Notes and questions to aid

A-level Mathematics revision

Robert Bowles
University College London
May 15, 2012
1 Introduction 2
1 Introduction
There are some students who nd the rst years study at UCL and many other universities
dicult. Of course there can be many reasons for this but these notes aim to help overcome
problems that may arise from:
1. Diculties students have carrying out algebraic manipulation accurately and quickly.
The best remedy for this is practice and more practice.
2. Diculties which arise from a lack of knowledge, or more likely application of the
students knowledge in new areas.
If you work through this document and do the questions you will hopefully nd yourself
better prepared for starting your course at UCL. You are likely to nd that the pace of a
university mathematics course is greater that is the case at school. New ideas and results
will be introduced and used in rapid sucession. You will be better able to cope with the
diculties this can lead to if you are totally familiar with the material you have covered at
school. It is also worth starting to prepare now for the fact that in the mathematics exams
at UCL you are not allowed the use of a calculator, a book of tables or a formula sheet!
The material here concentrates on some of the knowledge and techniques required for
the rst term MATH1401 methods course although you will also nd it helpful for the
applied mathematics course MATH1301. It does not cover everything you will need to
know.
Please note carefully:
1. There is a core A-level syllabus which all students completing a single maths A-level
may be expected to know. Much of the material below is in the core A-Level syllabus
but some is on the edges of the core and you may not be familiar with it. A little
material which is denitely not in the core is presented here anyway because it follows
naturally from material that is in the core.
2. Be prepared, at the start, to have to use your current A-level notes and texts to
help answer some of the questions. Hopefully by the end of working through the
document, you should be better able to do these sort of questions immediately and
without reference to notes. We will expect you to be able to.
3. Few answers are given in these notes. Remember to check an integration all you need
to do is dierentiate and its good practice too. To check a division, multiply out. To
check a partial fraction, put it together again etc.
4. Some of the assessment for the rst term calculus course MATH1401 involves a test
on Elementary Techniques which, amoung other things, include the topics covered
in these notes. Sample tests are available at
http://www.ucl.ac.uk/~ucahdrb/MATH1401/Sampletest.pdf.
Note that, although you are able to take the test more than once, you must pass a
1 Introduction 3
test like this, obtaining 9/10, in order to be allowed to sit the exam for the course
MATH1401. It is therefore extremely important that you master the content of these
notes as soon as is possible.
Finally any comments on the relevance and diculty of these exercise and examples will
be gratefully received and will help enormously in improving this document for students
in years to come. Look out for mistakes. I know there are a few in there.
Robert Bowles
May 15, 2012
2 Algebraic Manipulation 4
2 Algebraic Manipulation
2.1 Completing the square
You should know how to complete the square and be able to write
ax
2
+ bx + c = a(x + b/2a)
2
+ c b
2
/4a.
Qu. 2.A Complete the square for
a) x
2
+ 2x + 1, b) 3x
2
+ 4x 5 c) 2 3x x
2
, d)c + dx 4x
2
.
2.2 Surds
You should know how to manipulate surds
Example

2 + 1

2 1
=
_

2 + 1

2 1
__

2 + 1

2 + 1
_
=
(

2 + 1)
2
2 1
,
as (u + 1)(u 1) = u
2
1, with u =

2, so

2 + 1

2 1
=
2 + 2

2 + 1
1
= (3 + 2

2)
Qu. 2.B Show
a)
1
(1

2)
2

1
(1 +

2)
2
= 4

2, b)
3

2 + 2

3
3

2 2

3
= 5 + 2

6,
c) ln(

2 1) = ln(

2 + 1), d)
x

y +

x
+
x

x
=
2x

y
y x
.
Here ln x is the natural logarithm, or logarithm to base e of x. In addition we may write
e
x
or exp(x) to mean e raised to the power x
3 Trigonometrical Formulae 5
3 Trigonometrical Formulae
3.1 Elementary Formulae
You should know
1. The denitions
cosec = 1/ sin
sec = 1/ cos
cot = 1/ tan
2. Pythagoras theorem
sin
2
+ cos
2
= 1 ()
sec
2
= tan
2
+ 1
cosec
2
= cot
2
+ 1.
(How do we get these last two from the rst ?)
3. The compound angle formulae
sin(a + b) = sin a cos b + cos a sin b, ()
sin(a b) = sin a cos b cos a sin b,
cos(a + b) = cos a cos b sin a sin b,
cos(a b) = cos a cos b + sin a sin b,
tan(a + b) =
tan a + tan b
1 tan a tan b
,
tan(a b) =
tan a tan b
1 + tan a tan b
,
(Can you gure out how to derive these starting from just the rst one ?.
Can you prove ?. What assumptions do you start from?)
4. The double angle formulae
sin 2a = 2 sin a cos a,
cos 2a = cos
2
a sin
2
a = 1 2 sin
2
a = 2 cos
2
a 1,
tan 2a =
2 tan a
1 tan
2
a
.
(Can you derive these from the compound angle formulae?)
3.1 Elementary Formulae 6
In addition you should know the sine, cosine and tangent of the angles 0, /6,
/4, /3, /2, 2/3, 3/4, etc and from them be able to evaluate the cosecant, secant
and cotangent. Also you should be able to use the symmetries in the graphs of the
trigonometric functions to nd values for arguments outside the range 0 to /2, including
negative values of the argument. Notice radians are now the preferred measure of angle.
Example Show
1
tan a+cot a
= sin a cos a =
sin 2a
2
.
1
tan a + cot a
=
1
sin a
cos a
+
cos a
sin a
=
sin a cos a
sin
2
a + cos
2
a
= sin a cos a
and
1
2
sin 2a =
1
2
2 sin a cos a = sin a cos a.
Qu. 3.A
1) If sin = 1/4, what is sin( ), sin( + ) and sin(2 ).
2) If tan = 0.2, write down cot( ), cot(3 ) and cot().
3) Write in surd form sin , cos , tan , sec and cot when = 5/6, = 2/3 and
= 7/4.
4) Find in the range 0 to 2 if sin = 1/2 and tan = 1/

3.
5) Show
a) cot tan = 2 cot 2, b) cosec 2 cot 2 = tan ,
c)
sin
1 + cos
= tan(/2), d)
sin 2 + cos 2 + 1
sin 2 cos 2 + 1
= cot .
6) If sin a = 1/

10 and sin b = 1/

5 show sin(a + b) = 1/

2.
7) Show
sec + cosec
tan + cot
=
tan cot
sec cosec
.
8) Show
a) sec
2
+ cosec
2
= 4 cosec
2
2, b) tan + cot =
2
sin 2
,
c) sin(a + b) sin(a b) = sin
2
a sin
2
b.
3.2 Using these results 7
3.2 Using these results
You should know that the expression a cos + b sin may be written in the form
Rcos( ) or Rsin( ) for positive R, although and may be of either sign. If
Rcos( ) = Rcos cos + Rsin sin = a cos + b sin ,
then
Rcos = a, Rsin = b,
so that squaring
R
2
= a
2
+ b
2
, cos =
a

a
2
+ b
2
, sin =
b

a
2
+ b
2
, tan =
b
a
Example Find the maximum and minimum value of 2 cos + 3 sin
2 cos + 3 sin = Rcos( )
where
R
2
= 2
2
+ 3
2
= 13, tan = 3/2
The maximum value occurs where ( ) = 0 so for = arctan(3/2). The maximum
is R =

13. Note I am happy to leave the answer in this form and not obtain an
approximate value of or R by using a calculator. You will not be allowed to use
calculators in nearly all your exams at UCL.
Qu. 3.B
1) Show cos + sin =

2 cos( /4) and nd the solutions in the range to to

the equation cos + sin = 1 together with the maximum and minimum values of
the expression.
2) Find the range of values in 0 to 2 for which a) 2 sin + cos is positive and
b) 4 cos 3 sin is negative.
3.3 More formulae 8
3.3 More formulae
You should know the formulae
sin + sin = 2 sin
_
+
2
_
cos
_

2
_
,
sin sin = 2 cos
_
+
2
_
sin
_

2
_
,
cos + cos = 2 cos
_
+
2
_
cos
_

2
_
,
cos cos = 2 sin
_
+
2
_
sin
_

2
_
,
(How do you derive these from the compound angle formulae?)
4 Series
4.1 Geometric Series
You should know The formula for the sum to n terms of the geometric series
a + ar + ar
2
+ ar
3
+ + ar
n1
= a
1 r
n
1 r
,
and that if |r| < 1, the sum to innity is a/(1 r)
Example
1. The series 2, 2/3, 2/9, 2/27, etc has rst term a = 2 and common ratio r = 1/3
which has |r| < 1 and the series has a sum equal to 2/(1 1/3) = 6/(3 1) = 3.
2. The series
sin 2 sin 2cos 2 + sin 2cos
2
2 + ,
has a rst term a = sin 2 and a common ratio (cos 2) and so a sum to
innity of sin 2/(1 + cos 2) = 2 sin cos /2 cos
2
= tan if | cos | < 1.
4.2 The Binomial Expansion 9
Qu. 4.A
1) Find the sum to innity, when it exists, of
a) 5, 10, 20, 40, . . . , b) 1/2, 1/4, 1/8, 1/16, . . . , c) 1, .1, .01, 0.001, . . . ,
d) a, a/r, a/r
2
, a/r
3
, . . . , e) x, x
2
/y, x
3
/y
2
, x
4
/y
3
, . . . .
2) Find the sum to innity of
1 +
x
1 + x
+
x
2
(1 + x)
2
+ ,
and determine the set of values of x for which the result holds.
3) Find the set of values of for which the series
1 + 2 cos
2
+ 4 cos
4
+ 8 cos
6
+
has a sum to innity and show that for these values of the sum is sec 2.
4.2 The Binomial Expansion
You should know that, if n is a positive integer,
(a + x)
n
= a
n
+ na
n1
x+
n(n 1)
2!
a
n2
x
2
+
+
n(n 1)(n 2) . . . (n r + 1)
r!
a
nr
x
r
+ + x
n
.
and that
n(n 1)(n 2) . . . (n r + 1)
r!
=
n
C
r
=
_
n
r
_
.
Example
1. (1 + 4x)
4
= 1 + (4)(4x) + (4.3)/(2)(4x)
2
+ (4.3.2)/(3.2)(4x)
3
+
(4.3.2.1)/(4.3.2.1)(4x)
4
= 1 + 16x + 96x
2
+ 256x
3
+ 256x
4
2. To nd the term independent of x in the expansion of
_
x
2

2
x
_
6
, note that
this is
_
x
2
+
2
x
_
6
with a general term in its expansion
_
6
r
_
(x
2
)
6r
_
2
x
_
r
=
_
6
r
_
x
123r
(2)
r
so that the contribution independent of x has r = 4 and is
6
C
4
(2)
4
= 6! 16/4!2! = 6.5.8 = 240.
4.2 The Binomial Expansion 10
Qu. 4.B
1) Find the coecient of x
3
in (1 2x)
5
.
2) Show
(2x 3y)
5
= 32x
5
240x
4
y + 720x
3
y
2
1080x
2
y
3
+ 810xy
4
243y
5
.
3) Find the coecient of x
3
in (3 x)
10
and of y
4
in (2 3y)
7
.
4) Simplify, using the binomial theorem (2x 3)
3
(2x + 3)
4
.
5) What is the term independent of x in the expansion of
_
x
3
x
2
_
15
?
6) Find the rst three terms of (1 3x + x
2
)
8
write it as (1 3x(1 x/3))
8
and use
the binomial theorem.
7) Find the coecient of x
5
in (1 + x + x
2
)
4
.
8) Find the coecient of x
2
in (2 + 2x + x
2
)
n
.
You may also know: If n is not a postive integer, and need not even be an integer,
then if |x| < 1,
(1 + x)
n
= 1 + nx +
n(n 1)
2!
x
2
+ +
n(n 1)(n 2) . . . (n r + 1)
r!
x
r
+ .
Also
exp(x) = 1 + x +
x
2
2!
+
x
3
3!
+ +
x
n
n!
+ ,
sin(x) = x
x
3
3!
+
x
5
5!
+ +
(1)
n
x
2n+1
(2n + 1)!
+ ,
cos(x) = 1
x
2
2!
+
x
4
4!
+ +
(1)
n
x
2n
(2n)!
+ ,
ln(1 + x) = x
x
2
2
+
x
3
3
+ +
(1)
(n+1)
x
n
n!
+ |x| < 1.
5 Partial Fractions 11
5 Partial Fractions
5.1 Division of polynomials
You should know How to divide one polynomial P(x) by a second Q(x) to nd the
quotient and remainder.
P(x)
Q(x)
= quotient +
remainder
Q(x)
.
Example
x
4
2x
2
+ 3x 6
x
2
4x + 3
= x
2
+ 4x + 11 +
35x 39
x
2
4x + 3
.
x
2
+ 4x + 11 (quotient)
x
2
4x + 3|x
4
2x
2
+ 3x 6
x
4
4x
3
+ 3x
2
4x
3
5x
2
+ 3x
4x
3
16x
2
+ 12x
11x
2
9x 6
11x
2
44x + 33
35x 39 (remainder).
So the quotient is x
2
+4x +11 and the remainder is 35x 39 and we have the result.
Qu. 5.A Find the quotient and remainder for
a) (x
3
x
2
5x + 2)/(x + 2), b) (x
4
2x
2
+ 3x 6)/(x
2
4x + 3),
c) (x
5
+ x
4
+ 3x
3
+ 5x
2
+ 2x + 8)/(x
2
x + 2), d) (x
4
3x
2
+ 7)/(x + 3),
e) (3x
5
5x
4
+ x
2
+ 1)/(x
3
+ 1), f) (x
3
x
2
4)/(x
2
1),
g) (2x
5
3x
2
+ 1)/(x
2
+ 2x),
5.2 Partial Fractions 12
5.2 Partial Fractions
You should know How to express a polynomial
P(x)
Q(x)
as a sum of partial fractions if the
denominator Q(x) can factorise.
1. For every linear factor (ax + b) of Q(x) there will be a partial fraction of the form
A
ax+b
.
2. For every repeated linear factor (ax + b)
2
, there will be two terms in the partial
fraction expression:
A
ax+b
+
B
(ax+b)
2
.
3. For every quadratic factor in Q(x) of the form ax
2
+bx+c there will be a contribution
to the partial fraction expression of the form
Ax+B
ax
2
+bx+c
Can you work out what to do if factors are repeated more than once, or for repeated
quadratic factors or for factors of degree higher than 2?
Once a partial fraction representation of the correct form, with unknown coecients A,
B, C . . . has been chosen, as above, then one brings all the terms together to a single term
simply by adding the fractions in the usual way. Comparing the coecients of similar
powers of x in the numerator of this single term and in P(x) one then obtains sucient
linear equations in the unknowns A, B, C . . . to enable them to be found uniquely.
Alternative methods such as the cover-up rule may also be used.
Example
2
x
2
1
=
A
x + 1
+
B
x 1
=
A(x 1) + B(x + 1)
x
2
1
=
(A + B)x + (B A)
x
2
1
,
recognising the factors of the denominator and so choosing the form of the partial
fraction representation. Next, comparing coecients of x and 1 we have
A + B = 0, B A = 2, so A = 1, B = 1,
and
2
x
2
1
=
1
x 1

1
x + 1
.
You should also know that if the degree of P(x) is greater to equal to the degree of
Q(x), one should divide Q(x) into P(x) to obtain a quotient and a remainder R(x) and
then write
R(x)
Q(x)
in partial fractions
5.2 Partial Fractions 13
Example So
4x
3
+ 16x
2
15x + 13
(x + 2)(2x 1)
2
= 1 +
12x
2
8x + 11
(x + 2)(2x 1)
2
,
where we have divided 4x
3
+16x
2
15x +13 by (x +2)(2x 1)
2
= 4x
3
+4x
2
7x +2
to get the quotient 1 and remainder 12x
2
8x + 11. Now we write
12x
2
8x + 11
(x + 2)(2x 1)
2
=
A
x + 2
+
B
2x 1
+
C
(2x 1)
2
and proceed to nd A = 3, B = 0 and C = 4. So
4x
3
+ 16x
2
15x + 13
(x + 2)(2x 1)
2
= 1 +
3
x + 2
+
4
(2x 1)
2
.
Note that if we had to dierentiate this function several times, or to integrate it, it is
much easier if the function is in its partial fraction form.
Qu. 5.B Express the following in partial fractions:
a)
x + 2
x
2
1
, b)
4 3x
(1 2x)(2 + x)
, c)
1
(1 2x)(1 3x)
,
d)
2
(x + 7)(x + 9)
, e)
2x + 5
(x + 2)(x + 3)
, f)
x
2
+ 10x + 6
x
2
+ 2x 8
,
g)
x
3
(x + 1)(x + 2)
, h)
3x
(1 x)
2
(1 + x
2
)
, i)
x
3
+ x
2
+ 2
x
3
x
2
+ x 1
.
6 Dierentiation 14
6 Dierentiation
6.1 Elementary results and their use
You should know the following table
f(x) f

(x)
x
n
nx
n1
sin x cos x
cos x sin x
ln x 1/x
exp(x) exp(x)
and how to use them in combination with the product rule, quotient rule, and chain rule
to evaluate derivatives of combinations of these.
y(x) y

(x)
u(x)v(x) u

(x)v(x) + u(x)v

(x) the product rule

u(x)/v(x) (v(x)u

(x) v

(x)u(x))/v
2
(x) the quotient rule
f(g(x)) f

(g(x))g

(x) the chain rule

where a

indicates dierentiation.
Using these rules we obtain the the table
f(x) f

(x)
sec x sec x tan x
cosec x cosec x cot x
tan x sec
2
x
cot x cosec
2
x
which you should know.
6.1 Elementary results and their use 15
Example
1) If y = sin
3
x, then we may use the chain rule
dy
dx
=
dy
du
du
dx
and y = u
3
, u = sin x, so that
dy
du
= 3u
2
= 3 sin
2
x and
du
dx
= cos x so that
dy
dx
= 3 sin
2
x cos x.
2) The chain rule can be used more than once to evaluate
dy
dx
if y = exp(cos(x
2
)) for
example. Write y = y(u(v(x))) with y = exp(u), u = cos(v) and v = x
2
. Then
dy
dx
=
dy
du
du
dv
dv
dx
= exp(u)(sin v)(2x) = 2x(sin x
2
) exp(cos(x
2
)).
3) If
y(x) =
x
2
ln(x)
x + sin(exp(cos x))
then
dy
dx
=
v
du
dx
u
dv
dx
v
2
where u = x
2
ln(x), v = x + sin(exp(cos x)),
du
dx
= 2x ln(x) + x
2
(1/x) = x(2 ln x + 1),
dv
dx
= 1 + (sin x) exp(cos x) cos(exp(cos x)),
using the quotient rule, the product rule to dierentiate x
2
ln(x) and the chain
rule (twice !) to dierentiate sin(exp(cos x)).
4) If y = sec x, then y =
1
cos x
so that
dy
dx
= (sin x)
1
(cos x)
2
=
1
cos x
sin x
cos x
= sec x tan x.
6.2 Maxima and minima 16
Qu. 6.A
1) Dierentiate
a) y = x
3
+ cos x ln x + 4, b) y = 7x
4
, c) y = xe
x
d) y =
sin x
x
2
, e) y =
ln(5x)
x
2
, f) y = (2x
3
1) sin x,
g) y = e
x
sin x, h) y = x
5
ln x + cos x. i) y = ln(x
3
+ sin x),
j) y = x
3/2
, k) y = 2x
2
(x + 1) + 2, l) y =
3x
4
x
x
3
,
m) y =
x cos x + sin x
x
2
, n) y =
3x 1

x
2
+ 1
, o) y = tan
4
(2x)
p) y =
1

4 x
2
, q) y =
2

1 4x
, r) y = cosec
1
x
,
s) y =
tan 2x
2x
, t) y = cosec
2
x
4
, u) y = sec x tan x,
v) y = cos
3
(

x), w) y =
tan x
1 x
, x) y =
tan 3x
x
3
+ 1
.
2) Show
d
dx
(tan x x) = tan
2
x.
6.2 Maxima and minima
You should know how to use dierentiation to nd local maxima and minima and
points of inection, the denition of these terms and how to use such techniques in curve
sketching.
Qu. 6.B
1) Given y =
sin xcos x
sin x+cos x
, show dy/dx = 1 + y
2
. When is d
2
y/dx
2
= 0?
2) Show f(x) = x
3
x
2
+ x 1 is never decreasing.
3) A curve is given by x = ln(1 + t), y = e
t
2
for t > 1. Find dy/dx and d
2
y/dx
2
in
terms of t. Show that the curve has only one turning point and that this must be a
minimum.
6.3 A warning 17
6.3 A warning
Do not confuse the two expressions sin
1
x and (sin x)
1
. The rst is another way of
writing arcsin x in just the same way as you may write the inverse of f(x) as f
1
(x).
The second is a shorthand for
1
sin x
. The confusion arises as we do often write sin
2
x for
(sin x)
2
.
6.4 Dierentiation of inverse functions
You should know how to dierentiate inverse functions, using the fact
dy
dx
= 1/
dx
dy
.
Results you should know are
f(x) f

(x)
sin
1 x
a
1

a
2
x
2
cos
1 x
a

1

a
2
x
2
1
a
tan
1 x
a
1
a
2
+x
2
The rst two seem to imply that sin
1
x + cos
1
x=0. Why is this not, in fact, being
implied? The answer lies in considering constants of integration.
Example If y = sin
1
_
x
a
_
then x = a sin y and dierentiating with respect to y,
we nd
dx
dy
= a cos y. Now write a cos y = a
_
1 sin
2
y, if cos y 0, so that
dx
dy
=
a
_
1 x
2
/a
2
=

a
2
x
2
and so
dy
dx
=
1

a
2
x
2
Qu. 6.C
1) Derive the results in the table above.
2) Show
1
a
d
dx
sec
1
x
a
=
1
a
d
dx
cosec
1
x
a
=
1
x

x
2
a
2
7 Integration 18
7 Integration
7.1 Elementary Integration
You should know That integration is the inverse of dierentiation. One should there-
fore be able to recognise integrals that may be done directly, or almost directly from
the tables of derivatives above. It cannot be overstressed how much success in integra-
tion relies on a thorough familiarity with the results of dierentiating simple functions.
Also of importance is a familiarity with the forms of derivatives that arise when the
chain, product and quotient rules are used to dierentiate combinations of these simple
functions.
Qu. 7.A Write down the values of
a)
_
b
a
x
10
dx, b)
_
1
0
x
10
dx, c)
_
2
1
x
n
dx, d)
_
3
2
1
x
dx,
e)
_
/2
0
cos x dx, f)
_
/4
0
sec
2
x dx, g)
_
/4
0
sec x tan x dx, h)
_
1
0
1
1 + x
2
dx,
i)
_
1
0
1

1 x
2
dx, j)
_
b
a
x + cos x dx.
Qu. 7.B Evaluate:
a)
_
1
0
(3 + e
x
)(2 + e
x
) dx, b)
_
4
1
_
3
x

x
_
dx, c)
_
/6
0
sin 3x dx,
d)
_
3
1
dx
2x 1
, e)
_
2
1
x
4
1
x
3
dx, f)
_
8
1
3

x +
1
2
3

x
dx
Qu. 7.C This technique is very useful: Use trigonometrical formulae to express sin
2
x
and cos
2
x in terms of cos 2x and tan
2
x in terms of sec
2
x or similar methods to integrate
a) 2 cos
2
x, b) 3 sin
2
x, c) cos
2
3x, d) sin
2
(x/2),
e) sin(2x) cos(2x), f) tan
2
x, g) tan
2
(x/2), h) 4 cos
4
3x.
7.2 Integration by elementary substitution 19
7.2 Integration by elementary substitution
You should know that do the integral I =
_
f(x)dx it is sometimes useful to make a
substitution and introduce a new variable u = g(x), so that du/dx = g

(x) and dx/du =

1/g

(x), say. Written in terms of u,

I =
_
f(x)dx =
_
F(u)
dx
du
du, where f(x) = F(u).
The new integrand must be written in terms of u by eliminating x in favour of u. In some
cases and for the correct choice of substitution u = g(x), this new form of the integral
may be easier to do than the rst. If the integral has limits then the new form becomes
I =
_
x
1
x
0
f(x)dx =
_
u
1
u
0
F(u)
dx
du
du where u
0
= g(x
0
) u
1
= g(x
1
).
You should be able to recognise when to use a trigonometric substitution, suggested by
the table in section 6.4.
A good attitude to integration is to try any substitution that comes into your head. It
may work or it may not but in either case you have learnt something about the problem
you face. Practice and then more practice will make it easier to spot the substitution
that works.
Example
1) We may evaluate the integral
_
(7 2x)
4
dx by using the binomial theorem to
expand out the bracket and integrate term by term. Alternatively we may make
the substitution u = (7 2x) so that du = 2dx and the integral becomes

_
u
4
/2 du = u
5
/10 = (7 2x)
5
/10. You should aim at being able to do
integrals of this type immediately, without explicitly using the substitution. See
section 7.3 below.
7.2 Integration by elementary substitution 20
2) In the integral
_
cos

x
, we make the substitution

x = uafter all we know the

integral of cos u so get rid of the square root which is worrying us. Now x = u
2
so dx/du = 2u. The integral becomes
_
cos

x
=
_
cos u
u
2u du = 2
_
cos u du = 2 sin u + c = 2 sin

x + c.
3) Consider now I =
_
1
0
dx

1+2xx
2
. Here it is not clear how to proceed, until we
complete the square and write 1+2xx
2
= 2(x1)
2
so that I =
_
1
0
dx

2(x1)
2
.
This is similar to the form
1

a
2
u
2
which we know is the derivative of sin
1 u
a
.
This helps us choose the correct trigonometric substitution and write (x 1) =

2 sin u. Thus 2 (x1)

2
= 2 2 sin
2
u = 2 cos
2
u and
dx
du
=

2 cos u the limits

x = 0 and x = 1 become u = sin
1
(1/

2) = /4 and u = 0 so that
I =
_
0
/4

2 cos u du

2 cos u
=

4
Qu. 7.D Use the given substitution to show:
a)
_
6
(2x + 1)
2
dx = c
3
2x + 1
, (u = 2x + 1)
b)
_
2x

3x + 4 dx = c + 4(3x + 4)
5/2
/45 16(3x + 4)
3/2
/27, (u = 3x + 4)
c)
_
2
0

4 x
2
dx =
_
/2
0
4 cos
2
d = , (x = 2 sin )
d)
_
2
0
x

4 x
2
dx = 8/3, (u = 4 x
2
)
e)
_
/2
0
sin
3
cos
2
d = 2/15, (u = cos )
Qu. 7.E Dierentiate ln(x +

x
2
+ k) with respect to x, where ln represents the
logarithm to base e. Hence nd
a)
_
dx

x
2
+ 5
, b)
_
dx
_
(x + 2)
2
+ 5
, c)
_
dx

x
2
+ 6x + 2
.
7.2 Integration by elementary substitution 21
Qu. 7.F
1) Integrate
a)
_
2x

5x + 1 dx, b)
_
2
1
x(2 x)
7
dx, c)
_
(3x + 2)
3
dx,
d)
_

4 x dx, e)
_
dx

1 2x
, f)
_
dx
(
1
2
x +
1
3
)
3
g)
_
sin
3
x cos
2
x dx, h)
_
cos x
sin
2
x
dx, i)
_
2x

x
2
+ 2 dx
j)
_
(2x
2
+ x + 1)
2
(4x + 1) dx k)
_
4x + 1
2x
2
+ x + 1
dx, l)
_
(x
3
3x)
2
(x
2
1) dx
2) If t = tan
1
2
, show that dt =
1
2
(1 + t
2
)d and hence do the integrals
a)
_
d
1 cos
, b)
_
d
1 + sin
,
c)
_
d
5 + 4 cos
, d)
_
d
5 4 cos
.
3) Use the substitution t = tan
1
2
x to show these results, which you should learn
f(x)
_
f(x) dx
cosec x ln | tan
1
2
x| + c = ln | cosec x cot x| + c
sec x ln | tan(
1
4
+
1
2
x)| + c = ln | sec x + tan x| + c
You will have to do some algebraic manipulation of trigonometric quantities to
show the equivalence of the last two forms.
4) Use the results of section 3.2 to evaluate
_
dx
sin x +

3 cos x
,
_
dx

2 cos x +

3 sin x
.
7.3 Integration by recognition 22
7.3 Integration by recognition
After doing many integrals using substitution one becomes able to do integrals by im-
mediately recognising they have a special form. For example since
d
dx
_
((x))
n+1

= (n + 1)

(x)[(x)]
n
,
from the chain rule, then we have
_

(x)[(x)]
n
dx =
(x)
(n+1)
n + 1
+ c
if n = 1. The case n = 1 is taken care of by the observation
d
dx
[ln((x))] =

(x)
(x)
,
again from the chain rule, so
_

(x)
(x)
= ln |(x)| + c.
Similarly
_

(x) exp((x)) dx = exp((x)) + c

Note is the greek letter phi and is often used instead of f for a function.
These rules give rise to the results
f(x)
_
f(x) dx
tan x ln | sec x| + c
cot x ln | sin x| + c
which you should derive and learn.
7.3 Integration by recognition 23
Example
1)
_
x exp(x
2
) dx =
1
2
_
2x exp(x
2
) dx =
1
2
exp(x
2
) + c.
In practice one would soon learn to miss out the middle step in similar examples.
2)
_
x
4x
2
+ 7
dx =
1
8
_
8x
4x
2
+ 7
dx =
1
8
ln |4x
2
+ 7| + c.
Again practice would enable one to practically quote the result
3)
_
x
2
(3x
3
+ 12)
3
dx =
(3x
3
+ 12)
4
36
+ c,
missing out that step.
Qu. 7.G Try these:
a)
_
sec
2
x tan
2
x dx, b)
_
sec
2
x tan
n
x dx, c)
_
x
2
(8 + x
3
)
5
dx,
d)
_
x
2
(8 + x
3
)
n
dx, e)
_
xe
(1+x
2
)
dx, f)
_
xf

(1 + x
2
) dx,
g)
_
2ax + b
ax
2
+ bx + c
dx, h)
_
sin x
cos
2
x
dx, i)
_
cos x
sin
2
x
dx.
j)
_
exp(x) + exp(x)
exp(x) exp(x)
dx k)
_
2ax + b
(ax
2
+ bx + c)
3
dx l)
_
(2ax + b)(ax
2
+ bx + c)
4
dx
m)
_
(exp(x) + a)
n
exp(x) dx n)
_
1
1+x
2
tan
1
x
dx o)
_
dx
x ln(x)
,
p)
_
xdx

1 + x
2
, q)
_
dx
exp(x) + exp(x)
, r)
_
dx
2

1 x
,
s)
_
nx
n1
cos x
n
, dx, t)
_
1
x
cos(ln(x)) dx, u)
_
3x
2
1 + x
6
dx.
7.4 Integrating rational functions 24
7.4 Integrating rational functions
You should know From above
_
2ax + b
ax
2
+ bx + c
dx = ln |ax
2
+ bx + c| + constant.
Integrals of the form
_
1
ax
2
+ bx + c
dx
may be approached by completing the square. If the quadratic has two real roots then
proceed to use partial fractions and then integrate. Alternatively, if the roots are not
real then partial fractions will not work but a trigonometric substitution may.
Integrals of the form
_
px + q
ax
2
+ bx + c
may be tackled by writing the integrand as
p
2a
2ax + b
ax
2
+ bx + c
+
q pb/2a
ax
2
+ bx + c
and both of these may be tackled using the techniques above.
Using these methods and partial frcations integrals of many rational functions of x can
be obtained.
Example The partial fraction representation of
9x + 9
(x 3)(x
2
+ 9)
=
2
x 3
+
3 2x
x
2
+ 9
,
so its integral is
2 ln |x 3| + 9 tan
1
x
3
ln |x
2
+ 9| + c = 9 tan
1
x
3
+ ln

(x 3)
2
x
2
+ 9

+ c.
Qu. 7.H
1) Show
_
1
0
x
2
+ 7x + 2
(1 + x
2
)(2 x)
dx =
11
2
ln 2

4
.
2) Show
_
x
x
2
+ 4x + 5
dx =
1
2
ln |x
2
+ 4x + 5| 2 tan
1
(x + 2) + c.
7.5 Integration by parts 25
7.5 Integration by parts
You should know Integrating a rearranged form of the formula giving the derivative
of a product u(x)v(x),
u(x)
dv
dx
= u(x)v(x) v(x)
du
dx
, (1)
gives the formula for integration by parts
_
u(x)
dv
dx
dx = [u(x)v(x)]
_
v(x)
du
dx
dx (2)
You should also know how to use this formula.
Example
1. Choosing u = x
2
and dv/dx = e
x
, so that du/dx = 2x and v = e
x
, gives
_
x
2
e
x
= [x
2
e
x
]
_
2xe
x
dx
= x
2
e
x
[2e
x
] +
_
2e
x
dx
= x
2
e
x
2e
x
+ 2e
x
+ c
= e
x
(x
2
2x + 2) + c
where we have used integration by parts a second time with u = 2x, dv/dx = e
x
and du/dx = 2, v = e
x
.
2. Sometimes you have to be a little ingenious in the choice of u and v. Here we
choose du/dx = 1, v = ln x so that u = x, dv/dx = 1/x.
_
ln x dx = [x ln x]
_
x.(1/x) dx
= x(ln x 1) + c.
7.6 A mixture of integrals 26
Qu. 7.I Integration by parts will work for these:
a)
_
x sin x dx, b)
_
ln x dx, c)
_
x
2
cos x dx,
d)
_
sin
1
x dx, e)
_
tan
1
x dx, f)
_
x ln x dx,
g)
_
x tan
1
x dx, h)
_
x sec x tan x dx, i)
_
x sec
2
x dx
j)
_
x exp(x) dx, k)
_
x
3
exp(x) dx, l)
_
x sin x cos x dx.
Qu. 7.J These need more ingenuity:
a)
_
e
2x
cos 3x dx, b)
_
e
ax
cos bx dx, c)
_

a
2
x
2
dx.
7.6 A mixture of integrals
Of course a good integrator needs no clue as to which of the above techniques to apply to
an integral and is even able to use a selection of techniques, one after the other if
necessary to succeed.
Qu. 7.K Try these:
a)
_
e

x
dx, b)
_
x
3
(x
4
3)
5
dx, c)
_
tan x dx,
d)
_
xe
x
2
dx, e)
_
sin x(1 + cos
2
x) dx, f)
_
x sin 2x dx,
g)
_
x
2

1 + x
3
dx, h)
_
(3 + 2x)
3
dx. i)
_
3
2
dx
(x 1)

x
2
2x
,
j)
_

a
2
x
2
dx, k)
_

0
x sin
2
x dx, l)
_
x
2
sin
1
x dx,
m)
_
cosec 2x dx, n)
_
dx
cos
2
x sin
2
x
, o)
_
cot x
log sin x
dx.