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The Speed of Light

Frederick David Tombe
Belfast, Northern Ireland, United Kingdom
e-mail: [email protected]
18th March 2014

The aether (or electricity) is a fluid-like substance that is the stuff of all matter and space, and it flows
constantly between positive and negative particles, with particles being merely aether sources and aether sinks.
Space is densely packed with aether sinks (electrons) and aether sources (positrons). These electrons and posi-
trons are paired into tiny dipoles. Within each dipole, the electron and the positron will undergo a mutual cir-
cular orbit. In the steady state, these tiny dipolar aether vortices will align with their neighbours according to
two superimposed principles. Their rotation axes will mutually align and trace out solenoidal lines around a
magnetic dipole. The resulting electron-positron double helix that winds its way around each such line is what
causes the electrostatic tension that makes it into a ‘magnetic line of force’. When large scale aether flow, consti-
tuting either an externally applied gravitational field or an electric current (electric field), is superimposed, the
tiny vortices will become linearly polarized. This will result in a ‘couple force’ acting on the tiny vortices which
will cause them to precess such that their precessional axes will be aligned with the externally applied field
lines. Centrifugal pressure therefore acts at right angles to both magnetic and electric lines of force. In the dy-
namic state the alignment of the dipoles is undergoing change and the tiny dipoles will be angularly accelerat-
ing, either in magnitude or direction (precession). This realignment will be accompanied by a net vortex flow of
pressurized aether that passes between neighbouring dipoles. This net flow of momentum is electromagnetic
radiation, and it has a wave-like nature, in that the flow will constantly be emerging from positrons and sinking
into electrons. The average speed of this flow is what determines the speed of light.

1. Escape Velocity equatorial plane does not cause the dipoles to tumble over in
their attempt to escape the pressure. The significance of this is
The escape velocity in a radial force field such as a gravita- that the circumferential velocity of the electrons and positrons in
tional field is the velocity that cancels with the aether inflow ve- the tiny dipoles may have already reached their escape velocity,
locity. In the case of an electron in mutual orbit with a positron, even though they are still confined to a closed circular orbit. It
the escape velocity will be the average speed of the aether as it will be proposed in the next section that this circumferential
flows from positron to electron. There is however an additional speed, which will be dependent on the diameter of the dipoles, is
complication which doesn’t arise in planetary orbital analysis. in fact the speed of light, and that therefore the average speed of
E.T. Whittaker [1] wrote aether flow between neighbouring dipoles in any direction will
be that same speed. Hence in the dynamic state, when dipoles are
“ - - - All space, according to the younger [John] Bernoulli, is permeat- caused to angularly accelerate while realigning due to the exter-
ed by a fluid Aether, containing an immense number of excessively nal torque that comes from the pressurized vortex aether flow
small whirlpools. The elasticity which the Aether appears to possess, that constitutes electromagnetic radiation, this net aether flow
and in virtue of which it is able to transmit vibrations, is really due to will be travelling at the same speed as the speed of circulation of
the presence of these whirlpools; for, owing to centrifugal force, each the rotating dipoles themselves. In the 1937 Encyclopaedia Bri-
whirlpool is continually striving to dilate, and so presses against the tannica article entitled ‘Ether (in Physics)’, and written by Sir Oli-
neighbouring whirlpools - - -” ver Lodge, [3] he states in relation to the speed of light,

In the electron-positron sea, which we will call “The Electric “The most probable surmise or guess at present is that the ether is a
Sea”, the rotating electron-positron dipoles are pressing against perfectly incompressible continuous fluid, in a state of fine-grained
each other with centrifugal force while striving to dilate. The vortex motion, circulating with that same enormous speed. For it has
electrons and positrons in each dipole are therefore being been partly, though as yet incompletely, shown that such a vortex fluid
hemmed in by the inward centrifugal pressure that is coming would transmit waves of the same general nature as light waves— i.e.,
from their neighbours in the equatorial plane. Gyroscopic stabil- periodic disturbances across the line of propagation—and would trans-
ity as well as the fact that the dipoles are bonded, positive to mit them at a rate of the same order of magnitude as the vortex or circu-
negative, along the double helix in the axial direction [2], will lation speed.”
ensure that, in the steady state, the centrifugal pressure in the
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Apart from the bit about the aether being incompressible, where  is the areal density, 2m / h 2 , of an electron-
this statement would appear to be essentially correct.
positron dipole. Eq. (4) is equivalent to the Eq. (135) in Max-
well’s 1861 paper, which he derived from Newton’s equation for
2. Newton and E = mc 2
the speed of sound at Eq. (132), and it is more familiar nowadays
Let us consider the elasticity of a single rotating electron- in the form,
positron dipole of radius h . In Maxwell’s 1861 paper entitled
‘On Physical Lines of Force’ [4], Hooke’s law appears at Eq. (105) c2 = 1/  (5)
in the form,
where  is the electric permittivity and where  is the mag-
R = −4E 2 h (Electric Displacement Equation) (1)
netic permeability. By multiplying the top and bottom lines of
equation (4) by area, we end up with,
where R is electromotive force, E is the dielectric constant, and
h is displacement. These symbols are identical to those used by
Maxwell for ease of comparison with Maxwell’s original paper. E = mc2 (6)
If we consider the electric sea to be uniformly dense with the
distance between neighbouring dipoles being in the same order where E is the centrifugal potential energy. Gilbert Lewis
of magnitude as the dimensions of the dipoles themselves, then derived equation (6) from Maxwell’s equation for radiation pres-
sure [6].
these dipoles will be pressing against each other with centrifugal
Maxwell never knew the size of his molecular vortices, but
force while striving to dilate in their equatorial planes. This cen-
it would be reasonable to assume that they are small enough to
trifugal pressure between neighbouring dipoles will be the
flow through the interstitial spaces between the atoms and mole-
source of the elasticity, and since neighbouring dipoles will all be cules of ponderable matter, as like water flows through a basket.
spinning in the same direction, the effective speed for the pur- We could assume that the circumference of these dipolar vortices
poses of centrifugal potential energy will be the mutual trans- is equal to half of the Compton wavelength for an electron, since
verse speed, which will be twice the circumferential speed. Cen- gamma radiation of this wavelength, or lower, can resonate with
trifugal potential energy is the same thing as transverse kinetic the dipoles and split them apart, as has just been explained
energy, and summed over the two particles of the dipole this will above. This would make their diameter 0.3863 picometres, hence
setting them at about one thousandth the size of the average at-
be equal to m (2v)2 , or 4m v 2 , where 2m is the combined mass
om. The density of the vortex sea will however be difficult to
of the two particles, and where v is their circumferential speed.
calculate because the balance between the electrostatic force in
Mass is considered to be a measure of the amount of aether. This the axial direction and the centrifugal force in the equatorial
centrifugal potential energy will be equal to the maximum linear plane would point to inter-particle spacings between neighbour-
kinetic energy as when the circular motion is resolved along a ing vortices on the femtometre scale. Since this is very much less
diameter. This resolved linear motion, being a simple harmonic than their actual diameters, the magnetic lines of force will in
motion, in turn will be equal to the maximum potential energy effect become tubes of force. Then on the issue of the density, as an
that we obtain from Hooke’s law. Since we are dealing with absolute minimum, if we were to simply consider only the diam-
shared elasticity over the two particles within the dipole, this eter of the vortices, the density of the vortex sea will already be
into the region of fourteen hundred times denser than lead, but it
maximum potential energy will be 2E 2 h 2 . Therefore
will surely be many orders of magnitude yet higher than that
still.
4m v 2 = 2E 2 h 2 (2)

and hence 3. Repulsion between two Sinks

Two sinks will attract each other providing that the flow is
2m v 2 = E 2 h 2 (3)
perfectly irrotational. The introduction of curl or vorticity into
the flow creates pressure which can undo any tension in the irro-
The centrifugal potential energy, 4mv2 , is the resultant of an tational flow. This is the fundamental principle behind centrifu-
inward centrifugal force and an equal and opposite outward cen- gal force and the convective forces generally. In the case of large
trifugal force. As such, if we double the outward centrifugal scale charged bodies, the aether flow is predominantly irrota-
force we will split the dipole. The input energy needed to split an tional because of the presence of the tiny dipolar vortices that fill
electron-positron dipole is therefore 2mv2 . We also know from all of the surrounding space. The tiny vortices absorb the large-
the 1932 Carl D. Anderson experiment that this energy is the 1.02 scale vorticity into the background magnetic field. The large-
MeV associated with Gamma radiation, and that it corresponds scale flow in turn causes the tiny dipoles to become linearly po-
exactly to 2mc2 , where c is the speed of light. [5] larized. This is because the positive sources will be pushed along
Hence it follows that the circumferential speed of the elec- in the aether flow whereas the negative sinks will eat their way
trons and positrons in the dipoles of the electric sea is equal to in the opposite direction towards the source of the flow. There is
the speed of light [5], and that, however an additional complication which arises because the
dipoles are rotating, and this has the effect of introducing a ‘cou-
c2 = E 2 /  (4) ple force’ which causes the dipoles to precess with their preces-
 3
sional axes aligned parallel to the large-scale flow. Hence a cen- had overlooked. Meanwhile the convective term, v  B , in equa-
trifugal pressure will act at right angles to the flow lines. This tion (7) has been totally disassociated from its very cause, which
centrifugal pressure can have the effect of pushing two sinks is the convective effect in the aether that induces the pressure.
apart. Coulomb’s law and Newton’s law of gravitation apply to Maxwell’s ‘Displacement Current’ is justified in the modern text-
the force that acts in the direction of the field lines, however there books, not in terms of the physical displacement of the particles
is an additional repulsive force acting at right angles to the field in the aether as Maxwell himself had explained, but rather in
lines which is caused by fine-grained centrifugal force. This fine- terms of a flawed argument surrounding conservation of charge
grained centrifugal force in turn causes a centrifugal force on the in a total vacuum. A fundamental principle that has been lost as a
large scale. The attractive force that acts between two sinks due consequence of the relativity revolution is the principle that a line
to the tension in the large scale aether flow is undermined by this of force superficially resembles a wind tunnel that is lined with
perpendicular centrifugal pressure, and if the flow is strong such turbines. The wind causes the turbines to rotate and hence to
as to cause a fast fine-grained precession in the lines of force, this generate a centrifugal force at right angles to the wind.
will cause a strong centrifugal force to act at the interface be- It is the perpendicular force which has been lost in modern
tween the two sinks, so as to push them apart. Alternatively, a physics. This perpendicular force is centrifugal force, and it is
mutual transverse velocity between the two sinks will cause an responsible for inducing motion in a current carrying electric
angular acceleration of the tiny dipoles at the interface. This wire in a magnetic field, for preventing a gyroscope from top-
transverse shearing effect will hence induce a greater centrifugal pling under gravity, for reversing the angular momentum in a
force, and it is this mechanism that keeps the planets in their or- rotating rattleback, and for preventing the planets from falling
bits and prevents them from falling into the Sun. into the Sun. It is also the cause of magnetic repulsion, as well as
being the cause of the repulsive effect that acts perpendicularly
from the field lines in cases of electrostatic repulsion.
4. Conclusion
The speed of light is related to the centrifugal pressure, and
In an unpublished paper entitled “Man’s Greatest Achieve- hence the energy, in the background electric sea. This in turn is
ment”, Nikola Tesla wrote [7], determined by the aether inflow and outflow rates through the
positrons and the electrons, and also by their angular momen-
“Long ago he (mankind) recognized that all perceptible matter comes tum.
from a primary substance, or tenuity beyond conception, filling all
space, the Akasha or luminiferous ether, acted upon by the life giving
Prana or creative force, calling into existence, in never ending cycles all
things and phenomena. The primary substance, thrown into infinites-
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