the connections at
the substation and load connected on the circuit. The ungrounded delta system differs from
the grounded wye system because the load is always connected phase-to-phase. Typically,
there is no neutral or ground relay connected to detect ground faults, as is the case for the
four-wire grounded wye system. A small amount of current will flow if a phase conductor
makes solid contact with ground. Some systems may use a ground current relay to detect this.
A ground detector system is typically installed to alarm for unintentional grounds caused by
downed conductors or foreign objects making contact with a phase conductor. Ground
detector systems and why ground currents will flow on ungrounded systems are explained in
Appendix A.

58

Ungrounded
Wye-Delta
Substation
Transformer

Ground
Detector
VTs

A
L
B
L

Figure 57. Three-phase diagram of a three-wire ungrounded system

4.3 Unbalanced Voltage Effects on Protective Relaying

Unbalanced voltages can cause an addition to current already in the neutral conductor and
relay because of unbalanced load. For the case in which balanced loads are served from a
distribution circuit with balanced voltages, no current is in the neutrals of a four-wire system.
For the case in which the voltage is unbalanced and the load is primarily resistive and
connected line-to-ground, the load will decrease on the lowest voltage phase and increase on
the highest voltage phase. The current imbalance will result in a current flow in the neutral
conductor and ground (earth). For the case in which the motor load consists primarily of
single-phase loads connected line-to-ground, lowering the voltage on one phase will cause
the current to increase on that phase. This is due to the essentially constant power (CP)
characteristic of the motor. This current imbalance will cause additional neutral current.

Additional unbalance can result from failed capacitor cans (units) within a capacitor bank.
The volt-amperes reactive from the capacitor bank are directly proportional to the voltage
squared. (See Equation 3.65 in Section 3.) Unbalancing the voltage causes an unequal supply
of volt-amperes reactive and an unbalanced loading effect with increased neutral current.
The ultimate effect of unbalanced voltage on the neutral current of the distribution circuit can
depend on a number of factors, including:

The mix of single-phase resistances and single-phase motor load

Capacitor size, location, and unbalance because of unit failures
Current unbalance and significant increased losses from unbalanced voltages applied
to three-phase induction and synchronous machines
Unsymmetrical transformer connections (e.g., open-delta, open-wye, and

unequal impedances)

Untransposed lines
Open phases because of single-phase fuse blowing and single-phase

protective devices

Malfunctioning single-phase VR within a three-phase or open-delta or

open-wye configuration

59

 Single-phase VRs connected in a bank and operating to correct a voltage

unbalance condition

Single-phase VRs operating on a long single-phase portion of a three-phase circuit.

Additional neutral current caused by unbalanced voltage on the circuit will flow in the
neutral relay (51N) at the substation if neutral current flows through any three-phase
protective device downstream from the substation. However, circuit unbalance can occur on
a portion of the circuit but be balanced with other connected load such that no neutral current
reaches the neutral relay element of that protective device. This relay must be set to trip for
ground faults. The setting may have to be increased to take into account the increased neutral
current because of the unbalanced condition.
4.4 Unbalanced Current Effects on Protective Relaying
Unbalanced loading can occur even though voltages are balanced at the source. The factors
that affect unbalanced loading are similar to those factors that affect unbalanced voltage.
4.4.1 Single-Phase Operation of Protective Devices
Fault "D"

Substation
Transformer

Substation
Breaker

IA=600 A
IB=600 A
IC=600 A

(1) 3 Phase
Recloser
IA=400 A
IB=400 A
IC=400 A

(4) 3-Fuses
IA=100 A
IB=100 A
IC=100 A

(3) 3-Single
Phase
Reclosers

(2) 3 Phase
Recloser
IA=200 A
IB=200 A
IC=200 A

IB=150 A
Single
Phase

IA=150 A
IB=150 A
IC=150 A

IC=150 A
Single
Phase

IA=150 A
Single
Phase

Fault "C"

3 Single Phase
Lateral Fuses

Figure 58. Single-phase operation of protective devices

on a four-wire wye circuit of resistive loads

Figure 58 shows that protective devices may be three-phase devices, a set of three singlephase devices, or single-phase devices that protect single-phase laterals. Operation of one of
these single-phase devices on a previously balanced loaded circuit will cause unbalanced
loading and neutral current. When the circuit is in a normal state with the loads given in
Figure 58, the three-phase recloser (1) has no current in the neutral relay element. When the
single-phase recloser (3) on Phase C opens because of the fault at C, load of 150 A is lost on
Phase C downstream of the recloser. The phase currents on the substation breaker change to:

60

I A = 600 A 0, I B = 600 A -120, I C = 600 A -150 A 120 = 450 A 120.

Current in the neutral element is determined by vectorally adding the three-phase currents.
I N = I A 0 + I B -120 + I C 120

Equation 4.1

I N = 600 A 0 + 600 A -120 + 450 A 120

= 150 A - 60

4.4.2 Operation of Circuit Protective Devices for Ground Faults

600 A

600:5
A

600 A
B

450 A
C

5A

5A

3.75 A

N 1.25 A

150 A

Figure 59. Diagram of substation breaker and relays with ground-sensing circuit

The equipment arrangement shown in Figure 59 is typical for a four-wire grounded system.
The substation transformer, CTs, protective relay current coils, and circuit breaker are
represented. For simplicity, it is assumed that all load is resistive and connected line-to
ground and that the phase currents are in phase with their respective voltages. Unbalanced
currents resulting from phase-to-phase-connected load may not show up in the ground or
neutral relay sensing circuits.
Unbalanced current flowing to the load on the circuit will result in current in the neutral relay
coil (N). The example shows loads of 600 A, 600 A, and 450 A, respectively, on A, B, and C
phases. Taking into account the CT ratio of 120, the neutral current in the relay element is
150/120 = 1.25 A. The setting is based on two times the minimum load, which is 1.8 MVA
or 157 A.
2 I min = 2

1,800 kVA
3 x 13.2 kV

= 2 x 78.73 = 157 amperes

Equation 4.2

Because the setting is 157/120 = 1.31 A and neutral current is 1.25 A, the breaker will not
open for the unbalance caused by clearing Fault C, but the single-phase recloser (3) will open
and lock out for the permanent fault. (See Figure 58.)

61

Reclosers with ground fault-sensing circuits will be affected similarly by load unbalance. The
same equations can be used for the recloser and the circuit breaker.
Another case to consider is the opening of a fuse (4) in Figure 58 for a fault at D. The
unbalance current is 100 A, which results in IN = 100 A 60 and a relay element current
of 0.833 A. Because this is below the setting of 1.31 A, the breaker will not trip, and the fuse
(4) will isolate the fault.
The fault current that occurred at D and caused the 150-A fuse (4) to blow was significantly
higher than the resultant unbalanced current (neutral current) after the fault cleared. For
example, the fault current magnitude could range from 1,500 to 7,000 A. In this case, the
neutral relay would see from 12.5 A to 58.3 A for approximately 0.10.06 seconds (fuse
clearing time). See Figure 63.
4.4.3 Single-Phase Operation of Disconnect and Isolation Devices
Opening the fused disconnect (5) of Figure 58 has the same effect as the cleared fault D on
the neutral current. Disconnects are often opened to allow maintenance and repair of
downstream equipment.
4.4.4 Unbalanced Load Connected Line-to-Line
Load that is connected line-to-line will not produce current in the neutral relay element. Even
unequal single-phase load connected line-to-line will not produce neutral current in the
ground relay. For example, unequal load connected line-to-line will result in negative
sequence current but no zero-sequence neutral current because

IA + IB + IC = 0.

Equation 4.3

The equations for the substation breaker also apply in this case. However, caution must be
exercised to use the correct phase angle of the current in each phase. Figure 60 shows
resistive load connected between B and C phases. Current flowing in the load equals the
voltage across the load divided by the resistance.

62

IA

IB

IC

IR
Resistive LOAD

Vc

VB - VC
VA
VB

Figure 60. Current flow in phase-to-phase-connected load

For this circuit, assume:

0
VA = 7,620

Equation 4.4

VB = 7,620
- 120
VC = 7,620

120

VBC = VB - VC = 13,200
- 90

PL = 100kW IL = 100,000 Watts 13,200volts = 7.56 amperes

For this circuit, current in Phase B returns on Phase C. Or IB = -IC.

Voltage across the load equals the difference between the voltages VB and VC or VB VC.

Current in the load equals the voltage across the load divided by the resistance or (VB-

VC)/RL. If no other load is on the circuit, then IB = IR = -IC and IA= 0.

Using the equations for the substation breaker:

IN = I A + IB + IC

0
I A = 0

I B = 7.56
- 90

I C = 7.56
- 90

Equation 4.5

(Current in amperes)

I N = 0
0 + 7.56
- 90

7.56
- 90 = 0

63

Equation 4.6

Even though the load is unbalanced, it is important to consider how the load is connected,
which has an effect on the phase angle of the currents flowing, as seen at the substation
breaker and the respective relays.
4.4.5 Fuse Preload Because of Unbalanced Loading or Unbalanced Voltages
Load unbalance can cause fuses to become unselective with other protective devices (such as
reclosers). This inselectivity is due to load-unbalanced currents heating the fuse element and
causing a shift in the time-current characteristic. In Figure 61, the melting time as a
percentage of the published time-current characteristic for a fuse is shown as a function of
the load current in percentage of the fuse ampere rating. Notice that the melt time is reduced
to 52% when the load current on one of the phases of the three-phase circuit is 150% of the
fuse ampere rating.

Figure 61. Reduced melt time because of preloading of universal K link fuses
(S&C Electric Co. 2000)

To illustrate this coordination issue, Figure 62 shows a distribution circuit with an

unbalanced three-phase lateral that serves a number of single-phase loads. For simplicity,
each single-phase load is fused with a 50K fuse. The three-phase load, as seen by the 80K
fuses, is unbalanced by 20%.

64

Substation Substation
Transformer Breaker

3 Phase
Recloser

3-Single Phase
Reclosers

IL = 2 MVA

3 Phase

LOAD

80K Fuses

LOAD

20% Unbalanced
Load

Fault "B"
(Temporary)

50K
LOAD
#2

50K
LOAD
#3

50K
Fault "A"

LOAD
#1

Notes:

Loading of 13.2-kV three-phase lateral:

ILavg = 87.50 A

ILhigh phase = 105 A

Figure 62. Fuse preloading causes inselectivity

The average current is 87.5 A, and the high-load phase current is 120% of average, or 105 A.
Figure 63 shows the fuse time-current for the 80K fuse (Curve 1) and the 50K fuses (Curve 2)
with no preloading on any phase. Notice that these curves do not intersect until a fault greater
than 2,000 A occurs on this lateral. If a fault, A, of 600 A or greater occurs on this lateral with
a 150% preload, then the 80K fuse and the 50K fuses would blow near simultaneously, thus
causing the unnecessary loss of loads 1, 2, and 3, rather than only Load 1.

65

Figure 63. Coordination of 50K and 80K fuses (S&C Electric Co.)

66

Figure 64. Inselectivity of 80K and 50K fuses for unbalanced loading of 20% (S&C Electric Co.)

Another example of this inselectivity may occur when the 80K fuse is preloaded because of
unbalance and a temporary fault is placed at B of Figure 62. The fault would cause the
recloser to open on the fast curve, the 80k fuse would blow because of preload, and all of the
load on the lateral would be lost before the recloser restores power to the then-unfaulted
lateral. Without the preloading because of the unbalance, the 80K fuse would not have
blown, and the recloser would have restored power after the temporary fault cleared.
Because unbalanced voltages create unbalanced currents, similar effects of inselectivity can
occur between protective devices.
4.5 Unbalanced Voltage Conditions
Unbalanced voltages may exist on distribution primaries and secondaries because:

67

 The loads on a distribution circuit are not all three-phase but predominately

single-phase

The distribution phases are not fully transposed to balance the line impedances
The phase conductors are different and thus have different impedances
The transformer banks serving the three-phase loads are not identical single-phase
units of the same size and impedance
The transformer connections are either open delta or open wye
One of the phase conductors is open upstream from the load because of a blown
single-phase fuse or other open single-phase protective device
The phase conductor is broken
Individual units of capacitors within a capacitor bank fail and cause

unbalanced conditions.

It is important to keep the three-phase circuits as closely balanced as possible to prevent

overloading the equipment on the highest loaded phase. Also, it is recommended that the
unbalanced loading be kept to no more than 10%20% because it permits more sensitivity in
setting the ground fault relay.
Reducing the unbalanced loading reduces the losses created by the neutral current in the
neutral conductor. Unbalance tends to be greater during off-peak conditions and at points at
which the single-phase laterals are tapped to the three-phase primary. Unbalanced threephase voltages have a significant effect on the design and operation of transformers and
induction and synchronous machines. Unbalance causes a voltage with a rotation that is
opposite to the voltage of a balanced supply. These opposite rotating voltages, called
negative sequence voltages, produce a flux in the air gap of these machines that counters
the rotor rotation and causes high line currents in the phases that feed the machines. These
higher line currents cause additional losses in the motors, generators, and distribution system.
4.5.1 Induction Machines Operating on Unbalanced Voltages
The National Electrical Manufacturers Association Standard MG1-14.34 (National Electrical
Manufacturers Association 1978) specifies the voltage unbalance at the terminals of the
polyphase induction motor is not to exceed 1%. The voltage unbalance, in percentage, is
defined as

Percent voltage unbalance = 100 x

maximum voltage deviation from avg. voltage

average voltage
Equation 4.7

The standard goes on to say that:

68

A relatively small unbalance in voltage will cause a considerable increase in

temperature rise. In the phase with the highest current, the percentage increase
in temperature rise will be approximately two times the square of the percent
voltage unbalance. The increase in losses and consequently the increase in
average heating of the whole winding will be slightly lower than the winding
with the highest current.
To illustrate the severity of this condition, an approximate 3.5 percent
voltage unbalance will cause an approximate 25 percent increase in
temperature rise.
The breakdown torque and locked rotor torque are decreased for unbalanced voltages. The
phase currents with unbalanced voltages are greatly unbalanced, on the order of four to five
times the voltage unbalance. This creates a problem of choosing the correct overload
protection because the proper setting for one unbalanced condition may not be adequate for
another unbalanced condition. If the setting is raised, the motor may not be protected against
overload and open phases.
The load or generation may have to be reduced below the nameplate output rating to avoid
overheating. For example a 5% voltage unbalance might result in a 25% reduction in the
nameplate rating. If lowering the load is not possible, the size of the motor would have to be
increased if the unbalanced abnormal condition prevails and cannot be corrected.
Equation 4.7 is usually accurate enough to predict the percent voltage unbalance for
unbalanced conditions less than 3%, but at 5% or greater, the method of symmetrical
components should be used. The example below (Table 1) compares the percent voltage
imbalance determined from Equation 4.7 with the correct percent voltage unbalance
calculated using symmetrical components. The correct voltage unbalance is calculated by
first determining the positive sequence voltage V1 from the measured line-to-line voltages,
VA, VB, and VC. The Law of Cosines is used to calculate the angles once the magnitudes are
measured. The positive sequence voltage V1 is
V1 = 1/3 (VA + a VB + a2 VC).

Equation 4.8

The negative sequence voltage, V2,

V2 = 1/3 (VA + a2 VB + a VC),

Equation 4.9

is then determined. Next the negative sequence voltage is divided by the positive sequence
voltage. The percent voltage unbalance %Vu is found from
%Vu =

V2
x 100 .
V1

Equation 4.10

The zero sequence voltage is

V0 = 1/3 (VA + VB + VC),

Equation 4.11

69

which is zero for VA + VB + VC = 0. All bolded symbols are vector quantities.

Table 1. Comparison of National Electrical Manufacturers Association Standard Method
with Correct Voltage Unbalance Calculations Using Symmetrical Components
Case I

Case II
Rev. Rotation

Case III

Case IV
Rev. Rotation

VA

232

225

233

226

VB

230

230

228

228

VC

225

232

226

233

Vavg

229

229

229

229

VA1
VA2

229.0

59.7

228.9

60.7

228.9

59.3

229.0

3.56

105.2

4.13

-103.0

4.30

76.5

4.00

Equation 4.7

1.75%

1.75%

1.75%

1.75%

Equation 4.10

1.55%

1.80%

1.88%

1.75%

60.3
-76.5

In the above comparison, little difference exists between the percent unbalance using
Equation 4.7 and Equation 4.10. Equation 4.10 will be used for all calculations of percent
unbalanced voltage beginning at 3%.
The effects of unbalanced voltages are greater unbalanced line currents, significantly
increased losses, decreased torques, and increased slip.
4.5.1.1 Positive and Negative Sequence Equivalent Circuits
The positive and negative sequence voltages (Wagner and Evans 1933) are defined in equations
4.8 and 4.9. They each form symmetrical three-phase systems, as shown in Figure 65.

The positive sequence system consists of three equal voltages with an angle of 120 between
them. When applied to the stator winding, the rotating field revolves in the positive direction.
When the negative sequence system is applied to the stator winding, the field rotates in the
opposite direction of the field produced by the positive sequence voltages. The results can be
superimposed because they act independently.

70

rot.

VA1

120o

VA2

120o

120o

120o

VC1

rot.

VB2

VB1

Positive Sequence

12
120
0o

120
120o

VC2

Negative Sequence

Note: Notice the negative sequence system of vectors rotates in the opposite direction to positive
sequence. But when vectorally adding positive and negative sequence vectors, both
systems must rotate in the counterclockwise direction withA1V, VB1, and VC1 for positive and
VA2, VC2, and VB2 for negative.

Figure 65. Positive and negative sequence system of voltages

4.5.1.1.1 Positive Sequence Equivalent Circuit

The equivalent circuit is shown in Figure 66 for the positive sequence system. The symbols
are:

Rs = Resistance per phase for the stator

Rr1 = Resistance per phase for the rotor referred to the stator

Xs = Leakage reactance per phase for the stator

Xr1 = Leakage reactance per phase for the rotor referred to the stator

Xm = magnetizing reactance

s = Slip

Is1 = Stator current per phase for the positive sequence

Ir1 = Rotor current per phase referred to the stator for the positive sequence.

R r1
s

= R r1 + R r1

(1- s)
s

Equation 4.12

Multiplying by Ir12 results in

I r1 2

R r1
s

= I r1 2 R r1 + I r1 2 R r1

(1- s)
.
s

Equation 4.13

71

Now,
I r1 2

R r1
s

= Power input to the rotor per phase,

I r1 2 R r1 = Copper losses in the rotor per phase,

Equation 4.14
Equation 4.15

(1- s)
= Loss in a fictitious resistance that is equal to the gross mechanical
s
power developed by the rotor per phase without including the loss for friction and
windage,
Equation 4.16
I r1 2 R r1

and
R r1

(1- s)
= Fictitious resistance.
s

Equation 4.17

The equivalent circuit of Figure 66 can now be changed to that of Figure 67 using equations
4.15 and 4.16. The gross mechanical power output for three phases without the friction and
windage losses subtracted is from Equation 4.16.
2

P1(3 output) = 3 I r1 R r1

(1- s)
, watts
s

Equation 4.18

The gross mechanical power may be represented in terms of torque, T, or,

P1(3 output) =

(T) (2 rpm) (h.p.)

.
33,000

Equation 4.19

Because the actual revolutions per minute of the rotor are equal to the synchronous
revolutions per minute times (1-s) and T is the torque in pound-feet, then
2
T 2 rpm sync.(1- s) 3 I r1 R r1 (1- s)
=
.
s
33,000
746

72

Equation 4.20

jXr1

jXs

Rs
IS1

Ir1

jXm

Rr 1
s

VS1
Z+

Figure 66. Positive sequence equivalent circuit for induction motor/generator

Rs

jXr1

jXs
Ir1

IS1

Ir1 2 Rr1
jXm

VS1

Rr1

(Copper Loss)
per phase

Ir12

1- s
R r1 (Shaft Power)
s
per phase

1- s
R r1
s

Figure 67. Positive sequence induction motor/generator equivalent circuit

for copper losses and shaft power

Rs + R r1
Ir1

IS1

VS1

j(Xs + X r1)

1- s
R r1
s

jX m

Figure 68. Simplified positive sequence induction motor/generator equivalent circuit

73

The
rpm sync. =

120 f 120 x frequency

=
,
p
no. of poles

Equation 4.21

and
33,000
T lb-ft =
2 x 746

p
120 f

3 I r1 2 R r1
s

Equation 4.22

2
p I r1 R r1
.
T lb ft = 0.1765
f
s

Equation 4.23

The equivalent circuit of Figure 68 is an approximation of that in Figure 67, with the jXm
term moved out to the terminals. Because the magnitude of Xm is large compared with those
of the other terms in the equivalent circuit, this approximation is acceptable.
4.5.1.1.2 Negative Sequence Equivalent Circuit
The rotor is rotating in the direction of the positive sequence field with slip (s). The negative
sequence field is rotating in the opposite direction at synchronous speed.
2.0
s' = Slip of Rotor
With Respect to
Negative
Sequence Field
1.0

s= .033

2.0

1.0

s = Slip of Rotor with Respect to Positive Sequence Field

Figure 69. Slip of rotor with respect to negative sequence field and positive sequence field

If the speed of the field in the negative direction is and the speed of the rotor in the positive
direction is (l-s), then the slip, with respect to the negative sequence field, is
s' =

+ (l - s)
= 2 - s.

Equation 4.24

74

Also, this could be obtained from Figure 69. When s = 0, then s' = 2. When the rotor is at
standstill or s = 1, then s' = 1. When s = 2, then s' = 0. The negative sequence equivalent
circuit of Figure 71 will be similar to the positive sequence of Figure 67, but the term
(l s)
(l s')
Rr1 of the positive sequence will be replaced with
Rr2.
s
s'
Because s' = 2 s, from Equation 4.24, then
(l - s')
1- (2 - s)
Rr2 =
R r2
s'
2 s

(1- s)
R r2 .
2-s

Equation 4.25

Because the slip (s) is small, typically 2%3%,

-

R
(1- s)
R r2 r2 ,
2
2-s

Equation 4.26

which is shown in the simplified equivalent circuit of Figure 72. The negative sequence
mechanical power P2 for all three phases is from Equation 4.25 and equal to
1- s
2
P2 (3 output) = -3

R r2 I
r2 , watts

2 s

Equation 4.27

where Ir22 is the negative sequence rotor current referred to the stator. The gross mechanical
power output because of both positive and negative sequence voltages is
P1 (3 output) - P2 (3 output) =

l s
1- s
2
2
3 I
r1 R
r1
R r2 I
r2 , watts .
-
3

s
2 - s

Equation 4.28

The gross torque T is

T
=
0.1765

I
2
p
R r2 r1
f
s

I r2 2

2 s
lb - ft.

75

Equation 4.29

jXr2

jXs

Rs

Ir2

IS1

Rr 2
2-s

jXm

VS1
Z-

Figure 70. Negative sequence equivalent circuit for induction motor/generator

Rs

jXr1

jXs
Ir2

IS2

Ir22 Rr2
jXm

VS2

Rr2

(Copper Loss)
- Ir22

1- s
R r2
2-s

1- s
R r2
2-s

(Shaft Power)
Figure 71. Negative sequence induction motor/generator equivalent circuit
for copper losses and shaft power

Rs + Rr2

j(Xs + Xr2)

IS2

Rr 2
2

VS2

Figure 72. Simplified negative sequence induction motor/generator equivalent circuit

operating at small values of slip

76

Because the negative sequence power output is negative (see Equation 4.27), the power
output is reduced with negative sequence voltages, which reduces the nameplate capability of
the machine. An example demonstrates the significance of this.
4.5.1.1.2.1 Negative Sequence Voltages Increase Losses
The example uses test data from Williams (1954). Table 2 and Table 3 show the line currents
for various percent unbalanced voltages, as measured for single-cage and double-cage
induction motors with similar performance characteristics. These motors are 10-hp, fourpole, 220-V, three-phase, and wye-connected ungrounded. The process of determining the
effects of unbalanced voltages is detailed below.

1. From the percent unbalanced voltages or the negative sequence divided by the
positive sequence voltage, measure the line currents IA, IB, and IC for both ABC and
ACB rotation.
2. Calculate the negative sequence currents for 3%, 5%, 8%, 10%, and 11% negative
sequence voltages. Repeat this step for the single-cage and double-cage induction
machines for both ABC and ACB rotation. See Table 2 and Table 3. Two major
conclusions should be noted from the test data of these tables:
A. Phase rotation affects which of the phases has the highest line current. This
presents a real problem for protecting the motor/generator from overcurrent
failure. At a 3% negative sequence voltage, for the single cage-motor, Phase C
has the highest phase current IC of 1.12 p.u. for ABC rotation. The Phase A
motor has the highest phase current IA of 1.145 p.u. for ACB rotation. When
V2/V1% is increased to 5%, IC increases to 1.19 p.u. for ABC rotation, and IA
is 1.245 p.u. for ACB rotation.
Overcurrent motor/generator protection is typically installed on two of the
three phases. If the protection is installed on phases A and B for the singlecage motor with ABC rotation and set to trip at 115%, then the motor
protection will not trip to protect the motor because IA is 1.09 p.u. and IB is
only 0.760 p.u. However, phase IC current is 1.19 p.u. Similarly, if this same
motor is operated at 5% negative sequence voltage with ACB rotation and the
protection is installed on phases B and C, then the IA current is 1.245 p.u., and
the IB and IC currents are only 0.980 p.u. and 0.825 p.u., respectively. Again,
the protection will not trip to protect the motor because the currents IB and IC
are below 0.980 p.u., yet IA current is at 1.245 p.u., or 24.5% over rated
current. Following this same case, even with V2/V1% = 11%, the IB and IC
currents are only 1.040 p.u. and 0.695 p.u., respectively, yet the IA current is
1.535 p.u., or 53.5% over rated current. The overcurrent protection still has
not operated to trip and protect the motor. This conclusion indicates that
negative sequence current protection must be used to protect the motor or
generator to prevent failure because of unbalanced voltages. This condition is
not the same for ABC rotation. In fact, at V2/V1% = 8%, IA = 1.165 p.u., IB =
0.620 p.u., and IC = 1.31 p.u. Therefore, the overcurrent motor protection
under worst-case conditions would trip the motor at IC = 1.31 p.u. if the
protection was installed on phases A and B.

77

Although the problem is less severe for the double-cage motor, the phase
current IA for rotation ACB reaches 1.48 p.u., or 48% over rated current at
V2/V1% = 11%. Yet overcurrent tripping would occur for ABC rotation at
V2/V1% = 8%.
B. The percent negative sequence current is independent of phase rotation. For
example, referring to the single-cage motor at V2/V1% = 5%, the I2/I1% =
25.08% for ABC rotation and I2/I1% = 25.68% for ACB rotation. The same is
true for the double-cage motor. The phase rotation does not affect the result,
but the percent negative sequence current is somewhat less at 21.6%. This
confirms the need for negative sequence current protection because a safe
level of overcurrent can be selected to protect the motor/generator that is
independent of phases selected for protection and the phase rotation applied to
the terminals of the motor or generator.
3. From the motor characteristics of Table 4, determine the positive and negative
sequence equivalent circuits and the positive Z+ and negative sequence Zimpedances. The positive sequence impedance Z+ is shown in Figure 66 and is given
as Equation 4.30; the negative sequence impedance Z- is shown in Figure 70 and is
given as Equation 4.31.
2

R r1 2
R r1

X
m
X
m +
X r1 X m (X
r1 +
X m )

+
j X
s +

s

Z
+ =
R
s +

2
2

R
R
r1
r1
2
2

+
(X
r1 +
X m )

+
(X
r1 +
X m )

Equation 4.30
2

R r2 2
R r2

X
m
X
m +
X r2 X m (X
r2 +
X m )

2 s

+
j X
s +

2 s

Z
=
R
s +

2
2

R
R
r2
r2
2
2

+
(X
r2 +
X m )

+
(X
r2 +
X m )

2 s

2 s

Equation 4.31

78

Table 2. Per-Unit Line Currents for Percent Negative Sequence Voltage

Single-Cage Induction Motor

V2/V1 %

IA

Ref
Ref

Ref
Angle
Angle =
=

IB

angle

IC

angle

angle

I1

I2

I2/I1 %

1.120
1.190
1.310
1.410
1.441

133.638
141.371
151.757
158.652
160.712

1.001
1.00
1
0.999
0.999
0.997
0.99
7
0.997
0.99
7
0.999
0.99
9

0.155
0.251
0.399
0.514
0.551

15.437
25.086
40.052
51.565
55.206

-124.435
-128.196
-135.496
-141.618
-145.465

0.154
0.15
4
0.257
0.257
0.400
0.40
0
0.502
0.50
2
0.552
0.55
2

0.997
0.999
0.999
1.001
1.001

647.554
389.448
249.577
199.494
181.522

Single
Single Cage ABC Rotation
3.000
3.000
5.000
5.000
8.000
8.000
110.000
0.000
111.000
1.000

1.045
1.045
1.090
1.090
1.165
1.165
1.230
1.2
30
1.262
1.2
62

0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000

0.855 -108.556
0.760 -102.181
0.620 -91.012
0.520 -80.787
0.486 -78.353

Single Cage ACB Rotation

3.000
3.000
5.000
5.000
8.000
8.000
110.000
0.000
111.000
1.000

1.145
1.145
1.245
1.245
1.385
1.385
1.485
1.485
1.535
1.535

0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000

0.975
0.980
1.000
1.030
1.040

131.161
138.578
148.378
154.850
157.737

0.890
0.825
0.748
0.705
0.695

Table 3. Per-Unit Line Currents for Percent Negative Sequence Voltage

Double-Cage Induction Motor

V2/V1 %

3.000
3.000
5.000
5.000
8.000
8.000
110.000
0.000
11.0
1
11.000
1.000
00

IA

1.065
1.065
1.112
1.112
1.190
1.190
1.250
1.2
50
1.281
1.2
81

Ref
Ref

Ref
Angle
Angle =
=

0
angle
IC
IB
Double
D
ouble Cage ABC Rotation
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000

0.870 -113.022
0.785 -108.867
0.660 -102.456
0.572 -98.027
0.522 -95.401

1.080
1.135
1.230
1.300
1.337

angle

angle

I1

I2

I2/I1 %

132.150
139.120
148.402
154.171
157.127
157.127

1.001
1.001
1.000
1.00
0
1.002
1.00
2
1.003
1.00
3
1.001
1.00
1

0.131
0.216
0.343
0.433
0.482

13.121
21.582
34.289
43.226
48.188
48.188

-125.241
-125.241
-129.519
-129.519
-137.066
-137.066
-142.432
-142.432
-145.298
-145.298

0.130
0.13
0
0.219
0.219
0.348
0.34
8
0.433
0.43
3
0.479
0.47
9

0.999
0.999
0.995
0.998
1.004

771.314
771.314
456.403
456.403
286.260
286.260
230.641
230.641
209.439
209.439

Dou
Double
ble Cage ACB Rotatio
Rotation
n
3.000
3.000
5.000
5.000
8.000
8.000
110.0
10.000
0.000
00
111.0
11.000
1.000
00

1.1
1.127
27
1.2
1.215
15
1.3
1.340
40
1.4
1.428
28
1.4
1.480
80

0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000

0.960
0.943
0.926
0.930
0.940

128.256
134.158
142.637
148.146
151.019

79

0.923
0.877
0.825
0.805
0.800

4. From the negative sequence voltage V2 and the negative sequence impedance Z-, the
negative sequence amperes are calculated and displayed in Table 5. Calculate the
negative sequence stator losses from 3 Is22 R1, where Is2 is the negative sequence stator
current of Table 5 and Rs is the stator resistance of 0.153 /, shown in Table 4.
5. The negative sequence rotor losses are calculated from (2 s) 3I2r2 (R- Rs), where
the negative sequence rotor current Ir2 can be approximated with the negative
sequence stator current Is2 [4], R- is the resistance portion of the negative sequence
impedance Z- of Table 4, and Rs is the stator resistance. The total negative sequence
losses are found by adding the negative sequence stator and rotor losses.
Table 4. Double- and Single-Cage Characteristics for 10-hp, Four-Pole, 220-V,
Three-Phase, Wye-Connected Ungrounded Motors
Double-Cage Motor
Rs = 0.153 /
Xs = 0.500 /
Xm = 14.3 /
Rr1 = 0.188 / @
s = 0.033 (2 Hz)
Rr2 = 0.507 / @
s = 1.967 (118 Hz)
Xr1 = 0.760 / @
s = 0.033 (2 Hz)
Xr2 = 0.482 / @
s = 1.967 (118 Hz)
+
Z = 4.01 + j 2.43 = 4.70 31.2

Single-Cage Motor
Rs = 0.153 /
Xs = 0.500 /
Xm = 14.3 /
Rr1 = 0.188 / @
s = 0.033 (2 Hz)
Rr2 = 0.205 / @
s = 1.967 (118 Hz)
Xr1 = 0.420 / @
s = 0.033 (2 Hz)
Xr2 = 0.415 / @
s = 1.967 (118 Hz)
+
Z = 4.02 + j 2.13 = 4.55 28.0

Z = 0.395 + j 0.970 = 1.05 67.8

V2
V1
220
V2 =
x 0.10 = 12.7 volts
3

Z = 0.252 + j 0.903 = .938 74.4

V2
V1
220
V2 =
x 0.10 = 12.7 volts
3

@ 10%

@ 10%

V 2 12.7
I2 =
=
= 12.1amperes
Z - 1.05
Z+ 4.70
=
= 4.48
Z- 1.05

V 2 12.7
I2 = - =
= 13.54 amperes
Z
.938
Z+
4.55
=
= 4.85
0.938
Z

80

Table 5. Single-Cage Induction Motor 10 hp, 220 V, Four Pole, Wye-Connected Ungrounded
gative Se
quence Losses
Neegative
N
Sequence

V2

Z-

3.0
5.0
8.0

3.81
6.35
10.16

10.0
10.0
11.0
11.
0

12.70
13.97

V2/V1 %

Stator
Sta
tor
3IS22RS

Rotor
(2-s)3Ir22(R2--RS)

I2

I2 angle

0.938
0.938
0.938

4.06
6.77
10.83

-74.4
-74.4
-74.4

7.5
.57
7
21.04
1.04
53.
3.85
85

9.6
.64
4
26.77
26.77
68.54
68.
54

17.21
17.21
47.81
47.81
122.3
12
2.39
2.3
9

2.10
2.10
5.83
5.83
14.93
14.
93

0.938
0.938

13.54
14.89

-74.4
-74.4

84.
4.14
14
101.8
.81
1

107.0
10
7.09
7.0
9
129.5
.58
8

191.2
19
1.24
1.2
4
231.4
.40
0

23.32
23.
32
28.
28.22
22

RS =
s=

0.153 ohms/phase
0.033

R- =
2-s =

0.252 Negative sequence equivalent circuit resistance, ohms/phase

1.967

R--RS =
Full
Full Load
L
Losses
osses =
V1 =
I rrated
ated =

0.099 ohms/phase

Z- =

0.938 ohms/phase

Z- angle =

Total

% Increased
Losses Due to
Negative
Sequence
Current

820 Watts
127 Volts
27 amperes
74.4 Degrees

Table 6. Double-Cage Induction Motor 10 hp, 220 V, Four Pole, Wye-Connected Ungrounded
Neegative
N
Sequence
gative Se
quence Losses

V2/V1 %
3.000
3.0
00
5.000
5.000
8.000
8.000
10.000
10.000
11.000
11.000

V2
3.81
6.35
10.16
12.70
13.97

Z-
1.05
1.05
1.05
1.05
1.05

I2

I2 angle

Stator
Sta
tor
3IS22RS

3.63
6.05
9.68
12.10
13.30

-67.8
-67.8
-67.8
-67.8
-67.8

6.043438
6.0
43438
16.78733
16.78733
42.97556
42.97556
67.14931
67.14931
81.25066
81.25066

Rotor
(2-s)3Ir22(R2--RS)
18.80
52.23
133.71
208.92
252.79

RS =
s=

0.153 ohms/phase
0.033

R- =
2-s =

0.395 Negative sequence equivalent circuit resistance, ohms/phase

1.967

R--RS =

0.242 ohms/phase

Full Load
Losses =
V1 =
I rated =

820 Watts
127 Volts
27 amperes

Z- =

1.05 ohms/phase

Z- angle =

67.8 Degrees

81

Total
24.85
69.02
176.68
276.06
334.04

% Increased
Losses Due to
Negative
Sequence
Current
3.03
3.03
8.42
8.42
21.55
21.55
33.67
33.67
40.74
40.74

6. The percent increased losses because of the negative sequence currents are
determined by dividing the total negative sequence losses of Step 5 by the full load
losses.
An example using the double-cage induction motor applied to a 10% negative
sequence supply voltage illustrates steps 35. From Table 6:
The negative sequence stator losses are
3 Is22 Rs = (3) (12.10)2 (0.153) = 67.2 W.

Equation 4.32

The negative sequence rotor losses are

(2 s) 3 Ir22 (R- - Rs) = (2 - 0.033) (3) (12.10)2 (0.395 0.153) = 209.1 W.
Equation 4.33
The total negative sequence losses = 276.3 W.

Equation 4.34

The full load losses are equal to 820 W. Therefore, the percent increased losses
because of a 10% negative sequence voltage is
% losses (@ V2/V1 = 10%) = 276.3/820 x 100 = 33.7%. Equation 4.35
This value is shown in Table 6 for V2/V1% = 10%. The negative sequence losses are
proportional to the square of the negative sequence voltage. Or, at 11% negative
sequence voltage, the increased losses are, from Equation 4.35, equal to
2

11%

33.7%
=
40.7% .

10%

Equation 4.36

Notice that the percent increased losses are much higher for the double-cage
motor/generator than for the single-cage motor/generator at the same percent negative
sequence voltage. This is primarily because the negative sequence resistance of the
rotor (0.507 /) for the double-cage motor is much higher than the positive
sequence resistance of the rotor (0.188 /). By comparison, the negative sequence
resistance of the rotor (0.205 /) for the single-cage motor is only slightly higher
than the positive sequence resistance (0.188 /). For example, at V2/V1% = 10%,
the increased losses are 23.3% for the single cage but 33.7% for the double cage. This
is a significant problem because the double-cage machines are typically the larger
motor and generator units.

82

4.5.1.1.2.2 Negative Sequence Voltage Affects Shaft Output Power and Reduces Capacity
The next series of questions involves how negative sequence voltage affects the shaft output
power and increased losses reduce the nameplate capacity. The gross mechanical power of
the machine because of the positive and negative sequence voltage will be calculated. Again,
using the test data, two examplesone for the single-cage motor and one for the double-cage
motorare considered.

For a negative sequence voltage of 10%, applied to a single-cage motor,

I1 =

V1 127
=
= 27.9 amperes, and
Z + 4.55

I2 =

V2 12.7

=13.54 amperes.
=
Z - .938

Because Rr1 = 0.188 / and Rr2 = 0.205 /, applying equations 4.23 and 4.27 results in
P1(3 output) P2(3 output) = 3 Ir12 Rr1

1- s
1- s
2
- 3 I r2 R r2
2-s
s

Equation 4.37
P3 output = (3) (27.9)2 (0.188)

(1- .033)
(1- .033)
- (3) (13.54)2 (0.205)
.033
2 - .033

= (439.02) (29.30) (112.75) (0.4916)

P3 output = 12,863.3 watts 55.43 watts.
Positive Sequence
Power Output

Equation 4.38

Negative Sequence

Power Output

Notice that, at 10% negative sequence voltage, the power because of the negative sequence
voltage is only 0.43% of the positive sequence power, or
Decreased power =

55.43
= - 0.43%.
12,863.3

Therefore, voltage imbalance does not materially affect the power output of the rotor, but the
rotor and stator copper losses increased 23.3% because of the negative sequence currents, as
shown in Table 4. It is the increased losses, not the reduction in power because of the
negative sequence voltage, that derate the motor.

83

When a 10% negative sequence voltage is applied to a double-cage motor, the negative
sequence reverse power as a percentage of positive sequence power is 0.91%, or more than
twice that for the single-cage motor. The percentage increase in rotor and stator copper losses
is 33.7%, for 44.6% higher losses than for the single-cage motor.
The additional copper losses cause an increase in temperature above ambient temperature and
reduce the power output capability of the motor or generator. The effect of this increase in
temperature or the derating of the induction machine is illustrated inTable 7 Table 7. The higher
the ratio of the positive-to-negative sequence impedances, the greater the capacity reduction. The
negative sequence rotor values (Rr2, Xr2) are not readily known, but Tracey (1954) found the
ratio Z+/Z- can be approximated by dividing the locked rotor current by the rated full load
current.
If one knows the ratio of Z+/Z- and the unbalanced voltage applied, an equation can be
developed for derating the motor capacity. The equation is based on the assumptions that the
total copper loss for the stator and rotor that corresponds to any stator current is proportional
to that current squared and the change in rotor resistance with frequency is negligible.
Because the positive sequence current will result in the same total copper losses as balanced
conditions and rated load,
Is2 rated = Is12 + Is22,

Equation 4.39

where Is rated is the rated stator current, and Is1 and Is2 are the positive and negative
sequence currents.
From Equation 4.39,
Is1 = Is

rated

Is2 .

Equation 4.40

Defining
Is2 =

V
V2
, and Is rated = +1 , then

Z
Z

V Z+
Is2 = 2 I s rated.
V1 Z

Equation 4.41

Substituting Equation 4.41 into Equation 4.40,

V Z+
Is1 = Is rated 1 2 .
V1 Z

Equation 4.42

To prevent the motor from overheating, the positive sequence stator current cannot be greater
than the value given in Equation 4.42. Remember that the negative sequence torque is very
small. Therefore, the rating under unbalance conditions is

84

 V2 Z+ 2
Machine

Machine Rating

1
=

under unbalanced voltages

V Z- x N.P. Rating . Equation 4.43

(Note:

V2
is given in p.u. in Equation 4.43, not in percent.)
V1

It will be shown (see Equation 4.75) that when a phase conductor is opened on a three-phase
supply to the induction machine, at standstill, the motor will not start. For example, when
Z+/Z- = 5 and V2/V1% = 20%, from Equation 4.43, the machine rating is zero! When
Equation 4.43 is applied to a ratio of Z+/Z- = 7, the zero rating occurs at V2/V1% = 15%;
when it is applied to a ratio of 9, the zero rating occurs at V2/V1 = 11%. These zero rating
values correspond with the value of the V2/V1% unbalance voltage, which occurs when an
open phase conductor condition is applied to each of these machines. This result also applies
to other Z+/Z- ratio machines.
From Table 4, the Z+/Z- ratio for the single-cage motor is 4.85, and the ratio for the doublecage is 4.48. Using the approximate ratio value of 5 and applying the results of Table 7, for a
V2/V1% = 5%, the motor must be derated to 97% of rated power. Obviously, this is a
generalized result, and temperature rise and service factor data must be used from the actual
design to obtain realistic and specific results. However, the test results of Gafford,
Duesterohoeft, and Mosher (1959) and Tracey (1954), shown in Table 8, have comparable
deratings for the same unbalanced voltages.
No single-phase current or percent negative sequence current is indicative of the actual
temperature rise. The losses in the stator are unevenly distributed because the line currents
are not equal, and this causes hot spots, unbalanced temperatures, and resistances. Doublecage motors have to dissipate more losses than single-cage motors for the same negative
sequence voltage. An unbalanced voltage condition not to exceed 3% to 5% is the
recommended limit based on the line current not to exceed 120% (i.e., IC = 119%) to 125%
(i.e., IA = 124.5%) of rated current, as shown in Table 2. This results in percent negative
currents of about 25%22% and increased losses of 5.85%8.45% for single- and doublecage machines, respectively.

85

Table 7. Maximum Allowable Power Output in Percent of Rated

While Operating at Unbalanced Voltages

V2
V1

Z+
=5
Z-

Z+
=7
Z-

Z+
=9
Z

3%

99.8

97.8

96.3

5%

96.8

93.7

89.3

8%

91.7

82.8

69.4

10%

86.6

71.4

43.6

11%

83.5

63.8

13%

76.0

41.5

14%

71.4

19.9

15%

66.1

20%

Notes:

From Tracey (1954)

+
(1) Z = Motor impedance to V1 (positive sequence voltages) at rated
(2) Z = Motor impedance to V2 (negative sequence voltages) at rated load
+ (3) Z /Z Locked rotor current/rated current
Table 8. Comparison of Gafford, Duesterohoeft, and Mosher (1959) and Tracey (1954)
Motor Derate Data Operating at Unbalance Voltage
% Power Derate

V2
%
V1

P.u. Negative
(Gafford,
Duesterohoeft,
and Mosher)
Sequence I2

P Output
(Gafford,
Duesterohoeft,
and Mosher)
p.u. @ Rated
Temp. Rise

P%
(Gafford,
Duesterohoeft,
and Mosher)

Z+
=5
Z-

P%
(Tracey)

1.22

0.160

1.20

1.64

1.0

0.265

1.17

4.10

3.0

0.420

1.10

9.84

8.0

10

0.515

1.03

15.6

13.0

11

0.570

0.98

19.7

16.5

13

0.660

0.85

30.3

23.5

15

0.750

0.66

45.9

34.0

86

Note: The phasor diagram of Figure 73 was used as the voltage source by Gafford,
Duesterohoeft, and Mosher (1959) to determine the heating condition of phases A, B, and C.
VA1
VA1

VA2
VB2

VC2

=
180o
VA2
VC2

VC1

VB1

VB2
VC1

VB1

Figure 73. Phasor diagram for minimum heating in Phase A, = 180

VA2
VA1

VA1
VA2

= 0o

VB2

VC2

VC1
VC1

VB1
VC2

VB1

VB2

Figure 74. Phasor diagram for maximum heating in Phase A, = 0

4.5.1.2 Unbalance Voltage Survey

The survey results of 13 utility systems are shown in Table 9. The data show the majority of
unbalanced conditions occur with open delta transformer connections. But even then, the
average unbalance is only 1.98%, with the highest being 10%.

87

Table 9. Unbalance Voltage Survey Results of Closed

and Open Delta Transformer Connections
Wye and
Closed Delta

Open Delta

Total

Total N of Tests

919

290

1209

Max. % Unbal.

5.94

10

10

Min. % Unbal.

0.0

0.0

0.0

Avg. % Unbal.

0.83

1.98

1.10

N of tests @ 0% Unbal.

142

151

% of Tests

V2
% NEMA
V1
00.5

25.5

7.9

21.2

0.511

47.2

15.5

39.6

1.011.5

14.7

21.7

16.4

1.512

5.3

12.8

7.1

2.012.5

2.7

10.3

4.6

2.513

2.2

13.8

5.0

3.013.5

0.9

5.9

2.1

3.514

0.8

4.8

1.7

4.014.5

0.1

2.8

0.7

4.515

0.3

1.4

0.6

>5

0.3

3.1

1.0

Notes:
(1) 1209 test (13-utility survey)
(2) Average unbalanced = 1.1%
(3) 12.5% of tests = 0% unbalance
60% of tests <1% unbalance
85% of tests <2% unbalance
(4) Average unbalance = 0.83% for closed banks
(5) Average unbalance = 1.98% for open delta

4.5.2 Synchronous Generators Operating on Unbalanced Voltages

Unbalanced three-phase stator currents applied to synchronous generators cause negative
sequence phase currents that, in turn, cause a double frequency current in the surface of the
rotor. These currents flow through the retaining rings, slot wedges, and field winding and
cause high temperatures and possibly failure.

88

Negative
Sequence Currents

Retaining Rings

Field Winding

Rotor Shaft

Rotor Iron

Figure 75. Round rotor synchronous machine

showing negative sequence current paths in the rotor surface

Typically, the unbalance comes from single-phase main unit transformers with different
impedances, unbalanced loads, open phases, and faults. Phase-to-phase faults create the
highest negative sequence currents. A line-to-ground fault on the wye side of a delta-wye
step-up transformer creates a line-to-line fault, as seen by the generator. The fault current
from a line-to-ground fault on the generator is less than the line-to-line fault, and the openphase condition produces less negative sequence current than the phase-to-phase or phase-to
ground fault.
Because the negative sequence current components rotate in the opposite direction of the
rotation of the rotor, the flux produced by these currents has a frequency twice the
synchronous speed. The skin effect causes these double frequency currents to be
concentrated on the surface of the poles and the teeth of the rotor. These currents flow along
the axial length of the rotor until they contact the retaining rings, which are shrunk onto the
ends of the rotor iron, as in Figure 75. A small portion of these negative sequence currents
flows in the field winding. The negative sequence current beating of the rotor and retaining
rings causes these rings to expand and become loose on the rotor iron.
4.5.2.1 Negative Sequence Heating
As was the case with induction machines, most of the increased losses for the synchronous
generator because of negative sequence currents occur in the rotor. The temperature rise over
time is proportional to the Is22t, where the Is2 is the stator negative sequence current, and t is
in seconds. The safe limit is established based on

K = Is22t,

Equation 4.44

where
K = Constant based or a specific design and size of generator
Is2 = The negative sequence stator current (rms)
t = Time in seconds.

89

The safe limit value of K is determined by measuring the temperature of the rotor with
negative sequence current from the stator according to ANSI C50.13 and establishing the
safe operating continuous unbalanced current capability of the generator. The safe limit is
based on rated kilovolt-amperes and maximum current not to exceed 105% of rated current in
any phase. Typically, the maximum permissible stator negative sequence IS2 current is 10%
of the rated stator current, but the specific value recommended by the manufacturer should be
used to set the value for the negative sequence relay.
4.5.2.2 Negative Sequence Relay
The negative sequence relays may be of definite-time-delay type or inverse-time type. The
device 46 function is an inverse time overcurrent. Figure 76 shows typical time-negative
sequence current curves for the Type SGC relay. Values for K can be calculated (G.E.
Multilin 1998) using the p.u. locked rotor current ILR for a motor. If the p.u. ILR = 5,
K=

175
=7.
I 2 LR

Equation 4.45

Values ranging up 40 have been used. Also, synchronous generator values for K vary from
about 4 to 8. A negative sequence pickup current setting of about 15% of full load current
results in about 300 seconds. As shown in Table 2, a 15.44% negative sequence current
results in a 3% voltage imbalance for the single-cage induction motor.

90

Figure 76. Typical time-current curves for the Type SGC relay

91

5 Project Results Development of Models

5.1 Introduction
This section focuses on the development of models for DG and the distribution circuit
voltage regulation equipment for unbalanced power systems. The voltage regulation models
were developed for the substation LTC transformer, bidirectional step regulator, capacitors,
and each of the distribution circuit transformer connections. In addition, line impedance,
voltage drop, and losses were modeled, as were secondary and service drop impedance,
voltage drop, and losses. Finally, a shunt capacitor model for a wye-grounded connection and
models for synchronous, induction, and inverter-based generators were created.
5.2 Three-Phase Substation Transformer Models
Three-phase transformers are used at the distribution substation to transform voltage from the
sub-transmission or, in some cases, transmission system down to distribution circuit levels.
These three-phase transformers may have HV fixed taps or LV fixed taps or can be LTC or
under LTC transformers. The typical distribution circuit is a four-wire wye multi-grounded
system fed from a delta-wye-grounded, three-phase substation transformer. However, there
are three-wire, ungrounded delta distribution circuits, and they are normally fed from deltadelta three-phase substation transformers. Three-phase and single-phase transformers on the
circuit feed three-phase customer load or combinations of single-phase and three-phase loads.
Also, single-phase transformers on the circuit feed single-phase loads.

The delta-wye grounded transformer connection is shown in Figure 77.

-

VBC

Vtc

VAB

Vtb

VCA

Vta

Vca
zt

+
Vbc
+

zt

Vab

zt

Figure 77. Delta-wye grounded three-phase transformer

From this figure, the primary-side line-to-line voltages can be written as a function of the
ideal secondary-side voltages.

92


V
AB

0 - nt 0

vta

V
BC = 0
0 - nt vtb ,

V
CA - nt 0
0 vtc

Equation 5.1

where the turns ratio nt is defined as

nt =

VLLHS
.
VLNLS

Equation 5.2

The ideal secondary voltage can be written as a function of the secondary-side line-to-neutral
voltage as:
Vtabc = VLGabc + Ztabc Iabc

Equation 5.3

where

Zt

Zt =
0

0
Zt
0

0 .

Zt

Equation 5.4

The primary line-to-line voltage as a function of the secondary line-to-ground voltage and the
secondary current Iabc is
V AB

0

V = 0
BC
VCA
nt

nt
0

0

Va

zt

nt
Vb + 0

Vc 0

I
a

zt 0
I
b .

0
zt I
c

Equation 5.5

To make the transformer model consistent with other system models and therefore easier to
calculate, the secondary-side line-to-ground voltage should be expressed as a function of the
primary-side line-to-neutral voltage. This can be done using the theory of symmetrical
components and algebraic manipulation. The resulting expression is
V
AB

1

1 0

V A

V
= 0
1

1
VB
BC
VCA
1 0
1 VC

1

1 0

V A 0

0
1

1
VB = 0

1 0
1
VC
nt

nt
0

0

Va

zt

nt
Vb
+ 0
0

V
c 0

93

I
a

zt 0
I
b

0
zt I
c

0

1
1

1 0

V A
Va

z t

0
1
0
0
1

1
VB =
Vb + 0

1 0

nt

0

1 0

1 0
1
VC
Vc 0
Va

V =
1
b
n
V
c
t

0

1 VA

zt

1 1
0

VB 0

0

1 1
VC 0

0
zt
0

0

I
a

0 I
b
zt I
c

0
zt
0

0

I
a

0
I
b .

z t I
c

Equation 5.6

5.3

Three-Phase and Single-Phase Distribution Transformer Connections for

Distribution Circuit
The following equations determine the voltage drop on the wye-grounded primary system
feeding different transformer connections and three-phase and single-phase loading. The
factor 0.9 IL in some of the equations represents the portion of the neutral current in the
neutral conductor, the remainder of which is current in the earth.

Wye-Grounded Primary System Transformer Connections and Voltage Regulation

Case I.
R

RN

XN

IL

IL

a
b

IL

Equal Single-Phase
Loads
S

B
C
VR NA = IL [R Cos + X Sin ] + 0.9 IL [RN Cos ( 60) + XN Sin ( 60)]
Equation 5.7
VR CN = IL [R Cos + X Sin ] + 0.9 IL [RN Cos ( + 60) + XN ( +60)]

Equation 5.8

Case II.
R

RN

XN

IL

3 IL
IL
C

N
B

94

VR NA

= IL [R Cos ( 30) + X Sin ( 30)] + 0.9 3 IL [RN Cos ( 60) + XN Sin (

60)]
Equation 5.9
VR CN

= IL [R Cos ( + 30) + X Sin ( + 30)] + 0.9 3 IL [RN Cos ( + 60) + XN Sin ( +

60)]
Equation 5.10

Case III.
R

IL A

a
S

N
R

VR NA

IL

2 IL

= IL [R Cos ( 60) + X Sin 60)]

Equation 5.11

VR BN = 2 IL (R Cos + X Sin )

Equation 5.12

VR CN

Equation 5.13

= IL [R Cos ( + 60) + X Sin ( + 60)]

Case IV.
R

IR

X
R

IL

a
b

N
IL

VR AN = IL (R Cos + X Sin ) on L-N Base Voltage

Equation 5.14

VR BN

= IL (R Cos + X Sin ) on L-N Base Voltage

Equation 5.15

VR CN

= IL (R Cos + X Sin ) on L-N Base Voltage

Equation 5.16

95

Case V.
R

VR NA

IL A

IL

IL

= IL (R Cos + X Sin )

Equation 5.17

VR NB = IL (R Cos + X Sin )

Equation 5.18

VR NC = IL (R Cos + X Sin )

Equation 5.19

Case VI.
R

IL

RN

XN

IL

a
S
N

VR NA = IL [R + RN) Cos + (X + XN) Sin ]

Equation 5.20

Case VII.
R

IL

A
a

XN

RN
R

X
R

N
C

IL

L-L Voltage
Base

VR BA = 2 IL (R Cos + X Sin )

Equation 5.21

VR NA = IL [R Cos ( 30) + X Sin ( 30)]

Equation 5.22

VR BN = IL [R Cos ( + 30) + X Sin ( + 30)]

Equation 5.23

96

Case VIII.
R

2 IL

A
a

XN

RN
R

X
R

b
N
IL

L-L Voltage
Base

c
IL

VR NA = 2 IL (R Cos + X Sin )

Equation 5.24

VR BN = IL [R Cos ( + 60) + X Sin ( + 60)]

Equation 5.25

VR CN

Equation 5.26

= IL [R Cos ( 60) + X Sin ( 60)]

Case IX.

VR NA

3 + NA S

= IL 3 [R Cos (3 30) + X Sin (3 30)] + 0.9 3 IL 3 [RN Cos (3

60) + XN Sin (3 60)] + IL S [R Cos S + X Sin S] + 0.9 IL S [RN Cos (S 60) +

XN Sin (S 60)]
Equation 5.27
VR CN 3 = IL 3 [R Cos (3 + 30) + X Sin (3 + 30)] + 0.9 3 IL 3 [RN Cos (3 + 60)

+ XN Sin (3 + 60)]

Equation 5.28

VR CA 3 + CA S = IL 3 [R Cos ( + 60) + X Sin ( + 60) + IL 3 [R Cos ( 60) + X Sin

( 60)] + IL S [R Cos ( 30) + X Sin ( 30)]

Equation 5.29

5.4 Distribution Transformer Impedance

The percent resistance and percent reactance of transformers can be determined from load
losses and percent impedance.

97

The percent Z is defined as

% Z = % R2 + % X2 ,

Equation 5.30

and percent R is determined from

%R =

Load Losses (watts)

.
10 kVA

Equation 5.31

Using the 25-kVA transformer load losses from Table 10, then
%R =

397 watts
= 1.59 .
(10) (25)

From Equation 5.30, the %R of Equation 5.31, and the %Z of Table 10, %X is determined as
% X = % Z2 % R 2 ,
% X = (2.58) 2 (1.59) 2 = 2.03 .

5.5 Distribution Transformer Voltage Drop

In one knows the R and X values, the load current, and the power factor, the voltage drop can
be determined. The actual R and X values in ohms are found from the %R and %X values as
follows:

Voltage Drop for 25-kVA Transformer

Base voltage = 240 V

Base kVA = 25 kVA

Base current =

Base Z =

25,000

=104.17 amperes
240

240

= 2.30
104.17

98

Table 10. Distribution Transformer No Load (Core Losses) and Load (Copper Losses)

Type

kVA

Phase

Sec. Volt

Pri. Volt

NoLoad
Losses
Watts

OH
OH
OH
OH
OH

15
25
50
100
167

S
S
S
S
S

120/240
120/240
120/240
120/240
120/240

4800/7620
4800/7620
4800/7620
4800/7620
4800/7620

34
43
103
165
267

280
397
564
1150
1749

314
440
667
1315
2016

2.58
2.58
1.97
2.10
2.37

0.51
0.27
0.76
0.21
0.33

PAD
PAD
PAD
PAD
PAD
PAD
PAD

75
150
300
500
1000
1500
2000

3
3
3
3
3
3
3

120/208
120/208
120/208
120/208
480Y/277
480Y/277
480Y/277

4800x13200/7620
13200/7620
13200/7620
4800x13200/7620
4160
4800x13200
4800x13200

283
328
639
1140
1160
1516
1894

836
2026
3198
4085
7601
10294
12933

1119
2354
3837
5225
8761
11810
14827

2.43
2.37
2.50
3.45
5.51
6.04
5.75

0.78
0.34
0.55
0.46
0.23
0.17
0.15

ISO

333

4800/8320

7620/13200

416

2937

3353

3.43

0.35

PAD
PAD
PAD

50
100
167

S
S
S

120/240
120/240
120/240

7620
7620
4800x13200/7620

107
173
231

675
1074
1466

782
1247
1697

1.92
2.34
2.72

0.30
0.26
0.20

Load
Losses
Watts

Tot
Losses
Watts

%Z

%Ie

Actual R ohms = 1.59% x 2.30

= 0.0366

Actual X ohms = 2.0% x 2.30

= 0.0460

Actual Z ohms = 2.58% x 2.30

= 0.0593

Assuming a power factor of 0.90 (25.84), a load current of 1.40 times rated kilovoltamperes, and a voltage of 105% of rated voltage, the current would be
I=

(104.17 amperes)
x 1.40 =138.9 amperes .
1.05

The approximate voltage drop is then

V = IR Cos + I X Sin ,

Equation 5.32

= (138.9) [(0.0366) (0.90) + (0.0460) (0.4358)]

= (138.9) [0.03294 + 0.0200]

99

 V = 7.36 V @ 240 V
Equation 5.33
V @ 120 V = 3.68 V

The voltage drop can be reduced if a 50-kVA transformer is substituted for the 25-kVA
transformer.

Voltage Drop for 50-kVA Transformer

Base current = 208.34 A

Base Z =

240

=1.15
208.34

Actual R ohms = 1.13% x 1.15

= 0.0130

Actual X ohms = 1.62% x 1.15

= 0.0187

Actual Z ohms = 1.97% x 1.15

= 0.0227
Using a 0.90 power factor, 1.4 times rated current, and 105% voltage, the current is
I=

208.34
x 1.40 = 277.8 amperes
1.05

and
V = IR Cos + I X Sin

= (277.8) [(0.0130) (0.90) + (0.0187) (0.4358)]

= (277.8) [0.0117 + 0.00815]

V = 5.51 V @ 240 V
V @ 120 V = 2.75 V .

Equation 5.34

5.6 Distribution Transformer Losses

Distribution transformer losses consist of load losses and no-load losses.
5.6.1 Load Losses
The load losses are proportional to the square of the load current. The test data in Table 10
are given at rated load current. The load loss at loads other than rated load is

100

I
Load loss = l oad
I rated

(load loss at rated load),

kV
= rated
kVactual

Equation 5.35

kVA actual
(load loss at rated load).
kVA rated

Equation 5.36

For the 25-kVA transformer, the load loss at rated load is 397 W. But at peak load, the load
may be as high as 140%200% of rated load. The load losses at 105% of rated voltage and
140% of rated load are from Equation 5.36.
2

(25) (1.40)
7620
(397)
Load losses =
x
25
(7620) (1.05)

= (1.78) (397)
= 706 W
Percent load loss =

Load Loss (watts)

Load Loss (watts)
x100 =
(1.4) (10 kVA rated ) (Cos )
(1.4) (VA rated ) (Cos )
Equation 5.37

For the 25-kVA transformer, the percent load loss is

Percent load loss =

706
= 2.24% .
(1.4) (10) (25) (.90)

5.6.2 No-Load Losses

The no-load losses are the core losses, dielectric losses, and copper losses caused by the
excitation current. However, the core losses because of the hysteresis and eddy current losses
are the most significant. From Table 10, the no-load losses for the 25-kVA transformer are
43 W. For operation above rated voltage, the no-load losses must be corrected. The
correction factors are 1.15 at 105% of rated voltage and 1.30 at 110% of rated voltage. At
105% voltage,

No-load losses = (rated no-load losses) (voltage correction)

Equation 5.38

No-load losses = (43 W) (1.15) = 49.5 W.

5.6.3 Total Losses
Adding the no-load losses corrected for voltage and load losses corrected for voltage and
current gives 2.4% total losses for the 25-kVA transformer.

101

706 + 49.5
= 2.40%
(1.4) (10) (25) (0.90)

Total percent losses =

Equation 5.39

For the 50-kVA transformer, the percent load losses are

2

(50) (1.40)
7620
(564)
Load losses =
x
50
(7620) (1.05)

= 1,003 W

Percent load losses =

1003

= 1.59% .
(1.4) (10) (50) (0.90)

The percent no-load losses are

No-load losses = (103) (1.15) = 118.5 W,
and the total percent losses are
Total percent losses =

1003 + 118.5
= 1.78% .
(1.4) (10) (50) (0.90)

Equation 5.40

5.7 Line Impedance Model

A four-wire, wye-grounded, overhead line distribution circuit that consists of three-phase
conductors and one neutral can be represented as a four-by-four matrix. With the aid of
Figure 78, the resultant matrix, using Kirckhoffs voltage law, is shown below.

VA
VB
VC
VN

VA

S
S
S
S

VB
VC
VN

ZA ZAB ZAC ZAN

IA

ZBA ZB ZBC ZBN

IB

ZCA ZCB ZC ZCN

IC

ZNA ZNB ZNC ZN

IN

L
L

102

Equation 5.41

ZA
VA

VA

ZBA

ZB

VB

ZCA
VB

ZCB

ZC
VC

VC

ZNC

ZNB

ZNA

ZN
VN

VN

Figure 78. Four-wire, wye-grounded, overhead distribution line with multi-grounded neutral

For a three-conductor cable with one neutral, the impedance matrix is:

Z A
Z
BA
Z
=

Z CA

Z NA

Z AB
ZB
Z CB
Z NB

Z AC
Z BC
ZC
Z NC

Z AN

Z BN
.

Z CN

Z N

103

For the flat-line configuration used in the Milford circuit, the line spacing is:
7.33
A

2.42

C
5.25

4.00
N
Figure 79. Flat line spacing configuration

The characteristics of the phase and neutral conductors are shown below.

Conductor
GMR (ft)
Resistance (/mi)

636 Al
0.0294
0.146

636 Al
0.0294
0.146

636 Al
0.0294
0.146

1/0 ACSR
0.006
1.153

The diagonal and off-diagonal elements of the impedance matrix (Kersting 2004) are
calculated using:
zii = ri + 0.09530 + j0.12134 [ln(1/GMRi) + 7.93402] /mi

Equation 5.42

zij = 0.09530 + j0.12134 [ln(1/Dij) + 7.93402] /mi,

Equation 5.43

where
ri = Resistance of conductor in /mi
Dij = Distance in feet from conductor i to conductor j
GMRi = Geometric mean radius of the conductor in feet
0.09530 = Equivalent resistance of earth (100 -m)
7.93402 = Equivalent mutual inductive reactance between a conductor and earth @ 60 Hz.
It should be noted that the diagonal terms account for the self-inductance and resistance of
the line and also contain expressions that take into account the effects of the earth return
path. The off-diagonal elements account for the mutual inductance of the lines and again take
into account the effects of the earth return path.
For the flat-line model of Figure 79, the impedance matrix is:

104

.2413 + j1.3907
.0953 + j.8554
Z=
.0953 + j.72101

.0953 + j.70949

.0953 + j.85548
.2413 + j1.3907
.0953 + j.76963
.0953 + j.78573

.0953 + j.72101 .0953 + j.70949

.0953 + j.76963 .0953 + j.78573
.
.2413 + j1.3907 .0953 + j.76267

.0953 + j.76267 1.2483 + j1.3907

Equation 5.44

The Kron reduction technique allows this four-by-four matrix to be reduced to a moreapplicable three-by-three matrix ZABC.
ZA ZAB ZAC .2413 + j1.3907 .0953 + j.85548 .0953 + j.72101
Zij = ZBA ZB ZBC = .0953 + j.8554 .2413 + j1.3907 .0953 + j.76963
ZCA ZCB ZC .0953 + j.72101 .0953 + j.76963 .2413 + j1.3907
Equation 5.45
z AN .0953 + j.70949
Zin = z BN = .0953 + j.78573
z CN .0953 + j.76267

Equation 5.46

Znj = [ZNA ZNB ZNC] = [.0953 + j.70949 .0953 + j.78573 .0953 + j.76267]
Equation 5.47
Equation 5.48

ZN = zN = 1.2483 + j1.5835

.3404 + j1.1566 .0953 + j.85548 .0953 + j.7210

ZABC = Zij - ZinZ N Znj = .0953 + j.85548 .2413 + j1.3907 .0953 + j.76963
.0953 + j.7210 .0953 + j.76963 .2413 + j1.3907
Equation 5.49
-1

For a non-transposed line of 6.25 mi (33,000 ft), the impedance matrix becomes
2.1275 + j7.2289 1.3100 + j3.7384 1.2750 + j2.9420

ZABC = 1.3100 + j3.7384 2.3108 + j6.9235 1.3689 + j3.0904 .

1.2750 + j2.9420 1.3689 + j3.0904 2.2530 + j7.0188

Equation 5.50

5.8 Line Voltage Drop Model

The voltage drop for a given four-wire line segment is calculated using the impedance and
matrix for that line segment.
VS - VL = ZABC IABC

Equation 5.51

V = ZABC IABC

Equation 5.52

105

V
A

z A

VB
= z
BA

VC
z CA

z AB
zB
z CB

z AC

IA

z BC IB
z C IC

Equation 5.53

The effects of the admittance matrix have been neglected because of the relatively short line
length (6.25 mi).
5.9 Line Losses Model and Validation
To validate the line loss model, three line configurations and balanced and unbalanced load
conditions are considered. These line configurations are shown in Figure 80. Figure 80a is a
balanced impedance triangular or equilateral configuration with a high B phase. The
geometric mean distance (GMD) of the phase spacings shown in Figure 80a is 53 in. (4.42
ft), which is the same as the GMD of the flat configuration in Figure 79. Figure 80b is the flat
non-transposed line, and Figure 80c is the flat transposed line. The dimensions between
phases, neutral, and ground are identical in Figure 80b and Figure 80c, but the flat transposed
line of Figure 80c has two transpositions.

Figure 81 shows the flat transposed line, which consists of three line segments of 11,000 ft
each, for a total length of 33,000 ft. The source is at Node 0, and the two transpositions are
shown at Node 1 and Node 2. The lump load of 9,000 kVA at unity power factor is located at
the end of the line at Node 3.

106

"
53

53

N = 1/0 AC
ACSR
SR

53"

63
63""

= 636 Al
GMD = 53

(a) E
Equilateral
quilateral Spacing
Spacing

88"
59"

29"
A

63"
63"

96
96""

22'
22'
X-arm
X-ar
X-arm
m

N = 1/0 AC
ACSR
SR
= 636 Al

GMD = 53

Earth
(b) Flat Non-transposed
Non-transposed

N
Note:
ote: Neutral to ground distance = 22' - 63" = 201" (16.75'
(16.75'))
88"
59"

29"
A

63"
63"

96
96""

22'
22'
X-arm
X-arm

N = 1/0
1/0 ACSR
= 636
636 Al

GMD = 53
Earth
(c) Flat Transp
Transposed
osed
N
Note:
ote: Neutral to ground distance = 22' - 63" = 201" (16.75')

Figure 80. Configuration, phase, and neutral spacings;

phase and neutral sizes; and conductor types

107

Transpositions

Node 0

Node 1

Segment #2

Segment #3

Bus

Segment #1

Node 3

Node 2

Line
11,000 ft.

11,000 ft.

33,000 ft.

Load
11,000 ft.
9000 kVA
= 0o
P.F. = 1.0

Flat Transposed Line and Load Characteristics

Figure 81. Line transposition and load

The purpose of this validation is to show that with balanced line impedance and balanced
load the kilowatt losses are equal in each phase and total kilowatt losses are lowest. In
addition, even though the kilowatt losses per phase may not be correct because of the Kron
reduction process (which reduces a four-by-four matrix to a three-by-three matrix) the total
losses are, in fact, correct. Table 11, Table 12, and Table 13 and the associated graphs
provide a summary of balanced and unbalanced loading for the equilateral line spacing, nontransposed flat line spacing, and transposed flat line spacing configurations.
A balanced load of 3,000 kW per phase, modeled using constant impedance and computed
using a nominal voltage of 7.62 kV, is attached at the end of the non-transposed line at Node
3. The load impedance matrix is
0
0

19.35

19.35
0
Zload =
0

0
0
19.35

Equation 5.54

where
Zloadii =

(7.62kV) 2
=
19.35 .
3MVA

Equation 5.55

Attaching the load to the end of the above non-transposed line yields

108

V
S =
(Zload +
ZABC) IABC .

Equation 5.56

For a 13.2-kV line, the above load, and the 6.25-mi non-transposed line, solving for IABC
gives
IABC =
(Zload +
ZABC)-1 VS

Equation 5.57

358.4

-10.2

IABC =
377.8 -130.2,A .

371.3108.4

Equation 5.58

Notice from the non-transposed spreadsheet of Table 12, at Node 3, the magnitudes of
phase currents are IA = 356.2, IB = 375.9, and IC = 372.0. These data are based on the
voltage-dependent current (VDC) source model rather than the constant-impedance model
data in the matrix above.
The load end voltage V load is therefore
V
load =
VS - ZABC IABC

6.94

-10.2

Vload =
7.31 -130.2, kV .

7.19108.4

Equation 5.59

The magnitudes of the phase voltages in kilovolts from Table 12 at Node 3 are VA = 6.96, VB
= 7.31, and VC = 7.24. The power loss in the line is
200.5
P
loss =
Re[Sin] - Re[Sout] =
71.6 , kW .

102.8

Equation 5.60

The total loss for the line is 374.9 kW. This compares to A = 194.35 kW, B = 72.47 kW,
and C = 84.29 kW, for a total of 351.11 kW for the VDC model. If the balanced load
impedance matrix is replaced with an unbalanced load impedance matrix, the loss results
may appear incorrect.
0
0

12.90

Zload =
0
25.81
0

0
0

25.81

Equation 5.61

109

The above impedance matrix corresponds to a heavily loaded A phase (4,500 kW) relative to
the B and C phases (2,250 kW). The last line of Table 12 at Node 0 shows the voltage
magnitudes in kilovolts of VA = 7.620, VB = 7.620, and VC = 7.620. Applying these balanced
voltages and unbalanced loads for each phase,
(7620) 2
ZA =
= 12.90,
2250 x 10
3
(7620) 2

ZB =
= 25.81, and
4500 x 10
3
(7620) 2

ZC =
= 25.81.
2250 x 10 3
Repeating the above procedure to find the line losses yields
516.0
Ploss = Re[Sin] - Re[Sout] = -164.4, kW .
57.0

Equation 5.62

The total loss for the line is 408.6 kW. The phase losses from the spreadsheet for the nontransposed case are 131.8, 390.5, and -117.4, corresponding to a heavily loaded B phase
(4,500 kW) in the simulation case, or a total of 404.96 kW. It is obvious in this unbalanced
case that the phase loss calculations do not represent the actual losses in each phase;
however, the total line loss is correct. The inclusion of the effects of the earth and neutral in
the three-by-three impedance matrix is the reason for the dubious phase loss numbers. To
obtain correct losses for the individual phases, the I2R losses should be calculated. First, the
earth and neutral currents should be found.
IN = ZNt IABC = 60.6157.5, A

Equation 5.63

ZNt IABC = -Z -1N Znj .

Equation 5.64

where

The earth current is

IE = -(IA + IB + IC + IN) = 127.9126.4, A .

Equation 5.65

Next, the I2R losses for each phase, earth, and neutral are calculated.
2

Equation 5.66

Equation 5.67

Equation 5.68

PlossA = IA RA = 209.1, kW
PlossB = IB RB = 88.4, kW
PlossC = IC RC = 75.0, kW

110

Equation 5.69

Equation 5.70

PlossE = IE RE = 9.7, kW
PlossN = IN RN = 26.4, kW

When the losses are summed from the I2R calculations, the result is 408.6. This exactly
matches the previously calculated total line loss. The reason for the slight difference between
the total losses from the Table 12 spreadsheet data of 404.96 kW and the total losses of 408.6
kW above is the spreadsheet data are for a VDC model. The total losses above are based on a
constant-impedance model.
Note: The PF in Table 11, Table 12, and Table 13 is the percent power flow imbalance
(in kilovolt-amperes).

111

Table 11. Equilateral Spacing Kilowatt Loss Evaluation

Spot Load (kW)
A
B
C
3000.00 3000.00 3000.00
3150.00 2925.00 2925.00
3300.00 2850.00 2850.00
3450.00 2775.00 2775.00
3600.00 2700.00 2700.00
3750.00 2625.00 2625.00
3900.00 2550.00 2550.00
4050.00 2475.00 2475.00
4200.00 2400.00 2400.00
4350.00 2325.00 2325.00
4500.00 2250.00 2250.00

A
117.17
143.85
171.35
199.93
228.92
258.85
289.23
320.05
351.17
382.50
414.10

kW Losses
B
117.02
94.42
72.44
51.43
31.27
11.66
-6.96
-24.56
-41.40
-57.46
-72.43

C
116.89
113.39
109.62
104.92
100.01
94.75
89.03
82.79
76.48
70.17
63.39

Total kW
Losses
351.08
351.66
353.41
356.28
360.20
365.26
371.30
378.28
386.25
395.21
405.06

A
515.76
568.41
622.80
677.99
734.23
792.19
850.71
909.51
969.41
1030.43
1091.39

kVar Losses
B
515.74
507.63
498.63
489.86
480.24
470.22
459.93
449.56
438.57
426.96
415.48

C
515.68
472.37
430.76
390.41
351.94
314.54
278.75
244.49
211.70
180.38
150.55

Total kVar
Losses
1547.18
1548.41
1552.19
1558.26
1566.41
1576.95
1589.39
1603.56
1619.68
1637.77
1657.42

A
2758.79
2856.88
2951.53
3041.81
3128.22
3211.81
3291.28
3366.43
3438.52
3507.79
3572.73

kW Flow
B
2759.06
2713.97
2666.94
2619.49
2570.23
2519.64
2468.02
2415.58
2361.61
2306.09
2249.97

C
Total kW Flow
2759.28
8277.13
2703.31
8274.16
2646.96
8265.43
2589.48
8250.78
2531.83
8230.28
2472.90
8204.35
2413.32
8172.62
2352.90
8134.91
2291.72
8091.85
2229.77
8043.65
2166.85
7989.55

Node 0
A
7.62
7.62
7.62
7.62
7.62
7.62
7.62
7.62
7.62
7.62
7.62

Voltage
B
7.62
7.62
7.62
7.62
7.62
7.62
7.62
7.62
7.62
7.62
7.62

A
7.44
7.42
7.39
7.36
7.33
7.3
7.27
7.25
7.22
7.19
7.16

Voltage
B
7.44
7.46
7.48
7.5
7.52
7.54
7.56
7.58
7.59
7.61
7.63

A
7.29
7.24
7.19
7.13
7.08
7.03
6.98
6.92
6.87
6.82
6.77

Voltage
B
7.29
7.33
7.37
7.41
7.45
7.48
7.52
7.56
7.6
7.63
7.67

A
7.17
7.1
7.02
6.95
6.88
6.8
6.73
6.66
6.59
6.52
6.44

Voltage
B
7.17
7.23
7.29
7.35
7.4
7.46
7.51
7.57
7.63
7.68
7.74

C
7.62
7.62
7.62
7.62
7.62
7.62
7.62
7.62
7.62
7.62
7.62

Sequence Voltages (V)

V0
V1
V2
0 7620.91
0.11
0 7620.91
0.11
0 7620.91
0.11
0 7620.91
0.11
0 7620.91
0.11
0 7620.91
0.11
0 7620.91
0.11
0 7620.91
0.11
0 7620.91
0.11
0 7620.91
0.11
0 7620.91
0.11

C
7.44
7.45
7.46
7.47
7.48
7.49
7.5
7.51
7.52
7.53
7.54

Sequence Voltages (V)

V0
V1
V2
0.1 7444.34
0.08
27.28 7444.34
10.95
54.31 7444.22
21.65
81.21 7444.01
32.15
107.71 7443.74
42.43
134.43 7443.41
52.52
160.86 7443.01
62.4
187.04 7442.55
72.06
213.13 7442.05
81.53
239.13 7441.52
90.81
264.96
7440.9
99.88

V2/V1
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%

A
368.22
382.16
395.74
408.87
421.56
433.99
445.97
457.5
468.72
479.63
490.12

Current
B
368.25
362.23
355.95
349.61
343.04
336.27
329.36
322.35
315.12
307.68
300.16

C
368.28
360.04
351.85
343.58
335.36
327.06
318.74
310.36
301.96
293.51
284.99

Sequence Currents
I0
I1
0.02
368.24
6.44
368.12
12.85
367.78
19.24
367.2
25.53
366.38
31.87
365.35
38.14
364.09
44.35
362.59
50.54
360.88
56.72
358.97
62.84
356.83

I2
0.01
8.39
16.63
24.7
32.61
40.37
47.97
55.41
62.69
69.83
76.81

Imbalance
I2/I1
PF
0.0%
0.0%
2.3%
4.0%
4.5%
8.0%
6.7%
11.0%
8.9%
15.0%
11.0%
19.0%
13.2%
22.0%
15.3%
26.0%
17.4%
30.0%
19.5%
0.33
21.5%
0.37

Current
B
368.25
362.23
355.95
349.61
343.04
336.27
329.36
322.35
315.12
307.68
300.16

C
368.28
360.04
351.85
343.58
335.36
327.06
318.74
310.36
301.96
293.51
284.99

Sequence Currents
I0
I1
0.02
368.24
6.44
368.12
12.85
367.78
19.24
367.2
25.53
366.38
31.87
365.35
38.14
364.09
44.35
362.59
50.54
360.88
56.72
358.97
62.84
356.83

I2
0.01
8.39
16.63
24.7
32.61
40.37
47.97
55.41
62.69
69.83
76.81

Imbalance
I2/I1
PF
0.0%
0.0%
2.3%
4.0%
4.5%
8.0%
6.7%
11.0%
8.9%
15.0%
11.0%
19.0%
13.2%
22.0%
15.3%
26.0%
17.4%
30.0%
19.5%
0.33
21.5%
0.37

Current
B
368.27
362.24
355.97
349.63
343.05
336.28
329.38
322.36
315.14
307.7
300.18

C
368.29
360.05
351.86
343.59
335.37
327.07
318.74
310.37
301.96
293.52
284.99

Sequence Currents
I0
I1
0.02
368.26
6.44
368.13
12.85
367.79
19.24
367.21
25.52
366.39
31.87
365.37
38.14
364.11
44.35
362.61
50.54
360.9
56.71
358.99
62.84
356.84

I2
0.01
8.39
16.63
24.7
32.61
40.37
47.97
55.41
62.69
69.83
76.81

Imbalance
I2/I1
PF
0.0%
0.0%
2.3%
3.0%
4.5%
7.0%
6.7%
10.0%
8.9%
13.0%
11.0%
17.0%
13.2%
20.0%
15.3%
23.0%
17.4%
26.0%
19.5%
0.29
21.5%
0.32

Current
B
368.27
362.25
355.97
349.63
343.06
336.29
329.38
322.37
315.14
307.7
300.18

C
368.3
360.06
351.86
343.59
335.38
327.07
318.75
310.37
301.96
293.52
284.99

Sequence Currents
I0
I1
0.02
368.26
6.44
368.14
12.85
367.8
19.24
367.22
25.52
366.4
31.87
365.37
38.14
364.11
44.35
362.62
50.54
360.91
56.71
358.99
62.84
356.85

I2
0.01
8.39
16.63
24.7
32.61
40.37
47.97
55.4
62.69
69.83
76.81

Imbalance
I2/I1
PF
0.0%
0.0%
2.3%
3.0%
4.5%
6.0%
6.7%
9.0%
8.9%
12.0%
11.0%
15.0%
13.2%
17.0%
15.3%
20.0%
17.4%
23.0%
19.5%
0.26
21.5%
0.28

Node 1
V2/V1
0.0%
0.1%
0.3%
0.4%
0.6%
0.7%
0.8%
1.0%
1.1%
1.2%
1.3%

A
368.22
382.16
395.74
408.87
421.56
433.99
445.97
457.5
468.72
479.63
490.12
Node 2

7.3
7.31
7.33
7.34
7.36
7.37
7.39
7.41
7.42
7.44
7.46

Sequence Voltages (V)

V0
V1
V2
0.19 7294.81
0.15
54.55 7294.79
21.95
108.61 7294.48
43.37
162.42 7293.96
64.36
215.42 7293.28
84.91
268.87 7292.42
105.1
321.72
7291.4
124.86
374.07 7290.21
144.19
426.25
7288.9
163.12
478.26 7287.49
181.69
529.91 7285.88
199.83

C
7.17
7.19
7.21
7.23
7.25
7.27
7.29
7.31
7.34
7.36
7.38

Sequence Voltages (V)

V0
V1
V2
0.29 7174.03
0.24
81.83 7173.95
32.96
162.92 7173.39
65.08
243.63 7172.45
96.57
323.12
7171.2
127.4
403.29 7169.63
157.69
482.57 7167.75
187.32
561.09 7165.55
216.31
639.36 7163.11
244.72
717.38 7160.47
272.57
794.85 7157.47
299.78

V2/V1
0.0%
0.3%
0.6%
0.9%
1.2%
1.4%
1.7%
2.0%
2.2%
2.5%
2.7%

A
368.23
382.18
395.76
408.89
421.58
434.01
445.99
457.52
468.74
479.65
490.14
Node 3

V2/V1
0.0%
0.5%
0.9%
1.3%
1.8%
2.2%
2.6%
3.0%
3.4%
3.8%
4.2%

A
368.24
382.19
395.77
408.9
421.59
434.02
446
457.53
468.75
479.67
490.16

112

A
513.61
566.39
620.16
675.99
732.12
789.55
847.92
907.62
967.68
1027.84
1089.67

kVar Flow
B
513.62
505.01
496.25
487.17
478.01
467.89
457.62
447.15
436.16
424.65
412.92

C
513.49
469.93
428.61
388.05
349.25
312.28
276.52
241.84
208.98
177.97
147.93

Total kVar
Flow
1540.72
1541.33
1545.02
1551.21
1559.38
1569.72
1582.06
1596.61
1612.82
1630.46
1650.52

kW
A
2641.63
2713.03
2780.18
2841.88
2899.30
2952.96
3002.05
3046.38
3087.35
3125.30
3158.63

Native Load
Total kW
B
C
Load
2642.04 2642.39 7926.06
2619.55 2589.92 7922.50
2594.50 2537.33 7912.01
2568.05 2484.56 7894.49
2538.95 2431.82 7870.07
2507.99 2378.15 7839.10
2474.98 2324.28 7801.31
2440.15 2270.11 7756.64
2403.01 2215.24 7705.60
2363.54 2159.60 7648.44
2322.40 2103.46 7584.49

kVar Native Load

Total kVar
A
B
C
Load
-2.15
-2.12
-2.20
-6.47
-2.03
-2.62
-2.44
-7.09
-2.64
-2.38
-2.15
-7.17
-2.00
-2.70
-2.36
-7.06
-2.11
-2.23
-2.69
-7.03
-2.65
-2.33
-2.26
-7.24
-2.78
-2.31
-2.23
-7.32
-1.89
-2.41
-2.65
-6.95
-1.73
-2.42
-2.72
-6.87
-2.58
-2.31
-2.41
-7.30
-1.73
-2.56
-2.61
-6.90

Plot Information:
kW
Node 0
Total kW Losses /
I2/I1
Losses
kW Flow
0.0%
351.08
4.2%
2.3%
351.66
4.3%
4.5%
353.41
4.3%
6.7%
356.28
4.3%
8.9%
360.20
4.4%
11.0%
365.26
4.5%
13.2%
371.30
4.5%
15.3%
378.28
4.7%
17.4%
386.25
4.8%
19.5%
395.21
4.9%
21.5%
405.06
5.1%

Node 1
V1/V2
0.0%
0.1%
0.3%
0.4%
0.6%
0.7%
0.8%
1.0%
1.1%
1.2%
1.3%

Node 2
V1/V2
0.0%
0.3%
0.6%
0.9%
1.2%
1.4%
1.7%
2.0%
2.2%
2.5%
2.7%

113

Node 3
V1/V2
0.0%
0.5%
0.9%
1.3%
1.8%
2.2%
2.6%
3.0%
3.4%
3.8%
4.2%

I0
0.02
6.44
12.85
19.24
25.53
31.87
38.14
44.35
50.54
56.72
62.84

I1
368.24
368.12
367.78
367.20
366.38
365.35
364.09
362.59
360.88
358.97
356.83

I2
0.01
8.39
16.63
24.70
32.61
40.37
47.97
55.41
62.69
69.83
76.81

Table 12. Non-Transposed Kilowatt Loss Evaluation

Spot Load (kW)
A
B
C
3000.00 3000.00 3000.00
2925.00 3150.00 2925.00
2850.00 3300.00 2850.00
2775.00 3450.00 2775.00
2700.00 3600.00 2700.00
2625.00 3750.00 2625.00
2550.00 3900.00 2550.00
2475.00 4050.00 2475.00
2400.00 4200.00 2400.00
2325.00 4350.00 2325.00
2250.00 4500.00 2250.00

A
194.35
191.64
187.85
183.15
177.65
171.40
164.51
157.03
149.06
140.67
131.84

kW Losses
B
72.47
101.18
130.92
161.60
193.08
225.19
257.80
290.77
323.97
357.27
390.48

C
84.29
59.82
36.35
13.77
-7.92
-28.66
-48.44
-67.24
-85.02
-101.76
-117.36

Total kW
Losses
351.11
352.64
355.12
358.52
362.81
367.93
373.87
380.56
388.01
396.18
404.96

A
468.69
421.45
376.15
332.63
290.90
250.97
212.83
176.49
141.95
109.20
78.33

kVar Losses
B
504.08
558.63
614.45
671.65
730.13
789.76
850.44
912.05
974.51
1037.72
1101.20

C
571.12
560.65
549.88
538.71
527.13
515.15
502.77
490.01
476.88
463.38
449.63

Total kVar
Losses
1543.89
1540.73
1540.48
1542.99
1548.16
1555.88
1566.04
1578.55
1593.34
1610.30
1629.16

A
2673.63
2617.99
2561.96
2505.32
2448.06
2390.15
2331.59
2272.37
2212.46
2151.87
2090.66

kW Flow
B
2820.78
2918.11
3010.91
3099.54
3184.09
3264.58
3341.09
3413.67
3482.4
3547.33
3608.08

C
Total kW Flow
2777.24
8271.65
2734.33
8270.43
2690.10
8262.97
2644.44
8249.30
2597.33
8229.48
2548.82
8203.55
2498.88
8171.56
2447.55
8133.59
2394.83
8089.69
2340.72
8039.92
2285.35
7984.09

Node 0
A
7.6200
7.62
7.62
7.62
7.62
7.62
7.62
7.62
7.62
7.62
7.6200

Voltage
B
7.6200
7.62
7.62
7.62
7.62
7.62
7.62
7.62
7.62
7.62
7.62

A
7.38
7.39
7.39
7.4
7.41
7.42
7.43
7.43
7.44
7.45
7.46

Voltage
B
7.49
7.46
7.43
7.4
7.37
7.34
7.3
7.27
7.24
7.21
7.18

A
7.16
7.17
7.18
7.19
7.21
7.22
7.24
7.25
7.27
7.28
7.3

Voltage
B
7.39
7.33
7.27
7.21
7.15
7.09
7.03
6.98
6.92
6.86
6.8

A
6.96
6.97
6.99
7
7.02
7.04
7.05
7.07
7.09
7.11
7.14

Voltage
B
7.31
7.23
7.14
7.06
6.98
6.9
6.82
6.74
6.66
6.58
6.5

C
7.6200
7.62
7.6200
7.6200
7.6200
7.6200
7.6200
7.6200
7.62
7.62
7.62

Sequence Voltages (V)

V0
V1
V2
0 7620.91
0.11
0 7620.91
0.11
0 7620.91
0.11
0 7620.91
0.11
0 7620.91
0.11
0 7620.91
0.11
0 7620.91
0.11
0 7620.91
0.11
0 7620.91
0.11
0 7620.91
0.11
0 7620.91
0.11

V2/V1
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%

C
7.46
7.48
7.5
7.52
7.54
7.57
7.59
7.61
7.63
7.65
7.67

Sequence Voltages (V)

V0
V1
V2
17.54 7442.93
56.3
42.54 7442.11
46.62
71.6 7441.23
37.83
101.14 7440.28
30.53
130.7 7439.27
25.77
160.16 7438.22
24.81
189.47 7437.11
27.84
218.59 7435.97
33.64
247.53 7434.78
40.92
276.27 7433.56
48.93
304.7 7432.31
57.25

V2/V1
0.8%
0.6%
0.5%
0.4%
0.3%
0.3%
0.4%
0.5%
0.6%
0.7%
0.8%

C
7.33
7.38
7.42
7.46
7.5
7.54
7.59
7.63
7.67
7.71
7.75

Sequence Voltages (V)

V0
V1
V2
35.08
7291.9
112.7
85.08
7290.1
93.32
143.2 7288.13
75.74
202.27 7285.99
61.12
261.4
7283.7
51.56
320.31 7281.26
49.59
378.92 7278.69
55.61
437.17
7276
67.19
495.05 7273.19
81.75
552.53 7270.27
97.75
609.38 7267.27
114.39

C
7.24
7.3
7.37
7.43
7.49
7.55
7.62
7.68
7.74
7.8
7.86

Sequence Voltages (V)

V0
V1
V2
52.62 7169.53
169.1
127.61
7166.6
140.03
214.79 7163.34
113.65
303.4 7159.76
91.71
392.08 7155.89
77.36
480.44 7151.74
74.38
568.36 7147.34
83.38
655.73 7142.68
100.74
742.55
7137.8
122.56
828.77 7132.71
146.57
914.04 7127.42
171.52

A
356.11
347.9
339.73
331.58
323.45
315.32
307.19
299.04
290.89
282.71
274.51

Current
B
375.94
389.79
403.15
416.08
428.57
440.64
452.3
463.56
474.41
484.88
494.92

C
371.99
366.19
360.22
354.06
347.7
341.15
334.41
327.47
320.35
313.04
305.56

Sequence Currents
I0
I1
3.24
367.98
9.06
367.9
15.38
367.57
21.72
367.01
28.05
366.2
34.34
365.14
40.59
363.85
46.8
362.32
52.97
360.56
59.1
358.57
65.15
356.34

Imbalance
I2/I1
PF
2.5%
4.3%
6.4%
8.5%
10.6%
12.7%
14.8%
16.8%
18.9%
20.9%
22.9%

0.03
0.06
0.1
0.13
0.17
0.2
0.24
0.28
0.31
0.35
0.38

Current
B
375.94
389.79
403.15
416.08
428.57
440.64
452.3
463.56
474.41
484.88
494.92

C
371.99
366.19
360.22
354.06
347.7
341.15
334.41
327.47
320.35
313.04
305.56

Sequence Currents
I0
I1
3.24
367.98
9.06
367.9
15.38
367.57
21.72
367.01
28.05
366.2
34.34
365.14
40.59
363.85
46.8
362.32
52.97
360.56
59.1
358.57
65.15
356.34

9.3
15.93
23.48
31.17
38.8
46.31
53.68
60.9
67.97
74.88
81.62

Imbalance
I2/I1
PF
2.5%
4.3%
6.4%
8.5%
10.6%
12.7%
14.8%
16.8%
18.9%
20.9%
22.9%

0.03
0.06
0.1
0.13
0.17
0.2
0.24
0.28
0.31
0.35
0.38

Current
B
375.94
389.8
403.16
416.08
428.58
440.65
452.31
463.57
474.43
484.9
494.94

C
372
366.2
360.23
354.07
347.71
341.16
334.41
327.48
320.36
313.05
305.57

Sequence Currents
I0
I1
3.24
367.99
9.06
367.91
15.37
367.59
21.72
367.02
28.04
366.21
34.34
365.16
40.59
363.87
46.8
362.34
52.97
360.58
59.09
358.59
65.15
356.36

I2
9.29
15.91
23.47
31.16
38.79
46.3
53.67
60.89
67.96
74.87
81.61

Imbalance
I2/I1
PF
2.5%
4.3%
6.4%
8.5%
10.6%
12.7%
14.7%
16.8%
18.8%
20.9%
22.9%

0.04
0.06
0.09
0.13
0.16
0.19
0.22
0.25
0.28
0.31
0.34

Current
B
375.94
389.79
403.16
416.08
428.58
440.65
452.32
463.57
474.43
484.9
494.94

C
372
366.2
360.23
354.07
347.71
341.16
334.41
327.48
320.36
313.05
305.57

Sequence Currents
I0
I1
3.24
368
9.05
367.92
15.37
367.6
21.71
367.03
28.04
366.22
34.33
365.17
40.58
363.88
46.8
362.35
52.96
360.59
59.09
358.6
65.14
356.37

I2
9.27
15.9
23.47
31.15
38.78
46.29
53.66
60.89
67.95
74.86
81.6

Imbalance
PF
I2/I1
2.5%
4.3%
6.4%
8.5%
10.6%
12.7%
14.7%
16.8%
18.8%
20.9%
22.9%

0.05
0.07
0.09
0.12
0.15
0.18
0.2
0.23
0.25
0.28
0.31

I2
9.3
15.93
23.48
31.17
38.8
46.31
53.68
60.9
67.97
74.88
81.62

Node 1
A
356.11
347.9
339.73
331.58
323.45
315.32
307.19
299.04
290.89
282.71
274.51

I2

Node 2
V2/V1
1.5%
1.3%
1.0%
0.8%
0.7%
0.7%
0.8%
0.9%
1.1%
1.3%
1.6%

A
356.14
347.93
339.76
331.61
323.47
315.34
307.21
299.07
290.91
282.73
274.52
Node 3

V2/V1
2.4%
2.0%
1.6%
1.3%
1.1%
1.0%
1.2%
1.4%
1.7%
2.1%
2.4%

A
356.17
347.95
339.78
331.63
323.49
315.36
307.23
299.08
290.92
282.74
274.54

114

A
465.92
419.06
373.75
330.22
288.48
248.53
210.38
174.03
139.48
106.72
75.60

kVar Flow
B
501.64
555.98
611.81
669.05
727.55
787.22
847.92
909.56
972.05
1035.28
1099.26

C
569.08
558.44
547.65
536.47
524.87
512.87
500.48
487.70
474.55
461.04
447.30

Total kVar
Flow
1536.64
1533.48
1533.21
1535.74
1540.90
1548.62
1558.78
1571.29
1586.08
1603.04
1622.16

kW
A
2479.28
2426.36
2374.11
2322.17
2270.41
2218.75
2167.09
2115.34
2063.40
2011.20
1958.82

Native Load
Total kW
Load
B
C
2748.31 2692.95 7920.54
2816.93 2674.51 7917.80
2879.99 2653.75 7907.85
2937.94 2630.67 7890.78
2991.02 2605.25 7866.68
3039.39 2577.47 7835.61
3083.29 2547.33 7797.71
3122.90 2514.79 7753.03
3158.43 2479.85 7701.68
3190.07 2442.48 7643.75
3217.60 2402.71 7579.13

kVar Native Load

Total kVar
A
Load
B
C
-2.78
-2.43
-2.04
-7.25
-2.39
-2.66
-2.21
-7.26
-2.40
-2.63
-2.23
-7.26
-2.41
-2.60
-2.24
-7.25
-2.42
-2.58
-2.26
-7.26
-2.44
-2.54
-2.28
-7.26
-2.45
-2.52
-2.30
-7.27
-2.46
-2.48
-2.31
-7.25
-2.47
-2.47
-2.33
-7.27
-2.48
-2.44
-2.35
-7.27
-2.73
-1.94
-2.32
-6.99

Plot Information:
kW
Node 0
Total kW Losses /
I2/I1
Losses
kW Flow
2.5%
351.11
4.2%
4.3%
352.64
4.3%
6.4%
355.12
4.3%
8.5%
358.52
4.3%
10.6%
362.81
4.4%
12.7%
367.93
4.5%
14.8%
373.87
4.6%
16.8%
380.56
4.7%
18.9%
388.01
4.8%
20.9%
396.18
4.9%
22.9%
404.96
5.1%

Node 1
V1/V2
0.8%
0.6%
0.5%
0.4%
0.3%
0.3%
0.4%
0.5%
0.6%
0.7%
0.8%

Node 2
V1/V2
1.5%
1.3%
1.0%
0.8%
0.7%
0.7%
0.8%
0.9%
1.1%
1.3%
1.6%

115

Node 3
V2/V1
2.4%
2.0%
1.6%
1.3%
1.1%
1.0%
1.2%
1.4%
1.7%
2.1%
2.4%

I0
3.24
9.06
15.38
21.72
28.05
34.34
40.59
46.80
52.97
59.10
65.15

I1
367.98
367.90
367.57
367.01
366.20
365.14
363.85
362.32
360.56
358.57
356.34

I2
9.30
15.93
23.48
31.17
38.80
46.31
53.68
60.90
67.97
74.88
81.62

Table 13. Transposed Kilowatt Loss Evaluation

Spot Load (MW)
A
B
C
3000.00
3000.00
3000.00
3150.00
2925.00
2925.00
3300.00
2850.00
2850.00
3450.00
2775.00
2775.00
3600.00
2700.00
2700.00
3750.00
2625.00
2625.00
3900.00
2550.00
2550.00
4050.00
2475.00
2475.00
4200.00
2400.00
2400.00
4350.00
2325.00
2325.00
4500.00
2250.00
2250.00

A
117.05
144.46
172.80
201.93
231.72
262.04
292.76
323.76
354.91
386.12
417.26

kW Losses
B
117.04
91.77
67.30
43.65
20.86
-1.04
-22.01
-42.03
-61.08
-79.12
-96.12

C
117.06
115.41
112.99
109.86
106.09
101.75
96.92
91.64
85.99
80.03
73.83

Total kW
Losses
351.15
351.64
353.09
355.44
358.67
362.75
367.67
373.37
379.82
387.03
394.97

A
515.80
570.85
627.40
685.35
744.55
804.88
866.23
928.50
991.58
1055.39
1119.83

kVar Losses
B
515.77
508.10
500.00
491.46
482.47
473.04
463.17
452.87
442.13
430.97
419.41

C
515.79
469.82
425.46
382.72
341.61
302.13
264.30
228.11
193.57
160.70
129.49

Total kVar
Losses
1547.36
1548.77
1552.86
1559.53
1568.63
1580.05
1593.70
1609.48
1627.28
1647.06
1668.73

A
2758.93
2854.89
2946.78
3034.65
3118.54
3198.50
3274.59
3346.87
3415.40
3480.26
3541.49

kW Flow
B
2758.99
2716.82
2673.22
2628.21
2581.78
2533.96
2484.74
2434.14
2382.16
2328.81
2274.10

C
Total kW Flow
2759.00
8276.92
2702.11
8273.82
2644.53
8264.53
2586.23
8249.09
2527.21
8227.53
2467.46
8199.92
2406.97
8166.30
2345.73
8126.74
2283.73
8081.29
2220.98
8030.05
2157.48
7973.07

Node 0
A
7.62
7.62
7.62
7.62
7.62
7.62
7.62
7.62
7.62
7.62
7.62

Voltage
B
7.62
7.62
7.62
7.62
7.62
7.62
7.62
7.62
7.62
7.62
7.62

C
7.62
7.62
7.62
7.62
7.62
7.62
7.62
7.62
7.62
7.62
7.62

Sequence Voltages (V)

V0
V1
V2
0
7620.91
0.11
0
7620.91
0.11
0
7620.91
0.11
0
7620.91
0.11
0
7620.91
0.11
0
7620.91
0.11
0
7620.91
0.11
0
7620.91
0.11
0
7620.91
0.11
0
7620.91
0.11
0
7620.91
0.11

A
7.36
7.33
7.31
7.28
7.25
7.22
7.19
7.17
7.14
7.11
7.08

Voltage
B
7.5
7.53
7.55
7.57
7.6
7.62
7.64
7.67
7.69
7.71
7.73

C
7.47
7.48
7.49
7.5
7.5
7.51
7.52
7.53
7.54
7.55
7.56

Sequence Voltages (V)

V0
V1
V2
25.23
7444.34
60.26
53.13
7445.92
64.24
81.93
7447.38
69.72
76.26
110.8
7448.72
139.58
7449.95
83.52
168.23
7451.06
91.24
196.72
7452.07
99.22
225.04
7452.99
107.34
253.18
7453.81
115.52
281.14
7454.54
123.67
308.91
7455.2
131.77

A
7.27
7.21
7.16
7.1
7.05
6.99
6.93
6.88
6.82
6.77
6.72

Voltage
B
7.38
7.42
7.47
7.51
7.55
7.6
7.64
7.68
7.73
7.77
7.81

C
7.24
7.25
7.26
7.28
7.29
7.31
7.32
7.34
7.35
7.37
7.38

Sequence Voltages (V)

V0
V1
V2
25.24
7294.81
60.31
81.75
7295.27
47.15
140.47
7295.49
42.66
199.18
7295.5
48.7
257.64
7295.3
61.82
315.82
7294.91
78.2
373.65
7294.34
95.91
431.15
7293.6
114.1
488.3
7292.7
132.4
545.08
7291.65
150.59
601.49
7290.47
168.59

V2/V1
0.8%
0.6%
0.6%
0.7%
0.8%
1.1%
1.3%
1.6%
1.8%
2.1%
2.3%

A
368.26
381.99
395.3
408.19
420.67
432.74
444.42
455.71
466.62
477.16
487.34

A
7.17
7.1
7.02
6.94
6.86
6.79
6.71
6.63
6.56
6.48
6.41

Voltage
B
7.17
7.24
7.3
7.37
7.43
7.5
7.56
7.62
7.69
7.75
7.81

C
7.17
7.19
7.2
7.22
7.24
7.25
7.27
7.29
7.31
7.33
7.35

Sequence Voltages (V)

V0
V1
V2
0.02
7174.03
0.06
88.72
7173.81
32.68
176.95
7173.18
64.7
264.74
7172.14
96.06
352.03
7170.74
126.76
438.83
7168.98
156.81
525.1
7166.88
186.21
610.86
7164.47
214.97
696.09
7161.77
243.1
780.78
7158.78
270.59
864.92
7155.53
297.47

V2/V1
0.0%
0.5%
0.9%
1.3%
1.8%
2.2%
2.6%
3.0%
3.4%
3.8%
4.2%

A
368.26
381.99
395.3
408.19
420.67
432.75
444.42
455.72
466.63
477.17
487.34

V2/V1
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%

A
368.23
381.96
395.27
408.16
420.63
432.71
444.38
455.67
466.58
477.12
487.29

Sequence Currents
I1
0
368.23
6.43
368.11
12.82
367.74
19.18
367.13
25.5
366.28
31.78
365.19
38.03
363.86
44.25
362.29
50.42
360.49
56.55
358.47
62.65
356.22

Imbalance
I2/I1
PF
0.0%
2.3%
4.5%
6.7%
8.9%
11.0%
13.1%
15.2%
17.3%
19.4%
21.4%

0
0.04
0.07
0.11
0.15
0.18
0.22
0.25
0.29
0.33
0.36

0
8.38
16.59
24.63
32.5
40.21
47.74
55.12
62.33
69.38
76.27

Imbalance
I2/I1
PF
0.0%
2.3%
4.5%
6.7%
8.9%
11.0%
13.1%
15.2%
17.3%
19.4%
21.4%

0
0.04
0.07
0.11
0.15
0.18
0.22
0.25
0.29
0.33
0.36

Sequence Currents
I1
0
368.24
6.43
368.12
12.82
367.76
19.18
367.15
25.5
366.29
31.79
365.2
38.03
363.87
44.25
362.31
50.42
360.51
56.55
358.48
62.65
356.24

I2
0.02
8.39
16.6
24.64
32.52
40.22
47.76
55.13
62.34
69.39
76.29

Imbalance
I2/I1
PF
0.0%
2.3%
4.5%
6.7%
8.9%
11.0%
13.1%
15.2%
17.3%
19.4%
21.4%

0.01
0.02
0.05
0.09
0.12
0.15
0.18
0.21
0.24
0.27
0.3

Sequence Currents
I1
0
368.25
6.42
368.13
12.81
367.76
19.17
367.15
25.49
366.3
31.78
365.21
38.03
363.88
44.24
362.31
50.41
360.52
56.55
358.49
62.64
356.24

I2
0.02
8.39
16.6
24.64
32.51
40.21
47.75
55.13
62.34
69.39
76.28

Imbalance
I2/I1
PF
0.0%
2.3%
4.5%
6.7%
8.9%
11.0%
13.1%
15.2%
17.3%
19.4%
21.4%

0.01
0.03
0.05
0.08
0.11
0.14
0.16
0.19
0.22
0.24
0.27

Current
B
368.24
362.61
356.79
350.78
344.57
338.18
331.59
324.82
317.85
310.7
303.37

C
368.24
359.83
351.42
343
334.58
326.15
317.7
309.22
300.71
292.17
283.59

I0

Current
B
368.24
362.61
356.79
350.78
344.57
338.18
331.59
324.82
317.85
310.7
303.37

C
368.24
359.83
351.42
343
334.58
326.15
317.7
309.22
300.71
292.17
283.59

I0

Current
B
368.24
362.62
356.8
350.79
344.58
338.18
331.6
324.82
317.86
310.71
303.37

C
368.25
359.83
351.42
343.01
334.59
326.15
317.7
309.22
300.71
292.16
283.58

I0

Current
B
368.24
362.62
356.8
350.79
344.58
338.18
331.6
324.82
317.86
310.71
303.37

C
368.27
359.85
351.44
343.03
334.61
326.17
317.71
309.23
300.72
292.18
283.59

I0

I2
0
8.38
16.59
24.63
32.5
40.21
47.74
55.12
62.33
69.38
76.27

Node 1
V2/V1
0.8%
0.9%
0.9%
1.0%
1.1%
1.2%
1.3%
1.4%
1.5%
1.7%
1.8%

A
368.23
381.96
395.27
408.16
420.63
432.71
444.38
455.67
466.58
477.12
487.29

Sequence Currents
I1
0
368.23
6.43
368.11
12.82
367.74
19.18
367.13
25.5
366.28
31.78
365.19
38.03
363.86
44.25
362.29
50.42
360.49
56.55
358.47
62.65
356.22

I2

Node 2

Node 3

116

A
513.41
568.47
625.05
683.03
742.25
802.62
863.99
926.29
989.39
1053.22
1117.68

kVar Flow
B
513.32
505.63
497.51
488.95
479.94
470.50
460.61
450.29
439.53
428.35
416.77

C
513.39
467.41
423.04
380.29
339.17
299.68
261.83
225.63
191.09
158.21
126.99

Total kVar
Flow
1540.12
1541.51
1545.60
1552.27
1561.36
1572.80
1586.43
1602.21
1620.01
1639.78
1661.44

kW
A
2641.88
2710.43
2773.98
2832.72
2886.82
2936.46
2981.83
3023.12
3060.49
3094.14
3124.24

Native Load
Total kW
Load
B
C
2641.94 2641.95 7925.77
2625.05 2586.70 7922.18
2605.92 2531.54 7911.44
2584.56 2476.37 7893.65
2560.92 2421.12 7868.86
2534.99 2365.71 7837.16
2506.75 2310.05 7798.63
2476.17 2254.09 7753.38
2443.24 2197.74 7701.47
2407.93 2140.95 7643.02
2370.22 2083.65 7578.11

kVar Native Load

Total kVar
A
Load
B
C
-2.40
-2.45
-2.40
-7.25
-2.37
-2.47
-2.41
-7.25
-2.35
-2.48
-2.43
-7.26
-2.32
-2.51
-2.43
-7.26
-2.30
-2.52
-2.44
-7.26
-2.27
-2.55
-2.45
-7.27
-2.24
-2.56
-2.47
-7.27
-2.22
-2.58
-2.47
-7.27
-2.19
-2.60
-2.49
-7.28
-2.17
-2.62
-2.49
-7.28
-2.15
-2.64
-2.50
-7.29

Plot Information:
kW
Node 0
Total kW Losses /
I2/I1
Losses
kW Flow
0.0%
351.15
4.2%
2.3%
351.64
4.3%
4.5%
353.09
4.3%
6.7%
355.44
4.3%
8.9%
358.67
4.4%
11.0%
362.75
4.4%
13.1%
367.67
4.5%
15.2%
373.37
4.6%
17.3%
379.82
4.7%
19.4%
387.03
4.8%
21.4%
394.97
5.0%

Node 1
V1/V2
0.8%
0.9%
0.9%
1.0%
1.1%
1.2%
1.3%
1.4%
1.5%
1.7%
1.8%

Node 2
V1/V2
0.8%
0.6%
0.6%
0.7%
0.8%
1.1%
1.3%
1.6%
1.8%
2.1%
2.3%

117

Node 3
V1/V2
0.0%
0.5%
0.9%
1.3%
1.8%
2.2%
2.6%
3.0%
3.4%
3.8%
4.2%

I0
0.00
6.43
12.82
19.18
25.50
31.78
38.03
44.25
50.42
56.55
62.65

I1
368.23
368.11
367.74
367.13
366.28
365.19
363.86
362.29
360.49
358.47
356.22

I2
0.00
8.38
16.59
24.63
32.50
40.21
47.74
55.12
62.33
69.38
76.27

Total kW Loss
410.00

400.00

kW Loss

390.00

380.00

370.00

360.00

350.00

340.00
0.0%

2.0%

4.0%

6.0%

8.0%

10.0%

12.0%

14.0%

16.0%

18.0%

20.0%

Node 0 I2/I1
Transposed Total kW Loss

Nontransposed Total kW Loss

Equal Spacing Total kW Loss

Figure 82. Total line losses versus load imbalance for each line configuration
Total kW Loss / kW Flow
5.2%
5.1%
5.0%

kW Loss / kW Flow

4.9%
4.8%
4.7%
4.6%
4.5%
4.4%
4.3%
4.2%
0.0%

5.0%

10.0%

15.0%

20.0%

Node 0 I2/I1
Transposed % kW Loss

Nontransposed % kW Loss

Equal Spacing % kW Loss

Figure 83. Percent losses versus load imbalance for each line configuration

118

25.0%

Voltage Imbalance vs Current Imbalance

6.0%

5.0%

V2/V1

4.0%

3.0%

2.0%

1.0%

0.0%
0.0%

5.0%

10.0%

15.0%

20.0%

25.0%

Node 0 I2/I1

Node 1 V. Imbalance, NT
Node 1 V. Imbalance, T
Node 1 V. Imbalance, ES

Node 3 V. Imbalance, NT
Node 3 V. Imbalance, T
Node 3 V. Imbalance, ES

Node 2 V. Imbalance, NT
Node 2 V. Imbalance, T
Node 2 V. Imbalance, ES

Figure 84. Voltage imbalance versus load imbalance for each line configuration
Sequence Currents vs Current Imbalance
400.00

350.00

300.00

Amps

250.00

200.00

150.00

100.00

50.00

0.00
0.0%

2.0%

4.0%

6.0%

8.0%

10.0%

12.0%

14.0%

16.0%

18.0%

Node 0 I2/I1

I0, NT
I0, T
I0, ES

I1, NT
I1, T
I1, ES

I2, NT
I2, T
I2, ES

Figure 85. Sequence currents versus load imbalance for each line configuration

119

20.0%

Voltage Imbalance vs Current Imbalance

Equilateral Spacing Line

4.5%

4.0%

3.5%

V2/V1

3.0%

2.5%

2.0%

1.5%

1.0%

0.5%

0.0%
0.0%

2.0%

4.0%

6.0%

8.0%

10.0%

12.0%

14.0%

16.0%

18.0%

20.0%

Node 0 I2/I1
Node 1 Voltage Imbalance

Node 2 Voltage Imbalance

Node 3 Voltage Imbalance

Figure 86. Voltage imbalance versus current imbalance equilateral spacing line
Voltage Imbalance vs Current Imbalance

Nontransposed Line

3.0%

2.5%

V2/V1

2.0%

1.5%

1.0%

0.5%

0.0%
0.0%

5.0%

10.0%

15.0%

20.0%

Node 0 I2/I1
Node 1 Voltage Imbalance

Node 2 Voltage Imbalance

Node 3 Voltage Imbalance

Figure 87. Voltage imbalance versus current imbalance non-transposed line

120

25.0%

Sequence Currents vs Current Imbalance

Transposed Line

400.00

350.00

300.00

Amps

250.00

200.00

150.00

100.00

50.00

0.00
0.0%

5.0%

10.0%

15.0%

20.0%

25.0%

Node 0 I2/I1
I0

I1

I2

Figure 88. Voltage imbalance versus current imbalance transposed line

Sequence Currents vs Current Imbalance
Equilateral Spaced Line
400.00

350.00

300.00

Amps

250.00

200.00

150.00

100.00

50.00

0.00
0.0%

5.0%

10.0%

15.0%

20.0%

Node 0 I2/I1
I0

I1

I2

Figure 89. Sequence currents versus current imbalance equilateral-spaced line

121

25.0%

Sequence Currents vs Current Imbalance

Nontransposed Line

400.00

350.00

300.00

Amps

250.00

200.00

150.00

100.00

50.00

0.00
0.0%

5.0%

10.0%

15.0%

20.0%

25.0%

Node 0 I2/I1
I0

I1

I2

Figure 90. Sequence currents versus current imbalance for non-transposed line
Sequence Currents vs Current Imbalance

Transposed Line

400.00

350.00

300.00

Amps

250.00

200.00

150.00

100.00

50.00

0.00
0.0%

5.0%

10.0%

15.0%

20.0%

Node 0 I2/I1
I0

I1

I2

Figure 91. Sequence currents versus current substance for transposed line

122

25.0%

Table 14. The Effects of Circuit Spacing and Unbalanced Load on Percent Kilowatt Losses

I's
kW
Losses

Equilateral Spacing
Balanced Load
Unbalanced Load
Total
I2/I1 = 21.5%
I2/I1 = 0%
A
B
C
A
B
C
368.22
368.25
368.28
490.12 300.16
284.99
117.17

117.02

116.89

% Losses
Native
Load kW

351.08

414.10

-72.43

63.39

Total

405.06

4.2%

5.10%

7926

7584

Flat Non-Transposed
Balanced Load
I2/I1 = 2.5%
I's
kW
Losses

Unbalanced Load
I2/I1 = 22.9%

356.11

375.94

371.99

194.35

72.47

84.29

% Losses
Native
Load kW

351.11

274.51

494.92

305.56

131.84

390.48

-117.36

404.96

4.2%

5.10%

7920

7579

Flat Transposed
Unbalanced Load
I2/I1 = 21.4%

Balanced Load
I2/I1 = 0%
I's
kW
Losses
% Losses
Native
Load kW

368.23

368.24

368.24

117.05

117.04

117.06

487.29
351.15

417.26

303.37

283.59

-96.12

73.83

394.97

4.2%

5.0%

7925

7578

Notes:
A. Balanced loads result in less loss.
B. Kilowatt losses are greater for the non-transposed line than for the transposed line because %l2/l1
is more for the non-transposed line.
C. Unbalanced load is 4,500 kW on Phase A, 2,250 kW on Phase B, and 2,250 kW on Phase C.
Balanced load is 3,000 kW on each of the three phases.

Table 14 shows a summary of the effects of circuit spacing and unbalanced load on percent
losses. For the balanced load of 3,000 kW on each phase (total load of 9,000 kW), the 4.2%
real losses are the same for the equilateral spacing, flat non-transposed, and flat transposed.
For the unbalanced load of 4,500 kW on Phase A, 2,250 kW on Phase B, and 2,250 kW on
Phase C, the percent losses are 5.1% for the equilateral and flat non-transposed
configurations and 5% for the flat transposed configuration.

123

5.10 Secondary and Service Impedances and Voltage Drops

11.66 kVA

11.66 kVA

11.66 kVA

#2

#3

#1
#0
C

#0
Load =
70 kVA

100'

97.25A
B

#0

100'

48.63A

Isec = 97.25A

50 kVA
transf.

150'

C 100'

#0

#0

150'

48.63A

#0
#0

#0
C

C 100'

C 100'

100'

150'

150'

150'
#4

#5

#6

11.66 kVA

11.66 kVA

11.66 kVA

Figure 92. Distribution transformer servicing secondaries and services

Transformer size = 50 kVA

Dm = Maximum coincident total demand on the transformer
Dm = 70 kVA of load and losses
Cos = 0.90
70 kVA 2 (11.66 kVA) 1 46.68 kVA
Isec. = 1
= 2 240V = 97.25 A
2
240V

Iservice = (97.25A) = 48.63 A

R

IR = 43.76A

Load =
48.63A 25.84o
IR = 43.76A
R

Figure 93. Distribution service drop

124

The R and X values for the #0 triplex secondary and service are
R = 0.211 /1000'
X = 0.031 /1000'.
The voltage drop in secondaries B is
V = 2 (I R Cos + I X Sin )

Equation 5.71

= 2 [97.25 (0.211 /1000' x 150') 0.90 + 97.25 (0.031 /1000' x 150') .436]
= 2 (2.770 + 0.197)
V = 5.93 volts @ 240 V or 2.97 volts @ 120V base.

Equation 5.72

The drop in the services C is

V = 2 [48.63 (0.211 /1000' x 100') .90 + 48.63 (0.031 /1000' x 100') .436]
= 2 (0.920 + 0.067)
V = 1.97 volts @ 240 V or 0.99 volts @ 120V base.

Equation 5.73

The voltage drop for customers 2 and 5 is only 0.99 V, but for customers 1, 3, 4, and 6, it is
3.96 V (2.97 + 0.99).
Table 15. Voltage Drop Summary Transformer, Secondary, and Service Drop

Transformer
Secondary
Service
Total

25 kVA
N=3
No Secondary
3.68
-
0.99
4.67

50 kVA
N=2
N=4
No Secondary
Secondary
2.75
2.75
-
2.97
0.99
0.99
3.74
6.71

5.11 Secondary and Service Real Losses

Service Drop Real Losses:

The resistance of #0 aluminum service drops for 100' is

R service = 2 (0.211 /1000' x 100') = 0.0422 .

125

Equation 5.74

The resistance is doubled because of the forward and return path of the current.
I2service R service = (48.63)2 (0.0422) = 99.80 watts per service drop
Service drop total real losses = (6) (99.80 watts) = 598.8 watts

Equation 5.75
Equation 5.76

Secondary Real Losses:

R secondary = 2 (0.211 /1000' x 150') = 0.0633

I2sec. R secondary = (97.25)2 (0.0633) = 598.7 watts per secondary

Equation 5.77
Equation 5.78

Secondary total real losses = 2 (598.7 watts) = 1197.3 watts Equation 5.79
Total service and secondary real losses = 598.8 + 1197.3
= 1796.1 watts
Percent real losses =

1.796 kW
x 100 = 2.9%
(1.4) (50 kVA) (0.90)

Equation 5.80

Equation 5.81

Note: Add kilowatt losses for each circuit element and divide by the total kilowatt flow to
obtain total circuit percent losses. Percent losses cannot be added for each element.
A summary of the peak day (July 17, 2006) real power losses for the Milford substation
transformer, the DC8103 primary, overhead and padmount transformers, secondary, and
services is given in Table 16.
The percent real losses shown in the first column are for the 4.8-kV Hickory Distribution
Circuit, the reference of which is given in Note A. These are actual measured losses that total
5.2%, excluding the substation transformer. The next two columns represent the percent real
losses for the Milford 8103 circuit. The second column depicts the calculated losses based on
the average peak loading of the transformers and services and a lumped load representing the
peak circuit load placed at the midpoint to calculate the primary losses. The third column
shows the calculated losses determined from the simulation of the circuit for the peak load
hour on July 17, 2006.

126

Table 16. Peak Day Real Losses Comparison

Percent Losses
Transmission
Sub-transmission

---

3.5
4.5

---

Hickory

Milford 8103

Milford 8103

Substation transformer
Primary
Overhead and underground transformers
Secondary and services

0.70
A
3.1
A
1.3
A
0.8

0.729
B
3.82
B
1.22
D
0.95

Total circuit losses

Total system losses

5.2
13.9

5.99
14.72

0.702
C
3.59
C
1.50
D
0.89
E
0.31
D
E
5.98 5.4
14.68 14.10

Notes:
A. Data from Davis, Krupa, and Diedzic (1983)
B. Approximate based on average loading of transformers and services and lump
load placed at midpoint for the primary losses
C. Distribution Engineering Workstation
D. #4 MXAT Services used
E. #0 MXAT Services used

5.12 Shunt Capacitor Models

When capacitors are connected in parallel, kVAr = kVAr1 + kVAr2 + kVAr3 + ,
and when connected in series,
kVAr =

1
1
1
1
+
+
+
kVAr1 kVAr2 kVAr3

The capacitive reactance in ohms is

XC =

1
,
2 f C x 10 -6

Equation 5.82

where 1 f is 2,653 at 60 Hz, or

XC =

2653
, where C is 1 f.
C

From Equation 5.82, C is then

C=

10 6
.
2 f X C

Equation 5.83

127

Now, XC can be defined in terms of voltage and vars.

kVAr = kV IX, where IX =

Because kV =

V
, then
1000

kVAr =

XC =

V
.

X C

kV 2 1000
, and
XC

kV 2 1000
.
kVAr

Equation 5.84

The capacitance C in microfarads can be determined in terms of voltage and Vars by

substituting Equation 5.82 into Equation 5.84 and solving for C.
C=

1000 kVAr
kV 2 2 f

Equation 5.85

If the capacitance C and voltage are known, then KVAr can be found from Equation 5.85.
kVAr =

kV 2 2 f C
1000

Equation 5.86

Equations 5.84, 5.85, and 5.86 are the most commonly used. Two examples follow.
The ohms per phase for a 300-kVAr, three-phase, 4.8-kV, delta-connected capacitor bank is
kVAr/ =

300 kVAr
= 100 kVAr.
3

The line-to-line voltage applied across each capacitor is 4.8 kV. Applying Equation 5.84,
XC =

4.8 2 (1000)
= 230.4 .
100

The capacitance from Equation 5.85 is

C=

(1000) (100)

= 11.51f .
(4.8) 2 (377)

128

The ohms per phase for a 600-kVAr, three-phase, 13.2-kV, wye-connected capacitor bank is
kVAr/ =

600
= 200 kVAr.
3

The voltage across each capacitor is

XC =

13.2kV

, . Therefore, using Equation 5.84 results in

3

(7.620) 2 1000
= 290.3 ,
200

and the capacitance is

C=

(1000) (200)
= 9.14 f .
(7.620) 2 (377)

Capacitor models can be developed using Equation 5.84, which is repeated below.
kV 2 1000
XC =
kVAr .
The susceptance BC is the reciprocal of XC; therefore, BC from Equation 5.84 becomes
BC =

1
kVAr
=
,
X C kV 2 1000

Equation 5.87

where kVAr is the kilovars per phase and kV is the applied voltage across the capacitor. For
a wye-connected capacitor bank
BC =

1
kVAr
=
.
X C kVLN 2 1000

Equation 5.88

For a delta-connected capacitor bank

BC =

1
kVAr
=
.
X C kVLL 2 1000

Equation 5.89

The line currents for the wye-connected bank are written from Equation 5.88.
VAN = I C

IC

j XA

VAN
= VAN j BA,
j XA

Equation 5.90

129

I C = VBN j BB

Equation 5.91

I C = VCN j BC

Equation 5.92

For the delta-connected bank, the phase currents are:

IC

AB

IC

BC

IC

CA

= VAB j BAB

Equation 5.93

= VBC j BBC

Equation 5.94

= VCA j BCA.

Equation 5.95

The line currents are:

= IC

AB

IC

CA

Equation 5.96

IC = IC

BC

IC

AB

Equation 5.97

IC = IC

CA

IC

BC

IC

Equation 5.98

In matrix form, equations 5.96, 5.97, and 5.98 can be written as:
IC

IC

IC

-1

IC

AB

-1

IC

BC

-1

IC

CA

Equation 5.99

5.13 Step Voltage Regulator Models

Both Type A and Type B step VRs are modeled. The relationship between the source voltage
VS and load voltage VL for the single-phase step VR is:

VS = arVL,

Equation 5.100

where ar is defined as
ar = 1 m

Total % Range
Tap
#of Steps

Equation 5.101

130

with the following sign convention.

Raise
Lower

Type A
+
-

Type B
-

The relationship between source current and load current for the single-phase step VR is
IS =

1
I .
ar L

Equation 5.102

5.14 Synchronous Generator Model

The Distribution Engineering Workstation uses two models to represent the synchronous
machine: one for power flow and one for transient analysis. Because this study does not
involve transient analysis, only the power flow model is considered. Figure 94 is a graphical
representation of the power flow synchronous machine model.

Controller

P,Q Source

Figure 94. Steady-state synchronous machine model

The synchronous machine model used for power flow consists of a real and reactive power
source, along with the impedance Z (in this case, the synchronous impedance). The controller
takes measurements (specifically, voltage magnitude and power factor) from machine
terminals and allows the machine to operate in two modes: constant P with power factor
control or constant P and constant Q.
The model takes into account the minimum and maximum generation limits of the machine,
and the controller adjusts the P, Q Source based on the control mode. For example, if the
machine is in the constant P with power factor control mode, the controller will maintain real
rated power while varying the reactive power within the machine limits in an attempt to hold
the power factor at the point of measurement constant.

131

5.15 Self-Excited Induction Generator Model

C

Rotor
iqs

iqr

C
A
q

idr

ids
C

Figure 95. Two-phase primitive machine to be interconnected with an RLC load

A self-excited induction generator can be represented as a two-phase primitive machine with

stator windings fixed and rotor windings rotating. The currents ids and iqs are the stator
currents, and idr and iqr are the rotor currents in the direct and quadrature axes, respectively.
Figure 95 shows the mechanical angular speed of the rotor as = d/dt. A self-excited
induction generator with capacitor added is represented in Equation 5.103. The voltage drop
across the capacitor for the direct axis is vCd and for the quadrature axis is vCq. The term 1/pC
represents this voltage drop because
1
idt,
C

p = d/dt and

1
t

= dt
p
v=

132

vds

R1 + L1 p +

vqs

1
pC

0
R1 + L1 p +

0
=

Mp
1
pC

0
Mp

ids
iqs

vdr

Mp

R2 + L2 p

L2

idr

vqr

- M

Mp

- L2

R2 + L2 p

iqr

Equation 5.103
This equation represents the no-load condition, and the turns ratio is assumed to be unity.
Therefore, if needed, the ratio must be included when referring the rotor parameters to
the stator.
The mutual inductance M varies with the relative position between the stator and rotor. R1
and R2 are the stator and rotor resistances, and L1 and L2 are their inductances. The additional
voltage drop because of the mutual flux is
m = Mi, and
v=

d m
di i dM
.
=M +
dt
dt
dt
= Mpi + i pM

Equation 5.104

There is a nonlinear relationship between the magnetizing reactance and the magnetizing
current. Therefore, the mutual inductance M varies continuously. The term Mpi represents the
current variation because of the stator, and the term ipM is because of the rotation of the rotor.
5.15.1 Resistive Load
When a resistive load R is added in parallel with the self-excitation capacitor C, the voltage
across this R load is the same as the voltage across the capacitor. In the direct axis stator of
Figure 95, the addition of the load resistor changes the equivalent circuit to Figure 96.

Figure 96. Stator direct axis with an R load added

133

Because v load d = vCd = R i load d

and iCd = C

Equation 5.105

d v Cd
= C pvCd, then
dt

iCd = C p Ri load d.
Because
ids = iCd + i load d,
ids = R Cp i load d + i load d and
= i load d (R Cpi + 1).

Equation 5.106

From Equation 5.105,

i ds
.
i load d =
R C p +1

Equation 5.107

Substituting Equation 5.107 into 5.105, results in

v load d =

R i ds
.
R C p +1

Equation 5.108

The quadrature load voltage is obtained in a similar manner.

v load q =

R i qs

Equation 5.109

R C p +1

Now Equation 5.103 can be rewritten with the addition of the resistive load R from equations
5.108 and 5.109.
vds

R1 + L1 p +

R
R Cp + 1

vdr

Mp

R
R1 + L1 p + R Cp + 1
M

vqr

Mp

vqs
=

Mp

ids

Mp

iqs

R2 + L2 p

L2

idr

- L2

R2 + L2 p

iqr

Equation 5.110

134

5.15.2 RLC Load

When an RL load RL and LL is added in parallel with the self-excitation capacitor Cs, or a
combination of this excitation capacitor and other capacitors CL on the circuit in parallel, C
in the following equations considers this combination of capacitors. See Figure 97.

Figure 97. RLC load RL, LL, and CL connected to the self-excited capacitor CS

Because v load d = R i load d from Equation 5.105, v load d with load inductance added is
v load d = R i load d + L pi load d,

Equation 5.111

iCd = Cpv load d = (R C p + L C p2) i load d.

Equation 5.112

and

Now from Equation 5.112,

i d s = i C d + i load d = (R C p + L C p2) i load d + i load d

Equation 5.113

and
i load d =

i ds
.
R C p + L C p2 +1

Equation 5.114

From Equation 5.111,

v load d = R i load d + L pi load d, and
v load d = (R + L p) i load d.

Equation 5.115

Substituting i load d from Equation 5.114 into Equation 5.115 results in

v load d =

R+Lp
i ds .
R C p + L C p2 + 1

Equation 5.116

135

The quadrature load voltage becomes

v load q =

R+Lp
i qs .
R C p + L C p2 + 1

Equation 5.117

Equation 5.103 can be rewritten with the addition of resistance load R, inductive load L, and
capacitive load C using Equation 5.117.
Equation 5.118 is the impedance matrix for a single self-excited induction generator serving
an RLC load. It must be remembered that the variation in the magnetizing reactance because
of the magnetizing current must be included and corrected as in the development of
Equation 5.104.
vds
R1 + L1 p +

R +Lp

2
R Cp + L C p + 1

vqs
0

R1 + L1 p +

Mp

ids

Mp

R +Lp

2
R Cp + L C p + 1

iqs

vdr

Mp

R2 + L2 p

L2

idr

vqr

-M

Mp

- L2

R2 + L2 p

iqr

Equation 5.118
5.16 Inverter-Based Generator Model
The 400-kW, 500-kVA inverter-based generator consists of a high-speed AC generator
driven by a 440-kW twin-spool gas turbine engine. Figure 98 is a simplified one-line diagram
of the 400-kW, 60-Hz generator and inverter.

Engine Controller
Step up Transformer
( optional )

Rectifier

Inverter

CT

Main Circuit
Breaker

Load
Bus

=
Gas
Turbine

High Speed
Generator

Generator
Bus

Figure 98. One-line diagram of 400-kW inverter-based generator and prime mover

136

The unit has seamless transfer capability so it can operate in a current-source mode parallel
to the electric power system with only 10% load and switch without outage to deliver power
in the voltage-source mode to an islanded load. This generating unit has a continuous
overload capability of 110% of rated load at any power factor from -0.8 to 0.8, and it can
follow load steps of 25% up or down while maintaining frequency to less than +/-0.1 Hz. The
voltage distortion is less than 2%, and it can handle 100% load imbalance. During short
circuits, it can deliver 200% of rated current for about 8 seconds.
The inverter model is represented by the voltage pullback curves in Figure 99. The unit can
deliver 1.10 p.u. current (602 A rms) at 1.0 p.u. rated voltage (277 V rms) and 2.0 p.u.
current at 0.56 p.u. voltage. The inverse time-current characteristic is given in Figure 100.
1.2

Voltage (P.U.), 277 Vrms = 1.0 P.U.

kVA Limit = 550 kVA

P.F. < 0.8

0.8

0.6
y = -0.0477x3 + 0.5556x2 - 1.8574x + 2.4336
R2 = 0.9998

Current Limit
0.4

0.2

0
0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1.1

1.2

1.3

1.4

1.5

1.6

Current (P.U.), 602 Arms = 1.0 P.U.

Fi

5 22 V lt

P llb

kC

Figure 99. Voltage pullback curves

137

1.7

1.8

1.9

2.1

2.2

4.5
10000

log(y)=175.265*x -1715.528*x +6957.537*x 14963.291*x3+17999.078*x2-11485.441*x+3041.135

3.5

log(Time (secs))

2.5
100

Data
Curve Fit

1.5

10

1
0.5
0
1

1.1

1.2

1.3

1.4

1.5

1.6

1.7

Current (P.U.)

Figure 100. Inverse time-current characteristic

138

1.8

1.9

Time (secs)

1000

6 Project Results Circuit Voltage Profiles Under Different

Loading Conditions
6.1 Introduction
This section summarizes work to perform simulations to determine the circuit voltage
profiles of Milford Circuit DC 8103. The two-transformer Milford substation, shown in
Figure 101, is fed from two 41.57-kV tie lines and one 41.57-kV trunk line. The Milford DC
8103 circuit is fed by a delta-wye-connected 10-MVA LTC transformer with 10% tap
positions and 0 to 5% fixed taps. The primary voltage is 41.57 kV, and the secondary
voltage is 13.8 kV. The circuit is a 13.8-kV, multi-grounded, three-phase wye system, and it
serves approximately 76.2% residential, 4% commercial, and 19.8% light industrial loads.
See Table 17. The circuit summer peak maximum load is 15.3 MVA, and the summer peak
minimum load is 5.91 MVA. The annual load factor for the circuit is 0.42.

The circuit is about 31,000 ft, or 5.9 mi. The voltage profiles are determined for the peak
load day, referred to as the heavy load (HL) condition, and the minimum load day, referred to
as the LL condition, using eight traditional methods of voltage regulation. The voltage
profiles are shown for the following voltage regulation cases:
No circuit voltage regulation, with variable transformer primary voltages (41.57 kV)
ranging from 87%, 95%, 100%, and 105% voltage levels on a 120-V base (The 87%
voltage level represents the lowest voltage for emergency operation, and the 100%
voltage level represents the base case for determining the release capacity. The
balance of the simulations represents normal operating conditions for HL and LL
conditions with 95% and 105% primary substation voltages.)
The addition of LTC transformer regulation at the substation
The addition of step VR 1
The addition of step VR 1 and VR 2
The addition of capacitor CAP 1
The addition of capacitors CAP 1 and CAP 2
The addition of capacitors CAP 1, CAP 2, and CAP 3
The addition of all traditional voltage regulation methods (i.e., LTC, VR 1, VR 2,
CAP 1, CAP 2, and CAP 3).

139

Table 17. Circuit Customer Load Characteristics

Customer
Type

Number of
Customers

Annual
MWH

MW
Avg.

Annual
Load
Factor
Typ.

Residential
Commercial
Industrial

3178
120
3

32,610
2,667
15,529

3.72
0.304
1.77

0.35
0.57
0.66

Totals

3301

50,806

5.79

0.42

Tie Line
8623
Proud

P.F.

MVA
Peak

% on an
MVA
Basis

10.6
0.54
2.67

0.91
0.89
0.88

11.7
0.60
3.04

76.3
3.9
19.8

13.8

.90

15.3

100.0

MW
Peak

Tie Line
2819
Cody - Proud

Trunk Line
3107
Page

CAP 2
12 MVAr

N.O.
41.57 kV

#1

Section
Breaker

0% Fixed
10 MVA

#2

5% Fixed
10 MVA
+10%

+10%
Tie Line
6117
Placid

+5% Fixed

41.57/13.8 kV

Tie Line
5831

0% Fixed
Tie Line
6147
Placid

N.O.

"B" Cable

"A" Cable

41.57/13.2 kV

PTS 43283
13.2 kV

13.8 kV

DC 8066

DC 8103

Figure 101. Milford Substation one-line diagram

140

The Milford Circuit DC 8103 and substation are shown in Figure 102. It consists of a
substation, shown as a cross-hatched square and denoted as Node 0; three-phase sections,
represented as heavy-weight solid lines; and single-phase sections, represented as light
weight solid lines. The dotted lines represent two phases. The 10-MVA LTC transformer at
the substation has an impedance of 7.02%, with 0, 2.5%, and 5% fixed taps with highside and low-side settings of 0 and 5%. The LTC transformer is 10% with 16 steps.
The voltage was regulated at 126.0 V on the secondary bus of the transformer. The circuit
has three single-phase step bidirectional VRs (1) and three single-phase step bidirectional
VRs (2). These single-phase regulators are each rated 167 kVA and connected wye. The
second VR (2) is for study purposes. There are three capacitor banks. CAP 1 is a threephase, 900-kVAr capacity; CAP 2 is a 900-kVAr capacity; and CAP 3 is three-phase,
1200-kVAr capacity. All capacitors are pole-mounted, switched capacitors with wye
grounded connections.

141

J.

K.

24

19

M TS
TS

M TS

L.
M TS
TS

P
Phas
hase
eB

18

111V

P
Ph
hase
ase C
C

Phase A

I.
M T3

T3

80K

21

65K
H.
43199
4319
9

125K

20
20

M 3
8

4305
43052
2 C.

3 - S

Regulators
R
egulators

M 3
3

0
2

25
25

65K
65K
P
43283
Near
Near End
DR (Study)
1
3

4
recloser
re
closer

80K
80K

80K
80K

65K

3
3

125K

R
R-1
-1
5

mov
move
e

40K

65K

100K G.

2
MT3

T3

11

3
3

F..
F..
T3
R-3 MT3

140K
140K

80K

ZX

2

900 kVAr

14

D.
3

65K

3-S
3-S
reclosers
reclosers
S

M3

Far End
DR
(Study)

12

65K

2 2

P6
11

43095
43095

Sync.
S
ync. Generator

R
R

L
80K
80K

M TS
TS

900 kVAr

65K

2
ZX

40K

40K

L4
L4

26

26

2
65K
65K

28
40K
40K

25K
25
K
40K

Note (1):
(1):
PCC
ROC
(SOC)
(SOC)

3
3

DTECH
DTECH
(SOC)

65K
65K

40K

25K
27
27

Note (2):
VA, VB, VC
IA, IB, IC
P, Q

1000 kW

1000
kW
Synchronous
S
ynchronous Machine
Machine

Metering
Metering

Permanent
Installations
Installations

MT

Metering
Temporary
Installations

Note (3): Nodes where low voltage, high voltage, highest unbalance voltage, highest unbalanced load and nodes where

where
actual values exceed pre-set values (criteria violations) may be different than the nodes indicated above.

above.
Note (4): The LTC voltage regulator is gang operated using the C phase as reference.
Note (5): The "P" reclosure data is sent to midpoint DR consisting of I
kVAr A, kVAr B, kVAr C
C

, I , IC, V CN, V BN, V CN, kW A, kW B, kW C,

A B
A

Figure 102. Milford Circuit DC 8103

142

17

65K

400 kW Induction
Generator (Study)
Generator

14

10

Midpoint DR
Midpoint
((actual
actual site)
1000
1000 kW

M3
3

65K
65K

E.
80K

40K

3 - S

Regulators
Regulators
(Study)
(Study)

B.

Y, Z

P5
P5

80K
80K

40K

15

400
40
0 kW Inverter
Generator
Generator
((Study)
Study)

1200 kVAr

P1

A.

22

23

3
3

13

4324
43244
4

100K

40K

M T3
T3

16

17
Regulation
Path
h
Pat

4309
43090
0
PTS

A number of circuit protection devices are shown on the circuit. These include a three-phase
), three single-phase reclosers ( ), manual switches ( ), automatic controlled
recloser (
switches ( , in which a filled-in symbol represents the normally open mode), and three), which are identified with a number size and Type K.
phase and single-phase fuses (
Finally, there are three DR generators, a 1,000-kW synchronous generator at the midpoint
denoted as Node [10], a 400-kW induction generator at Node [17] for study purposes, and, at
the tag end of the circuit, and a 400-kW inverter-based generator at Node [23] for study
purposes. The generation simulations and their resultant voltage profiles with and without
traditional voltage regulation methods are provided in Section 10.
As noted earlier, nodes are placed throughout the circuit. These are points at which the real
and reactive power phase quantities, phase power factors, phase currents, and phase voltages
are calculated. Nodes are placed on each side of the step VRs to provide calculated values of
voltage before and after regulation and at each capacitor location to provide the calculated
values of voltage.
Table 18 provides the permanent metering points and quantities measured and the temporary
metering points and quantities measured. All metering points are designated by a letter (e.g.,
A, B, and C) that corresponds to the circuit one-line diagram of Figure 102. Those shown
with the letter T are temporarily installed for this project. Also, the metering may be threephase (3) or single-phase (S). The single-phase metering points J, K, and L are at the tag
ends of the circuit. These measured quantities and the three-phase quantities were compared
to the calculated values determined from the simulations, and adjustments were made to the
circuit models and loads to ensure the simulations agree with field measurements.

143

Table 18. Measurement Locations and Data Collection

Permanent Metering Locations
A.

Substation

M3

VAN, VBN, VCN

IA, IB, IC

P, Q, P.F.

B.

3 S Bidirectional regulators

M3

VAN, VBN, VCN

IA, IB, IC

P, Q, P.F.

C.

3 S reclosures

M3

VAN, VBN, VCN

IA, IB, IC

P, Q, P.F.

D.

1,000-kW Synchronous DR

M3

VAN, VBN, VCN

IA, IB, IC

P, Q, P.F.

Temporary Metering Locations

E.

Customer
(LV unbalanced voltage)

MTS

VAN

IA

P, Q, P.F.

F.

900-kVAr capacitor

MT3

VAN, VBN, VCN

IA, IB, IC

P, Q, P.F.

G.

900-kVAr capacitor

MT3

VAN, VBN, VCN

IA, IB, IC

P, Q, P.F.

H.

1,200-kVAr capacitor

MT3

VAN, VBN, VCN

IA, IB, IC

P, Q, P.F.

I.

3 circuit tag end

(LV unbalanced voltage)

MT3

VAN, VBN, VCN

IA, IB, IC

P, Q, P.F.

MTS

VCN

VBN

VAN

J.K.L. Single-phase tag ends

6.2 Circuit Simulations and Voltage Profiles

The simulations were extensive. To simplify the explanation of how they were conducted,
Table 19 describes the tests run. These tests were organized into four groups. The first group
consisted of tests 18, to which traditional voltage regulation (i.e., LTCs) was applied. The
second group consisted of tests 911, to which DG voltage regulation strategy tests were
applied. The third group consisted of tests 1217, to which the combined traditional LTC and
circuit regulation tests as well as DG regulation strategy tests were applied. The fourth group
consisted of all traditional voltage regulation and all generation voltage regulation strategies
(see tests 1819).

144

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25

I.A.
I.B.
I.C.
I.C '.
I.D
I.D '
I.D."
I.E.
II.A.
II.B.
II.C.
II.D.
II.E.
II.F.
II.G.
II.H.
II.I.

DR (Synchronous Machine)
Locations (1)
(a)Peak shave, P fixed
(b) P.F.= Unity, P variable
(c) + P.F. Constant, Variable P &
Q
(d) + Q (Vars Volt reg) P Min
(e) P+ jQ (Optimizing)
(f) Fixed P.F. Anti-island

LTC + 16 steps & neutral

Test Numbers

Reference. Section

Primary
Voltage
Spread

Peak Load Day 24 Hourly quantities

Light Load Day 24 Hourly
quantities

Table 19. Matrix of Voltage Regulation Simulations

(a)87%
Line
(b) 92%
Regulator Capacitors
(c)93%
Midpoint
(d) 95%
(Actual
(e) 98%
#1
#2
#1 #2 #3 Near End Site)
Far End
(f) 105%
(a) (d) (f) x
x
(d) (f)
x
x
x
(d) (f)
x
x
x
x
(d) (f)
x
x
x
x
x
(d) (f)
x
x
x
x
(d) (f)
x
x
x
x
x
(d) (f)
x
x
x
x
x
x
(d) (f)
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
(b) (d) (e)
x
x
x
(b) (d) (e)
x
x
x
(b) (d) (e)
x
x
x
Repeat IIA., IIB., IIC. turn on LTC
Repeat IIA., IIB., IIC. turn on LTC, and Regulator (1)
Repeat IIA., IIB., IIC. turn on LTC, and Regulator (1) and (2)
Repeat IIA., IIB., IIC. turn on LTC, and Regulator (1) and (2) and Cap. (1)
Repeat IIA., IIB., IIC. turn on LTC, and Regulator (1) and (2) and Cap. (1), (2)
Repeat IIA., IIB., IIC. turn on LTC, and Regulator (1) and (2) and Cap. (1), (2), (3)

Note (1): DR Control Strategies

(a.) The DR is operated at fixed real power output and normally Is scheduled to run during peak periods when
the cost of DR generation is lower than host utility cost. The Q is zero at the PCC. 984 kW rated
(b.) The DR is operated at unity P.F. with variable power output. 492 kW (50%) to 1050 kW max.
(c.) DR is operated at a fixed power factor either lead or lag (for example + 0.8 P.F.) with variable P and Q to
not violate voltage criteria.
(d.) The DR is operated as a synchronous condenser with minimum watts and variable VArs to regulate
voltage. 246 kW (25% of rated)
(e.) DR is operated with variable P and Q and is used to optimize to a specific set of criteria such as minimize
real losses, minimize reactive losses, regulate voltage and maximize released capacity.

145

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29

II.A.
II.B.
II.C.
II.D.
II.E.
II.F.
II.G.
II.H.
II.I.

(a)Peak shave, P fixed

(b) P.F.= Unity, P variable
(c) + P.F. Constant, Variable P
(d) + Q (Vars Volt Reg) P = 0
(e) P+ jQ (Optimizing)
(f) Frequency Dithering Anti-Island

LTC + 16 steps & neutral

Light Load Day 24 Hourly

quantities

Peak Load Day 24 Hourly quantities

Reference. Section

Test Numbers

Primary
Voltage
Spread

DR (H.S. Generator and Inverter)

Locations

(a)87%
Line
(b) 92%
Regulator Capacitors
(c)93%
Midpoint
(d) 95%
(Actual
(e) 98%
#1
#2
#1 #2 #3 Near End Site)
Far End
(f) 105%
(a) (d) (f)
(d) (f)
(d) (f)
(d) (f)
(d) (f)
(d) (f)
(d) (f)
(d) (f)
(b) (d) (e)
x
x
x
(b) (d) (e)
x
x
x
(b) (d) (e)
x
x
x
Repeat II.A., II.B., II.C. turn on LTC
Repeat II.A., II.B., II.C. turn on LTC and Regulator (1)
Repeat II.A., II.B., II.C. turn on LTC and Regulator (1) and (2)
Repeat II.A., II.B., II.C. turn on LTC and Regulator (1) and (2) and Cap. (1)
Repeat II.A., II.B., II.C. turn on LTC and Regulator (1) and (2) and Cap. (1) and (2)
Repeat II.A., II.B., II.C. turn on LTC and Regulator (1) and (2) and Cap. (1), (2) and (3)

146

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28

II.A.
II.B.
II.C.
II.D.
II.E.
II.F.
II.G.
II.H.
II.I.
III.
IV.

LTC + 16 steps & neutral

Light Load Day 24 Hourly

quantities

Reference. Section

Test Numbers

Primary
Voltage
Spread

Peak Load Day 24 Hourly

quantities

DR (Induction Generator)
Locations
(a)Peak shave, P fixed
(b) P.F.= Unity, P fixed
(c) + P.F. Constant, P fixed
(d) + Q fixed, P fixed
same as (c)

(a)87%
Line
(b) 92%
Regulator Capacitors
(c)93%
Midpoint
(d) 95%
(Actual
(e) 98%
(f) 105%
#1 #2
#1 #2 #3 Near End Site)
(a) (d) (f)
(d) (f)
(d) (f)
(d) (f)
(d) (f)
(d) (f)
(d) (f)
(d) (f)
(b) (d)
x
x
x
(b) (d)
x
x
x
x
x
x
Repeat II.A., II.B., II.C. turn on LTC
Repeat II.A., II.B., II.C. turn on LTC and Regualator (1)
Repeat II.A., II.B., II.C. turn on LTC and Regulators (1) & (2)
Repeat II.A., II.B., II.C. turn on LTC, Reg. (1) & (2) and Cap (1)
Repeat II.A., II.B., II.C. turn on LTC, Reg. (1) & (2) and Cap (1) and (2)
Repeat II.A., II.B., II.C. turn on LTC, Reg (1) & (2) and Cap (1), (2) & (3)
Repeat synchronous and inverter generation
Repeat synchronous, inverter and induction generation

Far End

(b) (d)

The first step of properly setting up the simulations was to ensure the simulated data matched
the actual circuit conditions. Two conditions were modeled: the peak load day and the light
load day. The Milford Circuit DC 8103 had a maximum load of 15.3 MVA on the peak day
and a minimum load of 5.91 MVA on the peak day.

147

To verify the accuracy of the model, simulation results for a given time were compared
with recorded data. The modeled circuit was placed in a state closely resembling the
conditions of the actual system when the measurement was made; specifically, the LTC,
VR 1, and capacitor banks at nodes 6 and 12 (900 kVAr each) were enabled while at 100%
primary voltage. The simulation HL base case feeder currents were 578 A, 654 A, and 637
A for phases A, B, and C, respectively, compared with actual recorded currents of 565 A,
651 A, and 637 A. The simulated megavolt-amperes of the circuit were 14.89, compared to
a calculated 15.3 derived from the measured feeder currents and voltages. This was an error
of 2.42%.
The program employed to perform the modeling was the Distribution Engineering
Workstation. With it, load can be modeled as a constant current (CC), CP (P + j Q), or VDC.
At first, CC was selected to best represent the load characteristics of Milford DC 8103. But, as
discussed later (see Appendix B.1), all three models were tested by comparing the actual phase
currents at Node 0 with the simulated phase currents at Node 0. The VDC model yielded the
most accurate results, with only 2% error for Test 8. The CC model had an error of 5.3%,
compared with 12.3% error for the CP model. The circuit regulation path shown in Figure 102
illustrates the nodes on this path from the first circuit (Node 1) to the major junction (Node 3)
to the first step regulator (VR 1) to the next major junction (Node 8) and then through the
second step regulator (VR 2) to the next major junction node (Node 11) and the following
major junction (Node 14) and, finally, to the circuit tag end (Node 17). Voltage profiles are
shown through each of these major nodes. Base case simulations were conducted for 100%
voltage on the primary of the substation using only the LTC transformer regulation for both HL
and LL conditions. This case was used to determine the released capacity and the real loss
reduction when the 2/3s rule and 2/5s rule was applied for capacitive compensation and when
the optimized size and locations were determined by the Distribution Engineering Workstation.
The following circuit voltage profiles are shown for each test (i.e., tests 18 with the primary
substation voltage set at 95% and 105%). The first set of profiles is for HL conditions at 95%
and 105% primary voltage with different traditional voltage regulation methods applied.
Simulated voltage data as a function of circuit distance in thousands of meters are given in
Table 20 for the HL conditions. Simulated voltage data versus circuit length are given in
Table 21 for LL.

148

Table 20. Voltage Profile Data for HL Tests 1 Through 8

at 95% and 105% Substation Primary Voltage
Distance
0.1034
0.2378
0.3218
0.3218
0.5288
0.7648
1.3788
2.583
2.666
3.206
3.429
3.716
5.754
6.798
6.9262
7.0603
7.2034
7.3784
7.7094
7.9064
7.9064
8.2464
8.4174
8.8571
9.4411
9.6082
10.0174
10.3374
10.5075
10.8129
10.9501
11.0961
11.6971
12.0081
12.0291
12.0292
12.2671
12.3884
12.5244
12.6619
12.7589
12.9495
13.0549

Test 8 105
HL
123.4557
125.708
125.6375
125.6375
125.5127
125.3684
124.9925
124.2592
124.2088
123.896
123.7671
123.6015
122.4322
121.8696
121.8012
121.7295
121.6533
121.5602
121.3851
121.2815
121.2815
121.1003
121.0092
120.7771
120.4697
120.3851
120.1793
120.0189
119.9332
119.78
119.7113
119.6384
119.3406
119.1878
119.1799
119.1799
119.0908
119.0454
118.9949
123.5833
123.5494
123.4828
123.4461

Test 8 95
HL
111.3062
123.0442
122.9755
122.9755
122.8549
122.7151
122.3509
121.6403
121.5915
121.2882
121.1633
121.0028
119.8693
119.3236
119.2573
119.1876
119.1135
119.023
118.8527
118.7519
118.7519
118.5758
118.4872
118.2615
117.9625
117.8803
117.68
117.5239
117.4406
117.2915
117.2247
117.1537
116.8639
116.7151
116.7074
116.7074
116.6202
116.5758
116.5264
121.719
121.6858
121.6208
121.5849

Test 7 105
HL
123.6329
126.1231
126.0558
126.0558
125.9412
125.8093
125.4657
124.7952
124.7492
124.4645
124.3472
124.1965
123.1323
122.6233
122.5615
122.4967
122.4279
122.3438
122.1858
122.0923
122.0923
121.9286
121.8462
121.6366
121.3589
121.2829
121.098
120.9538
120.8768
120.739
120.6773
120.6118
120.3442
120.2071
120.2002
120.2002
120.123
120.0836
120.0398
119.6677
119.6369
119.5766
119.5434

149

Test 7 95
HL
111.5378
123.5816
123.5167
123.5167
123.4071
123.2809
122.9521
122.3106
122.2665
121.9942
121.8821
121.7379
120.72
120.2335
120.1744
120.1123
120.0464
119.9659
119.8145
119.7249
119.7249
119.5681
119.4892
119.2883
119.0223
118.9495
118.7724
118.6343
118.5605
118.4286
118.3695
118.3067
118.0505
117.9191
117.9126
117.9126
117.8384
117.8006
117.7586
117.4023
117.3728
117.3149
117.283

Test 6 105
HL
123.2305
125.9826
125.9165
125.9165
125.784
125.6336
125.2414
124.4755
124.4228
124.095
123.9599
123.7862
122.5577
121.9637
121.8913
121.8155
121.7349
121.6365
121.4511
121.3413
121.3413
121.1495
121.053
120.8069
120.4807
120.3907
120.1715
120.0005
119.9092
119.7458
119.6725
119.5947
119.2764
119.113
119.1063
119.1063
119.0306
118.992
118.9492
118.5847
118.5546
118.4955
118.4629

Test 6 95
HL
111.1696
122.6563
122.5933
122.5933
122.4678
122.3253
121.9537
121.228
121.1781
120.8676
120.7396
120.5751
119.4114
118.8488
118.7803
118.7084
118.6319
118.5384
118.3625
118.2582
118.2582
118.0761
117.9845
117.7508
117.4411
117.3557
117.1476
116.9853
116.8986
116.7434
116.6739
116.6
116.2978
116.1427
116.1363
116.1363
116.0647
116.0282
115.9876
115.6436
115.6152
115.5593
115.5284

Distance
13.3859
13.6541
13.9121
14.1148
14.5219
15.0699
15.2599
15.4019
15.5403
15.8453
16.1153
17.4453
17.6035
17.8465
18.2915
18.4488
18.6148
18.7818
19.1128
19.4183
20.0144
20.3923
20.7652
20.9525
21.4666
21.7311
21.9173
22.0473
22.1883
22.3543
22.4763
22.8133
22.9733
23.1957
23.3361
23.3575
23.5515
23.7088
24.0118
24.1251
24.3851

Test 8 105
HL
123.3272
123.2372
123.1493
123.0811
122.9253
122.7163
122.644
122.5915
122.5407
122.4272
122.3263
121.8485
121.7941
121.7104
121.5581
121.5041
121.4471
121.3896
121.2759
121.1659
120.9738
120.8534
120.7479
120.6938
120.5452
120.4684
120.4176
120.3945
120.3691
120.3392
120.3188
120.2615
120.2611
120.2593
120.2518
120.2507
120.2404
120.2324
120.2169
120.2111
120.1984

Test 8 95
HL
121.4686
121.3807
121.2948
121.2281
121.0757
120.8712
120.8006
120.7492
120.6994
120.5885
120.4897
120.0221
119.9687
119.8865
119.737
119.684
119.628
119.5716
119.46
119.352
119.1627
119.0441
118.94
118.8866
118.74
118.6642
118.614
118.591
118.5657
118.5358
118.5153
118.458
118.457
118.4543
118.4463
118.4451
118.4341
118.4255
118.4089
118.4026
118.3889

Test 7 105
HL
119.4355
119.3541
119.2746
119.2129
119.0711
118.8808
118.8151
118.7674
118.7212
118.618
118.5262
118.0925
118.0429
117.9665
117.8278
117.7785
117.7265
117.6742
117.5705
117.47
117.2951
117.1854
117.09
117.0408
116.9062
116.8365
116.7906
116.77
116.7473
116.7206
116.7024
116.6513
116.6524
116.6526
116.6469
116.6461
116.6383
116.6323
116.6207
116.6163
116.6069

150

Test 7 95
HL
117.1794
117.1013
117.025
116.9659
116.8297
116.647
116.5839
116.538
116.4937
116.3947
116.3065
115.8901
115.8424
115.7688
115.6351
115.5877
115.5376
115.4872
115.3873
115.2905
115.1221
115.0165
114.9246
114.8773
114.7477
114.6806
114.6364
114.6166
114.5946
114.5688
114.5512
114.5019
114.5029
114.5031
114.4976
114.4968
114.4892
114.4834
114.4722
114.4679
114.4588

Test 6 105
HL
118.3572
118.2775
118.1997
118.1393
118.0004
117.814
117.7496
117.7029
117.6576
117.5566
117.4666
117.0417
116.9931
116.9182
116.782
116.7337
116.6827
116.6313
116.5296
116.431
116.2595
116.152
116.0583
116.0102
115.8781
115.8098
115.7648
115.7445
115.7222
115.6959
115.6779
115.6277
115.6288
115.6289
115.6234
115.6225
115.6149
115.6089
115.5975
115.5932
115.5839

Test 6 95
HL
115.4284
115.3529
115.2793
115.2221
115.0905
114.9139
114.8529
114.8087
114.7658
114.6701
114.5849
114.1825
114.1362
114.0649
113.9354
113.8895
113.8409
113.7921
113.6953
113.6015
113.4383
113.3361
113.2471
113.2013
113.0758
113.0109
112.9681
112.9487
112.9274
112.9022
112.8851
112.8371
112.8381
112.8383
112.833
112.8321
112.8248
112.8191
112.8082
112.8041
112.7952

Distance
24.6292
24.8032
25.0212
25.1302
25.3432
26.3495
26.5235
26.9295
27.0567
27.3222
27.3813
27.6828
27.8391
27.9641
28.1491
28.4312
28.6137
28.983
29.633
29.925
30.264
30.904
31.183
31.4215
31.6365
31.7505
31.8455
32.0297

Test 8 105
HL
120.1855
120.1775
120.1669
120.1616
120.1602
120.1169
120.1087
120.0867
120.0802
120.0613
120.0555
120.0258
124.8328
124.8208
124.8031
124.7764
124.7643
124.7407
124.7009
124.6853
124.6764
124.6626
124.66
124.6582
124.6578
124.6579
124.6567
124.6513

Test 8 95
HL
118.3751
118.3664
118.3549
118.3492
118.3468
118.2991
118.2901
118.2664
118.2593
118.2394
118.2334
118.2027
125.3121
125.3
125.2822
125.2551
125.2429
125.2191
125.1789
125.1632
125.1541
125.14
125.1373
125.1354
125.1349
125.1349
125.1337
125.1283

Test 7 105
HL
116.5971
116.5912
116.5833
116.5794
116.5803
116.5492
116.5431
116.5263
116.5213
116.506
116.5011
116.4759
116.46
116.4494
116.4338
116.4102
116.3995
116.3787
116.3436
116.3299
116.322
116.3098
116.3076
116.3061
116.3059
116.306
116.305
116.3002

151

Test 7 95
HL
114.4493
114.4437
114.4361
114.4323
114.4331
114.403
114.3971
114.3809
114.3761
114.3613
114.3566
114.3322
114.3168
114.3066
114.2915
114.2687
114.2584
114.2383
114.2044
114.1911
114.1834
114.1716
114.1695
114.1681
114.1679
114.168
114.167
114.1624

Test 6 105
HL
115.5743
115.5685
115.5608
115.5569
115.5578
115.5272
115.5212
115.5047
115.4998
115.4848
115.48
115.4553
115.4396
115.4292
115.4138
115.3906
115.3802
115.3598
115.3253
115.3118
115.3041
115.2922
115.29
115.2885
115.2883
115.2884
115.2874
115.2827

Test 6 95
HL
112.786
112.7805
112.7731
112.7694
112.7702
112.741
112.7352
112.7195
112.7148
112.7004
112.6959
112.6722
112.6572
112.6473
112.6326
112.6105
112.6004
112.581
112.548
112.5351
112.5277
112.5163
112.5143
112.5128
112.5126
112.5127
112.5117
112.5073

Distance

Test 5 105
HL

0.1034
0.2378
0.3218
0.3218
0.5288
0.7648
1.3788
2.583
2.666
3.206
3.429
3.716
5.754
6.798
6.9262
7.0603
7.2034
7.3784
7.7094
7.9064
7.9064
8.2464
8.4174
8.8571
9.4411
9.6082
10.0174
10.3374
10.5075
10.8129
10.9501
11.0961
11.6971
12.0081
12.0291
12.0292
12.2671
12.3884
12.5244
12.6619
12.7589
12.9495
13.0549

122.938
126.1191
126.054
126.054
125.9091
125.7461
125.3209
124.4898
124.4327
124.0755
123.9283
123.739
122.3989
121.7472
121.6678
121.5846
121.496
121.3878
121.1841
121.0633
121.0633
120.8525
120.7464
120.4757
120.1168
120.0174
119.7751
119.586
119.4851
119.3044
119.2234
119.1373
118.7849
118.6037
118.5958
118.5958
118.507
118.4617
118.4113
117.9452
117.9097
117.84
117.8016

Test 5 95
HL
110.9229
122.0339
121.9726
121.9726
121.8367
121.6837
121.2847
120.5049
120.4512
120.1161
119.978
119.8004
118.5429
117.9315
117.857
117.7787
117.6954
117.5936
117.4019
117.2882
117.2882
117.0899
116.9901
116.7354
116.3976
116.3041
116.0761
115.8982
115.8032
115.6332
115.5569
115.4759
115.1443
114.9737
114.9664
114.9664
114.8829
114.8403
114.7929
114.355
114.3217
114.2562
114.22

Test 4 105
HL
122.3679
125.6008
125.5325
125.5325
125.3614
125.1687
124.6664
123.6842
123.6166
123.1915
123.0162
122.7908
121.1944
120.4109
120.3152
120.2245
120.128
120.01
119.7878
119.656
119.656
119.4264
119.3108
119.0157
118.6245
118.5158
118.2508
118.044
117.9336
117.736
117.6474
117.5532
117.1676
116.9693
116.9603
116.9603
116.8581
116.806
116.7479
121.8413
121.8023
121.7257
121.6834

152

Test 4 95
HL
110.3743
120.704
120.6399
120.6399
120.4788
120.2971
119.8238
118.898
118.8343
118.4334
118.2681
118.0555
116.55
115.8106
115.7203
115.6346
115.5434
115.4319
115.2219
115.0973
115.0973
114.8803
114.7711
114.4921
114.1223
114.0195
113.7688
113.5732
113.4688
113.2819
113.198
113.109
112.7441
112.5565
112.5479
112.5479
112.4503
112.4006
112.3453
117.2531
117.2159
117.1428
117.1024

Test 3 105
HL
122.402
125.6804
125.6127
125.6127
125.444
125.254
124.759
123.7909
123.7243
123.3056
123.1329
122.9109
121.3383
120.5671
120.473
120.3839
120.2891
120.1732
119.955
119.8256
119.8256
119.6
119.4865
119.1966
118.8124
118.7057
118.4456
118.2426
118.1343
117.9403
117.8533
117.7609
117.3825
117.1878
117.1791
117.1791
117.0798
117.0292
116.9729
122.089
122.0512
121.9769
121.9359

Test 3 95
HL
110.4374
120.8505
120.7874
120.7874
120.6303
120.4534
119.9924
119.0909
119.0289
118.6389
118.4781
118.2713
116.8066
116.0882
116.0005
115.9175
115.8292
115.7213
115.5181
115.3976
115.3976
115.1876
115.0818
114.8119
114.454
114.3547
114.1124
113.9233
113.8224
113.6417
113.5607
113.4746
113.1221
112.9408
112.9326
112.9326
112.8402
112.7931
112.7407
117.6882
117.653
117.5838
117.5456

Distance

Test 5 105
HL

13.3859
13.6541
13.9121
14.1148
14.5219
15.0699
15.2599
15.4019
15.5403
15.8453
16.1153
17.4453
17.6035
17.8465
18.2915
18.4488
18.6148
18.7818
19.1128
19.4183
20.0144
20.3923
20.7652
20.9525
21.4666
21.7311
21.9173
22.0473
22.1883
22.3543
22.4763
22.8133
22.9733
23.1957
23.3361
23.3575
23.5515
23.7088
24.0118
24.1251
24.3851
24.6292
24.8032

117.6775
117.5828
117.4906
117.4189
117.2574
117.0407
116.9658
116.9111
116.8582
116.7402
116.6352
116.1359
116.0783
115.9897
115.8284
115.7711
115.7107
115.6499
115.5294
115.4136
115.2081
115.0791
114.964
114.9051
114.7434
114.6599
114.604
114.5842
114.5622
114.5363
114.5187
114.4693
114.4702
114.4703
114.4648
114.464
114.4564
114.4505
114.4392
114.435
114.4258
114.4163
114.4106

Test 5 95
HL
114.1034
114.0144
113.9277
113.8603
113.7085
113.5047
113.4342
113.3828
113.3331
113.2221
113.1234
112.6539
112.5995
112.5157
112.3633
112.3092
112.2521
112.1947
112.0808
111.9713
111.7771
111.6552
111.5464
111.4907
111.338
111.259
111.2063
111.1875
111.1667
111.1422
111.1256
111.0789
111.0798
111.0799
111.0747
111.0739
111.0668
111.0612
111.0505
111.0465
111.0378
111.0288
111.0235

Test 4 105
HL
121.5472
121.443
121.3415
121.2625
121.0856
120.8479
120.7657
120.7058
120.6477
120.5182
120.403
119.8544
119.7913
119.6943
119.5176
119.455
119.3889
119.3223
119.1904
119.0638
118.8381
118.6963
118.5694
118.5045
118.3264
118.2343
118.1726
118.1498
118.1246
118.095
118.0747
118.0178
118.0168
118.0142
118.0063
118.0051
117.9942
117.9856
117.9692
117.963
117.9494
117.9357
117.9271

153

Test 4 95
HL
116.9724
116.8729
116.776
116.7006
116.5319
116.3053
116.227
116.1698
116.1144
115.9909
115.8811
115.3575
115.2969
115.2037
115.034
114.9738
114.9103
114.8464
114.7197
114.5982
114.381
114.2444
114.1218
114.0591
113.887
113.7982
113.7385
113.7158
113.6908
113.6614
113.6412
113.5846
113.5821
113.5775
113.5684
113.567
113.5546
113.5447
113.5258
113.5187
113.5029
113.4872
113.4771

Test 3 105
HL
121.8035
121.7026
121.6042
121.5277
121.3555
121.1244
121.0445
120.9862
120.9298
120.8039
120.692
120.1593
120.0982
120.0041
119.8329
119.7722
119.7081
119.6435
119.5157
119.3928
119.1747
119.0377
118.9155
118.853
118.6815
118.5928
118.5335
118.5124
118.489
118.4615
118.4427
118.3902
118.3913
118.3914
118.3856
118.3847
118.3767
118.3705
118.3586
118.3541
118.3444
118.3343
118.3283

Test 3 95
HL
117.4223
117.3283
117.2367
117.1654
117.005
116.7897
116.7153
116.661
116.6084
116.4911
116.3868
115.8906
115.8334
115.7453
115.5849
115.528
115.468
115.4076
115.2878
115.1727
114.9684
114.8401
114.7257
114.6671
114.5064
114.4234
114.3678
114.348
114.3261
114.3004
114.2828
114.2337
114.2347
114.2348
114.2294
114.2285
114.221
114.2152
114.204
114.1998
114.1907
114.1813
114.1757

Distance

Test 5 105
HL

25.0212
25.1302
25.3432
26.3495
26.5235
26.9295
27.0567
27.3222
27.3813
27.6828
27.8391
27.9641
28.1491
28.4312
28.6137
28.983
29.633
29.925
30.264
30.904
31.183
31.4215
31.6365
31.7505
31.8455
32.0297

114.403
114.3992
114.3999
114.3698
114.3639
114.3477
114.3429
114.3281
114.3234
114.2992
114.2838
114.2736
114.2585
114.2358
114.2255
114.2055
114.1717
114.1585
114.1509
114.1393
114.1371
114.1357
114.1354
114.1355
114.1345
114.1299

Test 5 95
HL
111.0162
111.0126
111.0133
110.9849
110.9793
110.9639
110.9594
110.9454
110.941
110.9181
110.9035
110.8939
110.8796
110.8582
110.8484
110.8296
110.7976
110.7851
110.7779
110.7669
110.7649
110.7635
110.7632
110.7633
110.7624
110.7581

Test 4 105
HL
117.9158
117.9102
117.9078
117.8608
117.8519
117.8286
117.8217
117.802
117.7961
117.7659
124.8491
124.8371
124.8195
124.7928
124.7807
124.7573
124.7177
124.7022
124.6933
124.6796
124.677
124.6751
124.6747
124.6747
124.6735
124.6682

154

Test 4 95
HL
113.4639
113.4573
113.4526
113.3966
113.3862
113.3595
113.3515
113.3299
113.3237
113.2918
125.4185
125.4064
125.3886
125.3617
125.3496
125.3259
125.286
125.2703
125.2614
125.2476
125.2448
125.2429
125.2425
125.2425
125.2413
125.2358

Test 3 105
HL
118.3202
118.3162
118.3171
118.2853
118.279
118.2618
118.2568
118.2411
118.2361
118.2104
118.194
118.1832
118.1672
118.1431
118.1322
118.111
118.0752
118.0612
118.0532
118.0409
118.0386
118.0371
118.0368
118.0369
118.0358
118.031

Test 3 95
HL
114.1681
114.1643
114.1651
114.1353
114.1294
114.1133
114.1086
114.0939
114.0893
114.0651
114.0498
114.0397
114.0247
114.0021
113.9919
113.972
113.9385
113.9253
113.9178
113.9063
113.9042
113.9027
113.9025
113.9025
113.9016
113.897

Distance
0.1034
0.2378
0.3218
0.3218
0.5288
0.7648
1.3788
2.583
2.666
3.206
3.429
3.716
5.754
6.798
6.9262
7.0603
7.2034
7.3784
7.7094
7.9064
7.9064
8.2464
8.4174
8.8571
9.4411
9.6082
10.0174
10.3374
10.5075
10.8129
10.9501
11.0961
11.6971
12.0081
12.0291
12.0292
12.2671
12.3884
12.5244
12.6619
12.7589
12.9495
13.0549

Test 2 105
HL
122.5967
126.1397
126.075
126.075
125.9154
125.7367
125.271
124.3601
124.2974
123.9043
123.7422
123.5337
122.0572
121.3351
121.247
121.1643
121.0764
120.9689
120.7665
120.6465
120.6465
120.4372
120.3318
120.0629
119.7063
119.6076
119.367
119.1791
119.0789
118.8994
118.8189
118.7334
118.3833
118.2033
118.1955
118.1955
118.1073
118.0623
118.0123
117.5493
117.514
117.4448
117.4066

Test 2 95
HL
110.633
121.3093
121.2491
121.2491
121.1006
120.9344
120.5011
119.6537
119.5954
119.2297
119.0789
118.885
117.5112
116.8394
116.7574
116.6805
116.5988
116.4988
116.3106
116.1991
116.1991
116.0044
115.9064
115.6563
115.3247
115.2329
115.0091
114.8344
114.7412
114.5743
114.4994
114.4199
114.0942
113.9268
113.9196
113.9196
113.8377
113.7959
113.7494
113.3197
113.2869
113.2227
113.1872

155

Test 1 105
HL
122.9494
121.7467
121.6862
121.6862
121.5367
121.3694
120.9332
120.0801
120.0214
119.6533
119.5015
119.3062
117.9233
117.247
117.1644
117.0871
117.0048
116.9042
116.7147
116.6024
116.6024
116.4064
116.3078
116.056
115.7222
115.6298
115.4045
115.2287
115.1349
114.9668
114.8914
114.8114
114.4836
114.3151
114.3078
114.3078
114.2253
114.1832
114.1365
113.7037
113.6707
113.606
113.5703

Test 1 95
HL
111.4887
110.7418
110.6914
110.6914
110.5674
110.4285
110.0664
109.3582
109.3095
109.0039
108.8779
108.7158
107.5674
107.0059
106.9374
106.8733
106.8051
106.7217
106.5647
106.4716
106.4716
106.3092
106.2274
106.0187
105.7419
105.6653
105.4786
105.3328
105.255
105.1156
105.0532
104.9868
104.7149
104.5752
104.5692
104.5692
104.5011
104.4664
104.4278
104.0708
104.0436
103.9902
103.9607

Distance
13.3859
13.6541
13.9121
14.1148
14.5219
15.0699
15.2599
15.4019
15.5403
15.8453
16.1153
17.4453
17.6035
17.8465
18.2915
18.4488
18.6148
18.7818
19.1128
19.4183
20.0144
20.3923
20.7652
20.9525
21.4666
21.7311
21.9173
22.0473
22.1883
22.3543
22.4763
22.8133
22.9733
23.1957
23.3361
23.3575
23.5515
23.7088
24.0118
24.1251
24.3851
24.6292

Test 2 105
HL
117.2834
117.1894
117.0978
117.0265
116.8662
116.6509
116.5765
116.5222
116.4697
116.3525
116.2482
115.7523
115.695
115.6069
115.4466
115.3898
115.3298
115.2693
115.1496
115.0345
114.8303
114.7021
114.5877
114.5292
114.3686
114.2856
114.2301
114.2103
114.1885
114.1627
114.1452
114.0961
114.097
114.0971
114.0917
114.0908
114.0833
114.0775
114.0662
114.062
114.0529
114.0434

Test 2 95
HL
113.0727
112.9854
112.9003
112.8342
112.6852
112.4851
112.416
112.3656
112.3167
112.2078
112.1109
111.6502
111.5967
111.5143
111.3645
111.3113
111.2552
111.1987
111.0868
110.9792
110.7883
110.6684
110.5615
110.5068
110.3566
110.279
110.2271
110.2087
110.1882
110.1642
110.1478
110.102
110.1028
110.1029
110.0978
110.097
110.09
110.0845
110.074
110.0701
110.0615
110.0527

156

Test 1 105
HL
113.4551
113.3672
113.2815
113.2149
113.0649
112.8635
112.7939
112.7431
112.6939
112.5843
112.4867
112.0228
111.969
111.8861
111.7353
111.6818
111.6254
111.5685
111.4559
111.3476
111.1555
111.0349
110.9273
110.8722
110.7211
110.643
110.5908
110.5722
110.5517
110.5275
110.511
110.4649
110.4658
110.4659
110.4607
110.46
110.4529
110.4474
110.4369
110.4329
110.4243
110.4154

Test 1 95
HL
103.8655
103.793
103.7223
103.6673
103.5433
103.3767
103.3191
103.2771
103.2365
103.1458
103.0652
102.6819
102.6366
102.5668
102.4398
102.3947
102.3472
102.2993
102.2045
102.1133
101.9515
101.8499
101.7593
101.7128
101.5855
101.5198
101.4758
101.4602
101.4429
101.4226
101.4088
101.37
101.3708
101.3709
101.3666
101.3659
101.36
101.3554
101.3465
101.3432
101.336
101.3285

Distance
24.8032
25.0212
25.1302
25.3432
26.3495
26.5235
26.9295
27.0567
27.3222
27.3813
27.6828
27.8391
27.9641
28.1491
28.4312
28.6137
28.983
29.633
29.925
30.264
30.904
31.183
31.4215
31.6365
31.7505
31.8455
32.0297

Test 2 105
HL
114.0378
114.0302
114.0264
114.0271
113.9972
113.9913
113.9752
113.9705
113.9558
113.9511
113.927
113.9117
113.9016
113.8866
113.864
113.8538
113.834
113.8004
113.7873
113.7798
113.7682
113.7661
113.7646
113.7643
113.7644
113.7634
113.7589

Test 2 95
HL
110.0474
110.0403
110.0367
110.0374
110.0094
110.0039
109.9888
109.9844
109.9707
109.9663
109.9438
109.9295
109.92
109.906
109.8849
109.8753
109.8568
109.8254
109.8131
109.8061
109.7952
109.7932
109.7919
109.7916
109.7917
109.7908
109.7865

157

Test 1 105
HL
110.4101
110.403
110.3994
110.4001
110.372
110.3664
110.3513
110.3468
110.333
110.3286
110.3059
110.2915
110.282
110.2679
110.2466
110.237
110.2183
110.1867
110.1744
110.1673
110.1564
110.1544
110.153
110.1528
110.1528
110.1519
110.1477

Test 1 95
HL
101.324
101.318
101.315
101.3156
101.2919
101.2872
101.2744
101.2706
101.259
101.2553
101.2362
101.224
101.216
101.2041
101.1862
101.1781
101.1624
101.1357
101.1253
101.1193
101.11
101.1083
101.1072
101.107
101.1071
101.1063
101.1027

Table 21. Voltage Profile Data for Light Load Tests 1 Through 8
at 95% and 105% Substation Primary Voltage
Distance
0.1034
0.2378
0.3218
0.3218
0.5288
0.7648
1.3788
2.583
2.666
3.206
3.429
3.716
5.754
6.798
6.9262
7.0603
7.2034
7.3784
7.7094
7.9064
7.9064
8.2464
8.4174
8.8571
9.4411
9.6082
10.0174
10.3374
10.5075
10.8129
10.9501
11.0961
11.6971
12.0081
12.0291
12.0292
12.2671
12.3884
12.5244
12.6619
12.7589
12.9495

Test 8 105
LL
125.9754
125.6501
125.6232
125.6232
125.617
125.6046
125.572
125.5091
125.5048
125.4822
125.4729
125.4611
125.3787
125.3473
125.3436
125.3329
125.3214
125.3075
125.2813
125.2659
125.2659
125.2381
125.2241
125.1886
125.1418
125.1295
125.1
125.077
125.0646
125.0425
125.0326
125.0222
124.9798
124.9582
124.9564
124.9564
124.9358
124.9253
124.9136
124.284
124.2758
124.2597

Test 8 95
LL
113.9697
126.1978
126.1708
126.1708
126.1647
126.1523
126.1198
126.057
126.0527
126.0303
126.0211
126.0093
125.9272
125.8961
125.8925
125.8817
125.8703
125.8563
125.8302
125.8148
125.8148
125.787
125.7729
125.7375
125.6906
125.6784
125.6488
125.6259
125.6135
125.5914
125.5815
125.5711
125.5287
125.5072
125.5054
125.5054
125.4847
125.4742
125.4626
125.3955
125.3873
125.3713

Test 7 105
LL
125.9744
125.648
125.6211
125.6211
125.6149
125.6024
125.5696
125.5064
125.5021
125.4794
125.4701
125.4582
125.3753
125.3437
125.34
125.3292
125.3177
125.3037
125.2776
125.2621
125.2621
125.2342
125.2201
125.1846
125.1376
125.1253
125.0957
125.0727
125.0602
125.038
125.0281
125.0177
124.9752
124.9536
124.9517
124.9517
124.9311
124.9205
124.9089
124.8416
124.8334
124.8173

158

Test 7 95
LL
113.9687
126.1954
126.1683
126.1683
126.1621
126.1496
126.1168
126.0535
126.0492
126.0265
126.0172
126.0053
125.9223
125.8907
125.887
125.8762
125.8647
125.8506
125.8244
125.8089
125.8089
125.7809
125.7668
125.7312
125.684
125.6717
125.642
125.6189
125.6064
125.5842
125.5742
125.5637
125.5211
125.4994
125.4976
125.4976
125.4769
125.4663
125.4546
125.3871
125.3789
125.3628

Test 6 105
LL
125.5215
126.246
126.2194
126.2194
126.1918
126.1567
126.0648
125.8856
125.8732
125.7984
125.7676
125.7279
125.4476
125.3146
125.2984
125.2746
125.2492
125.2181
125.1597
125.1251
125.1251
125.064
125.0333
124.9548
124.8508
124.8222
124.7525
124.6981
124.6691
124.617
124.5936
124.5688
124.4674
124.4152
124.4134
124.4134
124.3929
124.3825
124.3709
124.3038
124.2957
124.2798

Test 6 95
LL
113.4715
125.7513
125.7247
125.7247
125.6973
125.6622
125.5707
125.392
125.3798
125.3052
125.2745
125.2349
124.9556
124.823
124.807
124.7832
124.7579
124.727
124.6687
124.6342
124.6342
124.5734
124.5427
124.4646
124.3609
124.3324
124.263
124.2088
124.1798
124.1279
124.1046
124.0799
123.9789
123.9269
123.9251
123.9251
123.9047
123.8942
123.8827
123.8159
123.8078
123.7919

Distance
13.0549
13.3859
13.6541
13.9121
14.1148
14.5219
15.0699
15.2599
15.4019
15.5403
15.8453
16.1153
17.4453
17.6035
17.8465
18.2915
18.4488
18.6148
18.7818
19.1128
19.4183
20.0144
20.3923
20.7652
20.9525
21.4666
21.7311
21.9173
22.0473
22.1883
22.3543
22.4763
22.8133
22.9733
23.1957
23.3361
23.3575
23.5515
23.7088

Test 8 105
LL
124.2508
124.2215
124.2
124.1789
124.1626
124.1228
124.0693
124.0508
124.0375
124.0247
123.9958
123.9701
123.8498
123.8375
123.8185
123.7842
123.772
123.7591
123.7461
123.7203
123.6947
123.6585
123.6362
123.6182
123.6088
123.583
123.5696
123.5612
123.5534
123.5448
123.5347
123.5277
123.5082
123.5073
123.5057
123.5027
123.5022
123.498
123.4948

Test 8 95
LL
125.3624
125.3332
125.3118
125.2909
125.2747
125.2349
125.1816
125.1632
125.1499
125.1372
125.1084
125.0828
124.9629
124.9507
124.9317
124.8977
124.8855
124.8727
124.8597
124.8341
124.8086
124.7728
124.7507
124.733
124.7237
124.6983
124.685
124.6768
124.669
124.6605
124.6504
124.6435
124.6242
124.6234
124.622
124.619
124.6186
124.6146
124.6114

Test 7 105
LL
124.8085
124.7792
124.7578
124.7368
124.7206
124.6808
124.6274
124.609
124.5957
124.5829
124.5541
124.5285
124.4085
124.3962
124.3772
124.3431
124.3309
124.3181
124.3051
124.2794
124.2538
124.2179
124.1957
124.1779
124.1686
124.143
124.1297
124.1214
124.1136
124.105
124.0949
124.088
124.0686
124.0678
124.0663
124.0633
124.0628
124.0588
124.0556

159

Test 7 95
LL
125.3539
125.3245
125.303
125.282
125.2656
125.2257
125.1722
125.1537
125.1404
125.1275
125.0987
125.0729
124.9525
124.9401
124.9211
124.8869
124.8747
124.8618
124.8487
124.823
124.7973
124.7613
124.739
124.7211
124.7118
124.6861
124.6727
124.6644
124.6566
124.648
124.6379
124.6309
124.6114
124.6106
124.6091
124.6061
124.6057
124.6016
124.5983

Test 6 105
LL
124.271
124.2419
124.2207
124.1998
124.1837
124.1442
124.0912
124.0729
124.0597
124.047
124.0184
123.9929
123.8737
123.8615
123.8427
123.8088
123.7967
123.7839
123.771
123.7455
123.7202
123.6845
123.6624
123.6447
123.6355
123.6101
123.5969
123.5886
123.5809
123.5723
123.5623
123.5554
123.5361
123.5353
123.5337
123.5308
123.5304
123.5263
123.5231

Test 6 95
LL
123.7831
123.7542
123.733
123.7122
123.6961
123.6568
123.604
123.5858
123.5726
123.56
123.5315
123.5061
123.3873
123.3751
123.3563
123.3226
123.3105
123.2978
123.2849
123.2595
123.2342
123.1987
123.1767
123.1591
123.1499
123.1245
123.1114
123.1032
123.0955
123.0869
123.0769
123.07
123.0508
123.05
123.0485
123.0455
123.0451
123.041
123.0379

Distance
24.0118
24.1251
24.3851
24.6292
24.8032
25.0212
25.1302
25.3432
26.3495
26.5235
26.9295
27.0567
27.3222
27.3813
27.6828
27.8391
27.9641
28.1491
28.4312
28.6137
28.983
29.633
29.925
30.264
30.904
31.183
31.4215
31.6365
31.7505
31.8455
32.0297

Test 8 105
LL
123.4884
123.4861
123.4808
123.4755
123.4722
123.4678
123.4656
123.4642
123.4459
123.4425
123.4337
123.4311
123.4239
123.4218
123.4112
124.232
124.2276
124.221
124.2111
124.2065
124.1976
124.1829
124.1772
124.1739
124.1685
124.1674
124.1666
124.1662
124.1662
124.1658
124.1639

Test 8 95
LL
124.6053
124.6031
124.598
124.5929
124.5897
124.5855
124.5834
124.5823
124.5648
124.5615
124.553
124.5505
124.5435
124.5415
124.5311
123.6907
123.6863
123.6798
123.67
123.6654
123.6565
123.6419
123.6362
123.6329
123.6276
123.6265
123.6257
123.6253
123.6253
123.6249
123.6231

Test 7 105
LL
124.0494
124.047
124.0419
124.0367
124.0335
124.0292
124.027
124.0258
124.0079
124.0046
123.996
123.9934
123.9864
123.9843
123.9738
123.9678
123.9634
123.9568
123.947
123.9423
123.9335
123.9189
123.9131
123.9098
123.9045
123.9034
123.9026
123.9022
123.9022
123.9018
123.9

160

Test 7 95
LL
124.5921
124.5898
124.5846
124.5795
124.5762
124.5719
124.5697
124.5684
124.5505
124.5472
124.5385
124.5359
124.5289
124.5268
124.5162
124.5102
124.5058
124.4992
124.4893
124.4847
124.4758
124.4611
124.4553
124.452
124.4467
124.4456
124.4448
124.4444
124.4444
124.444
124.4422

Test 6 105
LL
123.5169
123.5146
123.5095
123.5044
123.5011
123.4969
123.4947
123.4935
123.4757
123.4724
123.4639
123.4613
123.4543
123.4523
123.4418
123.4358
123.4314
123.4249
123.4151
123.4105
123.4018
123.3872
123.3815
123.3782
123.373
123.3718
123.3711
123.3707
123.3707
123.3703
123.3685

Test 6 95
LL
123.0317
123.0294
123.0243
123.0192
123.016
123.0117
123.0096
123.0083
122.9907
122.9873
122.9788
122.9763
122.9693
122.9673
122.9568
122.9509
122.9465
122.9401
122.9303
122.9257
122.917
122.9025
122.8968
122.8935
122.8883
122.8872
122.8864
122.886
122.886
122.8856
122.8838

Distance

Test 5 105
LL

0.1034
0.2378
0.3218
0.3218
0.5288
0.7648
1.3788
2.583
2.666
3.206
3.429
3.716
5.754
6.798
6.9262
7.0603
7.2034
7.3784
7.7094
7.9064
7.9064
8.2464
8.4174
8.8571
9.4411
9.6082
10.0174
10.3374
10.5075
10.8129
10.9501
11.0961
11.6971
12.0081
12.0291
12.0292
12.2671
12.3884
12.5244
12.6619
12.7589
12.9495

125.1863
126.275
126.2487
126.2487
126.2059
126.1545
126.0206
125.7585
125.7404
125.6284
125.5822
125.5227
125.1016
124.8962
124.8712
124.838
124.8027
124.7596
124.6782
124.6299
124.6299
124.5453
124.5026
124.3937
124.2491
124.2089
124.1107
124.0341
123.9932
123.9198
123.8869
123.8519
123.7086
123.6347
123.6315
123.6315
123.5952
123.5767
123.5561
123.3715
123.3569
123.3283

Test 5 95
LL
113.1052
125.6313
125.6051
125.6051
125.5625
125.5114
125.378
125.1171
125.0992
124.9877
124.9417
124.8825
124.4633
124.2589
124.234
124.201
124.1659
124.1229
124.0419
123.9939
123.9939
123.9096
123.8672
123.7588
123.6149
123.5748
123.4772
123.4009
123.3602
123.2871
123.2544
123.2196
123.0769
123.0034
123.0002
123.0002
122.9641
122.9457
122.9251
122.7414
122.7269
122.6984

Test 4 105
LL
124.8272
126.2478
126.2214
126.2214
126.162
126.0928
125.9124
125.5592
125.5349
125.3819
125.3188
125.2376
124.6618
124.377
124.3422
124.3088
124.2732
124.2297
124.1477
124.0991
124.0991
124.0138
123.9709
123.8611
123.7154
123.6749
123.576
123.4987
123.4575
123.3836
123.3504
123.3151
123.1707
123.0962
123.093
123.093
123.0562
123.0374
123.0165
123.5686
123.5539
123.525

161

Test 4 95
LL
112.684
126.1644
126.1377
126.1377
126.0775
126.0072
125.8242
125.4657
125.441
125.2857
125.2216
125.1391
124.5544
124.2651
124.2297
124.1957
124.1595
124.1153
124.0318
123.9823
123.9823
123.8955
123.8519
123.7402
123.592
123.5507
123.45
123.3714
123.3294
123.2541
123.2203
123.1845
123.0374
122.9616
122.9583
122.9583
122.9205
122.9012
122.8797
125.2723
125.2574
125.2282

Test 3 105
LL
124.8297
126.2539
126.2276
126.2276
126.1685
126.0996
125.9201
125.5685
125.5443
125.3921
125.3293
125.2485
124.6755
124.3921
124.3575
124.3243
124.289
124.2457
124.1642
124.1158
124.1158
124.031
123.9883
123.8791
123.7343
123.694
123.5956
123.5188
123.4778
123.4043
123.3713
123.3363
123.1926
123.1186
123.1154
123.1154
123.079
123.0604
123.0396
123.5931
123.5785
123.5499

Test 3 95
LL
112.6858
126.1689
126.1422
126.1422
126.0822
126.0122
125.8297
125.4725
125.4478
125.2931
125.2292
125.147
124.5643
124.276
124.2408
124.2069
124.1709
124.1268
124.0437
123.9943
123.9943
123.9079
123.8644
123.7532
123.6055
123.5644
123.4641
123.3858
123.344
123.269
123.2354
123.1996
123.0531
122.9776
122.9743
122.9743
122.9368
122.9176
122.8963
125.29
125.2752
125.2462

Distance

Test 5 105
LL

13.0549
13.3859
13.6541
13.9121
14.1148
14.5219
15.0699
15.2599
15.4019
15.5403
15.8453
16.1153
17.4453
17.6035
17.8465
18.2915
18.4488
18.6148
18.7818
19.1128
19.4183
20.0144
20.3923
20.7652
20.9525
21.4666
21.7311
21.9173
22.0473
22.1883
22.3543
22.4763
22.8133
22.9733
23.1957
23.3361
23.3575
23.5515
23.7088
24.0118
24.1251
24.3851

123.3125
123.2614
123.2223
123.1843
123.1546
123.0881
122.9986
122.9677
122.9451
122.9231
122.8743
122.8308
122.6228
122.6001
122.565
122.5014
122.4787
122.4548
122.4308
122.3831
122.3373
122.2616
122.2142
122.1714
122.1495
122.0895
122.0585
122.0377
122.0301
122.0216
122.0117
122.0048
121.9857
121.9849
121.9834
121.9805
121.9801
121.9761
121.9729
121.9668
121.9645
121.9595

Test 5 95
LL
122.6827
122.6319
122.5929
122.5551
122.5256
122.4594
122.3704
122.3396
122.3171
122.2952
122.2466
122.2033
121.9964
121.9737
121.9388
121.8755
121.8529
121.8292
121.8052
121.7578
121.7122
121.6369
121.5896
121.5471
121.5253
121.4656
121.4347
121.414
121.4064
121.398
121.3881
121.3813
121.3623
121.3615
121.36
121.3571
121.3567
121.3527
121.3495
121.3435
121.3412
121.3362

Test 4 105
LL
123.5091
123.4576
123.4181
123.3797
123.3498
123.2827
123.1925
123.1613
123.1385
123.1164
123.0671
123.0233
122.8135
122.7905
122.7551
122.6909
122.668
122.6439
122.6196
122.5715
122.5253
122.4487
122.4007
122.3574
122.3353
122.2746
122.2432
122.2221
122.2143
122.2057
122.1955
122.1885
122.169
122.168
122.1662
122.1631
122.1626
122.1583
122.155
122.1485
122.146
122.1406

162

Test 4 95
LL
125.2121
125.1601
125.1202
125.0814
125.0512
124.9834
124.8923
124.8607
124.8377
124.8153
124.7655
124.7212
124.5093
124.486
124.4503
124.3854
124.3623
124.338
124.3134
124.2648
124.2181
124.1408
124.0924
124.0487
124.0264
123.9651
123.9334
123.9122
123.9043
123.8956
123.8854
123.8783
123.8586
123.8577
123.856
123.8529
123.8524
123.8481
123.8448
123.8383
123.8359
123.8305

Test 3 105
LL
123.5341
123.483
123.4439
123.4059
123.3762
123.3097
123.2202
123.1893
123.1667
123.1447
123.0959
123.0524
122.8444
122.8216
122.7866
122.7229
122.7003
122.6764
122.6524
122.6047
122.5589
122.4831
122.4357
122.3929
122.371
122.311
122.28
122.2592
122.2515
122.2431
122.2331
122.2263
122.2072
122.2064
122.2049
122.202
122.2015
122.1975
122.1944
122.1883
122.186
122.181

Test 3 95
LL
125.2302
125.1785
125.1388
125.1003
125.0703
125.0029
124.9123
124.8809
124.858
124.8358
124.7863
124.7422
124.5315
124.5085
124.4729
124.4085
124.3855
124.3613
124.337
124.2887
124.2423
124.1656
124.1175
124.0742
124.052
123.9912
123.9598
123.9387
123.9309
123.9224
123.9123
123.9054
123.886
123.8852
123.8837
123.8807
123.8803
123.8762
123.873
123.8668
123.8645
123.8594

Distance

Test 5 105
LL

24.6292
24.8032
25.0212
25.1302
25.3432
26.3495
26.5235
26.9295
27.0567
27.3222
27.3813
27.6828
27.8391
27.9641
28.1491
28.4312
28.6137
28.983
29.633
29.925
30.264
30.904
31.183
31.4215
31.6365
31.7505
31.8455
32.0297

121.9544
121.9512
121.947
121.9449
121.9437
121.9262
121.9229
121.9145
121.9119
121.905
121.903
121.8927
121.8868
121.8825
121.8761
121.8664
121.8619
121.8532
121.8389
121.8332
121.83
121.8249
121.8238
121.823
121.8226
121.8226
121.8222
121.8204

Test 5 95
LL
121.3311
121.3279
121.3237
121.3216
121.3204
121.303
121.2997
121.2913
121.2888
121.2819
121.2799
121.2697
121.2638
121.2595
121.2531
121.2435
121.239
121.2304
121.2161
121.2105
121.2073
121.2022
121.2011
121.2003
121.1999
121.1999
121.1995
121.1977

Test 4 105
LL
122.1352
122.1318
122.1273
122.125
122.1235
122.1046
122.1011
122.0921
122.0894
122.0821
122.08
122.0693
124.5168
124.5124
124.5059
124.496
124.4914
124.4826
124.468
124.4622
124.459
124.4537
124.4526
124.4517
124.4514
124.4513
124.4509
124.4491

163

Test 4 95
LL
123.8252
123.8217
123.8172
123.815
123.8136
123.7948
123.7914
123.7824
123.7797
123.7725
123.7704
123.7596
125.412
125.4075
125.4009
125.391
125.3864
125.3775
125.3628
125.357
125.3537
125.3484
125.3472
125.3464
125.346
125.346
125.3456
125.3438

Test 3 105
LL
122.1759
122.1727
122.1685
122.1664
122.1652
122.1477
122.1444
122.136
122.1335
122.1266
122.1246
122.1142
122.1083
122.104
122.0976
122.0879
122.0834
122.0747
122.0604
122.0548
122.0516
122.0464
122.0453
122.0445
122.0442
122.0441
122.0437
122.0419

Test 3 95
LL
123.8543
123.851
123.8467
123.8446
123.8434
123.8256
123.8223
123.8138
123.8112
123.8042
123.8022
123.7917
123.7857
123.7813
123.7749
123.7651
123.7605
123.7517
123.7372
123.7315
123.7283
123.723
123.7219
123.7211
123.7208
123.7207
123.7203
123.7185

Distance
0.1034
0.2378
0.3218
0.3218
0.5288
0.7648
1.3788
2.583
2.666
3.206
3.429
3.716
5.754
6.798
6.9262
7.0603
7.2034
7.3784
7.7094
7.9064
7.9064
8.2464
8.4174
8.8571
9.4411
9.6082
10.0174
10.3374
10.5075
10.8129
10.9501
11.0961
11.6971
12.0081
12.0291
12.0292
12.2671
12.3884
12.5244
12.6619
12.7589
12.9495

Test 2 105
LL
124.8365
126.2705
126.2443
126.2443
126.1855
126.1169
125.9383
125.5886
125.5645
125.4131
125.3507
125.2703
124.7003
124.4185
124.3841
124.3511
124.3159
124.2729
124.1919
124.1438
124.1438
124.0595
124.0171
123.9086
123.7646
123.7245
123.6268
123.5505
123.5097
123.4366
123.4038
123.369
123.2263
123.1527
123.1495
123.1495
123.1134
123.0949
123.0744
122.8905
122.876
122.8475

Test 2 95
LL
112.7094
126.2252
126.199
126.199
126.1402
126.0717
125.8932
125.5436
125.5195
125.3682
125.3058
125.2255
124.6557
124.3741
124.3397
124.3067
124.2715
124.2286
124.1475
124.0995
124.0995
124.0152
123.9728
123.8643
123.7204
123.6803
123.5827
123.5064
123.4656
123.3926
123.3598
123.325
123.1823
123.1088
123.1056
123.1056
123.0695
123.051
123.0305
122.8467
122.8322
122.8037

164

Test 1 105
LL
124.8365
126.2705
126.2443
126.2443
126.1855
126.1169
125.9383
125.5886
125.5645
125.4131
125.3507
125.2703
124.7003
124.4185
124.3841
124.3511
124.3159
124.2729
124.1919
124.1438
124.1438
124.0595
124.0171
123.9086
123.7646
123.7245
123.6268
123.5505
123.5097
123.4366
123.4038
123.369
123.2263
123.1527
123.1495
123.1495
123.1134
123.0949
123.0744
122.8905
122.876
122.8475

Test 1 95
LL
112.9372
114.2202
114.1963
114.1963
114.1426
114.08
113.917
113.5978
113.5758
113.4376
113.3806
113.3072
112.7869
112.5297
112.4983
112.4681
112.436
112.3968
112.3228
112.2789
112.2789
112.202
112.1632
112.0642
111.9327
111.8962
111.807
111.7373
111.7001
111.6334
111.6035
111.5717
111.4414
111.3743
111.3714
111.3714
111.3383
111.3215
111.3028
111.1349
111.1217
111.0956

Distance
13.0549
13.3859
13.6541
13.9121
14.1148
14.5219
15.0699
15.2599
15.4019
15.5403
15.8453
16.1153
17.4453
17.6035
17.8465
18.2915
18.4488
18.6148
18.7818
19.1128
19.4183
20.0144
20.3923
20.7652
20.9525
21.4666
21.7311
21.9173
22.0473
22.1883
22.3543
22.4763
22.8133
22.9733
23.1957
23.3361
23.3575
23.5515
23.7088
24.0118
24.1251
24.3851

Test 2 105
LL
122.8317
122.7809
122.7419
122.7041
122.6746
122.6083
122.5192
122.4884
122.4659
122.4441
122.3954
122.3521
122.145
122.1223
122.0874
122.024
122.0015
121.9777
121.9537
121.9063
121.8607
121.7853
121.738
121.6954
121.6736
121.6139
121.583
121.5623
121.5547
121.5462
121.5363
121.5295
121.5105
121.5097
121.5082
121.5053
121.5049
121.5009
121.4977
121.4916
121.4894
121.4843

Test 2 95
LL
122.7879
122.7371
122.6982
122.6603
122.6308
122.5646
122.4756
122.4448
122.4223
122.4004
122.3518
122.3085
122.1015
122.0788
122.0439
121.9806
121.9581
121.9343
121.9103
121.8629
121.8173
121.7419
121.6947
121.6522
121.6304
121.5707
121.5398
121.5191
121.5114
121.503
121.4931
121.4863
121.4673
121.4665
121.465
121.4621
121.4617
121.4577
121.4545
121.4484
121.4462
121.4411

165

Test 1 105
LL
122.8317
122.7809
122.7419
122.7041
122.6746
122.6083
122.5192
122.4884
122.4659
122.4441
122.3954
122.3521
122.145
122.1223
122.0874
122.024
122.0015
121.9777
121.9537
121.9063
121.8607
121.7853
121.738
121.6954
121.6736
121.6139
121.583
121.5623
121.5547
121.5462
121.5363
121.5295
121.5105
121.5097
121.5082
121.5053
121.5049
121.5009
121.4977
121.4916
121.4894
121.4843

Test 1 95
LL
111.0813
111.0349
110.9993
110.9647
110.9378
110.8773
110.796
110.7679
110.7473
110.7274
110.683
110.6435
110.4545
110.4338
110.4019
110.3441
110.3235
110.3018
110.2799
110.2366
110.195
110.1261
110.083
110.0442
110.0243
109.9697
109.9416
109.9226
109.9157
109.908
109.899
109.8928
109.8754
109.8747
109.8733
109.8706
109.8702
109.8666
109.8637
109.8582
109.8561
109.8515

Distance
24.6292
24.8032
25.0212
25.1302
25.3432
26.3495
26.5235
26.9295
27.0567
27.3222
27.3813
27.6828
27.8391
27.9641
28.1491
28.4312
28.6137
28.983
29.633
29.925
30.264
30.904
31.183
31.4215
31.6365
31.7505
31.8455
32.0297

Test 2 105
LL
121.4793
121.4761
121.4719
121.4698
121.4686
121.4512
121.4479
121.4395
121.437
121.4301
121.4281
121.4178
121.4119
121.4076
121.4013
121.3916
121.3871
121.3785
121.3642
121.3586
121.3554
121.3503
121.3492
121.3484
121.3481
121.348
121.3476
121.3459

Test 2 95
LL
121.4361
121.4329
121.4287
121.4266
121.4254
121.408
121.4047
121.3963
121.3938
121.3869
121.3849
121.3746
121.3688
121.3645
121.3581
121.3485
121.344
121.3353
121.3211
121.3155
121.3123
121.3072
121.3061
121.3053
121.3049
121.3049
121.3045
121.3027

Test 1 105
LL
121.4793
121.4761
121.4719
121.4698
121.4686
121.4512
121.4479
121.4395
121.437
121.4301
121.4281
121.4178
121.4119
121.4076
121.4013
121.3916
121.3871
121.3785
121.3642
121.3586
121.3554
121.3503
121.3492
121.3484
121.3481
121.348
121.3476
121.3459

Test 1 95
LL
109.8469
109.844
109.8401
109.8382
109.8371
109.8212
109.8182
109.8106
109.8083
109.802
109.8002
109.7908
109.7854
109.7815
109.7757
109.7669
109.7628
109.7549
109.7419
109.7368
109.7339
109.7292
109.7282
109.7274
109.7271
109.7271
109.7267
109.7251

A summary of simulation information for each test, load condition, primary substation
voltage, and traditional voltage regulation method is displayed in Table 22. This table
summarizes the significant information collected from each simulation to show how these
significant data change for each simulation. The data given for each test are:

Lowest three-phase voltage: VA,

VB, VC
Lowest single-phase voltage
Highest unbalanced current: I2/I1%
Highest unbalanced voltage:
V2/V1%
Kilowatt losses per phase and total
Kilovar losses per phase and total
Released capacity per phase and
total.

Test number
Primary voltage: 95% or 105%
Load condition: HL or LL
Substation transformer LTC tap
setting (16)
Step VR tap settings (32)
Capacitor kVArc applied
Line currents (IA, IB, IC) at Node
[0]

166

Table 22. Simulation Summary Data for Tests 1 Through 8

Node 01

Pri. Volt
Test No.
%
1
95

Load
HL

LTC Tap
/ Reg
Tap
IA
NA
451.10

Lowest 3 Voltage

Lowest
1
Voltage

IB
511.63

IC
498.20

VA
101.10

VB
102.32

VC
102.04

100.81

95

LL

NA

208.36

240.56

234.39

109.72

110.18

110.01

109.59

105

HL

NA

542.98

614.92

598.73

110.14

111.60

111.22

109.80

105

LL

NA

228.26

263.55

256.78

123.06

118.60

117.22

121.20

95

HL

16

539.33

610.54

594.13

109.78

111.21

110.80

109.44

95

LL

16

228.19

263.43

256.63

123.02

118.60

117.22

121.16

105

HL

579.58

655.94

638.52

113.75

115.29

114.86

113.39

105

LL

228.26

263.55

256.78

123.06

118.60

117.22

121.20

16

566.73

640.04

620.83

112.87

113.35

111.81

111.25

16

232.26

267.90

260.58

122.89

118.60

117.22

121.79

608.51

687.11

666.73

117.11

117.64

116.00

115.40

229.42

264.82

258.19

123.03

118.60

117.22

121.89

16

576.90

650.25

626.60

112.49

112.98

111.65

111.10

16

232.70

268.15

260.71

122.87

118.60

117.22

121.78

614.37

692.81

669.94

116.90

117.44

115.92

115.32

230.08

265.30

258.44

123.00

118.60

117.22

121.93

16

529.93

603.50

586.65

110.75

112.16

111.80

110.40

14

211.04

245.95

238.81

122.91

118.60

117.22

121.05

563.43

641.46

623.81

114.12

115.63

115.26

113.75

-1

212.02

247.12

239.99

123.54

118.60

117.22

121.67

3
3
3
3
4

5
5
5
5

95
HL
VR (1) 32, 32, 32
95
LL
VR (1) 14, 14, 14
105
HL
VR (1) 32, 32, 32
105
LL
VR (1) 4, 4, 5
95
HL
VR (1) 32, 32, 32
VR (2) 16, 13, 13
95
LL
VR (1) 14, 14, 14
VR (2) 2, 1, 1
105
HL
VR (1) 32, 32, 32
VR (2) 9, 7, 7
105
LL
VR (1) 4, 4, 5
VR (2) 3, 2, 2
95
HL
Cap (1) 900 kVAr
95
LL
Cap (1) 900 kVAr
105
HL
Cap (1) 900 kVAr
105
LL
Cap (1) 900 kVAr

167

95
HL
Cap (1) 900 kVAr
Cap (2) 900 kVAr
95
LL
Cap (1) 900 kVAr
Cap (1) 900 kVAr
105
HL
Cap (1) 900 kVAr
Cap (2) 900 kVAr
105
LL
Cap (1) 900 kVAr
Cap (2) 900 kVAr
95
HL
Cap (1) 900 kVAr
Cap (2) 900 kVAr
Cap (3) 1200 kVAr
95
LL
Cap (1) 900 kVAr
Cap (2) 900 kVAr
Cap (3) 1200 kVAr
105
HL
Cap (1) 900 kVAr
Cap (2) 900 kVAr
Cap (3) 1200 kVAr
105
LL
Cap (1) 900 kVAr
Cap (2) 900 kVAr
Cap (3) 1200 kVAr
95
HL
VR (1) 32, 32, 32
VR (2) 9, 6, 6
Cap (1) 900 kVAr
Cap (2) 900 kVAr
Cap (3) 1200 kVAr
95
LL
VR (1) 0, 0, 0
VR (2) -1, -1, -1
Cap (1) 900 kVAr
Cap (2) 900 kVAr
Cap (3) 1200 kVAr
105
HL
VR (1) 28, 24, 24
VR (2) 6, 4, 5
Cap (1) 900 kVAr
Cap (2) 900 kVAr
Cap (3) 1200 kVAr
105
LL
VR (1) -3, -3, -3
VR (2) 1, 0, 0
Cap (1) 900 kVAr
Cap (2) 900 kVAr
Cap (3) 1200 kVAr

16

527.76

603.59

586.63

112.50

113.97

113.78

112.14

13

203.64

237.46

230.10

123.83

118.60

117.22

122.74

554.81

634.37

616.83

115.28

116.83

116.64

114.90

-2

204.37

238.34

230.99

124.32

118.60

117.22

123.22

16

524.72

601.75

586.04

114.16

115.66

115.53

113.79

12

205.36

235.24

228.50

125.76

118.60

117.22

124.29

545.03

624.99

608.99

116.29

117.87

117.76

115.91

-4

204.54

234.33

227.66

125.21

118.60

117.22

123.75

16

558.30

636.77

616.27

116.97

117.43

116.20

115.60

12

205.19

235.04

228.39

125.77

118.60

117.22

123.47

573.87

651.88

632.58

119.45

120.10

118.73

118.11

-4

203.94

233.47

226.89

125.22

118.60

117.22

123.61

168

Highest

Highest

I2/I1 %
100.06

V2/V1 %
1.32

A
159.26

100.15

1.26

53.79

100.06

1.43

218.89

100.15

1.26

59.67

100.06

1.44

218.28

100.15

1.26

60.03

100.06

1.48

246.50

100.15

1.26

59.67

100.06

1.49

240.17

100.15

1.26

61.32

100.06

1.52

271.04

100.15

1.26

59.99

100.06

1.44

251.98

100.15

1.26

61.52

100.06

1.48

100.15

kW Losses/ & Total

B
131.82
435.37
43.90
151.09
180.17
594.92
48.78
167.35
179.34
594.99
48.98
168.63
202.37
669.45
48.78
167.35
192.88
641.84
49.78
171.38
217.50
721.80
49.02
168.16
196.59
659.03

kVAr Losses/ & Total

C
144.29

A
509.98

C
637.60

A
32.23

53.40

111.47

146.52

16.88

195.86

739.94

921.89

9.84

58.90

133.79

175.86

-0.65

197.37

768.13

951.65

10.29

59.62

140.56

183.80

-0.79

220.58

859.41

1067.28

-0.10

58.90

133.79

175.86

-0.65

208.79

856.27

1048.32

5.73

60.28

145.82

189.69

-2.59

233.26

956.33

1173.85

-5.10

59.15

135.22

177.88

-1.16

210.46

894.06

1070.86

4.04

49.75
171.58

60.31

146.51

195.74
532.10

189.85

-2.79

-2.59
-2.58

-2.38

278.24

219.52
732.01

234.25

979.06

1257.47 1186.79
3423.32

-6.11

-5.75
-5.64

-5.08

1.26

60.29

49.03
168.51

59.19

136.17

182.72
497.10

178.21

-1.45

-1.33
-1.36

-1.31

100.06

1.42

215.79

100.15

1.26

56.68

100.06

1.45

238.77

100.15

1.26

56.63

182.39
598.54
47.82
162.86
201.82
660.01
47.95
162.64

200.36

752.38

11.85

124.56

219.42

821.34

58.06

120.21

11.28
11.49
7.04
7.41
2.72
2.92
6.25
6.62

11.38

58.36

977.98 941.40
2671.76
167.85 165.15
457.56
1069.08 1030.55
2920.97
162.41 160.21
442.83

169

B
664.33
1811.91
150.07
408.06
959.69
2621.52
180.12
489.77
992.13
2711.91
188.56
512.92
1111.33
3038.02
180.12
489.77
1101.07
3005.66
195.31
530.82
1231.29
3361.47
181.91
495.01
1146.18
3111.10

Released Capacity % /
Total

7.91
3.31
7.14

B
32.07
32.11
16.87
16.87
9.76
9.77
-0.66
-0.66
10.25
10.26
-0.79
-0.79
-0.13
-0.13
-0.66
-0.66
5.91
5.96
-2.50
-2.47
-4.88
-4.85
-1.14
-1.17
4.41
4.62

C
32.03
16.87
9.72
-0.66
10.25
-0.78
-0.15
-0.66
6.22
-2.33
-4.58
-1.21
5.35

7.35
2.78
6.55

100.06

1.36

213.16

187.86
602.96

201.94

739.70

973.85
2652.74

939.19

12.21

11.27
11.60

11.39

100.15

1.26

53.44

47.69
158.19

57.06

113.31

153.72
419.79

152.76

11.68

10.80
11.23

11.28

100.06

1.38

231.00

203.74
651.37

216.63

786.79

1037.76 1002.45
2827.00

5.41

4.41
4.75

4.50

100.15

1.26

53.28

47.79
157.81

56.74

109.03

148.31
405.27

147.93

11.09

10.19
10.63

10.66

100.06

1.31

214.50

191.42
613.54

207.62

735.61

974.26
2650.68

940.81

12.72

11.54
11.88

11.48

100.15

1.26

54.09

47.32
159.27

57.86

116.29

151.68
419.28

151.31

11.49

12.18
12.06

12.44

100.05

1.33

227.32

203.40
648.82

218.10

761.52

1011.00
2750.69

978.17

7.68

6.44
6.79

6.32

100.15

1.26

53.41

47.01
157.52

57.10

109.99

143.76
397.82

144.07

12.23

12.90
12.78

13.15

100.06

1.31

242.97

207.48
670.63

220.18

843.99

1105.93 1049.85
2999.77

7.13

6.39
6.80

6.91

100.15

1.26

54.02

47.28
159.16

57.86

116.06

151.36
418.58

151.16

11.56

12.25
12.12

12.48

100.05

1.27

252.36

214.40
695.05

228.29

854.80

1111.50 1061.88
3028.18

2.80

2.42
2.63

2.70

100.15

1.26

53.29

46.80
157.07

56.98

109.40

142.70
395.15

12.49

13.22
13.07

13.44

170

143.05

Because line-to-line loads and line-to-neutral single-phase loads create a 100% load
imbalance at that node on the circuit, the highest load imbalance data are not very
meaningful. For proof of 100% load imbalance, see Appendix B.2.
Therefore, a separate load imbalance, Table 23, was assembled to show the imbalance at
Node 0 and at the source of the circuit and the range of imbalance throughout the circuit (low
to high excluding 100%).

171

Table 23. Simulation Summary Data for Unbalanced Loading (Tests 1 Through 8)
I2 / I1 %

Test No. Pri. Volt %

1
95

Load
HL

LTC Tap /
Reg Tap Node 01
NA
3.77

Low
1.0444

High
(<100)
88.45

Max
100.06

95

LL

NA

4.72

2.4117

85.38

100.15

105

HL

NA

3.73

1.1119

88.42

100.06

105

LL

NA

4.72

2.4123

85.38

100.15

95

HL

16

3.70

1.1098

88.41

100.06

95

LL

16

4.71

2.399

85.38

100.15

105

HL

3.71

1.1348

88.40

100.06

105

LL

4.72

2.4123

85.38

100.15

16

3.59

1.1817

88.42

100.06

16

4.66

2.3741

85.38

100.15

3.60

1.1907

88.41

100.06

4.71

2.4308

85.38

100.15

16

3.44

0.9068

88.46

100.06

16

4.63

2.3226

85.38

100.15

3.51

1.0169

88.44

100.06

4.67

2.3681

85.38

100.15

16

3.87

0.7447

88.41

100.06

14

5.11

0.291

85.39

100.15

3.88

0.747

88.41

100.06

-1

5.12

0.2758

85.39

100.15

3
3
3
3
4

5
5
5
5

95
HL
VR (1) 32, 32, 32
95
LL
VR (1) 14, 14, 14
105
HL
VR (1) 32, 32, 32
105
LL
VR (1) 4, 4, 5
95
HL
VR (1) 32, 32, 32
VR (2) 16, 13, 13
95
LL
VR (1) 14, 14, 14
VR (2) 2, 1, 1
105
HL
VR (1) 32, 32, 32
VR (2) 9, 7, 7
105
LL
VR (1) 4, 4, 5
VR (2) 3, 2, 2
95
HL
Cap (1) 900 kVAr
95
LL
Cap (1) 900 kVAr
105
HL
Cap (1) 900 kVAr
105
LL

172

Cap (1) 900 kVAr

95
HL
Cap (1) 900 kVAr
Cap (2) 900 kVAr
95
LL
Cap (1) 900 kVAr
Cap (1) 900 kVAr
105
HL
Cap (1) 900 kVAr
Cap (2) 900 kVAr
105
LL
Cap (1) 900 kVAr
Cap (2) 900 kVAr
95
HL
Cap (1) 900 kVAr
Cap (2) 900 kVAr
Cap (3) 1200 kVAr
95
LL
Cap (1) 900 kVAr
Cap (2) 900 kVAr
Cap (3) 1200 kVAr
105
HL
Cap (1) 900 kVAr
Cap (2) 900 kVAr
Cap (3) 1200 kVAr
105
LL
Cap (1) 900 kVAr
Cap (2) 900 kVAr
Cap (3) 1200 kVAr
95
HL
VR (1) 32, 32, 32
VR (2) 9, 6, 6
Cap (1) 900 kVAr
Cap (2) 900 kVAr
Cap (3) 1200 kVAr
95
LL
VR (1) 0, 0, 0
VR (2) -1, -1, -1
Cap (1) 900 kVAr
Cap (2) 900 kVAr
Cap (3) 1200 kVAr
105
HL
VR (1) 28, 24, 24
VR (2) 6, 4, 5
Cap (1) 900 kVAr
Cap (2) 900 kVAr
Cap (3) 1200 kVAr
105
LL
VR (1) -3, -3, -3
VR (2) 1, 0, 0
Cap (1) 900 kVAr
Cap (2) 900 kVAr
Cap (3) 1200 kVAr

16

4.02

0.7303

88.43

100.06

13

5.38

0.25

85.40

100.15

4.03

0.727

88.43

100.06

-2

5.38

0.2343

85.41

100.15

16

4.18

0.701

88.45

100.06

12

5.44

0.1901

85.43

100.15

4.19

0.6916

88.45

100.05

-4

5.44

0.1729

85.44

100.15

16

3.89

0.6814

88.49

100.06

12

5.45

0.1907

85.43

100.15

3.80

0.6566

88.50

100.05

-4

5.42

0.171

85.44

100.15

173

Finally, Appendix B contains selected simulation data by node for each item listed.
6.2.1 Heavy Load Circuit Voltage Profiles (First Set 95% and 105%
Primary Voltage)
Figure 103 shows the voltage profiles for each test, 1 through 8, at 105% and 95% substation
primary voltage and HL condition. The figure shows a vast range of voltage spread (highest to
lowest) throughout the circuit. The voltages shown are located at the secondary of the circuit
distribution transformer. Therefore, an additional 3 V have been added to Range A (i.e., 114
V + 3 V = 117 V) for a minimum acceptable level of 117 V and a maximum acceptable level
of 129 V (126 V + 3 V = 129 V). This addition accounts for the voltage drop in the secondary
and service drop to the customer because Range A of ANSI Standard C84.1 is the voltage at
the customers meter. The regulated voltage is to remain within these maximum and
minimum values of 129 V and 117 V.
Voltage Profiles
Node 1

Node 3

Node 8

Node 11

Node 14

Node 17

MAX (129 V)

128

123

Test 8 105 HL
Test 8 95 HL
Test 7 105 HL
Test 7 95 HL
Test 6 105 HL
Test 6 95 HL
Test 5 105 HL
Test 5 95 HL
Test 4 105 HL
Test 4 95 HL
Test 3 105 HL
Test 3 95 HL
Test 2 105 HL
Test 2 95 HL
Test 1 105 HL
Test 1 95 HL

118

MIN (117 V)

Volts

113

108

103

98

93

88
0

10

15

20

25

30

35

Distance from Substation (1000 ft)

Figure 103. HL circuit voltage profiles for all tests

(first set 95% and 105% substation primary voltage)

In Table 24, the voltage spread throughout the circuit for Test 1 has a range of 25.2 V
with no LTC regulation. For Test 8, it is only 10.4 V with all methods of regulation. As more
regulation is sequentially added to the circuit, the voltage spread reduces.

174

Table 24. HL Circuit Voltage Profiles (First Set)

Test No.

Substation Primary Voltage

Spread and Load Condition

Voltage Regulation Method

Voltage Spread
Highest Lowest
ThreeSinglePhase
Phase

Test 1

95%, 105%, HL

No LTC

126.01

100.81

Test 2

95%, 105%, HL

LTC

126.08

109.44

Test 3

95%, 105%, HL

LTC, VR 1

126.00

111.25

Test 4

95%, 105%, HL

LTC, VR 1, VR 2

126.00

111.10

Test 5

95%, 105%, HL

LTC, CAP 1

126.05

110.40

Test 6

95%, 105%, HL

126.00

112.14

Test 7

95%, 105%, HL

126.20

113.79

Test 8

95%, 105%, HL

LTC, CAP 1, CAP 2

LTC, CAP 1, CAP 2, CAP 3
LTC, VR 1, VR 2
CAP 1, CAP 2, CAP 3

126.00

115.6

In the individual voltage profiles for Test 1, Figure 104, the voltage spread because of the
10% change (95% to105%) in the substation primary voltage is 9.05 V (or 110.15101.1 V).

Voltage Profiles
Node 1

Node 3

Node 8

Node 11

Node 14

Node 17

MAX (129 V)

128

123

118
MIN (117 V)

Volts

113
Test 1 105 HL
Test 1 95 HL

108

103

98

93

88
0

10

15

20

25

30

Distance from Substation (1000 ft)

Figure 104. Test 1 HL circuit voltage profiles

for 95% and 105% substation primary voltage (no LTC)

175

35

For Test 2, Figure 105 shows a significant improvement in voltage spread with the addition of
the LTC at the substation, even though the primary substation voltage spread is 10%. Here,
the spread is only 3.97 V (or 113.76 V109.79 V). Because the deadband for the LTC is 1 V,
the spread could be as much as 5.97 V.
Voltage Profiles
Node 1

Node 3

Node 8

Node 11

Node 14

Node 17

MAX (129 V)

128

123

118
MIN (117 V)

Volts

113
Test 2 105 HL
Test 2 95 HL

108

103

98

93

88
0

10

15

20

25

30

Distance from Substation (1000 ft)

Figure 105. Test 2 HL circuit voltage profiles

for 95% and 105% substation primary voltage (LTC)

176

35

Test 3, Figure 106, shows the benefit of adding the first step VR. The voltage profile with
105% primary voltage bumps the tag end voltage up to 118.04 V, and with a 95% primary
voltage, the tag end voltage is 113.9 V.
Voltage Profiles
Node 1

Node 3

Node 8

Node 11

Node 14

Node 17

MAX (129 V)

128

123

118
MIN (117 V)

Volts

113
Test 3 105 HL
Test 3 95 HL

108

103

98

93

88
0

10

15

20

25

30

35

Distance from Substation (1000 ft)

Figure 106. Test 3 HL circuit voltage profiles

for 95% and 105% substation primary voltage (LTC and VR 1)

177

When two step regulators are added, as in Test 4 (Figure 107), the tag end voltage at Node 17
reaches almost 124.67 V with 105% primary voltage, but at 95% primary voltage, this
becomes 125.24 V. At Node 8 with a primary voltage of 95%, the voltage gets down to
112.34 V.
Voltage Profiles
Node 1

Node 3

Node 8

Node 11

Node 14

Node 17

MAX (129 V)

128

123

118
MIN (117 V)

Volts

113
Test 4 105 HL
Test 4 95 HL

108

103

98

93

88
0

10

15

20

25

30

35

Distance from Substation (1000 ft)

Figure 107. Test 4 HL circuit voltage profiles

for 95% and 105% substation primary voltage (LTC, VR 1, and VR 2)

178

Test 5 uses the LTC at the substation transformer and Capacitor 1, located at Node 6, which
has a reactive capability of 900 kVArc to improve the voltage regulation. Notice that the rate
of change of voltage drop (or slope) in Figure 108 is less than that of Test 4 from the
substation to Node 8 because of the addition of the capacitor and less reactive current.
However, the voltage improvement compared with the two-step regulator test is considerably
less. The tag end voltage at Node 17 is 114.13 V for 105% primary voltage and 110.76 V for
95% primary voltage.
Voltage Profiles
Node 1

Node 3

Node 8

Node 11

Node 14

Node 17

MAX (129 V)

128

123

118
MIN (117 V)

Volts

113
Test 5 105 HL
Test 5 95 HL

108

103

98

93

88
0

10

15

20

25

30

35

Distance from Substation (1000 ft)

Figure 108. Test 5 HL circuit voltage profiles

for 95% and 105% substation primary voltage (LTC and CAP 1)

179

Test 6 results, shown in Figure 109, are based on two capacitors (1 and 2) located at nodes 6
and 12 of Figure 102 and the LTC transformer to regulate the circuit voltage. Here, the
voltage gradient is less than that of Test 5 because of the additional capacitor (2), and the tag
end voltage at Node 17 is 112.51 V compared with 110.76 V for Test 5 at 95% primary
voltage. It is common to gain about 2 V with the addition of the second capacitor.
Voltage Profiles
Node 1

Node 3

Node 8

Node 11

Node 14

Node 17

MAX (129 V)

128

123

118
MIN (117 V)

Volts

113
Test 6 105 HL
Test 6 95 HL

108

103

98

93

88
0

10

15

20

25

30

35

Distance from Substation (1000 ft)

Figure 109. Test 6 HL circuit voltage profiles

for 95% and 105% substation primary voltage (LTC, CAP 1, and CAP 2)

180

Test 7 involves the LTC and three capacitors. Its results are shown in Figure 110. These
capacitors consist of a 900 kVArc at Node 6 (Capacitor 1), a 900 kVArc at Node 12
(Capacitor 2), and a 1,200 kVArc at Node 13 (Capacitor 3). Now, the tag end voltage is up to
114.17 V at 95% primary voltage.
Voltage Profiles
Node 1

Node 3

Node 8

Node 11

Node 14

Node 17

MAX (129 V)

128

123

118
MIN (117 V)

Volts

113
Test 7 105 HL
Test 7 95 HL

108

103

98

93

88
0

10

15

20

25

30

35

Distance from Substation (1000 ft)

Figure 110. Test 7 HL circuit voltage profiles

for 95% and 105% substation primary voltage (LTC, CAP 1, CAP 2, and CAP 3)

181

Test 8, which uses all forms of regulation (i.e., the LTC, two step regulators, and three
capacitors), yields the best overall voltage profile with the lowest voltage at Node 8 of 116.53
V. The tag end voltage of 125.47 V is almost 11 V (10.96 V) more than that of Test 7 with
three capacitors and a primary voltage of 95%. See Figure 111. With105% primary voltage,
the lowest voltage of 118.99 V occurs at Node 8, just ahead of the first step regulator. Test 8
is the only voltage profile under HL conditions that almost meets a minimum voltage criteria
of 117 V (actual minimum = 116.53 V); all other profiles fail. This indicates a need for DG to
add more regulation at Node 10, where the 1,000-kW synchronous generator is sited.
Voltage Profiles
Node 1

Node 3

Node 8

Node 11

Node 14

Node 17

MAX (129 V)

128

123

118
MIN (117 V)

Volts

113
Test 8 105 HL
Test 8 95 HL

108

103

98

93

88
0

10

15

20

25

30

35

Distance from Substation (1000 ft)

Figure 111. Test 8 HL circuit voltage profiles for 95% and 105% substation primary voltage
(LTC, VR 1, VR 2, CAP 1, CAP 2, and CAP 3)

6.2.2 Heavy Load Comparison Circuit Voltage Profiles (Second Set 95%
Primary Voltage)
Because it is difficult to see how each voltage regulation method taken in succession
improves the voltage profile, voltage profile comparisons A through F are given in Figure 112
through Figure 118. The comparisons are also provided in Table 25 at 95% primary voltage.

182

Table 25. Voltage Profile Comparison for HL and 95% Primary Voltage
Test 2

Test 3

HL

LTC

VR 1

95%

HL

LTC

95%

HL

LTC

Test 5

95%

HL

LTC

Test 6

95%

HL

LTC

95%

HL

LTC

CAP 1, CAP 2, CAP 3

95%

HL

LTC

VR 1, VR 2, CAP 1, CAP 2, CAP 3

Test 4

95%

Test 7

Test 8

VR 1, VR 2

CAP 1

CAP 1, CAP 2

Comparison A, of Tests 2 and 3, is depicted in Figure 112. The Node 17 voltage

improvement, from adding the first step regulator, is 4.11 V.

Voltage Profiles
Node 1

Node 3

Node 8

Node 11

Node 14

Node 17

MAX (129 V)

128

123

118

MIN (117 V)

Volts

113

Test 3 95 HL

Test 2 95 HL

108

103

98

93

88

10

15

20

25

30

35

Distance from Substation (1000 ft)

Figure 112. Comparison A: Test 2 and Test 3 HL circuit voltage profiles

for 95% substation primary voltage (LTC versus LTC and VR 1)

183

When the second regulator is added (Comparison B), the tag end voltage, shown in Figure
113 at Node 17, goes up to 125.24 V, for a gain of 11.34 V.
Voltage Profiles
Node 1

Node 8

Node 3

Node 14

Node 11

Node 17

MAX (129 V)

128

123

118
MIN (117 V)

Volts

113
Test 4 95 HL
Test 3 95 HL

108

103

98

93

88
0

10

15

20

25

30

35

Distance from Substation (1000 ft)

Figure 113. Comparison B: Test 3 and Test 4 HL circuit voltage profiles

for 95% substation primary voltage (LTC and VR 1 versus LTC, VR 1, and VR 2)

184

As seen from Comparison C in Figure 114, the addition of the first capacitor for Test 5
marginally increases the voltage at Node 17 by 0.97 V (110.76109.79 V).
Voltage Profiles
Node 1

Node 8

Node 3

Node 14

Node 11

Node 17

MAX (129 V)

128

123

118
MIN (117 V)

Volts

113
Test 5 95 HL
Test 2 95 HL

108

103

98

93

88
0

10

15

20

25

30

35

Distance from Substation (1000 ft)

Figure 114. Comparison C: Test 2 and Test 5 HL circuit voltage profiles

for 95% substation primary voltage (LTC versus LTC and CAP 1)

185

Comparison D, for Tests 5 and 6, shows the voltage improvement from adding the second
capacitor. Figure 115 at Node 17 shows a 1.75-V improvement.
Voltage Profiles
Node 1

Node 8

Node 3

Node 14

Node 11

Node 17

MAX (129 V)

128

123

118
MIN (117 V)

Volts

113
Test 6 95 HL
Test 5 95 HL

108

103

98

93

88
0

10

15

20

25

30

35

Distance from Substation (1000 ft)

Figure 115. Comparison D: Test 5 and Test 6 HL circuit voltage profiles

for 95% substation primary voltage (LTC and CAP 1 versus LTC, CAP 1, and CAP 2)

186

Comparison E, Figure 116, shows a voltage rise at Node 17 of only 1.66 V with the addition
of the third capacitor.
Voltage Profiles
Node 1

Node 8

Node 3

Node 14

Node 11

Node 17

MAX (129 V)

128

123

118
MIN (117 V)

Volts

113
Test 7 95 HL
Test 6 95 HL

108

103

98

93

88
0

10

15

20

25

30

35

Distance from Substation (1000 ft)

Figure 116. Comparison E: Test 6 and Test 7 HL circuit voltage profiles for 95% substation
primary voltage (LTC, CAP 1, and CAP 2 versus LTC, CAP 1, CAP 2, and CAP 3)

187

Comparison F shows the greatest improvement when Test 2, with the LTC, is compared with
Test 8, with all methods of regulation.
Voltage Profiles
Node 1

Node 3

Node 8

Node 11

Node 14

Node 17

MAX (129 V)

128

123

118
MIN (117 V)

Volts

113
Test 8 95 HL
Test 2 95 HL

108

103

98

93

88
0

10

15

20

25

30

35

Distance from Substation (1000 ft)

Figure 117. Comparison F: Test 2 and Test 8 HL circuit voltage profiles for 95% substation
primary voltage (LTC vs. LTC, VR 1, VR 2, CAP 1, CAP 2, and CAP 3)

At Node 17 of Figure 117, the voltage difference between the two tests is 15.35 V (125.14
109.79 V). Of course, there are lower voltage gains at Node 8 and Node 14, which are the
voltages at the points just before the first and second step regulators.

188

Comparison G of Figure 118 shows the difference of voltage between Test 7 (with the LTC
and all capacitors on) and Test 8 (with all methods of regulation on). The voltage
improvement at Node 17 is 10.97 V (125.14114.17 V).
Voltage Profiles
Node 1

Node 3

Node 8

Node 11

Node 14

Node 17

MAX (129 V)

128

123

118
MIN (117 V)

Volts

113
Test 8 95 HL
Test 7 95 HL

108

103

98

93

88
0

10

15

20

25

30

35

Distance from Substation (1000 ft)

Figure 118. Comparison G: Test 7 and Test 8 HL circuit voltage profiles for 95% substation

primary voltage (LTC, CAP 1, CAP 2, and CAP 3 versus

LTC, VR 1, VR 2, CAP 1, CAP 2, and CAP 3)

6.2.3 Voltage Profile Data as a Function of Distance from Substation

to Tag End
Specific data for the highest three-phase and lowest single-phase voltage were provided in
Table 24 for tests 18 at 95% and 105% primary voltage during HL conditions. The distance
is given in thousands of feet from the substation to the end of the regulation path in Table 20.
6.2.4 Light Load Circuit Voltage Profiles (Third Set 95% and 105% Primary
Voltage)
A process similar to that for the HL voltage profiles is repeated for the LL voltage profiles
beginning with Figure 119 and ending with Figure 134. The LL circuit is 5.91 MVA
compared with the LL base case of 5.96 MVA. Even though the LL base case is 5.96 MVA
compared with the HL base case of 14.89 MVA, there is one test, Test 1 at 95% with no LTC
regulation, in which the voltage is below the minimum acceptable level of 114.7 V. All the
rest of the test voltage profiles are above the minimum voltage level.

189

The voltage spread throughout the circuit for Test 1 is shown in Table 26 to be only 16.65 V
(126.24109.59 V). This compares to 25.2 V for the same test during HL conditions and no
LTC regulation. As additional regulation is added to the circuit, the voltage spread diminishes
to its lowest value of only 2.91 V for Test 8. During the LL period, the highest voltage on the
circuit reaches 126.38 V. Care should be exercised not to exceed 129 V when operating
distribution generation near the substation bus or near the load side of any of the two step
regulators. It may be necessary to operate DG with a strategy to absorb volt-amperes reactive
to prevent HV during light load.
Table 26. LL Circuit Voltage Profiles (Third Set)

Test

Substation Primary
Voltage Spread and Load
Condition

Test 1

95%, 105%, LL

No LTC

126.24

109.59

Test 2

95%, 105%, LL

LTC

126.24

121.16

Test 3

95%, 105%, LL

LTC, VR 1

126.23

121.79

Test 4

95%, 105%, LL

LTC, VR 1, VR 2

126.22

121.78

Test 5

95%, 105%, LL

LTC, CAP 1

126.25

121.05

Test 6

95%, 105%, LL

LTC, CAP 1, CAP 2

126.22

122.74

Test 7

95%, 105%, LL
95%, 105%, LL

LTC, CAP 1, CAP 2, CAP 3

LTC, VR 1, VR 2, CAP 1,
CAP 2, CAP 3

126.37
126.38

123.75
123.47

Test 8

Voltage Regulation
Method

190

Voltage Spread
Highest
Lowest
Three-Phase
Single-Phase

Voltage Profiles
Node 1

Node 3

Node 8

Node 11

Node 14

Node 17

128
MAX 126.7 V

123

Test 8 105 LL
Test 8 95 LL
Test 7 105 LL
Test 7 95 LL
Test 6 105 LL
Test 6 95 LL
Test 5 105 LL
Test 5 95 LL
Test 4 105 LL
Test 4 95 LL
Test 3 105 LL
Test 3 95 LL
Test 2 105 LL
Test 2 95 LL
Test 1 105 LL
Test 1 95 LL

118
MIN 114.7 V

Volts

113

108

103

98

93

88
0

10

15

20

25

30

Distance from Substation (1000 ft)

Figure 119. LL circuit voltage profiles for all tests

(third set 95% and 105% substation primary voltage)

191

35

The Test 1 voltage profile shown in Figure 120 shows a uniformly wide voltage spread at
each node on the circuit as the primary voltage ranges from 95% to 105%. The voltage spread
at the tag end is 11.62 V (121.35109.73 V).
Voltage Profiles
Node 1

Node 3

Node 8

Node 11

Node 14

Node 17

128
MAX 126.7 V

123

118
MIN 114.7 V

Volts

113
Test 1 105 LL
Test 1 95 LL

108

103

98

93

88
0

10

15

20

25

30

Distance from Substation (1000 ft)

Figure 120. Test 1 LL circuit voltage profiles

for 95% and 105% substation primary voltage (no LTC)

192

35

When the LTC is added in Test 2, Figure 121, the voltage spread is still uniform, but it is
reduced considerably to only 0.05 V (121.35121.3 V) at Node 17.
Voltage Profiles
Node 1

Node 3

Node 11

Node 8

Node 17

Node 14

128
MAX 126.7 V

123

118
MIN 114.7 V

Volts

113
Test 2 105 LL
Test 2 95 LL

108

103

98

93

88
0

10

15

20

25

30

Distance from Substation (1000 ft)

Figure 121. Test 2 LL circuit voltage profiles

for 95% and 105% substation primary voltage (LTC)

193

35

The Test 3 profile, with the LTC and the first step VR, of Figure 122 shows a 1.68-V spread
beginning at Node 8 and continuing to the tag end of the circuit.
Voltage Profiles
Node 1

Node 3

Node 11

Node 8

Node 17

Node 14

128
MAX 126.7 V

123

118
MIN 114.7 V

Volts

113
Test 3 105 LL
Test 3 95 LL

108

103

98

93

88
0

10

15

20

25

30

35

Distance from Substation (1000 ft)

Figure 122. Test 3 LL circuit voltage profiles for 95% and 105% substation primary voltage
(LTC and VR 1)

194

Test 4 shows a similar condition when the second regulator is added. As shown in Figure 123,
there is no voltage spread up to Node 8, and at the tag end, the voltage spread is only 0.9 V.
Voltage Profiles
Node 1

Node 3

Node 11

Node 8

Node 17

Node 14

128
MAX 126.7 V

123

118
MIN 114.7 V

Volts

113
Test 4 105 LL
Test 4 95 LL

108

103

98

93

88
0

10

15

20

25

30

35

Distance from Substation (1000 ft)

Figure 123. Test 4 LL circuit voltage profiles for 95% and 105% substation primary voltage
(LTC, VR 1, and VR 2)

195

Test 5, with the first capacitor on, shows a worsening condition in voltage spread. But the

voltage spread at any node of Figure 124 is still very small. It is only 0.62 V

(121.82121.2 V).

Voltage Profiles
Node 1

Node 3

Node 8

Node 11

Node 14

Node 17

128
MAX 126.7 V

123

118
MIN 114.7 V

Volts

113
Test 5 105 LL
Test 5 95 LL

108

103

98

93

88
0

10

15

20

25

30

35

Distance from Substation (1000 ft)

Figure 124. Test 5 LL circuit voltage profiles for 95% and 105% substation primary voltage
(LTC and CAP 1)

196

When the second capacitor is added in Test 6, the voltage profile of Figure 125 shows little

change throughout the length of the circuit, and the voltage spread is very lowonly 0.48 V

(123.37122.98 V) at Node 17.

Voltage Profiles
Node 1

Node 3

Node 8

Node 11

Node 14

Node 17

128
MAX 126.7 V

123

118
MIN 114.7 V

Volts

113
Test 6 105 LL
Test 6 95 LL

108

103

98

93

88
0

10

15

20

25

30

35

Distance from Substation (1000 ft)

Figure 125. Test 6 LL circuit voltage profiles for 95% and 105% substation primary voltage
(LTC, CAP 1, and CAP 2)

197

Test 7, shown in Figure 126 and with the LTC and three capacitors on, is near the ultimate
voltage regulation test. The voltage profile is nearly at the same level throughout the circuit,
and the spread is only 0.54 V (124.44 V 123.9 V = 0.54 V) at Node 17.
Voltage Profiles
Node 1

Node 3

Node 8

Node 11

Node 14

Node 17

128
MAX 126.7 V

123

118
MIN 114.7 V

Volts

113
Test 7 105 LL
Test 7 95 LL

108

103

98

93

88
0

10

15

20

25

30

35

Distance from Substation (1000 ft)

Figure 126. Test 7 LL circuit voltage profiles for 95% and 105% substation primary voltage
(LTC, CAP 1, CAP 2, and CAP 3)

198

Test 8, with all regulation and shown in Figure 127, is the ultimate test. It has no voltage
spread from Node 8 to Node 17 and a spread of only 0.54 V (124.17123.63 V) at Node 17.
Voltage Profiles
Node 1

Node 3

Node 11

Node 8

Node 17

Node 14

128
MAX 126.7 V

123

118
MIN 114.7 V

Volts

113
Test 8 105 LL
Test 8 95 LL

108

103

98

93

88
0

10

15

20

25

30

35

Distance from Substation (1000 ft)

Figure 127. Test 8 LL circuit voltage profiles for 95% and 105% substation primary voltage
(LTC, VR 1, VR 2, CAP 1, CAP 2, and CAP 3)

199

6.2.5 Light Load Comparison Circuit Voltage Profiles (Fourth Set 95% Primary
Voltage)
The voltage comparison Test A of Figure 128 shows the improvement in voltage throughout
the circuit when the first step regulator is added. The voltage profile drops from 126.07 V at
the source (with the LTC) to 121.31 V at Node 17 for Test 2. When the regulator is added in
Test 3, the voltage rise at Node 17 is 2.41 V (123.72121.81 V).
Voltage Profiles
Node 1

Node 3

Node 8

Node 11

Node 14

Node 17

128

MAX 126.7 V

123

118

MIN 114.7 V

Volts

113

Test 3 95 LL

Test 2 95 LL

108

103

98

93

88

10

15

20

25

30

35

Distance from Substation (1000 ft)

Figure 128. Comparison A: Test 2 and Test 3 LL circuit voltage profiles

for 95% substation primary voltage (LTC versus LTC and VR 1)

200

Comparison B, for Tests 3 and 4, is shown in Figure 129. The profiles of Tests 3 and 4 are the
same until the second regulator is added. Beyond Node 14, there is a slight voltage spread of
1.63 V (125.35123.72 V).
Voltage Profiles
Node 1

Node 3

Node 8

Node 11

Node 14

Node 17

128
MAX 126.7 V

123

118
MIN 114.7 V

Volts

113
Test 4 95 LL
Test 3 95 LL

108

103

98

93

88
0

10

15

20

25

30

35

Distance from Substation (1000 ft)

Figure 129. Comparison B: Test 3 and Test 4 LL circuit voltage profiles

for 95% substation primary voltage (LTC versus LTC, VR 1, and VR 2)

201

Figure 130 shows Comparison C, in which a slight voltage spread exists throughout
the circuit.
Voltage Profiles
Node 1

Node 3

Node 11

Node 8

Node 17

Node 14

128
MAX 126.7 V

123

118
MIN 114.7 V

Volts

113
Test 5 95 LL
Test 2 95 LL

108

103

98

93

88
0

10

15

20

25

30

35

Distance from Substation (1000 ft)

Figure 130. Comparison C: Test 2 and Test 5 LL circuit voltage profiles

for 95% substation primary voltage (LTC versus LTC and CAP 1)

202

The tests 6 and 5 comparison (D) of Figure 131 shows the rise in voltage at the tag end is
greater than the rise at the source with the addition of the second capacitor. This is because
this capacitor reduces the reactive and total current from its location back to the source.
Voltage Profiles
Node 1

Node 3

Node 8

Node 11

Node 14

Node 17

128
MAX 126.7 V

123

118
MIN 114.7 V

Volts

113
Test 6 95 LL
Test 5 95 LL

108

103

98

93

88
0

10

15

20

25

30

35

Distance from Substation (1000 ft)

Figure 131. Comparison D: Test 5 and Test 6 LL circuit voltage profiles

for 95% substation primary voltage (LTC and CAP 1 versus LTC, CAP 1, and CAP 2)

203

When all three capacitors are added, as in Comparison E of Figure 132, the voltage rise (less
voltage drop) effect is even greater. It shows a nearly level voltage throughout the circuit for
Test 7.
Voltage Profiles
Node 1

Node 3

Node 8

Node 11

Node 14

Node 17

128
MAX 126.7 V

123

118
MIN 114.7 V

Volts

113
Test 7 95 LL
Test 6 95 LL

108

103

98

93

88
0

10

15

20

25

30

35

Distance from Substation (1000 ft)

Figure 132. Comparison E: Test 6 and Test 7 LL circuit voltage profiles for 95% substation
primary voltage (LTC, CAP 1, and CAP 2 versus LTC, CAP 1, CAP 2, and CAP 3)

204

Comparison F shows the improvement in regulation between using only the LTC of Test 2

and all the regulation of Test 8. The difference in voltage at Node 17 in Figure 133 is 2.32 V

(123.72121.3 V).

Voltage Profiles
Node 1

Node 3

Node 8

Node 11

Node 14

Node 17

128
MAX 126.7 V

123

118
MIN 114.7 V

Volts

113
Test 8 95 LL
Test 2 95 LL

108

103

98

93

88
0

10

15

20

25

30

35

Distance from Substation (1000 ft)

Figure 133. Comparison F: Test 2 and Test 8 LL circuit voltage profiles for 95% substation
primary voltage (LTC versus LTC, VR 1, VR 2, CAP 1, CAP 2, and CAP 3)

205

Comparison G, shown in Figure 134, shows the effect of adding the two regulators to the
three capacitors of Test 7. The voltage is more uniform throughout the circuit for Test 7 than
it is with the two regulators added in Test 8. But, as stated earlier, the voltage spread is better
with the two regulators turned on when the primary voltage ranges from 95% to 105%.
Voltage Profiles
Node 1

Node 3

Node 8

Node 11

Node 14

Node 17

128

MAX 126.7 V

123

118
MIN 114.7 V

Volts

113
Test 8 95 LL

Test 7 95 LL

108

103

98

93

88
0

10

15

20

25

30

35

Distance from Substation (1000 ft)

Figure 134. Comparison G: Test 7 and Test 8 LL circuit voltage profiles

for 95% substation primary voltage (LTC, CAP 1, CAP 2, and CAP 3
versus LTC, VR 1, VR 2, CAP 1, CAP 2, and CAP 3)

6.3 Distribution Circuit Simulation Summary Data for Tests 1 8

As noted earlier, for each test, summary data were assembled (see Table 22). These data
consist of the primary voltage (either 95% or 105%), load condition (either HL or LL), tap
settings for the LTC and step regulators, line currents at Node 0, the lowest three-phase
voltage, the lowest single-phase voltage, the highest load imbalance, the highest voltage
imbalance, the kilowatt losses per phase and total, the kilovar losses per phase and total, and
the release capacity per phase and total when the capacitors are applied. Because the
maximum imbalance load can be 100% for any line-to-line load connected to the wye system,
Table 23 is provided to show the range of unbalance other than 100%.
6.3.1 Unbalanced Voltage
Unbalanced voltage is determined by calculating the negative sequence V2 and positive
sequence V1 and dividing V2 by V1. Table 22 shows the highest unbalanced voltage in percent
for each test. The voltage unbalance is very important for siting DG because most
synchronous generators trip when the unbalance reaches 3%. The highest unbalanced voltages
on the circuit range from 1.52% to 1.26%. The highest unbalanced voltages for each test are
shown in Table 27.

206

It is interesting to note that the highest measured imbalance from the unbalance voltage
survey of Section 4.5.1.2 and Table 9 was 5.94% with the average being 0.83% for wye and
closed delta transformer connections. Although these measured data are taken on the
secondary side of the distribution transformers, whereas the simulated data are for the primary
in Table 27, there is reasonably close agreementespecially when one considers the data in
Table 27 are for one circuit while the measured data are for a large population of 1,209 tests
across a multiplicity of circuits from 13 utilities.
Table 27. Highest Unbalanced Voltages
Regulation Method

95% HL

95% LL

105% HL

105% LL

Test 1

No LTC

1.32%

1.26%

1.43%

1.26%

Test 2

LTC

1.44%

1.26%

1.48%

1.26%

Test 3

LTC, VR 1

1.49%

1.26%

1.52%

1.26%

Test 4

LTC, VR 1, VR 2

1.44%

1.26%

1.48%

1.26%

Test 5

LTC, CAP 1

1.42%

1.26%

1.45%

1.26%

Test 6

LTC, CAP 1, CAP 2

1.36%

1.26%

1.38%

1.26%

Test 7

LTC, CAP 1, CAP 2, CAP 3

1.31%

1.26%

1.33%

1.26%

Test 8

LTC, VR 1, VR 2, CAP 1, CAP 2, CAP 3

1.31%

1.26%

1.27%

1.26%

Notice that all the unbalanced voltages are greater during HL conditions. Increasing the
voltage increases the load, and thus, the unbalance increases. Adding an LTC increased the
voltage unbalance from 1.32% to 1.44% at 95% HL. Another finding was that the highest
unbalanced voltages occur at 105% primary voltage, as would be expected. In fact, with no
LTC, the voltage unbalance at 105% primary voltage was 1.43% versus 1.32% at 95%
primary voltage. Lowering the primary voltage to 95% reduced the voltage unbalance because
of the effect of the VDC source model. Adding capacitors reduced the unbalanced voltage,
and adding a step VR increased the unbalance from 1.44% with the LTC up to 1.49% with
one step regulator and a 95% primary voltage.
When the LTC and all three capacitors were on, the voltage unbalanced was reduced to 1.31%
at 95% primary voltage and down to 1.33% at 105% primary voltage. The highest unbalanced
voltage on the circuit was reduced to 1.31% with all regulation. It is obvious from these
results that the voltage regulation method and the amount of regulation on the circuit are
important in reducing the imbalance to acceptable levels.

207

6.3.2 Unbalanced Loading

Table 23 summarizes the load imbalance for each test. It is calculated as the negative sequence
load I2 divided by the positive sequence load I1 in percent. Most synchronous generators trip
when the load imbalance becomes more than 10%20%. However, inverter-based generation has
been tested and successfully operated even when the unbalance reached 100%. However, the
total capability was reduced to 75%. The data in Table 23 show there are locations on the circuit
where the unbalanced load was greater than 10%20%. Care should be given to discover the
magnitude of unbalanced load before a synchronous generator is sited on the circuit. At Node 10,
where the 1,000-kW generator is interconnected to the distribution circuit, the load unbalance is
1.22% for 95% primary voltage and HL, and when all regulation is turned on, the voltage
unbalance is 1.29%. Notice from Table 23 that the load unbalance is always higher at LL than
HL. This is good because most DR operate during peak load conditions.

The load imbalance at the substation Node 01 ranges from about 4% for HL and about 5.45%
at LL. This is an excellent location to site synchronous generators. There are points on the
circuit where the load unbalance is lower than at the substation, but there are many points
where the imbalance is up to 90%. Adding regulation did not necessarily improve load
imbalance. In fact, with all regulation on, the Node 10 value was 3.89% at 95% primary
voltage versus 3.77% with no regulation and HL conditions.
6.4 Significant Results and Conclusions
The Milford Circuit DC 8103 is typical of residential and light commercial load characteristics.

The CC load model, the CP load model, and the VDC load model were applied in tests
7 and 8 at 95% source voltages for HL conditions. However, as shown in Appendix
B.1, the VDC model was better than the CC model (i.e., 2.0% error versus 5.3%).
Therefore, the best overall method to represent the load characteristics as a function of
source voltage changes was the VDC model.

Heavy Load
The highest voltage spread, measured as the difference between the highest threephase voltage and the lowest single-phase voltage, was 25.2 V and occurred with no
LTC regulation at the substation transformer during HL conditions and with the
primary voltage on the substation transformer ranging from 95% to 105%. This spread
was reduced to 10.4 V with all regulation methods turned on.
When the LTC and first step regulator were added, the tag end voltage improved 4.11
V, and with the second regulator turned on, the voltage increased another 11.34 V.
When the LTC and first capacitor were added, the voltage increased only 0.97 V, and
with the addition of the second capacitor, the voltage gain was 1.75 V at the tag end.
The third capacitor added another 1.66 V rise at the tag end.
When all regulation was turned on, the tag end voltage improvement was 15.35 V over
only the LTC transformer to regulate voltage. Also, when DR are added to the circuit,
this method of voltage regulation reduces the voltage spread even further.

208

Light Load
During LL and no LTC regulation, the voltage spread, as determined by subtracting
the highest three-phase voltage from the lowest single-phase voltage, was 16.65 V
compared to 25.2 V for HL. With all regulation turned on, this difference diminished
to 2.91 V.
Care should be exercised when operating DR during LL because the highest threephase voltage on the Milford Circuit was 126.24 V. It may be necessary to operate DR
to absorb volt-amperes reactive to prevent HV.

Unbalanced Conditions
Raising the source voltage during HL conditions with the LTC and a step regulator
turned on created the highest unbalance voltage of 1.52%. Most synchronous
generators trip at unbalanced voltages more than 3%. Studies should always be
conducted to ensure the unbalanced voltage does not exceed 3% at the point of
interconnection (not point of common coupling) for the DR. Of course, if an isolation
transformer is installed at the point of interconnection with a delta-wye transformer
connection, it will improve the voltage unbalance seen by the generator.
Adding the LTC regulation at HL and 95% primary substation voltage lowered the
maximum unbalance voltage to 1.44%. Adding a step regulator worsened the
unbalanced voltage by raising it to 1.49%, but adding a second step regulator reduced
the unbalanced voltage to 1.44%.
Adding capacitors reduced the maximum unbalanced voltage. The first capacitor
turned on lowered this unbalanced voltage to 1.42%. With both capacitors turned on,
the unbalanced voltage went down to 1.36%. All three capacitors turned on lowered
the unbalance to 1.31%.
Having all regulation turned on lowered the maximum unbalanced voltage to 1.31%
for 95% primary voltage and HL (worst-case condition). The 13-utility unbalanced
voltage survey showed the maximum measured voltage unbalance of 5.94%.
The highest voltage unbalance during LL was 1.26%, even though the primary voltage
on the transformer ranged from 95% to 105%.
At many locations on the circuit, the current imbalance exceeded 20%. Most
synchronous generators trip between 10% and 20% current imbalance. Inverter-based
generation can operate under 100% load imbalance, but typically, they do so at 75% of
rated capacity. The greatest unbalance current was 100% at locations where line-to
line loads or line-to-neutral loads were connected to the three-phase, wye-grounded
system. Unbalances of 20%90% were apparent at many nodes, but, generally, the
load magnitudes were small and, thus, not causing the generator to trip. The greater
load imbalances occurred at LL.

209

 The current imbalance at Node 10, where the 1,000-kW synchronous generator is
interconnected, was 1.22% during HL conditions, and the voltage unbalance was
1.29%. Even the load imbalance at the substation was about 4% at HL but reached
about 6% at LL. If a DR is installed at the substation and operated in an isolated mode
(i.e. as a microgrid), it may see 10% current imbalance during LL. However, on other
circuits on the system, the load imbalance at the substation could be as high as 20%. It
is important to determine the imbalanced current at the point of interconnection before
ever siting a synchronous DR generator.
The zero sequence current ranged from 45.43 A to 50.24 A for the simulations
conducted. See Table B-3. This level of zero sequence current is not a problem from a
system standpoint, but when the system is lost, a portion of the circuit is operated as a
microgrid or island, and there are line-to-neutral loads and line-to-line loads, high
negative sequence currents can be expected. When the wye ungrounded synchronous
generator windings are connected to a delta-wye high-side transformer with neutral
solidly grounded, zero sequence currents from a line-to-ground load on one phase of
the system will create 100% negative sequence currents on the generator windings, or
the negative sequence current will be equal to the positive sequence current. Most
small generators are wye ungrounded with a delta-wye high-side transformer and
grounded neutral connection, so this represents the most common installation.
Appendix A.3 shows that a generator with only 33.34 A of zero sequence current on
the high side will see 100% unbalanced currents on the generator windings. The
negative sequence current is 33% of the full rated three-phase capacity of the
generator. This will cause the generator negative sequence relays to trip at 10%
negative sequence current. This means the generator will trip if it serves only 30 A of
single-phase load, even though the rated current is 100 A per phase of load current.
Because the other two phases are unloaded, the generator can produce only 1/10 of its
full rated three-phase machine capacity (i.e., 30 A single-phase load 300 A threephase capacity).

210

7 Project Results Design of Field Voltage Regulation and

Metering Equipment
7.1 Introduction
This section defines the equipment installed on Milford Circuit DC 8103 to control voltage
and the metering equipment used to validate the models.
7.2 Voltage Regulation Equipment
Figure 135 shows the locations of the voltage regulation equipment on Milford Circuit DC
8103. Table 28 describes this equipment.
Table 28. Voltage Regulation Equipment
Location
A.
B.
D.
F.
G.
H.

D
escription
10-MVA delta-wye transformer #1
Z = 7.02%, 41.57 kV/13.8 kV, 0, 2.5, 5.0 high-side setting = 0, low-side setting = 5,
LTC + 16 steps + 10%, aN = 3 (See Figure 136)
Three 167-kVA single-phase step VRs, 32 steps
1,000-kW synchronous generator, 1,050-kW power prime mover, rated output = 1,312 kVA
@ PF = 0.8, 1,800 rpm, 480 V, 60 Hz, voltage regulation 5%.
(1) 900-kVAr three-phase capacitor, Y-connected, neutral grounded
(2) 900-kVAr three-phase capacitor, Y-connected, neutral grounded
(3) 1,200-kVAr three-phase capacitor, Y-connected, neutral grounded

211

J.

K.

24

19

M TS
TS

M TS

L.
M TS
TS

P
Phas
hase
eB

18

111V

P
Ph
hase
ase C
C

Phase A

I.
M T3
T3

80K

21

65K
H.
H.
4319
43199
9
43199

125K

20

M 3
8

43052 C.
43052
C.
65K
65K

3 - S

Regulators
R
egulators

M 3
3

0
2

25
25

65K
65K
P
43283
Near
Near End
DR (Study)
1
3

4
recloser
re
closer

80K
80K
80K
80K

80K
80K

65K

R
R-1
-1

P6

100K G.

43095
43095
M3

3
3

125K

3-S
3-S
reclosers
reclosers
mov
move
e

2
MT3
T3

D.
3

40K

65K

11

3
3

F..
F..
T3
R-3 MT3

140K
140K

80K

ZX
2

Far End
DR
(Study)

900 kVAr

14
12

11

10

65K

65K
65K

2 2

M TS

TS

900 kVAr

65K

2
ZX

40K

40K

L4
L4

26

26

2
65K
65K

28
40K
40K

25K
25
K
40K

Note (1):
(1):
PCC
ROC
(SOC)

65K
65K

40K

25K
27
27

3
3

Note (2):
VA, VB, VC
IA, IB, IC
P, Q

DTECH
(SOC)
1000 kW

1000
kW
Synchronous
S
ynchronous Machine
Machine

Metering
Metering

Permanent
Installations

MT

Metering
Temporary
Installations

Note (3): Nodes where low voltage, high voltage, highest unbalance voltage, highest unbalanced load and nodes where

where
actual values exceed pre-set values (criteria violations) may be different than the nodes indicated above.

above.
Note (4): The LTC voltage regulator is gang operated using the C phase as reference.
Note (5): The "P" reclosure data is sent to midpoint DR consisting of I
kVAr A, kVAr B, kVAr C
C

, I , IC, V CN, V BN, V CN, kW A, kW B, kW C,

A B
A

Figure 135. Milford Circuit DC 8103

212

17

65K

400 kW Induction
Generator (Study)
Generator

14

80K

Sync.
S
ync. Generator

R
R

E.

Midpoint DR
Midpoint
((actual
actual site)
1000
1000 kW

M3
3

40K

3 - S

Regulators
Regulators
(Study)
(Study)

B.

Y, Z

P5

80K
80
K

40K

15

400
40
0 kW Inverter
Generator
Generator
(Study)

1200 kVAr

P1

A.

22

23

3
3

13

4324
43244
4

100K

40K

M T3
T3

16
16

17
Regulation
Pat
Path
h

43090
43090
PTS

Tie Lin
Line
e
862
8623
3
Proud

Tie Lin
Line
e
281
2819
9
Cody - Prou
roud
d

Trunk Line
310
3107
7
Page

CAP 2
12 MVAr

N.O.
41.57 kV

#1

Section
Breaker

0% Fixed
10 MVA

5% Fixed
10 MVA

#2

+10%
+10%

+10%
Tie Line
6117
Placid

Fixed
+5% Fixed

41.57/13.8 kV
41.57/13.8

Tie Line
5831

Tie
Tie Line
6147
Placid

N.O.

"B" Cable

"A" Cable

0% Fixed

41.57/13.2 kV

PTS 43283
13.2 kV

13.8 kV

DC 8066

DC 8103

Figure 136. Milford substation one-line diagram

7.3 Major System Protection Equipment

The major system protection equipment is listed in Table 29. It consists of three-phase and
single-phase reclosers and single-phase sectionalizers.
Table 29. Major System Protection Equipment
Location
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

R
P
P5
P1
S
L
L4
P6

Description
Three three-phase reclosers 280 A vacuum V4L, 2A, 2D
One three-phase recloser 680 A vacuum VWE, R, C
Three single-phase reclosers 280 A vacuum V4L, 2A, 2D
Three single-phase reclosers 280 A vacuum V4L, 2A, 2D
Three single-phase reclosers 140 A vacuum V4L, 1A, 3D
Three single-phase reclosers 140 A vacuum V4L, 1A, 3D
Three single-phase sectionalizers 140 A hydraulic
Three single-phase reclosers 140 A V4L, 2A, 2D

213

Table 30. Measurement Locations and Data Collection

Permanent Metering Locations
A.

Substation

M3

VAN, VBN, VCN

IA, IB, IC

P, Q, PF

B.

Regulators (1)

M3

VAN, VBN, VCN

IA, IB, IC

P, Q, PF

D.

1,000-kW synchronous DR

M3

VAN, VBN, VCN

IA, IB, IC

P, Q, PF

Temporary Metering Locations

F.

900-kVAr capacitor

MT 3

VAN, VBN, VCN

IA, IB, IC

G.

900-kVAr capacitor

MT 3

VAN, VBN, VCN

IA, IB, IC

H.

1,200-kVAr capacitor

MT 3

VAN, VBN, VCN

IA, IB, IC

I.

Three-phase circuit tag end

MT 3

K.L.

Single-phase tag ends

MT S

7.4

IA, IB, IC
VAN

VBN

Metering Equipment and Accuracy of Measurements

7.4.1 Substation Metering

The substation metering consists of an ION 7600 Power Measurements Meter, which
measures the three-phase voltages, three line currents, and phase power factors and calculates
the kilowatts per phase and total kilowatts, kilovars per phase and total kilovars, kilovoltamperes per phase and total kilovolt-amperes, and unbalanced voltage and current. The
integration period is 15 minutes. The accuracy of the metered data is 0.1% for voltage, 0.1%
for current, 0.01 Hz for frequency, and 0.5% for power factor. The kilowatt, kilovar, and
kilovolt-ampere accuracy is Class 0.2.
7.4.2 Synchronous Generator Metering
The generator metering is a 3720 ACM meter that measures the three-phase voltages, three
line currents, three-phase kilowatts, three-phase kilovars, three-phase kilovolt-amperes, power
factor, frequency, and circuit load including generation. The data are 30-second samples
integrated over 5 minutes. The SOC data are 5-minute samples averaged over 15 minutes. The
accuracy of the measured data is shown in Table 31.
Table 31. Accuracy of 3720 ACM
Parameter

Accuracy
0.2%
0.4%
0.4%
0.4%
0.2%
1.0%
0.05 Hz

Current
Kilowatts
Kilovars
Kilovolt-amperes
Voltage
Power factor
Frequency

214

7.4.3 Capacitor Location Metering

The metering at the capacitor locations (nodes F, G, and H) is the Line Tracker LT40 from
Grid Sense. These metering devices measure the three-phase voltages and three line currents.
The voltage is sampled at 600 samples per second, and the current is sampled at 1,200
samples per second. The accuracy of the current measurement is 5%. The integration period
is 15 minutes.
7.4.4 Voltage Regulator Locations
The CL-6 control of the VRs at Location B measures the load and source phase voltages, line
currents, phase kilowatts, phase kilovars, phase kilovolt-amperes, and phase power factor.
The data are integrated over 15 minutes, and the accuracy is Class 1 metering or 1% for all
power quantities (i.e., voltage, current, kilowatts, kilovars, and kilovolt-amperes).
7.4.5 Single-Phase Voltage Customer Metering
The Rustrak measured voltage and current. The accuracy is 0.25% for voltage and 0.5% for
current. Each is in percent of reading. The integration period is 15 minutes.

215

8 Project Results Distributed Generation Control Strategies

for Field Verification
8.1 Introduction
This section defines the generation equipment voltage regulation capability and the control
strategies used to regulate voltage on the Milford Circuit DC 8103.
8.2 1,000-kW Synchronous Generator
The voltage regulation control capabilities for the 1,000-kW synchronous generator located at
the midpoint on the circuit Node D is given in Figure 137.
8.3 400-kW High-Speed Generator and Inverter
The voltage regulation control capability for the 400-kW high-speed generator and inverter is
shown in Figure 138.
8.4 400-kW Self-Excited Induction Generator
The voltage regulation control capability for the 400-kW self-excited induction generator is
shown in Figure 139.
8.5 Voltage Regulation Simulations and Field Verification Strategy 17
The voltage regulation simulations and Strategy 17 used for field verification is outlined in
Table 32.

216

kV
kVArs
Ars

Fi
Field

Field
eld
Current

Cu
Current
rrent
Li
Limit

Limit
mit

Synchronous
Condensor

Ar
Armature
mature
C
Current
urrent Limit

I.
Ia

ted
Ra

d
Fixe

246 kW

.
P.F

Fixe
d

984 kW
P.F
.

O
Operating
perating
Q
Quadrants
uadrants I.,
IV.
IV.

5
kWs

1050
kW
m
ax.
max.

IV.

1
Xd

1230 kV
kVA
A
Rated
R
ated kVA and
P.F.
P.F. = .80

If Rated
If Lead

Figure
Figure 8.0 DR Control Strategies for 1000 kW Synchronous Machine
Operating Points
(a) points 1 and 2 is rated kW and rated KVArs
(b) point 3 rated kVA and rated lagging P.F.
(c) point 4 leading P.F.
(d) point 5 maximum kW
(e) point 6 minimum kW and maximum kVArs (synchronous condensor)
(f) points 7 and 8 fixed power factor lagging and leading
Figure 137. DR control strategies for a 1,000-kW synchronous machine

217

Rated kVA = 400 kVA

+Q

Rated P.F. = 0.8 lag (producing

(producin
VArs = +Q = +240 kVArs
I
II
Rated kW = 320 kW
Pmax = 400 kW
Operating
Operating

Quadrants

Quadrants
I. and IV.
IV.

III
IV
Rated P.F. = 0.8 lead (absorbing
(absorbing

VArs = -Q = -240 kVArs)

kVArs)

-Q

Note (4): DR Control Strategies

(a) Peak Shave P fi
fix
xed
e
(b) P.F. = unity, P variable
(c) + P.F. constant, P variabl
variable
(d) + Q (VArs volt. reg.) P = 0
(e) P + jQ (optimizing) - see synchronous machine
(f) Frequency Dithering (anti-islanding)
Note (5): (f) not included in model

Figure 138. DR control strategies for a 400-kW high-speed generator

and inverter current mode

218

Rated kVA = 470.59 kVA

+Q

Rated P.F. = .85

switched capacitor 2
"on" (producing VArs
= +Q = +247.91 kVArs

Pmax = 400 kW
switched
capacitor 1
"on"

P.F. = .85

(absorbing VArs = -Q

= -247.91 kVArs)

normal

switched
capacitor
"off"

-Q

(a) Peak Shave P fixed

(b) P.F. = unity, P fixed
(c) + P.F. constant at P fixed
(d) + Q fixed, P fixed same as (c)
Note (4) Induction machine with inverter is the same as Inverter where the speed is
varied to create variable dc output after the rectifier and the ac current output
from the inverter is phase shifted (switching) to produce a variable P.F. with
respect to the system voltage.

Figure 139. DR control strategies for a 400-kW self-excited induction generator

219

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25

I.A.
I.B.
I.C.
I.C '.
I.D
I.D '
I.D."
I.E.
II.A.
II.B.
II.C.
II.D.
II.E.
II.F.
II.G.
II.H.
II.I.

DR (Synchronous Machine)
Locations (1)
(a)Peak shave, P fixed
(b) P.F.= Unity, P variable
(c) + P.F. Constant, Variable P &
Q
(d) + Q (Vars Volt reg) P Min
(e) P+ jQ (Optimizing)
(f) Fixed P.F. Anti-island

LTC + 16 steps & neutral

Test Numbers

Reference. Section

Primary
Voltage
Spread

Peak Load Day 24 Hourly quantities

Light Load Day 24 Hourly
quantities

Table 32. Matrix of Voltage Regulation Simulations

and Control Strategy 17 for Field Verification

(a)87%
Line
(b) 92%
Regulator Capacitors
(c)93%
Midpoint
(d) 95%
(Actual
(e) 98%
#1
#2
#1 #2 #3 Near End Site)
Far End
(f) 105%
(a) (d) (f) x
x
(d) (f)
x
x
x
(d) (f)
x
x
x
x
(d) (f)
x
x
x
x
x
(d) (f)
x
x
x
x
(d) (f)
x
x
x
x
x
(d) (f)
x
x
x
x
x
x
(d) (f)
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
(b) (d) (e)
x
x
x
(b) (d) (e)
x
x
x
(b) (d) (e)
x
x
x
Repeat IIA., IIB., IIC. turn on LTC
Repeat IIA., IIB., IIC. turn on LTC, and Regulator (1)
Repeat IIA., IIB., IIC. turn on LTC, and Regulator (1) and (2)
Repeat IIA., IIB., IIC. turn on LTC, and Regulator (1) and (2) and Cap. (1)
Repeat IIA., IIB., IIC. turn on LTC, and Regulator (1) and (2) and Cap. (1), (2)
Repeat IIA., IIB., IIC. turn on LTC, and Regulator (1) and (2) and Cap. (1), (2), (3)

Note (1): DR Control Strategies

(a.) The DR is operated at fixed real power output and normally Is scheduled to run during peak periods when
the cost of DR generation is lower than host utility cost. The Q is zero at the PCC. 984 kW rated
(b.) The DR is operated at unity P.F. with variable power output. 492 kW (50%) to 1050 kW max.
(c.) DR is operated at a fixed power factor either lead or lag (for example + 0.8 P.F.) with variable P and Q to
not violate voltage criteria.
(d.) The DR is operated as a synchronous condenser with minimum watts and variable VArs to regulate
voltage. 246 kW (25% of rated)
(e.) DR is operated with variable P and Q and is used to optimize to a specific set of criteria such as minimize
real losses, minimize reactive losses, regulate voltage and maximize released capacity.

220

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29

II.A.
II.B.
II.C.
II.D.
II.E.
II.F.
II.G.
II.H.
II.I.
III.
IV.

LTC + 16 steps & neutral

Light Load Day 24 Hourly

quantities

Reference. Section

Test Numbers

Primary
Voltage
Spread

Peak Load Day 24 Hourly

quantities

DR (Induction Generator)
Locations
(a)Peak shave, P fixed
(b) P.F.= Unity, P fixed
(c) + P.F. Constant, P fixed
(d) + Q fixed, P fixed
same as (c)

(a)87%
Line
(b) 92%
Regulator Capacitors
(c)93%
Midpoint
(d) 95%
(Actual
(e) 98%
#1 #2
#1 #2 #3 Near End Site)
(f) 105%
(a) (d) (f)
(d) (f)
(d) (f)
(d) (f)
(d) (f)
(d) (f)
(d) (f)
(d) (f)
(b) (d)
x
x
x
(b) (d)
x
x
x
x
x
x
Repeat II.A., II.B., II.C. turn on LTC
Repeat II.A., II.B., II.C. turn on LTC and Regualator (1)
Repeat II.A., II.B., II.C. turn on LTC and Regulators (1) & (2)
Repeat II.A., II.B., II.C. turn on LTC, Reg. (1) & (2) and Cap (1)
Repeat II.A., II.B., II.C. turn on LTC, Reg. (1) & (2) and Cap (1) and (2)
Repeat II.A., II.B., II.C. turn on LTC, Reg (1) & (2) and Cap (1), (2) & (3)
Repeat synchronous and inverter generation
Repeat synchronous, inverter and induction generation

221

Far End

(b) (d)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29

II.A.
II.B.
II.C.
II.D.
II.E.
II.F.
II.G.
II.H.
II.I.
III.
IV.

LTC + 16 steps & neutral

Light Load Day 24 Hourly

quantities

Reference. Section

Test Numbers

Primary
Voltage
Spread

Peak Load Day 24 Hourly

quantities

DR (Induction Generator)
Locations
(a)Peak shave, P fixed
(b) P.F.= Unity, P fixed
(c) + P.F. Constant, P fixed
(d) + Q fixed, P fixed
same as (c)

(a)87%
Line
(b) 92%
Regulator Capacitors
(c)93%
Midpoint
(d) 95%
(Actual
(e) 98%
#1 #2
#1 #2 #3 Near End Site)
(f) 105%
(a) (d) (f)
(d) (f)
(d) (f)
(d) (f)
(d) (f)
(d) (f)
(d) (f)
(d) (f)
(b) (d)
x
x
x
(b) (d)
x
x
x
x
x
x
Repeat II.A., II.B., II.C. turn on LTC
Repeat II.A., II.B., II.C. turn on LTC and Regualator (1)
Repeat II.A., II.B., II.C. turn on LTC and Regulators (1) & (2)
Repeat II.A., II.B., II.C. turn on LTC, Reg. (1) & (2) and Cap (1)
Repeat II.A., II.B., II.C. turn on LTC, Reg. (1) & (2) and Cap (1) and (2)
Repeat II.A., II.B., II.C. turn on LTC, Reg (1) & (2) and Cap (1), (2) & (3)
Repeat synchronous and inverter generation
Repeat synchronous, inverter and induction generation

222

Far End

(b) (d)

9 Project Results Field Verification of Models

9.1 Introduction
This section verifies the models using field test data. Voltage regulation models were
developed for the LTC transformer at the substation, the bidirectional step regulators, the
capacitors, all the distribution circuit transformer connections, and the line sections. In
addition, models for synchronous, induction, and inverter generators were created.

The field verification was conducted using the metering equipment defined in Section 7 and
the DG control for the 1,000-kW synchronous generator defined in Section 8. The Strategy 17
control strategy was used. In it, all three capacitors (1, 2, and 3), the regulator (1), and the
substation LTC were turned on.
The field verification studies were conducted for the circuit peak days of July 17, 2006, at
17:43 and July 29, 2006, at 17:11, when the 1,000-kW DR was running, and on July 31, 2006
at 17:56, when this DR was turned off.
9.2 Circuit and Generation Measured Data
The nodes at which measured data were taken on the circuit and Node D (Node 10), where the
generation is interconnected with the circuit, are described in Figure 135. The test dates and
data collection periods are shown in Table 33.
Table 33. Test Dates and Data Collection Periods

Date
7/17/06
7/29/06
7/31/06
8/02/06

Circuit
Start

Circuit
Peak

Circuit
End

10:42
00:11
00:11
00:11

17:43
17:11
17:56
17:56

23:58
23:56
23:56
23:56

Generation Start
(Post-Generation
Start)

Generation End
(Pre-Generation
Off)

17:28
17:11

21:23
20:16

10:26

generator

12:16

Because there is a time delay between the initiation of the start generator command and
when the unit is synchronized and carrying load and a delay between the initiation of the
stop generator command and when the generator is not carrying load, the times given in the
Table 33 are the post-generation start (the time the unit is carrying load) and the pre-generation
off (the time the unit is still carrying load but has received the stop generator command).

223

Illustrative Example of Generation Run Time and

Distribution Circuit Time Stamps for Simulation Studies
and Field Verification

Load, MVA

Circuit Peak

Generator
Run

Light Load
0 hr

Pre-generation Post generation

Start
Start

Pre-generation Post generation

Off
Off

24 hr

Figure 140. Daily circuit load profile and time stamps

These times are described in Figure 140. As shown in Table 33, there were four days during
the summer when tests were conducted and four days when measured data were collected. The
first two days, July 17 and July 29, 2006, the 1,000-kW DG was turned on to offset the circuit
peak load. On July 31, 2006, this DG was turned off. This was to determine if there is a
difference in the variance between simulation and field-measured data when the DG was
running and when it was not. Simulations and comparisons with field-measured data were not
conducted on the last test day (Aug. 2, 2006) because the load of the South Branch of the
Milford Circuit DC 8103 was cut over to a circuit fed from the Page Substation on Aug. 1 at
19:00. This removed approximately 2 MVA of load (i.e., a 15.92 MVA peak prior to cut-over
versus a 13.98-MVA peak after the cut-over) from the Milford Circuit DC 8103. See Table 34.
The times of circuit peak data and generation data are given in Table 34 for the four test days.
The measured data consist of:

Circuit peak kilovolt-amperes

Circuit phase currents at Substation Node 1
Generation line currents at Node 10
Generation line-to-line voltages at Node 10
Generation three-phase PF at Node 10
Generation three-phase kilowatts, kilovars, and kilovolt-amperes at Node 10.

224

9.3 Bidirectional Voltage Regulator Measured Data

The bidirectional VR measured data for the circuit peak time of each test day are given in
Table 35 and listed below for each phase regulator at Node 9.

Load current
Load PF
Kilowatt load
Kilovolt-ampere load
Kilovar load
Voltage 120-V base

9.4 Circuit Equipment (Capacitors) and Customer-Measured Data

The measured data at the time of circuit peak for each of the three capacitors at nodes 6, 12,
and 13 on the respective test days are given in Table 36. They consist of the phase currents
and phase voltages. Also, the customer-measured data for Node I, which consist of Ia and Ic
phase currents; Node L and the VC phase voltage; and Node K and the VA phase voltage are
given in this table.
9.5 Percent Variance Between Simulated and Field-Measured Data
Table 37 and Table 38 compare simulated data and field-measured data for the two test days
when DG was running. Table 39 shows similar data for when the DG was turned off. The
field data for the phase currents, phase voltages, and phase power factors of the circuit,
generator, and the VR1 bidirectional regulator are given for Node 1, Node 10, and Node 9 on
the left. The corresponding simulation data are shown on the right. The measured phase
currents and phase voltages for the three capacitors and their respective simulation data are
also given in these tables, but the simulated voltage data have been reduced by 3.67 V to
reduce the measured primary voltage to secondary voltage values. Finally, customermeasured current and voltage data and simulation data for Nodes I and L are listed.

Table 40 summarizes the differences between measured and simulated values. For three-phase
quantities, the percent variance is calculated as the absolute value of the sum of the
differences between the actual and simulated values divided by three and then divided by the
average of the actual three-phase values. The result is multiplied by 100 to represent the
percent difference using the average of the actuals as the base. For single-phase quantities, the
percent variance is the absolute value of the difference divided by the actual as the base,
multiplied by 100.

225

Table 34. Circuit and Generation Measured Data

Circuit
Generator
Date

Start: 7/17/2006
Start: 7/17/2006
Time
Load
Current

10:42
17:28

End:
End:

Load Kva

Load KW

Load Kvar

7/17/2006 10:42

132.20

0.98

1,039.00

1,021.00

190.00

Circuit Peak

7/17/2006 17:43

282.60

0.94

2,216.00

2,088.00

742.00

Start: 7/29/2006
Start: 7/29/2006
Time

Load
Current

00:11
17:11

Load Power
Factor

Load Kva

Load KW

Load Kvar

0:11

157.80

0.89

1,248.00

1,110.00

570.00

Circuit Peak

7/29/2006 17:11

312.30

0.93

2,464.00

2,286.00

917.00

Load
Current

00:11
16:11

Voltage
120V Base

Load
Current

Load Power
Factor

Load Power
Factor

Load Kva

Load KW

Load Kvar

0:11

I
271.10

0.89

2,139.00

1,903.00

977.00

Circuit Peak

7/31/2006 17:56

369.00

0.94

2,882.00

2,695.00

1,021.00

8/2/2006
8/2/2006

00:11
10:26

Load Power
Factor

Load KW

Load Kvar

Load Kvar

0.99

998.00

984.00

169.00

123.48

255.70

0.95

2,009.00

1,913.00

612.00

7/29/2006
7/29/2006

South Regulator Phase C

Load
Voltage

7,868.23

7855.34

Voltage
120V Base

Load
Current

Load Power
Factor

Load
Voltage

7,908.95

7887.81

Load
Voltage
120V Base

Load
Current

Load Power
Factor

Load Kva

Load KW

Load Kvar

138.80

0.90

1,096.00

991.00

468.00

124.20

296.60

0.94

2,331.00

2,190.00

798.00

Load
Voltage

7,891.57

7811.26

0.98

946.00

929.00

179.00

123.69

238.00

0.94

1,877.00

1,772.00

619.00

Load
Current

Load Power
Factor

Load Kva

Load KW

Load Kvar

256.90

0.90

2,029.00

1,829.00

878.00

123.00

355.00

0.94

2,813.00

2,640.00

971.00

Load
Voltage
120V Base

7,852.46

7887.05

Voltage
120V Base

123.64

124.19

South Regulator Phase C

Load
Voltage

7,896.23

7859.16

Load
Voltage
120V Base

Load
Current

Load Power
Factor

Load Kva

Load KW

Load Kvar

Load
Voltage

Load
Voltage
120V Base

124.33

143.40

0.88

1,133.00

1,000.00

533.00

7,901.98

124.42

123.75

279.70

0.93

2,195.00

2,041.00

806.00

7,847.19

123.56

South Regulator Phase C

Load
Voltage

7,898.27

7924.79

Load
Voltage
120V Base

Load
Current

Load Power
Factor

Load Kva

Load KW

Load Kvar

124.37

241.10

0.89

1,892.00

1,680.00

871.00

124.78

314.00

0.93

2,486.00

2,317.00

900.00

Load
Voltage

7,851.34

7897.24

Load
Voltage
120V Base

123.63

124.35

23:56

12:16

North Regulator Phase B

Load
Voltage

Load
Voltage

23:56

17:11

124.26

8/2/2006
8/2/2006

Load Kvar

120.50

North Regulator Phase B

Load
Voltage
120V Base

Load KW

23:56

20:16

124.53

7/31/2006
7/31/2006

Load Kva

123.89

North Regulator Phase B

End:
End:

Load Kva

Load KW

126.90

East Regulator Phase A

Load
Current

Load Kva

123.72

East Regulator Phase A

7/31/2006

Start:
Start:
Time

7841.79

End:
End:

Circuit Start

Circuit
Generator
Date

7,857.51

End:
End:

7/29/2006

Start: 7/31/2006
Start: 7/31/2006
Time

North Regulator Phase B

Load
Voltage

East Regulator Phase A

Circuit Start

Circuit
Generator
Date

23:58
21:23

East Regulator Phase A

Load Power
Factor

Circuit Start

Circuit
Generator
Date

7/17/2006
7/17/2006

Load
Current

Load Power
Factor

Load Kva

Load KW

Load Kvar

South Regulator Phase C

Load
Voltage

Load
Voltage
120V Base

Load
Current

Load Power
Factor

Load Kva

Load KW

Load Kvar

Load
Voltage

Load
Voltage
120V Base

Circuit Start

8/2/2006

0:11

116.00

0.91

917.00

833.00

384.00

7,907.76

124.52

113.00

0.91

895.00

818.00

361.00

7,914.87

124.63

107.30

0.89

845.00

753.00

383.00

7,873.56

123.98

Generator
Circuit Peak

8/2/2006 12:16
8/2/2006 17:56

170.10
259.70

0.96
0.93

1,334.00
2,059.00

1,287.00
1,924.00

352.00
734.00

7,844.62
7,929.52

123.52
124.86

154.10
247.60

0.98
0.95

1,210.00
1,950.00

1,185.00
1,856.00

246.00
595.00

7,854.76
7,873.08

123.68
123.97

149.40
227.90

0.97
0.94

1,167.00
1,794.00

1,136.00
1,691.00

267.00
599.00

7,811.54
7,872.60

123.00
123.96

August 1st moved south branch to Page Substation at 19:00

226

Table 35. Bidirectional VR Measured Data

Circuit
Generator
Date

Start: 7/17/2006
Start: 7/17/2006
Time
Load
Current

10:42
17:28

End:
End:

Load Kva

Load KW

Load Kvar

7/17/2006 10:42

132.20

0.98

1,039.00

1,021.00

190.00

Circuit Peak

7/17/2006 17:43

282.60

0.94

2,216.00

2,088.00

742.00

Start: 7/29/2006
Start: 7/29/2006
Time

Load
Current

00:11
17:11

Load Power
Factor

Load Kva

Load KW

Load Kvar

0:11

157.80

0.89

1,248.00

1,110.00

570.00

Circuit Peak

7/29/2006 17:11

312.30

0.93

2,464.00

2,286.00

917.00

Load
Current

00:11
16:11

Voltage
120V Base

Load
Current

Load Power
Factor

Load Power
Factor

Load Kva

Load KW

Load Kvar

0:11

I
271.10

0.89

2,139.00

1,903.00

977.00

Circuit Peak

7/31/2006 17:56

369.00

0.94

2,882.00

2,695.00

1,021.00

8/2/2006
8/2/2006

00:11
10:26

Load Power
Factor

Load KW

Load Kvar

Load Kvar

0.99

998.00

984.00

169.00

123.48

255.70

0.95

2,009.00

1,913.00

612.00

7/29/2006
7/29/2006

South Regulator Phase C

Load
Voltage

7,868.23

7855.34

Voltage
120V Base

Load
Current

Load Power
Factor

Load
Voltage

7,908.95

7887.81

Load
Voltage
120V Base

Load
Current

Load Power
Factor

Load Kva

Load KW

Load Kvar

138.80

0.90

1,096.00

991.00

468.00

124.20

296.60

0.94

2,331.00

2,190.00

798.00

Load
Voltage

7,891.57

7811.26

0.98

946.00

929.00

179.00

123.69

238.00

0.94

1,877.00

1,772.00

619.00

Load
Current

Load Power
Factor

Load Kva

Load KW

Load Kvar

256.90

0.90

2,029.00

1,829.00

878.00

123.00

355.00

0.94

2,813.00

2,640.00

971.00

Load
Voltage
120V Base

7,852.46

7887.05

Voltage
120V Base

123.64

124.19

South Regulator Phase C

Load
Voltage

7,896.23

7859.16

Load
Voltage
120V Base

Load
Current

Load Power
Factor

Load Kva

Load KW

Load Kvar

Load
Voltage

Load
Voltage
120V Base

124.33

143.40

0.88

1,133.00

1,000.00

533.00

7,901.98

124.42

123.75

279.70

0.93

2,195.00

2,041.00

806.00

7,847.19

123.56

South Regulator Phase C

Load
Voltage

7,898.27

7924.79

Load
Voltage
120V Base

Load
Current

Load Power
Factor

Load Kva

Load KW

Load Kvar

124.37

241.10

0.89

1,892.00

1,680.00

871.00

124.78

314.00

0.93

2,486.00

2,317.00

900.00

Load
Voltage

7,851.34

7897.24

Load
Voltage
120V Base

123.63

124.35

23:56

12:16

North Regulator Phase B

Load
Voltage

Load
Voltage

23:56
17:11

124.26

8/2/2006
8/2/2006

Load Kvar

120.50

North Regulator Phase B

Load
Voltage
120V Base

Load KW

23:56
20:16

124.53

7/31/2006
7/31/2006

Load Kva

123.89

North Regulator Phase B

End:
End:

Load Kva

Load KW

126.90

East Regulator Phase A

Load
Current

Load Kva

123.72

East Regulator Phase A

7/31/2006

Start:
Start:
Time

7841.79

End:
End:

Circuit Start

Circuit
Generator
Date

7,857.51

End:
End:

7/29/2006

Start: 7/31/2006
Start: 7/31/2006
Time

North Regulator Phase B

Load
Voltage

East Regulator Phase A

Circuit Start

Circuit
Generator
Date

23:58

21:23

East Regulator Phase A

Load Power
Factor

Circuit Start

Circuit
Generator
Date

7/17/2006
7/17/2006

Load
Current

Load Power
Factor

Load Kva

Load KW

Load Kvar

South Regulator Phase C

Load
Voltage

Load
Voltage
120V Base

Load
Current

Load Power
Factor

Load Kva

Load KW

Load Kvar

Load
Voltage

Load
Voltage
120V Base

Circuit Start

8/2/2006

0:11

116.00

0.91

917.00

833.00

384.00

7,907.76

124.52

113.00

0.91

895.00

818.00

361.00

7,914.87

124.63

107.30

0.89

845.00

753.00

383.00

7,873.56

123.98

Generator
Circuit Peak

8/2/2006 12:16
8/2/2006 17:56

170.10
259.70

0.96
0.93

1,334.00
2,059.00

1,287.00
1,924.00

352.00
734.00

7,844.62
7,929.52

123.52
124.86

154.10
247.60

0.98
0.95

1,210.00
1,950.00

1,185.00
1,856.00

246.00
595.00

7,854.76
7,873.08

123.68
123.97

149.40
227.90

0.97
0.94

1,167.00
1,794.00

1,136.00
1,691.00

267.00
599.00

7,811.54
7,872.60

123.00
123.96

August 1st moved south branch to Page Substation at 19:00

227

Table 36. Circuit Equipment and Customer-Measured Data

Circuit
Start:
Generator Start:
Date
Time

7/17/2006
7/17/2006

10:42
17:28
Node F/6 Capacitor 1 (900 Kvar)

End:
End:

7/17/2006
7/17/2006

23:58
21:23
Node G/12 Capacitor 2 (900 Kvar)

Node H/13 Capacitor 3 (1200 Kvar)

Circuit Start

7/17/2006 10:42

Phase Currents
Ia
Ib
33.50
62.41

Ic
8.37

Phase Voltages
Va
Vb
Vc
121.40
120.90
121.55

Phase Currents
Ia
Ib
33.36
11.00

Ic
12.35

Phase Voltages
Va
Vb
Vc
121.85
121.20
120.90

Phase Currents
Ia
Ib
44.01
21.49

Ic
42.76

Phase Voltages
Va
Vb
Vc
120.15
120.00
120.40

Circuit Peak

7/17/2006 17:43

48.57

13.00

118.25

51.96

23.83

120.65

65.84

53.70

117.05

Date

Time

Circuit Start

7/17/2006 10:42

Ia
32.00

Circuit Peak

7/17/2006 17:43

46.00

Circuit
Start:
Generator Start:
Date
Time

Circuit Start

7/29/2006

Circuit Peak

7/29/2006 17:11

0:11

Circuit
Start:
Generator Start:
Date
Time

Circuit Start

7/31/2006

0:11

Circuit Peak

7/31/2006 17:56
Circuit
Start:
Generator Start:
Date
Time

Circuit Start

8/2/2006

Generator
Circuit Peak

8/2/2006 12:16
8/2/2006 17:56
Date

0:11

7/29/2006
7/29/2006

8/2/2006

Generator
Circuit Peak

8/2/2006 12:16
8/2/2006 17:56

Node I
Ib
-

Node K
Va
-

Node L
Vc
120.05

31.00

117.60

00:11
17:11
Node F/6 Capacitor 1 (900 Kvar)

Ic

50.45

10.34

7/31/2006
7/31/2006

103.25

Va

Ic

51.53

11.78

Va

Phase Currents
Ia
Ib
34.58
77.96

Ic
10.80

37.82
52.56

12.02
13.40

119.15
118.25

Node L
Vc
-

Vc

End:
End:

Phase Voltages
Vb

Vc

7.74

00:11
10:26
Node F/6 Capacitor 1 (900 Kvar)

86.89
109.82

End:
End:

Phase Voltages
Vb

00:11
16:11
Node F/6 Capacitor 1 (900 Kvar)

108.84

121.08

8.78

Phase Currents
Ia
Ib
22.12
44.79

8/2/2006
8/2/2006

117.75

Ic
19.00

Phase Currents
Ia
Ib
23.82
47.09

Time Node K
Va
0:11

Circuit Start

108.20

Va

Notes
(1):
(2):
(3):
(4):

End:
End:

Phase Voltages
Vb

Vc

7/29/2006
7/29/2006

14.00

Ic
10.78

54.29

24.72

13.02

Va

Phase Voltages
Vb

Ic
10.16

49.30

23.96

14.93

Va

Phase Voltages
Vb

Vc

Phase Currents
Ia
Ib
27.23
12.53

Ic
31.53

50.05

47.97

Ic
18.72

42.15
51.40

18.46
24.46

13.98
15.32

Va

Phase Voltages
Vb

Vc

118.15

18.57

Va

Phase Voltages
Vb

Vc

Phase Currents
Ia
Ib
30.38
14.65

Ic
31.88

62.18

54.05

27.37

Va

Phase Voltages
Vb

Vc

Node H/13 Capacitor 3 (1200 Kvar)

Vc

August 1st moved south branch to Page Substation at 19:00

Voltage Data At Capacitor Locations Not Available from July 26 until August 22
All Capacitor Phase Voltages Are Measured On The Secondary Side At The Customer's Meter
All Capacitor Phase Currents Are Measured On The Primary

228

116.93

Node H/13 Capacitor 3 (1200 Kvar)

23:56
12:16
Node G/12 Capacitor 2 (900 Kvar)

Phase Currents
Ia
Ib
41.65
9.95

27.09

Node H/13 Capacitor 3 (1200 Kvar)

23:56
17:11
Node G/12 Capacitor 2 (900 Kvar)

Phase Currents
Ia
Ib
21.23
5.81

8/2/2006
8/2/2006

118.65

23:56
20:16
Node G/12 Capacitor 2 (900 Kvar)

Phase Currents
Ia
Ib
24.69
5.42

7/31/2006
7/31/2006

118.40

Phase Currents
Ia
Ib
47.89
23.05

Ic
52.07

52.82
52.27

50.02
55.17

23.95
20.09

Va

Phase Voltages
Vb

Vc

Table 37. Field Verification Data July 17, 2006 DR Generation On

Location
Start of Circuit

Node
1

Generator

10

VR 1

Cap 1*

Cap 2*

12

Cap 3*

13

Node I

16

Field Data - 7/17/06 - Circuit Peak 17:43

Current
Voltage
A
B
C
A
B
C
A
565.00 651.00 637.00 126.00 126.00 126.00
0.95
2.2%
0.3%
18.31
17.24
17.00
122.50 122.50 120.25
0.96
2.3%
1.1%
282.60 255.70 238.00 123.48 123.69 124.19
0.94
3.7%
0.2%
48.57
108.20
13.00
118.25 117.75 121.08
3.0%
0.7%
51.96
14.00
23.83
120.65 118.40 118.65
2.0%
1.5%
65.84
27.09
53.70
117.05 116.93 118.15
3.9%
1.2%
46.00

PF
B
0.95
5.7%
0.96
0.0%
0.95
2.4%

C
0.95

Current
A
B
C
554.54 637.77 619.97

Simulation
Voltage
A
B
C
125.86 125.80 125.39

A
0.93

PF
B
0.92

C
0.93

0.96

17.49

17.25

17.36

121.68

123.38

122.62

0.96

0.96

0.96

0.94

274.07

246.07

227.56

123.60

123.82

123.62

0.93

0.94

0.93

48.03

104.47

13.77

52.18

14.87

24.53

64.44

27.92

50.18

121.25
117.58
120.51
116.84
119.04
115.37

121.14
117.47
123.09
119.42
121.44
117.77

123.29
119.62
121.87
118.20
120.03
116.36

31.00

32.73

22.94

38.3%
Node L*

18

117.60

121.42
117.75

0.1%

*The voltage measurements were taken at the customer's meter. Therefore, an average voltage drop of 3.67 V was included to reduce the primary voltage to the secondary voltage for the
comparison shown in the table.

Table 38. Field Verification Data July 29, 2006 DR Generation On

Location
Start of Circuit

Node
1

A
562.00

Generator

10

8.07

VR 1

312.30

Cap 1

50.45

Cap 2

12

54.29

Cap 3

13

50.05

Current
B
635.00
0.3%
7.08
5.7%
296.60
1.3%
103.25
2.6%
13.02
2.0%
18.57
4.0%

Field Data - 7/29/06 - Circuit Peak 17:11

Voltage
C
A
B
C
A
615.00

PF
B

Current
B
C
636.69 616.03

Simulation
Voltage
A
B
C
126.46 126.34 125.91

A
0.91

PF
B
0.92

C
0.90

A
564.59

0.98

7.30

7.19

7.22

121.76

123.67

123.17

0.98

0.98

0.98

0.93

316.35

299.29

284.46

123.92

124.46

124.48

0.92

0.92

0.92

10.34

49.80

100.44

11.10

24.72

54.48

13.91

25.46

47.97

49.11

19.56

45.29

6.84

122.25

279.70

124.20

122.25
1.2%
123.75
0.5%

120.75

0.98

123.56

0.93

0.98
0.0%
0.94
3.4%

229

Table 39. Field Verification Data July 31, 2006 DR Generation Off

Location
Start of Circuit

Node
1

Generator

10

Field Data - 7/31/06 - Circuit Peak 17:56

Current
Voltage
A
B
C
A
B
C
A
604.00 696.00 678.00
0.5%
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A

VR 1

369.00

Cap 1

51.53

Cap 2

12

49.30

Cap 3

13

62.18

355.00
2.3%
108.84
2.8%
14.93
2.2%
27.37
5.1%

Current
A
B
C
608.76 699.59 678.97

Simulation
Voltage
A
B
C
126.26 126.14 125.58

A
0.92

PF
B
0.92

C
0.91

376.11

362.02

324.22

122.93

0.93

0.92

0.92

11.78

50.82

105.52

12.49

23.96

48.74

15.69

24.55

54.05

60.45

28.03

49.14

314.00

123.00

124.78
0.5%

124.35

0.94

PF
B

N/A

N/A

0.94
3.4%

0.93

230

123.63

123.61

Table 40. Percent Variance Between Actual and Simulated

Currents, Voltages, and Power Factors

Location
Start of circuit
Generator
VR
Capacitor 1
Capacitor 2
Capacitor 3
Node I
Node L
Start of circuit
Generator
VR
Capacitor 1
Capacitor 2
Capacitor 3
Start of circuit
Generator
VR
Capacitor 1
Capacitor 2
Capacitor 3

Node

Current

Voltage

Test Day 7/17/06 DR Generation Running

1
2.2
10
2.3
9
3.7
6
3.0
12
2.0
13
3.9
16
38.3
18
-Test Day 7/29/06 DR Generation Running
1
0.3
10
5.7
9
1.3
6
2.6
12
2.0
13
4.0
Test Day 7/31/06 DR Generation Off
1
0.5
N/A
N/A
9
2.3
6
2.8
12
2.2
13
5.1

PF

0.3
1.1
0.2
0.7
1.5
1.2
-0.1

5.7
0.0
2.4
------

-1.2
0.5
----

-0.0
3.4
----

-N/A
0.5
----

-N/A
3.4
----

9.6 Summary of Variance Results

From Table 40, the variance between actual field-measured data and simulated data is less
than 6% (i.e., 5.7% actual) for the phase currents throughout the circuit (except for Node I,
where the percent unbalanced current is very high). The highest variance for the phase
voltages throughout the circuit is 1.5% percent, whereas the highest variance for the PF is
5.7% at the start of the circuit. It should be noted that the lowest variances occur on the load
side of the step regulators because these regulators are individually phase-controlled and not
gang-operated as the LTC at the substation.

As shown in the variance data in Table 40, the simulated data closely match the actual fieldmeasured data in most cases, and the models developed in Section 5 can be used to estimate
phase currents, phase voltages, and power factors without the use of extensive circuit metering.
However, knowing the phasing of the loads is paramount to accurate simulated data. No
significant difference in percent variance occurred when the DR was turned on or off.

231

10 Project Results Distributed Generation Penetration Limits

Using Maximum Real Power and Maximum Real and
Reactive Power Methods of Voltage Control
10.1 Introduction
In this section, the largest synchronous generator that can be installed on the distribution
circuit is determined. This is determined based on three criteria:

The lowest single-phase voltage must not be less than 114 meter V or 117.67 V on the
secondary of the distribution transformer, and the highest single-phase voltage cannot
exceed 126 meter V.
The generator must not exceed 100% of the thermal rating on the most limiting
element.
The generator must not create a reverse-power condition (i.e., there can be no flow
back through the substation transformer).

Although these criteria were used for testing, a fourth criterion was that no system protection
device could misoperate. This criterion was not applied because it was the subject of a prior
Department of Energy contract.
10.2 Real Power Distributed Generation Size Limitation
Table 41 summarizes the results of applying the highest acceptable real power injection at the
beginning point, BP, Node 2; the middle point, Node 10; and the end point, Node 17. The
limiting criterion in all cases was reverse power. The optimum location was at the midpoint,
which had the lowest single-phase voltage improvement of 1.7% and a real power loss
savings of 2.04%. The base case real power losses were 5.4%. The largest real power
injection was 13,980 kW at the end point; the beginning and midpoints were slightly less at
13,290 kW and 13,740 kW, respectively.

232

Table 41. Maximum Limit for Real Power Injection

Machine
Type
SG

Real
Power
13290

SG

13740

SG

13980

Machine
Type
SG

Real
Power
13290

SG

13740

SG

13980

Lowest
Node 01
Lowest 3 Voltage
Reactive
Reason for
Highest
1
Power
Failure
Location LTC Tap
IA
IB
IC
VA
VB
VC
Voltage
I2/I1 %
0
Reverse Power
BP
10
220.1696 271.2878 260.5665 119.6138 120.2031 118.6864 118.0618 100.0552
VR (1) 32, 30, 32
0
Reverse Power
MP
9
209.6296 236.8509 231.5352 123.4694 121.8682 120.5033 119.8612 100.0533
VR (1) 14, 23, 22
0
Reverse Power
EP
11
259.8293 283.9373 288.2117 122.7994 121.6083 119.4167 118.7864 100.0536
VR (1) 11, 17, 21

Improvement
Reactive
Reason for
Power
Failure
Location
0
Reverse Power
BP
VR (1) 32, 30, 32
0
Reverse Power
MP
VR (1) 14, 23, 22
0
Reverse Power
EP
VR (1) 11, 17, 21

Lowest
Voltage
0.18%

I2/I1 %
Highest
V2/V1 %
1.3408

% kW
Loss
4.5%

Total
kVar Loss
1826.3

Node 0
10.089

Low
0.0029

High
(<100)
88.4603

Node 1
Capacity
59.5696

0.9978

3.4%

1035.66

7.8879

0.7686

88.2549

76.4327

1.3867

5.4%

2511.05

6.7255

0.6844

88.1865

71.7475

Low
0.0028

High
(<100)
88.4668

Node 1
Capacity
70.7768

Node 1
Losses Capacity
0.93%
59.78%

1.70%

2.04%

76.64%

0.79%

0.00%

71.95%

Table 42. Maximum Limit for Real and Reactive Power Injection
Machine
Type
SG

Real
Power
13220

SG

14250

SG

14490

Machine
Type
SG

Real
Power
13220

SG

14250

SG

14490

Lowest
Node 01
Lowest 3 Voltage
Reactive
Reason for
1
Highest
Power
Failure
Location LTC Tap
IA
IB
IC
VA
VB
VC
Voltage
I2/I1 %
1893
Reverse Power
BP
8
142.0642 196.0875 183.4428 119.7491 120.385 118.8633 118.2371 100.0551
VR (1) 32, 29, 31
3480
Reverse Power
MP
6
67.2904 105.9963 101.8954 126.4554 124.0628 126.3554 123.2218 100.0518
VR (1) -10, 0, -2
2007
Reverse Power
EP
8
177.3008 200.7446 203.7936 124.1336 122.7252 120.8493 120.205 100.0529
VR (1) 1, 9, 10

Improvement
Reactive
Reason for
Power
Failure
Location
1893
Reverse Power
BP
VR (1) 32, 29, 31
3480
Reverse Power
MP
VR (1) -10, 0, -2
2007
Reverse Power
EP
VR (1) 1, 9, 10

Lowest
Voltage
0.32%

Node 1
Losses Capacity
1.00%
70.98%

4.55%

2.30%

84.41%

1.99%

0.28%

70.29%

233

I2/I1 %
Highest
V2/V1 %
1.3197

% kW
Loss
4.4%

Total
kVar Loss Node 0
1687.92 14.4753

0.7465

3.1%

748.35

22.1997

0.4043

88.3036

84.2032

1.2065

5.1%

2227.32

9.7905

0.5588

88.2301

70.0828

10.3 Real and Reactive Distributed Generation Size Limitation

Table 42 shows the results of applying the maximum real and reactive power without
exceeding study criteria. Notice that a much larger DG can be used when injecting both real
and reactive power because, now, the real power limit is 14,490 kW (versus 13,980 kW for
real power injection only). Again, the optimum location is at the midpoint. However, in this
case, the lowest single-phase voltage was improved 4.55% versus only 1.7% in the real power
case. The real power loss savings were marginally better (2.3% versus 2.04%) than the
optimum real power injection case.
10.4 Findings
It should be remembered that the three-phase feeder conductor size of 636 kcmil aluminum is
uniform throughout the Milford Circuit. Therefore, maximum size was not limited because of
location of DG on the circuit. The optimum location for the greatest voltage improvement and
real power loss savings is the midpoint.

234

11 Project Results Distributed Generation Voltage Regulation

and Optimum Generator Conditions for Maximum
Improvement of Voltage Regulation, Loss Reduction, and
Released Capacity
11.1 Introduction
In this section, three generation types are employed to determine their effect on distribution
circuit voltage regulation when the magnitude of the real power injection and the reactive
power export or import (absorption) is varied. The three types of generation are a 400-kW
induction generator with two fixed reactive values, a 400-kW inverter-based generator with a
0.8 power factor, and a 1,000-kW synchronous machine with a 0.8 power factor.

Three effects may occur when DG is operated on a distribution circuit: voltage regulation
improvement, released capacity savings, and real power loss reduction. These improvements
were tabulated for each generator type for both high (105%) and low (95%) substation
primary voltage. The data are summarized for the actual locations of the induction generator
and the high-speed generator and inverter; the data for the synchronous machine are
summarized for its actual location on the distribution circuit or the midlocation (ML, Node
10), at the beginning location (BL, Node 1), on the secondary of the substation after the LTC,
and at the end location (EL, Node 17) near the tag end of the circuit.
This analysis was conducted for the actual peak-load, or HL, condition at 17:43 on July 17,
2006, and at the LL condition at 05:00 the same day. The results are tabulated and
displayed in graphical form for voltage improvement, released capacity savings, and real
energy loss reduction.
11.2 Factors to Consider for Test Result Evaluation
Two factors must be considered for simulation test result evaluation: (1) the dead band of the
VR and (2) the effect the VDC source model on the increase or decrease in kilowatt and
kilovar load as the voltage changes.
11.2.1 Regulator Dead Ban
The regulator dead band is set for 1 V. Because the regulator has a +5% boost in voltage over
32 steps and a -5% buck in voltage over 32 steps, the number of steps within the dead band is

5% voltage change
= 0.15625%/step x 120 volts, or 0.1875 volts/tap.
32 steps
The number of steps within the deadband is then
1 volt deadband
= 5 steps.
0.1875 volts / tap

235

So the voltage can change as much as 1 volt and not result in a change of the VR tap setting.
When DG is run during an HV condition on the primary of the substation and at different real
and plus or minus reactive power flows, the voltage will decrease or increase. This will cause
the kilowatt and kilovar loads to decrease or increase. The change in voltage may not be
enough to cause a reduction in the regulator settings (see Figure 141, Figure 155, and Figure
161). During the LV condition on the primary of the substation, the LTC and step regulator
taps are typically set at the highest tap settings, and there is less effect because of the step
regulator step-changing interventions.
11.2.2 Voltage-Dependent Current Source
The model that best represents how load characteristics change with a change in voltage is the
VDC source model. Adding real and positive reactive power from DG sources will increase
the voltage and cause an increase in current or kilovolt-ampere load, which, in turn, increases
the real power energy losses and reduces the released capacity (see Figure 144). The model
will cause a 1.8% increase in current with a 1% increase in voltage and a 1.8% decrease in
current with a 1% decrease in voltage.
11.3 Interpreting the Distributed Generation Voltage Regulation
Application Results
Two sets of tables summarize the results of the DG applications. The first set, Table 44
through Table 51, summarizes the results of applying each of the three generation types for
both HV and LV substation primary conditions. Table 43 explains how to interpret the results.
In the second set, Table 52 shows a summary of the benefits of running each type of DG. In
the cases of the induction and inverter-based generators, the results are given for the location
where the units are installed on the circuit. The induction generator is located at Node 17, or
the EL, and the inverter generator is located at Node 22, or the midpoint. For the synchronous
generator, the findings are summarized for generator locations at the beginning (Node 1),
middle or actual location site (Node 10), and end (Node 17).
11.3.1 Induction Generator Voltage Regulation Application (High Voltage)
Heavy Load, Table 44
Each of the generator applications consists of different real power and reactive power
injections (+) or absorption (-) for both HV (105%) and LV (95%) conditions on the primary
of the substation. The LTC tap setting at the secondary of the substation transformer is
recorded for each real and reactive power case considered, as well as the tap settings of the
step regulator for each case. The phase currents IA, IB, and IC at Node 1; the lowest three
phase voltages VA, VB, and VC; and the lowest single-phase voltage on the circuit are
recorded along with the highest current unbalance I2/I1%, the highest voltage unbalance
V2/V1%, the percent circuit losses (excluding the substation transformer), kilovar losses, and
capacity savings.

Six cases were studied for the real power and reactive power. These are:

236

P (kW)
1
2
3
4
5
6

400
400
400
400
400
400

Q (kVAr)

Substation Primary
Voltage

0
247.91
-247.91
0
247.91
-247.91

LV
LV
LV
HV
HV
HV

Table 43 explains the meaning of each improvement from the base case with no DG
application. For the substation primary LV case, notice that when plus reactive and real power
are injected (400 kW, +247.91 kVAr), the lowest three-phase voltages increase, the lowest
single-phase voltage increases, and the percent losses on the circuit are slightly lower (i.e.,
5.145% compared with 5.4% for the base case). The percent loss improvement is then 0.25%,
and the released capacity savings are 6.10%. For the substation primary HV case, the phase
currents IA, IB, and IC are about 20 A more because the higher voltage levels cause an increase
in the load. Here, when the DG injects 400 kW of real power and +247.91 kVArs of reactive
power, the lowest single-phase voltage improves by 0.12%, the percent energy loss savings
improves 0.30%, and the released capacity improves only by 3.80%. This reduction in
released capacity is due to the higher voltage and increased load. For the LV case, the
released capacity was 6.10%. For the LV case, when the generator is absorbing volt-amperes
reactive (i.e., -247.91 Vars), there is a drop in voltage. The lowest single-phase voltage is now
2.63% less than the base case. The loss savings is 0.2%, but the released capacity is 6.44%.
For the HV case and the same P and Q, the lowest voltage drops only 0.06%, the loss
savings are 0.19%, and the released capacity is only 2.31%. Again, the higher the voltage, the
greater the load and less released capacity.

237

Table 43. Explaining the Meaning of

A, B, C

Positive and Negative Improvements for DG Applications

Improvement Parameter

Negative % Numbers

Positive % Numbers

% Lowest single-phase
voltage

Voltage drop from base case

(negative improvement)

Voltage rise from base case

(positive improvement)

% Real energy losses

Higher losses than base case

(negative improvement)

Lower losses than base case

(positive improvement)

% Released capacity

Higher capacity needed to

serve the load
(negative improvement)

Lower capacity needed to

serve load
(positive improvement)

Notes:
A. The percent voltage improvement is the percent difference between the lowest single-phase
voltage on the circuit for the base case and the lowest single-phase voltage for the DG
application being considered divided by the base case and multiplied by 100%.
B. The energy losses are the sum of all feeder lateral distribution transformer, secondary, and
service losses, and the percent improvement is the difference between the base case percent
losses for the circuit and the percent losses for the DG application.
C. The kilovolt-ampere released capacity percent improvement is the difference between the
percent capacity needed to serve the load at Node 1 and the percent base case capacity.

11.3.2 Inverter Generator Voltage Regulation Application (High Voltage)

Heavy Load, Table 45
Because the real and reactive power capability of the high-speed generator inverter is about
the same as that of the induction generator, the results are very similar to the induction
generator voltage regulation application.

Six cases were studied for the inverter-based generation. These represent a full range of real
and reactive capability.

1
2
3
4
5
6

P (kW)

Q (kVAr)

Substation Primary
Voltage

400
320
320
400
320
320

0
240
-240
0
240
-240

LV
LV
LV
HV
HV
HV

The savings in losses, voltage improvement, and released capacity are, in general, less than
those of the induction generator application because the real power at maximum +Var output
is less.

238

11.3.3 Synchronous Generator Voltage Regulation Application (Beginning

Location, High Voltage) Heavy Load, Table 46
Thirteen cases, with the range of real and reactive power shown below, were studied for the
synchronous generator. Because regulation results differ depending on location, three
locations were selected: the BL, ML, and EL.

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13

Location

Substation Primary
Voltage

BL
BL
BL
BL
BL
BL
BL
BL
BL
BL
BL
BL
BL

50%
75%
100%
106.7%
100%
100%
25%
25%
25%
25%
25%
25%
25%

0
0
0
0
100%
-100%
100%
75%
50%
25%
0%
-50%
-100%

HV
HV
HV
HV
HV
HV
HV
HV
HV
HV
HV
HV
HV

When the synchronous generator is located at the source end (near the substation), its
maximum generation of real and reactive power reduces these requirements from the source
and, as such, results in the highest released capacity of 7.36% when operated at P = 100% and
Q = +100%. Although the losses are less than those of the base case, the loss savings are not
as good as when the generation is closer to the load. The lowest single-phase voltage is, in
general, better than the previous cases but still less than the base case.
11.3.4 Synchronous Generator Voltage Regulation Application (End Location,
High Voltage) Heavy Load, Table 47
Installing generation at the end of the circuit (EL) resulted in a released capacity savings of
6.85%, a loss savings of 0.53%, and near-base case conditions for voltage when the real
power was 106.7% of nameplate and the reactive was 0%. When 100% reactive and 100%
real power were applied, the voltage improved above the base case by 0.82%, and the released
capacity was 5.97%. The worst-case voltage occurred when the unit was operated at -100%
reactive and 100% real power. The lowest single-phase voltage dropped 0.44% below the
base case. Both the voltage and the released capacity improvement parameters were worse
than those of the base case when the unit was operated at 25% real power and -100% reactive.
Here, the voltage dropped -0.7%, and the released capacity was only 1.5%.

239

11.3.5 Synchronous Generator Voltage Regulation Application (Midlocation,

High Voltage) Heavy Load, Table 48
The mid-location is the actual site of the 1,000-kW synchronous generator. The maximum
released capacity of 6.88% occurs when the machine is operated at its maximum real power
output of 106.7% and zero reactive power. This is to be expected because this input power to
the circuit just offsets the same required power plus losses that the source provides to the
circuit. Also, this case results in the second-highest loss savings of 0.48%, the highest loss
saving being when the real power and reactive power are 100% each. The minimum released
capacity of 1.15%, the lowest loss saving of 0.03%, and the worst-case single-phase voltage
improvement of -0.81% occurs when the real power is only 25% and the reactive is -100%.
Here, the voltage is reduced because of the high value of the generation reactive absorption.
The best-case voltage improvement is 0.5% when the reactive is 100% export.
11.3.6 Synchronous Generator Voltage Regulation Application (Beginning
Location, Low Voltage) Heavy Load, Table 49
When the primary of the substation is operating at the LV condition of 95%, the LTC at the
substation is in the all-raise position (16), and the step regulator on the circuit operates at the
all-raise position on all three phases (32, 32, 32). The released capacity savings reached their
highest levels in this case with a 10.44% savings occurring at 100% real power and 100%
reactive power. The voltages are lower than those of the base case by about 2% to 3%. The
worst case occurred at -2.96% with 25% real and -100% reactive. This is obvious because the
negative reactive is reducing the voltage. The best-case voltage of -1.93% occurred when
100% real power and 100% reactive export power were delivered at the BL. The loss
improvements are quite low and range from only 0.02% to 0.13%.
11.3.7 Synchronous Generator Voltage Regulation Application (End Location,
Low Voltage) Heavy Load, Table 50
As before (see 11.3.6), the LTC regulator and the step regulator are operating at full-raise
position during this LV condition on the primary of the substation. The capacity savings of
9.98% are slightly lower than those of the previous case, with the maximum real power output
of 106.7%. All the voltage improvements are still negative, with the worst case occurring at
3.33% when P = 25% and Q -100%. The loss savings were better than the previous cases,
with the maximum of 0.56% at P = 100% and Q = 100%. This is because a portion of the tag
end load of the circuit is now being served by the DG. Again, this LV condition results in less
kilovolt-amperes of load and, hence, lower losses.
11.3.8 Synchronous Generator Voltage Regulation Application (Midlocation,
Low Voltage) Heavy Load, Table 51
The midlocation performance is somewhat between the BL and EL performances. The released
capacity is now 10.01% at 106.7% real power, whereas the released capacity was 10.44% at
the BL and 9.98% at the EL. The greatest loss savings of 0.51% occurred at P = 100% and Q =
100%, which is slightly less than the maximum loss savings of 0.56% when the DG is located
at the EL. The worst-case lowest single-phase voltage was -3.36%, compared with the best
case of -2.96% when the DG is located at the BL and operating at P = 25% and Q = -100%.
The best-case lowest single-phase voltage is -1.14% when P = 100% and Q = 100%, which is
almost the same result as when the unit was located at the EL (-1.15%).

240

Table 44. Induction Generator Voltage Regulation Application (LV, HV) HL

Lowest
Highest
1
IB
IC
VA
VB
VC
Voltage
I2/I1 %
630.2362 612.8234 116.9241 117.2165 115.8406 115.1259 100.0563
Node 01

Machine
Type
IG
IG
IG
IG
IG
IG

Real
Reactive
Power
Power
HV / LV
400
0
LV
VR (1) 32, 32, 32
400
247.91
LV
VR (1) 32, 32, 32
400
-247.91
LV
VR (1) 32, 32, 32
400
0
HV
VR (1) 30, 26, 27
400
247.91
HV
VR (1) 26, 23, 23
400
-247.91
HV
VR (1) 32, 28, 29

Location LTC Tap

N/A
16

Highest
V2/V1 %
1.3398

% kW
Loss
5.2%

Total
kVar Loss
2924.33

Node 0
3.9985

Low
0.7005

High
(<100)
88.4458

Node 1
Capacity
6.0751

553.1808 631.4567 614.1055 117.2827 117.5672 116.2048 115.4859 100.0561

1.3216

5.1%

2931.47

4.0372

0.6957

88.4485

5.8932

IA
552.457

N/A

16

N/A

16

551.9444 629.1895 611.7199 116.5597 116.8611 115.4707 114.7603 100.0564

1.3594

5.2%

2920.77

3.9577

0.7054

88.443

6.2311

N/A

571.6509 648.8639 632.2462 119.2617 119.7564 118.2793 117.5369 100.0553

1.2632

5.1%

2990.79

3.8551

0.6694

88.4629

3.299

N/A

568.6085 646.8681 629.8217 119.7302 120.1709 118.7389 117.9912 100.0551

1.2666

5.1%

2960.5

3.9362

0.6629

88.4648

3.5964

N/A

579.2854 656.8888

1.2836

5.2%

3082.02

3.8059

0.6799

88.4585

2.103

Lowest
1
Voltage
-2.32%

kW
Node 1
Losses Capacity
0.23%
6.28%

639.831

119.523

120.0307 118.5256 117.7804 100.0552

Improvement
Machine
Type
IG
IG
IG
IG
IG
IG

Real
Reactive
Power
Power
HV / LV
400
0
LV
VR (1) 32, 32, 32
400
247.91
LV
VR (1) 32, 32, 32
400
-247.91
LV
VR (1) 32, 32, 32
400
0
HV
VR (1) 30, 26, 27
400
247.91
HV
VR (1) 26, 23, 23
400
-247.91
HV
VR (1) 32, 28, 29

I2/I1 %

Lowest 3 Voltage

Location
N/A
N/A

-2.01%

0.25%

6.10%

N/A

-2.63%

0.20%

6.44%

N/A

-0.27%

0.25%

3.51%

N/A

0.12%

0.30%

3.80%

N/A

-0.06%

0.19%

2.31%

241

Table 45. Inverter Generator Voltage Regulation Application (LV, HV) HL

Table 11.2 Inverter Generator Voltage Regulation Application (LV, HV) - Heavy Load
Lowest
Highest
1
Location LTC Tap
IA
IB
IC
VA
VB
VC
I2/I1 %
Voltage
N/A
16
552.4406 630.1595 612.4781 117.0235 117.1949 115.8796 115.1541 100.0562
Node 01

Machine
Type
InvG
InvG
InvG
InvG
InvG
InvG

Machine
Type
InvG
InvG
InvG
InvG
InvG
InvG

Real
Reactive
Power
Power
HV / LV
400
0
LV
VR (1) 32, 32, 32
320
240
LV
VR (1) 32, 32, 32
320
-240
LV
VR (1) 32, 32, 32
400
0
HV
VR (1) 29, 26, 26
320
240
HV
VR (1) 32, 28, 29
320
-240
HV
VR (1) 32, 28, 29

Lowest 3 Voltage

I2/I1 %
Highest
V2/V1 %
1.3684

% kW
Loss
5.2%

Total
kVar Loss
2952.59

Node 0
3.9782

Low
0.6943

High
(<100)
82.3537

Node 1
Capacity
6.0865

555.3521 633.2756 616.0219 117.5087 117.6895 116.3973 115.6369 107.5141

1.363

5.2%

2985.68

3.9892

0.6889

80.9469

5.6221

N/A

16

N/A

16

555.7432 633.3703 615.2559 116.3862 116.6189 115.2498 114.5651 100.0565

1.3826

5.3%

2978.01

3.9493

0.7025

68.8583

5.608

N/A

570.7684 648.7027 631.0691 119.3939 119.7258 118.3498 117.5964 100.0552

1.3194

5.2%

3013.17

3.8672

0.6628

90.3889

3.323

N/A

576.2127 653.6868 637.0627

119.765

120.1514 118.7634 117.9769 122.1077

1.2764

5.2%

3070.41

3.8373

0.6587

77.7744

2.5802

N/A

583.018

119.355

119.7961 118.3125 117.5922 100.0553

1.3048

5.2%

3139.33

3.7977

0.6769

68.8948

1.4914

Improvement
Real
Reactive
Power
Power
HV / LV Location
400
0
LV
N/A
VR (1) 32, 32, 32
320
240
LV
N/A
VR (1) 32, 32, 32
320
-240
LV
N/A
VR (1) 32, 32, 32
400
0
HV
N/A
VR (1) 29, 26, 26
320
240
HV
N/A
VR (1) 32, 28, 29
320
-240
HV
N/A
VR (1) 32, 28, 29

Lowest
Voltage
-2.29%

660.9927 643.3038

Node 1
Losses Capacity
0.22%
6.29%

-1.88%

0.16%

5.83%

-2.79%

0.13%

5.81%

-0.22%

0.24%

3.53%

0.10%

0.21%

2.79%

-0.22%

0.16%

1.70%

242

Table 46. Synchronous Generator Voltage Regulation Application (BL, HV) HL

Lowest
1
Highest
Location LTC Tap
IA
IB
IC
VA
VB
VC
Voltage
I2/I1 %
BL
3
569.7675 647.5676 630.3888 118.9988 119.5496 118.0643 117.3244 100.0554
Node 01

Machine
Type
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG

Machine
Type
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG

Real
Reactive
Power
Power
HV / LV
50%
0
HV
VR (1) 32, 28, 29
75%
0
HV
VR (1) 32, 28, 29
100%
0
HV
VR (1) 32, 28, 29
106.7%
0
HV
VR (1) 32, 28, 29
100%
100%
HV
VR (1) 32, 28, 29
100%
-100%
HV
VR (1) 32, 29, 30
25%
100%
HV
VR (1) 32, 28, 29
25%
75%
HV
VR (1) 32, 28, 29
25%
50%
HV
VR (1) 32, 28, 29
25%
25%
HV
VR (1) 32, 28, 29
25%
0%
HV
VR (1) 32, 28, 29
25%
-50%
HV
VR (1) 32, 28, 29
25%
-100%
HV
VR (1) 32, 29, 30

Lowest 3 Voltage

I2/I1 %
Highest
V2/V1 %
1.3032

% kW
Loss
5.3%

Total
kVar Loss
3085.62

Node 0
3.9085

Low
0.6717

High
(<100)
88.4676

Node 1
Capacity
3.4922
4.8567

BL

560.5307 638.4113 621.1837 119.0267 119.5778 118.0917 117.3515 100.0554

1.3034

5.3%

3040.39

3.9695

0.6718

88.4675

BL

551.3242 629.2837 612.0087 119.0544 119.6056 118.1188 117.3782 100.0554

1.3037

5.3%

2995.99

4.0321

0.0027

88.4674

6.217

BL

548.8595 626.8399 609.5523 119.0618

1.3037

5.3%

2984.23

4.0492

0.0027

88.4674

6.5812

119.613

118.126

117.3854 100.0554

118.643

117.8965 100.0552

1.3085

5.3%

2989.46

4.1082

0.0027

88.4658

7.1526

119.1903 119.6974 118.2112 117.4696 100.0554

1.3253

5.3%

3089.67

3.9899

0.0029

88.4606

3.9024

BL

545.0327 623.0061 605.5145 119.5898 120.1441

BL

565.4395 644.8146

BL

573.1587 650.8478 633.5213 119.5061 120.0599

117.8155 100.0552

1.3078

5.3%

3125.69

3.9176

0.6742

88.466

3.0033

BL

574.5047 652.2184 634.9375 119.3716 119.9246 118.4293 117.6853 100.0553

1.3066

5.3%

3126.54

3.901

0.6735

88.4664

2.799

BL

575.9175 653.6441 636.4107 119.2389 119.7912 118.2994 117.5568 100.0553

1.3054

5.3%

3127.81

3.8843

0.6729

88.4668

2.5866

BL

577.4435 655.1716 637.9895 119.1038 119.6552 118.1671

117.426

100.0554

1.3041

5.3%

3129.55

3.8668

0.6722

88.4672

2.3589

117.297

627.551

118.561

BL

579.0334 656.7516 639.6228 118.9705 119.5212 118.0366

100.0554

1.3029

5.3%

3131.69

3.8492

0.6715

88.4676

2.1235

BL

588.6396 667.0585 649.8389 119.3703 119.9216 118.4242 117.6801 100.0553

1.3072

5.4%

3211.77

3.8093

0.6749

88.4658

0.5874

BL

592.5017 671.6892 654.5498 119.1057 119.6124 118.1285 117.3878 100.0554

1.3245

5.4%

3226.28

3.8167

0.6809

88.4608

-0.1027

Improvement
Real
Reactive
Power
Power
HV / LV Location
50%
0
HV
BL
VR (1) 32, 28, 29
75%
0
HV
BL
VR (1) 32, 28, 29
100%
0
HV
BL
VR (1) 32, 28, 29
106.7%
0
HV
BL
VR (1) 32, 28, 29
100%
100%
HV
BL
VR (1) 32, 28, 29
100%
-100%
HV
BL
VR (1) 32, 29, 30
25%
100%
HV
BL
VR (1) 32, 28, 29
25%
75%
HV
BL
VR (1) 32, 28, 29
25%
50%
HV
BL
VR (1) 32, 28, 29
25%
25%
HV
BL
VR (1) 32, 28, 29
25%
0%
HV
BL
VR (1) 32, 28, 29
25%
-50%
HV
BL
VR (1) 32, 28, 29
25%
-100%
HV
BL
VR (1) 32, 29, 30

Lowest
Voltage
-0.45%

Node 1
Losses Capacity
0.08%
3.70%

-0.43%

0.11%

5.06%

-0.40%

0.13%

6.42%

-0.40%

0.13%

6.79%

0.04%

0.14%

7.36%

-0.33%

0.08%

4.11%

-0.03%

0.08%

3.21%

-0.14%

0.07%

3.01%

-0.25%

0.07%

2.79%

-0.36%

0.07%

2.57%

-0.47%

0.06%

2.33%

-0.15%

0.03%

0.79%

-0.40%

0.02%

0.10%

243

Table 47. Synchronous Generator Voltage Regulation Application (EL, HV) HL

Node 01
Machine
Type
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG

Machine
Type
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG

Real
Reactive
Power
Power
HV / LV
50%
0
HV
VR (1) 32, 28, 29
75%
0
HV
VR (1) 32, 28, 29
100%
0
HV
VR (1) 32, 28, 29
106.7%
0
HV
VR (1) 32, 28, 29
100%
100%
HV
VR (1) 31, 28, 28
100%
-100%
HV
VR (1) 32, 29, 30
25%
100%
HV
VR (1) 32, 28, 29
25%
75%
HV
VR (1) 32, 28, 29
25%
50%
HV
VR (1) 32, 28, 29
25%
25%
HV
VR (1) 32, 28, 29
25%
0%
HV
VR (1) 32, 28, 29
25%
-50%
HV
VR (1) 32, 29, 30
25%
-100%
HV
VR (1) 32, 29, 31

Location LTC Tap

IA
IB
EL
3
570.0817 647.3645

VB
119.742

VC
118.2744

Lowest
1
Voltage
117.532

118.401

Lowest 3 Voltage
IC
630.642

VA
119.2577

I2/I1 %
Highest
I2/I1 %
100.0553

Highest
V2/V1 %
1.2618

% kW
Loss
5.1%

Total
kVar Loss
2973.1

Node 0
3.8604

Low
0.6697

High
(<100)
88.4628

Node 1
Capacity
3.5224

EL

561.0321 638.1117 621.5711 119.4095 119.8616

117.6572 100.0552

1.2525

5.0%

2875.42

3.8957

0.6689

88.4604

4.9014

EL

552.0319 628.8905

612.534

119.5571 119.9779 118.5236 117.7784 100.0552

1.2434

4.9%

2781.08

3.9317

0.6683

88.4579

6.2756

610.115

119.596

EL

549.6257 626.4219

120.0085 118.5558 117.8102 100.0551

1.241

4.9%

2756.33

3.9415

0.6681

88.4573

6.6435

EL

553.2643 632.3135 615.4063 120.6019 120.9582 119.5848 118.8273 100.0547

1.2115

4.8%

2797.7

4.0748

0.6528

94.3303

5.7655

EL

558.1387

618.1221 119.1788 119.5887 118.0735 117.3335 100.0554

1.2939

5.0%

2867.19

3.8478

0.6961

88.4414

5.3809

EL

581.5285 660.3106 643.6109 120.1129 120.6085 119.1723 118.4197 100.0549

1.2474

5.2%

3101.21

3.9285

0.6554

88.473

1.593

EL

580.7804 659.2589 642.5056 119.8622 120.3626 118.9172 118.1675

100.055

1.2532

5.2%

3091.66

3.9041

0.6591

88.4711

1.7498

EL

580.1452 658.3071 641.5027 119.6129 120.1184 118.6635 117.9167 100.0551

1.259

5.2%

3084.02

3.879

0.6629

88.4692

1.8916

634.894

EL

579.605

100.0552

1.2651

5.2%

3078.1

3.8526

0.6667

88.4673

2.0229

EL

579.1803 656.6483 639.7466 119.1019 119.6189 118.1435 117.4027 100.0554

1.2734

5.2%

3074.16

3.8256

0.6705

88.4653

2.1389

EL

584.876

100.0554

1.3302

5.3%

3152.87

3.8112

0.6902

88.4529

1.164

EL

584.8512 662.3115 645.7803 118.7268 119.2323 117.6578 116.9226 100.0556

1.3404

5.4%

3161.99

3.768

0.7057

88.442

1.2949

Improvement
Real
Reactive
Power
Power
HV / LV Location
50%
0
HV
EL
VR (1) 32, 28, 29
75%
0
HV
EL
VR (1) 32, 28, 29
100%
0
HV
EL
VR (1) 32, 28, 29
106.7%
0
HV
EL
VR (1) 32, 28, 29
100%
100%
HV
EL
VR (1) 31, 28, 28
100%
-100%
HV
EL
VR (1) 32, 29, 30
25%
100%
HV
EL
VR (1) 32, 28, 29
25%
75%
HV
EL
VR (1) 32, 28, 29
25%
50%
HV
EL
VR (1) 32, 28, 29
25%
25%
HV
EL
VR (1) 32, 28, 29
25%
0%
HV
EL
VR (1) 32, 28, 29
25%
-50%
HV
EL
VR (1) 32, 29, 30
25%
-100%
HV
EL
VR (1) 32, 29, 31

Lowest
Voltage
-0.27%
-0.17%

657.4265

640.572

119.3567 119.8678 118.4028

663.1896 645.9419 119.2565 119.7462 118.2349

Node 1
Losses Capacity
0.28%
3.73%
0.39%

5.11%

-0.06%

0.50%

6.48%

-0.04%

0.53%

6.85%

0.82%

0.56%

5.97%

-0.44%

0.37%

5.59%

0.48%

0.22%

1.80%

0.27%

0.21%

1.96%

0.05%

0.20%

2.10%

-0.17%

0.18%

2.23%

-0.38%

0.16%

2.35%

-0.31%

0.09%

1.37%

-0.79%

0.03%

1.50%

244

117.659

117.493

Table 48. Synchronous Generator Voltage Regulation Application (ML, HV) HL

Machine
Type
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG

Machine
Type
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG

Real
Reactive
Power
Power
HV / LV
50%
0
HV
VR (1) 32, 28, 29
75%
0
HV
VR (1) 32, 28, 29
100%
0
HV
VR (1) 32, 28, 29
106.7%
0
HV
VR (1) 32, 28, 29
100%
100%
HV
VR (1) 31, 28, 28
100%
-100%
HV
VR (1) 32, 29, 30
25%
100%
HV
VR (1) 32, 28, 29
25%
75%
HV
VR (1) 32, 28, 29
25%
50%
HV
VR (1) 32, 28, 29
25%
25%
HV
VR (1) 32, 28, 29
25%
0%
HV
VR (1) 32, 28, 29
25%
-50%
HV
VR (1) 32, 29, 30
25%
-100%
HV
VR (1) 32, 30, 31

Lowest
Node 01
Lowest 3 Voltage
Highest
1
Location LTC Tap
IA
IB
IC
VA
VB
VC
Voltage
I2/I1 %
ML
4
576.1912 654.2454 637.2163 119.9124 120.3898 118.9073 118.1577 100.0551
ML

5.1%

567.1353 645.0019 628.1048 120.0596

100.055

1.2599

551.7973 628.6983 612.1472 119.5362 119.9369 118.4938 117.7489 100.0552

ML

3
3

ML

119.0274 118.2764

% kW
Loss
5.2%

ML

120.5

I2/I1 %
Highest
V2/V1 %
1.2761

Total
kVar Loss Node 0
3062.53
3.8547
2970.4

3.8887

Low
0.6735

High
(<100)
88.4599

Node 1
Capacity
2.497

0.6722

88.4574

3.8745

1.2387

5.0%

2808.4

3.9286

0.6662

88.4572

6.3043

117.7798 100.0551

1.236

4.9%

2784.82

3.9382

0.6659

88.4565

6.6745

551.6677 630.5463 613.5866 120.6176 120.9517 119.5915 118.8339 100.0547

1.231

4.9%

2817.49

4.0656

0.6485

88.466

6.0289

ML

559.1494 636.2131 619.1058 119.1376

119.526

118.0228 117.2833 100.0554

1.3092

5.1%

2891.46

3.8543

0.696

88.4403

5.1843

ML

580.1401 658.7236 642.1133

120.6317 119.2001 118.4472 100.0549

1.2438

5.2%

3101

3.9212

0.6527

88.4733

1.8296

ML

579.7367 658.0634 641.3639 119.8813 120.3756 118.9341 118.1842

100.055

1.2525

5.2%

3094.6

3.898

0.657

88.4713

1.928

ML

579.4374 657.4961 640.7111 119.6221 120.1221 118.6705 117.9236 100.0551

1.2632

5.2%

3089.47

3.8745

0.6613

88.4693

2.0125

ML

579.2344

100.0552

1.2744

5.2%

3085.46

3.8498

0.6656

88.4672

2.0857

ML

585.2859 663.5147 646.3563 119.7628 120.2777 118.7848 118.0366 100.0551

1.2926

5.3%

3156.84

3.8214

0.6748

88.4625

1.1155

549.37

626.2141 609.6999 119.5748 119.9656

657.005

120.143

118.525

640.1354 119.3568 119.8629 118.4008

ML

585.4652 663.9017 646.5384 119.2355 119.7207 118.2116

ML

586.0652

Improvement
Real
Reactive
Power
Power
HV / LV Location
50%
0
HV
ML
VR (1) 32, 28, 29
75%
0
HV
ML
VR (1) 32, 28, 29
100%
0
HV
ML
VR (1) 32, 28, 29
106.7%
0
HV
ML
VR (1) 32, 28, 29
100%
100%
HV
ML
VR (1) 31, 28, 28
100%
-100%
HV
ML
VR (1) 32, 29, 30
25%
100%
HV
ML
VR (1) 32, 28, 29
25%
75%
HV
ML
VR (1) 32, 28, 29
25%
50%
HV
ML
VR (1) 32, 28, 29
25%
25%
HV
ML
VR (1) 32, 28, 29
25%
0%
HV
ML
VR (1) 32, 28, 29
25%
-50%
HV
ML
VR (1) 32, 29, 30
25%
-100%
HV
ML
VR (1) 32, 30, 31

Lowest
Voltage
0.26%

664.643

100.0554

1.3345

5.3%

3161.93

3.8146

0.6908

88.4525

1.0579

647.0848 118.7006 119.1573 117.6306 116.8956 100.0556

1.3769

5.4%

3172.1

3.8039

0.7068

88.4424

0.9474

Node 1
Losses Capacity
0.23%
2.70%

0.36%

0.33%

-0.09%

0.45%

6.51%

-0.06%

0.48%

6.88%

4.08%

0.83%

0.51%

6.24%

-0.49%

0.34%

5.39%

0.50%

0.20%

2.04%

0.28%

0.19%

2.13%

0.06%

0.18%

2.22%

-0.17%

0.16%

2.29%

0.15%

0.13%

1.32%

-0.33%

0.08%

1.26%

-0.81%

0.03%

1.15%

117.657

245

117.47

Table 49. Synchronous Generator Voltage Regulation Application (BL, LV) HL

Node 01
Machine
Type
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG

Machine
Type
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG

Real
Reactive
Power
HV / LV
Power
50%
0
LV
VR (1) 32, 32, 32
75%
0
LV
VR (1) 32, 32, 32
100%
0
LV
VR (1) 32, 32, 32
106.7%
0
LV
VR (1) 32, 32, 32
100%
100%
LV
VR (1) 32, 32, 32
100%
-100%
LV
VR (1) 32, 32, 32
100%
LV
25%
VR (1) 32, 32, 32
25%
75%
LV
VR (1) 32, 32, 32
25%
50%
LV
VR (1) 32, 32, 32
25%
25%
LV
VR (1) 32, 32, 32
25%
0%
LV
VR (1) 32, 32, 32
25%
-50%
LV
VR (1) 32, 32, 32
25%
-100%
LV
VR (1) 32, 32, 32

Location LTC Tap

IA
BL
16
548.6123

IB
626.86

Lowest
Highest
1
IC
VA
VB
VC
Voltage
I2/I1 %
609.0336 116.7192 117.0647 115.6745 114.9617 100.0564

I2/I1 %

Lowest 3 Voltage

Highest
V2/V1 %
1.3905

% kW
Loss
5.3%

Total
kVar Loss
2996.76

Node 0
4.0662

Low
0.7018

High
(<100)
88.4496

Node 1
Capacity
6.5782

BL

16

539.1941 617.5306 599.6492 116.7506 117.0963 115.7052 114.9921 100.0563

1.3908

5.3%

2948.95

4.1333

0.702

88.4495

7.9686

BL

16

529.8083 608.2319

1.3911

5.3%

2902.08

4.2024

0.0031

88.4494

9.3544

BL

16

527.2958 605.7425 587.7935

1.3912

5.3%

2889.65

4.2212

0.0031

88.4494

9.7254

BL

16

523.8771 602.3187 584.1404 117.3644 117.7121 116.3049

115.585

100.0561

1.3965

5.3%

2897.59

4.2846

0.0031

88.4476

10.2357

BL

16

537.3505 615.5354 597.8991 116.1926 116.5363 115.1599

114.453

100.0566

1.3855

5.3%

2914.53

4.111

0.0031

88.4514

8.266

BL

16

552.5664 630.6959 612.7041 117.2703 117.6177

116.213

115.4941 100.0561

1.3957

5.3%

3041.67

4.0744

0.0031

88.4479

6.0066

BL

16

553.8063 631.9622 614.0214

117.124

117.4709

116.07

115.3527 100.0562

1.3943

5.3%

3041.9

4.0567

0.7039

88.4483

5.8179

BL

16

555.1215 633.2907 615.4032 116.9796

117.326

115.929

115.2133 100.0563

1.393

5.3%

3042.61

4.0387

0.7032

88.4488

5.6199

BL

16

556.5554

BL

16

558.0616 636.2191

634.725

590.297

117.1357 115.7437 115.0301 100.0563

1.3916

5.3%

3043.81

4.0199

0.7024

88.4493

5.4061

618.449

1.3902

5.4%

3045.5

4.0009

0.7016

88.4497

5.1834

BL

16

561.387

16

565.0973 643.0796 625.5829

Lowest
Voltage
-2.45%

116.79

616.8951 116.8325 117.1784 115.7852 115.0712 100.0563

BL

Improvement
Real
Reactive
Power
Power
HV / LV Location
50%
0
LV
BL
VR (1) 32, 32, 32
75%
0
LV
BL
VR (1) 32, 32, 32
100%
0
LV
BL
VR (1) 32, 32, 32
106.7%
0
LV
BL
VR (1) 32, 32, 32
100%
100%
LV
BL
VR (1) 32, 32, 32
100%
-100%
LV
BL
VR (1) 32, 32, 32
25%
100%
LV
BL
VR (1) 32, 32, 32
25%
75%
LV
BL
VR (1) 32, 32, 32
25%
50%
LV
BL
VR (1) 32, 32, 32
25%
25%
LV
BL
VR (1) 32, 32, 32
25%
0%
LV
BL
VR (1) 32, 32, 32
25%
-50%
LV
BL
VR (1) 32, 32, 32
25%
-100%
LV
BL
VR (1) 32, 32, 32

116.7817 117.1274 115.7356 115.0221 100.0563

116.6874 117.0328 115.6434

0.09%

100.0564

639.4819 621.8422 116.3935 116.7379 115.3562 114.6471 100.0565

116.098

116.4414 115.0675 114.3616 100.0566

Node 1
Losses Capacity
0.07%
6.78%

-2.43%

114.931

8.17%

-2.40%

0.12%

9.56%

-2.40%

0.12%

9.93%

-1.93%

0.13%

10.44%

-2.89%

0.10%

8.47%

-2.00%

0.06%

6.21%

-2.12%

0.06%

6.02%

-2.24%

0.05%

5.83%

-2.36%

0.05%

5.61%

-2.48%

0.05%

5.39%

-2.72%

0.04%

4.90%

-2.96%

0.02%

4.37%

246

1.3875

5.4%

3050.38

3.961

0.7

88.4507

4.6972

1.3847

5.4%

3057.28

3.9192

0.0031

88.4517

4.161

Table 50. Synchronous Generator Voltage Regulation Application (EL, LV) HL

Type
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG

Machine
Type
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG

Power
Power
HV / LV
50%
0
LV
VR (1) 32, 32, 32
75%
0
LV
VR (1) 32, 32, 32
100%
0
LV
VR (1) 32, 32, 32
106.7%
0
LV
VR (1) 32, 32, 32
100%
100%
LV
VR (1) 32, 32, 32
100%
-100%
LV
VR (1) 32, 32, 32
25%
100%
LV
VR (1) 32, 32, 32
25%
75%
LV
VR (1) 32, 32, 32
25%
50%
LV
VR (1) 32, 32, 32
25%
25%
LV
VR (1) 32, 32, 32
25%
0%
LV
VR (1) 32, 32, 32
25%
-50%
LV
VR (1) 32, 32, 32
25%
-100%
LV
VR (1) 32, 32, 32

Location LTC Tap

EL
16
EL

16

IA
549.006

Node 01
Lowest 3 Voltage
Lowest Highest
IB
IC
VA
VB
VC
1
I2/I1 %
626.7122 609.3697 116.9842 117.2648 115.8915 115.1763 100.0562

539.8146 617.3121 600.1594 117.1419 117.3913 116.0245 115.3077 100.0561

Highest
V2/V1 %
1.3285

% kW
Loss
5.1%

Total
kVar Loss
2886.35

Node 0
4.0128

I2/I1 %
Low
0.7003

(<100)
88.4449

Capacity
6.6003

1.2987

5.0%

2787.26

4.0515

0.6999

88.4424

8.0012

EL

16

530.6745 607.9443 590.9841 117.2951 117.5141 116.1531 115.4348 100.0561

1.2695

4.9%

2691.66

4.0909

0.6994

88.44

9.3973

EL

16

528.2311 605.4366 588.5284 117.3354 117.5464 116.1868 115.4681 100.0561

1.2617

4.9%

2666.6

4.1016

0.6993

88.4393

9.771

EL

16

533.2555 611.9855

118.3551 118.5527 117.2303 116.4997 100.0556

1.2174

4.8%

2719.58

4.2068

0.685

88.4481

8.795

EL

16

530.0755 605.5359 588.4268 116.1839 116.4322 115.0243 114.3189 100.0566

1.3493

5.0%

2696.18

3.9554

0.7147

88.4312

9.7562

EL

16

561.0616 640.3213

1.3084

5.2%

3021.61

4.0834

0.6866

88.4553

4.5721

595.217

622.989

117.8818 118.1728 116.8302 116.1042 100.0558

EL

16

560.1873

639.133

621.7479 117.6192

117.915

1.32

5.2%

3010.52

4.0577

0.6901

88.4534

4.7492

EL

16

559.4335

638.051

620.6159

117.6588 116.2982 115.5783 100.0561

1.3322

5.2%

3001.46

4.0314

0.6936

88.4514

4.9104

EL

16

558.779

637.0428 619.5591 117.0894 117.3959 116.0254 115.3086 100.0562

1.3453

5.2%

2994.18

4.0034

0.6973

88.4494

5.0607

EL

16

558.2482 636.1438 618.6145

115.0403 100.0563

1.3589

5.2%

2988.98

3.9748

0.7009

88.4474

5.1947

EL

16

557.5336 634.6244 617.0118 116.2731 116.5994 115.1969 114.4896 100.0565

1.3886

5.3%

2984.61

3.9137

0.7083

88.4432

5.4211

EL

16

557.3193 633.5188 615.8361 115.7105 116.0528

1.4216

5.4%

2988.86

3.8481

0.7159

88.4389

5.5859

Improvement
Real
Reactive
Power
Power
HV / LV Location
50%
0
LV
EL
VR (1) 32, 32, 32
75%
0
LV
EL
VR (1) 32, 32, 32
100%
0
LV
EL
VR (1) 32, 32, 32
106.7%
0
LV
EL
VR (1) 32, 32, 32
100%
100%
LV
EL
VR (1) 32, 32, 32
100%
-100%
LV
EL
VR (1) 32, 32, 32
25%
100%
LV
EL
VR (1) 32, 32, 32
25%
75%
LV
EL
VR (1) 32, 32, 32
25%
50%
LV
EL
VR (1) 32, 32, 32
25%
25%
LV
EL
VR (1) 32, 32, 32
25%
0%
LV
EL
VR (1) 32, 32, 32
25%
-50%
LV
EL
VR (1) 32, 32, 32
25%
-100%
LV
EL
VR (1) 32, 32, 32
VR (1) 32, 28, 29

Lowest
Voltage
-2.27%

117.358

116.822

117.1345

116.5635 115.8405

115.754

114.626

Node 1
Losses Capacity
0.28%
6.81%

-2.16%

0.39%

8.21%

-2.05%

0.51%

9.60%

-2.03%

0.54%

9.98%

-1.15%

0.56%

9.00%

-3.00%

0.40%

9.96%

-1.49%

0.21%

4.78%

-1.71%

0.20%

4.96%

-1.93%

0.19%

5.12%

-2.16%

0.17%

5.27%

-2.39%

0.15%

5.40%

-2.86%

0.10%

5.63%

-3.33%

0.04%

5.79%

247

100.056

113.9253 100.0568

Table 51. Synchronous Generator Voltage Regulation Application (ML, LV) HL

Node 01
Machine
Type
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG

Machine
Type
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG

Real
Reactive
Power
Power
HV / LV
50%
0
LV
VR (1) 32, 32, 32
75%
0
LV
VR (1) 32, 32, 32
100%
0
LV
VR (1) 32, 32, 32
106.7%
0
LV
VR (1) 32, 32, 32
100%
100%
LV
VR (1) 32, 32, 32
100%
-100%
LV
VR (1) 32, 32, 32
25%
100%
LV
VR (1) 32, 32, 32
25%
75%
LV
VR (1) 32, 32, 32
25%
50%
LV
VR (1) 32, 32, 32
25%
25%
LV
VR (1) 32, 32, 32
25%
0%
LV
VR (1) 32, 32, 32
25%
-50%
LV
VR (1) 32, 32, 32
25%
-100%
LV
VR (1) 32, 32, 32

Lowest
Highest
1
VB
VC
Voltage
I2/I1 %
117.2405 115.8728 115.1577 100.0562

Lowest 3 Voltage

Location LTC Tap

IA
IB
IC
ML
16
548.8954 626.6189 609.1722

VA
116.97

I2/I1 %
Highest
V2/V1 %
1.3534

% kW
Loss
5.2%

Total
kVar Loss
2901.89

Node 0
4.0115

Low
0.6993

High
(<100)
88.4445

Node 1
Capacity
6.6142

ML

16

539.6345 617.1659 599.8566 117.1235 117.3573 115.9993 115.2827 100.0562

1.3356

5.0%

2808.77

4.0498

0.6983

88.4419

8.023

ML

16

530.4157 607.7407 590.5718 117.2744

116.1231 115.4052 100.0561

1.3181

4.9%

2717.96

4.089

0.6974

88.4392

9.4276

ML

16

527.9495 605.2168 588.0861 117.3145 117.5024 116.1559 115.4376 100.0561

1.3134

4.9%

2694

4.0996

0.6971

88.4385

9.8037

118.373

117.472

ML

16

531.6213 610.1927 593.3617

118.547

117.2388

116.508

100.0556

1.277

4.9%

2737.94

4.1987

0.6806

88.4478

9.0622

ML

16

531.0778 606.8617 589.4042 116.1427 116.3682

114.973

114.2682 100.0566

1.364

5.0%

2719.09

3.9633

0.7148

88.43

9.5586

ML

16

559.6553 638.7202 621.4732 117.9141 118.1974 116.8601 116.1337 100.0558

1.3311

5.2%

3020.68

4.0764

0.6836

88.4556

4.8107

ML

16

559.128

637.9253 620.5903 117.6398 117.9289 116.5818 115.8586 100.0559

1.3409

5.2%

3012.89

4.052

0.6878

88.4535

4.9292

ML

16

558.713

637.2304 619.8111

100.0561

1.3507

5.2%

3006.48

4.0271

0.6919

88.4515

5.0327

ML

16

558.3989 636.6144 619.1121 117.0897 117.3909 116.0236 115.3068 100.0562

1.3611

5.2%

3001.22

4.0008

0.6961

88.4493

5.1245
5.2013

117.368

117.663

116.306

115.586

ML

16

558.1977 636.0994 618.5182 116.8139 117.1215 115.7437 115.0301 100.0563

1.3715

5.3%

2997.36

3.9741

0.7003

88.4472

ML

16

558.1264 635.3429 617.6118 116.2514 116.5729 115.1727 114.4656 100.0566

1.3936

5.3%

2993.51

3.9175

0.7089

88.4428

5.314

ML

16

558.5165

1.4169

5.4%

2995.16

3.8573

0.7177

88.4382

5.3686

Improvement
Real
Reactive
Power
Power
HV / LV Location
50%
0
LV
ML
VR (1) 32, 32, 32
75%
0
LV
ML
VR (1) 32, 32, 32
100%
0
LV
ML
VR (1) 32, 32, 32
106.7%
0
LV
ML
VR (1) 32, 32, 32
100%
100%
LV
ML
VR (1) 32, 32, 32
100%
-100%
LV
ML
VR (1) 32, 32, 32
25%
100%
LV
ML
VR (1) 32, 32, 32
25%
75%
LV
ML
VR (1) 32, 32, 32
25%
50%
LV
ML
VR (1) 32, 32, 32
25%
25%
LV
ML
VR (1) 32, 32, 32
25%
0%
LV
ML
VR (1) 32, 32, 32
LV
ML
25%
-50%
VR (1) 32, 32, 32
25%
-100%
LV
ML
VR (1) 32, 32, 32

Lowest
Voltage
-2.29%

634.977

617.1095 115.6802 116.0168 114.5926 113.8923 100.0568

Node 1
Losses Capacity
0.24%
6.82%

-2.18%

0.35%

-2.08%

0.45%

8.23%
9.63%

-2.05%

0.48%

10.01%

-1.14%

0.51%

9.27%

-3.04%

0.37%

9.76%

-1.46%

0.19%

5.02%

-1.69%

0.18%

5.14%

-1.93%

0.17%

5.24%

-2.16%

0.15%

5.33%

-2.40%

0.13%

5.41%

-2.88%

0.09%

5.52%

-3.36%

0.04%

5.57%

248

11.4 Plotted Performance Data

To help the reader follow the evaluation of the data, Table 52 and Table 53 show the results of
each generator application and its improvement for HL and LL conditions. These data are
plotted in Figure 141 through Figure 164 for the HL circuit condition.

249

Table 52. Distributed Generator Voltage Regulation Application Summary HL

g

Q
247.91
0
-247.91

V
115.4859
115.1259
114.7603

LV
V Imp
Loss
-2.01%
0.25%
-2.32%
0.23%
-2.63%
0.20%

g
Ind Gen

pp

Cap
6.10%
6.28%
6.44%

V
117.9912
117.5369
117.7804

HV
V Imp
Loss
0.12%
0.30%
-0.27%
0.25%
-0.06%
0.19%

Cap
3.80%
3.51%
2.31%

V
117.5964

HV
V Imp
Loss
-0.22%
0.24%

Cap
3.53%

V
117.9769
117.5922

HV
V Imp
Loss
0.10%
0.21%
-0.22%
0.16%

Cap
2.79%
1.70%

Inv Gen - P = 400

LV
Q
0

V
115.1541

V Imp
-2.29%

Loss
0.22%

Cap
6.29%

Inv Gen - P = 320

LV
Q
240
-240

V
115.6369
114.5651

V Imp
-1.88%
-2.79%

Loss
0.16%
0.13%

Cap
5.83%
5.81%

SG - Voltage - P=100%
LV
Q

Q - Mag
100%
738
0
0
-100%
-738

BL
ML
115.585 116.508
115.0221 115.4052
114.453 114.2682

EL
116.4997
115.4348
114.3189

BL
117.8965
117.3782
117.4696

HV
ML
118.8339
117.7489
117.2833

EL
118.8273
117.7784
117.3335

HV
ML
118.4472
118.1842
117.9236
117.657
118.0366
117.47
116.8956

EL
118.4197
118.1675
117.9167
117.659
117.4027
117.493
116.9226

SG - Voltage - P=25%
LV
Q
100%
75%
50%
25%
0%
-50%
-100%

Q - Mag
738
553.5
369
184.5
0
-369
-738

BL
115.4941
115.3527
115.2133
115.0712
114.931
114.6471
114.3616

ML
116.1337
115.8586
115.586
115.3068
115.0301
114.4656
113.8923

EL
116.1042
115.8405
115.5783
115.3086
115.0403
114.4896
113.9253

BL
117.8155
117.6853
117.5568
117.426
117.297
117.6801
117.3878

SG - Loss - P=100%
LV

HV
Q - Mag BL
ML
EL
BL
ML
EL
100%
738
0.13%
0.51%
0.56%
0.14%
0.51%
0.56%
0
0
0.12%
0.45%
0.51%
0.13%
0.45%
0.50%
-100%
-738
0.10%
0.37%
0.40%
0.08%
0.34%
0.37%

SG - Loss - P=25%
LV

Q
100%
75%
50%
25%
0%
-50%
-100%

HV
Q - Mag BL
ML
EL
BL
ML
EL
738
0.06%
0.19%
0.21%
0.08%
0.20%
0.22%
553.5
0.06%
0.18%
0.20%
0.07%
0.19%
0.21%
369
0.05%
0.17%
0.19%
0.07%
0.18%
0.20%
184.5
0.05%
0.15%
0.17%
0.07%
0.16%
0.18%
0.05%
0.13%
0.15%
0.06%
0.13%
0.16%
0
-369
0.04%
0.09%
0.10%
0.03%
0.08%
0.09%
-738
0.02%
0.04%
0.04%
0.02%
0.03%
0.03%

250

SG - Cap - P=100%
LV

HV
Q - Mag BL
ML
EL
BL
ML
EL
100%
738
10.44%
9.27%
9.00%
7.36%
6.24%
5.97%
0
0
9.56%
9.63%
9.60%
6.42%
6.51%
6.48%
-100%
-738
8.47%
9.76%
9.96%
4.11%
5.39%
5.59%

SG - Cap - P=25%
LV

Q
100%
75%
50%
25%
0%
-50%
-100%

HV
Q - Mag BL
ML
EL
BL
ML
EL
738
6.21%
5.02%
4.78%
3.21%
2.04%
1.80%
553.5
6.02%
5.14%
4.96%
3.01%
2.13%
1.96%
369
5.83%
5.24%
5.12%
2.79%
2.22%
2.10%
184.5
5.61%
5.33%
5.27%
2.57%
2.29%
2.23%
0
5.39%
5.41%
5.40%
2.33%
1.32%
2.35%
-369
4.90%
5.52%
5.63%
0.79%
1.26%
1.37%
-738
4.37%
5.57%
5.79%
0.10%
1.15%
1.50%

SG - VImp - P=100%
LV

HV
Q - Mag BL
ML
EL
BL
ML
EL
100%
738
-1.93%
-1.14%
-1.15%
0.04%
0.83%
0.82%
0
0
-2.40%
-2.08%
-2.05%
-0.40%
-0.09%
-0.06%
-100%
-738
-2.89%
-3.04%
-3.00%
-0.33%
-0.49%
-0.44%

SG - VImp - P=25%
LV

Q
100%
75%
50%
25%
0%
-50%
-100%

HV
Q - Mag BL
ML
EL
BL
ML
EL
738
-2.00%
-1.46%
-1.49%
-0.03%
0.50%
0.48%
553.5
-2.12%
-1.69%
-1.71%
-0.14%
0.28%
0.27%
369
-2.24%
-1.93%
-1.93%
-0.25%
0.06%
0.05%
184.5
-2.36%
-2.16%
-2.16%
-0.36%
-0.17%
-0.17%
0
-2.48%
-2.40%
-2.39%
-0.47%
0.15%
-0.38%
-369
-2.72%
-2.88%
-2.86%
-0.15%
-0.33%
-0.31%
-738
-2.96%
-3.36%
-3.33%
-0.40%
-0.81%
-0.79%

Base Case:
Lowest Voltage:
117.855
Losses:
5.40%
Node 1 Capacity:
-0.21%

251

Table 53. Distributed Generator Voltage Regulation Application Summary LL

g

Q
247.91
0
-247.91

V
122.4196
121.9696
121.5126

LV
V Imp
Loss
0.98%
0.37%
0.61%
0.31%
0.23%
0.23%

g
Ind Gen

pp

Cap
2.64%
2.04%
1.38%

V
121.6783
122.048
121.6023

HV
V Imp
Loss
0.37%
0.38%
0.67%
0.33%
0.30%
0.25%

Cap
2.89%
2.02%
1.31%

V
122.0808

HV
V Imp
Loss
0.70%
0.30%

Cap
1.99%

V
122.6307
121.4598

HV
V Imp
Loss
1.15%
0.33%
0.19%
0.22%

Cap
2.19%
0.87%

Inv Gen - P = 400

LV
Q
0

V
122.0019

V Imp
0.63%

Loss
0.28%

Cap
2.01%

Inv Gen - P = 320

LV
Q
240
-240

V
122.5691
121.361

V Imp
1.10%
0.10%

Loss
0.29%
0.18%

Cap
2.20%
0.90%

SG - Voltage - P=100%
LV
Q

Q - Mag
100%
738
0
0
-100%
-738

BL
121.8718
121.9196
121.2282

ML
122.7779
122.1461
120.7316

EL
BL
122.7609 121.8101
122.1478 121.995
120.7239 121.3707

HV
ML
122.7128
122.2167
120.8687

EL
122.7038
122.2183
120.8612

HV
ML
122.4923
122.1624
121.8429
121.5158
121.9948
121.3288
120.6267

EL
122.4845
122.1591
121.8431
122.3202
121.9985
121.331
120.6221

SG - Voltage - P=25%
LV
Q
100%
75%
50%
25%
0%
-50%
-100%

Q - Mag
738
553.5
369
184.5
0
-369
-738

BL
121.8061
121.6368
121.4698
121.2997
121.8535
121.5057
121.1639

ML
122.5474
122.2038
121.871
122.2507
121.9139
121.2191
120.4784

EL
122.5393
122.2004
121.8712
121.5328
121.9097
121.2214
120.4737

BL
121.7512
121.5958
121.4425
122.0896
121.9358
121.6166
121.3036

SG - Loss - P=100%
LV

HV
Q - Mag BL
ML
EL
BL
ML
EL
100%
738
0.26%
0.63%
0.66%
0.27%
0.65%
0.67%
0
0
0.22%
0.49%
0.51%
0.24%
0.51%
0.53%
-100%
-738
0.16%
0.26%
0.23%
0.61%
0.29%
0.26%

SG - Loss - P=25%
LV

Q
100%
75%
50%
25%
0%
-50%
-100%

HV
Q - Mag BL
ML
EL
BL
ML
EL
738
0.19%
0.38%
0.39%
0.21%
0.40%
0.41%
553.5
0.18%
0.34%
0.36%
0.20%
0.37%
0.38%
369
0.17%
0.31%
0.32%
0.19%
0.33%
0.35%
184.5
0.15%
0.28%
0.28%
0.19%
0.29%
0.32%
0
0.16%
0.23%
0.24%
0.18%
0.26%
0.27%
-369
0.12%
0.12%
0.12%
0.15%
0.15%
0.15%
-738
0.09%
0.00%
-0.04%
0.12%
0.03%
0.00%

252

SG - Cap - P=100%
LV

HV
Q - Mag BL
ML
EL
BL
ML
EL
100%
738
7.40%
7.32%
7.20%
7.43%
7.35%
7.28%
0
0
4.93%
5.14%
5.15%
4.91%
5.13%
5.13%
-100%
-738
2.29%
2.56%
2.59%
2.25%
2.57%
2.61%

SG - Cap - P=25%
LV

Q
100%
75%
50%
25%
0%
-50%
-100%

HV
Q - Mag BL
ML
EL
BL
ML
EL
738
3.34%
3.13%
3.06%
3.37%
3.15%
3.09%
553.5
2.88%
2.71%
2.66%
2.91%
2.73%
2.68%
369
2.41%
2.31%
2.29%
2.42%
2.33%
2.30%
184.5
1.89%
1.65%
1.87%
1.65%
1.89%
1.63%
0
1.14%
1.19%
1.15%
1.12%
1.17%
1.18%
-369
-0.06%
0.13%
0.15%
-0.09%
0.10%
0.13%
-738
-1.31%
-1.20%
-1.16%
-1.34%
-1.19%
-1.15%

SG - VImp - P=100%
LV

HV
Q - Mag BL
ML
EL
BL
ML
EL
100%
738
0.53%
1.27%
1.26%
0.47%
1.22%
1.21%
0
0
0.57%
0.75%
0.75%
0.63%
0.81%
0.81%
-100%
-738
-0.01%
-0.41%
-0.42%
0.11%
-0.30%
-0.31%

SG - VImp - P=25%
LV

Q
100%
75%
50%
25%
0%
-50%
-100%

HV
Q - Mag BL
ML
EL
BL
ML
EL
738
0.47%
1.08%
1.08%
0.43%
1.04%
1.03%
553.5
0.33%
0.80%
0.80%
0.30%
0.77%
0.76%
369
0.19%
0.53%
0.53%
0.17%
0.50%
0.50%
184.5
0.05%
0.84%
0.25%
0.71%
0.23%
0.90%
0
0.51%
0.56%
0.56%
0.58%
0.63%
0.63%
-369
0.22%
-0.01%
-0.01%
0.32%
0.08%
0.08%
-738
-0.06%
-0.62%
-0.63%
0.06%
-0.50%
-0.50%

Base Case:
Lowest Voltage:
121.2343
Losses:
3.40%
Node 1 Capacity:
60.58%

253

118.5

118

Base Case = 117.855

117.5

Volts (V)

117

116.5

116

115.5

115

114.5
-300

-200

-100

100

200

300

Reactive Power (kVar)

Lowest Single Phase Voltage for High Substation Primary Voltage (105 %)
Lowest Single Phase Voltage for Low Substation Primary Voltage (95 %)

Figure 141. HL condition voltage rise or drop (in volts on a 120-V base) as a function of
induction generator +/- reactive power with a constant real power output of 400 kW
0.50%

Voltage % Improvement from Base Case

0.00%

-0.50%

-1.00%

-1.50%

-2.00%

-2.50%

-3.00%
-300

-200

-100

100

200

300

Reactive Power (kVar)

High Substation Primary Voltage (105 %)

Low Substation Primary Voltage (95 %)

Figure 142. HL condition reduction or increase in voltage (in percent on a 120-V base) as a
function of induction generator +/- reactive power with a constant real power output of 400 kW

254

0.31%

Real Loss % Improvement from Base Case

0.29%

0.27%

0.25%

0.23%

0.21%

0.19%

0.17%

0.15%
-300

-200

-100

100

200

300

Reactive Power (kVar)

High Substation Primary Voltage (105 %)

Low Substation Primary Voltage (95 %)

Figure 143. HL condition reduction or increase of real power

(in percent of total circuit kilowatts) as a function of induction generator +/- reactive power
with a constant real power output of 400 kW
7.00%

Capacity % Improvement from Base Case

6.50%

6.00%
5.50%
5.00%
4.50%
4.00%
3.50%
3.00%
2.50%
2.00%
-300

-200

-100

100

300

200

Reactive Power (kVar)

High Substation Primary Voltage (105 %)

gure

eavy

on

Low Substation Primary Voltage (95 %)

on or ncrease o

apac ty n

rc t

Figure 144. HL load condition reduction or increase of capacity

(in percent of total circuit kilovolt-amperes) as a function of induction generator

+/- reactive power with a CP output of 400 kW

255

118.5

118
Base Case = 117.855
117.5

Volts (V)

117
116.5

116
115.5

115
114.5

114
-300

-200

-100

0
Reactive Power (kVar)

100

200

300

Lowest Single Phase Voltage for High Substation Primary Voltage (105 %), P = 320 kW
Lowest Single Phase Voltage for Low Substation Primary Voltage (95 %), P = 320 kW
Lowest Single Phase Voltage for High Substation Primary Voltage (105 %), P = 400 kW
Lowest Single Phase Voltage for Low Substation Primary Voltage (95 %), P = 400 kW

Fi

65H

dC

diti

V lt

Ri

(i V lt

120 V B

ti

Figure 145. HL condition voltage rise or drop (in volts on a 120-V base) as a function
of inverter generator +/- reactive power with a constant real power output of 400 kW
0.50%

Voltage % Improvement from Base Case

0.00%

-0.50%

-1.00%

-1.50%

-2.00%

-2.50%

-3.00%
-300

-200

-100

0
100
Reactive Power (kVar)
High Substation Primary Voltage (105 %), P = 320 kW
Low Substation Primary Voltage (95 %), P = 320 kW
High Substation Primary Voltage (105 %), P = 400 kW
Low Substation Primary Voltage (95 %), P = 400 kW

200

300

Figure 146. HL condition reduction or increase in voltage (in percent on a 120-V base)
as a function of inverter generator +/- reactive power
with a constant real power output of 320 kW or 400 kW

256

0.30%

Real Loss % Change from Base Case

0.25%

0.20%

0.15%

0.10%

0.05%

0.00%
-300

-200

-100

0
Reactive Power (kVar)

100

300

200

High Substation Primary Voltage (105 %), P = 320 kW

Low Substation Primary Voltage (95 %), P = 320 kW
High Substation Primary Voltage (105 %), P = 400 kW
Low Substation Primary Voltage (95 %), P = 400 kW

Figure 147. HL condition reduction or increase of real power

(in percent of total circuit kilowatts) as a function of induction generator +/- reactive power
with a constant real power output of 320 kW or 400 kW
7.00%

Capacity % Change from Base Case

6.00%

5.00%

4.00%

3.00%

2.00%

1.00%

0.00%
-300

-200

-100

0
Reactive Power (kVar)

100

200

High Substation Primary Voltage (105 %), P = 320 kW

Low Substation Primary Voltage (95 %), P = 320 kW
High Substation Primary Voltage (105 %), P = 400 kW
Low Substation Primary Voltage (95 %), P = 400 kW

Figure 148. HL condition reduction or increase of capacity

(in percent of total circuit kilovolt-amperes) as a function of induction generator

+/- reactive power with a CP output of 320 kW or 400 kW

257

300

119

118.8
118.6

Volts (V)

118.4
118.2
118
Base Case = 117.855
117.8

117.6
117.4
117.2
-800

-600

-400

-200

0
200
Reactive Power (kVar)
Lowest Single Phase Voltage, Beginning Location
Lowest Single Phase Voltage, Mid Location
Lowest Single Phase Voltage, End Location

400

600

800

Figure 149. High substation primary voltage, HL condition voltage rise or drop
(in volts on a 120-V base) as a function of location and synchronous generator
+/- reactive power with a constant real power output of 984 kW
117
Base Case = 117.855

116.5

Volts (V)

116

115.5

115

114.5

114
-800

-600

-400

-200

0
Reactive Power (kVar)

200

400

600

Lowest Single Phase Voltage, Beginning Location

Lowest Single Phase Voltage, Mid Location
Lowest Single Phase Voltage, End Location

Figure 150. Low substation primary voltage, HL condition voltage rise or drop
(in volts on a 120-V base) as a function of location and synchronous generator
+/- reactive power with a constant real power output of 984 kW

258

800

118.6
118.4
118.2
118

Volts (V)

Base Case = 117.855

117.8
117.6
117.4
117.2
117
116.8
-800

-600

-400

-200

0
200
Reactive Power (kVar)
Lowest Single Phase Voltage, Beginning Location
Lowest Single Phase Voltage, Mid Location
Lowest Single Phase Voltage, End Location

400

600

800

Figure 151. High substation primary voltage, HL condition voltage rise or drop

(in volts on a 120-V base) as a function of location and synchronous generator

+/- reactive power with a constant real power output of 246 kW

116.5

Base Case = 117.855

116

Volts (V)

115.5

115

114.5

114

113.5
-800

-600

-400

-200

0
Reactive Power (kVar)

200

400

600

Lowest Single Phase Voltage, Beginning Location

Lowest Single Phase Voltage, Mid Location
Lowest Single Phase Voltage, End Location

Figure 152. Low substation primary voltage, HL condition voltage rise or drop

(in volts on a 120-V base) as a function of location and synchronous generator

+/- reactive power with a constant real power output of 246 kW

259

800

1.00%

Voltage % improvement from Base Case

0.80%

0.60%

0.40%

0.20%

0.00%

-0.20%

-0.40%

-0.60%
-800

-600

-400

-200

0
Reactive Power (kVar)

Beginning Location

200

Mid Location

400

600

800

End Location

Figure 153. High substation primary voltage, HL condition reduction or increase in voltage

(in volts on a 120-V base) as a function of location and synchronous generator

+/- reactive power with a constant real power output of 984 kW

0.00%

Voltage % Improvement from Base Case

-0.50%

-1.00%

-1.50%

-2.00%

-2.50%

-3.00%

-3.50%
-800

-600

-400

-200

0
Reactive Power (kVar)

Beginning Location

Mid Location

200

400

600

End Location

Figure 154. Low substation primary voltage, HL condition voltage rise or drop
(in volts on a 120-V base) as a function of location and synchronous generator
+/- reactive power with a constant real power output of 984 kW

260

800

0.60%

Voltage % improvement from Base Case

0.40%

0.20%

0.00%

-0.20%

-0.40%

-0.60%

-0.80%

-1.00%
-800

-600

-400

-200

0
Reactive Power (kVar)

Beginning Location

200

Mid Location

400

600

800

End Location

Figure 155. High substation primary voltage, HL condition reduction or increase in voltage

(in volts on 120-V base) as a function of location and synchronous generator

+/- reactive power with a constant real power output of 246 kW

0.00%

Voltage % improvement from Base Case

-0.50%

-1.00%

-1.50%

-2.00%

-2.50%

-3.00%

-3.50%

-4.00%
-800

-600

-400

-200

0
Reactive Power (kVar)
Mid Location

Beginning Location

200

400

600

800

End Location

Figure 156. Low substation primary voltage, HL condition reduction or increase in voltage

(in volts on a 120-V base) as a function of location and synchronous generator

+/- reactive power with a constant real power output of 246 kW

261

0.60%

Real Loss % Change from Base Case

0.50%

0.40%

0.30%

0.20%

0.10%

0.00%
-800

-600

-400

-200

0
Reactive Power (kVar)

Beginning Location

Mid Location

200

400

600

800

End Location

Figure 157. High substation primary voltage, HL condition reduction or increase

of real power loss (in percent total circuit kilowatts) as a function of location
and synchronous generator +/- reactive power with a constant real power output of 984 kW
0.60%

Real Loss % Change from Base Case

0.50%

0.40%

0.30%

0.20%

0.10%

0.00%
-800

-600

-400

-200

0
Reactive Power (kVar)

Beginning Location

Mid Location

200

400

600

800

End Location

Figure 158. Low substation primary voltage, HL condition reduction or increase

of real power loss (in percent total circuit kilowatts) as a function of location
and synchronous generator +/- reactive power with a constant real power output of 984 kW

262

0.25%

Real Loss % Change from Base Case

0.20%

0.15%

0.10%

0.05%

0.00%
-800

-600

-400

-200

0
Reactive Power (kVar)

Beginning Location

200

Mid Location

400

600

800

End Location

Figure 159. High substation primary voltage, HL condition reduction or increase

of real power loss (in percent total circuit kilowatts) as a function of location
and synchronous generator +/- reactive power with a constant real power output of 246 kW
0.25%

Real Loss % Change from Base Case

0.20%

0.15%

0.10%

0.05%

0.00%
-800

-600

-400

-200

0
Reactive Power (kVar)

Beginning Location

Fi

6 20 L

S b t ti

Pi

200

Mid Location

V lt

400

600

800

End Location

dC

diti

R d

ti

fR

Figure 160. Low substation primary voltage, HL condition reduction or increase

of real power loss (in percent total circuit kilowatts) as a function of location
and synchronous generator +/- reactive power with a constant real power output of 246 kW

263

8.60%

6.60%

5.60%

4.60%

3.60%

2.60%

1.60%

0.60%
-800

-600

-400

-200

0
Reactive Power (kVar)

Beginning Location

200

Mid Location

400

600

800

End Location

Figure 161. High substation primary voltage, HL condition reduction or increase

of capacity (in percent total circuit kilowatts) as a function of location and synchronous

generator +/- reactive power with a constant real power output of 984 kW

12.60%

10.60%
Capacity % Improvement from Base Case

Capacity % Improvement from Base Case

7.60%

8.60%

6.60%

4.60%

2.60%

0.60%
-800

-600

-400

-200

0
Reactive Power (kVar)

Beginning Location

Mid Location

200

400

600

800

End Location

Figure 162. Low substation primary voltage, HL condition reduction or increase of capacity

(in percent total circuit kilowatts) as a function of location and synchronous generator

+/- reactive power with a constant real power output of 984 kW

264

3.50%

Capacity % Improvement from Base Case

3.00%

2.50%

2.00%

1.50%

1.00%

0.50%

0.00%
-800

-600

-400

-200

0
Reactive Power (kVar)

200

Mid Location

Beginning Location

400

600

800

End Location

Figure 163. High substation primary voltage, HL condition reduction or increase of capacity

(in percent total circuit kilowatts) as a function of location and synchronous generator

+/- reactive power with a constant real power output of 246 kW

6.60%

Capacity % Improvement from Base Case

5.60%

4.60%

3.60%

2.60%

1.60%

0.60%
-800

-600

-400

-200

Beginning Location

0
Reactive Power (kVar)
Mid Location

200

400

600

800

End Location

Figure 164. Low substation primary voltage, HL condition reduction or increase of capacity

(in percent total circuit kilowatts) as a function of location and synchronous generator

+/- reactive power with a constant real power output of 246 kW

265

11.5 Findings and Conclusions

11.5.1 Synchronous Generator (Low Voltage on Primary of Substation) Heavy
Load Condition

Released capacity improvement BL

The best-case released capacity improvement occurred when the DG was located at
the BL of the circuit, with a 10.44% savings when the synchronous generator was
operating at its highest real and reactive power output. This occurred with all LTC
regulator taps and step regulator taps in their full-raise position because of the LV
condition of 95% on the primary of the substation. Adding reactive from the generator
improves the voltage but causes an increase in kilovolt-ampere load that reduces the
released capacity.
There is a 1.8% change in current for a 1% change in voltage. When the primary of the
substation is operating at LV, or 95%, there is a 5% drop from nominal (100%) that
causes a 9% (1.8% x 5%) drop in current. The base case peak load kilovolt-amperes at
the start of the circuit without generation are 14,187 kW + j5846 kVAr, or 15,344
kVA. When the generator is running at 984 kW + j 738 kVAr, or 1,230 kVA, the
circuit load drops to 12,347 kW + j 5415 kVArs, or 13,482 kVA. This example shows
a released capacity of
15,344 kVA (w/o generation) 13,482 kVA (with generation) = 1,862 kVA load
reduction.
The percent load reduction is then
1,862 kVA
x 100% = 12.14% road reduction.
15,344 kVA
The example given is based on balanced circuit loading, so the maximum released
capacity of 10.44% indicates an unbalanced condition exists and, as such, the released
capacity will be less because one of the phases has a lower load current than the other
two before the generation is added. Therefore, the reduction in load or released
capacity will be less on the phase with the lowest load.

266

Loss savings EL
The greatest reduction in real power losses occurs when the synchronous generator is
located at the EL on the circuit, P = 100%, and Q = 100%. Here, the loss reduction
was 0.56% better than the base case (5.7%). There were marginal loss savings (a range
of only 0.02% to 0.13%) when the DG was applied at the head-end of the circuit.
Locating the generation at the EL with 100% reactive and 100% real power reduces
the current magnitude and, hence, the I2R losses.

Voltage improvement ML
The best case for voltage improvement occurs when the synchronous generator is at
the ML of the circuit and delivering 100% real power and 100% reactive power. The
lowest single-phase voltage was -1.14% (down from the base case). The EL DG
voltage improvement is almost the same (-1.15% from the base case). The BL DG had
voltages about 2%3% less than the base case. It should be noted that the criteria of
114 V could not be met under the LV condition on the primary of the substation for
customers with secondary and services.

11.5.2 Synchronous Generator (High Voltage on Primary of Generator

Substation) Heavy Load Condition

Released capacity improvement BL

During HV conditions on the primary of the substation, the highest released capacity
of 7.36% occurs when the synchronous generator is located at the head-end of the
circuit, P = 100%, and Q = 100%. When the HV condition exists, the load increases so
that reactive has to be at its highest value to reduce the load. Notice that the released
capacity is lower for the HV case than for the LV case, in which the value was
10.44%. This is because when the voltage increases, the load increases because of the
VDC source model, which best represents how the load magnitude changes with
changes in voltage.

Loss savings EL
The greatest loss savings of 0.56% was obtained at the EL for the HV case when P =
100% and Q = 100%. This is the same result as for the LV case. For the LV case, the
step regulator taps and the LTC tap were at full raise, and the magnitude of the current
being served from the source was reduced because of the added generation. In addition,
the I2R losses are less. In the HV case, the step regulator tap settings and the LTC tap
setting were low, which reduced the voltage and, thus, the load. The worst-case loss
savings at the BL is only 0.02%, whereas the best case at the BL is 0.14% at full real
and reactive power. This is because the load being served is just offset by the DG
power output at the source end, and the load seen by the circuit is essentially the same.

267

Voltage improvement ML
The best voltage improvement of 0.83% occurs at the ML when the unit is operated at
P = 100% and Q = 100%. The EL had about the same improvement of 0.82%. Notice
these voltage improvement levels are better than the LV case, in which the substation
primary voltage is 10% less than the HV level of 105%. This is because the LTC and
step regulator are not in the full-raise position, as is the case for the LV condition, and,
thus, the step regulator and the LTC raise the voltage. The generator is delivering
100% reactive power, thus further reducing the voltage drop. It should be noted that
the voltage criteria of 114 V was met during the HV condition.

11.5.3 Induction Generator for Heavy Load Condition

Released capacity improvement

The induction generator is located at the tag end of the circuit, so its released capacity
is less than the synchronous generator at the BL. The highest released capacity of
6.44% occurs during the LV case when P = 400 kW and Q = -247.91 kVAr. The
absorbed kilovars cause the voltage to drop, which causes a lower circuit load, which
produces the highest released capacity for the induction generator case. The capacity
savings is less than that of the synchronous generator (10.44%) because the maximum
real power capability of the induction generator is only 400 kW with a reactive
capability of 247.91 kVAr. The maximum kilovolt-ampere capacity is 1,230 kVA,
and the maximum real power output of the synchronous generator is much bigger
1,050 kW (106.7%) with a reactive capability of 738 kVAr. Obviously, the larger
machine will realize a greater released capacity, especially because it is located at the
optimum location on the circuit (the BL) for the greatest released capacity.
The induction generator is located at the tag end, which is the least optimum location
for released capacity. With the induction generator operating at 400 kW and a Q of
247.91 kVAr, this caused the voltage to drop and thus lowered the circuit load. The
synchronous generator under the LV case had its highest released capacity at the BL
of 10.44% with full-rated real power and full-rated-plus reactive power. Notice that
the released capacity for the synchronous generator with zero reactive and maximum
real power of 106.7% was 9.93%, which is not that different from the maximum
released capacity of 10.44%. The released capacity for the HV case was only 3.8% for
the induction generator.

Loss savings
The maximum loss savings of 0.3% was achieved at P = 400 kW and Q = 247.91
kVAr during the HV condition because the LTC tap setting was down to 3 and the
step regulator tap settings were low (24, 21, 19). The current on the circuit was
lowered with the reactive injection, which caused the losses to be at their lowest.

268

Voltage improvement
The best voltage is obtained under HV conditions with full reactive and real power,
which is 0.12% better than the base case. With the synchronous machine, the best
voltage improvement during HV conditions is 0.83% at the ML with full real and
reactive power output. Again, the synchronous machines better improvement in
voltage is due to its ability to produce more real and reactive power.

11.5.4 Inverter Generator for Heavy Load Condition

Released capacity improvement

The inverter generator is located near the midpoint of the circuit; therefore, like the
induction generator (at the tag end), it will not produce high values of released
capacity. Its highest released capacity was 6.29% at P = 400 kW and Q = 0 under LV
conditions, which is essentially the same as the induction generator capacity saving of
6.44%, because their real power capabilities are the same. At HV, the released
capacity is about half (3.53%) because the load increased because of the higher
primary voltage.

Loss savings
It would be expected that the inverter generator would have the highest loss savings at
full real power and full reactive to reduce the magnitude of the current to its lowest
value. But this is not the case because the real power capability drops down to 320 kW
when the full reactive capability is 240 kVAr. Here, the greatest loss saving of 0.24%
occurs at full rated real power of 400 kW at the HV condition. This is because the
LTC and the step regulator reduced the voltage and lowered the current.

Voltage improvement
As expected, the best voltage improvement of 0.10% is realized at full real power of 320
kW and full reactive power of 240 kVAr for the HV condition. The voltage improvement
is -1.88% at the LV condition with full-rated real (320) and reactive (240).

11.6 Optimum Generator Conditions for Maximum Improvements Heavy Load

Conditions
To summarize the findings and conclusions, Table 54 shows the optimum generator
conditions for released capacity, loss savings, and voltage improvement.
11.7 Optimum Generator Conditions for Maximum Improvements Light Load
Conditions
The optimum generator conditions for improvements during light load conditions are given in
Table 55.

269

Table 54. Optimum Generator Conditions for Maximum Improvements HL

Generator
Type
Synchronous
F
generator

Induction
generator

Inverter
generator

Substation
Primary
Voltage

Location P, %

LV

BL

100

100

LV

EL

100

100

LV

ML

100

100

HV

BL

100

100

HV

EL

100

100

HV

ML

100

100

P,
kW

Q,
kVAr
-247.9

Optimum Condition

Q, %

-1.14

7.36
0.56
0.82

400

LV

EL

400

247.9

LV

EL

400

247.9

HV

EL

400

247.9

HV

EL

400

247.9

HV

EL

400

247.9

LV

ML

400

LV

ML

320

240

LV

ML

320

240

HV

ML

400

HV

ML

400

HV

ML

320

240

Voltage
Improvement%

0.56

EL

Loss
Reduction%

10.44

LV

Released
Capacity
%

6.44

0.25
A

-2.01
3.80
0.30
0.12
6.29

0.16
A

-1.88
3.53
0.24
0.10

Notes:
A. The voltage criterion of 114 V is not met for customers with secondary and services (3.67 V drop).
Only for customers with services is the voltage criterion met.
B. The kilovolt-ampere capability of the induction generator is 400 + j 247.9 = 470.6 kVA. It is located at
the tag end of circuit, or EL.
C. The inverter generator location is at the midpoint of the circuit, or ML.
D. The kilovolt-ampere capability of the inverter generator is 320 + j240 = 400 kVA.
E. The base case energy losses are 5.4%, and the base case lowest single-phase voltage is 117.855 V.
F. The kilovolt-ampere capability of the synchronous machine is 984 + j738 = 1,236 kVA. The unit is
located at midpoint.

270

Table 55. Optimum Generator Conditions for Maximum Improvement LL

Generator
Type
Synchronous
E
generator

Induction
generator

Inverter
generator

Substation
Primary
Voltage

Optimum Condition
Location P, %

Q, %

LV

BL

100

100

LV

EL

100

100

LV

ML

100

100

HV

BL

100

100

HV

EL

100

100

HV

ML

100

100

1.27
7.43
0.67
1.22

Q,
kVAr
+247.9

EL

400

LV

EL

400

247.9

LV

EL

400

247.9

HV

EL

400

247.9

HV

EL

400

247.9

HV

EL

400

LV

ML

320

240

LV

ML

320

240

LV

ML

320

240

HV

ML

320

HV

ML

320

240

HV

ML

400

Voltage
Improvement%

0.66

LV

Loss
Reduction%

7.40

P,
kW

Released
Capacity
%

2.64

0.37
0.98
2.89
0.38
0.67
2.20

0.29
1.10
2.19
0.33
1.15

Notes:
A. The kilovolt-ampere capability of the induction generator is 400 + j 247.9 = 470.6 kVA. It is located at
the tag end of the circuit, or EL.
B. The inverter generator is at the midpoint of the circuit, or ML.
C. The kilovolt-ampere capability of the inverter generator is 320 + j240 = 400 kVA.
D. The base case energy losses are 3.4%, and the base case lowest single-phase voltage is 121.33 V.
E. The kilovolt-ampere capability of the synchronous machine is 984 + j738 = 1,236 kVA. The unit is
located at midpoint.

271

Table 56. Induction Generator Voltage Regulation Application (LV, HV) LL

Lowest
Highest
1
IA
IB
IC
VA
VB
VC
Voltage
I2/I1 %
215.5865 250.8556 244.2324 123.2152 123.0762 122.3465 121.9696 100.1499
Node 01

Machine
Type
IG

Real
Power
400

IG

400

IG

400

IG

400

IG

400

IG

400

Reactive
Power
HV / LV
0
LV
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
247.91
LV
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
-247.91
LV
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
0
HV
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
247.91
HV
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
-247.91
HV
VR (1) 8, 8, 9

Location LTC Tap

N/A
16

246.811

240.07

Real
Power
400

IG

400

IG

400

IG

400

IG

400

IG

400

Reactive
Power
HV / LV
0
LV
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
247.91
LV
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
-247.91
LV
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
0
HV
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
247.91
HV
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
-247.91
HV
VR (1) 8, 8, 9

Highest
V2/V1 %
0.5791

% kW
Loss
3.1%

Total
kVar Loss
457.01

Node 0
4.9459

Low
0.5876

High
(<100)
85.371

Node 1
Capacity
62.6147

N/A

16

211.3691

123.6507 123.4998 122.7978 122.4196 100.1498

0.5601

3.0%

438.8

5.0728

0.5724

85.3752

63.2174

N/A

16

220.2762 255.3078 248.8162 122.7733 122.6469 121.8883 121.5126 100.1499

0.5984

3.2%

478.96

4.8132

0.6007

85.3667

61.9511

N/A

215.6606 250.9707 244.3936 123.2559 123.1314 122.4251

0.57

3.1%

436.17

4.9564

0.5879

85.3752

62.5975

N/A

-1

209.897

N/A

220.6714 255.7775

Lowest
Voltage
0.61%

kW
Node 1
Losses Capacity
0.31%
2.04%

Location
N/A

122.048

100.1499

245.1622 238.5137 122.8626 122.7266 122.0544 121.6783 100.1497

249.293

122.8241 122.7128 121.9782 121.6023 100.1499

Improvement
Machine
Type
IG

I2/I1 %

Lowest 3 Voltage

N/A

0.98%

0.37%

2.64%

N/A

0.23%

0.23%

1.38%

N/A

0.67%

0.33%

2.02%

N/A

0.37%

0.38%

2.89%

N/A

0.30%

0.25%

1.31%

272

0.5505

3.0%

411.4

5.0894

0.5725

85.3793

63.4632

0.5895

3.1%

458.58

4.8202

0.6019

85.371

61.8811

Table 57. Inverter Generator Voltage Regulation Application (LV, HV) LL

Lowest
Highest
1
IA
IB
IC
VA
VB
VC
I2/I1 %
Voltage
215.7648 251.0805 244.2842 123.3158 123.0805 122.3867 122.0019 100.1498

Highest
V2/V1 %
0.5704

% kW
Loss
3.1%

Total
kVar Loss
467.04

Node 0
4.9222

Low
0.4231

High
(<100)
75.2233

Node 1
Capacity
62.5812

214.3897 249.7643 242.9851 123.8584 123.6347 122.9837 122.5691 189.5674

0.5357

3.1%

461.97

4.9736

0.4169

99.0905

62.7773

Node 01

Machine
Type
InvG

Real
Power
400

InvG

320

InvG

320

InvG

400

InvG

320

InvG

320

Machine
Type
InvG

Real
Power
400

InvG

320

InvG

320

InvG

400

InvG

320

InvG

320

Reactive
Power
HV / LV
0
LV
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
240
LV
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
-240
LV
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
0
HV
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
240
HV
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
-240
HV
VR (1) 7, 7, 8

Location LTC Tap

N/A
16
N/A

16

I2/I1 %

Lowest 3 Voltage

N/A

16

223.2678 258.5274 251.7314 122.6213 122.4607 121.6974

100.1499

0.6131

3.2%

495.7

4.7719

0.4153

73.2693

61.4713

N/A

215.8399 251.1973 244.4464 123.3571 123.1364 122.4658 122.0808 100.1498

0.5606

3.1%

446.17

4.9327

0.4232

75.2366

62.5637

N/A

214.4339 249.8456 243.1133 123.8825 123.6733 123.0455 122.6307 189.2126

0.5253

3.1%

441.2

4.9842

0.4169

98.9889

62.7652

N/A

223.374

0.6034

3.2%

473.61

4.7821

0.4166

73.2757

61.4486

Improvement
Reactive
Power
HV / LV Location
0
LV
N/A
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
240
LV
N/A
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
-240
LV
N/A
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
0
HV
N/A
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
240
HV
N/A
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
-240
HV
N/A
VR (1) 7, 7, 8

Lowest
Voltage
0.63%

121.361

258.6802 251.9266 122.6821 122.5365 121.7965 121.4598 100.1499

Node 1
Losses Capacity
0.28%
2.01%

1.10%

0.29%

2.20%

0.10%

0.18%

0.90%

0.70%

0.30%

1.99%

1.15%

0.33%

2.19%

0.19%

0.22%

0.87%

273

Table 58. Synchronous Generator Voltage Regulation Application (BL, HV) LL

Lowest
1
Location LTC Tap
IA
IB
IC
VA
VB
VC
Voltage
BL
0
212.8733 248.4197 241.7729 123.0971 123.0572 122.3328 121.9559
Node 01

Machine
Type
SG

Real
Power
50%

SG

75%

SG

100%

SG

106.7%

SG

100%

SG

100%

SG

25%

SG

25%

SG

25%

SG

25%

SG

25%

SG

25%

SG

25%

Machine
Type
SG

Real
Power
50%

SG

75%

SG

100%

SG

106.7%

SG

100%

SG

100%

SG

25%

SG

25%

SG

25%

SG

25%

SG

25%

SG

25%

SG

25%

Reactive
Power
HV / LV
0
HV
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
0
HV
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
0
HV
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
0
HV
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
100%
HV
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
-100%
HV
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
100%
HV
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
75%
HV
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
50%
HV
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
25%
HV
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
0%
HV
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
-50%
HV
VR (1) 8, 8, 9
-100%
HV
VR (1) 8, 8, 9

I2/I1 %

Lowest 3 Voltage

BL

204.3709 239.9243 233.3379

BL

196.0316 231.5685 225.0531 123.1365 123.0966

123.117

123.0771 122.3526 121.9756

122.372

Highest
I2/I1 %
100.15

Highest
V2/V1 %
0.5814

% kW
Loss
3.2%

Total
kVar Loss Node 0
464.51
5.0537

Low
2.4249

High
(<100)
85.3796

Node 1
Capacity
62.9777

100.15

0.5814

3.2%

448.7

5.2441

2.4249

85.3796

64.2438

121.995

100.15

0.5813

3.2%

433.75

5.4457

2.4249

85.3797

65.489

100.15

BL

193.8247 229.3523 222.8581 123.1417 123.1018 122.3772 122.0001

0.5813

3.2%

429.88

5.5017

2.4249

85.3797

65.8193

BL

-1

179.4087 214.7065 207.7869 122.9478 122.9088 122.1866 121.8101 100.1499

0.5809

3.1%

403.36

5.8977

2.4257

85.3798

68.002

BL

214.3268 249.4135 243.3793

121.3707 100.1499

0.5816

2.8%

464.99

5.0029

2.4248

85.3794

62.8296

BL

-1

206.9496 241.9569 234.9388 122.8884 122.8494 122.1275 121.7512 100.1499

122.507

122.4672

121.746

0.581

3.2%

450.51

5.1888

2.4257

85.3798

63.9408

BL

-1

209.9137 245.0483 238.1157 122.7317 122.6927 121.9717 121.5958 100.1499

0.581

3.2%

455.68

5.1136

2.4256

85.3797

63.4801

BL

-1

213.0619 248.2864 241.4423 122.5771 122.5382

121.818

0.5811

3.2%

461.23

5.037

2.4256

85.3797

62.9976

BL

217.9593 253.4542

122.4669 122.0896

100.15

0.5813

3.2%

474.63

4.953

2.4249

85.3797

62.2274

BL

221.5205 257.0412 250.3433 123.0768 123.0369 122.3126 121.9358

100.15

0.5814

3.2%

481.16

4.8738

2.4249

85.3796

61.6928

BL

229.5958 265.1166 258.5824 122.7537 122.7143 121.9926 121.6166 100.1499

0.5818

3.2%

497.01

4.7075

2.423

85.3795

60.4893

BL

238.1321 273.5304 267.2042

0.5819

3.3%

513.6

4.5422

2.4229

85.3794

59.2354

Improvement
Reactive
Power
HV / LV Location
0
HV
BL
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
0
HV
BL
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
0
HV
BL
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
0
HV
BL
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
100%
HV
BL
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
-100%
HV
BL
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
100%
HV
BL
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
75%
HV
BL
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
50%
HV
BL
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
25%
HV
BL
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
0%
HV
BL
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
-50%
HV
BL
VR (1) 8, 8, 9
-100%
HV
BL
VR (1) 8, 8, 9

Lowest
Voltage
0.60%

246.661

123.232

122.438

123.192

122.3987 121.6786 121.3036 100.1499

Node 1
Losses Capacity
0.20%
2.40%

0.61%

0.22%

3.67%

0.63%

0.24%

4.91%

0.63%

0.25%

5.24%

0.47%

0.27%

7.43%

0.11%

0.61%

2.25%

0.43%

0.21%

3.37%

0.30%

0.20%

2.91%

0.17%

0.19%

2.42%

0.71%

0.19%

1.65%

0.58%

0.18%

1.12%

0.32%

0.15%

-0.09%

0.06%

0.12%

-1.34%

121.4425 100.1499

274

Table 59. Synchronous Generator Voltage Regulation Application (EL, HV) LL

Node 01
Machine
Type
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG

Machine
Type
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG

Real
Power
50%

Reactive
Power
HV / LV
0
HV
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
75%
0
HV
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
100%
0
HV
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
106.7%
0
HV
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
100%
100%
HV
VR (1) 6, 6, 7
100%
-100%
HV
VR (1) 9, 10, 11
25%
100%
HV
VR (1) 6, 6, 7
25%
75%
HV
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
25%
50%
HV
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
25%
25%
HV
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
25%
0%
HV
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
25%
-50%
HV
VR (1) 8, 8, 9
25%
-100%
HV
VR (1) 11, 11, 13

Location LTC Tap

EL
0
EL

IA
IB
IC
212.3632 247.6197 241.0869
203.6864

238.771

Highest
V2/V1 %
0.5676

% kW
Loss
3.0%

Total
kVar Loss
423.13

Node 0
5.0172

232.3689

123.415

123.2206 122.5274 122.1499 100.1498

0.5618

2.9%

390.74

5.1848

123.281

EL

195.2284 230.0957 223.8435 123.5254

122.5959 122.2183 100.1497

0.5567

2.9%

361.9

5.3601

EL

192.9993 227.7999 221.5913 123.5543 123.2966 122.6135 122.2358 100.1497

0.5554

2.9%

354.76

5.4084

EL

-1

180.5095 215.6699 209.1265 123.9599 123.6821 123.0829 122.7038 100.1496

0.4985

2.7%

311.07

5.8389

EL

212.9442 247.0417 241.1703 122.2241

0.6197

3.1%

440.76

4.8856

122.007

121.235

120.8612 100.1499

EL

-1

208.4481 243.8298 236.9695 123.6157 123.4901 122.8629 122.4845 100.1497

0.5178

3.0%

408.59

5.2074

EL

-1

211.1141 246.5272 239.6941 123.2996 123.1822 122.5366 122.1591 100.1497

0.5318

3.0%

417.38

5.1233

EL

-1

213.7232 249.0965 242.3328 122.9942 122.8849 122.2196 121.8431 100.1498

0.5455

3.1%

426.84

5.0399

EL

218.1168 253.6216 246.8922 123.4912

122.6982 122.3202 175.2828

0.5601

3.1%

445.68

4.947

EL

221.2389 256.6262 249.9807 123.1805 123.0883 122.3755 121.9985 100.1499

0.5741

3.1%

459.1

4.857

EL

228.6036 263.6773 257.1874 122.5345 122.4624 121.7061

121.331

100.15

0.6033

3.3%

493.54

4.6634

EL

237.5644 272.2539 266.1526 120.9778 121.3988 121.4231 120.6221

100.15

0.6374

3.4%

539.55

4.4658

Improvement
Reactive
Power
HV / LV Location
0
HV
EL
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
75%
0
HV
EL
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
100%
0
HV
EL
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
106.7%
0
HV
EL
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
100%
100%
HV
EL
VR (1) 6, 6, 7
100%
-100%
HV
EL
VR (1) 9, 10, 11
25%
100%
HV
EL
VR (1) 6, 6, 7
25%
75%
HV
EL
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
25%
50%
HV
EL
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
25%
25%
HV
EL
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
25%
0%
HV
EL
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
25%
-50%
HV
EL
VR (1) 8, 8, 9
25%
-100%
HV
EL
VR (1) 11, 11, 13
Real
Power
50%

VA
123.3

Lowest
Highest
1
VB
VC
Voltage
I2/I1 %
123.1564 122.4539 122.0766 100.1498

Lowest 3 Voltage

Lowest
Voltage
0.69%
0.76%

123.39

Node 1
Losses Capacity
0.37%
2.52%
0.45%

3.84%

0.81%

0.53%

5.13%

0.83%

0.55%

5.48%

1.21%

0.67%

7.28%

-0.31%

0.26%

2.61%

1.03%

0.41%

3.09%

0.76%

0.38%

2.68%

0.50%

0.35%

2.30%

0.90%

0.32%

1.63%

0.63%

0.27%

1.18%

0.08%

0.15%

0.13%

-0.50%

0.00%

-1.15%

275

Table 60. Synchronous Generator Voltage Regulation Application (ML, HV) LL

Node 01
Machine
Type
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG

Machine
Type
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG

Real
Power
50%

Reactive
Power
HV / LV
0
HV
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
75%
0
HV
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
100%
0
HV
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
106.7%
0
HV
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
100%
100%
HV
VR (1) 6, 6, 7
100%
-100%
HV
VR (1) 9, 10, 11
25%
100%
HV
VR (1) 6, 6, 7
25%
75%
HV
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
25%
50%
HV
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
25%
25%
HV
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
25%
0%
HV
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
25%
-50%
HV
VR (1) 8, 8, 9
25%
-100%
HV
VR (1) 11, 11, 13

Location LTC Tap

IA
IB
IC
VA
ML
0
212.4129 247.6931 241.1176 123.2956

VB
123.148

Total
kVar Loss
427.69

Node 0
5.0118

Low
0.5212

High
(<100)
85.3742

Node 1
Capacity
63.086

0.5606

3.0%

395.73

5.1779

0.5246

85.3715

64.4044

203.7158 238.8462 232.3743 123.4114 123.2107

ML

195.2055 230.1473 223.7941 123.5246 123.2713 122.5943 122.2167 100.1497

0.555

2.9%

366.13

5.3526

0.5277

85.3688

65.7008

ML

192.9567 227.8406

122.2353 100.1497

0.5536

2.9%

358.59

5.4009

0.5285

85.3681

66.0446

ML

-1

180.0864 215.2308 208.6781 123.9702 123.6826 123.0919 122.7128 100.1496

0.4961

2.7%

314.73

5.8244

0.4985

85.3812

67.9239

ML

212.9588 247.2812 241.2013

122.231

122.0028 121.2425 120.8687 100.1499

0.6183

3.1%

434.31

4.8977

0.5685

85.3543

63.1474

ML

-1

208.0818 243.3935

123.6243 123.4957 122.8707 122.4923 100.1497

0.5168

3.0%

410.4

5.1974

0.4874

85.3893

63.7267

ML

-1

210.8721 246.2299 239.4376 123.3036 123.1838 122.5398 122.1624 100.1497

0.531

3.0%

420.44

5.114

0.4958

85.3863

63.304

ML

-1

213.5907 248.9264 242.1842 122.9947 122.8834 122.2195 121.8429 100.1498

0.5449

3.1%

430.49

5.0319

0.5032

85.3831

62.9022

ML

-1

216.6113 251.8874 245.2029 122.6785 122.5761 121.8915 121.5158 100.1498

0.5592

3.1%

442.03

4.945

0.5106

85.3799

62.4609

ML

221.2784 256.6741 250.0092 123.1772 123.0832 122.3719 121.9948 100.1499

0.5738

3.1%

462

4.854

0.5172

85.3769

61.7475

236.593

123.5546 123.2872

122.613

ML

228.7312 263.8744 257.3197 122.5323 122.4578

121.3288

100.15

0.6032

3.2%

492.86

4.6678

0.5316

85.3705

60.6745

ML

237.6779 272.5148 266.2969 121.8619 121.8078 120.9998 120.6267

100.15

0.6372

3.4%

532.26

4.4801

0.59

85.3626

59.3868

Lowest
Voltage
0.69%
0.75%

121.704

122.1455 100.1498

% kW
Loss
3.1%

221.522

122.523

I2/I1 %
Highest
V2/V1 %
0.5669

ML

Improvement
Reactive
Power
HV / LV Location
0
HV
ML
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
75%
0
HV
ML
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
100%
0
HV
ML
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
106.7%
0
HV
ML
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
100%
100%
HV
ML
VR (1) 6, 6, 7
100%
-100%
HV
ML
VR (1) 9, 10, 11
25%
100%
HV
ML
VR (1) 6, 6, 7
25%
75%
HV
ML
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
25%
50%
HV
ML
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
25%
25%
HV
ML
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
25%
0%
HV
ML
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
25%
-50%
HV
ML
VR (1) 8, 8, 9
25%
-100%
HV
ML
VR (1) 11, 11, 13
Real
Power
50%

Lowest
Highest
1
VC
Voltage
I2/I1 %
122.4488 122.0716 100.1498

Lowest 3 Voltage

Node 1
Losses Capacity
0.35%
2.51%
0.43%

3.83%

0.81%

0.51%

5.13%

0.83%

0.53%

5.47%

1.22%

0.65%

7.35%

-0.30%

0.29%

2.57%

1.04%

0.40%

3.15%

0.77%

0.37%

2.73%

0.50%

0.33%

2.33%

0.23%

0.29%

1.89%

0.63%

0.26%

1.17%

0.08%

0.15%

0.10%

-0.50%

0.03%

-1.19%

276

Table 61. Synchronous Generator Voltage Regulation Application (BL, LV) LL

IC
VA
VB
VC
241.6071 123.0554 123.0003 122.2526

Lowest
1
Voltage
121.876

Highest
I2/I1 %
100.15

Highest
V2/V1 %
0.5896

% kW
Loss
3.2%

Total
kVar Loss
484.87

Node 0
5.0431

Low
2.4115

High
(<100)
85.3754

Node 1
Capacity
62.9955

233.172

Node 01
Machine
Type
SG

Real
Power
50%

SG

75%

SG

100%

SG

106.7%

SG

100%

SG

100%

SG

25%

SG

25%

SG

25%

SG

25%

SG

25%

SG

25%

SG

25%

Machine
Type
SG

Real
Power
50%

SG

75%

SG

100%

SG

106.7%

SG

100%

SG

100%

SG

25%

SG

25%

SG

25%

SG

25%

SG

25%

SG

25%

SG

25%

Reactive
Power
HV / LV
0
LV
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
0
LV
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
0
LV
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
0
LV
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
100%
LV
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
-100%
LV
VR (1) 8, 7, 9
100%
LV
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
75%
LV
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
50%
LV
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
25%
LV
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
0%
LV
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
-50%
LV
VR (1) 8, 8, 9
-100%
LV
VR (1) 8, 8, 9

Location LTC Tap

IA
BL
16
212.7966

IB
248.3
239.806

Lowest 3 Voltage

123.0777 123.0225 122.2747

I2/I1 %

BL

16

204.296

121.898

100.15

0.5896

3.2%

467.61

5.2333

2.4115

85.3754

64.2614

BL

16

195.9588 231.4519 224.8876 123.0995 123.0443 122.2964 121.9196

100.15

0.5896

3.2%

451.28

5.4346

2.4115

85.3754

65.5064

BL

16

193.7525 229.2363 222.6927 123.1053 123.0501 122.3022 121.9254

100.15

0.5896

3.2%

447.05

5.4905

2.4115

85.3754

65.8366

BL

15

179.6222 214.9111 207.9322 123.0487 122.9945 122.2484 121.8718

100.15

0.589

3.1%

419.17

5.8832

2.4124

85.3756

67.9715

BL

16

214.4479

249.197

0.5913

3.2%

485.98

4.961

2.3827

85.3752

62.8618

BL

15

207.126

242.1265 235.0549 122.9824 122.9283 122.1826 121.8061

0.5891

3.2%

470.68

5.177

2.4124

85.3756

63.9156

243.3917 122.4026 122.3609

121.603

121.2282 100.1499
100.15

BL

15

210.0627 245.1867 238.2018 122.8117 122.7576 122.0128 121.6368 100.1499

0.5891

3.2%

476.27

5.1021

2.4124

85.3755

63.4595

BL

15

213.1836 248.3942

0.5892

3.2%

482.29

5.0259

2.4123

85.3755

62.9815

241.499

122.6432 122.5892 121.8454 121.4698 100.1499

BL

15

216.5831 251.8481 245.0485 122.4716 122.4176 121.6747 121.2997 100.1499

0.5893

3.2%

488.93

4.9462

2.4123

85.3754

62.4667

BL

16

221.4424 256.9205 250.1782 123.0328 122.9777 122.2301 121.8535

0.5896

3.2%

503.07

4.8634

2.4115

85.3753

61.7108

BL

16

229.4716 264.9431 258.3683 122.6806

0.59

3.3%

520.22

4.6972

2.4096

85.3752

60.5152

BL

16

237.9682 273.3106 266.9479 122.3359 122.2815 121.5386 121.1639 100.1499

0.5901

3.3%

538.25

4.532

2.4095

85.3751

59.2682

Improvement
Reactive
Power
HV / LV Location
0
LV
BL
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
0
LV
BL
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
0
LV
BL
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
0
LV
BL
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
100%
LV
BL
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
-100%
LV
BL
VR (1) 8, 7, 9
100%
LV
BL
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
75%
LV
BL
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
50%
LV
BL
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
25%
LV
BL
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
0%
LV
BL
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
-50%
LV
BL
VR (1) 8, 8, 9
-100%
LV
BL
VR (1) 8, 8, 9

Lowest
Voltage
0.53%
0.55%

122.626

121.8813 121.5057 100.1499

Node 1
Losses Capacity
0.18%
2.42%
0.20%

3.69%

0.57%

0.22%

4.93%

0.57%

0.23%

5.26%

0.53%

0.26%

7.40%

-0.01%

0.16%

2.29%

0.47%

0.19%

3.34%

0.33%

0.18%

2.88%

0.19%

0.17%

2.41%

0.05%

0.15%

1.89%

0.51%

0.16%

1.14%

0.22%

0.12%

-0.06%

-0.06%

0.09%

-1.31%

100.15

277

Table 62. Synchronous Generator Voltage Regulation Application (EL, LV) LL

Type
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG

Machine
Type
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG

Power
50%

Power
HV / LV
0
LV
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
75%
0
LV
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
100%
0
LV
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
106.7%
0
LV
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
100%
100%
LV
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
100%
-100%
LV
VR (1) 10, 11, 12
25%
100%
LV
VR (1) 6, 6, 7
25%
75%
LV
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
25%
50%
LV
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
25%
25%
LV
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
25%
0%
LV
VR (1) 8, 8, 9
25%
-50%
LV
VR (1) 8, 8, 9
25%
-100%
LV
VR (1) 12, 12, 14

Node 01
Lowest 3 Voltage
Lowest Highest
Location LTC Tap
IA
IB
IC
VA
VB
VC
I2/I1 %
1
EL
16
212.2903 247.5062 240.9265 123.2606 123.1026 122.3766 121.9996 100.1499

% kW
Loss
3.1%

Total
kVar Loss
443.41

Node 0
5.0066

I2/I1 %
Low
0.5875

(<100)
85.37

Capacity
63.1138

EL

16

203.6169 238.6617 232.2108 123.3787 123.1704 122.4535 122.0762 100.1498

0.5716

3.0%

409.53

5.1741

0.5871

85.3673

64.4319

EL

16

195.1622 229.9907

0.567

2.9%

379.28

5.3492

0.5858

85.3647

65.7242

223.688

123.4919 123.2341 122.5252 122.1478 100.1498

EL

16

192.934

EL

15

181.0127 216.1996 209.5588 124.0533 123.7631

227.6962 221.4365 123.5215 123.2505 122.5436 122.1661 100.1497

123.14

122.7609 100.1496

0.5659

2.9%

371.78

5.3975

0.5853

85.3639

66.0661

0.5089

2.7%

327.99

5.8192

0.5394

85.3772

67.7795

EL

16

213.0625 247.1357 241.1868 122.1223 121.8917 121.0974 120.7239 100.1499

0.6305

3.2%

461.79

4.8718

0.6474

85.3501

63.169

EL

15

208.6222 243.9988 237.0845 123.7093 123.5693 122.9178 122.5393 100.1497

0.5263

3.0%

429.05

5.1957

0.5371

85.3851

63.6365

EL

15

211.2622 246.6659 239.7802 123.3795 123.2477 122.5779 122.2004 100.1498

0.5403

3.0%

438.23

5.1119

0.5508

85.382

63.2391

EL

15

213.8455 249.2062 242.3909 123.0608

0.5541

3.1%

448.04

5.0287

0.5633

85.3789

62.8605

EL

15

216.7438

EL

16

221.4532 256.8277

EL

16

228.481

EL

16

237.6856 272.3481 266.1733 121.7458

Improvement
Reactive
Power
HV / LV Location
0
LV
EL
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
75%
0
LV
EL
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
100%
0
LV
EL
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
106.7%
0
LV
EL
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
100%
100%
LV
EL
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
100%
-100%
LV
EL
VR (1) 10, 11, 12
25%
100%
LV
EL
VR (1) 6, 6, 7
25%
75%
LV
EL
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
25%
50%
LV
EL
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
25%
25%
LV
EL
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
25%
0%
LV
EL
VR (1) 8, 8, 9
25%
-50%
LV
EL
VR (1) 8, 8, 9
25%
-100%
LV
EL
VR (1) 12, 12, 14
Real
Power
50%

Highest
V2/V1 %
0.5769

Lowest
Voltage
0.63%
0.69%

252.02

122.937

122.2478 121.8712 100.1498

245.2842 122.7333 122.6182 121.9086 121.5328 173.4712

0.5683

3.1%

460.03

4.94

0.5761

98.6865

62.4411

250.101

0.5832

3.2%

482.19

4.8432

0.5886

85.3727

61.7246

123.1283 123.0217 122.2865 121.9097 100.1499

263.5061 256.9753 122.4626 122.3755 121.5962 121.2214

121.681

120.8464 120.4737

Node 1
Losses Capacity
0.34%
2.54%
0.43%

3.86%

0.75%

0.51%

5.15%

0.77%

0.52%

5.49%

1.26%

0.66%

7.20%

-0.42%

0.23%

2.59%

1.08%

0.39%

3.06%

0.80%

0.36%

2.66%

0.53%

0.32%

2.29%

0.25%

0.28%

1.87%

0.56%

0.24%

1.15%

-0.01%

0.12%

0.15%

-0.63%

-0.04%

-1.16%

278

100.15

0.6122

3.3%

516.53

4.6532

0.6066

85.3663

60.7293

100.15

0.6467

3.4%

565.3

4.453

0.6718

85.3584

59.4116

Table 63. Synchronous Generator Voltage Regulation Application (ML, LV) LL

Lowest
Highest
1
Location LTC Tap
IA
IB
IC
VA
VB
VC
Voltage
I2/I1 %
ML
16
212.3396 247.5788 240.9566 123.2559 123.0939 122.3713 121.9943 100.1499
Node 01

Machine
Type
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG

Machine
Type
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG
SG

Real
Power
50%

Reactive
Power
HV / LV
0
LV
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
75%
0
LV
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
100%
0
LV
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
106.7%
0
LV
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
100%
100%
LV
VR (1) 6, 6, 7
100%
-100%
LV
VR (1) 10, 11, 12
25%
100%
LV
VR (1) 6, 6, 7
25%
75%
LV
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
25%
50%
LV
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
25%
25%
LV
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
25%
0%
LV
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
25%
-50%
LV
VR (1) 8, 8, 9
25%
-100%
LV
VR (1) 12, 12, 14

ML

203.6459

238.736

I2/I1 %
Highest
V2/V1 %
0.5762

% kW
Loss
3.1%

Total
kVar Loss
447.96

Node 0
5.0013

Low
0.5209

High
(<100)
85.37

232.2155 123.3749 123.1601 122.4489 122.0716 100.1498

0.5704

3.0%

414.53

5.1672

0.5243

85.3673

64.4209

223.638

122.5235 122.1461 100.1497

0.5653

2.9%

383.51

5.3416

0.5274

85.3646

65.7166

122.543

122.1655 100.1497

0.564

2.9%

375.61

5.3899

0.5281

85.3639

66.0602

ML

16

195.1391 230.0414

ML

16

192.8913 227.7359 221.3666 123.5217 123.2408

123.224

ML

15

180.3035 215.4447

124.0729 123.7724 123.1571 122.7779 100.1496

0.5063

2.8%

330.64

5.8102

0.4986

85.3772

67.892

16

213.0786 247.3756 241.2184 122.1295 121.8875 121.1051 120.7316 100.1498

0.629

3.1%

455.38

4.8838

0.5683

85.3502

63.1333

243.5636

208.831

123.491

Node 1
Capacity
63.103

ML
ML

15

208.257

122.5474 100.1497

0.5252

3.0%

430.81

5.1856

0.4877

85.3852

63.7014

ML

15

211.0207 246.3693 239.5242 123.3835 123.2494 122.5814 122.2038 100.1498

0.5395

3.1%

441.23

5.1026

0.496

85.3821

63.2833

ML

15

213.7131 249.0361 242.2424 123.0612 122.9354 122.2477

100.1498

0.5534

3.1%

451.66

5.0208

0.5033

85.379

62.8858

ML

16

218.0283 253.4786 246.7043 123.4602 123.3425 122.6284 122.2507 100.1499

0.5684

3.1%

470.68

4.9307

0.5103

85.3758

62.2237

123.7181 123.5753

122.926

121.871

ML

16

221.202

0.5826

3.2%

4.8436

0.517

85.3727

61.7651

16

228.6085 263.7029 257.1074 122.4603 122.3707 121.5939 121.2191

100.15

0.612

3.3%

515.86

4.6577

0.5312

85.3663

60.7

ML

16

237.7999 272.6093

100.15

0.6466

3.4%

558.04

4.4672

0.5899

85.3584

59.3727

Lowest
Voltage
0.63%

Node 1
Losses Capacity
0.32%
2.53%

0.69%

0.41%

256.556

236.709

ML

Improvement
Reactive
Power
HV / LV Location
0
LV
ML
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
75%
0
LV
ML
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
100%
0
LV
ML
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
106.7%
0
LV
ML
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
100%
100%
LV
ML
VR (1) 6, 6, 7
100%
-100%
LV
ML
VR (1) 10, 11, 12
25%
100%
LV
ML
VR (1) 6, 6, 7
25%
75%
LV
ML
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
25%
50%
LV
ML
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
25%
25%
LV
ML
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
25%
0%
LV
ML
VR (1) 7, 7, 8
25%
-50%
LV
ML
VR (1) 8, 8, 9
25%
-100%
LV
ML
VR (1) 12, 12, 14
Real
Power
50%

16

Lowest 3 Voltage

249.8464 123.1342 123.0254 122.2907 121.9139 100.1499

266.318

121.7498 121.6811 120.8512 120.4784

3.85%

0.75%

0.49%

5.14%

0.77%

0.51%

5.49%

1.27%

0.63%

7.32%

-0.41%

0.26%

2.56%

1.08%

0.38%

3.13%

0.80%

0.34%

2.71%

0.53%

0.31%

2.31%

0.84%

0.28%

1.65%

0.56%

0.23%

1.19%

-0.01%

0.12%

0.13%

-0.62%

0.00%

-1.20%

279

12 Conclusions and Recommendations

12.1 Conclusions

Five methods to improve voltage regulation at the substation were explained and seven
methods to improve voltage regulation on the distribution circuit were defined. It was
shown that the voltage drop is six times less for three-phase circuit than single-phase
circuit portions with the same load, yet most of the load is served by the single-phase
portions of the circuit. Voltage and current equations were developed for the Type A
and Type B step VRs and the bidirectional regulator, which is required for operation of
DG on the circuit. The operation of the line drop compensator and how the settings are
calculated when loads are tapped off the circuit before the regulation point were
explained. In addition, equations were developed to determine the settings of the
regulator when shunt capacitors are added to the circuit. Why grounded wye capacitors
are used on four-wire wye-grounded systems and why delta-connected capacitors are
used on ungrounded systems to alleviate series resonant conditions were explained.
Causes for unbalanced voltage and current and how these conditions affect protective
relaying were explained. The neutral relay is set to trip for ground faults, and the trip
value may have to be increased to account for increased neutral current because of
unbalance. This may cause a loss of sensitivity in clearing for faults.
Significant unbalanced loading can occur even though voltages are balanced at the
source. Reclosers and the substation breaker with ground fault-sensing circuits are
affected by load imbalance. Unequal single-phase load connected line-to-line does not
produce neutral current in the ground relay.
Fuse preload because of unbalanced loading can cause fuses to become unselective
with other protective devices such as reclosers and cause misoperation.
Reducing unbalanced loading reduces the losses created by the neutral current in the
neutral conductor.
Unbalanced three-phase voltages have a significant effect on the heating of induction
and synchronous generators. For example, a 5.5% voltage unbalance can cause an
approximate 25% increase in temperature rise. The phase currents with unbalanced
voltages are greatly unbalanced, on the order of four to five times the voltage
unbalance. If overload relay protection settings are raised because of unbalance, the
generator may not be protected against overload and open phases.
Heating of induction generators because of voltage unbalance is affected by phase
rotation. Phase rotation affects which of the phases has the highest line currents. This
means negative sequence current protection must be used to protect the induction
generator to prevent failure because of voltage unbalance. The negative sequence losses
are proportional to the square of the negative sequence voltage. The generator may have
to reduce output below nameplate rating to avoid overheating with voltage unbalance.

280

An equation was developed to calculate machine derating with unbalanced voltages with
only the percent unbalanced voltage and ratio of the positive-to-negative sequence
impedances of the induction generator. It was shown that a 5% voltage unbalance causes
a 3.2%10.7% power output derate, depending on the positive-to-negative sequence
impedance ratio.
The 13-utility voltage survey showed a maximum percent unbalance of 5.94%, with
an average of 1.1%. Eighty-five percent of all tests were <2% voltage unbalance. The
Milford Circuit showed the maximum percent unbalance to be 1.52% on the primary
during HL conditions and 1.26% for LL. Typically, the maximum permissible current
unbalance for synchronous generators is 10% of the rated stator current. A 15.44%
negative sequence current is produced from a 3% voltage unbalance for a single-cage
induction generator, so care must be exercised to locate generating units on a
distribution circuit for which the voltage unbalance is less than 3% and the unbalance
current is less than 10%20%.
Models were developed for the 10-MVA LTC delta-wye-grounded substation
transformer, the 167-kVA bidirectional VRs, the three wye-grounded capacitors, the
line impedances, and all (nine cases) the distribution circuit transformer connections.
The line loss model was validated using three line configurations and balanced and
unbalanced load conditions. The three line configurations were the balanced
impedance triangular spacing configuration, or equilateral; the flat configuration nontransposed; and the flat configuration transposed. The purpose of the validation was to
show that, with a balanced line impedance and balanced load, the kilowatt losses are
the same in each phase and the total kilowatt losses are lowest. In addition, an example
showed that, even though the kilowatt losses per phase are not correct because of the
Kron reduction process from a four-by-four matrix to a three-by-three matrix, the total
losses for the three phases are, in fact, correct.
Models were developed for the 1,000-kW synchronous generator, the self-excited 400
kW induction generator, and the 400-kW high-speed generator and inverter system.
The line, equipment, and generation models were verified with the maximum phase
current variance of 3.9% on July 17, 2006, and 5.7% on July 29, 2006except for
Node I, where the percent unbalance current was very high. The maximum phase
voltage variance was 1.5% on July 17 and 1.2% on July 29. The maximum PF
variance was 5.7% on July 17 and 3.4% on July 29.
The selected distribution circuit was a 13.2-kV, three-phase wye multi-grounded
system that serves approximately 76.2% residential, 4% commercial, and 19.8% light
industrial loads. The load on the summer peak day was 15.3 MVA, and the summer
peak day minimum load was 5.91 MVA. Eight regulation tests were conducted for the
HL load condition, and eight were conducted for the LL condition. The primary
voltage to the substation was ranged from 95% to 105%. The regulation methods
consisted of the:

281

o
o
o
o
o
o
o

LTC
LTC and VR 1
LTC, VR 1, and VR 2
LTC and Cap 1
LTC, Cap 1, and Cap 2
LTC, Cap 1, Cap 2, and Cap 3
LTC, VR 1, VR 2, Cap 1, Cap 2, and Cap3.

The voltage spread, measured as the difference between the highest three-phase
voltage and the lowest single-phase voltage, for the HL condition was 25.2 V with no
regulation at the substation and on the distribution circuit. When all regulation was
implemented, this voltage spread was reduced to only 10.4 V, and there were no
voltage criteria violations. For the LL condition, the voltage spread was 16.65 V for no
regulation. With all regulation operating, the spread was only 2.91 V.
The load imbalance at the substation was 4% for HL and 5.45% for LL. Adding
regulation does not necessarily improve load imbalance; in fact, higher voltages
generally cause higher loads and more imbalance.
The VDC model best represented how the circuit load changes with changes in source
voltage. The model consisted of % P/% V = 1.26 and % Q/% V = 4.66%. The
CC model percent error was 3.9%, the CP model percent error was 12.5%, and the
VDC model percent error was only 2%.
Three voltage control strategies were tested for the 400-kW induction generator at LV
and HV substation primary voltage for a total of six simulations. Three voltage control
strategies were tested for the 400-kW inverter-based generation at LV and HV
substation primary voltage for a total of six simulations. And 13 voltage control
strategies for HV and 13 for LV were tested for the synchronous generator located at
the BL, ML, and EL of the circuit, for a total of 78 simulations. The maximum
released capacity of 10.44% was achieved with the 1,000-kW synchronous generator
with P = 100% and Q = 100%. The voltage improvement was 0.82%, and the loss
reduction was 0.56% out of a 5.4% base.
The optimum location for the DG with the highest released capacity of 10.44% was at
the source of the circuit because it directly offset the load current and load losses of
the circuit. The optimum DR location to achieve the greatest loss reduction was at the
EL of the circuit because adding generation here reduces on a prorata basis the load
and the length of the circuit. There was little difference for improving the voltage
regulation between locating the DR at the midpoint or end of the circuit. There was a
slightly better improvement at the midpoint for circuits in which the conductor size of
the entire three-phase backbone was the same.

282

 The DG penetration study showed that a synchronous DG had a real power limit of
13,980 kW at the tag end of the circuit. The optimum location was at the midpoint,
with the lowest single-phase voltage improvement of 1.7% and a real power loss
savings of 2.04%. The base case real power losses were 5.4%. The DG penetration
study found that the maximum real and reactive power output limit was 14,490 kW
and 2,007 kVAr, which allows a larger DG to be installed than when only real power
was injected. Again, the optimum location was at the midpoint of the circuit, but, in
this case, the lowest single-phase voltage was improved 4.55% versus only 1.7% in
the real power limit case. The real power loss savings were marginally better, with a
2.3% savings versus 2.04%. This saving in losses represents a 57.4% reduction when
the DG is located at the midpoint of the circuit.
12.2 Recommendations

This project used validated circuit equipment and line models and a validated VDC
source load model to test 78 synchronous generator voltage control strategies. It found
the greatest improvement in released capacity reduced real losses and improvement in
voltage regulation occurred when the synchronous generator produced the maximum
real and reactive power. DG can be sized and located to produce these improvements,
but the effects on system protection systems must be evaluated.
It is recommended that a validated unbalanced three-phase power flow program be
used to determine the percent unbalanced voltage and percent unbalanced current
throughout the circuit. If the percent unbalanced voltage exceeds 3% and the percent
unbalanced current exceeds 10% at the location where a synchronous generator is to
be sited, it is highly possible it will never operate and could trip on voltage or current
imbalance.
It is highly recommended that a VDC source be used for the load model because it is
more accurate than the CP and CC models.
The optimum voltage regulation method that produced the least voltage spread used
the substation transformer LTC, step regulators, capacitors, and DG. It is
recommended that the DG be located at the midpoint of the circuit to produce the best
overall improvements in voltage regulation, loss reduction, and released capacity.
The circuit selected had voltage unbalance conditions that closely agreed with the
average voltage unbalance measurements taken at 13 major utilities. Therefore, the
results should be representative of what would be experienced on the average
distribution circuit.
Voltage regulation and system protection issues represent the most difficult problems
for interconnecting DG with the distribution circuit. This report explains how voltage
unbalance and current imbalance can affect system protection performance and the
rating of the DG output. It is recommended that inverter-based generation be
considered as the preferred DG type if the level of unbalanced voltage and current
may prevent synchronous and induction generators from operating on the circuit.

283

 Future research should fund the development of a real-time optimal control of DG to

accomplish the optimum generator voltage control condition, including the control of
the substation transformer LTC, the bidirectional step regulators, and the switched
capacitors. The cost to perform this development work on the Milford Circuit DC
8103 would be substantially less than installing DG and metering equipment on a new
circuit because all of this equipment is already installed and tested. Furthermore, the
newly developed control strategies can be tested in the summer of 2008. The estimated
cost for this project is less than $500,000, and the development, testing, and analysis
schedule is estimated to be approximately 1.5 years.
12.3 Benefits to California
Models were developed and validated with actual measured circuit and generator test data.
This project showed that adding DG to a distribution circuit can reduce generation capacity by
10% (released capacity), and these results can be achieved in 1 yearnot 710 yearsfor
traditional central-station generation. Also, improved voltage regulation results in fewer
service voltage criteria violations and less distribution energy losses (i.e., approximately 10%).

284

13 References
Davis, M.W. (2003). Determine the Market Penetration Limits of Distributed Energy
Resources (by Distributed Generation Type) by the Year 2015. Department of
Energy/National Renewable Energy Laboratory report.
Davis, M.W.; Krupa, T.J.; Diedzic, M.J. The Economics of Load Management on the Design
and Operation of the Distribution System, Part II Load Characteristics. IEEE Transactions
on Power Apparatus and Systems; Vol. PA8-102 No. 3, March 1983; pp. 654674.
Electrical Distribution System Protection. 3rd edition. Pewaukee, WI: Cooper Power. Cooper
Power Systems Bulletin 90020 February 2005. Available at www.cooperpower.com.

Gafford, B.N.; Duesterohoeft, N.C.; Mosher, C.C. III. Heating of Induction Motors on
Unbalanced Voltages. Prepared for the American Institute of Electrical Engineers Winter
General Meeting, New York, Feb. 16, 1959; p. 284.
Kersting, W.H. The Computation of Neutral and Dirt Currents and Power Losses. Prepared
for the Power Systems Conference and Exposition 2004. IEEE PES, Vol. 1013, October
2004; pp. 213218.
G. E. Multilin SR 469 Motor Management Relay, 1998.
Mason, C.R. The Art and Science of Protective Relaying. General Electric online,
http://www.geindustrial.com/industrialsystems/pm/notes/artsci/index.htm.
National Electrical Manufacturers Association Standard for Motors and Generators MG1,
1978.
Elmore, W.A. Protective Relaying Theory and Applications. 2nd edition. New York: Marcel
Dekker Inc., 1994.
S&C Electric Co. Data Bulletin 350-195, July 17, 2000; p. 1 of 4.
S&C Electric Co. Coordinaide: The S&C Protection and Coordination Assistant. S&C
Electric Co. online, http://www.sandc.com/FSA/coordinaide.asp.
Tracey, G.F. Maximum Allowable Continuous Output of Induction Motors Operating Under
Unbalanced Voltages. April 1954. Discussion of J. E. Williams Operation of Three-Phase
Induction Motors on Unbalanced Voltages, Power Apparatus and Systems, April 1954, p.
132.
Wagner, C.F.; Evans, R.D. Symmetrical Components. New York: McGraw Hill Book Co.
Inc., 1933; pp. 345350.
Williams, J.E. Operation of Three-Phase Induction Motors on Unbalanced Voltages.
American Institute of Electrical Engineers Winter General Meeting; Jan. 1822, 1954, New
York.

285

286

Appendix A: Ground Detector and Ungrounded Systems

For ungrounded delta systems, there is a normal leakage current of about 2 A to ground
because of the distributed capacitance, as shown in Figure A-1. The VTs with a ratio of 40:1
are connected in a broken delta configuration on the secondary side. Under normal
circumstances, the line-to-neutral voltages on the primary of the VT are 2,770 V, and the
voltage vectors on the secondary side have a magnitude of 69 V with an angle of 120
between these vectors. These vectors add to zero, as in the phasor diagram of Figure A-2.
When a ground is applied to Phase Conductor A, as in Figure A-3, this phase goes to ground
potential, while the two unfaulted phases have 4,800 V applied across each. This causes an
increase in the ground current IG from 2 A to 6 A and an increase in voltage on the secondary
of the broken delta from 0 V to 208 V. This phasor diagram is shown in Figure A-4.
Grounding phase conductors of an ungrounded delta system produces a minimum current
unbalance of 3.46 A in this case. Overcurrent relays are not normally installed to detect this
small current unbalance. But there are instances in which as much as 2030 A have been
detected. This is still less than the typical overcurrent settings of 70 A for a recloser on the
circuit and 1,000 A or higher for a breaker at the substation.
A.1. Ungrounded Delta Ground Detection Normal Condition, No Ground
Applied to Phase Conductor
I'CA = 2A 180
2.771 kV

4.8 kV
N

IC = capacitive curr
to ground

V ref.

ICA = capacitive cur

phase A to gro

I'CB = 2A 60o

I'CC = 2A - 60

System Transformation
Wye - Delta
VT = 40:1 =

69V
2771
= 69V
40

40:1

2771V
2771V
2771V

69V
69V

0 Volts

Broken
Delta

Figure A-1. Normal leakage currents to ground because of distributed capacitance

287

VA = 69V
IC = 2A 60o
B

Vref.

IC = 2A 80
A

2.771
VB

VC

IC = 2A -60o
C
C

VA

+ VB + VC = 0

Figure A-2. Normal leakage currents to ground

because of distributed capacitance phasor diagram

Phase Conductors
I'CA = 0

4.8 kV

4.8 kV

IG = I'CB + I'CC = 6A 0o
B

C
4.8 kV

I'CB = 3.464 A 30o

I'CC = 3.464A -30o

System Transformation
Wye - Delta

120V
4800V 4800V

40:1

208V

120V

Figure A-3. Increased leakage current on the unfaulted phases

and resultant ground current IG and resultant zero sequence voltage 3 VO

288

I'CB = 2A 3 = 3.4
3.46A
6A

VT = 40:1

4,800
= 120V
40

6A
3 .4

6A
IG = I'CB + I'CC = 6A 0O
3 .4
6A
120V

120V
3VO = 208V

VC

I'CC (unfaulted phases

are B and C.)

VB

Figure A-4. Increased leakage current on the unfaulted phases

and resultant ground current IG and resultant zero sequence voltage 3 VO phasor diagram

A.2.

Relay Settings

Phase Settings at Substation

--------------------------------------------------------------------------STATION: MILFD
POSITION: T1-L
SHEET#: 1
EQUIPMENT: TRF 1 TO DC 8103
SCHEME: A_REL

FUNCTION: OVERCURRENT XYZ-51

RELAY TYPE: CO-8 (4-12)
PT RATIO:
0:1
CT RATIO: 120 : 1
NORM:
CT NOTE: 600:5 MR
T.O.:
PU = 7.5 X 120

10 MVA TRF'S.

L = 1.75
40 CYCLES AT 37.5 AMPS
198 CYCLES AT 15 AMPS

289

Neutral Settings at Substation

--------------------------------------------------------------------------STATION: MILFD
POSITION: T1-L
SHEET#: 2
EQUIPMENT: TRF 1 TO DC 8103
SCHEME: A_REL

FUNCTION: OVERCURRENT N-51

RELAY TYPE: CO-8 (4-12)
PT RATIO:
0:1
CT RATIO: 120 : 1
NORM:
CT NOTE: 600:5 MR
T.O.:
PU = 9 X 120

EMERGENCY TAP = 5
( WHEN VWE #47316 IS JUMPERED OUT)

L = 1.5
33 CYCLES AT 45 AMPS
166 CYCLES AT 18 AMPS
Reclosing Settings at Substation
--------------------------------------------------------------------------STATION: MILFD
POSITION: T1-L
SHEET#: 3
EQUIPMENT: TRF 1 TO DC 8103
SCHEME: A_REL

FUNCTION: RECLOSING 179

RELAY TYPE: PART OF PR
PT RATIO:
0:1
CT RATIO:
0:1
NORM:
CT NOTE:
T.O.:
RECLOSE: 30 SEC

30 SEC

30 SEC

RESET: 5 MIN MAX

290

Phase Settings on Recloser

--------------------------------------------------------------------------STATION: MILFD
POSITION: 47316
SHEET#: 1
EQUIPMENT: VWE RECLOSER ON DC 8103
SCHEME: OHRCL

FUNCTION: OVERCURRENT (ESSENTIAL ME)

RELAY TYPE: ME RECL - C CURVE STOCK NO. 680-0341
PT RATIO:
0:1
CT RATIO: 1000 : 1
NORM:
CT NOTE:
T.O.:
PHASE TIME DELAY

NOTES: 1) PLUG C CURVE TIMING CAN INTO THE

PHASE TRIP TIMING NO. 2 SOCKET
PU = 0.68 X 1000 = 680 AMPS
RESISTOR SIZE: 680 AMPS
2) 3 TIME DELAY OPERATIONS
173 CYCLES AT 1.36 AMPS (+ OR - 17 CYCLES)
47 CYCLES AT 2.72 AMPS (+ OR - 4 CYCLES)
LOCATION: LW N GOING WIXOM 4PS RED OAK LN
FAULT INDICATOR: AUTO
--------------------------------------------------------------------------STATION: MILFD
POSITION: 47316
SHEET#: 2
EQUIPMENT: VWE RECLOSER ON DC 8103
SCHEME: OHRCL
FUNCTION: OVERCURRENT
RELAY TYPE: ME RECL - R CURVE
PT RATIO:
0:1
CT RATIO: 1000 : 1
NORM:
CT NOTE:
T.O.:
PHASE FAST TIME

NOTES: 1) PLUG R CURVE TIMING CAN INTO THE

PHASE TRIP TIMING NO. 1 SOCKET

2) SET PHASE TRIP SOCKET 1 DIAL AT 1

PU = 0.68 X 1000 = 680 AMPS
RESISTOR SIZE: 680 AMPS
3) 1 FAST TIME OPERATION
15 CYCLES AT 1.36 AMPS (+ OR - 1 CYCLE)
7 CYCLES AT 2.72 AMPS (+ OR - 1 CYCLE)

291

Neutral Settings on Recloser

--------------------------------------------------------------------------STATION: MILFD
POSITION: 47316
SHEET#: 3
EQUIPMENT: VWE RECLOSER ON DC 8103
SCHEME: OHRCL

FUNCTION: OVERCURRENT
RELAY TYPE: ME RECL - 6 CURVE
PT RATIO:
0:1
CT RATIO: 1000 : 1
NORM:
CT NOTE:
T.O.:
NEUTRAL TIME DELAY NOTES: 1) PLUG 6 CURVE TIMING CAN INTO THE
GROUND TRIP TIMING NO. 2 SOCKET
2) SET GROUND TRIP SWITCH TO NORMAL
PU = 0.80 X 1000 = 800 AMPS
RESISTOR SIZE: 800 AMPS
3) 3 TIME DELAY OPERATIONS
143 CYCLES AT 1.60 AMPS (+ OR - 14 CYCLES)
46 CYCLES AT 3.20 AMPS (+ OR - 4 CYCLES)
--------------------------------------------------------------------------STATION: MILFD
POSITION: 47316
SHEET#: 4
EQUIPMENT: VWE RECLOSER ON DC 8103
SCHEME: OHRCL
FUNCTION: OVERCURRENT
RELAY TYPE: ME RECL - 4 CURVE
PT RATIO:
0:1
CT RATIO: 1000 : 1
NORM:
CT NOTE:
T.O.:
NEUTRAL FAST TIME
NOTES: 1) PLUG 4 CURVE TIMING CAN INTO THE
GROUND TRIP TIMING NO. 1 SOCKET
2) SET GROUND TRIP SOCKET 1 DIAL AT 1
PU = 0.80 X 1000 = 800 AMPS
RESISTOR SIZE: 800 AMPS
3) 1 FAST TIME OPERATION
12 CYCLES AT 1.60 AMPS (+ OR - 1 CYCLE)
4 CYCLES AT 3.20 AMPS (+ OR - 1 CYCLE)

292

Reclosing Setting on Recloser

--------------------------------------------------------------------------STATION: MILFD
POSITION: 47316
SHEET#: 5
EQUIPMENT: VWE RECLOSER ON DC 8103
SCHEME: OHRCL

FUNCTION: RECLOSING
RELAY TYPE: ME RECL - RECLOSING
PT RATIO:
0:1
CT RATIO: 1000 : 1
NORM:
CT NOTE:
T.O.:
1ST - 0 SEC
2ND - 30 SEC
3RD - 30 SEC

NOTE: SET RECLOSING SWITCH IN

NORMAL RECLOSING POSITION

LOCKOUT DIAL = 4 OPERATIONS

RESET DELAY TIMING PLUG = 45 SEC
Phase Neutral and Reclosing Setting on Form 5 Control
--------------------------------------------------------------------------STATION: MILFD
POSITION: 47316
SHEET#: 2
EQUIPMENT: VWE RECLOSER ON DC 8103
SCHEME: OHRCL

FUNCTION: OVERCURRRENT
RELAY TYPE: FORM5 (SHEET 2 OF 7)
PT RATIO:
0:1
CT RATIO:
0:1
NORM:
CT NOTE:
T.O.:
NORMAL ALT1 ALT2 ALT3 PHASE PROFILE|NORMAL ALT1 ALT2 ALT3
GROUND PROFILE
OPERATIONS TO LOCKOUT:4
|OPERATIONS TO LOCKOUT:4
NORMAL PU = 0.68 X 1000 = 680 AMPS |NORMAL PU = 0.60 X 1000 = 600
AMPS
ALT1 PU = 0.68 X 1000 = 680 AMPS |ALT1 PU = 0.60 X 1000 = 600 AMPS
ALT2 PU = 0.68 X 1000 = 680 AMPS |ALT2 PU = 0.60 X 1000 = 600 AMPS
ALT3 PU = 0.68 X 1000 = 680 AMPS |ALT3 PU = 0.60 X 1000 = 600 AMPS
TCC1 = KYLE_105
|TCC1 = KYLE_106
TCC2, TCC3, TCC4 = KYLE_133
|TCC2, TCC3, TCC4 = KYLE_136
HOT LINE TAG = KYLE_105
|HOT LINE TAG = KYLE_106
FAST TRIPS DISABLED = KYLE_133 |FAST TRIPS DISABLED = KYLE_136
1ST RECLOSE INTERVAL: 20 SEC. |1ST RECLOSE INTERVAL: 20 SEC.
2ND RECLOSE INTERVAL: 30 SEC. |2ND RECLOSE INTERVAL: 30 SEC.
3RD RECLOSE INTERVAL: 30 SEC. |3RD RECLOSE INTERVAL: 30 SEC.
RESET TIME FOR PHASE AND NEUTRAL: 45 SEC

293

294

Appendix B: Circuit Modeling

B.1 Circuit Modeling Verification
The circuit was modeled using CC, CP, and VDC. Based on actual circuit-measured data
taken from a circuit with a similar composition of load (Davis, Krups, and Diedzic 1983) as
the Milford Circuit DC 8103, equations, B.1 and B.2 were developed for the summer period
when the ambient temperature ranged from 80F to 90F. The resultant change in real power
P and reactive power Q for the range of source voltage -2.8% (119.5 V) to 0% (122.9 V) to
+4.2% (128.0 V) was
%P
= 1.26
%V

Equation B.1

%Q
= 4.66 .
%V

Equation B.2

and

To see which of the three model simulations best agrees with the measured circuit data, tests 7
and 8 were repeated for 95% primary voltage and HL conditions. By viewing the line current
data of Table B-1 and comparing the differences between the actual and simulated values for
each load model in Table B-2, it can be seen that the CC and VDC models best represent the
load characteristics for the circuit.
To check the accuracy, the actual line currents at Node 0 were subtracted from the simulated
values (shown as ). Then the absolute values of these phase current differences were
summed and divided by three (the number of phases). For example, Test 7 for the CC model
shows an absolute difference of 94. To obtain a percent difference between the actual and
simulated currents, the actual line current magnitudes were summed and divided by three.
This value

I3
3

forms the basis for comparing the deviation

model applied.

with the basis for each

This resulted in 3.9% for the Test 7 CC model. The CP model had a deviation of 12.5%. The
VDC model was slightly better (3.6%) than the CC model. When this process was repeated for
Test 8 at 95% primary voltage, the VDC model had a deviation of only 2%, which is less than
the measurement accuracy of 3%.
The change in real power P and the change in reactive power Q as a function of change in
source voltage V was defined (in (Davis, Krups, and Diedzic 1983) as
%P
%Q
= 1.26% and
= 4.66 .
%V
%V

295

These percent changes in P and Q represent changes in flow at the source for changes in
source voltage from 99.58% (119.5 V) to 106.67% (128.0 V).
To implement the load characteristics into the power flow algorithm, it becomes necessary to
represent the percent changes in P and Q as percent change in current.

S0 = P0+jQ0
Q

S1

+j Q
1
=P

P0

Q0

Figure B-1. Percent change in kilovolt-amperes or current from percent change in P and Q

The three-phase kilovolt-ampere flow S is proportional to the phase circuit I. Therefore, the
percent change in current (I) for a 1% change in voltage is equal to the percent change in
kilovolt-amperes, or
% S = % I =

S1 - S 0
x 100.
S0

For this study, at HL condition, the % I = 1.8% for a 1% change in voltage. The example below
shows how the percent change in current of 1.9% is calculated for the initial values of P0 = 2,000
kW and Q0 = 1,000 kVArs for a 13.2-kV system and a 1% change in voltage at the source.
S0 = 2236 kVA

S1

79
22

4.66% = 46.6 kVar = Q

A
kV

0 =26.56
P0 = 2000 kW

1=
27.33

Q0 = 1000 kVar

1.26% = 25.2 kW = P

Figure B-2. Percent change in kilovolt-amperes or current

296

%S =

I1 =

I0 =

S1 - S 0
2279 - 2236
x 100 =
x 100 = 1.9%
S0
2236

2279 kVA
3 13.2 kV

2236 kVA

3 13.2 kV

%I =

= 99.68A

= 97.80A

I1 - I 0
99.68 - 97.80

x 100 =
x 100 = 1.9%
I0
97.80

B.2 Load Imbalance

As previously noted, a 100% load imbalance occurs at any node at which a line-to-line load or
line-to-neutral load is connected to the wye-grounded systems. Proof of this statement is
given below.

In Table B-4 (Test 8) at 95% primary voltage and HL conditions with LTC, VR 1, VR 2, and
capacitors 1, 2, and 3 turned on, at Node 22 E, the phase current is 27.153 amperes, which
indicates a line-to-neutral load. Now, from the zero sequence I0, positive sequence I1, and
negative sequence I2 currents of 9.051 A from Table B-4, it can be shown that
IA1 = (IA + IB a + IC a2)/3
= (27.153 0 + 0 + 0)/3
= 9.051 0o

Equation B.3

IA2 = (IA + IB a2 + IC a)/3

= (27.153 0 + 0 + 0)/3

= 9.051 0

Equation B.4

IA0 = (IA + IB + IC)/3

= (27.153 0 + 0 + 0)/3
= 9.051 0

Equation B.5

Furthermore,
IB1 = IA1 a2 = 9.051 -120

Equation B.6

IC1 = IA1 a = 9.051 120

Equation B.7

IB2 = IA1 a = 9.051 120

Equation B.8

IC2 = IA1 a2 = 9.051 -120

Equation B.9

IA0 = IB0 = ICO = 9.051 0

Equation B.10

297

and
IA = IA1 + IA2 + IA0
= 9.051 0 + 9.051 0 + 9.051 0

= 27.153 0 .

Equation B.11

The percent unbalanced current is then calculated from equations B.3 and B.4, or
I A2
9.051
x 100 =
x 100 = 100% .
I A1
9.051

Equation B.12

B.3 System Zero Sequence Currents Become Negative Sequence Currents on

the Generator Windings
The zero sequence currents for each test are given in Table B-3. The values range from 45.43
A for Test 2 up to 50.24 A for Test 8. Because most small synchronous machines are wye
connected with an ungrounded neutral and the output terminals of these machines are
normally connected to delta-wye transformers with the high-side wye grounded, there is no
problem with these zero sequence current magnitudes if interconnected to the power system.
For machines operating in an islanded mode with a delta-wye high-side transformer and a
solidly grounded neutral, high zero sequence currents on the high side will appear as negative
sequence currents on the machine windings. This is a very serious problem because it results
in 100% negative sequence currents in the generator windings.

The zero sequence relays in the neutral at the substation are set to trip at current levels higher
than the phase currents to ensure the neutral relay does not trip for single-phase switching
operations on the circuit. But a time delay could be added to permit a lower neutral relay trip
setting (to ignore single-phase switching conditions and maintain selectivity) so it becomes
more sensitive to line-to-ground faults.
It will be shown that 100-A rated output current (on Phase A only) on the 13.2 kV on the high
side of the transformer of a generating unit results in 33.34 A of zero sequence current on the
load side of the generator step-up transformer. This is a common value of zero sequence
currents. This produces a negative sequence current of 916 A on the generator windings, or a
100% current imbalance or
I2
916A
% =
x 100 = 100% .
I1
916A

298

IAG = 1587 A 120o

IA

100A +120o

7620 V
IAG
277 V

480 V

120o

916A
IAB = 1587 A 120

- IBG = 1587 A 120o

ICG

B 0o LOAD

916A
C

IBG

B
C
Step-up Transformer

Generator

Figure B-3. Zero sequence current on load side

becomes negative sequence current to the generator

V1
N1
7620
or
=
= 15.875, where V1 is the load-side voltage and V2 is the
V2
480
N2
generator terminal voltage. The turns ratio is 15.875.
Let,

By applying symmetrical components to the load side,

IA = IA1 + IA2 + IA0 = 100 A +120

Equation B.13

IA1 = (IA + IB a + IC a2)/3

Equation B.14

Equation B.15

Equation B.16

IAG1 = (IAG + IBG a + ICG a2)/3,

Equation B.17

IAG2 = (IAG + IBG a2 + ICG a)/3,

Equation B.18

(100 + 120 + 0 + 0)/3

= 33.34 + 120
IA2 = (IA + IB a2 + IC a)/3
= 33.34 + 120 + 0 + 0
and
IA0 = (IA + IB + IC)/3
= 33.34 + 120 + 0 + 0
3 IA0 = 100 amperes.

Applying symmetrical components to the generator side,

299

and
IAG0 = (IAG + IBG + ICG)/3.

Equation B.19

Substituting the rated phase current from the generator into the three equations above results in:
IAG1 = (1,587 A + 120 + 1,587 A -60 a + 0)/3,

Equation B.20

IAG2 = (1,587 A + 120 + 1,587 A -60 a2 + 0)/3,

Equation B.21

IAG0 = (1,587 A + 120 + 1,587 A -60 + 0)/3.

Equation B.22

and

Note: -IBG in Figure B-3 shows the current flow path, but polarity on IBG must be the
opposite direction +IBG for correct symmetrical component calculation (i.e. -IBG = 1,587 120
IBG = 1,587 -60).
IAG1 = 3

IAG

1587 2749
=
90 o = 916 90 o
3
3

a IBG

120 o
-60o

a = 120 o

IBG
Figure B-4. Determining IAG1

300

IAG2 = 3

1587 2749
o
o
150 = 916 150
=
3
3
IAG

120o

a2 IBG

a2 = 240o

- 60o

Note:
Notice the negative sequence current
is equal to the positive sequence
current or 100% load imbalance.

IBG

Figure B-5. Determining IAG2

IAG

120o
- 60o

IBG

IAG0 = 0 because there is no ground on the generator

wye connection.

Figure B-6. Determining IAG0

301

The rated power for the generator is

3 VL-L IL

Prated generator =

Equation B.23

3 (13.2 kV) (100 A) = 2,286 kVA machine rating,

=
and the rated current is
Irated generator =

2286 kVA

3 480V

= 2749A full-load rated current, or IAG1.

The percent unbalance loading based on machine rating is

I AG2
916A
x100 =
x 100 = 33.3%.
I AG1
2749A
For a balanced load, IAG = IBG =ICG, and
IAG1 = (IAG + IBG a + ICG a2)/3,
IAG1 = (2,749 +90 + 2,749 + 90 + 2,749 + 90)/3,
and
IAG1 = 2,749 A 90.
Even though the rated output on the high side of the transformer is 100 A, only 33.34 A of
I2
% on the
zero sequence current (on the high side) causes a 100% unbalanced current
I1
generator, which has a rated generator currency of 2,747 A per phase. The negative sequence
current of 916 A is 33% of the generator machine rating (2,749 A) current.
This negative sequence current of 916 A will cause the generator negative sequence relay to
trip the unit because it is common to set this relay to 10% of the machine rating. Even with
33.4 A of single-phase load, which is one-third of the 100 A of rated phase current on the high
side, the negative sequence relay will trip the unit. Notice that the generating unit could only
run at 10% of full rated output (or 30 A divided by 300 A full-rated three-phase capacity)
without tripping.

302

Table B-1. Simulation Summary Data for Tests 7 and 8 at 95% Voltage

and HL Conditions and a Comparison of Modeling Results

for CC, CP, and VDC

Node 00

Test No.
7

Pri. Volt
Load
%
Type
95
CC
Cap (1) 900 kVAr
Cap (2) 900 kVAr
Cap (3) 1200 kVAr
95
CP
Cap (1) 900 kVAr
Cap (2) 900 kVAr
Cap (3) 1200 kVAr
95
VDC
Cap (1) 900 kVAr
Cap (2) 900 kVAr
Cap (3) 1200 kVAr
95
CC
VR (1) 32, 14, 32
VR (2) 32, 10, 32
Cap (1) 900 kVAr
Cap (2) 900 kVAr
Cap (3) 1200 kVAr
95
CP
VR (1) 32, 8, 32
VR (2) 32, 4, 32
Cap (1) 900 kVAr
Cap (2) 900 kVAr
Cap (3) 1200 kVAr
95
VDC
VR (1) 32, 22, 32
VR (2) 32, 15, 32
Cap (1) 900 kVAr
Cap (2) 900 kVAr
Cap (3) 1200 kVAr

LTC Tap
/ Reg
Tap
IA
15
807.02

Lowest 3 Voltage

Lowest
1
Voltage

Highest

Highest

kW Losses/ & Total

kVAr Losses/ & Total

IB
736.28

IC
908.03

VA
109.79

VB
120.08

VC
108.81

109.05

I2/I1 %
100.05

V2/V1 %
3.32

A
210.93

B
20.38
459.78

C
228.47

A
1119.86

B
C
820.68 1369.59
3310.13

16

871.31

720.56

1037.24

108.43

124.00

102.64

102.89

100.04

5.15

204.93

-31.59
592.63

419.29

1392.44

729.90 1982.90
4105.24

14

756.47

723.87

844.61

110.88

118.45

110.72

110.79

100.05

2.61

190.80

40.20
401.49

170.49

953.41

811.06 1162.98
2927.45

15

828.54

744.03

928.42

114.70

122.11

111.24

110.46

100.05

3.08

221.99

16.61
482.64

244.04

1205.74

850.27 1447.40
3503.41

16

866.95

723.58

1038.01

115.00

124.94

106.69

105.38

100.04

4.33

200.30

-18.75
585.36

403.81

1371.63

751.93 1988.70
4112.26

15

801.31

756.68

888.74

115.48

121.15

113.13

112.50

100.05

2.52

215.99

38.73
448.11

193.39

1092.14

894.21 1295.33
3281.68

303

Table B-2. Comparison of Line Currents for Simulated and Actual Measurements
for Each Load Model and Each Test 7 and 8
Test
No.

Primary
Voltage

95%

Load
Type

CC

Voltage Regulation
Method

LTC, CAP 1, CAP 2,

CAP 3

Node 0
Line Amperes
Simulated Actual
807
794
IA
736
764
IB
908
855
IC

95%

CP

LTC, CAP 1, CAP 2, CAP 3

95%

VDC

LTC, CAP 1, CAP 2, CAP 3

95%

CC

LTC, VR 1, VR 2, CAP 1,
CAP 2, CAP 3

95%

CP

LTC, VR 1, VR 2, CAP 1,
CAP 2, CAP 3

95%

VDC

LTC, VR 1, VR 2, CAP 1,
CAP 2, CAP 3

I 3
3

794
764
855

= 804,

801
757
889

I 3

794
764
855

= 804,

867
724
1038

I 3

794
764
855

= 804,

829
744
928

I 3

794
764
855

= 804,

757
724
845

IA
IB
IC

304

IA
IB
IC

I 3

IA
IB
IC

= 804,

871
721
1037

IA
IB
IC

IA
IB
IC

I 3

794
764
855

= 804,

Line Amperes
Difference
() Amps
%
+13
-28
+53

94
=
3
3

3.9

+77
-43
182

302
=
3
3

12.5

-37
-40
-10

87
=
3
3

3.6

+35
-20
+73

128
=
3
3

5.3

+73
-40
183

296
=
3
3

12.3

+7
-7
+34

48
=
3
3

2.0

Table B-3. Sequence Currents for Each Test

Substation Secondary Bus
Sequence Currents*
Amps
Test
No.
1
1
2
2
3

Primary
Voltage
95%
105%
95%
105%
95%

Load
HL
HL
HL
HL
HL

105%

HL

95%

HL

105%

HL

95%

HL

105%

HL

95%

HL

105%

HL

95%

HL

105%

HL

95%

HL

105%

HL

Voltage Regulation
No LTC
No LTC
LTC + 16
LTC + 1
LTC + 16
VR 1, 32, 32, 32
LTC + 3
VR 1, 32, 20, 32
LTC + 16
VR 1, 32, 32, 32
VR 2, 32, 23, 32
LTC + 3
VR 1, 32, 20, 32
VR 2, 32, 11, 32
LTC + 16
CAP 1
LTC + 1
CAP 2
LTC + 16
CAP 1, CAP 2
LTC + 1
CAP 1, CAP 2
LTC + 15
CAP 1, 2, 3
LTC + 1
CAP 1, 2, 3
LTC + 15
VR 1, 32, 14, 32
VR 2, 32, 10, 32
CAP 1, 2, 3
LTC + 1
VR 1, 32, 4, 32
VR 2, 32, 7, 32
CAP 1, 2, 3

I0

I1

I2

45.46
45.44
45.43
45.43
45.86

799.94
780.11
780.12
780.13
796.86

45.21
45.08
45.08
45.08
45.72

47.37

794.95

47.34

45.82

799.26

45.70

47.61

796.96

47.69

45.34

760.27

45.87

45.34

760.18

45.87

45.19

744.66

47.59

45.18

744.49

47.59

45.69

724.07

49.55

45.67

723.50

49.54

48.82

738.71

52.76

50.24

736.56

53.90

*Note: The sequence currents are measured at the secondary of the transformer to indicate
the magnitude of zero sequence current to be used to calculate the neutral relay settings.

305

Table B-4. Simulation Data by Node for Test 8 at 95% HL with LTC, VR 1, VR 2,
and Capacitors 1, 2, and 3 Regulation Methods Implemented (CC Model)

Phase A
221.99

KW Losses:
Phase B
16.61

LTC Tap
15

Local Name
Amps A
======Node 0======
MILFD8103
828.5427
======Node 1======
Node 1
734.6588
======Node 2======
======Node 3======
Node 3
622.6234
Node 3 N
602.6146
Node 3 E
20.145
======Node 4======
Node 4
602.6207
Node 4 E
57.6258
Node 4 N
552.4512
======Node 5======
Node 5
51.8035
Node 5 E
49.3877
Node 5 N
3.2219
======Node 6======
Node 6
38.6448
======Node 7======
Node 7
533.9893
Node 7 E
370.1802
Node 7 N
90.3277
Node 7 W
81.0404
======Node 8======
Node 8
370.1825
======Node 9======
Node 9
370.1834
======Node 10======
Node 10
0
======Node 11======
Node 11
239.1742
Node 11 N
167.2796
Node 11 E
76.7785
======Node 12======
Node 12
37.5633
======Node 13======
Node 13
50.0483
======Node 14======
Node 14
61.5139
======Node 15======
Node 15
61.5159

Phase C
244.04

Phase A
1205.74

KVAR Losses:
Phase B
850.27

VR 1 A Tap
32

VR 1 B Tap
14

VR 1 C Tap
32

Amps B

Amps C

Cust Volts A

Cust Volts B

Phase C
1447.4

744.0258

928.4221

114.0001

114.0001

659.7188

823.2208

123.5558

124.6471

573.6905
562.2695
11.5252

685.2835
673.3692
11.923

118.8883
118.0738
118.8822

122.7722
122.4304
122.7727

553.9184
117.3591
437.5563

673.3727
87.9715
589.768

117.9749
117.9713
117.8738

122.3914
122.3544
122.3733

112.1439
112.1465
0.0186

77.187
68.3351
9.8124

117.9394
117.937
117.9387

121.8941
121.8709
121.8952

39.825

38.713

117.8053

121.4029

425.5483
322.0644
48.7249
83.8447

579.9824
363.0935
107.2539
114.1217

114.3333
114.3225
114.33
114.3293

121.7128
121.709
121.7336
121.7005

312.0715

363.0953

114.0694

121.6228

312.0719

363.0959

119.0288

123.7469

116.5839

123.0896

154.4999
62.2984
94.8149

183.0159
150.2312
43.9618

114.7319
114.7044
114.7126

122.7623
122.7646
122.7557

40.2759

37.6143

114.5085

122.7774

53.442

49.2189

114.426

122.1848

60.0707

44.4666

114.3284

122.5585

60.0719

44.4681

119.7258

124.3025

306

======Node 16======
Node 16
58.7012
Node 16 E
40.1441
Node 16 W
18.5601
======Node 17======
Node 17
0.002
======Node 18======
Node 18
0
======Node 19======
Node 19
0.4804
======Node 20======
Node 20
48.058
Node 20 W
26.9459
Node 20 N
21.113
======Node 21======
Node 21
21.1279
Node 21 N
19.5842
Node 21 E
1.5578
======Node 22======
Node 22
1.5647
Node 22 E
0.0064
Node 22 S
0.4156
Node 22 N
1.1561
======Node 23======
======Node 24======
Node 24
0
======Node 25======
Node 25
734.6591
Node 25 W
96.1194
Node 25 E
638.7186
======Node 26======
Node 26
31.4495
Node 26 E
0
Node 26 W
0
Node 26 S
31.4495
======Node 27======
Node 27
0.6914
======Node 28======
Node 28
0
======Node 29======
Node 29
0

55.1948
55.2021
0.0147

41.1831
32.9683
8.2176

119.6476
119.6339
119.6416

124.2664
124.2491
124.2715

0.0025

0.0024

119.502

124.0212

1.535

0.0033

123.6049

119.4087

25.0014
0
25.0019

110.0025
0
110.003

114.4173
114.4173
114.492

122.2138
0
122.1791

23.5647
21.9699
1.6084

92.8119
56.157
36.794

114.6153
114.6153
114.6235

122.1214
122.1214
122.1199

0.4098
0.0071
0.4137
0

28.8641
27.1533
1.7122
0

114.6728
114.6955
114.6744
114.2154

122.1126
122.1091
122.1114
0

0.0076

659.719
83.4757
576.8384

823.2209
130.2754
693.052

123.3711
123.3665
123.1598

124.5002
124.4941
124.4218

25.1278
0
0
25.1278

86.48
46.5381
0.4618
39.4887

122.9961
0
0
122.9867

124.2321
0
0
124.2275

0.7947

0.003

122.9003

124.2241

1.586

123.4408

======Feeder Path Trace======

Distance (1000mCustvoltsA
CustVoltsB
CustVoltsC
%CapacityA
%CapacityB
0.1034
114.0001
114.0001
114.0001
23.6916
31.4756
0.2378
123.6421
124.7267
123.8458
21.0044
29.0625
0.3218
123.5558
124.6471
123.7504
-9.4872
1.6813
0.3218
123.5558
124.6471
123.7504
26.8996
34.3563
0.5288
123.3711
124.5002
123.5386
26.8996
34.3563
0.7648
123.1598
124.4218
123.3099
36.4459
42.6031
1.3788
122.6107
124.2194
122.7203
36.4458
42.6031

307

2.583
2.666
3.206
3.429
3.716
5.754
6.798
6.9262
7.0603
7.2034
7.3784
7.7094
7.9064
7.9064
8.2464
8.4174
8.8571
9.4411
9.6082
10.0174
10.3374
10.5075
10.8129
10.9501
11.0961
11.6971
12.0081
12.0291
12.0292
12.2671
12.3884
12.5244
12.6619
12.7589
12.9495
13.0549
13.3859
13.6541
13.9121
14.1148
14.5219
15.0699
15.2599
15.4019
15.5403
15.8453
16.1153
17.4453
17.6035
17.8465
18.2915
18.4488

121.5436
121.4705
121.0131
120.825
120.5835
118.8883
118.0738
117.9749
117.8738
117.7663
117.6352
117.3887
117.243
117.243
116.9892
116.8617
116.5373
116.1091
115.9912
115.7046
115.4816
115.3628
115.1505
115.0555
114.9547
114.5436
114.3333
114.3225
114.3225
114.2006
114.1384
114.0694
118.9621
118.9155
118.824
118.7736
118.6107
118.4865
118.3656
118.2716
118.0595
117.7751
117.6769
117.6053
117.5361
117.3817
117.2443
116.5956
116.5257
116.4182
116.2227
116.1534

123.832
123.8056
123.62
123.5443
123.4475
122.7722
122.4304
122.3914
122.3733
122.3538
122.33
122.2846
122.2573
122.2573
122.2113
122.1883
122.1278
122.0486
122.0231
121.9659
121.9213
121.8978
121.8583
121.8415
121.824
121.7511
121.7128
121.709
121.709
121.6659
121.6439
121.6228
123.7245
123.7084
123.6769
123.6594
123.605
123.5557
123.5085
123.4708
123.4005
123.3105
123.2793
123.2547
123.2329
123.1853
123.1434
123.0812
123.0682
123.0483
123.0111
122.9981

308

121.5709
121.4921
120.9913
120.785
120.5199
118.6597
117.7378
117.6237
117.5038
117.3759
117.2198
116.925
116.75
116.75
116.4532
116.3046
115.9235
115.419
115.2754
114.9215
114.6456
114.5002
114.2381
114.1201
113.9944
113.4784
113.2125
113.2014
113.2014
113.075
113.0107
112.9367
117.7881
117.7392
117.6433
117.5903
117.4322
117.3054
117.1863
117.0929
116.9433
116.74
116.6696
116.6173
116.5651
116.4533
116.3557
115.7992
115.7365
115.641
115.4664
115.4051

36.4454
36.4446
38.0481
38.0477
38.0476
38.0474
40.0383
40.0377
45.0297
45.1101
45.11
45.2256
45.3336
45.3335
45.3335
45.3333
45.5525
45.5522
46.5649
46.5648
46.5885
46.5883
46.5882
46.588
46.5879
46.7157
46.8667
63.1661
63.1661
63.1661
63.166
63.1659
64.8529
65.0307
65.0527
65.0905
65.0904
66.2643
66.2641
66.4581
66.458
66.4578
66.5157
67.0263
67.0262
67.0261
67.0259
67.0258
69.1939
69.1938
69.3132
69.313

42.7524
42.7622
42.7622
42.8685
42.9016
42.9164
44.0528
44.8837
56.4621
56.462
56.462
56.4619
56.4618
56.4617
56.4617
56.4616
56.4616
56.4911
56.4909
56.9883
56.9882
56.9881
57.2977
57.5374
57.6571
57.6571
57.6569
67.9538
67.9538
67.9538
67.9537
68.9481
69.5867
69.5867
69.6087
69.6086
69.6086
69.6085
69.6084
69.6083
69.7846
70.0693
70.0691
70.069
70.6868
70.6868
70.6867
74.9083
74.9076
74.9076
74.9075
74.9074

18.6148
18.7818
19.1128
19.4183
20.0144
20.3923
20.7652
20.9525
21.4666
21.7311
21.9173
22.0473
22.1883
22.3543
22.4763
22.8133
22.9733
23.1957
23.3361
23.3575
23.5515
23.7088
24.0118
24.1251
24.3851
24.6292
24.8032
25.0212
25.1302
25.3432
26.3495
26.5235
26.9295
27.0567
27.3222
27.3813
27.6828
27.8391
27.9641
28.1491
28.4312
28.6137
28.983
29.633
29.925
30.264
30.904
31.183
31.4215
31.6365
31.7505
31.8455
32.0297

116.0804
116.0068
115.8612
115.7205
115.4673
115.3085
115.1688
115.0971
114.9004
114.7988
114.7319
114.7044
114.6741
114.6384
114.6142
114.5463
114.5484
114.5496
114.5427
114.5417
114.5322
114.5248
114.5108
114.5055
114.4941
114.4822
114.4753
114.4659
114.4612
114.4633
114.4243
114.4166
114.395
114.3887
114.3686
114.3621
114.3284
119.7117
119.698
119.6779
119.6476
119.6339
119.607
119.5614
119.5436
119.5336
119.5189
119.5178
119.5173
119.5183
119.5191
119.5177
119.5114

122.9844
122.9707
122.9436
122.9196
122.8774
122.8579
122.8272
122.8121
122.7715
122.7509
122.7623
122.7646
122.7673
122.7703
122.7716
122.7752
122.7649
122.7507
122.7479
122.7474
122.7435
122.74
122.7334
122.7309
122.7247
122.719
122.7138
122.7074
122.7044
122.6909
122.6322
122.6221
122.5991
122.5915
122.5765
122.5736
122.5585
124.2937
124.2872
124.2782
124.2664
124.2491
124.2135
124.1497
124.1195
124.0781
123.9977
124.0023
124.0062
124.0089
124.0102
124.0117
124.0156

309

115.3405
115.2757
115.1473
115.0395
114.9176
114.8363
114.7579
114.7215
114.621
114.5703
114.5207
114.4802
114.4374
114.3869
114.3501
114.25
114.2008
114.135
114.0953
114.0893
114.0346
113.9903
113.905
113.8731
113.8002
113.734
113.687
113.6295
113.6006
113.5454
113.3672
113.3381
113.2762
113.2569
113.2282
113.2252
113.2109
118.5691
118.5641
118.5565
118.5438
118.5441
118.5448
118.5465
118.5476
118.5499
118.5547
118.5297
118.5092
118.4909
118.4812
118.477
118.4756

69.3129
69.3128
69.3127
69.3125
74.42
74.4197
76.2023
76.2021
76.202
76.2017
76.2016
83.3553
83.3552
83.3552
84.0002
84.0002
91.0257
91.0257
91.0256
91.0496
91.0496
91.1444
91.1443
91.1441
91.2696
91.2694
91.6332
91.6331
91.633
93.7495
93.7494
93.7487
93.7486
93.8795
93.8794
93.8792
93.8792
94.5939
94.1593
94.1592
94.1591
95.8614
95.9843
96.1026
96.4791
97.7923
98.0387
98.0383
98.1065
98.3796
98.4935
98.4935
98.4934

74.9074
74.9073
74.9073
74.9072
78.4082
79.167
79.1669
79.1668
79.2307
79.2306
84.6269
93.8012
93.8011
93.801
93.8009
93.8008
93.8006
93.8005
93.8003
93.8244
93.8244
93.8243
93.8243
93.8241
93.8241
93.824
93.8239
93.8238
93.9099
93.9098
93.9098
93.9094
93.9093
93.9091
93.9091
94.0228
94.0228
94.5492
94.111
94.2556
94.508
94.3091
94.3089
94.3087
94.3082
94.308
94.3078
99.9981
99.9985
99.9987
99.999
99.9991
99.9992

Phase A
5998.63

kVA Flow SOC

Phase B
5386.73

Phase C
6721.75

VR 2 A Tap
32

VR 2 B Tap
10

VR 2 C Tap
32

Cust Volts C Seq Amps 0

Released Capacity
Phase A
Phase B
Phase C
6.55
8.84
6.36
7.17

Seq Amps 1

Seq Amps 2

I2/I1 (%)

Seq Volts 0

Seq Volts 1 Seq Volts 2

114.0001

55.0565

833.1159

59.4993

7.1418

7239.8662

0.1059

123.7504

48.8179

738.7138

52.7574

7.1418

0.4098

7873.8943

42.2513

118.6597
117.7378
118.6573

34.2333
33.4637
2.7552

626.6931
612.2335
14.5262

39.1943
40.1371
2.8859

6.2542
6.5558
19.8671

72.9172
85.5513
73.0231

7627.4228
7583.3448
7627.2546

114.1174
127.8616
114.1589

117.6237
117.6249
117.5038

36.2142
18.2699
50.857

609.4338
87.0192
526.0247

41.6729
19.2667
46.8835

6.838
22.1408
8.9128

87.2579
85.6853
90.0076

7577.9977
7577.1623
7572.923

129.5801
129.6009
131.3654

117.6675
117.6747
117.6499

18.7746
20.0504
2.8653

79.5263
75.5901
4.3419

19.8846
21.1139
2.9142

25.0038
27.9321
67.1179

65.6593
64.5089
66.1558

7567.6039
7567.2157
7567.2383

129.5358
129.4562
129.7394

118.0132

0.1811

39.0583

0.6485

1.6602

35.0707

7561.6856

125.5384

113.2125
113.2014
113.1866
113.1848

50.5017
16.9106
28.4113
10.0303

512.5785
351.6674
76.8408
92.9083

47.365
15.4637
25.1711
11.8693

9.2405
4.3973
32.7574
12.7752

188.9092
189.062
190.4583
189.3063

7392.3764
7391.8311
7392.1802
7391.44

196.3087
196.4311
196.8204
196.3231

112.9367

19.9915

348.328

18.7552

5.3844

192.8739

7379.0356

199.3641

117.8575

19.9915

348.328

18.7552

5.3844

152.7909

7633.059

147.8634

115.7925

177.6127

7523.7794

169.5996

114.5207
114.4802
114.5306

27.8802
33.0006
18.1433

191.9652
126.5865
70.9456

23.6843
32.1058
15.5961

12.3378
25.3628
21.9831

201.5767
203.2963
201.1182

7450.8418
7449.4322
7450.5149

184.3941
184.7586
184.3036

114.6636

1.0233

38.4793

0.956

2.4844

198.1103

7449.5857

185.0702

112.5295

1.5608

50.8907

1.4428

2.8351

226.6332

7389.3299

209.4912

113.2109

5.8404

55.3422

5.127

9.2642

231.6821

7409.7747

196.8352

118.5772

5.8404

55.3422

5.127

9.2642

175.4698

7674.5193

132.419

0 NA

310

118.5438
118.5441
118.5394

5.762
6.4845
5.4573

51.6853
42.7659
8.9227

4.9805
6.6492
5.2855

9.6362
15.5479
59.2369

174.758
174.2237
175.0594

7671.4176
7670.7728
7671.3023

132.3578
132.2688
132.4698

118.4747

0.0023

169.8666

7661.7073

131.9398

118.7155

0.5114

0.5109 NA

5128.758

2650.3923

0.1601

0 NA

2527.8226

112.0482
0
111.8079

25.6513
8.982
28.4826

60.9544
0
51.9765

25.2617
41.4437
0 NA
29.6231
56.9932

242.4023
2422.1572
248.7786

7379.2661
0
7374.8441

216.0309
0
219.1163

111.3929
111.3929
111.3767

23.03
11.3733
11.7106

45.7673
32.4807
13.3076

24.0853
12.4718
11.7767

52.6255
38.3975
88.4961

260.5602
260.5602
261.0967

7367.1183
7367.1183
7366.9025

224.4831
224.4831
224.7192

111.2784
111.2374
111.2734
0

9.337
9.0519
0.4259
9.337

10.2756
9.0484
0.8465
0

9.2633
90.1485
9.0526
100.0456
0.4403
52.0152
0 NA

264.4658
265.8927
264.6239
76.1436

7365.61
7365.1032
7365.5058
0

226.1654
226.776
226.2304
0

110.4629

2338.3935

123.5386
123.5279
123.3099

48.818
14.1559
37.0466

738.714
103.2862
635.6931

7.1418
13.3744
6.1283

3.6133
3.8854
6.7013

7862.3871
7861.9354
7851.4117

43.5241
43.618
46.75

122.3175
122.2857
122.3169
122.3

19.4346
0
0
4.0966

47.6817
0
0
32.0209

19.5383
40.9765
15.5124 NA
0.1539 NA
4.2183
13.1736

38.9384
0
0
39.3434

7822.8104
0
0
7822.1417

60.8002
2588.6705
2589.3317
61.0528

121.86

0.2209

0.4938

55.2611

7810.8523

67.7209

121.3932

0.5287 NA

2569.776

0 NA

2613.1221

0.0025 NA
52.7573
13.8139
38.9572

0.2777

311

56.238

V2/V1 (%)

pf A

pf B

pf C

kW Flow A

kW Flow B

kW Flow C

0.0015

0.8584

0.8849

0.8406

5149.1606

4766.8566

5650.2696

0.5366

0.8879

0.9128

0.8763

5122.0445

4770.1754

5674.0669

1.4961
1.6861
1.4967

0.9047
0.9133
0.8616

0.9274
0.933
0.8777

0.8933
0.9015
0.8942

4313.6989
4155.377
131.0445

4171.0642
4090.1585
78.8687

4685.7275
4574.6012
80.3424

1.71
1.7104
1.7347

0.9167
-0.9968
0.8965

0.936
0.9706
0.9249

0.9056
0.99
0.8868

4142.5374
430.3626
3710.6449

4031.3237
885.3978
3145.7893

4559.5452
650.5856
3907.0391

1.7117
1.7108
1.7145

-0.9868
-0.9791
0.858

0.975
0.975
-0.081

0.9965
0.9997
0.8767

382.8852
362.179
20.7062

846.4462
846.4345
0.0117

574.7759
510.4917
64.2842

1.6602

-1

-1

-1

2.6556
2.6574
2.6625
2.6561

0.9148
0.8864
0.9993
0.8719

0.9339
0.8959
-0.7408
0.8705

0.9025
0.8899
0.9812
0.8383

3553.3654
2382.5191
655.4244
513.0646

3073.0376
2230.3426
279.0285
564.1957

3772.1753
2323.1687
756.6251
687.8519

2.7018

0.8872

0.8979

0.8906

2380.7169

2164.8146

2320.9673

1.9371

0.8872

0.8979

0.8906

2380.1093

2165.0119

2320.1343

2.2542

0.014

-0.1051

0.101

2.4748
2.4802
2.4737

0.92
0.8593
0.9945

0.9521
0.8597
0.9868

0.932
0.8538
-0.9626

1604.2112
1047.4059
556.3686

1146.7663
417.5658
729.4639

1241.0627
932.8863
307.7802

2.4843

-1

-1

-1

2.835

-1

-1

-1

2.6564

0.8728

0.8599

0.8593

389.9266

402.0834

274.7443

1.7254

0.8728

0.8599

0.8593

389.8517

402.1026

274.7275

312

1.7253
1.7243
1.7268

0.8735
0.8755
0.8692

0.8611
0.861
-0.098

0.8598
0.8619
0.8514

389.7086
267.0694
122.5788

375.1131
375.1165
0.0114

266.6114
213.9266
52.6708

1.7221

0.0786

0.0777

-0.1562

-0.0012

-0.0016

0.0028

NA

0.8569

-0.2548

10.3257

0.0064

NA

0.9293

3.3855

2.9711

0.8611
0.8602
0.8624

0.8725
0
0.8725

0.8317
0
0.8318

300.7089
168.4344
132.3024

169.3145
0
169.3082

651.1819
0
651.1001

3.0471
3.0471
3.0504

0.8627
0.8581
0.9149

0.8721
0.8677
0.9225

0.8292
0.8043
0.8652

132.6442
122.3268
10.3743

159.397
147.8421
11.5081

544.9446
319.5401
225.2152

3.0706
3.0791
3.0715
NA

0.9123
0.1803
0.8774
0.9209

0.8937
-0.1022
0.8826
0

0.8678
0.8683
0.8593
0

10.3955
-0.0084
2.6557
7.7537

2.8404
0.0056
2.8318
0

177.045
166.6303
10.3979
0

NA

0.5536
0.5548
0.5954

0.8877
0.8613
0.8926

0.9127
0.8621
0.9196

0.8761
0.8588
0.8804

5117.5113
648.6462
4466.9384

4766.5191
568.9836
4194.1674

5668.3741
877.767
4787.3572

0.7772

0.7805

0.8651
0
0
0.8651

0.8701
0
0
0.8701

0.8628
0.8562
0.8614
0.8705

212.5206
0
0
212.5206

172.4914
0
0
172.4914

579.6498
309.537
3.0899
267.0229

0.867

0.9235

0.8599

-0.0702

4.9835

5.3911

0.0016

0.8578

10.4887

2.9275
NA

NA
NA

NA
0

313

kVAR Flow A kVAR Flow B

kVAR Flow C

3077.2811

2508.765

3640.9319

2653.9563

2134.0307

3119.0733

2031.446
1853.4526
77.2185

1682.7564
1578.1536
43.07

2357.103
2196.1263
40.2268

1805.4186
-34.6628
1834.1241

1515.9154
219.5798
1292.804

2135.9344
92.699
2035.8337

-62.8923
-75.2874
12.3951

192.8663
193.01
-0.1436

48.3931
13.1168
35.2763

-289.1261

-307.0551

-290.1482

1569.381
1244.4147
24.4915
288.1546

1176.185
1105.9595
-252.9738
318.9365

1800.4953
1190.9072
148.9699
447.3585

1237.9948

1061.1047

1185.0185

1235.644

1059.7503

1182.8978

-0.0028

-0.0027

-0.0025

683.4916
623.3742
58.5656

368.2371
248.0914
119.7008

482.7818
568.8417
-86.6172

-273.1699

-314.0477

-273.9112

-363.7023

-414.6977

-351.747

218.0912

238.7374

163.5691

217.9555

238.5926

163.5184

314

217.2283
147.3893
69.7442

221.5176
221.5439
-0.1153

158.3322
125.8585
32.4542

-0.0154

-0.02

-0.0175

6.2119

-0.0243

1.3455

177.5406
99.8401
77.671

94.8042
0
94.8264

434.753
0
434.5321

77.7599
73.1979
4.5774

89.4539
84.7146
4.814

367.2787
236.0576
130.505

4.665
-0.0457
1.4522
3.2815

1.4261
-0.0546
1.5085
0

101.3997
95.1758
6.1891
0

-0.0531

2653.9597
382.6578
2256.2813

2134.0345
334.5056
1792.011

3119.0764
523.6688
2578.3209

123.2254
0
0
123.2254

97.73
0
0
97.73

339.5784
186.7663
1.8222
150.99

2.07

3.2

-0.0231

6.2854

315

B.4. Heavy- and Light-Load Base Case Data and Measured Data at Node 01
Table B-5. Summary of HL Base Case
(LTC control only, tap = 14)
[#0 MXAT services included]
Location

Simulated Data

Node 01
Node 01

IA
578.13
VA
125.90
PFA
0.843

Node 01

Phase A
4,622.62

Node 01

Phase A
3,897.94

Node 01

Phase A
2,484.88

Node 01
Node 01

IB
654.17
VB
125.55
PFB
0.843
kVA Flow
Phase B
5,216.17
kW Flow
Phase B
4,399.49
kVAr Flow
Phase B
2,802.29

Measured Data July 17, 2006

IC
636.62
VC
124.98
PFC
0.841

IA
565
VA
126.0

IB
651
VB
126.0

IC
637
VC
126.0

Total
Phase C
5,053.13

14,891.92

Phase C
4,249.92

12,547.35

Phase C
2,735.55

8,020.72

kVAr Losses
Total %
Phase B
Phase C
3095.83
Node 01
1,132.1
1,086.42
38.59%
kW Losses
Total %
Phase A
Phase B
Phase C
670.57
246.56
202.22
221.79
5.34%
Node 01
I0
I1
I2
I2/I1%
23.01
622.96
23.01
3.69
V0
V1
V2
V2/V1%
0.1936
7968.87
33.92
0.4257
Note: All capacitors and line regulators were turned off. The substation primary voltage was set at
100% (120 V). The base case used for the synchronous generator, inverter-based generator, and
induction generator simulations had all three capacitors on one regulator turned on and all generation
turned off. The losses in this case were 5.4%.
Phase A
877.31

316

Phase A
246.56

Phase B
202.22

LTC Tap
14

Local Name
Amps A
======Node 0======
MILFD8103
648.0396
======Node 1======
StPole_MILFD8
578.1287
======Node 2======
======Node 3======
Node 3
481.8032
Node 3 N
465.5588
Node 3 E
16.2788
======Node 4======
Node 4
465.5661
Node 4 E
53.0644
Node 4 N
412.5386
======Node 5======
Node 5
47.2952
Node 5 E
44.7918
Node 5 N
2.5035
======Node 6======
Node 6
0
======Node 7======
Node 7
398.3378
Node 7 E
250.6805
Node 7 N
81.6264
Node 7 W
66.1638
======Node 8======
Node 8
250.683
======Node 9======
Node 9
250.6839
======Node 10======
Node 10
20.4
======Node 11======
Node 11
181.9956
Node 11 N
118.6435
Node 11 E
63.3539
======Node 12======
Node 12
0
======Node 13======
Node 13
0
======Node 14======
Node 14
42.5463
======Node 15======
Node 15
42.5481

Phase C
221.79

Phase A
877.31

Phase B
1132.1

Phase C
1086.42

Phase A
4622.62

VR 1 A Tap
NA

VR 1 B Tap
NA

VR 1 C Tap
NA

Amps B

Amps C

Cust Volts A

Cust Volts B

Cust Volts C

733.271

713.601

120.0001

120.0001

120.0001

654.1653

636.6173

125.9017

125.5546

124.9828

564.0023
552.767
11.2809

523.93
513.7795
10.2472

121.8937
121.1734
121.889

121.6459
120.9197
121.6455

121.6163
121.0038
121.6148

544.3872
126.2385
418.2472

513.7841
80.5565
433.3739

121.0855
121.0701
121.0031

120.8334
120.7819
120.7747

120.9275
120.9227
120.8507

121.2589
121.2666
0.0186

71.1749
63.0488
8.1287

120.8873
120.8773
120.8869

120.142
120.1099
120.1427

120.8823
120.8842
120.868

120.5488

119.378

121.0163

406.7628
282.5334
41.7154
82.7247

425.2631
245.4241
90.1658
89.7199

118.0492
118.0415
118.0364
118.0454

118.635
118.6281
118.6371
118.6206

118.1037
118.0974
118.0811
118.0853

273.7643

245.4261

117.8587

118.469

117.9463

273.7649

245.4268

117.4472

118.0253

117.5559

20.2112

20.2746

115.5999

116.6792

116.3151

152.9444
55.1258
97.8194

140.0598
103.8657
36.195

114.0857
114.066
114.0665

115.7246
115.7222
115.7056

115.4564
115.4317
115.4596

113.7463

115.3602

115.4034

117.8356

118.6261

117.5034

53.1638

27.7177

113.7832

115.4145

114.681

53.1649

27.7191

113.7822

115.4132

114.6804

kW Losses:

kVAr Losses:

317

Node 17
0.0019
======Node 18======
Node 18
0
======Node 19======
Node 19
0.3952
======Node 20======
Node 20
37.9451
Node 20 W
19.3002
Node 20 N
18.6457
======Node 21======
Node 21
18.6604
Node 21 N
17.3276
Node 21 E
1.3462
======Node 22======
Node 22
1.3529
Node 22 E
0.0066
Node 22 S
0.3388
Node 22 N
1.0205
======Node 23======
======Node 24======
Node 24
0
======Node 25======
Node 25
578.129
Node 25 W
82.7048
Node 25 E
495.5384
======Node 26======
Node 26
26.4142
Node 26 E
0
Node 26 W
0
Node 26 S
26.4142
======Node 27======
Node 27
0.6813
======Node 28======
Node 28
0
======Node 29======
Node 29
0

0.0024

0.0022

113.6089

115.1328

114.6841

1.3445

0.0032

114.7666

114.8794

113.2432

26.6195
0
26.62

77.7292
0
77.7296

117.8058
117.8058
117.8475

118.6012
0
118.553

117.2153
0
117.0723

25.3668
23.6725
1.7079

65.2933
37.8338
27.4619

117.9146
117.9146
117.9204

118.4698
118.4698
118.4682

116.8272
116.8272
116.8158

0.411
0.007
0.4147
0

21.7288
20.4099
1.3202
0

117.9554
117.9718
117.9565
117.118

118.4604
118.457
118.4591
0

116.7453
116.7157
116.7418
0

116.1101

654.1655
87.1324
567.2441

636.6175
106.8792
530.0965

125.7425
125.7381
125.5643

125.3385
125.3313
125.1707

124.8545
124.848
124.7026

25.8686
0
0
25.8686

69.1744
36.6633
0.3888
32.1314

125.3649
0
0
125.3562

124.9546
0
0
124.9477

124.0365
123.9562
124.0349
124.0252

0.7658

0.003

125.2701

124.9092

123.7098

1.293

122.477

114.6208

======Feeder Path Trace======

CustVoltsB
CustVoltsC
%CapacityA
%CapacityB
%CapacityC
Distance (1000mCustvoltsA
0.1034
116.4234
116.2687
116.0501
40.3159
32.4661
34.2777
0.2168
125.9662
125.6275
125.0536
37.8356
29.6596
31.5465
0.3008
125.9017
125.5546
124.9828
13.8407
2.5089
5.1241
0.3008
125.9017
125.5546
124.9828
42.4748
34.9089
36.655
0.5078
125.7425
125.3385
124.8545
42.4747
34.9089
36.655
0.7438
125.5643
125.1707
124.7026
50.6927
43.5578
47.2541
1.3578
125.0996
124.7357
124.3115
50.6925
43.5577
47.4227
2.562
124.191
123.8923
123.5481
50.6921
43.7146
47.4224

318

2.645
3.185
3.408
3.695
5.733
6.777
6.9052
7.0393
7.1824
7.3574
7.6884
7.8854
7.8854
8.2254
8.3964
8.8361
9.4201
9.5872
9.9964
10.3164
10.4865
10.7919
10.9291
11.0751
11.6761
11.9871
12.0081
12.0082
12.2461
12.3674
12.5034
12.6409
12.7379
12.9285
13.0339
13.3649
13.6331
13.8911
14.0938
14.5009
15.0489
15.2389
15.3809
15.5193
15.8243
16.0943
17.4243
17.5825
17.8255
18.2705
18.4278
18.5938

124.1284
123.7363
123.5746
123.3667
121.8937
121.1734
121.0855
121.0031
120.9154
120.8081
120.6062
120.4865
120.4865
120.2777
120.1726
119.9043
119.5486
119.4502
119.2101
119.0227
118.9227
118.7436
118.6633
118.578
118.2288
118.0492
118.0415
118.0415
117.9535
117.9086
117.8587
117.3969
117.3617
117.2927
117.2546
117.1317
117.0379
116.9465
116.8754
116.7155
116.5008
116.4266
116.3724
116.32
116.2031
116.0991
115.6043
115.5473
115.4594
115.2994
115.2427
115.1828

123.8344
123.4468
123.2877
123.0835
121.6459
120.9197
120.8334
120.7747
120.712
120.6353
120.49
120.4034
120.4034
120.255
120.1804
119.9879
119.7333
119.6584
119.48
119.3406
119.2667
119.1363
119.0785
119.0175
118.7656
118.635
118.6281
118.6281
118.5502
118.5105
118.469
117.9836
117.954
117.8959
117.8638
117.7635
117.6782
117.5965
117.5319
117.4069
117.2425
117.1856
117.1421
117.1016
117.0129
116.9345
116.6686
116.6314
116.5744
116.4695
116.4325
116.3936

123.4958
123.1639
123.0271
122.8512
121.6163
121.0038
120.9275
120.8507
120.7689
120.6689
120.4802
120.3681
120.3681
120.1788
120.0841
119.8411
119.5193
119.4278
119.2011
119.0243
118.9312
118.7632
118.6874
118.6066
118.2748
118.1037
118.0974
118.0974
118.0255
117.9889
117.9463
117.5131
117.4829
117.4238
117.3911
117.2942
117.2165
117.144
117.0871
117.0003
116.8818
116.8408
116.8104
116.7796
116.714
116.657
116.3121
116.2701
116.2061
116.0892
116.0483
116.0051

319

50.6912
52.0601
52.0598
52.0596
52.0594
53.6757
53.675
58.9514
59.0161
59.016
59.1066
59.1883
59.1882
59.1882
59.1879
59.3508
59.3505
60.131
60.1309
60.152
60.1518
60.1517
60.1514
60.1514
60.2484
60.3644
75.0567
75.0567
75.0567
75.0565
75.0564
75.0563
75.1868
75.2038
75.2311
75.231
76.1338
76.1336
76.2787
76.2786
76.2783
76.3222
76.7063
76.7062
76.7061
76.7059
76.7057
76.29
76.2899
76.391
76.3907
76.3906

43.7247
43.7247
43.8324
43.8643
43.8804
44.9983
45.8321
58.3834
58.3833
58.3832
58.3831
58.383
58.3829
58.3829
58.3827
58.3826
58.4097
58.4094
58.9101
58.9099
58.9098
59.188
59.3977
59.5265
59.5264
59.5261
71.8872
71.8872
71.8872
71.8871
72.7598
72.7597
72.7597
72.7806
72.7805
72.7804
72.7803
72.7802
72.7801
72.9292
73.1781
73.1779
73.1778
73.7591
73.7591
73.759
77.462
75.5126
75.5126
75.5125
75.5123
75.5123

47.4219
47.8681
47.8679
47.8678
47.8677
48.8777
48.8772
56.8782
56.8782
56.8781
56.878
56.8779
56.9812
57.413
57.4847
57.4846
57.4844
57.4842
57.4841
57.4839
57.6858
57.6858
57.6856
57.6856
57.6855
57.6853
75.5797
75.5797
75.5797
75.5796
75.5795
75.5794
75.5794
75.5962
75.5961
76.3121
76.3119
76.6399
76.6398
79.6292
79.629
79.6287
79.6286
79.6285
79.9307
80.0757
80.0756
78.5313
78.604
78.6039
78.7047
78.7047

18.7608
19.0918
19.3973
19.9934
20.3713
20.7442
20.9315
21.4456
21.7101
21.8963
22.0263
22.1673
22.3333
22.4553
22.7923
22.9523
23.1747
23.3151
23.3365
23.5305
23.6878
23.9908
24.1041
24.3641
24.6082
24.7822
25.0002
25.1092
25.3222
26.3285
26.5025
26.9085
27.0357
27.3012
27.3603
27.6618
27.8754
28.0004
28.1854
28.4675
28.65
29.0193
29.6693
29.9613
30.3003
30.9403
31.2193
31.4578
31.6728
31.7868
31.8818
32.066

115.1225
115.0031
114.8882
114.6846
114.5566
114.4426
114.3841
114.2239
114.1411
114.0857
114.066
114.0442
114.0185
114.001
113.952
113.953
113.9531
113.9476
113.9468
113.9392
113.9334
113.9222
113.918
113.9089
113.8994
113.8938
113.8862
113.8824
113.8832
113.8533
113.8474
113.8313
113.8266
113.8119
113.8073
113.7832
113.768
113.7579
113.743
113.7204
113.7102
113.6904
113.657
113.6438
113.6364
113.6248
113.6227
113.6212
113.621
113.621
113.6201
113.6155

116.3544
116.277
116.2064
116.0857
116.0157
115.9384
115.8998
115.7948
115.741
115.7246
115.7222
115.7197
115.7167
115.7138
115.706
115.694
115.6775
115.6713
115.6704
115.6619
115.6548
115.6412
115.6361
115.624
115.6128
115.604
115.5932
115.5879
115.5721
115.5023
115.4904
115.4628
115.454
115.4363
115.4327
115.4145
115.3986
115.391
115.3805
115.3658
115.3493
115.3154
115.2549
115.2265
115.1891
115.1169
115.12
115.1226
115.1243
115.1251
115.126
115.1288

115.9618
115.876
115.8045
115.7242
115.6697
115.6173
115.5929
115.5258
115.4919
115.4564
115.4317
115.4055
115.3747
115.3522
115.2914
115.2609
115.2202
115.1959
115.1922
115.1587
115.1315
115.0792
115.0597
115.015
114.9746
114.946
114.9111
114.8935
114.8601
114.7593
114.7431
114.7094
114.6989
114.685
114.6843
114.681
114.6763
114.6752
114.6733
114.6696
114.674
114.683
114.6991
114.7065
114.7161
114.7343
114.7189
114.7062
114.6949
114.6889
114.6859
114.6849

320

76.3905
76.3904
76.3902
80.5779
80.5775
81.8918
81.8916
81.8915
81.8912
81.891
88.1947
88.1946
88.1946
88.6467
88.6466
93.6863
93.6862
93.6861
93.7046
93.7046
93.7713
93.7712
93.771
93.8589
93.8588
94.1175
94.1173
94.1172
95.6735
95.6734
95.6728
95.6727
95.7668
95.7667
95.7666
95.7665
96.0813
95.7663
95.7662
95.7661
96.9771
97.0786
97.1762
97.4539
98.4128
98.575
98.5747
98.6242
98.8229
98.9169
98.9169
98.9168

75.5122
75.5121
75.512
79.2287
79.9467
79.9466
79.9464
80.0014
80.0012
84.7817
94.5148
94.5148
94.5147
94.5146
94.5145
94.5143
94.5142
94.5141
94.5372
94.5372
94.5371
94.5371
94.537
94.5369
94.5368
94.5368
94.5367
94.6128
94.6127
94.6127
94.6123
94.6122
94.6121
94.612
94.7101
94.7101
95.1035
94.7099
94.8365
95.0503
94.871
94.8709
94.8707
94.8703
94.8701
94.8699
99.9982
99.9986
99.9988
99.9991
99.9992
99.9993

78.7362
78.7361
79.7979
85.5329
85.5325
85.5323
85.9615
85.9614
86.0638
86.0637
89.6651
89.8794
89.8793
89.8792
90.0361
90.0359
90.3605
90.6615
90.6802
90.6802
90.6801
90.68
90.6953
90.6953
90.9637
90.9636
91.1438
91.1437
91.1436
93.4976
93.7918
94.2053
94.2051
95.4719
97.1667
97.242
97.4471
97.3313
97.3313
97.3312
97.8451
97.845
97.8449
97.8447
97.8446
97.8444
97.8437
97.9187
97.9186
97.9185
98.786
99.8769

kVA Flow SOC

Released Capacity

Phase B
5216.17

Phase C
5053.13

Phase A
NA

Phase B
NA

Phase C
NA

Seq Amps 0

Seq Amps 1

Seq Amps 2

I2/I1 (%)

Seq Volts 0

Seq Volts 1

Seq Volts 2

25.7965

698.2907

25.7941

3.6939

7620.9118

0.1115

23.0135

622.9587

23.0114

3.6939

0.1936

7968.8747

33.9196

22.4991
23.9031
1.7735

523.2323
510.6884
12.597

24.9978
26.5738
1.9806

4.7776
5.2035
15.7225

49.9693
60.3815
49.9106

7729.7254
7686.0193
7729.5842

51.729
57.4956
51.7098

21.8127
21.6972
7.5855

507.8991
86.6161
421.3687

24.1295
20.9846
5.4263

4.7508
24.2271
1.2878

61.516
63.5193
61.4762

7680.7011
7679.1639
7676.0831

58.2175
58.5285
58.7883

21.9777
23.1378
2.3733

79.9071
76.367
3.5412

21.6109
22.9815
2.4374

27.045
30.0935
68.828

88.9736
90.3389
88.6572

7660.636
7659.7703
7660.3411

62.4304
62.5919
62.6375

122.8907

7639.7369

64.7177

9.2072
10.8543
15.1231
5.932

410.102
259.536
71.1666
79.493

7.2384
12.4159
14.7461
8.307

1.765
4.7839
20.7205
10.45

61.7245
61.8074
60.9885
61.7607

7509.8745
7509.4287
7509.1726
7509.0973

83.3577
83.4209
83.5844
83.4723

7.9299

256.6139

9.5945

3.7389

63.6226

7498.9618

84.9248

7.9299

256.6139

9.5945

3.7389

64.834

7472.586

83.9778

0.2618

20.2921

0.2301

1.1341

83.6019

7378.426

94.7981

11.8567
19.7917
17.419

158.322
92.5382
65.7855

13.0377
18.5969
18.2442

8.2349
20.0965
27.7329

103.7461
102.826
104.7716

7307.7226
7306.745
7306.9653

101.2307
101.1012
101.1667

0 NA

118.8639

7291.4843

101.5956

0 NA

47.9228

7492.5132

90.5568

6.7516

41.1329

8.0044

19.4599

87.6444

7278.4331

107.7743

6.7516

41.1329

8.0044

19.4599

87.6602

7278.3672

107.7566

6.15
8.1408
3.9063

39.6964
33.3165
6.3814

7.3816
8.9997
3.7501

18.5952
27.0127
58.7658

89.473
90.1313
89.2813

7275.8145
7275.3363
7275.737

107.4898
107.3031
107.4865

0 NA

321

0.0022

96.7325

7268.7484

105.6876

0.4479

0.4474

99.8923

4861.3551

2416.1432

0.1317

0 NA

2397.3029

15.4031
6.4334
18.3321

47.4282
0
40.9954

15.5983
0 NA
18.6891

45.5884

45.8041
2493.8892
48.7395

7485.2458
0
7482.0428

94.603
0
97.0537

14.3794
5.8922
8.6301

36.4373
26.2761
10.1643

14.735
6.2311
8.6697

40.4393
23.714
85.2956

55.2777
55.2777
55.6248

7476.4375
7476.4375
7476.2813

101.2469
101.2469
101.4468

6.9913
6.8041
0.3134
6.9913

7.8281
6.8009
0.691
0

6.9199
6.8047
0.3175
0 NA

88.3989
100.056
45.9455

57.7939
58.8266
57.9135
78.0787

7475.3449
7474.9831
7475.2644
0

102.6636
103.1873
102.7101
0

0 NA

2457.9386

23.0135
7.3151
19.3679

622.9589
92.2339
530.9452

3.6939
8.2258
4.1638

2.9102
3.0394
4.6354

7958.2171
7957.833
7947.6736

32.5265
32.4707
32.8143

14.1796
0
0
1.8314

40.4839
0
0
28.1349

35.8459

7.8065

19.7449
0
0
19.8955

7924.7918
0
0
7924.2239

34.2899
2624.0328
2625.6999
34.3331

0.2178

0.4812

55.4879

29.4606

7914.9081

35.5305

0.431 NA

2592.7205

0 NA

2426.4122

23.0114
7.587
22.1074
14.5118
12.2208 NA
0.1296 NA
2.1963
0.267

32.8881

322

pf FLOW
V2/V1 (%)

pf A

pf B

pf C

kW Flow A

kW Flow B

kW Flow C

0.0015

0.7952

0.7913

0.7921

3927.3825

4422.1394

4307.9145

0.4257

0.8432

0.8434

0.841

3897.9469

4399.4995

4249.9173

0.6692
0.7481
0.669

0.8446
0.8476
0.8733

0.849
0.8549
0.8936

0.8452
0.8514
0.9131

3188.3499
3054.845
110.047

3743.2235
3650.9841
77.876

3454.8722
3378.6615
72.2701

0.758
0.7622
0.7659

0.8495
0.8675
0.8474

0.8578
0.8754
0.8528

0.8553
0.883
0.8504

3043.6655
354.002
2688.3306

3586.0975
848.0526
2737.1724

3376.8882
546.2885
2830.3302

0.815
0.8172
0.8177

0.8673
0.8675
0.8637

0.8779
0.8778
-0.0773

0.8829
0.8814
0.8939

314.935
298.3348
16.6002

812.2552
812.2442
0.011

482.4273
426.6433
55.784

0.8471

-1

-1

-1

1.11
1.1109
1.1131
1.1116

0.8568
0.8478
0.8666
0.8809

0.8628
0.8526
0.8835
0.8884

0.8628
0.8594
0.8775
0.861

2562.5809
1593.3367
530.33
436.9675

2647.2655
1815.0299
277.6918
553.7387

2755.9769
1582.0433
593.4315
579.382

1.1325

0.8482

0.8529

0.86

1592.1555

1757.4092

1581.5949

1.1238

0.8482

0.8529

0.86

1591.7548

1757.3321

1581.4082

1.2848

0.9637

0.9637

0.9637

-144.3264

-144.3264

-144.3265

1.3853
1.3837
1.3845

0.8659
0.8671
0.8641

0.8754
0.8766
0.8751

0.8739
0.8741
0.8737

1142.3289
745.3779
396.658

984.1866
355.1598
629.1174

897.71
665.6767
231.8776

1.3933

-1

-1

-1

1.2086

-1

-1

-1

1.4807

0.8804

0.8773

0.8798

270.7401

341.9209

177.6084

1.4805

0.8804

0.8773

0.8798

270.6931

341.9206

177.6115

323

1.4774
1.4749
1.4773

0.8805
0.883
0.8749

0.878
0.8779
-0.0824

0.88
0.8817
0.8738

270.6305
186.9862
83.604

320.0234
320.0152
0.0084

171.8888
134.214
37.6769

1.454

0.0586

0.097

-0.1554

-0.0017

0.0025

49.701

0.8733

-0.2558

8.558

0.0059

0.9297

2.6429

1.2972

0.8665
0.866
0.867

0.8856
0
0.8856

0.8791
0
0.8791

245.9844
125.055
120.9412

177.5682
0
177.5618

508.7365
0
508.7018

1.3542
1.3542
1.3569

0.8669
0.8622
0.9201

0.8854
0.8815
0.932

0.8807
0.879
0.8835

121.1206
111.8729
9.2763

169.0124
156.9953
11.9755

426.8469
246.7566
180.0152

1.3734
1.3804
1.374
NA

0.9171
0.1516
0.885
0.9235

0.9059
-0.0919
0.8955
0

0.8858
0.8862
0.881
0

9.2938
-0.0075
2.246
7.0599

2.8014
0.0049
2.794
0

142.7331
134.0994
8.6234
0

NA

0.4087
0.408
0.4129

0.8432
0.8688
0.8395

0.8434
0.8769
0.8387

0.841
0.8799
0.8338

3897.9475
573.8255
3322.0806

4399.4991
608.1993
3786.9672

4249.9171
745.6672
3504.6396

0.4327

0.4333

0.8735
0
0
0.8735

0.886
0
0
0.886

0.8836
0.8765
0.8747
0.8916

183.6974
0
0
183.6974

181.8916
0
0
181.8916

481.4931
253.1318
2.679
225.6823

0.4489

0.9254

0.875

-0.0565

5.016

5.3157

0.0013

0.8751

8.8011

NA
1.2639
NA

NA
NA

NA
0

324

kVAR Flow A kVAR Flow B

kVAR Flow C

2994.4404

3416.6517

3319.2982

2484.8771

2802.2932

2733.5539

2020.8649
1912.3068
61.4043

2329.1825
2215.1469
39.1233

2184.851
2081.2881
32.2663

1890.091
202.9733
1684.3503

2148.7621
468.2726
1676.1461

2045.9234
290.3765
1751.1922

180.7191
171.0321
9.6871

443.0079
443.1493
-0.1414

256.5759
228.6038
27.9721

1542.3544
996.676
305.3682
234.7624

1550.7972
1112.2177
147.2087
286.0857

1615.0629
941.1572
324.3699
342.3179

994.3771

1075.6567

938.4383

993.5189

1074.3983

937.4523

-40.0011

-40.0009

-40.0006

659.9751
428.2069
231.0125

543.3731
194.9498
347.9404

499.4587
369.9944
129.1095

145.8217

187.0529

95.9727

145.772

186.9251

95.955

325

145.7273
99.4138
46.2855

174.5042
174.5241
-0.1015

92.7921
71.8258
20.9698

-0.014

-0.0174

-0.016

4.7749

-0.0224

1.047

141.7294
72.193
69.5248

93.1255
0
93.1382

275.851
0
275.7495

69.6617
65.7403
3.9478

88.7318
84.1135
4.6589

229.5944
133.8224
95.4486

4.0411
-0.0486
1.1817
2.9325

1.3092
-0.0527
1.3887
0

74.7599
70.1198
4.6312
0

2484.8807
326.9982
2150.222

2802.297
333.3856
2459.0224

2733.557
402.7434
2320.6186

102.3847
0
0
102.3847

95.1695
0
0
95.1695

255.1357
139.0539
1.4846
114.5972

2.055

2.9415

-0.0236

4.8678

326

Table B-6. Summary of LL Base Case

(LTC control only, tap = 7)
[#0 MXAT services included]
Location

Simulated Data

Node 01

IA
227.46
VA
125.76
PFA
0.867

Node 01

Phase A
1,816.66

Node 01

Phase A
1,575.70

Node 01

Phase A
904.12

Node 01
Node 01

IB
262.61
VB
125.60
PFB
0.862
kVA Flow
Phase B
2,094.65
kW Flow
Phase B
1,806.23
kVAr Flow
Phase B
1,060.70

Measured Data July 17, 2006

IC
255.85
VC
125.31
PFC
0.857

IA
225
VA
126.0

IB
260
VB
126.0

IC
254
VC
126.0

Total
Phase C
2,036.10

5,947.41

Phase C
1,743.88

5,125.81

Phase C
1,050.99

3,015.81

kW Losses
Total %
Phase B
Phase C
167.23
Node 01
48.67
58.98
3.26%
kVAr Losses
Total %
Phase A
Phase B
Phase C
496.24
135.74
182.47
178.03
16.45%
Node 01
I0
I1
I2
I2/I1%
9.97
248.62
11.71
4.71
Node 01
V0
V1
V2
V2/V1%
0.084
7973.66
16.65
0.2088
Note: All capacitors and line regulators were turned off, and the substation primary voltage was set at
100% (120 V).
Phase A
59.58

327

kW Losses:
Phase A
59.58

kVAr Losses:
Phase B
48.67

LTC Tap
7

Local Name
Amps A
======Node 0======
MILFD8103
244.0341
======Node 1======
227.4606
StPole_MILFD8
======Node 2======
======Node 3======
Node 3
195.3918
Node 3 N
189.6574
Node 3 E
5.7509
======Node 4======
Node 4
189.6645
Node 4 E
17.4388
Node 4 N
172.2271
======Node 5======
Node 5
15.6842
Node 5 E
14.9015
Node 5 N
0.7828
======Node 6======
Node 6
0
======Node 7======
Node 7
167.4328
Node 7 E
105.0159
Node 7 N
32.9179
Node 7 W
29.5179
======Node 8======
Node 8
105.0185
======Node 9======
Node 9
105.0194
======Node 10======
Node 10
0
======Node 11======
Node 11
65.79
Node 11 N
43.6761
Node 11 E
22.1163
======Node 12======
Node 12
0
======Node 13======
Node 13
0
======Node 14======
Node 14
17.687
======Node 15======
636_B
17.6897

Phase C
58.98

Phase A
135.74

Phase B
182.47

Phase C
178.03

Phase A
1816.66

VR 1 A Tap
NA

VR 1 B Tap
NA

VR 1 C Tap
NA

Amps B

Amps C

Cust Volts A

Cust Volts B

Cust Volts C

281.7392

274.4897

120.0001

120.0001

120.0001

262.605

255.8479

125.7579

125.5965

125.3097

233.8487
229.6123
4.256

218.4801
213.8667
4.6576

124.2194
123.9386
124.2179

124.0145
123.7173
124.0142

123.9459
123.6939
123.945

226.3778
45.8427
180.5432

213.8713
29.0388
184.8588

123.9043
123.8995
123.8714

123.6818
123.6625
123.6565

123.6624
123.6608
123.6305

44.2623
44.27
0.019

25.1048
22.0038
3.1026

123.8405
123.8371
123.8407

123.4232
123.4112
123.4233

123.6495
123.6505
123.6441

123.7265

123.1477

123.7001

176.0287
118.6366
20.8533
36.562

180.8732
102.1838
41.1011
37.6357

122.6773
122.6741
122.6728
122.6751

122.732
122.7292
122.7314
122.7259

122.4825
122.48
122.4726
122.4746

115.4683

102.1858

122.5993

122.665

122.4185

115.4688

102.1865

122.4367

122.4842

122.2595

121.6699

121.9238

121.7519

55.7814
19.9716
35.8106

48.2718
35.7606
12.5122

121.0926
121.085
121.0856

121.5547
121.5542
121.5474

121.4505
121.4419
121.4519

120.9692

121.414

121.4392

122.5989

122.6963

122.2159

19.3124

9.9032

120.9486

121.4649

121.1777

19.3144

9.6032

120.9384

121.4575

121.1755

328

======Node 16======
Node 16
17.6916
Node 16 E
12.5106
Node 16 W
5.1835
======Node 17======
Node 17
0.0021
======Node 18======
Node 18
0
======Node 19======
Node 19
0.2497
======Node 20======
Node 20
17.4798
Node 20 W
6.4988
Node 20 N
10.9817
======Node 21======
Node 21
10.997
Node 21 N
10.2902
Node 21 E
0.719
======Node 22======
Node 22
0.7256
Node 22 E
0.0068
Node 22 S
0.1233
======Node 23======
======Node 24======
Node 24
0
======Node 25======
Node 25
227.4609
Node 25 W
27.1253
Node 25 E
200.3418
======Node 26======
Node 26
8.9683
Node 26 E
0
Node 26 W
0
Node 26 S
8.9683
======Node 27======
Node 27
0.371
======Node 28======
Node 28
0
======Node 29======
Node 29
0

18.157
18.164
0.0146

9.6048
7.5572
2.0498

120.9225
120.918
120.9208

121.4499
121.4443
121.4513

121.1732
121.1746
121.1721

0.0025

0.0024

120.8743

121.3688

121.1773

0.455

0.0033

121.2314

121.2496

120.7303

15.5017
26.6195
15.5022

36.3913
77.7292
36.3918

122.5861
122.5861
122.5995

122.6707
118.6012
122.6446

122.0873
117.2153
122.0226

15.1054
14.1955
0.9229

31.9865
21.7833
10.2065

122.6209
122.6209
122.623

122.5986
122.5986
122.598

121.9099
121.9099
121.9057

0.1491
0.0073
0.1521

8.3349
7.8109
0.5253

122.6357
122.642
122.6362

122.5952
122.5939
122.5947

121.8787
121.8673
121.8773

121.4917

262.6052
27.7831
234.828

255.8481
35.5414
220.3332

125.6992
125.6979
125.6309

125.5116
125.5094
125.4443

125.26
125.2576
125.1993

8.8416
0
0
8.8416

23.2341
11.2573
0.1154
11.8722

125.5836
0
0
125.5812

125.3932
0
0
125.3907

124.9689
124.9446
124.9685
124.9644

0.2275

0.003

125.5605

125.3781

124.8424

0.3933

124.3938

121.183

======Feeder Path Trace======

Distance (1000mCustvoltsA
CustVoltsB
CustVoltsC
%CapacityA
%CapacityB
%CapacityC
0.1034
118.7851
118.7178
118.6043
77.5246
74.052
74.7196
0.2168
125.7839
125.6264
125.3387
75.5419
71.7629
72.4895
0.3008
125.7579
125.5965
125.3097
66.1013
60.8636
61.8707
0.3008
125.7579
125.5965
125.3097
77.3671
73.8702
74.5425
0.5078
125.6992
125.5116
125.26
77.3671
73.8701
74.5425
0.7438
125.6309
125.4443
125.1993
80.0655
76.634
78.0763
1.3578
125.453
125.2693
125.0424
80.0653
76.6339
78.1271
2.562
125.1045
124.9284
124.7351
80.0649
76.6811
78.1268

329

2.645
3.185
3.408
3.695
5.733
6.777
6.9052
7.0393
7.1824
7.3574
7.6884
7.8854
7.8854
8.2254
8.3964
8.8361
9.4201
9.5872
9.9964
10.3164
10.4865
10.7919
10.9291
11.0751
11.6761
11.9871
12.0081
12.0082
12.2461
12.3674
12.5034
12.6409
12.7379
12.9285
13.0339
13.3649
13.6331
13.8911
14.0938
14.5009
15.0489
15.2389
15.3809
15.5193
15.8243
16.0943
17.4243
17.5825
17.8255
18.2705
18.4278
18.5938

125.0805
124.9297
124.8674
124.7873
124.2194
123.9386
123.9043
123.8714
123.8364
123.7935
123.7128
123.6649
123.6649
123.5809
123.5386
123.4305
123.287
123.2471
123.1497
123.0736
123.033
122.9602
122.9275
122.8929
122.7506
122.6773
122.6741
122.6741
122.6381
122.6197
122.5993
122.416
122.4016
122.3732
122.3575
122.3068
122.268
122.2303
122.2008
122.1348
122.0461
122.0154
121.9929
121.9712
121.9227
121.8795
121.6732
121.6506
121.6158
121.5526
121.5302
121.5065

124.905
124.7482
124.6837
124.6008
124.0145
123.7173
123.6818
123.6565
123.6295
123.5965
123.5339
123.4965
123.4965
123.4326
123.4004
123.3175
123.2075
123.1753
123.0984
123.0382
123.0063
122.9497
122.9246
122.8981
122.7887
122.732
122.7292
122.7292
122.6978
122.6818
122.665
122.4672
122.4551
122.4315
122.4184
122.3775
122.3427
122.3094
122.283
122.2319
122.1643
122.1409
122.123
122.1063
122.0697
122.0374
121.9215
121.9062
121.8827
121.8392
121.8238
121.8076

124.714
124.5792
124.5236
124.4519
123.9459
123.6939
123.6624
123.6305
123.5964
123.5548
123.4762
123.4294
123.4294
123.3508
123.3114
123.2102
123.076
123.0377
122.9429
122.8689
122.8299
122.7596
122.7279
122.6939
122.5546
122.4825
122.48
122.48
122.4507
122.4358
122.4185
122.2421
122.2298
122.2057
122.1924
122.153
122.1214
122.0917
122.0684
122.0327
121.9841
121.9673
121.9548
121.9422
121.9153
121.8918
121.7536
121.738
121.7141
121.6706
121.6555
121.6395

330

80.0641
80.5588
80.5584
80.5582
80.558
81.1286
81.1279
82.863
82.8828
82.8827
82.9105
82.9353
82.9352
82.9352
82.935
82.9856
82.9853
83.2611
83.261
83.2733
83.2731
83.2729
83.2727
83.2726
83.3033
83.34
89.5507
89.5506
89.5506
89.5505
89.5504
89.5503
89.5935
89.5989
89.6074
89.6074
89.958
89.9579
90.0051
90.0049
90.0047
90.0186
90.16
90.1599
90.1598
90.1596
90.1594
90.7546
90.7545
90.8164
90.8161
90.816

76.6837
76.6837
76.7162
76.7257
76.7315
77.153
77.4748
82.0355
82.0354
82.0354
82.0353
82.0351
82.035
82.035
82.0349
82.0348
82.0431
82.0428
82.2412
82.241
82.2409
82.3374
82.4083
82.4851
82.485
82.4847
88.1954
88.1954
88.1954
88.1953
88.5106
88.5106
88.5105
88.5171
88.5171
88.517
88.5169
88.5168
88.5167
88.5661
88.6493
88.6491
88.649
88.8767
88.8766
88.8765
90.1983
90.1974
90.1973
90.1972
90.1971
90.197

78.1263
78.2612
78.2609
78.2608
78.2607
78.7197
78.7193
81.6061
81.606
81.606
81.6059
81.6057
81.6379
81.8885
81.9108
81.9107
81.9105
81.9103
81.9102
81.91
82.0033
82.0032
82.0031
82.003
82.0029
82.0027
89.8325
89.8325
89.8325
89.8323
89.8323
89.8322
89.8321
89.8375
89.8374
90.1356
90.1354
90.2428
90.2427
91.4448
91.4446
91.4443
91.4442
91.4442
91.5733
91.6211
91.621
91.7572
91.7819
91.7818
91.8435
91.8434

18.7608
19.0918
19.3973
19.9934
20.3713
20.7442
20.9315
21.4456
21.7101
21.8963
22.0263
22.1673
22.3333
22.4553
22.7923
22.9523
23.1747
23.3151
23.3365
23.5305
23.6878
23.9908
24.1041
24.3641
24.6082
24.7822
25.0002
25.1092
25.3222
26.3285
26.5025
26.9085
27.0357
27.3012
27.3603
27.6618
27.858
27.983
28.168
28.4501
28.6326
29.0019
29.6519
29.9439
30.2829
30.9229
31.2019
31.4404
31.6554
31.7694
31.8644
32.0486

121.4826
121.4353
121.3899
121.3147
121.2676
121.2252
121.2035
121.144
121.1132
121.0926
121.085
121.0766
121.0667
121.0599
121.041
121.0402
121.0387
121.0358
121.0353
121.0313
121.0282
121.0222
121.0199
121.0149
121.0099
121.0067
121.0025
121.0004
120.9992
120.9818
120.9786
120.9702
120.9677
120.9608
120.9588
120.9486
120.9427
120.9384
120.9321
120.9225
120.918
120.9094
120.8952
120.8896
120.8864
120.8813
120.8802
120.8794
120.8791
120.8791
120.8787
120.8769

121.7914
121.7591
121.7297
121.6853
121.6599
121.6321
121.6182
121.5803
121.5608
121.5547
121.5542
121.5536
121.5529
121.5522
121.5502
121.5465
121.5413
121.5397
121.5394
121.5372
121.5353
121.5317
121.5303
121.5271
121.5241
121.5217
121.5187
121.5173
121.5125
121.4915
121.4879
121.4796
121.4769
121.4715
121.4705
121.4649
121.4598
121.4575
121.4543
121.4499
121.4443
121.4327
121.4116
121.4016
121.388
121.3619
121.3633
121.3645
121.3653
121.3657
121.3661
121.3672

121.6234
121.5916
121.5652
121.5392
121.5211
121.5037
121.4957
121.4735
121.4623
121.4505
121.4419
121.4329
121.4222
121.4144
121.3934
121.3827
121.3683
121.3597
121.3584
121.3467
121.3371
121.3187
121.3118
121.2961
121.2818
121.2717
121.2594
121.2532
121.2414
121.2059
121.2001
121.1882
121.1844
121.1794
121.1791
121.1777
121.176
121.1755
121.1747
121.1732
121.1746
121.1777
121.1833
121.186
121.1894
121.1959
121.1902
121.1855
121.1813
121.1791
121.178
121.1776

331

90.8159
90.8158
90.8156
93.0173
93.0169
93.4546
93.4544
93.4542
93.4539
93.4537
95.6541
95.6541
95.654
95.8112
95.8111
97.5132
97.5131
97.513
97.5204
97.5204
97.5426
97.5425
97.5423
97.5718
97.5716
97.6614
97.6613
97.6611
98.21
98.2098
98.2092
98.2091
98.2404
98.2403
98.2401
98.2401
98.3709
98.2398
98.2398
98.2396
98.7102
98.7743
98.8357
98.9576
99.373
99.4283
99.4279
99.4477
99.5151
99.5744
99.5744
99.5743

90.1969
90.1969
90.1968
92.4638
92.7741
92.7739
92.7738
92.7918
92.7916
94.4496
98.0128
98.0127
98.0126
98.0125
98.0124
98.0122
98.0121
98.012
98.0212
98.0211
98.0211
98.021
98.0209
98.0209
98.0208
98.0207
98.0206
98.0462
98.0461
98.0461
98.0457
98.0456
98.0455
98.0454
98.0784
98.0784
98.2212
98.0782
98.1203
98.1933
98.1274
98.1273
98.1271
98.1266
98.1264
98.1262
99.9981
99.9985
99.9988
99.999
99.9991
99.9992

91.8536
91.8535
92.2613
95.0126
95.0121
95.0119
95.1624
95.1623
95.197
95.1968
96.4417
96.5147
96.5146
96.5145
96.5674
96.5672
96.6775
96.7796
96.787
96.787
96.7869
96.7868
96.7918
96.7917
96.8826
96.8825
96.9438
96.9437
96.9437
97.7627
97.8604
97.9984
97.9982
98.422
98.9894
99.0146
99.0878
99.0445
99.0444
99.0443
99.2209
99.2208
99.2207
99.2205
99.2203
99.2202
99.2194
99.2464
99.2464
99.2463
99.5357
99.9585

kVA Flow SOC

Phase C
Phase A
2036.10
NA

Phase B
2094.65

Seq Amps 0

Seq Amps 1

Released Capacity
Phase B
Phase C
NA
NA

Seq Amps 2

I2/I1 (%)

Seq Volts 0

Seq Volts 1

Seq Volts 2

10.6997

266.7397

12.5661

4.711

7620.9118

0.1115

9.973

248.6242

11.7127

4.711

0.084

7973.6646

16.649

10.0093
10.3777
0.3748

215.8935
211.0309
4.886

12.4044
12.9244
0.5281

5.7456
6.1244
10.8088

21.2443
25.6344
21.2226

7878.6813
7861.0895
7878.627

24.3383
26.6788
24.3351

9.6275
8.3286
3.754

209.9567
30.7726
179.1924

12.0089
8.1616
4.3125

5.7197
26.5225
2.4066

26.1204
26.8884
26.1587

7858.9441
7858.3973
7857.0354

26.9705
27.1083
27.1938

8.4174
8.8219
0.9194

28.3499
27.0579
1.2925

8.3981
8.8711
0.9472

29.6229
32.7856
73.2813

36.6073
37.1205
36.506

7851.8011
7851.4935
7851.6931

28.8003
28.871
28.8793

48.6106

7844.5683

29.8772

3.9833
4.5087
5.9934
1.8431

174.7588
108.6062
31.6231
34.5322

4.5671
5.673
5.769
3.5023

2.6134
5.2234
18.243
10.142

28.0842
28.1123
27.8664
28.1004

7787.8378
7787.6568
7787.5197
7787.4935

36.715
36.7426
36.811
36.7669

3.4602

107.5518

4.6405

4.3146

28.733

7783.4062

37.3958

3.4602

107.5518

4.6405

4.3146

29.1752

7772.7694

37.063

35.9934

7733.8786

41.7965

5.0211
7.2945
6.6666

56.61
33.1324
23.4789

43.847
43.514
44.2314

7707.4137
7707.0621
7707.1408

44.0908
44.0182
44.0789

0 NA

49.8449

7701.5484

44.3862

0 NA

24.7761

7779.7819

39.7308

2.6065

15.6289

3.198

20.4621

38.0717

7696.7125

45.7633

2.7067

15.5305

3.2965

21.2261

38.2758

7696.2939

45.6723

0 NA

0 NA
5.1669
6.6414
6.8538

9.1272
20.0449
29.1915

332

2.5008
2.8332
1.55

15.1462
12.7392
2.4084

3.0505
3.2962
1.4676

20.1403
25.8747
60.9367

38.6129
38.8364
38.5379

7695.7453
7695.5626
7695.7163

45.627
45.5523
45.6194

0.0023

41.1339

7693.0855

44.9112

0.1514

0.1509

99.6866

5133.0788

2558.1215

0.0832

2555.801

6.6367
2.1663
7.7805

23.1235
47.4282
20.9578

6.6805
15.5983
7.8723

28.8905
32.8881
37.5624

25.1359
2595.0857
26.7462

7776.2405
7485.2458
7774.5972

41.4469
94.603
42.5068

6.3754
3.3308
3.1224

19.3623
15.4226
3.9442

6.4694
3.4172
3.1421

33.4126
22.157
79.6646

29.9628
29.9628
30.0955

7771.6767
7771.6767
7771.6168

44.346
44.346
44.4178

2.659
2.6044
0.1292

3.0675
2.6012
0.2665

2.619
2.6051
0.1305

85.3787
100.1499
48.9528

30.9206
31.3241
30.9698

7771.2542
7771.1159
7771.2238

44.8628
45.0595
44.8812

2571.8618

9.973
2.8208
8.7835

248.6244
30.149
218.4865

4.711
8.5717
5.169

1.214
1.2553
1.9729

7969.5736
7969.4473
7965.4167

16.1522
16.1338
16.3163

4.7697
0
0
0.9805

13.6807
0
0
9.8936

34.9721

10.1203

7.611
0
0
7.7004

7958.4629
0
0
7958.2634

16.5635
2644.9557
2645.4616
16.5774

0.0977

0.1987

59.808

11.8744

7954.9772

16.8805

0.1311 NA

2633.2957

0 NA

2565.3263

0 NA

0 NA
11.7127
2.5843
11.2937
4.7844
3.7523 NA
0.0385 NA
1.0013
0.1188

333

pf FLOW
V2/V1 (%)

pf A

pf B

pf C

kW Flow A

kW Flow B

kW Flow C

0.0015

0.8498

0.8427

0.838

1580.4571

1809.311

1752.9747

0.2088

0.8674

0.8623

0.8565

1575.6953

1806.2348

1743.876

0.3089
0.3394
0.3089

0.8682
0.8692
0.8833

0.8656
0.8676
0.8992

0.8586
0.8603
0.917

1344.3375
1300.5374
40.0761

1601.8058
1568.9705
30.1402

1482.6379
1448.3102
33.6184

0.3432
0.345
0.3461

0.87
0.8734
0.8697

0.8686
0.8766
0.8667

0.8619
0.8812
0.8589

1298.7358
119.8594
1178.6613

1544.9531
315.6539
1229.138

1447.9904
200.9773
1246.9655

0.3668
0.3677
0.3678

0.8736
0.8739
0.8689

0.8777
0.8775
-0.0799

0.8789
0.8769
0.8928

107.7664
102.4174
5.349

304.5262
304.5142
0.0119

173.2681
151.515
21.7531

0.3809

-1

-1

-1

0.4714
0.4718
0.4727
0.4721

0.8735
0.8703
0.8711
0.8882

0.8707
0.8658
0.8755
0.8844

0.8631
0.8684
0.8713
0.8406

1140.0921
712.0695
223.4181
204.2579

1195.1526
800.647
142.3008
252.041

1215.1032
690.2474
278.5733
246.0894

0.4805

0.8704

0.8664

0.8686

711.8635

779.4645

690.1703

0.4768

0.8704

0.8664

0.8686

711.792

779.4513

690.1382

0.5404

-0.0038

-0.1003

0.1056

0.5721
0.5711
0.5719

0.871
0.8731
0.8669

0.8715
0.8727
0.8709

0.8649
0.8648
0.8652

440.7576
293.2731
147.4439

375.3048
134.5544
240.7619

322.0443
238.5249
83.502

0.5763

-1

-1

-1

0.5107

-1

-1

-1

0.5946

0.8897

0.8722

0.8735

120.8866

129.9473

66.5753

0.5934

0.8896

0.8722

0.8738

120.8783

129.9443

64.5752

334

0.5929
0.5919
0.5928

0.8896
0.8923
0.8828

0.8729
0.8725
-0.0877

0.8737
0.8766
0.8621

120.8727
85.7247
35.1431

122.2559
122.2442
0.0099

64.5766
50.9787
13.599

0.5838

0.0618

0.0941

-0.1546

-0.0018

0.0028

49.836

0.8623

-0.2553

3.0209

0.0066

0.9291

1.7787

0.533
1.2639
0.5467

0.8675
0.8668
0.8679

0.8753
0.8856
0.8753

0.8709
0.8791
0.8709

118.0516
43.8564
74.1985

105.7122
177.5682
105.7093

245.7587
508.7365
245.7518

0.5706
0.5706
0.5715

0.8672
0.8617
0.933

0.8748
0.8699
0.9368

0.8714
0.8684
0.878

74.2613
69.0483
5.2243

102.8992
96.1532
6.7311

215.8611
146.4653
69.3783

0.5773
0.5798
0.5775

0.9273
0.1525
0.9217

0.9447
-0.0924
0.9196

0.8814
0.8814
0.8792

5.2405
-0.0081
0.8852

1.0966
0.0052
1.0887

56.8652
53.2874
3.575

0.2027
0.2024
0.2048

0.8674
0.8765
0.8664

0.8623
0.871
0.8615

0.8565
0.8745
0.8539

1575.6959
189.8084
1385.5885

1806.2345
192.8982
1612.6247

1743.8758
247.2446
1496.6866

0.2081

0.2083

0.8819
0
0
0.8819

0.8846
0
0
0.8846

0.876
0.8606
0.8599
0.89

63.0834
0
0
63.0834

62.2831
0
0
62.2831

161.5408
76.8906
0.7877
83.8625

0.2122

0.9261

0.8671

-0.0568

2.7398

1.5706

0.0014

0.8601

2.6726

NA

NA

NA
NA

NA
0

335

kVAR Flow A kVAR Flow B

kVAR Flow C

980.2917

1156.1179

1141.532

904.118

1060.7034

1050.9932

768.4928
739.75
21.2659

926.5778
899.2868
14.6679

885.2514
858.1904
14.6282

736.1879
66.8173
668.9267

881.3615
173.2785
707.346

852.071
107.7932
743.5245

60.0243
56.9766
3.0477

166.2396
166.3883
-0.1486

94.0404
83.067
10.9734

635.5206
402.9679
125.9318
105.6756

675.2037
462.6705
78.5502
133.0068

710.8971
394.1484
156.8848
158.5757

402.5919

449.2327

393.7029

402.4412

449.008

393.533

-0.003

-0.0027

-0.0027

248.6105
163.7406
84.785

211.181
75.2687
135.8595

186.9282
138.5139
48.387

62.0248

72.8681

37.0982

62.046

72.8788

35.9416

336

62.063
43.3819
18.6962

68.3221
68.4443
-0.1121

35.9626
27.9884
7.9934

-0.0158

-0.0193

-0.0179

1.774

-0.0249

0.7079

67.6977
25.2285
42.4745

58.3967
93.1255
58.4064

138.6665
275.851
138.6507

42.6478
40.6686
2.0144

56.9816
54.5054
2.5146

121.4951
83.6167
37.8295

2.1153
-0.0525
0.3725

0.3805
-0.0563
0.4652

30.4788
28.5605
1.937

904.1216
104.2233
798.7348

1060.7072
108.7893
950.3567

1050.9963
137.1452
912.2053

33.7157
0
0
33.7157

32.8395
0
0
32.8395

88.9252
45.5001
0.4675
42.9576

1.1161

0.9025

-0.024

1.5853

337

Form Approved
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July 2007
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Subcontract report

TITLE AND SUBTITLE

5a. CONTRACT NUMBER

Modeling and Testing of Unbalanced Loading and Voltage

Regulation: Final Report

DE-AC36-99-GO10337
5b. GRANT NUMBER

5c. PROGRAM ELEMENT NUMBER

6.

AUTHOR(S)

5d. PROJECT NUMBER

M.W. Davis, R. Broadwater, and J. Hambrick

NREL/SR-581-41805
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WW88.2003
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National Renewable Energy Laboratory

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14. ABSTRACT (Maximum 200 Words)

This paper is a final report on a project to (1) explain how voltage regulation reduces voltage spread; (2) define the
effects of unbalanced loading and voltage on system protection and distributed generation output ratings; (3) develop
models for an actual distribution circuit, its voltage regulation equipment, and distributed generation; (4) validate the
models by comparing power flow simulations and voltage profiles with actual measured circuit data; (5) determine the
optimum generator operating conditions to provide the greatest improvement in released capacity, reduced energy
losses, and voltage regulation, and (6) determine the maximum distributed generation penetration limits with
synchronous generator real and reactive power injections.
15. SUBJECT TERMS

distributed generation; DG; distributed resources; DR; interconnection; voltage regulation; modeling; penetration limit;
National Renewable Energy Laboratory; NREL; DTE Energy
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