THE QUANTUM COMPUTER

(Electronics and computers)

A BOON FOR THE NE T !ENERAT"ON### Presented B$% &) '(at)i ' Prasad Fifth SEM, I.T. S.I.T., Tumkur Mail "d% [email protected] P) no% 988615266 *) 'and)$a P Na$a+ Fifth SEM, I.T. S.I.T., Tumkur Mail id% !an"#ana#[email protected] P) no% 98 16 $25

,)at is a Quantum Computer#

%ehol" #our com&uter. 'our com&uter re&re!ent! the culmination of #ear! of technological a"(ancement! )eginning *ith the earl# i"ea! of +harle! %a))age ,1$91-18$1. an" e(entual creation of the fir!t com&uter )# /erman engineer 0onra" 1u!e in 19 1. ho*e(er, the high Sur&ri!ingl# mo"ern !&ee"

macro!co&ic &h#!ical !#!tem, !uch a! the magneti8ation on a har" "i!k or the charge on a ca&acitor. 6 "ocument, for e9am&le, com&ri!e" of n-character! !tore" on the har" "ri(e of a t#&ical com&uter i! accor"ingl# "e!cri)e" )# a !tring of 8n 8ero! an" one!. :erein lie! a ke# "ifference )et*een #our cla!!ical com&uter an" a 4uantum com&uter. ;here a cla!!ical com&uter o)e#! the *ell un"er!too" la*! of cla!!ical &h#!ic!, a 4uantum com&uter i! a "e(ice that harne!!e! &h#!ical &henomenon uni4ue to 4uantum mechanic! ,e!&eciall# 4uantum interference. to reali8e a fun"amentall# ne* mo"e of information &roce!!ing. In a 4uantum com&uter, the fun"amental unit of information ,calle" a 4uantum )it or 4u)it., i! not )inar# )ut rather more 4uaternar# in nature. Thi! 4u)it &ro&ert# ari!e! a! a "irect con!e4uence of it! a"herence to the la*! of 4uantum

com&uter !itting in front of #ou i! fun"amentall# no "ifferent from it! gargantuan 23 ton ance!tor!, *hich *ere e4ui&&e" *ith !ome 18333 (acuum tu)e! an" 533 mile! of *iring5 6lthough com&uter! ha(e )ecome more com&act an" con!i"era)l# fa!ter in &erforming their ta!k, the ta!k remain! the !ame7 to mani&ulate an" inter&ret an enco"ing of )inar# )it! into a u!eful com&utational fun"amental re!ult. unit of 6 )it i! a information,

cla!!icall# re&re!ente" a! a 3 or 1 in #our "igital com&uter. Each cla!!ical )it i! &h#!icall# reali8e" through a

mechanic! *hich "iffer ra"icall# from the la*! of cla!!ical &h#!ic!. 6 4u)it can e9i!t not onl# in a !tate corre!&on"ing to the logical !tate 3 or 1 a! in a cla!!ical )it, )ut al!o in !tate! corre!&on"ing to a )len" or !u&er&o!ition of the!e cla!!ical !tate!. In other *or"!, a 4u)it can e9i!t a! a 8ero, a

one, or !imultaneou!l# a! )oth 3 an" 1, *ith a numerical coefficient re&re!enting the &ro)a)ilit# for each !tate. Thi! ma# !eem counterintuiti(e )ecau!e e(er#"a# &henomenon are go(erne" )# cla!!ical &h#!ic!, not 4uantum mechanic! -*hich take! o(er at the atomic le(el

Computin- in parallel uni.erses%

<ecent "i!co(erie! in 4uantum &h#!ic! ,the !tu"# of the &h#!ic! of !u)-atomic &article!. an" in co!molog# ,the )ranch of a!tronom# an" a!tro&h#!ic! that "eal! *ith the uni(er!e taken a! a *hole. !he" ne* light on ho* min" interact! *ith matter. The!e "i!co(erie! com&el acce&tance of the i"ea that there i! far more than =u!t one uni(er!e an" that *e ;hat i! nee"e" i! a re!ource that e9&lain! in un"er!tan"a)le, nonmathematical term! e(er#thing from the )ig )ang h#&othe!i! to mor&hogenetic fiel"! to %ell@! Theorem to the 6!&ect e9&eriment. Such a re!ource no* e9i!t!. con!tantl# interact *ith man# of the!e >hi""en? uni(er!e!.

The %riti!h !cienti!t A.%.S. :al"ane once !ai", the uni(er!e i! not onl# 4ueerer than *e !u&&o!e, )ut 4ueerer than *e +6B !u&&o!e5 6 recent Economi!t !ur(e# on the uni(er!e offer! a glim&!e into a futuri!tic com&uter-one that i! in"ee" 4ueerer than mo!t imagination! can gra!&. 6ccor"ing to The Economi!t, Ceut!ch &o!it! a ne* com&uter, calle" 4uantum com&uter. Dr"inar# com&uter! *ork )# mani&ulating )it!-)inar# "igit! of "ata, 8ero! an" one!. 6 4uantum com&uter *ork! *ith 4u)it!, *ho!e (alue i! in"eterminate, until an o)!er(er e9amine! them, in *hich ca!e! the# )ecome or"inar# non-4uantum 8ero-one )it!. Thi! mean! that an enormou!

num)er of calculation! can )e &erforme" in &arallel, a! long a! their interme"iate !te&! remain une9amine". The num)er of 4u)it!. &o!!i)le calculation! *ith the num)er ri!e! of e9&onentiall#

6 !mall 4uantum com&uter

coul" &erform more calculation! than there are &article! in the uni(er!e. Earallel com&uting ha! alrea"# &ro(en it! enormou! &o*er-for in!tance, a fe* "o8en E+@! hooke" u& in &arallel, *ith !o&hi!ticate" !oft*are, a&&roach the &erformance of a !u&ercom&uter. Fuantum com&uter! are !u&er-"u&er &arallel com&uter!, man# or"er! of magnitu"e more &o*erful.

Histor$ o/ Quantum Computin-%

The i"ea of a com&utational "e(ice )a!e" on 4uantum mechanic! *a! fir!t e9&lore" in the 19$3@! an" earl# 1983@! )# &h#!ici!t! an" com&uter !cienti!t! !uch a! +harle! :. %ennett of the I%M Thoma! A. ;at!on <e!earch +enter, Eaul 6. %enioff of 6rgonne Bational Ga)orator# in Illinoi!, Ca(i" Ceut!ch of the Hni(er!it# of D9for", an" the late <ichar" E. Fe#nman of the +alifornia In!titute of Technolog# ,+altech.. The i"ea emerge" *hen !cienti!t! *ere &on"ering the fun"amental limit! of com&utation. The# un"er!too" that if technolog# continue" to a)i"e )# Moore@! Ga*, then the continuall# !hrinking !i8e of circuitr# &acke" onto !ilicon chi&! *oul" e(entuall# reach a &oint *here in"i(i"ual element! *oul" )e no larger than a fe* atom!. then rai!e" the 4ue!tion of *hether a ne* kin" of com&uter coul" )e "e(i!e"

)a!e" on the &rinci&le! of 4uantum &h#!ic!. Fe#nman *a! among the fir!t to attem&t to &ro(i"e an an!*er to thi! 4ue!tion )# &ro"ucing an a)!tract mo"el in 1982 that !ho*e" ho* a 4uantum !#!tem coul" )e u!e" to "o com&utation!. :e al!o e9&laine" ho* !uch a machine *oul" )e a)le to act a! a !imulator for 4uantum &h#!ic!. In other *or"!, a &h#!ici!t *oul" ha(e the a)ilit# to carr# out e9&eriment! in 4uantum &h#!ic! in!i"e a 4uantum mechanical com&uter. . Hnfortunatel#, all that coul" )e foun" *ere a fe* rather contri(e"

mathematical

&ro)lem!,

until

Shor

circulate" in 199 a &re&rint of a &a&er in *hich he !et out a metho" for u!ing 4uantum com&uter! to crack an im&ortant &ro)lem in num)er theor#, namel# factori8ation. :e !ho*e" ho* an en!em)le of mathematical o&eration!, "e!igne" !&ecificall# for a 4uantum com&uter, coul" )e organi8e" to ena)le a !uch a machine to factor huge num)er! e9tremel# ra&i"l#, much fa!ter than i! &o!!i)le on con(entional com&uter!. ;ith thi! )reakthrough, curio!it# "irectl# 4uantum into a com&uting tran!forme" from a mere aca"emic national an" *orl" intere!t.

Ho( T)is Quantum Computer ,or+s#

The ma!!i(e amount of &roce!!ing &o*er 4uench generate" our thir!t )# for com&uter !&ee" an" manufacturer! ha! not #et )een a)le to com&uting ca&acit#. In 19 $, 6merican com&uter engineer :o*ar" 6iken !ai" that =u!t !i9 electronic "igital com&uter! *oul" !ati!f# the com&uting nee"! of the Hnite" State!. Dther! ha(e ma"e !imilar

errant &re"iction! a)out the amount of com&uting &o*er that *oul" !u&&ort our gro*ing technological nee"!. Df cour!e, 6iken "i"n@t count on the large amount! of "ata generate" )# !cientific re!earch, the &roliferation of &er!onal com&uter! or the emergence of the Internet, *hich ha(e onl# fuele" our nee" for more, more an" more com&uting &o*er.

;ill *e e(er ha(e the amount of com&uting &o*er *e nee" or *antI If, a! Moore@! Ga* !tate!, the num)er of tran!i!tor! on a micro&roce!!or continue! to "ou)le e(er# 18 month!, the #ear 2323 or 2323 *ill fin" the circuit! on a micro&roce!!or mea!ure" on an atomic !cale. 6n" the logical ne9t !te& *ill )e to create 4uantum com&uter!, *hich *ill harne!! the &o*er of atom! an" molecule! to &erform memor# an" &roce!!ing ta!k!.

Fuantum com&uter! ha(e the &otential to &erform certain calculation! !ignificantl# fa!ter than an# !ilicon)a!e" com&uter. Scienti!t! ha(e alrea"# )uilt )a!ic

4uantum com&uter! that can &erform certain calculation!J )ut a &ractical 4uantum com&uter i! !till #ear! a*a#. In thi! article, #ou@ll learn *hat a 4uantum com&uter i! an" =u!t *hat it@ll )e u!e" for in the ne9t era of com&uting.

T)e !eometr$ o/ Qu0its

In the conte9t of 4uantum information theor#, the follo*ing !tructure !eem! to )e of intere!t-Thi! ring i! another *a# of looking K... the full t*o-)#-t*o matri9 ring *ith entrie! in GF,2., M2,GF,2..-- the uni4ue !im&le non-commutati(e ring of or"er at the 16 element! of the affine -!&ace A ,GF,2.. o(er the 2-element fiel". ,6rrange the four coor"inate! of each 16 featuring !i9 unit! ,in(erti)le

element!. an" ten 8ero-"i(i!or!.K

element-- 1@! an" 3@!-- into a !4uare in!tea" of a !traight line, an" regar" the re!ulting !4uare! a! matrice!.. ,For more on A ,GF,2.., !ee Finite <elati(it# an" relate" note! at Finite /eometr# of the S4uare an" +u)e.. H!ing the a)o(e ring, Saniga con!truct! a !#!tem of 25 o)=ect! ,not unlike the 25 line! of the finite geometr# PG,2,2.. that he call! a K&ro=ecti(e lineK o(er the ring. Thi! !#!tem of 25 o)=ect! ha! a !u) configuration i!omor&hic to the ,2,2. generali8e" of 4ua"rangle !ee of W2 ,*hich The occur! naturall# a! a !u) configuration PG,2,2.-In!ca&e!.. thi! connection generali8e"

!&in-1M2 &article! are uni4uel# em)o"ie" in the ,!u). geometr# of a &articular &ro=ecti(e line, foun" to )e e4ui(alent to the generali8e" 4ua"rangle of or"er t*o. 6! !uch !#!tem! are the !im&le!t one! e9hi)iting &henomena like 4uantum entanglement an" 4uantum non-localit# an" &la#, therefore, a crucial role in numerou! a&&lication! like 4uantum cr#&togra&h#, 4uantum co"ing, 4uantum cloningMtele&ortation an"Mor 4uantum com&uting to mention the mo!t !alient one!, our "i!co(er# thu!

not onl# offer! a &rinci&all# ne* geometricall#-un"erline" in!ight into their intrin!ic nature,

4ua"rangle *ith PG,2,2. i! note" in a later &a&er )# Saniga an" other! ,KThe Lel"kam& S&ace of T*o-Fu)it!,K cite" )elo*.. K;e ha(e "emon!trate" that the )a!ic &ro&ertie! of a !#!tem of t*o interacting

)ut al!o gi(e! their a&&lication! a *holl# ne* &er!&ecti(e an" o&en! u& rather une9&ecte" (i!ta! for an alge)raic geometrical mo"elling of their higher-"imen!ional counter&art!.K

Quantum in/ormation%

In

4uantum

mechanic!,

4uantum

:o*e(er, "e!&ite thi!, the amount of information that can )e retrie(e" in a !ingle 4u)it i! e4ual to one )it. It i! in the &roce!!ing of information ,4uantum com&utation. that a "ifference occur!. The a)ilit# to mani&ulate 4uantum information ena)le! u! to &erform ta!k! that *oul" )e unachie(a)le in a cla!!ical conte9t, !uch a! uncon"itionall# !ecure

information i! &h#!ical information that i! hel" in the K!tateK of a 4uantum !#!tem. The mo!t &o&ular unit of 4uantum information i! the 4u)it, a t*o!tate 4uantum !#!tem. :o*e(er, unlike cla!!ical "igital !tate! ,*hich are "i!crete., a t*o-!tate 4uantum !#!tem can actuall# )e in a !u&er&o!ition of the t*o !tate! at an# gi(en time.

tran!mi!!ion of information. Fuantum information &roce!!ing i! the mo!t general fiel" that i! concerne" *ith 4uantum information. There are certain ta!k! *hich cla!!ical com&uter! cannot &erform Kefficientl#K ,that i!, in &ol#nomial time.. :o*e(er, a 4uantum com&uter can com&ute the an!*er to

!ome of the!e &ro)lem! in &ol#nomial timeJ one *ell-kno*n e9am&le of thi! i! Shor@! factoring algorithm. Dther algorithm! can !&ee" u& a ta!k le!! "ramaticall# - for e9am&le, /ro(er@! !earch algorithm *hich gi(e! a 4ua"ratic !&ee"-u& o(er the )e!t &o!!i)le cla!!ical algorithm.

12,a.e '$stems
C-;a(e S#!tem! i! the *orl"@! fir!t an" onl# !ource of 4uantum com&uting for commercial a&&lication!. ;e )elie(e 4uantum technolog# in concert *ith cla!!ical, "igital &roce!!or!, can an" *ill re&re!ent )roa" an" !ignificant In Fe)ruar# 233$, C-;a(e un(eile" an" "emon!trate" thi! technolog# &u)licl# for the fir!t time. The com&an# &lan! to "eli(er fiel"-"e&lo#a)le !#!tem! in 233$ a"(ancement! in the a&&lication of com&uter !cience.

C-;a(e S#!tem! "emon!trate" a 164u)it, !&ecific-&ur&o!e 4uantum com&uter to a room &acke" *ith o)!er(er! an" thick *ith "ou)t an" a*e. <e&orter! *atche" a! the machine !ol(e" a Su"oku &u88le an" a !eating arrangement! &ro)lem, an", mo!t im&re!!i(el#, !earche" for molecule! !imilar to the "rug Erilo!ec from a "ata)a!e of molecule!. C-;a(e *a! foun"e" )# :aig Farri! ,chair of )oar"., /eor"ie <o!e ,+TD an" former +ED., %o) ;ien! ,former +FD., an" 6le9an"re 1ago!kin ,former LE <e!earch an" +hief Scienti!t.. Farri! taught an entre&reneur!hi& cour!e at H%+, *here <o!e o)taine" hi! Eh.C. an" 1ago!kin *a! a &o!t"octoral fello*.

The com&an# name refer! to their fir!t 4u)it "e!ign!, *hich u!e" !u&ercon"uctor!. C-;a(e o&erate" a! an off!hoot from H%+, *hile maintaining tie! *ith the "e&artment of Eh#!ic! an" 6!tronom#. It fun"e" aca"emic re!earch in 4uantum com&uting, thu! )uil"ing a colla)orati(e net*ork of re!earch !cienti!t!. The com&an# H%+, colla)orate" Aena, Hni(er!it# of of of *ith !e(eral "e uni(er!itie! an" in!titution!, inclu"ing IE:T Hni(er!itN of Sher)rooke, Hni(er!it# Hni(er!it# Hni(er!it# re!earcher! Toronto, +halmer! an" The!e C-;a(e "-*a(e

T*ente, Erlangen. *ith

Technolog#,

*orke"

!cienti!t! an" engineer!. Mo!t of C-

;a(e@! Some

&eer-re(ie*e" &u)lication! ha(e

technical C-;a(e

!earch for KC-;a(e S#!tem! Inc.K in the &h#!ic! !u)=ect area of the arPi(.org &re&rint !er(er return! $2 hit!. C-;a(e o&erate" from (ariou! location! in Lancou(er an" la)orator# !&ace! at H%+ )efore mo(ing to it! current location in the neigh)oring !u)ur) of %urna)#.

&u)lication! come from thi! &erio". em&lo#ee! a! author!, *hile other! inclu"e em&lo#ee! of their &artner! a! *ell or onl#. 6! of 2335, the!e &artner!hi&! an" re!ulting technical &a&er! *ere no longer li!te" on C;a(eO! *e)!ite. 6! of 233$, a full te9t

Quantum c)aos in 3uantum computer core

Time e9&lo!ion of 4uantum chao! in the 4uantum regi!ter7 color re&re!ent! the (alue of the &ro=ection &ro)a)ilit# of an initial !tate on the 4uantum regi!ter !tate! or"ere" in energ#, from re" ,ma9imal (alue. to )lue ,minimal (alue.. :ori8ontal a9i! corre!&on"! to 153 !tate!, the (ertical a9i! to 153 time !te&!. 6 cho!en initial !tate i! the !u&er&o!ition of t*o 4uantum regi!ter !tate!. :ere nQ16 4u)it! are u!e" *ith inter4u)it Fuantum com&uter melting in"uce" )# the cou&ling )et*een 4u)it!. +olor re&re!ent! the le(el of 4uantum eigen!tate entro&# S4 ,)lue - minimal S4Q3, re" - ma9imal S4Q11. for 12 4u)it!. Lertical a9i! gi(e! the cou&ling !trengthJ hori8ontal one gi(e! the energ# of com&uter eigen!tate. cou&ling a)o(e ,Fig. left. an" )elo* ,Fig. right. the 4uantum chao! )or"er.

Applications% Optimization
There are (ariou! ta!k! *e *ant com&uter! to "o for u!. Some of the!e erran"! are (er# ea!#. For e9am&le, if *e *ant a com&uter to multi&l# t*o num)er!, *e can recei(e the correct an!*er in the )link of an e#e R e(en for (er# large num)er!. Some im&ortant thing! *e *oul" like a com&uter to accom&li!h for u!, ho*e(er, are e9tremel# "ifficult. For !e(eral "eca"e!, com&uter !cienti!t! ha(e )een tr#ing to cla!!if# all of the &ro)lem! that *e currentl# hol" Thi! categor# i! a &articularl# intere!ting target from a commercial &er!&ecti(e )ecau!e mo!t real-life )u!ine!! &ro)lem! kno*le"ge of to"a#. ;hene(er a ne* &ro)lem ari!e!, it i! &lace" in one of the e9i!ting categorie! of &ro)lem!. The!e Dne of the mo!t intere!ting categorie! contain! &ro)lem! that are calle" BEcom&lete. Thi! categor# !hare! a common feature7 in or"er to !ol(e the &ro)lem, all &o!!i)le !olution! mu!t )e trie", an" the num)er of &o!!i)le !olution! gro*! e9&onentiall# *ith the &ro)lem !i8e. 6 goo" e9am&le i! the Tra(eling Sale!man Ero)lem, although there are literall# thou!an"! of them. categorie! "e!cri)e ho* intricate the &ro)lem! are, !u)!e4uentl# e9&laining *h#.

are all

&arallele"

)#

it.

BE-com&lete limite"

enoughO for the gi(en a&&lication. The!e a&&roache! are calle" heuri!tic!, an" inclu"e genetic algorithm! an" !imulate" annealing. :o*e(er, 4uantum com&uter! can )e u!e" to calculate a&&ro9imate !olution! to large BE-com&lete metho"! o&timi8ation on an# &ro)lem! more 4uickl# than the )e!tkno*n running !u&ercom&uter.

o&timi8ation &ro)lem! un"erlie nearl# circum!tance! *here re!ource! are )eing allocate" in or"er to minimi8e or ma9imi8e !omething. The# are u)i4uitou! in engineering, finance, !cience, an" logi!tic!. %ecau!e the!e &ro)lem! cannot )e !ol(e" )# com&uter!, the a&&roach commonl# taken i! to "e(i!e metho"! for gaining an!*er! *hich are Sgoo"

Bioin/ormatics
The !cientific !tu"# of life an" of li(ing organi!m! )reakthrough! "ri(e! in "ramatic an" me"icine ha! limit!. It cannot, for e9am&le, calculate the "imen!ional !tructure of molecule! or com&oun"!. 6! a re!ult, the interaction of "ifferent molecule! cannot )e mo"ele". Thi! mean! that tra"itional >*et la)oratorie!,? for e9am&le, animal te!ting an" human "rug trial! mu!t !till )e u!e" to "etermine ho* molecule! react un"er "ifferent circum!tance!. Cigital technolog# ha! ena)le" a Eart of the &romi!e of 4uantum com&uter! i! their a)ilit# to mo"el ho* molecule! react in contact *ith other!, un"er (ariou! circum!tance! multitu"e of !cientific an" me"ical a"(ance! that ha(e im&ro(e" the 4ualit# of life an" e9ten"e" human life e9&ectanc#. Thi! technolog#, ho*e(er,

healthcare. It inclu"e! )iolog# an" relate" !cience! !uch a! )iochemi!tr#, )iome"icine, )iotechnolog#, cell )iolog#, genetic!, micro)iolog#, an" molecular )iolog#.

Quantum 'imulation

Simulation ha! al*a#! )een an im&ortant &art of con(entional !er(e a! te!t com&uter mo"el!, a&&lication. For engineer! an" !cienti!t!, !imulation! allo*ing o)!er(er! to o(er!ee (ariou! cau!e! an" effect! *hile a(oi"ing the limitation! of &h#!icall# e9&erimenting in the real *orl". To"a#@! engineering mar(el! *oul" not )e &o!!i)le *ere it not for com&uter mo"eling. E(er#thing from the car #ou "ri(e, the &lane #ou la!t fle* in, the )uil"ing in *hich #ou !it, to the com&uter chi& in #our E+, are ma"e &o!!i)le )# !imulation. There i! an im&licit a!!um&tion that the tactic! u!e" in engineering to"a# *ill a&&l# to engineering at the nano!cale. The &romi!e of nanotechnolog# i! )a!e" on the &remi!e that !ince e(er#thing i! )uilt of atom!, if *e can mani&ulate matter on the le(el of atom!, *e can )uil" an#thing that i! &h#!icall# &o!!i)le.

%uil"ing, ho*e(er, i! onl# a &art of engineering. Merel# ha(ing the ca&a)ilit# to )uil" an# gi(en a!!em)l# of atom! "oe! not mean that *e can &re"ict ho* it )eha(e! &rior to con!truction. Hnfortunatel#, con(entional ,non-

4uantum. com&uter! R no matter ho* &o*erful R are not (er# !ucce!!ful at &re"icting the )eha(iour of nature on the nano!cale. The 4uantum &ro&ertie! of matter an" energ# that make nanotechnolog# !o intere!ting *reak ha(oc *ith con(entional !imulation metho"!. Fuantum com&uter! are the onl# kno*n !olution to thi! &ro)lem. The# are a)le to "irectl# !ol(e the fun"amental e4uation! of 4uantum mechanic! for an# &h#!ical !#!tem. Sufficientl# ro)u!t 4uantum com&uter! *ill )e a)le to create the ultimate (irtual realit# en(ironment, *here &ro"uct! an" &roce!!e! at the le(el of atom! an" molecule! can )e e9actl# an" effortle!!l# &ro)e".

1ra(0ac+s% T)e "nitiali4ation Pro0lem in Quantum Computin-

The &ro)lem of initiali8ing &ha!e in a 4uantum com&uting !#!tem i! con!i"ere". The initiali8ation of &ha!e! i! a &ro)lem *hen the !#!tem i! initiall# &re!ent in a !u&er&o!ition !tate a! *ell a! in the a&&lication of the 4uantum gate tran!formation!, !ince each gate *ill intro"uce &ha!e uncertaint#. The

4uantum error-correction co"e! that are )a!e" on the a!!um&tion that the error! are either )it-fli& or &ha!e-fli& or )oth. It i! argue" that the!e co"e! cannot "irectl# !ol(e the initiali8ation &ro)lem of 4uantum com&uting. Effect! of "ecoherence in the

accumulation of the!e ran"om &ha!e! *ill re"uce the effecti(ene!! of the recentl# &ro&o!e" 4uantum com&uting !cheme!. The &a&er al!o &re!ent! general o)!er(ation! on the nonlocal nature of 4uantum error! an" the e9&ecte" &erformance of the recentl# &ro&o!e"

im&lementation of 4uantum com&utation ha(e )een *i"el# "i!cu!!e" in the literature a! one of it! main "ra*)ack!. <an"om &ha!e !hift!, *ithout "i!entaglement of the !tate!, can al!o cau!e !eriou! &ro)lem! in an ongoing 4uantum com&utation. The!e are unitar# tran!formation! of the form7

*here

an" contain unkno*n &ha!e angle!.

Conclusion%
The e9&onential !&ee"-u& in 4uantum com&utation, an" in general the *a# a 4uantum !#!tem &roce!!e! information, can onl# )e &ro&erl# un"er!too" *ithin the frame*ork of the !o-calle" Sman#*orl"!O inter&retation, originating *ith E(erett. The i"ea, roughl#, i! that an entangle" !tate of the !ort that ari!e! in the 4uantum com&utation of a function, *hich re&re!ent! a linear !u&er&o!ition o(er all &o!!i)le argument! an" corre!&on"ing (alue! of the function,

!houl" )e un"er!too" a! a manife!tation of &arallel com&utation! in "ifferent *orl"!. The 4uantum circuit i! "e!igne" to ena)le the com&utation of a glo)al &ro&ert# of the function )# achie(ing !ome !ort of SinterferenceO )et*een the!e "ifferent *orl"!. For an in!ightful criti4ue of thi! i"ea of S4uantum &aralleli!mO a! e9&lanator#, !ee Steane ,2332.. It !houl" )e note" that the term

Sman#-*orl"!O can refer to a (ariet# of inter&retational i"ea!, !ome more refine" than other!. 6&&arentl#, &rimiti(e (er!ion! of

4uantum com&uter! ha(e alrea"# )een )uilt. Some &eo&le think thi! coul" )e a main!tream technolog# in future "eca"e!. I! there an I!raeli !tartu&

alrea"# *riting !oft*are for themI