Approximate Methods in Structure

Mechanics



Mohammad Tawfik
19 February 2014
Introduction 2

Contents
1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 3
1.1 Objectives .................................................................................................................... 3
1.2 Why Approximate?...................................................................................................... 3
1.3 Classification of Approximate Solutions of D.E.s ....................................................... 3
2 Weighted Residual Methods.............................................................................................. 5
2.1 Basic Concepts ............................................................................................................. 5
2.2 General Weighted Residual Method ........................................................................... 5
2.3 Collocation Method ..................................................................................................... 8
2.4 The Subdomain Method ............................................................................................ 11
2.5 The Galerkin Method ................................................................................................ 13
3 Stationary Functional Approach ...................................................................................... 16
3.1 Some Definitions ....................................................................................................... 16
3.2 Applications ............................................................................................................... 17
3.2.1 The bar tensile problem ..................................................................................... 17
3.2.2 Beam Bending Problem ..................................................................................... 19
3.3 Plane Elasticity ........................................................................................................... 21
3.3.1 Strain-Displacement Relations ........................................................................... 22
3.3.2 Strain Energy ...................................................................................................... 22
3.4 Finite Element Model of Plates in Bending ............................................................... 25
3.4.1 Displacement Function ...................................................................................... 25
3.4.2 Strain-Displacement Relation ............................................................................ 26
3.4.3 Constitutive Relations of Piezoelectric Lamina .................................................. 27
3.4.4 Stiffness and Mass Matrices of the Element ..................................................... 28


Approximate Methods in Structure Mechanics 3


1 Introduction
1.1 Objectives
In this section we will be introduced to the general classification of approximate methods.
One of the approximate methods will receive attention, namely, the weighted residual
method. Derivation of a system of linear equations to approximate the solution of an ODE
will be presented using different techniques as an introduction to the finite element
method.
1.2 Why Approximate?
The question that usually rises in the minds of engineers and students alike is, why do we
study approximate methods? The main answer that should reply to that question is the
ignorance of the humans! Up to this moment, scientists and engineers have been able to
present a vast amount of mathematical models for physical phenomena, unfortunately, a
very small percentage of those models, which are usually in the form of differential
equations, have close form solutions! Thus, the necessity of solving those problems implies
the use of approximate methods to get solutions for some specific problems of certain
interest.
In the modern engineering life, packages that present solutions for problems using digital
computers are everywhere. The understanding of how those packages perform approximate
solutions for a certain physical problem is a necessity for the engineer to be able to use
them. It is always a good idea to be able to predict how the output of the package is going
to be in order to be able to distinguish the right results from errors that may occur due to
bugs in the program or errors in the data given to the program.
On the other hand, an engineer who needs to develop a new technique for the solution of
an advanced, or a new, problem, has to have a good background on how the old problems
were solved.

1.3 Classification of Approximate Solutions of D.E.s
Two main families of approximate methods could be identified in the literature. The discrete
coordinate methods and the distributed coordinate methods.
Discrete coordinate methods depend on solving the differential relations at pre-specified
points in the domain. When those points are determined, the differential equation may be
approximately presented in the form of a difference equation. The difference equation
presents a relation, based of the differential equation, between the values of the dependent
variables at different values of the independents variables. When those equations are
solved, the values of the dependent variables are determined at those points giving an
approximation of the distribution of the solution. Examples of the discrete coordinate
Introduction 4

methods are finite difference methods and the Runge-Kutta methods. Discrete coordinate
methods are widely used in fluid dynamics and in the solution of initial value problems.
The other family of approximate methods is the distributed coordinate methods. These
methods, generally, are based on approximating the solution of the differential equation
using a summation of functions that satisfy some or all the boundary conditions. Each of the
proposed functions is multiplied by a coefficient, generalized coordinate, that is then
evaluated by a certain technique that identifies different methods from one another. After
the solution of the problem, you will obtain a function that represents, approximately, the
solution of the problem at any point in the domain.
Stationary functional methods are part of the distributed coordinate methods family. These
methods depend on minimizing/maximizing the value of a functional that describes a
certain property of the solution, for example, the total energy of the system. Using the
stationary functional approach, the finite element model of a problem may be obtained. It is
usually much easier to present the relations of different variables using a functional,
especially when the relations are complex as in the case of fluid structure interaction
problems or structure dynamics involving control mechanisms.
The weighted residual methods, on the other hand, work directly on the differential
equations. As the approximate solution is introduced, the differential equation is no more
balanced. Thus, a residue, a form of error, is introduced to the differential equation. The
different weighted residual methods handle the residue in different ways to obtain the
values of the generalized coordinates that satisfy a certain criterion.


Approximate Methods in Structure Mechanics 5


2 Weighted Residual Methods

2.1 Basic Concepts
A differential equation in the dependent variable f with the independent variable x may be
written in the form:
( ) ( ) ( ) x g x f L =
or
( ) ( ) ( ) 0 = x g x f L
Where L(.) is a linear differential operator and g(x) is the excitation function. The above
equation has to have certain boundary conditions that render the solution unique. If we
select different functions,
i
, that satisfy all boundary conditions bud do not necessarily
satisfy the differential equation, we may write the approximate solution of f(x) in the form
of:
( ) ( )

=
=
n
i
i i
x a x f
1

Where a
i
are the generalized coordinates, or the unknown coefficients. Applying the
differential operator on the approximate solution, you get:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 0
1 1
= = |
.
|

\
|
=

= =
x g x L a x g x a L x g x f L
n
i
i i
n
i
i i

Note that the right hand side of the above equation is not equal to zero. The non-zero value
of the right hand side is called the reside.
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) x R x g x L a
n
i
i i
=

=1


The admissibility Conditions
The trial functions need to:
Satisfy all boundary conditions!
Be differentiable as much as the higher differentiation in the equation

2.2 General Weighted Residual Method
The general weighted residual method is based on integrating the residue multiplied by
weighting functions and then equating the resulting equations by zero. The weighting
Weighted Residual Methods 6

functions are any set of functions that are continuous over the domain of the differential
equation. A set functions may be polynomial, sinusoidal, hyperbolic, or any combination of
functions. The number of functions needed should be equal to the unknown generalized
coordinates to produce a set of equations that are solvable in the unknowns. Also, the
weighting functions need to be linearly independent for the equations to be solvable.
Expanding the series of proposed solution functions, we get:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) x R x g x L a x L a x L a
n n
= + + + ...
2 2 1 1

Multiplying by the weighting function and integrating, we get:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 0
1
= |
.
|

\
|
=
}

}
=
Domain
n
i
i i j
Domain
j
dx x g x L a x w dx x R x w

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
} }
+ + + =
Domain
n n j
Domain
j
dx x g x L a x L a x L a x w dx x R x w ...
2 2 1 1

In matrix form
{ } ( ) ( )

)

=
(
(
(
(
(
(

}
Domain
j i
nn in n
nj ij j
n i
dx x g x w a
k k k
k k k
k k k





1
1
1 1 11

Where
( ) ( ) ( )
}
=
Domain
i j ij
dx x L x w k

Example Problem
The bar tensile problem is a classical problem that
describes the relation between the axially
distributed loads and the displacement of a bar.
Lets consider the bar in Figure 2.1 with constant
modulus of elasticity and cross section area. The
force displacement relation is given by:

Figure 2.1. Sketch of a bar with distributed axial forces
0
2
2
= +
c
c
F
x
u
EA
Subject to the boundary conditions
0 / & 0 0 = = = = dx du l x u x
Approximate Methods in Structure Mechanics 7

Now, lets use the approximate solution
( ) ( )

=
=
n
i
i i
x a x u
1


Substituting it into the differential equation, we get

( )
( ) x R F
dx
x d
a EA
n
i
i
i
= +

=1
2
2

Selecting weighting functions, W
i
, and applying the method, we get:
( )
( )
{ } ( )
)
`

=
(

} }
l
j i
l
i
j
dx x w F a dx
dx
x d
x w EA
0 0
2
2

For the boundary conditions to be satisfied, we need a function that has zero value at x=0
and has a slope equal to zero at the free end. Sinusoidal functions are appropriate for this
hence, using one-term series, we may use:
( )
|
.
|

\
|
=
l
x
Sin x
2
t

For the weighting function, we may use a polynomial term. The simplest term would be 1.

{ }
)
`

=
(
(

|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
} }
l l
fdx a dx
l
x
Sin
l
EA
0
1
0
2
2 2
t t

Performing the integration, we get:

{ } { } fl a
l
x
Cos
l
EA
l
=
(
(

|
.
|

\
|

|
.
|

\
|
1
0
2 2
t t

When the equation is solved in the unknown coefficient (generalized coordinate), we get:

( ) EA
f l
EA
f l
l EA
fl
a
2 2
1
637 . 0
2
2
~ = =
t t

Then, the approximate solution for this problem becomes
( )
|
.
|

\
|
~
l
x
Sin
EA
f l
x u
2
637 . 0
2
t

Weighted Residual Methods 8

Now we may compare the obtained solution with the exact one that may be obtained from
solving the differential equation. The maximum displacement and the maximum strain may
be compared with the exact solution. The maximum displacement is
( ) ( ) 5 . 0 637 . 0
2
= ~ exact
EA
f l
l u
And maximum strain is:
( ) ( ) 0 . 1 0 . 1 0 = ~ exact
EA
lf
u
x


2.3 Collocation Method
The idea behind the collocation method is similar to that behind the buttons of your shirt!
Assume a solution, and then force the residue to be zero at the collocation points.
( ) 0 =
j
x R

The collocation method may be seen as one of the weighted residual family when the
weighting function becomes the delta function. The delta function is one that may be
described as:
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
j j
j
j j
x F dx x F x x
x x
x x x x
=
= =
= =
}

o
o
0
1

Now, if we select a set of points x
j
inside the domain of the problem, we may write down
the integral of the residue, multiplied by the delta functions, as follows:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 0
1
= =

=
j
n
i
j i i j
x F x L a x R

Which gives
Approximate Methods in Structure Mechanics 9

{ }
( )
( )
( )

=
(
(
(
(
(
(

n
j i
nn in n
nj ij j
n i
x g
x g
x g
a
k k k
k k k
k k k

1
1
1
1 1 11

Where
( ) ( )
j i ij
x L k =


Figure 2.2. A sketch of the differences between the exact and approximate solutions
Example Problem
Applying this method to the bar tensile problem described before, we get:
( )
( ) ( ) x R x F
dx
x d
a EA
n
i
i
i
= +

=1
2
2

Evaluating the residue at the collocation points, we get

( )
( ) 0
1
2
2
= +

=
j
n
i
j i
i
x F
dx
x d
a EA


In matrix form

Weighted Residual Methods 10

( )
( )
( )

(
(
(
(

n n nn n n
n
n
x F
x F
x F
a
a
a
k k k
k k k
k k k

2
1
2
1
2 1
2 22 12
1 21 11
...
...
...

Where
( )
j
x x
i
ij
dx
x d
EA k
=
=
2
2

Solve the above system for the generalized coordinates a
i
to get the solution for u(x)
Using Admissible Functions
For a constant forcing function, F(x)=f
The strain at the free end of the bar should be zero (slope of displacement is zero).
We may use:
( )
|
.
|

\
|
=
l
x
Sin x
2
t

Using the function into the DE:
( )
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
l
x
Sin
l
EA
dx
x d
EA
2 2
2
2
2
t t

A natural selection for the collocation point may be the central point of the bar. Substituting
by the value of x=l/2, we get

( ) ( ) EA
f l
EA
f l
Sin l EA
f
a
2
2
2
2 1
57 . 0
2 4
4 2
~ = =
t t t

Then, the approximate solution for this problem is:
( )
|
.
|

\
|
~
l
x
Sin
EA
f l
x u
2
57 . 0
2
t

Which gives the maximum displacement to be
( ) ( ) 5 . 0 57 . 0
2
= ~ exact
EA
f l
l u
And maximum strain to be:
Approximate Methods in Structure Mechanics 11

( ) ( ) 0 . 1 9 . 0 0 = ~ exact
EA
lf
u
x

2.4 The Subdomain Method
The idea behind the subdomain method is to force the integral of the residue to be equal to
zero on a subinterval of the domain. The method may be also seen as using the unit step
functions as weighting functions. The unit step function may be described by the following
relation:
( )
( ) ( )
1
1 1
0
1
0
1
+
+ +
> < =
> > =
< =
> =
j j
j j j j
j
j j
x x or x x
x x x x x U x x U
x x
x x x x U

Hence the integral of the weighted residual method becomes
( ) 0
1
=
}
+ j
j
x
x
dx x R

Substituting using the series solution

( ) ( ) ( ) 0
1 1
1
=
}

}
+ +
=
j
j
j
j
x
x
n
i
x
x
i i
dx x g dx x L a

Figure 2.3. Sketch of the differences between the exact and approximate solutions

For the bar application
Weighted Residual Methods 12

( )
( ) ( ) x R x F
dx
x d
a EA
n
i
i
i
= +

=1
2
2

Performing the integration and equating by zero

( )
( )
}

}
+ +
=
=
1 1
1
2
2 j
j
j
j
x
x
n
i
x
x
i
i
dx x F dx
dx
x d
a EA


Which gives the equation in matrix form as

( )
{ } ( )

=
(
(

} }
+ + 1 1
2
2 j
j
j
j
x
x
i
x
x
i
dx x F a dx
dx
x d
EA


Using Admissible Function
( )
|
.
|

\
|
=
l
x
Sin x
2
t

The differentiation will give

( )
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
l
x
Sin
l
EA
dx
x d
EA
2 2
2
2
2
t t

Since we only have one term in the series, we will perform the integral on one subdomain;
i.e. the whole domain
{ }
)
`

=
(
(

|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
} }
l l
fdx a dx
l
x
Sin
l
EA
0
1
0
2
2 2
t t

Performing the integral
{ } { } fl a
l
x
Cos
l
EA
l
=
(
(

|
.
|

\
|

|
.
|

\
|
1
0
2 2
t t

Evaluating the generalized coordinate
( ) EA
f l
EA
f l
l EA
fl
a
2 2
1
637 . 0
2
2
~ = =
t t

Then, the approximate solution for this problem is:
Approximate Methods in Structure Mechanics 13

( )
|
.
|

\
|
~
l
x
Sin
EA
f l
x u
2
637 . 0
2
t

Which gives the maximum displacement to be:
( ) ( ) 5 . 0 637 . 0
2
= ~ exact
EA
f l
l u
And maximum strain to be:
( ) ( ) 0 . 1 0 . 1 0 = ~ exact
EA
lf
u
x

2.5 The Galerkin Method
The Galerkin method uses the proposed solution functions as the weighting functions. Thus
the solution procedure will require the selection of one set of functions. That method has
proven very efficient and accurate as a weighted residual method. Many numerical
solutions methods are derived from the Galerkin method. The Galerkin method may be
presented by the following integral
( ) ( ) 0 =
}
Domain
j
dx x x R
When substituting with the series solution, the weighted residual integral will become
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 0
1
=
}

}
=
Domain
j
n
i
Domain
i j i
dx x g x dx x L x a
Applying the Galerkin method to the bar problem, we get
( )
( )
( ) ( )
}

}
=
=
Domain
j
n
i
Domain
i
j i
dx x F x dx
dx
x d
x a EA

1
2
2

Which in matrix form becomes

( )
( )
{ } ( ) ( )

)

=
(
(

} }
Domain
j i
Domain
i
j
dx x F x a dx
dx
x d
x EA

2
2

Solve the above system for the generalized coordinates a
i
to get the solution for u(x). Lets
use the same function as in the previous methods
( )
|
.
|

\
|
=
l
x
Sin x
2
t

Weighted Residual Methods 14

Substituting with the approximate solution:
( )
( )
( ) ( )
}

}
=
=
Domain
j
n
i
Domain
i
j i
dx x F x dx
dx
x d
x a EA

1
2
2

We have

} }
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
= |
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|

l l
fdx
l
x
Sin a
l
EA dx
l
x
Sin
l
x
Sin a
l
EA
0
2
1
2
0
1
2
2 2 2 2 2
t t t t t

Which gives
t
t l l
a
l
EA
2
2 2
1
2
=
|
.
|

\
|

Substituting and solving for the generalized coordinate, we get
EA
fl l
EA
f
a
2
3
2
1
52 . 0
16
~ =
t

In most structure mechanics problems, the differential equation involves second derivative
or higher for the displacement function. When Galerkin method is applied for such
problems, you get the proposed function multiplied by itself or by one of its function family.
This suggests the use of integration by parts. Lets examine this for the previous example.
Substituting with the approximate solution: (Int. by Parts)
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
} }
=
Domain
i
j
l
i
j
Domain
i
j
dx
dx
x d
dx
x d
dx
x d
x dx
dx
x d
x

0
2
2

But the boundary integrals are equal to zero since the functions were already chosen to
satisfy the boundary conditions. Evaluating the integrals will give you the same results.
t
t l l
a
l
EA
2
2 2
1
2
=
|
.
|

\
|

EA
fl l
EA
f
a
2
3
2
1
52 . 0
16
~ =
t

So, what did we gain by performing the integration by parts?
The functions are required to be less differentiable
Not all boundary conditions need to be satisfied
The matrix became symmetric!
Approximate Methods in Structure Mechanics 15

The above gains suggested that the Galerkin method is the best candidate for the derivation
of the finite element model as a weighted residual method.
Homework #1

Figure 2.4. A simply supported beam
) (
4
4
x F
dx
w d
=
subject to
0
) ( ) 0 (
0 ) ( ) 0 (
2
2
2
2
= = = =
dx
l w d
dx
w d
and l w w
Exact Solution for this problem is
1 2 / 1
10
3
15
7
4 12
2 / 1 0
60
13
12
) (
2 3
3
< < + + =
< < + =
x
x x x
x
x x
x w

Solve the beam bending problem, for beam displacement, for a simply supported
beam with a load placed at the center of the beam using
Any weighting function
Collocation Method
Subdomain Method
Galerkin Method
Use three term Sine series that satisfies all BCs
Write a program that produces the results for n-term solution.



Stationary Functional Approach 16

3 Stationary Functional Approach
In this section, the stationary functional approach will be presented as a method by which
the finite element model may be derived. The approach will depend on some definitions
that are presented in section 3.1 then some applications will be presented in the following
sections.
3.1 Some Definitions
A Functional: Simple Definition
A functional is a function of functions that produces a real/complex number. The
functional is presented in the form of a bound integral which, when evaluated, produces a
real number. In mechanics problems, usually, the functional used is the total energy
functional which contains the potential energy, the kinetic energy, and the externally work
done on the system. A functional may be presented in the form
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
}
=
Domain
n n m n n m n
dx dx x x f x x f G x x f x x f I ... ,..., ,..., ,..., ,..., ,..., ,...,
1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Variation: Another simple definition
Variation of a functional is the differentiation of the functional with respect to one or
more of its entries (functions). Note that the Variation of the functional with respect to the
independent variables is always equal to zero.
( )
} |
|
.
|

\
|
+ + + =
Domain
n m
m
m
dx dx f
df
dG
f
df
dG
f
df
dG
f f f I ... ... ,..., ,
1 2
2
1
1
2 1
o o o o
Stress-Strain Relation
Stresses in structures are related to the strains through constitutive relations. The main
components of the constitutive relations is the modulus of elasticity, Hooks constants. For
1-D structures, we may write
c o E =

Strain Displacement Relations
The strain is usually related to the displacement fields in structure mechanics problems. The
relation may be obtained from the theory of elasticity or an approximate theory such as the
Euler-Bernoulli beam theory. For 1-D elasticity problems, the strain displacement relations
are usually simple ones such as the case of a bar, where the relation is defined as
dx
du
x
= c

Where u is the axial displacement of the bar. Meanwhile, the strain displacement relation
for an Euler-Bernoulli beam is given by
Approximate Methods in Structure Mechanics 17

2
2
dx
w d
z
x
= c

Where w is the transverse deflection of the beam and z is the location above the neutral
axis. Other relations exist for different theories, but they will be mentioned in their
respective places.
Strain Energy
Strain energy is the amount of mechanical energy stored in a structure, potential energy,
due to the deflection of the structure. An expression for the strain energy may be given by
}
=
Volume
dV U co
2
1

Where U is the strain energy. The concept here is defined for linear elastic structures, but
may be used for nonlinear material properties as well as dissipative material properties with
minor constraints.
3.2 Applications
In the following sections, we will present the application of the concepts of variation and
strain energy to obtain the finite element model as well as demonstrate that the
presentation is equivalent to the more commonly used differential equation presentation.
3.2.1 The bar tensile problem
The total energy of the elastic structure is given as the difference between the strain energy
and the work done by the externally applied forces. An expression for the total energy for a
bar, may be given by the following integral
( )
}
|
|
.
|

\
|

|
.
|

\
|
c
c
= H
BarLength
dx x F u
x
u
EA .
2
1
2

For equilibrium, the total energy needs to be at a minimum value, that is to say, its variation
is zero (note the analogy with the minimum of a function in one dimension where the
extreme points are found when the derivative is equal to zero. Obtaining the variation of
the total energy, we get
( ) 0 . =
|
|
.
|

\
|

|
.
|

\
|
c
c
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
= H
}
BarLength
dx x F u
x
u
x
u
EA o
o
o

Now, let us perform integration by parts, we get
Stationary Functional Approach 18

( ) 0 .
2
2
0
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c

|
.
|

\
|
c
c
= H
}
BarLength
l
dx x F u
x
u
u EA
x
u
u EA o o o o

Which indicates that
l x x
l
x
u
u EA
x
u
u EA
x
u
u EA
= =
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
=
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
=
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
o o o & 0 0
0 0

These are the boundary conditions; i.e. at any boundary, either the displacement is equal to
zero or the strain is equal to zero. The other term becomes
( ) 0 .
2
2
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
}
BarLength
dx x F u
x
u
u EA o o

Since the above integral is equal to zero, then the integrand should be equal to zero
( ) 0
2
2
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
x F
x
u
EA u o

And, since the variation of the displacement is an arbitrary function, it can not be equal to
zero everywhere which yields
( ) 0
2
2
= +
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
x F
x
u
EA

This is the original differential equation for the displacement function of a bar subject to
distributed loading along its axis. Now, if we select the approximate solution of the problem
and substitute it into the equation representing the variation of the total energy, above, and
handling the variation of the displacement as the weighting functions, we get

( ) ( )

{ }
e
u x N x u =
( ) ( )

{ }
e
u x N x u o o =
Substituting into the energy variation relation:
{ } { }

{ } { } { } ( ) ( ) 0 = = H
}
gth ElementLen
T
e e
x x
T
e
dx x F N u u N N u EA o o o
But the nodal values of the function or its variation are independent of the integration
Approximate Methods in Structure Mechanics 19

{ } { }

{ } { } ( ) ( ) 0
0
=
}
l
e
x x
T
e
dx x F N u N N EA u o

Also, the variation is arbitrary, therefore, it can not be zero; hence:
{ }

{ } { } ( ) ( ) 0
0
=
}
l
e
x x
dx x F N u N N EA
Now we may write

Or
| |{ } { }
e e
f u k =

Where
| | { }

( ) { } { } ( ) ( )
} }
= =
l
e
l
x x
dx x F N f dx N N EA k
0 0
&

Which is the same model that we obtained when applying the weighted residual method to
the differential equation.

3.2.2 Beam Bending Problem
Obtaining the strain energy expression for the beam under transverse loading, we get
( )
}
|
|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|
= H
l
dx x F w
dx
w d
EI
0
2
2
2
.
2
1

The expression for the variation of the total energy becomes
( ) 0 .
0
2
2
2
2
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
= H
}
l
dx x F w
dx
w d
dx
w d
EI o
o
o

We may continue the derivation, as for the case of the bar, to obtain the differential
equation. But using the approximate solution into the above expression, we have

( ) ( )

{ }
e
w x N x w =

And
{ }

( ) { } { } ( ) ( )
} }
=
l
e
l
x x
dx x F N u dx N N EA
0 0
Stationary Functional Approach 20

( ) ( )

{ }
e
w x N x w o o =

Which gives
{ } { }

{ } { } { } ( ) ( ) 0
0
= = H
}
l
T
e e
xx xx
T
e
dx x F N w w N N w EI o o o
Using the same procedure as for the bar example above, we get
| |{ } { }
e e
f w k =

Where
| | { }

{ } { } ( )
} }
= =
l
e
l
xx xx
dx x F N f dx N N EI k
0 0
&
Which is, again, the same model as the one obtained using the weighted residual methods.


Approximate Methods in Structure Mechanics 21

3.3 Plane Elasticity
Now, we have enough background to extend our study to cover the plain elasticity problem.
In this problem we are only concerned with the thin structures, such as thin plates, that are
subjected to in-plane loading. In such a problem, the strain components we are concerned
with become the axial strains in the plane of the plate and the shear strain component
associated with them. All variables are assumed to constant across the thickness.

Figure 3.1. A sketch presenting a plain element with the stresses applied on it.

The above described stresses and strain are related through the following relations
xy xy
y x y
y x x
G
D D
D D
c t
c c v o
c v c o
2 =
+ =
+ =

Where
( ) v
v
+
=

=
1 2
1
2
E
G
E
D

In matrix form

(
(
(

xy
y
x
xy
y
x
G
D D
D D
c
c
c
v
v
t
o
o
2 0 0
0
0

Or
{ } | |{ } c o Q =
Stationary Functional Approach 22


3.3.1 Strain-Displacement Relations
The strain displacement relation in the 2-D problem is slightly different taking into account
the displacement in the y-direction as well
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
=
=
dx
dv
dy
du
dy
dv
dx
du
xy
y
x
2
1
c
c
c

Or, in matrix form

|
|
.
|

\
|
+
=

dx
dv
dy
du
dy
dv
dx
du
xy
y
x
2
1
c
c
c

3.3.2 Strain Energy
The strain energy should take all stresses and strains into account. Thus, we get the
expression as
{ } | |{ }
} }
= =
Volume
T
Volume
dV Q dV U c c co
2
1
2
1

For constant thickness, and since all the variables are constant across the thickness, we may
simplify the integral over the volume to become an integral over the area
{ } | |{ }
}
=
Area
T
dA Q h U c c
2
1

A Rectangular Element
For the approximation of the displacement function u(x,y) over the element, use the 2-D
interpolation function
Approximate Methods in Structure Mechanics 23


Figure 3.2. A sketch of the plate element

( ) xy a y a x a a y x u
4 3 2 1
, + + + =
Recall General 2-D Elements
( ) ( )

{ } ( )

{ }
e
u y x N a y x H y x u , , , = =
( )

( ) { }

+
= =
ab
xy
b
y
ab
xy
ab
xy
a
x
ab
xy
b
y
a
x
y x N y x N
T
1
, ,
In the 2-D elasticity problem, we displacements in both the x and y-directions at every point
of the plate. For a rectangular element, you get 8 DOF per element
The displacement vector
( )
( )

=
)
`

4
1
4
1
4 3 2 1
4 3 2 1
, , , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0
0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , , ,
,
,
v
v
u
u
N N N N
N N N N
y x v
y x u

Strain-Displacement Relations
Stationary Functional Approach 24

(
(
(

+
=

4
1
4
1
4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1
4 3 2 1
4 3 2 1
, , , , , ,
, , , 0 , 0 , 0 , 0
0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , , ,
v
v
u
u
N N N N N N N N
N N N N
N N N N
dx
dv
dy
du
dy
dv
dx
du
x x x x y y y y
y y y y
x x x x
xy
y
x

c
c

{ } | |{ }
m m m
w B = c
Strain Energy
{ } | |{ }
}
=
Area
T
dA Q h U c c
2
1

{ } | | | || |{ }
}
=
Area
m m
T
m
T
m
dA w B Q B w h U
2
1

{ } | | | || |{ } { } | |{ }
m m
T
m
Area
m m
T
m
T
m
w k w dA w B Q B w h U o o o = =
}

Approximate Methods in Structure Mechanics 25

3.4 Finite Element Model of Plates in Bending

3.4.1 Displacement Function
The transverse displacement w(x,y), at any location x and y inside the plate element, is
expressed by
( 3-1)
where
w
H is a 64 element row vector and {a} is the vector of unknown coefficients. For
the plate element under consideration, the bending degrees of freedom associated with
each node are

(
(
(
(
(

c c
c
c
c
c
c
16
2
1
2
, ,
,
,
a
a
a
H
H
H
H
y x
w
y
w
x
w
w
y x
y
x
w
w
w
w

( 3-2)
where H
w,i
is the partial derivative of H
w
with respect to i. Substituting the nodal coordinates
into equation (13), the nodal bending displacement vector {w
b
} is obtained as follows,

( 3-3)
where { }
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

c c
c
c c
c
c
c
c
c
=
b H
H
H
H
H
T
y x
w
y x
w
y
w
x
w
w
w
y x
y x
y
x
w
w
w
w
w
b b
, 0
0 , 0
0 , 0
0 , 0
0 , 0
] [ &
, ,
, ,
,
,
4
2
1
2
1
1
1

( 3-4)
From equation (14), we can obtain

( 3-5)
Substituting equation (16) into equation (12) gives

{ } a H y x w
w
= ) , (
{ } | |{ } a T w
b b
=
{ } | | { }
b b
w T a
1
=
Stationary Functional Approach 26


( 3-6)
where [N
w
] is the shape function for bending given by
( 3-7)

3.4.2 Strain-Displacement Relation
Consider the classical plate theory, for the strain vector {c} can be written in terms of the
lateral deflections as follows

{ } { } k

c
c
c z
xy
y
x
=

= ( 3-8)
where z is the vertical distance from the neutral plane and {k} is the curvature vector which
can be written as,

( 3-9)
where

( 3-10)
Substituting equation (17) into equation (23), gives

( 3-11)
where
( 3-12)
Thus, the strain-nodal displacement relationship can be written as
| || | { } | |{ }
b w b b w
w N w T H y x w = =
1
) , (
| | | || |
1
=
b w w
T H N
{ } | | } {
2
2
2
2
2
2
a C
y x
w
y
w
x
w
b
=

c c
c

c
c

c
c

= k
| |
(
(
(

=
xy
yy
xx
w
w
w
b
H
H
H
C
,
,
,
2
{ } | | | | | | } { } {
1
b b b b b
w B w T C = =

k
| | | || |
1
=
b b b
T C B
Approximate Methods in Structure Mechanics 27


( 3-13)

3.4.3 Constitutive Relations of Piezoelectric Lamina
The general form of the constitutive equation of the piezoelectric patch are written as
follows

( 3-14)
where, are the stress in the x-direction, stress in the y-direction, and the planar
shear stress respectively; are the corresponding mechanical strains; D is the
electric displacement (Culomb/m
2
), is the electric field (Volt/m), piezoelectric
material constant relating the stress to the electric field, is the material dielectric
constant at constant stress (Farad/m), and is the mechanical stress-strain constitutive
matrix at constant electric field.
is given by,


where E is the Youngs modulus of elasticity at constant electric field, and u is the Poissons
ratio.

Equation (28) can be rearranged as follows

| | { }{ } { }
{ }

(
(

+
=

D
e
e e e Q
E
xy
y
x
T
T
E
xy
y
x
c
c
c
| |
| |
o
o
o
( 3-15)
{ } | |{ }
b b
w B z z = = } {k c
| | { }
{ }

(
(

E
e
e Q
D
xy
y
x
T
E
xy
y
x
c
c
c
o
o
o
xy y x
o o o , ,
xy y x
c c c , ,
E { } e
e
| |
E
Q
| |
E
Q
| |
( )
(
(
(
(
(
(

+


=
u
u u
u
u
u
u
1 2
0 0
0
1 1
0
1 1
2 2
2 2
E
E E
E E
Q
E
Stationary Functional Approach 28

or

( 3-16)
and

( 3-17)
where .

3.4.4 Stiffness and Mass Matrices of the Element
The principal of virtual work states that

( 3-18)
where H is the total energy of the system, U is the strain energy, T is the kinetic energy, W
is the external work done, and o(.) denotes the first variation.

3.4.4.1 The Potential Energy
The variation of the mechanical and electrical potential energies is given by

( 3-19)
where V is the volume of the structure. Substituting equation (30) and (31) into equation
(33) gives,

( 3-20)
Substituting from equations (20) and (27), we get,

( 3-21)
| | { }D e Q
xy
y
x
D
xy
y
x
|
c
c
c
o
o
o

{ } D e E
xy
y
x
T
|
c
c
c
| +

=
e
=
1
|
( ) 0 = = H W T U o o
{ } { }
} }
+ =
V V
T
dV E D dV U o o oc o
{ } | | { } { } ( ) { } { } ( )
} }
+ + =
V
T
V
D T
dV D z e D dV D e z Q z U | k | o | k ok o
| |{ } ( ) | | | |{ } { }| |{ } ( )
| |{ } ( ) { } | |{ } | |{ } ( )
}
}
+ +
=
V
D D b b
T T
D D
V
D D b b
D T
b b
dV w N w B z e w N
dV w N e w B z Q w B z U
| | o
| o o
Approximate Methods in Structure Mechanics 29

The terms of the expansion of equation (35) can be recast as follows

,

,
,
and ;
where [k
b
] is bending stiffness matrix, [k
bD
] is bending displacement-electric displacement
coupling matrix, and [k
D
] is the electric stiffness matrix.

3.4.4.2 The Kinetic Energy
The variation of the kinetic energy T of the plate/piezo patch element is given by,

( 3-22)
where is the density/equivalent density and h is the thickness of the element. The above
equation can be rewritten in terms of nodal displacements as follows

( 3-23)
where [m
b
] is the element bending mass matrix.

3.4.4.3 The external work
The variation of the external work done exerted by the shunt circuit is given by

}
=
A
dA q DL W o o ( 3-24)
| |{ } ( ) | | | |{ } { } | |{ }
b b
T
b
V
b b
D
T
b b
w k w dV w B Q w B z o o =
}
2
| |{ } ( ) { }| |{ } { } | |{ }
D bD
T
b
V
D D
T
b b
w k w dV w N e w B z o | o =
}
| |{ } ( ) { } | |{ } { } | |{ } { } | | { }
b
T
bD
T
D b Db
T
D
V
b b
T T
D D
w k w w k w dV w B z e w N o o | o | = =
}
| |{ } ( ) | |{ } { } | |{ }
D D
T
D
V
D D
T
D D
w k w dV w N w N o o | =
}
}
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
=
A
dA
t
w
h w T
2
2
o o
{ } | | | |{ } | | { } | |{ }
b b
T
b
A
b w
T
w
T
b
A
w m w dA w N N w h dA
t
w
h w o o o = =
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
} }
2
2
Stationary Functional Approach 30

where A is the element area, L is the shunted inductance, and q is the charge flowing in the
circuit. But, as the charge is the integral of the electric displacement over the element area;
then equation (38) reduces to,

} }
=
A A
dA D L DdA W

o o ( 3-25)
Substituting from equation (20), gives

{ }

{ }
} }
=
A
D D
A
T
D
T
D
dA w L N dA N w W o o ( 3-26)
which can be recast in the following form,

{ } | |{ }
D D
T
D
w m w W o o = ( 3-27)
where [m
D
] is the element electric mass matrix.

Finally, the element equation of motion with no external forces can be written as

| |
| |
| | | |
| | | |
)
`

=
)
`

+
)
`

0
0
0
0
D
b
D Db
bD b
D
b
D
b
w
w
k k
k k
w
w
m
m


( 3-28)