( INTRODUCTION INFLECTIONAL MORPHOLOGY The present course w !! "e#! w th the tr#" t on#! p#rts o$ speech% n p#rt cu!

!#r w th the &r#''#t c#! c#te&or es( n$!ect on#! c#te&or es tr#" t on#!!) #ssoc #te" w th the '#*or p#rts o$ speech such #s tense% #spect% 'oo"% $or the +er, (nu',er% &en"er% c#se% "eter' n#t on $or nouns% pronouns etc% co'p#r son $or #"*ect +es #n" #"+er,s-. L#n&u#&e #s #n o,*ect o$ stu") h#s ,een #ppro#che" $ro' " $$erent perspect +es/ traditional ("escr pt +e0 'e#nt to o,ser+e #n" enu'er#te #spects o$ !#n&u#&e-0 structuralist ("escr pt +e0 #n #tte'pt to re$!ect the s)ste'#t c ch#r#cter o$ !#n&u#&e-0 generative (!#n&u#&e s # ,o") o$ ru!es ,) 'e#ns o$ wh ch #!! the sentences c#n ,e o,t# ne"-. 2 2 2 2 The structure o$ !#n&u#&e c#n ,e #n#!)1e" n ter's o$ !e+e!s o$ represent#t on. For #n) utter#nce there #re/ # phono!o& c#! !e+e! str n&s o$ phone'es # 'orpho!o& c#! !e+e! 'orphe'es #n" wor"s # s)nt#ct c !e+e! phr#ses #n" sentences # se'#nt c !e+e! se'#nt c concepts/ e+ents% o,*ects% st#tes% processes

3Morpho!o&)4 s # ter' ,#se" on the Gree5 wor"s morphe (6$or'(structure- #n" logie (6#ccount(stu")-. In $#ct% the ter' c#n #pp!) to #n) "o'# n o$ hu'#n #ct + t) th#t stu" es the structure or $or' o$ so'eth n&. In ! n&u st cs% 'orpho!o&) s the su,2" sc p! ne th#t #ccounts $or the ntern#! structure o$ wor"s. There #re two t)pes o$ co'p!e7 t) o$ wor"2structure/ one s "ue to the presence o$ n$!ect ons #n" #nother "ue to the presences o$ "er +#t on#! e!e'ents. 8oth oper#t ons #"" e7tr# e!e'ents to wh#t s 5nown #s the ,#se. Der +#t on re$ers to wor" $or'#t on processes such #s #$$ 7#t on% co'poun" n& #n" con+ers on. Der +#t on#! processes t)p c#!!) n"uce # ch#n&e n the !e7 c#! c#te&or) o$ the te' the) oper#te on #n" e+en ntro"uce new 'e#n n&s ( er #""s the 'e#n n& o$ #&ent( nstru'ent-. In$!ect on enco'p#sses the &r#''#t c#! c#te&or es('#r5ers $or nu',er% &en"er% c#se% person% tense% #spect% 'oo" #n" co'p#r son. It s "e$ ne" #s 3# ch#n&e n the $or' o$ # wor" to e7press ts re!#t on to other wor"s n the sentence4. In$!ect on#! oper#t ons "o not ch#n&e the c#te&or) the) oper#te on ( goes or grammars #re *ust +#r #nts o$ one #n" the s#'e wor" go #n" grammar-. Actu#!!)% the) #re $or'#! '#r5ers th#t he!p us "e! ' t the !e7 c#! c#te&or) o$ # wor"% .e. the p#rts o$ speech. In th s respect% !e7 c#! te's (wor"s- th#t #re " str ,ut on#!!) s ' !#r ( .e. h#+e the s#'e " str ,ut on#! propert es$or' c!#sses. (Tr#" t on#! sts/ p#rts o$ speech% structur#! sts/ $or'('orphe'e c!#sses0 &ener#t + sts/ !e7 c#! c#te&or es-. A!! these ter's #re nten"e" to "es &n#te e!e'ents $ro' the s#'e poo! N% 9% A% A"+% P etc. ,ut the " $$erent ter's #re #ssoc #te" w th the theoret c#! $r#'es n wh ch the) were use" #n"% hence% w th 'etho"s o$ "o n& !&. rese#rch spec $ c $or th#t theoret c#! $r#'ewor5. 2 2 2 2 2 In$!ect on#! #$$ 7es h#+e the $o!!ow n& ch#r#cter st cs/ The) pro"uce closure upon wor"s (c#n no !on&er #tt#ch # "er +#t on#! e!e'ent to the'In$!ecte" $or's #re or&#n 1e" n paradigms% .e. the) #re n co'p!e'ent#r) " str ,ut on0 $or nst#nce% nouns occurs n p# rs h#t h#ts% ,oo5 ,oo5s. The e!e'ents o$ # p#r#" &' '#) e+ nce the pheno'enon o$ suppletion one o$ the $or's s not phono!o& c#!!) re!#te" to the other/ went $or &o% ,etter $or &oo". A p#r#" &' c#n ,e defective !#c5s # $or'/ c#n 2 :c#ns% trousers 2 :trouser. In$!ect ons #re $or'#! '#r5ers (semantically the) #re empty% #,str#ct-0 the) he!p us "e! ' t the !e7 c#! c#te&or) o$ the wor" to wh ch the) #tt#ch. In other wor"s% e#ch !e7 c#! c#te&or) ('#*or p#rt o$ speech- s ch#r#cter 1e" ,) spec $ c n$!ect on#! '#r5ers. C#se% nu',er% &en"er% #n" "eter' n#t on ch#r#cter 1e nouns. Tense% #spect% 'oo"% nu',er #n" person ch#r#cter 1e +er,s. Person% nu',er #n" n so'e c#ses &en"er ch#r#cter 1e pronouns. A"*ect +es #n" #"+er,s #re ch#r#cter 1e" ,) co'p#r son. A!thou&h #!! o$ the' !#c5 "escr pt +e content% the) p#ss on the "escr pt +e content o$ the c#te&or) the) "epen" on.

Tr#" t on#! #ppro#ches/ The ,#s c un t o$ #n#!)s s w#s the wor". ;or"s oper#te" #s s &ns% .e. #s nstru'ents $or the "escr pt on #n" un"erst#n" n& o$ re#! t). The) were c!#ss $ e" nto p#rts o$ speech #n" set nto p#r#" &'s o$ "ec!ens on #n" con*u&#t on. Tr#" t on#! theor es "escr ,e" wor"s n ter's o$ the tr#" t on#! ! st o$ Ar stote! #n c#te&or es. Ar stot!e #ssu'e" th#t the ph)s c#! wor!" cons ste" o$ th n&s (su,st#nces-% wh ch h#" cert# n propert es (c#!!e" #cc "ents-. Tr#ns$erre" to 'orpho!o&)% the su,st#nce o$ # wor" ( ts 'e#n n&- h#" to ,e " st n&u she" $ro' ts #cc "ents% .e. the " $$erent $or's t #ssu'e" n ! n&u st c conte7t. Thus% cert# n #cc "ent#! c#te&or es were cons "ere" to ,e t)p c#! $or p#rt cu!#r p#rts o$ speech/ nouns

( n$!ecte" $or c#se% nu',er% &en"er0 +er,s $or tense% nu',er% person% 'oo"% #spect-. Hence% wh#t #re tr#" t on#!!) re$erre" to #s &r#''#t c#! c#te&or es correspon" to the #cc "ent#! c#te&or es% #n" th s e7p!# ns the o!"er ter' <#cc "ence= $or wh#t s #!so 5nown #s n$!ect on#! +#r #t on. The Ar stote! #n oppos t on '#tter +s. $or' #!so he!pe" &r#''#r #ns " st n&u sh ,etween '#*or #n" ' nor p#rts o$ speech. On!) '#*or p#rts o$ speech (nouns% #"*ect +es% +er,s #n" #"+er,s- were 'e#n n&$u!. The other p#rts o$ speech (con*unct ons% prepos t ons% pronouns% "eter' ners% >u#nt $ ers% etc.- 5nown #s ' nor p#rts o$ speech " " not s &n $) #n)th n& o$ the'se!+es ,ut 'ere!) contr ,ute" to the tot#! 'e#n n& o$ sentences ,) 'pos n& upon the' # cert# n $or' or or&#n 1#t on. Thus% n "e! ' t n& p#rts o$ speech% tr#" t on#! st &r#''#rs% c#!!e" <not on#!=% e'p!o)e" three cr ter #/ 'e#n n&% n$!ect on#! +#r #t on #n" s)nt#ct c $unct on. Me#n n& w#s ,#s c #n" t w#s corre!#te" w th the other two cr ter #. The !#st two cr ter # #re ,#se" on $or'#! propert es% so the) "e$ ne p#rts o$ speech n ter's o$ the r " str ,ut on. Not on#! "e$ n t ons were ncorrect n th#t the) were c rcu!#r # ter' w#s e7p!# ne" ,) resort n& to the s#'e ter'. For nst#nce% the noun w#s "e$ ne" #s the n#'e o$ # ! + n& ,e n& or ! $e!ess th n&. 8ut <+ rtue= s ne ther # ! $e!ess ,e n&% nor # ! + n& ,e n&% the on!) re#son $or s#) n& th#t <+ rtue= s # th n& s th#t the wor" th#t re$ers to t s # noun. ?tructur#! st #ppro#ches/ It s # $or'#! #ppro#ch. L#n&u#&e w#s re&#r"e" #s # s)ste' o$ re!#t ons% the e!e'ents o$ wh ch h#" no +#! " t) n"epen"ent!) o$ the re!#t ons o$ e>u +#!ence #n" contr#st th#t he!" ,etween the' (s)nt#&'#t c #n" p#r#" &'#t c re!#t ons-. It e7c!u"e" 'e#n n& $ro' ts #n#!)s s #n" w#s ,#se" on!) on the " str ,ut on o$ the te's #n#!)1e". In structur#! s'% the !e7 c#! te's (the tr#" t on#! '#*or p#rts o$ speech- #n" the &r#''#t c#! te's (t)p c#!!) the ' nor p#rts o$ speech #n" n$!ect on#! #$$ 7es- #re " st n&u she" n ter's o$ p#r#" &'#t c oppos t ons #n" $#!! nto two c!#sses/ open +s. c!ose" c!#sses o$ te's. Open c!#sses (nouns% #"*ect +es% +er,s #n" #"+er,s- h#+e !#r&e nu',ers o$ te's #n" new 'e',ers c#n ,e #""e" ,) co n n& or ,orrow n&. C!ose" c!#sses (con*unct ons% prepos t ons% "eter' ners% pronouns% etc. #n" n$!ect on#! #$$ 7es- nc!u"e ter's th#t h#+e no "escr pt +e content% h#+ n& # $ 7e"(! ' te" nu',er o$ te's. Gener#t +e #ppro#ches/ The) #re s ' !#r to the structur#! sts #ppro#ches n the sense th#t the !e7 c#!(&r#''#t c#! c#te&or es c#n ,e "e$ ne" on!) throu&h the r ro!es n the ru!es #n" pr nc p!es o$ &r#''#r. N8 grammatical categories n &ener#t +e #ppro#ches no !on&er re$er to n$!ect on#! '#r5ers% ,ut to s)nt#ct c c#te&or es (sentence% noun phr#se% +er, phr#se etc.-. Gener#t +e &r#''#rs oper#te w th two t)pes o$ c#te&or es/ !e7 c#! #n" &r#''#t c#!(s)nt#ct c c#te&or es. Le7 c#! c#te&or es (N% 9% A- co nc "e w th the tr#" t on#! p#rts o$ speech #n" the structur#! st open c!#sses% #n" &r#''#t c#! c#te&or es (NP% 9P% AP- correspon" to phr#ses or s)nt#&'s spec $ c se>uences o$ wor"s. E#ch !e7 c#! c#te&or) h#s # correspon" n& s)nt#ct c phr#se 2 N @ NP. In other wor"s% s)nt#ct c phr#ses #re pro*ect ons o$ !e7 c#! c#te&or es. Then we tr#ns!#te the s)nt#ct c n$or'#t on n N @ NP nto $unct on#! n$or'#t on ( .e. the su,c#te&or s#t on $r#'e AB NPC wh ch s ch#r#cter st c o$ # tr#ns t +e +er, s con+erte" nto $unct on#! n$or'#t on ,) st#t n& th#t " rect o,*ects #re ch#r#cter st c o$ tr#ns t +e +er,s-. Accor" n& to th s theoret c#! 'o"e!% t s not !e7 c#! c#te&or es (N% 9% A etc.- th#t correspon" to se'#nt c c#te&or es% ,ut '#*or s)nt#ct c c#te&or es (NP% 9P% AP etc.- The s)nt#ct c c#te&or es #re n # re!#t on o$ correspon"ence w th se'#nt c c#te&or es such #s e+ents% processes% st#tes% n" + "u#! o,*ects etc. ;e sh#!! c!#r $) th s !#ter on when we " scuss nu',er% #spect etc. As we sh#!! see% e+ents #re represente" ,) the s)nt#ct c c#te&or) o$ +er, phr#se% e.&. read a novel% paint a picture. O,*ects w !! ,e represente" ,) the s)nt#ct c c#te&or) o$ noun phr#ses/ the chair% a chair% my chair% this chair etc. In other wor"s% the onto!o& c#! (se'#nt c- c#te&or es #re represente" ,) '#*or s)nt#ct c phr#ses% not ,) !e7 c#! c#te&or es. The !e7 c#! c#te&or es #re "e$ ne" n ter's o$ $e#tures to ,e $oun" n the r !e7 c#! entr es n the !e7 con. These $e#tures nc!u"e 'orpho2s)nt#ct c c#te&or es% .e. n$!ect ons. 9#r ous p#rts o$ speech " sp!#) cert# n c#te&or c#! s ' !#r t es% wh ch c#n ,e represente" n ter's o$ sh#re" $e#tures. The 'ost 'port#nt oppos t on $or the p#rts o$ speech s)ste' s the oppos t on ,etween +er,#! #n" no' n#! c#te&or es. P#rts o$ speech #re #n#!)1e" #!on& the " 'ens on AD(2 9C or AD(2 NC. The AD(2 NC c#te&or es (A% N- #re '#r5e" $or &en"er% nu',er #n" c#se% wh !e the AD(2 9C c#te&or es #re not ch#r#cter 1e" ,) these $e#tures. A"*ect +es #n" #"+er,s sh#re the n$!ect on#!($unct on#! c#te&or) o$ co'p#r son. Another 'port#nt oppos t on s ,etween !e7 c#! c#te&or es #n" $unct on#! c#te&or es. Th s oppos t on s n p#rt the s#'e #s the structur#! " st nct on ,etween open c!#sses (N% 9% A etc.- #n" c!ose" c!#sses (Deter' ner% In$!ect on% Co'p!e'ent 1er etc- o$ te's. The open c!#sses #re "e$ ne" #s c!#sses w th "escr pt +e(se'#nt c content (N% 9% Acont# n n& n"e$ n te!) '#n) te's #n" wh ch #!!ow consc ous co n n&% ,orrow n& etc. On the other h#n"% $unct on#! c#te&or es nc!u"e $ree 'orphe'es/ "eter' ners% >u#nt $ ers% pronouns% #u7 ! #r) +er,s% co'p!e'ent 1ers etc. #n" ,oun"

'orphe'es( n$!ect on#! #$$ 7es/ n$!ect ons $or tense% #spect% #&ree'ent(nu',er. Hence the ter' <$unct on#! c#te&or es= co+ers ' nor p#rts o$ speech #n" n$!ect on#! c#te&or es. The) $or' # c!ose" set o$ te's wh ch ne+er occur #!one% h#+e # un >ue Co'p!e'ent #n" c#n=t ,e sep#r#te" $ro' t% !#c5 "escr pt +e se'#nt c content% #ct #s oper#tors p!#c n& the Co'p!e'ent n t 'e% n the wor!" #re he#"s o$ !e7 c#! c#te&or es.

In$or'#t on e7presse" ,) n$!ect on s not #!w#)s " ct#te" ,) s)nt#ct c structure. There #re two t)pes o$ n$!ect on/ Inherent('orpho!o& c#! n$!ect on (not re>u re" ,) the s)nt#ct c conte7t-/ nu',er w th nouns #n" pronouns% person $or pronouns% &en"er $or nouns. Conte7tu#!(s)nt#ct c (wh ch $o!!ows $ro' s)nt#7-/ nu',er #n" person n +er,s% c#se n nouns. For nst#nce/ They are running in the field now. He is running home now. They Er" p.p!. n$or'#t on cont# ne" n the !e7 c#! 'e#n n& o$ they. Hence% nherent. Are running +s. is running s conte7tu#! n$or'#t on pro+ "e" ,) the conte7t n wh ch the +er, s use" #n" tr &&ere" ,) the presence o$ #n #&ree'ent ,etween the su,*ect #n" the +er,. Gen"er $or nouns s nherent. E.&. >ueen. C#se $or nouns s conte7tu#! (tr &&ere" ,) the t)pe o$ +er, "ou,!e tr#ns t +e #s n ask somebody a question or # +er, w th "#t +e #n" #ccus#t +e #s n lend money to someone-.

THE CATEGORY OF ASPECT Aspect # not on o$ t 'e% " st nct $ro' tense% wh ch "escr ,es the ntern#! te'por#! structure o$ e+ents ;h#t Tense #n" Aspect h#+e n co''on/ ,oth #re $unct on#! c#te&or es "e! ' t n& the !e7 c#! c#te&or) 9er,% the) #re re!#te" 'orpho2s)nt#ct c#!!) (re#! 1e" ,) +er, n$!ect ons #n" #u7 ! #r es- #n" se'#nt c#!!) (,oth p#rt#5e o$ the not on T 'e ,ut n " st nct w#)s-. ;here Tense #n" Aspect " $$er/ Tense represents the chrono!o& c#! or"er o$ e+ents n t 'e #s perce +e" ,) the spe#5er #t the 'o'ent o$ spe#5 n&0 t !oc#tes the t 'e o$ the e+ent n the sentence re!#t +e to NO; Aspect & +es n$o #,out the contour o$ the e+ent #s + ewe" ,) the spe#5er #t # & +en 'o'ent n t 'e Tr#" t on#! &r#''#rs/ #spect s use" $or the per$ect +e 'per$ect +e oppos t on% re$err n& to " $$erent w#)s o$ + ew n& the ntern#! te'por#! const tuenc) o$ # s tu#t on The per$ect +e pro+ "es # ho! st c + ew upon the e+ent% !oo5 n& #t the s tu#t on $ro' outs "e The 'per$ect +e s concerne" w th the ntern#! ph#ses o$ the s tu#t on% t !oo5s #t the s tu#t on $ro' ns "e Current #ppro#ches/ #spect co+ers two perspect +es. It s st !! use" to re$er to the present#t on o$ e+ents throu&h &r#''#t c 1e" + ewpo nts such #s the per$ect +e #n" the 'per$ect +e (+ ewpo nt ( &r#''#t c#! #spect-. In #"" t on% the ter' #!so re$ers to the nherent te'por#! structur n& o$ the s tu#t ons the'se!+es% ntern#! e+ent structure or A5t ons#rt (s tu#t on(e+entu#! t)2t)pe #spect-. ? tu#t on(e+entu#! t) t)pe #spect re$ers to the c!#ss $ c#t on o$ +er,#! e7press ons nto st#tes% #ct + t es% #ch e+e'ents% #cco'p! sh'ents #n" se'e!$#ct +es (how we conce +e o$ s tu#t ons or st#tes o$ #$$# rs-. 8oth + ewpo nt #spect #n" s tu#t on t)pe #spect con+e) n$o #,out te'por#! $#ctors such #s the ,e& nn n&% en" #n" "ur#t on

o$ # st#te o$ #$$# rs(s tu#t on. Howe+er% we nee" to "r#w # c!e#r ! ne ,etween the' #s s tu#t on t)pes #n" + ewpo nt #spect #re re#! 1e" " $$erent!) n the &r#''#r o$ !#n&u#&e% .e. the) " $$er n the r ! n&u st c e7press on/ 2 + ewpo nt #spect (per$ect +e +s 'per$ect +e- s s &n#!e" ,) # &r#''#t c#! 'orphe'e n En&! sh (,e2 n&-0 t s #n o+ert c#te&or) 2 s tu#t on t)pe #spect s s &n#!e" ,) # conste!!#t on o$ !e7 c#! 'orphe'es. ? tu#t on t)pes #re " st n&u she" #t the !e+e! o$ the +er, conste!!#t on ( .e. the +er, #n" ts #r&u'ents (su,*ects #n" o,*ects- #n" the sentence (#"+er, #!s--. ? tu#t on t)pes !#c5 e7p! c t 'orpho!o& c#! '#r5ers. ? tu#t on t)pe #spect e7e'p! $ es the not on o$ # co+ert c#te&or). Co'p#re/ ?he #te #n #pp!e. ?he w#s e#t n& #n #pp!e. ?he w#!5e" to the p#r5. ?he w#s w#!5 n& to the p#r5. The two co'ponents o$ the #spectu#! s)ste' o$ # !#n&u#&e nter#ct w th e#ch other n #!! !#n&u#&es% #!thou&h #cross !#n&u#&es% #spectu#! s)ste's +#r) cons "er#,!)% espec #!!) the + ewpo nt su,s)ste'. ? tu#t on t)pes c#n ,e " st n&u she" #s co+ert c#te&or es n #!! !#n&u#&es. ? nce Aspect c#n ,e #ssu'e" to ,e "e$ ne" #s the nter#ct on o$ the !e7 c#! 'e#n n& o$ the +er,% the n#ture o$ ts #r&u'ents (su,*ects #n" o,*ects- #n" &r#''#t c#! n$!ect on% #spectu#! 'e#n n& ho!"s $or sentences r#ther th#n $or n" + "u#! +er,s or +er, phr#ses. ?entences present #spectu#! n$o #,out s tu#t on t)pe #n" + ewpo nt. A!thou&h the) co2occur% the two t)pes o$ n$o #re n"epen"ent. Cons "er/ M#r) w#!5e" to schoo!. (per$ect +e p#st tense% &o#! ( n#tur#! en"po ntM#r) w#s w#!5 n& to schoo!. ( 'per$ect +e ,e2 n&% &o#! not re#che"M#r) w#!5e" n the p#r5. (per$ect +e% no &o#!0 the e+ent w#s s 'p!) ter' n#te"Conc!us on/ Aspectu#! n$o s & +en ,) the ! n&u st c $or's o$ the sentences/ s tu#t on t)pe s s &n#!e" ,) the +er, #n" ts #r&u'ents% wh !e + ewpo nt s s &n#!e" ,) # &r#''#t c#! 'orphe'e% usu#!!) p#rt o$ the +er, or +er, phr#se. The per$ect +e + ewpo nt & +es n$o #,out en"po nts (,e& nn n& #n" en"- wh !e the 'per$ect +e & +es n$o #,out ntern#! or other st#&es or ph#ses. The "o'# n o$ #spect o$$ers cho ces w th n # c!ose" s)ste' to the spe#5ers o$ # !#n&u#&e. There s # s'#!!% $ 7e" set o$ + ewpo nts #n" s tu#t on(e+entu#! t) t)pes. One o$ e#ch 'ust ,e chosen whene+er # sentence s $r#'e". In other wor"s% spe#5ers= cho ces n present n& #ctu#! s tu#t ons #re ! ' te" ,) con+ent on#! c#te&or 1#t on% con+ent ons o$ use #n" the constr# nts o$ truth.

ASPECT - Conceptual features of the situations t pes There #re three se'#nt c $e#tures th#t he!p us " st n&u sh #'on& s tu#t on t)pes/ AD(2 st#t +eC% AD(2 te! cC #n" AD(2 "ur#t +eC. The) $unct on #s shorth#n" $or the c!uster o$ propert es th#t " st n&u shes the'. !"#- STAT$%E& co+ers the " st nct on ,etween <st#s s= #n" <'ot on= #n" sep#r#tes s tu#t on t)pes nto the c!#sses o$ st#tes #n" e+ents (#ct + t es% #cco'p! sh'ents% #ch e+e'ents #n" se'e!$#ct +es-. ?t#tes #re the s 'p!est o$ s tu#t on t)pes% cons st n& o$ un" $$erent #te" 'o'ents. ?t#tes #re s# " to <ho!"= where#s e+ents occur% h#ppen% t#5e p!#ce or cu!' n#te. E+ents #re "o n&s0 the) #re AD ")n#' cC or A2 st#t +eC% n+o!+ n& c#us#t on (wh ch nc!u"es ,oth #&ent +e #n" non2#&ent +e su,*ects-% #ct + t) #n" ch#n&e. E+ents cons st o$ st#&es(ph#ses r#ther th#n un" $$erent #te" 'o'ents. !"#- TE'$C& sep#r#tes s tu#t on t)pes nto te! c #n" #te! c. Te! c s tu#t on t)pes #re " recte" tow#r"s # &o#!(outco'e% th#t s% the) h#+e # cu!' n#t on po nt. The &o#! '#) ,e ntr ns c to the e+ent% n th s c#se const tut n& ts n#tur#! en"po nt% #s t s w th #cco'p! sh'ents #n" #ch e+e'ents (e.&. break-. In other c#ses% the en"po nt s #r, tr#r)% #s t s $or #ct + t es #n" se'e!$#ct +es% wh ch c#n ,e stoppe" or ter' n#te" #t #n) t 'e.

N.8. The e7 stence o$ te! c t) "oes not necess#r !) 'p!) the presence o$ #n ntern#! #r&u'ent (# s)nt#ct c o,*ect- #n" con+erse!) the e7 stence o$ #n ntern#! #r&u'ent "oes not 'p!) te! c t)/ #- Fohn stoo" up n # secon". (te! c t) & +en ,) the p#rt c!e <up=0 the +er, s ntr#ns t +e(#te! c,- Fohn pushe" the c#rt $or hours. (the +er, h#s # " rect o,*ect( ntern#! #r&u'ent% )et the s tu#t on s #n #ct + t)N.8. Te! c e+ents #re not ! ' te" to e+ents th#t #re un"er the contro! o$ #n #&ent. In The rock fell to the ground. there s # $ n#! po nt & +en ,) the e7press on <to the &roun"=% ,ut the su,*ect s not #n #&ent. !"#- ()RAT$%E& " st n&u shes ,etween s tu#t on t)pes th#t t#5e t 'e (#ct + t es% st#tes% #cco'p! sh'ents- #n" nst#nt#neous e+ents (#ch e+e'ents #n" se'e!$#ct +es-. Dur#t on s &r#''#t c 1e" o+ert!) or co+ert!). In En&! sh "ur#t on s e7p! c t!) n" c#te" ,) #"+er, #!s ( for phr#ses- #n" '# n +er,s ( keep% continue-. The 'per$ect +e + ewpo nt (,e n&- s #!so re!#te" to "ur#t on% s nce 'per$ect +e $ocuses on the ntern#! st#&es o$ "ur#t +e s tu#t ons. ; th nst#nt#neous e+ents% wh ch !#c5 #n nter+#!% the 'per$ect +e '#) $ocus on pre! ' n#r) or ter#te"(repe#te" st#&es/ ?he w#s *u'p n& up #n" "own. (repe#te" #ct + t) $ro' # se'e!$#ct +eThe p!#ne w#s !#n" n&. (pre! ' n#r) st#&e $ro' #n #ch e+e'ent-

?t#tes Act + t es Acco'p! sh'ents Ach e+e'ents ?e'e!$#ct +es STATES

D(2 st#t +e ?t#t +e D)n#' c D)n#' c D)n#' c D)n#' c

D(2 "ur#t +e Dur#t +e Dur#t +e Dur#t +e Inst#nt#neous Inst#nt#neous

D(2 te! c Ate! c Ate! c Te! c Te! c Ate! c

?t#tes #re st#,!e s tu#t ons. T)p c#!% ,#s c st#tes #re/ know the answer, be tall, desire, want . ?t#tes #re ch#r#cter 1e" ,) the $e#tures AD st#t +eC #n" AD "ur#t +eC. The $e#ture AD te! cC s not re!e+#nt $or st#tes ,ec#use the) #re un,oun"e" #n" h#+e #n #,str#ct #te'por#! >u#! t). Intu t +e!)% the) pre" c#te # >u#! t) or propert) o$ #n n" + "u#! (possess on% !oc#t on% ,e! e$ #n" other 'ent#! st#tes% " spos t ons% etc-. There #re " $$erent t)pes o$ st#tes/ ,#s c2!e+e! st#tes #n" "er +e" st#t +e pre" c#tes. 8#s c2!e+e! st#tes Accor" n& to the t)pe o$ re$erent the) #pp!) to% ,#s c st#tes sep#r#te nto pre" c#tes th#t #pp!) to n" + "u#!s (5 n"s o$ o,*ects or o,*ects- or to st#&es o$ n" + "u#!s. Thus% En&! sh s)nt#ct c#!!) " st n&u shes ,etween/ #- In" + "u#! !e+e! pre" c#tes/ per'#nent% non2te'por#r) st#tes (know, desire, be tall, be widespread -% wh ch "escr ,e re!#t +e!) st#,!e% non2tr#ns tor) nherent propert es th#t #pp!) to n" + "u#!s (o,*ects or 5 n"s-% #n" ,- ?t#&e !e+e! pre" c#tes/ te'por#r) st#tes (be available, be in the garden, be drunk, be angry -% wh ch "enote tr#ns tor) propert es #n" #pp!) to st#&es o$ n" + "u#!s. The) #re co'p#t ,!e w th e7press ons o$ s 'p!e "ur#t on #n" punctu#! t)/ He w#s #n&r) $or #n nst#nt. ?he w#s hun&r) #t noon. c- In" + "u#! ( st#&e !e+e! pre" c#tes/ w th nter+#! st#t +es% th#t s% w th +er, conste!!#t ons o$ pos t on #n" !oc#t on (sit, lie, perch, sprawl, stand-. The) '#) #ppe#r n the pro&ress +e% #!thou&h the) n+o!+e no #&enc) or ch#n&e. The soc5s #re !) n& on the ,e". (st#&e !e+e! pre" c#teLon"on ! es on the Th#'es. ( n" + "u#! !e+e! pre" c#te:Lon"on s !) n& on the Th#'es. Here% the pro&ress +e h#s # st#t +e nterpret#t on (the) "enote te'por#r) st#tes-% where#s usu#!!) the pro&ress +e s #ssoc #te" w th #n #ct +e nterpret#t on. The pro&ress +e s #ccept#,!e w th these pre" c#tes on!) $ the su,*ect "enotes # 'o+e#,!e o,*ect% hence the un&r#''#t c#! t) o$ the th r" sentence n wh ch Lon"on "oes not >u#! $) #s # 'o+e#,!e o,*ect. Der +e" st#t +es #- &ener c sentences ,- h#, tu#! sentences E+ents c#n ,e rec#te&or 1e" nto st#tes% ch#n& n& nto n" + "u#! !e+e! pre" c#tes% $ use" n the s 'p!e present or p#st. The) #re se'#nt c#!!) st#t +e prec se!) ,ec#use the) "enote propert es th#t ho!" o+er n" + "u#!s or p#tterns(&ener#! 1#t ons o+er e+ents r#ther th#n spec $ c s tu#t ons.

T &ers e#t 'e#t. (&ener cM) c#t e#ts c#rrots. (h#, tu#!He wr tes no+e!s. (h#, tu#!N.8. Percept on +er,s (see-% +er,s o$ $ee! n& (like, love- #n" so'e +er,s o$ 'ent#! st#tes (know, understand-% wh ch #re st#t +e #t the ,#s c !e+e! o$ c!#ss $ c#t on% '#) #!so h#+e #n #ch e+e'ent nterpret#t on n the conte7t o$ #"+er,s ! 5e <su""en!)= or w th co'p!et +e #"+er, #!s. Co'p#re/ I s#w the c t) h#!! $ro' ') w n"ow. (st#te?u""en!)% I s#w # st#r. (#ch e+e'entI ! 5e 'us c. (st#teI ! 5e" h ' n # secon". (#ch e+e'entACT$%$T$ES *PROCESSES+ The ter' <process= s $#+ore" o+er <#ct + t)= ,ec#use% wh !e <#ct + t)= s #ssoc #te" w th hu'#n #&enc)% 3process4 enco'p#sses ,oth #ct + t es #ssoc #te" w th hu'#n su,*ects (e7tern#! c#us#t on- ( he swam/slept/strolled in the park- #n" #ct + t es th#t #re not c#ses o$ hu'#n #&enc) (the ball rolled/moved, it rained for hours, the ewels glittered-. Processes #re #te! c% "ur#t +e% ")n#' c e+ents. An #ct + t) "oes not h#+e # &o#! or n#tur#! en"po nt. Its ter' n#t on s 'ere!) cess#t on o$ #ct + t)% th#t s% #n #ct + t) h#s #n #r, tr#r) en"po nt% wh ch s wh) the) s 'p!) <stop= or <ter' n#te=% ,ut ne+er <$ n sh=. Process sentences cons st o$ +er, conste!!#t ons present n& # process s tu#t on. The +er, conste!!#t ons '#) cons st o$/ #- #n #te! c +er, #n" co'p#t ,!e co'p!e'ents ( $ #n)-/ push a cart, play chess/the piano, laugh, sleep, think about, dream, walk in the park, run along the beach, en oy, etc. ,- #n #te! c "ur#t +e +er, w th # co'p!e'ent th#t s cu'u!#t +e or uncount#,!e. These >u#! $) #s 'u!t p!e2e+ent processes/ eat cherries, write letters, drink wine, etc . Mu!t p!e e+ents #!so nc!u"e ter#t ons% repet t ons o$ nst#nt#neous e+ents% such #s #ch e+e'ents #n" se'e!$#ct +es/ cough for five minutes, find pebbles on the beach all afternoon, etc. c- n En&! sh% there #re other 'e#ns o$ ch#n& n& the te! c t) o$ # conste!!#t on% $or nst#nce us n& # p#rt cu!#r prepos t on/ read a book (#cc.- +s. read at a book (#ct +.-% paint the fence (#cc.- +s. paint away at the fence (#ct +.-. ACCO,P'$SH,E-TS Acco'p! sh'ents "escr ,e ch#n&e2o$2st#tes prep#re" (,rou&ht #,out(c#use"- ,) so'e #ct + t)(process% the ch#n&e ,e n& the co'p!et on o$ the process/ build a bridge, repair a car, drink a glass of wine . Acco'p! sh'ents #re conceptu#! 1e" #s "ur#t +e e+ents% cons st n& o$ # process #n" #n outco'e ( ch#n&e o$ st#te #n" h#+ n& success +e st#&es n wh ch the process #"+#nces to ts conc!us on. Thus% #cco'p! sh'ents #re co'p!e7 e+ents ,ec#use the) h#+e other e+ent t)pes #s the r co'ponents. An #cco'p! sh'ent s # c#us#! structure o$ the t)pe 3eG c#uses eH- where eG s the c#us n& #ct + t)(process #n" e H s the resu!t n& (ch#n&e o$- st#te. Thus% !e7 c#! c#us#t +e +er,s #re #cco'p! sh'ents ( break a window, cook a pie, cool the soup, shelve the books, poison your roommate -. A!so% resu!t#t +e construct ons (wh ch !e7 c#! 1e ,oth the c#us n& #ct + t) #n" the resu!t n& st#te- >u#! $) #s #cco'p! sh'ents/ The w n" sh#pe" the h !!s nto cones. The '# " swept the $!oor c!e#n. He s#n& h 'se!$ ho#rse. 9er,s p!us p#rt c!e construct ons #!so re#" #s #cco'p! sh'ents/ throw something away/down/up/aside/in. In # nutshe!!% #cco'p! sh'ent construct ons cons st o$ conste!!#t ons th#t h#+e/ #- Ate! c% "ur#t +e +er,s #n" count#,!e #r&u'ents/ The) "r#n5 # &!#ss o$ ,eer #n" !e$t. ,- Ate! c% "ur#t +e +er,s #n" " rect on#! co'p!e'ents/ The 5 " w#!5e" to schoo!. c- Ate! c% "ur#t +e +er,s #n" cert# n prepos t ons/ The ,o) r#n out. "- Ate! c +er,s #n" resu!t#t +e phr#se/ The #!#r' c!oc5 t c5e" the ,#,) #w#5e. ACH$E%E,E-TS Ach e+e'ents #re nst#nt#neous% s n&!e st#&e e+ents th#t resu!t n # ch#n&e o$ st#te. Ach e+e'ents $ocus '# n!) on the ch#n&e o$ st#te% s 'p!) !e#+ n& out or ,#c5&roun" n& the c#us n& #ct + t) #n" c#us n& $#ctor. ?tereot)p c #ch e+e'ents #re/ die, reach the top, win the race, arrive, leave, recogni!e, notice, find a penny, miss the target, lose the watch, remember, etc.

E+en $ so'e #ch e+e'ents '#) ,e prece"e" ,) so'e prep#r#tor) #ct + t) ( land, die, reach the top, win the race-% th s nst#nt#neous t)pe "oes not conceptu#! 1e t. 8ut re'e',er th#t we c#n $ocus on the pre! ' n#r) st#&e #n" turn the #ch e+e'ent nto #n #ct + t) $ we e'p!o) the pro&ress +e/ The p!#ne !#n"e". (#ch e+e'entThe p!#ne w#s !#n" n&. (#ct + t)The pre" c#tes th#t "o not presuppose # prep#r#tor) #ct + t) #re 5nown #s <!uc5) #ch e+e'ents=/ find, recogni!e, discover, notice, lose, remember, etc. SE,E'FACT$%ES ?e'e!$#ct +es #re #te! c% nst#nt#neous e+ents/ cough, knock, hit, flap a wing, hiccup, slam/bang the door, kick the ball . ?e'e!$#ct +es "o not h#+e pre! ' n#r) st#&es% nor resu!t#nt st#&es. ;hen the) occur w th per o" #"+er, #!s #n" the pro&ress +e% the) #re nterprete" #s "er +e" "ur#t +e processes(#ct + t es cons st n& o$ # ser es o$ repe#te"% ter#te" se'e!$#ct +e e+ents. The pre" c#tes #re re nterprete" #s 'u!t p!e2e+ent #ct + t es/ Fohn w#s 5 c5 n& the ,#!! when I s#w h '. Fohn 5 c5e" the ,#!! $or $ +e ' nutes #n" then !e$t. THE ASPECT)A' RECATEGOR$.AT$O- OF %ER/ PHRASES Pre" c#tes sh $t $ro' the r protot)p c#! c!#ss "ue to +#r ous e!e'ents n the +er, conste!!#t ons/ (G- Su01ect2 I$ the su,*ect o$ #n #ch e+e'ent s #n n"e$ n te p!ur#! noun phr#se or # co!!ect +e noun% the #ch e+e'ent rec#te&or 1es nto #n #ct + t). The tourists have discovered a beautiful castle. (#ch e+e'entTourists discovered that beautiful castle for years. (#ct + t)The battalion had been crossing the border for twenty minutes. (#ct + t)(H- (irect O01ect2 I$ the " rect o,*ect o$ #n #cco'p! sh'ent or #ch e+e'ent s # ,#re p!ur#! noun phr#se% the) ,eco'e #ct + t es. Tom wrote the essay in two hours. (#cco'p! sh'entTom wrote essays for two hours. (#ct + t)He discovered a treasure in the backyard. (#ch e+e'entTom has been discovering lice in his son"s hair for three days. (#ct + t)I$ the " rect o,*ect o$ #n #cco'p! sh'ent or #n #ch e+e'ent s # '#ss noun% t turns t nto #n #ct + t). Tom ate his hamburger in three minutes. (#cco'p! sh'entTom ate popcorn for an hour. (#ct + t)(E- Adver0ials2 I$ #n #ct + t) s co', ne" w th #n #"+er, #! o$ e7tent% t turns nto #n #cco'p! sh'ent. Tom walked for an hour. (#ct + t)Tom walked two kilometers in half an hour. (#cco'p! sh'entI$ #n #ct + t) co', nes w th # !oc#t +e noun phr#se% t ,eco'es #n #cco'p! sh'ent. Tom walked in the woods for an hour. (#ct + t)Tom walked to the building in ten minutes. (#cco'p! sh'ent(I- Tense2 H#, tu#! sentences #!w#)s "es &n#te st#tes. A!'ost #n) +er, c#n ,eco'e p#rt o$ # h#, tu#! sentence $ use" n the s 'p!e present% so'et 'es w th # $re>uenc) #"+er, #!. He played chess for two hours. (#ct + t)-

He plays chess #every day$. (st#teAct + t) +er, phr#ses such #s rub, burn, scratch turn nto st#tes when use" n the s 'p!e present $or'% "es &n#t n& # &ener#! ch#r#cter st c o$ the su,*ect/ The wood is burning in the fireplace. (#ct + t)- / This burns like fire. (st#te-

(J- Progressive # Continuous Aspect2 ;hen use" n the pro&ress +e #spect% st#tes% #cco'p! sh'ents #n" #ch e+e'ents rec#te&or 1e nto #ct + t es un$o!" n& #t # cert# n re$erence t 'e. -3/3 ?o'e +er,s c#n h#+e se+er#! re#" n&s e+en thou&h the +er, phr#se "oes not un"er&o #n) ch#n&e o$ the t)pe !!ustr#te" #,o+e/ Tom read a book for an hour. (#ct + t)- ( Tom read a book in an hour. (#cco'p! sh'ent%he combed her hair for two minutes. (#ct + t)- ( %he combed her hair in two minutes. (#cco'p! sh'entASPECT)A' C'ASSES OF %ER/ PHRASES A-( THE PROGRESS$%E ASPECT ACT$%$TY %ER/ PHRASES Use" n the cont nuous #spect% w th or w thout #"+er, #!s e7press n& "ur#t on ( all the time, meanwhile, all day / night long, for some time, etc.-% #ct + t) +er, phr#ses "es &n#te processes un$o!" n& #t # cert# n re$erence t 'e. ?o'et 'es the) "escr ,e two s 'u!t#neous processes #n" #re connecte" e ther ,) and or ,) su,or" n#t n& con*unct ons such #s while, as, all the while% etc. The river is flooding. / &eanwhile he was trying to find out who had robbed him. / 'hile she was rehearsing for the show, her maid was sewing her dress for the gala. / As he was crossing the street, he slipped on a banana skin and broke a leg. ;hen use" n the pro&ress +e% se'e!$#ct +es/ ump, kick, tremble, nod, knock, tap, pat, slam / bang the door % etc. "escr ,e # ser es o$ repe#te" processes r#ther th#n # s n&!e process/ The boy was kicking the ball against the wall. The dog is umping up and down. Her lips were trembling. ACCO,P'$SH,E-TS A-( ACH$E%E,E-TS The ntern#! structure o$ #cco'p! sh'ents #n" #ch e+e'ents presupposes # $ n#! &o#!% outco'e or resu!t th#t s suspen"e" when the respect +e +er, phr#ses co', ne w th the pro&ress +e #spect. ;hen the) #ppe#r n the cont nuous% the) #c>u re #n #ct + t) re#" n&. They built their house in two years. (#cco'p! sh'entThey were building the house when the accident happened. (#ct + t)The man fell into the river and drowned. (#ch e+e'ent'hen his son came running to help him, the man was already drowning. (#ct + t)STATE %ER/ PHRASES ?t#tes #re "e$ ne" #s h#+ n& #n #,str#ct >u#! t) #n" #n #te'por#! nterpret#t on. The) #re s# " to "es &n#te # propert) o$ the su,*ect th#t !#sts throu&hout t 'e. Hence% the) "o not nor'#!!) co', ne w th the pro&ress +e% wh ch re$ers to s tu#t ons o$ ! ' te" "ur#t on. Howe+er% there #re cert# n st#te +er, phr#ses th#t '#) #ppe#r n the cont nuous% ch#n& n& the r 'e#n n&. (G- to 0e " propert -designating ad1ectives and nouns2 I$ the #"*ect +e ( noun "es &n#tes # per'#nent propert) o$ #n n" + "u#!% the +er, w !! ne+er #ppe#r n the cont nuous (,e t#!!% ,e )oun&% ,e o!"% etc.-. Yet% cert# n #"*ect +es ( nouns e7press propert es th#t c#n ,e #!tere" #n" thus% #!!ow us to re$er to on!) # te'por#!!) ! ' te" st#&e o$ the n" + "u#!% n wh ch c#se the use o$ the pro&ress +e s re>u re". Co'p#re/

He is a teacher. / %he is taller than you. (&ener#! propert esHe is being rude tonight. / (ou"re being a total bastard. (process un$o!" n& nowThe secon" set o$ sentences "escr ,es te'por#r) #ct + t es un"er the contro! o$ the n" + "u#!s. The 'p! c#t on s th#t the r ,eh#+ or s "e! ,er#te #n" the) c#n put #n en" to t $ the) w#nt to. (H- 4ental cognition ver0 phrases/ know, believe, hope, trust, imagine, wonder, think% etc. ;hen the) occur n the pro&ress +e% the) e7press te'por#!!) #n" sp#t #!!) ! ' te" processes un$o!" n& #t # cert# n re$erence t 'e. The) re$er to # '#n $est#t on o$ the n" + "u#!% not to # ch#r#cter st c propert) o$ h s. Co'p#re/ ) imagine she will agree to your proposal. / ) was only imagining those ugly scenarios. ) think he is wrong. / )"m thinking of giving up smoking. They hope to win. / He was hoping against hope that there was still a chance of success. (E- ph sical cognition ver0 phrases/ see, hear, smell, taste, feel A!so re$erre" to #s K+er,s o$ percept onK% the) "o not occur n the pro&ress +e $ the) "enote # &ener#! ch#r#cter st c o$ # cert# n n" + "u#! ( o,*ect. E+en $ the) '#5e re$erence to #n #ct o$ percept on un$o!" n& #t # spec $ c 'o'ent ! 5e NO;% the) #+o " the use o$ the cont nuous. Inste#"% the) #ppe#r #cco'p#n e" ,) the 'o"#! +er, CAN/ ) hear the wind blowing. / ) can hear the wind blowing. / *)"m hearing the wind blowing. It the) co', ne w th the pro&ress +e% the) "escr ,e processes &o n& on $or # ! ' te" per o" o$ t 'e. In th s c#se the su,*ect s #ttr ,ute" ntent on or purpose/ (ou smell nice. / )"m smelling your perfume to see if ) can guess what it is. The milk tastes sour. / He is tasting the soup to see if it"s got enough salt. %ee #n" hear e+en #c>u re new 'e#n n&s when #ppe#r n& n the cont nuous/ The court is hearing the evidence tomorrow. (the) #re ! sten n& to #n" tr) n& the c#se-0 )"m seeing the doctor ne+t week. (I h#+e '#"e #n #ppo nt'ent(I- e4otive ver0 phrases/ love, hate, like, dislike, want, miss% etc. A&# n% the #te'por#! >u#! t) o$ the st#te +er,s s rep!#ce" w th the te'por#! >u#! t) o$ the process un$o!" n& $or # cert# n per o" o$ t 'e. ) despise bad behavior. / He will be despising me heartily. ,verybody envied everybody in that room. / ) was envying him his freedom at the time. (J- other propert designating ver0 phrases/ belong, contain, consist, weigh, measure% etc. I$ use" n the pro&ress +e% the) e7press te'por#r) propert es. The necklace belongs to me. / Are you belonging to the local libraryThe castle costs a fortune. / The mistake is costing us dearly. 9er,s ! 5e weigh or measure h#+e # ,eh#+ or s ' !#r to th#t o$ percept on +er,s% th#t s% the su,*ect "e! ,er#te!) "oes the #ct on o$ Kwe &h n&K or K'e#sur n&K/ The baby weighs si+ pounds. / The nurse is weighing the baby. (L- locative ver0 phrases/ sit, stand, lie, rest, remain% etc. ?uch +er,s #ppe#r n the cont nuous $ the r su,*ect represents # 'o+e#,!e o,*ect #n" "escr ,e te'por#r) st#tes/ Her new house stands / #*is standing$ at the corner of our street. / He is standing near the pole.