Aav 20

ACTA ASIATICA VARSOVILNSIA
NO. 20
ACTA ASIATICA VARSOVIENSIA
Editor-in-Chief
ROMAN SLAWINSKI
Board of Advisorv Editors
ANNA MROZEK-DUMANOWSKA
KENNETH OLENIK
JOLANTA SIERAKOWSKA-DYNDO
BOGDAN SKLADANEK
STANISLAW TOKARSKI
KARIN TOMALA
JERZY ZDANOWSKI
ZHANG HAIPENG
Polish Academy oI Sciences
Centre Ior Studies on Non-European Countries
ACTA ASIATICA VARSOVILNSIA
NO. 20
ASKON Publishers
Warsaw 2007
Publication co-Iinanced
by the State Committee Ior ScientiIic Research
Covers by Edward Kostka
English text consultant
Maria Bozenna Fedewicz
Photographys by Roman Slawinski, Shih Fu-sheng
Copyright by Polish Academy oI Sciences, Centre Ior Studies on Non-European
Countries, Warsaw 2007
Printed in Poland
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Wydawnictwo Naukowe ASKON Sp. z o.o.
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PL ISSN 08606102
ISBN 9788374520270
Contents
SURENDER B HUTAN I, Clash or Cooperation? India, China and the USA
in Global Politics ............................................................................................... 7
LUKASZ GACE K, AIrica in the Chinese Diplomacy.
The Struggle Ior AIrican Natural Resources ................................................. 19
PIOTR KOW NACKI, The Globalization Aspect oI JapaneseChinese
Economic Relations ........................................................................................ 35
IZABELLA L ABJ DZ KA, Oneiric Themes and Conventions in
Gao Xingjian`s Dramas ................................................................................... 49
QUANG THUAN NGUYE N, VietnamPoland Relations in the New
International Context ...................................................................................... 73
ROMAN S L AWI NS K I, Taiwanese Traditional Religions ...................................... 81
STANISLAW T OKARS KI, A Global Identity the Indian Dilemma ..................... 91
KARIN T O M A L A, Die Frage der Menschenrechte und der Wandel
des Zivilisationsbewusstseins im heutigen China ........................................ 97
BOGDAN S. Z E MANE K, The Taiwanese SelI-image in the Presidential
Campaign oI 2004: Political Rhetoric and Creation oI a New Identity ........ 133
Book Reviews
Edward Luce, In Spite of the Gods. The Strange Rise of Modern India
rev. Surender Bhutani ................................................................................... 149
Jagat S. Mehta, Negotiating For India. Resolving Problems through Diplomacv
rev. Surender Bhutani ................................................................................... 156
Notes on Contributors ................................................................................................. 160
Clash or Cooperation? India, China and the USA in Global Politics 7
ACTA ASIATICA
VARSOVIENSIA
No. 20, 2007
PL ISSN 08606102
SURENDER BHUTANI
Clash or Cooperation? India, China and the USA
in Global Politics
Cooperation between India and China is a historical necessitv.
Indian President K.R. Narayanan, Beijing, May 2000
The early 21st century Iinds China and India locked in a dangerous and little-understood
nuclear embrace in a complex post-Cold War world. Management oI this relationship
depends not only on China and India but also on the international power distribution, as
well as their individual relations with the sole superpower, the United States. Thus Iuture
relations among the three countries are critical to both Asian and global security. How this
emerging triangular relationship can aIIect perceptions, calculations, and policy options is
an interesting subject Ior the students oI international politics. In Iact, it may be added that
skilIul manoeuvring and manipulating oI big power alignments can add to a country`s
existing diplomatic capital in terms that are more practical. This being the case, both China
and India are paying special attention to the other`s diplomacy, and each Iormulates
counterpolitics accordingly in a unipolar world dominated by the US. Global power has
many dimensions: economic, military, cultural, technological, intellectual and institutional.
Today the United States can still claim Iull-spectrum dominance. It is the world`s largest
economy. It spends more on the military than the next 14 countries combined. Its popular
culture Irom Iilms to music to Iast Iood has a global reach that is unrivalled. Its
universities are the best in the world. US companies have led the inIormation technology
revolution. AIter victory in the Cold War, there is still no coherent alternative to the political
and economic ideas (capitalism and democracy) associated with the US. Most oI the world`s
most important institutions are either based in the US: the United Nations, the International
Monetary Fund, the World Bank, or dominated by Americans, as NATO. Yet, every one oI
these Iorms oI dominance is under some challenge. The most obvious challenge is economic.
The rise oI China is now so rapid that is Iuture projections suggest that the Chinese
economy will be larger than that oI the US by 2027. China already has the Iourth largest
economy in the world and by 2020 its economy will be bigger than every member`s oI G8
except the US. India is also catching up and by 2025 its economy will be larger than that oI
six oI the G8 members. As compared to that, the US has become the most indebted country
in the world and its annual deIicit is more than $ 800 billion.
1
It will be a long time beIore any
other country can aspire to the global military reach oI the US. However, the Iraq war has
1
Financial Times (London), 11 June 2007.
8 SURENDER BHUTANI
shown that very dazzling Iirepower is not as useIul as many Americans assumed. How can
it be, iI the US is unable to control a Third World country oI 22 million people? The erosion
oI US power to lead is well under way. Yet it would be a mistake to assume that US
leadership will simply end on the day 20 years Irom now when China`s economy overtakes
that oI the US. Size is not everything. Even when the Chinese economy is larger than that
oI the US, the average American will still be Iar richer than the average Chinese. Combine
riches with political Ireedom and it is likely that the 'American dream will remain more
attractive than the Chinese reality Ior many decades to come sustaining the cultural and
intellectual power that is a vital part oI America`s ability to lead.
Continental planes shiIt at a rate that is oIten imperceptible to non-specialists. Then
one day the pressure reaches the breaking point. What Ior decades has gone unnoticed by
almost everyone suddenly becomes apparent to all. Likewise, the ascent and descent oI
abig power oIten happens gradually.The likely emergence oI China and India as new
major global players similar to the rise oI Great Britain in the 18th century, Germany in the
19
th
century and the United States in the 20th century will transIorm the geopolitical
landscape, with impacts potentially as dramatic as those oI the previous three centuries.
Sino-Indian relations in the past decade have largely been a waiting game. There were and
are some challenges to the regional status quo, yet both countries deIer the possibility oI
a major change. One principal Iactor is the US, which has been in charge throughout the
world, and Asia has been no exception to its supremacy. Menus oI Chinese restaurants in
India oIIer Iood that is neither American, nor Chinese, but it is palatable. Such is the climate
in international politics Ior the US, China and India these days in the era oI globalisation.
These three countries are so diIIerent and so complex, yet they are willing to share part oI
their menus with each other. Like India oI the 2000s, China could not be perceived as just
an ordinary middle rung state, like Italy and France. Again, like India, China needs to be
perceived and understood within its own unique perspective. The two Asian giants are
demanding at the world stage to be recognised as serious contenders Ior having some say
in the international aIIairs. They simply cannot be dictated as the two giants together have
the Iorty percent population oI the globe. Their systems are diIIerent, yet their challenges
are almost similar to have a niche relevant to their size. Both countries are a product oI the
rich heritage oI their ancient civilizations. II on the one hand India is the largest democracy,
China, on the other, is the largest Communist state. The Chinese experience has shown that
a Communist system is workable, unlike the experience in Eastern Europe that includes
Russia, where it was tried and Iailed miserably in the end. Both democracy and Communism
are Western models, yet both have Iound roots in Asian soil.
Copywriters at the New Delhi headquarters oI a campaign to re-brand India have been
agonizing over a slogan to sum up their revamped product. First, they tried: '15 years, six
governments, Iive prime ministers, one direction, eight percent GDP growth, which oIIered
plenty oI inIormation about economic progress but hardly tripped oII the tongue. Then,
they hit on 'India: Iastest growing Iree market democracy which was still not very
catchy, but at least marked a break with notions oI a country oI elephants, spirituality and
exotic mysticism. Concerned with its outdated global image, India has embarked on aradical
makeover oI its image, working to project a Iresh Iace a Iace constructed around ideas oI
economic achievements, democracy, Bollywood glamour and cultural excellence. No wonder
the slogan 'Incredible India came out Irom the negative stereotypes oI the past. People
are now attempting to Iind out about India that is on the radar as an economic and strategic
power. Foreigners are trying to understand what India really is and what makes its people
tick. The whole business oI soIt power is about trying to leverage that interest. The term
'soIt power was Iirst used by Harvard academic Joseph S. Nye in describing the
international inIluence a nation acquires when others are drawn to its culture and ideas.
Frankly speaking, there is no substitute Ior growth and it is statistics oI development
which show whether a country is a hard or soIt power.
Fuelled by high-octane growth, India is trying to catch up the highly industrialised
world. AIter decades oI stagnation, India is emerging as a power to reckon with which is
inconsistent to its size and capability. There is a good chance that without ever having
actually been to India one Iinds it the place to call iI one`s luggage is lost on a connecting
Ilight, or where one`s company has outsourced its data processing. Every night in Banaglore,
in the Indian Silicon Valley, young radiologists read CT scans e-mailed to them by emergency
room doctors oI the West. In much oI the aIIluent world, it is no surprise to Iind that one`s
dentist or lawyer is oI Indian origin. Indians have been vital to the development oI everything
Irom the international steel business to CaliIornia`s high-tech industry. In ways big and
small, Indians are changing the world. Gradually the 'soIt power oI India is catching up
quite Iast and the Indian diaspora consisting oI 25 million people has become the shining
example oI emerging India. This diaspora has contributed $ 25 billion in 2006, which was
the largest remittance by any oversees community to its motherland. For the Iirst time it
has overtaken the Chinese diaspora by remitting more money to its native land.
India`s soItware prowess has helped to revolutionise the country`s Ioreign exchange
situation, which in 1991 almost broke the economy. Then, India`s reserves were less than
abillion dollar; and by June 2007, it has climbed to around $ 215 billion. This is as good
abarometer as any oI India`s new conIidence. IT sector clocked up a milestone in 2003when
it earned more dollars than the cost oI India`s oil imports the erratic energy bill that had
haunted the country Ior decades. India`s IT and IT-enabled sector has boomed to an extent
that is changing India`s urban economy. India, as many Indians generally maintain, is
aunique country. Particularly unusual, especially in comparison with China, is the character
oI the economy. China is developing as most Western economies have; it began with
agricultural reIorm, moved to low-cost manuIacturing, is now climbing the value-added
chain and probably, in the next ten to twenty years will break into international tradeable
services on a larger scale. India is growing Irom the other end. Its service sector accounted
Ior signiIicantly more than halI its economy in 2006, with agriculture and industry accounting
Ior equal shares oI what remained. This resembles an economy at the middle-income stage
oI development, such as Greece or Portugal.
That is possible because India the second largest nation in the world and projected to
be by 2020 the most populous one is itselI being transIormed. Writers like to attach
catchy tags to nations, which is why one has read plenty about the rise oI Asian tigers and
the Chinese dragon. Now here comes the elephant. Indian economy has been growing
more than eight percent a year Ior the past seven years, and the country is modernisingso
Iast that old Iriends and Ioes are bewildered by the pace. India`s place in international
system is being rethought. During the Cold War (19471990), relations between the largest
democracies were Irosty at best, as India was Iorced to cosy up to the Soviet Union while
successive US administrations armed and supported India`s regional rival, Pakistan.
10 SURENDER BHUTANI
However, in a breathtaking shiIt, the Bush administration declared India a strategic partner
and proposed a bilateral nuclear expertise. AIter many decades when it was hardly registered
in the political or public consciousness, India is on the US radar screen. While both India
and the US seek trade and good relations with China, both are aware and wary oI
China`s growing strength. Thus, both seek to hedge their bets, and what better way to do
so than by improvingtheir strategicrelationship. Neither country can aim to restrain China
in the way the 'containment strategy was aimed at the Soviet Union during the Cold War,
but both wish to create an international structure that does not tempt China to throw its
weight around. India has a 3,000 km border with China, a 2,000 km border with Pakistan
(which is the beneIiciary oI Chinese military support) and growing concerns about the
security oI sea route in the Indian Ocean over which oil and other trade move. Thus, the
emerging US strategic partnership with India shown in the nuclear deal and military
cooperation is evidently aimed in part at China. No wonder then that the State Department
issued a statement that the US would help India to become a major world power in the
21
st
century, involving both strategic and economic dialogue.
2
Both countries are having
joint air and naval exercises in the wake oI growing global terrorism. In other words, the US
has moved Irom relative indiIIerence to India to the development oI a dependable
partnership. Several Iactors underpin this new American attitude towards India. Rhetoric
about the world`s two largest democracies is not new, but it Iits with the Bush administration`s
new emphasis on promoting democracy. The role oI the Indian diaspora in the US is
increasing, with its two and halI million people who have become very vocal supporters oI
this relationship. The Indians in the US have a substantial clout in the IT sector and they
are very active in the service sector, apart Irom Iirst rate technicians and scientists at
National Aeronautics and Space Agency (NASA), and they are contributing massively in
developing programmes in space. An Indian young woman Sunita William`s record stay oI
more than 181 days in the space station is a case in point. Equally important are strategic
concerns about transnational terrorism. In a global war on terrorism, the way India holds
its 160 million Muslim population in check is a remarkable achievement as compared to
Pakistan`s nasty role in creating Taliban and al Qaeda.
Will the United States view China as a new Japan, a new Soviet Union, or both? In
addition, will China see the US as a supporter or as an opponent? The world`s Iate may
depend on the answers to these questions. In the late 19
th
and early 20
th
centuries, the
Iailure to cope with the rise oI Germany and Japan led to two world wars and an economic
calamity. AIter World War II, the US had to deal with a Communist superpower, the Soviet
Union, and the rapid rise oI its newally, Japan. China now seems suited to become a Iuture
enemy number one. Among policy-makers in Washington, the new approach can be
explained simply: India is the un-China. The US will always have to deal with China, but it
has learned that doing so is never easy: China bristles too much with old resentments at
the hands oI the West. The Bush administration`s view oI Chinese military build-up is
getting notably sterner, and so are its actions. OIIicial description oI China as a budding
military rival has become almost standard Iare within the administration. The Pentagon`s
recent strategic road map is explicit in Iinding that 'oI all major and emerging powers,
China has the greatest potential to compete militarily with the United States. China`s use oI
2
Financial Express (New Delhi), 19 April 2005.
disruptive military technologies|...|could over time oIIset traditional US military
advantages.
3
Deputy Secretary oI State Robert Zoellick in a speech in September 2005
observed: 'Uncertainties about how China will use its power will lead the United States to
hedge relations with China.|...| Many countries hope China will pursue a PeaceIul Rise`,
but none will bet their Iuture on it.
4
The administration oIIicials are worried about the
rising Chinese deIence budget, reaching $ 35 billion annually, but as a matter oI Iact it is
almost double the size as the Chinese Iigures are hidden under diIIerent subsidies.
Nonetheless, it is six per cent oI what the United States spends annually on deIence.
Chinese ambassador to Washington Zhou Wenzhong retorted: 'This China threat notion
is obviously a wrong perception oI China`s intentions. He suggested his country had
emerged as America`s next menace largely because the US deIence industry 'needs more
orders.
5
In a sense the military-industrial complex oI the Cold War era is still calling the
shots in US domestic and Ioreign policy. This complex likes to exaggerate the threat Irom
the perceived US Ioes and according to the DeIence Intelligence Agency by 2020 China`s
deIence budget will be likely to exceed $ 200 billion.
6
Still, these threats are manageable.
One needs to distinguish two aspects. Economics is a positive sum game; everybody can
become richer together (unless resources constraints limit growth and that can happen
with the new energy cold war). Political power is a zero-sum game, since only one country
can be the most powerIul. However, outright conIlict is usually worse than cooperation.
How then is the potential Ior Iriction to be managed? The answer is to keep a Iirm grasp oI
shared interests. In a world oI economical interdependence, nuclear-armed big powers,
19
th
-century approaches to conIlict and 18
th
-century attitudes to commerce are potentially
ruinous. As the status quo power, the US needs to demonstrate that it internalises the
principle oI mutually beneIicial management oI the world`s economy and security.
UnIortunately, this may not happen. The US policy-makers have not yet purged their old
ideas. They have repeatedly stated their desire to 'build and maintain our deIences beyond
challenge. To do so, the US must 'dissuade Iuture military competition. The message
Irom the US to the world is: 'Do as we say, not as we do.
7
On the other hand, the Chinese
will believe military superiority is Iar Irom outdated iI the US is determined to retain it. It is
also plausible that China will possess the resources to match US military spending by the
middle oI the present century, though it is unlikely to match its technical sophistication
even by that date. Whether the US would preIer to contain China or conIront China,
remains to be seen. Nonetheless, like Japan bashingin the recent past, China bashing is
going on in the US media and in the higher echelons oI power. But it is still a controlled
exercise. Had the US not mired in Iraq and AIghanistan, China bashing would have been
much shriller! When President Bush II came to power, he made China policy a top priority.
3
Neil King Jr., 'Host Gets Warrier as They Visit U.S., in hall Street Journal (Washington),
20April 2006.
4
Ibidem.
5
Ibidem.
6
Martin WolI, 'Why America and China Cannot AIIord to Fall Out, in Financial Times,
8October 2003.
7
Howard W. French, 'Is it a PeaceIul rise? U.S. Should Not Bet on It, in International Herald
Tribune (Paris), 20 April 2006.
12 SURENDER BHUTANI
However, the September 11, 2001 terrorist attack changed all that. US` pre-occupation,
compounded with its Iolly to redraw the new Middle Eastern map, gave a big opportunity
to the Communist leadership in China to pursue its agenda with less interIerence Irom
Washington. Now China is already competing hard with the US across a range oI Ironts
Irom the pursuit oI energy resources to the establishment oI diplomatic networks in South
East Asia and AIrica. At the same time it is saying loudly and clearly that it not a threat to
the United States, it does not even wish to be seen as a challenge. In the recent past,
China`s leaders have struggled over how best to convey this thought, issuing tortured
slogans like 'peaceIul rise, Ior example, that are adopted and dropped with equal
ambivalence. One has to know that China`s own problems consume most oI its energy, and
will continue to Ior the near Iuture. Whether the country`s system can muddle through is
anything but a Ioregone conclusion. It is increasingly outpaced by change on the ground,
and by colossal problems oI every kind Irom the environment and energy to the ever
more sophisticated and Ireethinking masses.
Lest anyone suspects hostility in this rebuttal oI China`s new line, one hastens to add
that this is the way it should be. China has an exceptionally long history oI power on the
world stage, against which the last two centuries oI relative weakness is merely a blip. In
addition, like any Iast rising power, its re-emergence will be bound to change the rules oI
the game, particularly when it is heavily investing in US bond market where its investment
has surpassed the Japanese investments. The devil, as they say, is in the details, which is
why one might hope Ior more candour Irom the Chinese leaders, both toward the outside
world and toward their own people. The Chinese people are still spoon-Ied and it is
asaccharine-laced and ultimately dangerous Iorm oI history that paints China as the eternal
innocent: happily selI-contained, Iair, and courtly toward others.
8
In keeping with the
emphasis on stealth, the Iirst element in China`s recent play-book is to stay out oI the way
while the US undermines its own position in the world. China is becoming attractive to the
developing countries in the Third World not only because oI what China is doing, but
because oI what the US is doing. 'It is quite natural Ior them to like China, iI they do not like
what America is doing. They want an alternative, in the same way as countries looked to
the Soviet Union during the Cold War, said ProIessor Zheng Yongnian oI University oI
Nottingham in Britain.
9
The Soviet parallel, however, ends there. China, by contrast, is
doing what the US once excelled at, emphasizing economic multi-literalism: embracing
regional and international organizations, signing trade pacts and becoming an ever-bigger
player in the Ioreign aid game. China`s advise to the world`s poor resembles its strategy at
home: 'development Iirst and politics later. At the same time one senses that the Chinese
leadership is serious about wanting to avoid disastrous wars and ruinous arms races. Its
challenge instead is to another key source oI US power, the international system. In other
words, by its growing muscle in trade and Iinance China is likely to draw into its embrace
developing countries, particularly authoritarian ones, attracted by its corporatist capitalism.
So when do the masks drop? When the challenge does become explicit? To answer these
two important questions, one can say saIely that China needs a Iew more decades either to
8
Ibidem.
9
Ian Bremmer, 'U.S.China: The Mistrust is Mutual, in International Herald Tribune, 17 May
2007.
become economically strong enough to no longer care what the US might think, or to
change into a democracy, which would settle the legitimacy issue in Western eyes.
Within the United States, two schools oI China watchers are propagating their views.
There has been a debate to address the rapid rise oI China`s economy and geopolitical
inIluence. The so-called 'panda hedgers believe China can be a Iorce Ior stability in both
East Asia and the world at large and should, thereIore, be constructively engaged. On the
other side are the 'dragon slayers, who believe China`s growing economic and political
power directly threatens US interests and must be contained. Further, 'panda huggers
believe that China`s economic changes, begun a generation ago under the leadership oI
Deng Xiaoping, have opened a Pandora`s box oI reIorm that will eventually bind Beijing to
commitments on rule oI law, human rights, property rights and a higher degree oI political
transparency. Rising living standards cannot be sustained within a society in which citizens
have virtually no political voice. The example is the way Beijing has adopted a 'Go out
strategy oI encouraging Chinese Iirms to scour the globe Ior commercial opportunities that
will stoke the country`s economic growth. No doubt, the hedging strategy makes a lot oI
sense unless it is simply a means oI postponing strategic decisions on how best to respond
to China`s rise. Where is the line that China must not cross? Beijing does not know,
becauseWashington has not yet decided. That is largely because the 'dragon slayers
continue to argue that China`s newest international relationships and growth oI its military
capacity are threatening vital US interests.
10
On the whole, the present administration
seems to have (perhaps inadvertently) extended the strategy oI creative ambiguity that
has well served US policy on Taiwan Ior so many years to the entire US-China relationship.
The ideological diIIerences in the 21st century are not as great as those oI the Cold War
chasm between the White House and the Kremlin. Foreign investment oI $ 72.4 billion in
China in 2005, much oI it American, is one measure oI how interlinked a once Iractured
world has become. Yet, China is still a large and tempting economic target in Washington.
Senior democrats aIter their win in the mid-term Congressional elections in November
2006complain that unIair Chinese trade practices have killed US manuIacturing jobs, that
Beijing`s Iailure to protect copyright has cost American companies more than $ 2 billion,
that Beijing`s manipulation oI its currency has helped widen a bilateral trade deIicit that
reached a record Iigure oI $ 232.5 billion in 2006, and that only IorceIul US actions against
China can remedy these problems.
11
Republicans who either agree with this argument or
Iear that Democrats can use it to win elections support the get-tough approach. The Iact oI
the matter is it is essentially the US` Iault iI it is importing cheap goods Irom China to please
its people. Second, one cannot Iorce another country to revalue its currency; it is up to the
market Iorces, which will play their balancing game eventually. Americans are the most
spendthriIt in the world and they do not want to cut down their expenditure and like their
government, which thrives on deIicit Iinancing. In such a climate, it is childish to expect
Irom a country like China to do what Americans are supposed to do themselves Iirst. Thus,
there is not much chance oI a success Ior coercive US trade policy in the end. II China
withdraws its investment Irom the US security bonds, the US dollar can collapse in the
10
Ibidem.
11
Ian Bremmer, 'U.S. and China: The Panda Hedgers in International Herald Tribune, 24 May
2007.
14 SURENDER BHUTANI
international market. It is the overseas capital which is helping the US government to
proliIerate in Ioolish ventures like Iraq and AIghanistan. But still the US Congress is up
against Chinese trade practices. It wants to pass certain laws that will aim at Iorcing China
to revalue its currency which is pegged to US dollar. To them, China`s Iixed exchange rate
subsidises the country`s exports and has contributed to the widening bilateral trade deIicit.
12
Today, Asia has the Ioreign exchange reserves oI more than $ 2.6 trillion, out oI which more
than a trillion and two hundred billion dollars belong to China. It will be no surprise iI Asia
and particularly China is going to call the shots in the coming decade on the economic
matters.
However, China has no such preoccupations Ior scruples at the moment. 'II the
Washington consensus is ideologically interventionist, the emerging Beijing consensus
looks ideologically agnostic. It prizes peace, development and trade. It cares not a hoot
what a country`s political or economic model is so long as oil and raw materials are Ilowing,
wrote Roger Cohen.
13
Now China is not in the business oI exporting war, development
models or political blueprints, as it was in the 1950s and 1960s. It wants to do business,
morality be damned. Democracy in its worldview comes in a very distant second to growth
iI it comes in at all. The kindest view oI the Chinese position is this: 'Growth solves most
problems, be they oI poverty or enslavement |...|. In a sense, the era oI struggle between
democratic capitalism and one-party capitalism has begun a Iight between Washington`s
banner oI multi-party Ireedom and Beijing`s banner oI no strings-attached growth. 'May
you live in the interesting times, as the old Chinese curse says; it reveals the part oI the
screenplay Ior the next international movie oI the 21
st
century. Gradually the American-
dominated unipolar world, which emerged Irom the abrupt end oI the Cold War, will lose its
steam. Now the US knocks with deIerence at the Chinese door. 'A very important nation
this is how the US policy makers describe China these days.
India is no pushover either (try suggesting in New Delhi that outsiders might useIully
broker a deal with Pakistan over Kashmir, the disputed territory over which the two countries
have Iought three wars and many border skirmishes), but democrats are easier to talk to
than Communist apparatchiks. Making Iriends is a good way Ior the US to hedge its Asian
bet as Japan and other South Eastern countries have Iailed to stop the Chinese inIluence
in Asia and AIrica. Democracy aside, there is a second way in which India is the un-China
and it is not to India`s credit. In most measures oI modernisation, China is Iar ahead. In
2005, per capita income in India was $ 3,3300; in China it was $ 6,800.The Ioreign exchange
reserves oI China have crossed more than a trillion as compared to India`s $ 215 billion in
2006. Prosperity and progress have not touchedyet many oI 600,000 villages in India
where two thirds oI India`s population live. Backbreaking, empty-stomach poverty, which
China has been tackling successIully Ior the past three decades, is still too common in
India. Education Ior women the key driver oI China`s rise to become the workshop oI the
world lags terribly in India. The Indian nation has more people with HIV/AIDS than any
other country in the world, but until recently, the Indian government was in a disgraceIul
state oI denial about the epidemic. Transportation networks and electrical grids, which are
12
Financial Times, 14 June 2007.
13
Roger Cohen, 'The New Bipolar World China vs America, in International Herald Tribune,
22 November 2006.
crucial to industrial development and job creation, are so dilapidated that it will take acouple
oI decades to modernize them. Yet, the litany oI India`s comparative shortcomings omits
aIundamental truth: China started Iirst. China`s key economic reIorms took shape in the
late 1970s, India`s not until the early 1990s. However, India is younger and Ireer than China.
India is playing catching up, Ior sure, but it has the skills, the required qualiIied work Iorce
and the dynamism to do so. It deserves the new notice and it has to get it. 'We are not in
a race with China, because they have already won the race, said Jairam Ramesh, the Indian
commerce minister.
14
He was also trying to dampen the superpower hysteria, arguing that
even iI India was to become one oI the world`s largest economies that would notrepresent
a stupendous achievement. 'II a country oI one billion people cannot become the third
largest economy, then we need to have our heads examined. What counts is per capita
income. |...| Let us not go overboard about this idea oI the 21st century being India`s
century. On a micro level it may be, but not in terms oI liIestyle or earnings, he added.
15
The Iact oI the matter is that China has reduced the number oI poor drastically; only ten per
cent oI Chinese population is earning less than one dollar a day whereas in India there are
Iorty per cent which come under this category. China`s rise has broadly Iollowed a well-
trodden East Asian path oI Ioreign investment, export and massive internal savings. India,
with a more closed economy and a Iar lower saving rate, depends heavily on domestic
consumption to sustain growth. China struggles to control excessive Iixed assets
investment, while India is constrained by scarce capital and woeIully inadequate
inIrastructure spendings. Low-cost production is the engine oI China`s real economy.
Indian manuIacturing still generates a small share oI national output as do its much
vaunted soItware and services industries. India has a reasonably sound banking system
and a long-established stock exchange. China`s shaky banks have yet to learn how to
assess risk and lend prudently and its equity market is still primitive. Furthermore, the two
economies interact only at the margins. While bilateral tradehas zoomed Irom $ 1 billion in
2000 to $ 17.6 billion in 2006, India accounts Ior only 1.5 per cent oI China`s exports. Almost
eight per cent oI India`s exports go to China. However, to the Iormer`s chagrin, most are low
value commodities, while trade in the opposite direction is dominated by manuIactured
goods. From a practical standpoint, trade has grown dramatically as cheap Chinese
consumer goods have penetrated Indian markets and as China has brought increasing
amounts oI Indian coal and iron to Ieed its Iurnaces. This complementary relationship is
largely based on the weakness oI the Indian manuIacturing industry. II India is to Iollow
China`s path to growth, even at a slower rate, it will be looking to export manuIactured
goods, using its own more abundant labour Iorce, rather than exporting raw materials that
its own economy will need in increasing volumes. Second, two-way investment remains
atrickle and each side complains oI the diIIiculty oI operating in the other`s market. The
question then becomes which route proves more eIIective. In a short-term perspective, the
main risk in China is that Iailure to deal with the root causes oI over-investment will turn
boom into burst. In the downside, a global economic downturn would hurt both. India, less
dependant on exports, might appear better placed to weather the storm. However, its reliance
14
Amelia Gentleman, 'A Superpower Mania` has Gripped India, International Herald Tribune,
24 November 2006.
15
Ibidem.
16 SURENDER BHUTANI
on short-term capital inIlows Irom abroad to Iinance growth could make it vulnerable iI
global investors deserted emerging markets. Tight exchange controls insulate China Irom
international Iinancial turbulence. Weaker exports would hit many oI its low-margin
producers. However, the country can call on substantialIinancial resources to mitigate the
impact oI external shocks. By most measures, China today is more deeply integrated
economically with the US than India is attached to the US. Until recently, theAmericans
have had a romantic idealised picture oI China. This preoccupation with China has prevented
a better understanding oI India. Now there is much better appreciation oI India and its
potentiality in the coming decades.
The biggest uncertainties ahead both countries are political. Indian democracy, Ior all
its Ilaws, has long been known Ior its resilience. However, it grew up in an era oI rigid social
structure in which every one was resigned to his or her place in the hierarchy. Faster
growth is challenging the old order. While giving hope to many, it is also sharpening
disparities between an aIIluent urban elite and vast numbers oI rural poor eager Ior a better
liIe. Meeting those aspirations and maintaining social stability poses a huge test Ior the
country`s political system. India is Iacingan uphill battle to rein in the insurgencies and
terrorism that threaten investment climate. Besides the unrest in Kashmir, there is a growing
Maoist rebellion in more than hundred districts oI southern and eastern India that have
been Iuelled by economic deprivation and uneven growth. Incidentally, Maoism now has
more Iollowers in India than in China. Unless India`s politicians Iace the situation on
reIorm, open up to Ioreign direct investment and start tackling structural hurdles to growth,
the economy will perIorm below its potential and its momentum may Iade.
Those disconnections make it IanciIul to suppose that the nascent dialogue between
India and China will lead to rapid breakthroughs in economiccooperation. More likely, their
governments` primary aim is damage limitation. Both want to prevent old rivalries, quarrels
and mistrust interIering with their race to development. During Chinese President Hu Jintao`s
visit to India in November 2006 (the Iirst by a Chinese President in ten years), both China and
India tried to downplay the border question and put it on the back burner and emphasized
more on economic cooperation. During that visit it was declared that there was room in Asia
Ior the two emerging economic powers to co-exist in a cooperative rather than competitive
relationship. Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh said: 'There is enough space Ior the
two countries to develop together in a mutually supportive manner, while remaining sensitive
to each other`s concerns and aspirations, as beIits good neighbours.
16
In this context, the
two countries agreed to increase their two-way trade to $ 40 billion by 2010. In a sense, both
countries need more time to develop and eradicate poverty. Nonetheless, the Sino-Indian
summit was less about the promised increases in cooperation than making a statement to the
world: We are the Iuture. For China, there was a subtext: India is learning Irom us.
17
The
Chinese president reIused to support India`s seat in the UN Security Council as it was also
opposed to Japan`s inclusion. This is a trump card, which the Chinese leadership did not play
at that time. Then 'we are the Iuture connotation was aimed at the old developed world,
including Russia. In addition, it was a message to the present developing world: we can be
your guides, apart Irom the US.
16
Times of India (New Delhi), 22 November 2006.
17
Phillip Bowring, 'A Message Irom Asia, in International Herald Tribune, 23 November 2006.
However, the strategic divide remains intact. The relationship between the two countries
has long had an air oI mistrust. India is concerned about China`s close military relationship
with Pakistan. It is no secret that Pakistan got a nuclear device Irom China on a silver
platter and most oI Pakistan`s nuclear arsenal, including missiles, have come directly Irom
China. Pakistan`s proxy war in Kashmir by helping terrorists is an open book. Chinese
strategy to encircle India and build up its strategic assets stretching Irom Myanmar to
Nepal to Pakistan has worried India extensively. China has been active in promoting links
with Bangladesh and Sri Lanka, which is essentially India`s backyard. This Chinese activity
has not gone down well in Indian establishment circles. In June 2007, China once again raked
the issue oI Arunachal Pradesh, which has been under India Ior the past Iew centuries, when
it claimed 90,000 square kilometres as a Chinese territory. In the 1950s, China had unilaterally
annexed 40,000 square kilometres oI land in Aksai Chin area in the northern Himalayas
without any border negotiations. This led to a bloody military war in OctoberNovember
1962 and the relations between the countries remained Irozen Ior two decades. The Chinese
claim came as a big surprise to policy makers in New Delhi who were hoping that China
would behave sensibly. Senior deIence oIIicers Ieel that Indian Ioreign oIIice, in its anxiety
to Iacilitate border talks and improve diplomatic and trade relations, is taking Chinese
insults too lightly. The politico-diplomatic establishment does not seem respond adequately
to China`s aggressive claims.
18
Other political observers Ieel that India`s strengthening ties
with the US is the cause oI China`s aggressive position over the disputed India-China
border in the eastern Himalayas.
19
This happened just a Iew days aIter the meeting oI
Manmohan Singh with President Hu Jinato at the G-8-summit in Germany where Singh had
described China as India`s 'greatest neighbour. Analysts say China`s blunt assertion oI
claims to an area more than twice the size oI Taiwan is inconsistent with 'political parameters
Ior a potential settlement agreed in 2005 and could contaminate other areas oI the
relationship.
20
Again, on 27 June 2007, the spokesman oI the Chinese Foreign Ministry
took objection on Iorming a quadripartite alliance oI the Iour democratic nations, the US,
India, Japan and Australia. He said: 'All countries should conIorm to the trend and to do
more to enhance mutual trust and strengthen cooperation.
21
ProIessor Sun Shihai oI the
Chinese Academy oI Sciences said: 'It would divide Asia and it would also go against
India`s growing interests in the East Asia region.|...| Such a move would go against Late
Jawarharlal Nehru`s vision oI a Pan-Asia as well.
22
Nonetheless, it was surprising that
Nehru`s name was mentioned in the Chinese academic circles aIter ages, as he was made
responsible Ior the collapse oI Sino-Indian relations in the early 1960s aIter he had given
political reIuge to Tibet`s spiritual leader Dalai Lama and his Iollowers in 1959. In other
words, China remains an enigma Ior the Indian policy makers. It seems Sino-Indian
relationship will never be smooth and there will be bumps on the way. The Chinese
leadership, it seems, is willing to give a proper space to Indian logical aspirations in regional
politics. Ever since China annexed Tibet in 1950, it has made itselI a South Asian power as
18
R. Prasanan, 'The Hidden Dragon, in heek (Kochi) 10 June 2007.
19
Financial Times 11 June 2007.
20
Ibidem.
21
Times of India, 28 June 2007.
22
Ibidem.
18 SURENDER BHUTANI
well and thus tries to checkmate India on each step. In order to understand Indians the
Chinese leadership will have to purge its old mindset, iI it is keen to maintain peace and
prosperity in Asia. It has to realize that the ability to synthesize is one oI India`s great
strengths. 'It is tremendously important Ior India, as an emerging power, to start projecting
that there is more to this country than just inIormation technology and high percentage
growth rates, said Dr Karan Singh, president oI the Indian Council Ior Cultural Relations
and a great intellectual.
23
Many a time in history India has conIused even the smartest:
Winston Churchill called India not a country but a geographical expression, and John
Kenneth Galbraith was intrigued by what he called India`s Iunctional anarchy. However,
the operative words are 'expression and 'Iunctional. For India not only oIIers the space
Ior internal critics to express themselves Iully, it also manages to Iunction.While the
Soviet Union and Yugoslavia disintegrated, to take just two recent examples, India is still
one unit, though its size is that oI a sub-continent. The polity is based on democracy and
secularism and the Indian constitution is the only book which can be quoted every day Ior
the Iunctioning oI this polity. Time will tell whether this elephant can dance majestically or
not in the presence oI the Chinese dragon.
23
Financial Times, 30 September 2006.
AIrica in the Chinese Diplomacy 19
ACTA ASIATICA
VARSOVIENSIA
No. 20, 2007
PL ISSN 08606102
LUKASZ GACEK
AIrica in the Chinese Diplomacy
The Struggle Ior AIrican Natural Resources
The rapid economical growth in China, observed within the recent Iew decades, makes
this country, already nowadays, become an alternative Ior the biggest economic powers oI
the world. Successes achieved in this area must be regarded with well-based respect. Since
the moment oI China`s opening towards the world in 1978, initiated by changes carried out
under direction oI reIormers closely cooperating with Deng Xiaoping, the gross national
product in 2006 grew up to USD 2,6 trillion in comparison to USD 216,5 billion in 1978. That
meant average annual growth oI ca. 9,6.
1
Within the analogical period, incomes oI citizens
oI urbanized areas and Iarmers also grew up.
2
While noting positive elements oI this scheme, one should also consider problems
arising paralelly to the process oI modernization. In the opinion oI director oI Institute oI
Economy oI the Chinese Academy oI Social Research, Li Jingwen, at least Iew elements oI
key meaning should be considered here. Among the biggest diIIiculties mentioned by him
one can Iind coexistence oI the old and the new system. In this area, the question oI
managing national companies becomes a key one. Besides the existing national sector,
arapid development oI private enterprises takes place. Li has underlined that economical
growth is still oI mostly extensive character; additionally, the structure connected with
distribution oI Iorces and means remains irrational. Another issue concerns domestic
products, with the arising problem oI managing production surpluses and their sales. To
all these problems, the huge volume oI goods imported by China has to be added as well.
The deepening diIIerences in economical development oI various regions oI the country
also constitute a big challenge to the authorities. The number oI unemployed keeps growing
signiIicantly, being particularly visible in rural areas. Another problem is the existing
structure oI employment and salaries. Disproportions between incomes oI citizens oI various
regions keep growing. Demand Ior qualiIied scientists and techniques is visible. On the
other hand, the surplus oI low-qualiIied labor Iorce is signiIicant. In opinion oI Li Jingwen,
problems connected with pollution oI natural environment will become an important issue,
requiring taking up concrete solutions. Such problems cannot be solved temporarily, they
1
'Hu: China Firmly Committed to PeaceIul Development, in Xinhua, China Dailv, 11.06.2007.
2
Incomes oI citizens oI urbanized areas grew up Irom 343 yuan (44 USD) in 1978 to 11 759 yuan in
2006. In the analogical period incomes oI Iarmers also grew up Irom the level oI 134 yuan to 3587yuan
('GDP Grows Annual Average oI 9.67 Irom 1978 to 2006, in Xinhua, China Dailv, 7.05.2007).
20 LUKASZ GACEK
require taking up long-term activities.
3
One should add that the mono-party system still
Iunctions in China. At the end oI 2006, the Chinese Communist Party gathered over 72million
members.
4
What is important, nevertheless, is that the party becomes opened Ior new
millieux, previously not considered in its policy. On the 16th congress oI the Chinese
Communist Party in November 2002, important decisions were made in this area. A breaking
event oI the congress was the opening towards private entrepreneurs. The concept oI
'Three representations indicated that the party should become a representation oI 'the
most developed production Iorces oI the country, the most developed Chinese culture and
the Iundamental interests oI a signiIicant majority oI the Chinese nation.
5
This rule was
reIlected in the statute oI the party. The new statement, despite the provision made by the
president oI the People`s Republic oI China, Jiang Zemin, that workers, peasants and
soldiers still constitute the 'backbone oI the party, was a signiIicant deviation Irom the
tradition, underlining the supremacy oI workers-peasants` alliance.
6
A signiIicant support
Ior the position oI private entrepreneurs were also the amendments to the principal law,
concerning protection oI private ownership and respecting human rights. Nevertheless, one
should be aware that despite these revolutionary changes, members oI the Communist Party
still constitute only 5 oI the total population oI the country. Constantly, lack oI civil society
is observed. It is the Communist Party who indicates the direction oI development oI the
country, simultaneously controlling all the social behaviors. The discourse carried out within
intellectual circles does not exceed the stated Irames, Iixed by the highest authorities.
Limitations concern the Ilow oI inIormation and Ireedom oI speech. Modernization process
is realized under control oI the party, drawing the main directives Ior changes.
This is all worth remembering while analyzing questions connected with development
oI the Chinese economy. According to economical Iorecasts, China is to become the biggest
economic power oI the world in 2050.
7
It seems that internal Iactors should be, within the
coming years, a positive element, tending to maintain the high rate oI economic growth, as
well as the high rate oI investments. For the last Iew years, the basic area on which social
attention has been Iocused, is the economic development. On August 31st 2007, president
Hu Jintao underlined the necessity oI developing education in the country. In his opinion,
this will help to provide more qualiIied employees and specialists, to build a properly
Iunctioning society and support the Iurther modernization oI the country.
8
ScientiIic and
research development becomes a priority. On February 9, 2006, the National Council
approved the plan oI scientiIic-technological development oI China Ior the nearest years.
According to this, increases in expenses Ior research and development are to reach 2 oI
3
Li Jingwen, 'ReIorma oraz polityka otwarcia przyniosly wielkie zmiany chinskiej gospodarce
oraz spoleczenstwu. Prognoza rozwoju gospodarki chinskiej (19962050), in Nowe Zvcie
Gospodarc:e, No. 34, 23.08.1998.
4
The Communist Party oI China had 72 391 million members in 2006. It means an increase oI
1581 new members in comparison to the previous year ('CPC Full oI Vigor and Quality, in
Peoples Dailv, 11.07.2007).
5
P. Giller, ,Nowi ludzie, nowe klasy, in R:ec:pospolita, 15.11.2002.
6
'Jiang Zemin Report at 16
th
Party Congress, in Peoples Dailv, 18.11.2002.
7
'China to be Biggest Economy by 2050, in China Dailv, 22.05.2006.
8
'Chinese President Calls to Develop Education as Priority, in Xinhua, Peoples Dailv,
31.08.2007.
GNP in 2010 and 2,5 GNP in 2020. It is worth mentioning that the current indicator is ca.
1,3. According to these assumptions, in 2020 science and technology are to generate
60 oI economic growth. Dependence on Ioreign technological investments is
simultaneously to drop Irom the current 50 to 30. Most oI the means provided Ior this
aim is to come Irom the national budget.
9
The Financial Times, reIerring to the OECD data,
inIormed that China occupies the second position among countries providing the highest
means Ior research and development.
10
Initiating the process oI reIorms led to rapid inIlow
oI direct Ioreign investments. At the end oI 2006, 590 000 oI Ioreign investors were active
in China.
11
AIter each Iollowing year, the access to the Chinese market shall be even
widening, being to a great extent a result oI commitments deriving Irom China`s access to
World Trade Organization in November 2001. According to the report concerning direct
Ioreign investments prepared by Foreign Direct Investment ConIidence (FDI), A.T. Kearney
consulting company, China belongs, besides India and the United States, to the most
attractive places oI investments.
12
Among big Ioreign investments oI the recent period,
one can indicate activities oI the Russian gas potentate Gazprom which, at the end oI 2006,
started up construction oI gas pipeline Irom Western Siberia to China. The pipeline is to
transport annually 30 billion m
3
oI gas. According to the plan, two lanes oI the pipeline are
provided, aiming to connect the two countries. They are to deliver annually 6080 billion
m
3
oI gas Iorm Western and Eastern Siberia. The value oI this enterprise, planned to be
Iinished by 2011, is estimated at USD 11 billion.
13
Another example oI such solutions is the
contract between China and Kazakhstan, signed in August 2007, assuming cooperation in
constructing pipeline to transport gas Irom Turkmenistan. The costs oI building a pipeline
oI annual capacity oI ca. 30 billions m
3
are estimated at USD 4 billion. China simultaneously
signed a contract with Turkmenistan Ior gas deliveries Ior thirty years.
14
In March 2007, the
Chinese oil concern Sinopec signed a great investment contract with American ExxonMobil
and Saudi-Arabian Saudi Aramco. The value oI the agreement made USD 5 billion. The
contract provides Ior establishing two joint-ventures oI capital oI the three above mentioned
companies.
15
Chinese economy requires Ioreign Iuels. Relying on domestic sources only is highly
non-satisIying. Hence, in the recent years, one can observe diplomatic expansion oI Chinese
authorities, tending to obtain new sources oI supply. Foreign travels oI important politics
9
'Spending on R&D Gets Boost, in China Dailv, 10.02.2006.
10
Specialists estimated these expenditures at 136 mld USD in 2006. USA leads beIore other
countries with expenditures on the level oI 330 mld USD. It is worth noting that China overtook
Japan, whose expenditures were estimated at 130 mld USD (,Panstwo Srodka przebija Japoni
wwydatkach na badania, in Puls Bi:nesu, 4.12.2006).
11
'GDP Grows Annual Average oI 9.67 Irom 1978 to 2006, in Xinhua, China Dailv, 7.05.2007.
12
According to the prognosis, in the near Iuture most oI all investigation and development
investments are going to be concentrated in the area oI China, India and Middle-East Europe. Over
40 questioned managers are planning to achieve this kind oI investments in aIorementioned regions
(A.T. Kearney: ,Chiny, Indie i USA najatrakcyjniejsze od inwestowania, in Puls Bi:nesu, 9.05.2006).
13
,Gazprom rozpoczal budow rurociagu do Chin, in Puls Bi:nesu, 17.10.2006.
14
,Turkmenski gaz poplynie do Chin, in The hall Street Journal. Polska, 20.08.2007.
15
,Chiny zawarly wielki kontrakt naItowy z koncernami amerykanskim i saudyjskim, in Puls
Bi:nesu, 30.03.2007.
22 LUKASZ GACEK
to AIrican countries, Latin America, Trans-Caucasian republics or countries located in the
region oI Persian GulI seem to be a prooI oI the previously chosen direction. Usually, Ior
the delivered Iuels China carries out investments in highly-developed technologies oI
partner countries. Such investments cover also local industries and other strategic areas.
Subsequently to the rapid development oI Chinese economy, various demands related
to it appear. Lack oI proper volume oI domestic raw materials makes Ioreign countries
anatural Iield Ior expansion. Shortcomings in various areas oI economy already lead to the
necessity oI searching Ior alternative solutions. In accordance with economic estimations,
in 2020 China will need 3,2 billion tons oI coal to satisIy the domestic energetic demand.
Only in 2006, the demand Ior coal was estimated at ca. 2,25 billion tons.
16
In the nearest two
or three years, China is to become a net importer oI coal. In 2006, export oI this material
made 63 million tons (decrease oI 13 in comparison to the previous year), with 38,25million
tons imported (48 increase in comparison to 2005).
17
Shortcomings can be Iound also in
the case oI other raw materials. The demand Ior crude oil in 2010 shall oscillate between
320and 350 million tons, out oI which 150 million tons are to be supplied by import. In 2005,
China imported 130 million tons oI crude oil. In the next year, the import grew up Iurther
14,5 and exceeded 1 billion barrels. Hence, a daily import to China in 2006 made 3 million
barrels oI oil.
18
ConIirmed reserves oI crude oil in China make 17 billion barrels, while
conIirmed reserves oI natural gas made 2,23 billion m
3
in 2004.
19
The growing demand Ior Iuels had a great inIluence on the perIormance oI Chinese
administration. Reorganization in oil industries is a prooI oI deep changes in this matter. At
the end oI 1990s, China National Petroleum Corporation (CNPC), China Petrochemical
Corporation (Sinopec) and China National OIIshore Oil Corporation (CNOOP) were
established. CNPC remains the leader in total Chinese production oI crude oil. In 2002, it
delivered 68,9 oI the total production, while the other companies, Sinopec and CNOOP,
15,2 and 11,4
20
, respectively. BeIore restructuring, the domestic potentate, CNPC, was
mostly active in production and searching Ior crude oil and natural gas. Sinopec, on the
other hand, was engaged mostly in distribution and processing. Changes taken up by
central authorities lead to changes in areas oI activities oI these companies. CNPC Iunctions
mostly in the West and the North, while Sinopec in the South. The third Iorce in this
system, CNOOP, is mostly active in exploitation oI oil Irom oIIshore platIorms. At the end
oI the present decade, public emission oI shares oI the mentioned companies in global
share stocks took place.
21
As Iar as recent years are concerned, in the area oI consumption oI energy one can
easily observe China`s constantly increasing demand. In 1991 it made 9, while in
16
,Chiny bda potrzebowac 3,2 mld ton wgla w 2020 roku, in Puls Bi:nesu, 25.05.2006.
17
,Chiny zostana importerem wgla netto, in Puls Bi:nesu, 16.04.2007.
18
,Chiny bda potrzebowac 3,2 mld ton wgla w 2020 roku, in Puls Bi:nesu, 25.05.2006;
,Chiny sprowadzily 1 mld barylek ropy w 2006 roku, in Puls Bi:nesu, 11.01.2007.
19
BP Statistical Review of horld Energv 2005.
20
Kaoru Yamaguchi, Keii Cho, Natural Gas in China, The Institute oI Energy Economics, Japan
(IEEJ), August 2003.
21
M. Tatarzynski, 'Glod energii w Chinach a stosunki z panstwami Bliskiego Wschodu, in
Be:piec:enstwo Narodowe. Be:piec:enstwo energetvc:ne, J. Strzelczyk, ed., no. 1/2006, Warsaw:
Biuro Bezpieczenstwa Narodowego, 2006, p. 54.
2006already 16.
22
Such growth is typical oI the Iastest developing countries, like China,
India or the United States. According to the report oI Energy InIormation Administration
(EIA), the global consumption oI energy is to increase by a halI by 2030. Demand Ior such
raw materials like coal or liquid Iuels (crude oil and products oI its processing) is expected
to grow. Only the structure oI share oI speciIied sources oI energy is to undergo changes.
23
The greatest shortcoming oI natural reserves in China is lack oI agricultural and Iorest
areas in relation to a great number oI citizens. It is worth underlining that in China, the third
biggest country in the world, cultivated areas make a small percent oI total space oI the
country; China possess one oI the lowest coeIIicients in the world. Such a situation requires
taking up some eIIorts on the international scale.
Observing the assumptions oI Chinese Ioreign policy towards AIrica, Middle East,
Latin America or Trans-Caucasian republics, it can be concluded that what becomes the
crucial target is establishing a proper system oI supply diversiIication. Obtaining raw
materials becomes now one oI the most important Iactors, determining Chinese activity in
Ioreign policy.
The objective oI this paper is to Iocus on one oI the directions oI this oIIensive as an
example oI the conducted strategy. It seems that what happens in AIrica is Iinding new
paths with simultaneous recalling oI the past. For obvious reasons, it arouses a great
interest among the international society, becoming a subject oI politological considerations.
Starting up a diplomatic oIIensive in AIrica, the Chinese authorities go back to the
policy pursued already in the Maoist period, when eIIorts were taken to struggle against
American or post-colonial (mostly French) inIluences. Support given to local LeItist partisan
groups until the 1970s tended to strenghten the Communist China`s position in that part oI
the world. Aspirations oI Mao Zedong himselI, willing to become a leader oI the entire
Third World, were also oI some signiIicance. In the 1960s and 1970s, Chinese authorities
Table 1. Natural gas production by major Chinese producers (100 million m
3
)
Source:
* China National Petroleum Corporation, China Petroleum and Chemical Industrv Association.
** China Statistical Yearbook 2002.
22
BP Statistical Review of horld Energv 2007.
23
Annual Energv Outlook 2007 hith Profections to 2030, Energy InIormation Administration
(EIA), February 2007.
Producent
CNPC*
Sinopec*
CNOOC*
Others
Total
Growth **
1997
171.80
40.50
14.73
227.03
1998
149.83
23.24
38.64
21.08
232.79
2.54
1999
162.60
22.26
43.92
23.20
251.98
8.2
2000
183.10
39.16
39.60
10.14
272.00
7.9
2001
205.81
46.12
38.57
12.79
303.29
11.5
2002
224.75
49.45
37.16
14.97
326.33
7.6
24 LUKASZ GACEK
used to Iorce the concept oI multi-polar world. A good example oI this were travels,
undertaken by prime minister Zhou Enlai assisted by minister oI Ioreign aIIairs Chen Yi to
Iourteen countries oI Asia and AIrica between December 1963 and March 1964.
24
Worth
recalling are also the earlier activities oI Chinese diplomacy tending to propagate Asian-
AIrican brotherhood. In April 1955, a conIerence oI non-aligned countries was held in
Bandung, Indonesia, with a delegation oI the People`s Republic oI China attending it as an
observer. The participants oI the conIerence accepted Iive rules oI peaceIul coexistence,
established a year earlier by the prime ministers oI China and India, Zhou Enlai and Jawaharlal
Nehru, covering such issues as mutual respect oI territorial integrity and sovereignty, non-
intervention in domestic aIIairs, non-aggression, equality and rule oI mutual advantages,
peaceIul coexistence.
25
In 1961, the 1st AIro-Asian ConIerence was held, with the idea oI
establishing a Iorum oI strengthening cooperation between these parts oI the globe. China
was to play a leading role on this Iorum. In the 1970s, Mao Zedong deIined his theory,
assuming the world`s division into three circles. During his discussion with one oI the
Third World leaders in 1974, Mao deIined the United States and Soviet Union the Iirst
world, Japan, Europe, Canada as the second world, while Asia except Japan, the entire
AIrica and Latin America as the third one.
26
The draIt oI activity oI Chinese diplomacy
created in the 1970s seems very similar to the present one. This time, we can observe a kind
oI 'rally Ior contracts. Basing the conducted policy on resentments oI the past seems to
be very proIitable Ior China. AIter the 'opening oI China, initiated by Deng Xiaoping,
Iirst symptoms oI change in approach towards AIrica became visible. The ideology was
visibly shiIted into the background. Trade contacts, at Iirst oI limited character, started to
develop. When discussing the policy oI obtaining Ioreign raw materials in the early 1990s,
mostly natural gas and crude oil, biggest eIIorts were still directed to the Middle East.
Nevertheless, lack oI stability in this region Iorced the interest in other markets. AIrica,
where American and European inIluences could be replaced, became the target. In 1996,
president Jiang Zemin visited six AIrican countries. These visits eIIected in signing Iew
dozens oI economic agreements. Simultaneously, they opened new stages in mutual
relations. In the next years, AIrica was visited by Chinese politicians oI the highest rank,
including vice-president Hu Jintao and prime minister Zhu Rongji. At the same time, many
AIrican representatives oI the highest levels visited China.
A new opening in deIining mutual relations took place at the beginning oI the present
century. The continuously strengthening economical cooperation led to organizing
ministerial conIerence oI the Forum on ChinaAIrica Cooperation (FOCAC), held on October
1012, 2000 in Beijing. The main assumptions oI the newly established Iorum was entering
into dialogue and creating new mechanisms oI cooperation between the developing
24
L. Ladany, The Communist Partv of China and Marxism 19211985. A Self-Portrait, StanIord:
Hoover Institution Press, 1988, p. 271.
25
Eds. A. Patek, J. Rydel, J. J. Wc, Nafnows:a historia swiata 19451995, vol. I, Cracow:
Wydawnictwo Literackie, 1997, p. 356.
26
'Teoria przewodniczacego Mao o podziale na trzy swiaty wielkim wkladem w marksizm
leninizm (artykul programowy Renmin Ribao, Pekin, 1.09.1977), in Dokumentv politvki :agranic:nef
Chinskief Republiki Ludowef (1977), selected by J. Rowinski, Warsaw: PISM, Zaklad Krajow
Pozaeuropejskich, 1978, p. 108.
countries. The greatest attention was paid to pragmatic cooperation and relations based
on equality and mutual advantages derived Irom widened political dialogue together with
deepened economic-trade cooperation.
27
During the establishing meeting, participating
ministers oI Ioreign aIIairs signed two important documents: Beifing Declaration of the
Forum on ChinaAfrica Cooperation and Programme for ChinaAfrica Cooperation in
Economic and Social Development. The declaration deIined the basic assumptions oI the
new Iield oI international political and economic order, indicating the necessity oI mutual
support in this area by developing long-term, Iriendly relations. The second document
indicated the areas oI cooperation between China and AIrica, i.e. trade, agriculture, tourism,
science, education, culture, health, development, etc.
28
The beginning oI the current decade brought the long-expected changes. Interest oI
Chinese entrepreneurs in AIrican market resulted in signing numerous contracts. By the end
oI the year 2000, 499 businesses were started in AIrica, investing total capital oI USD 990
million. In the year 2000, mutual trade overturn made USD 10,6 billion. Among the main raw
materials imported by China, crude oil (oI total value oI USD 3,615 billion) can be Iound.
29
Another ministerial meeting oI the Forum on China-AIrica Cooperation was held on
December 1516, 2003 in Addis Abeba, Ethiopia. Meetings on ministerial level are held
every three years, alternately in China and AIrica. On the other hand, meetings oI high-
rank oIIicials are held every two years. 44 delegations Irom AIrica participated in the
meeting in Ethiopia; the Chinese delegation was led by prime minister Wen Jiabao. The
result oI discussions was approving oI the The FOCAC Addis Abeba Action Plan (2004
2006) by the Forum. Among the most important issues listed in the document, problems oI
agriculture, inIrastructure, support to trade and investments, tourism, debts, development
support and utilization oI natural and energetic reserves were included. SigniIicant changes
can be Iound in the area oI tourism. Until 2004, only three AIrican countries (RSA, Egypt
and Morocco) were given the ADS (Approved Destination Status) by Chinese authorities.
During the Forum, this number was enlarged by Iurther eight AIrican countries (Mauritius,
Zimbabwe, Tanzania, Kenya, Ethiopia, the Seychelles, Tunisia and Zambia).
30
During the
Addis Abeba meeting, much attention was also paid to political issues, particularly peace
and saIety protection. The meaning oI such organizations like the United Nations or AIrican
Union in the area oI eliminating negative phenomena was underlined. Chinese authorities
committed to Iurther support Ior peacekeeping missions in AIrica. Another category to
which attention was devoted was limiting the sources oI terrorism. In the Iurther part oI the
document, one could Iind regulations concerning social issues. Development oI human
resources, cooperation in the area oI job training oI employees, educational issues, cultural
exchange and problems oI migration were included there.
31
Simultaneously to the Forum in Addis Abeba, a ChinaAIrica business meeting took
place, with ca. 400 oI Chinese and AIrican entrepreneurs participating. During the conIerence
27
The Forum on ChinaAfrica Cooperation, http://www.Iocac.org
28
Ibidem.
29
A. Barasiewicz, Stosunki chinsko-afrvkanskie, partnerstwo w :alo:eniach, dominacfa
wpraktvce, 14.05.2005, Portal Spraw Zagranicznych, http://www.psz.pl
30
Forum on ChinaAfrica Cooperation-Addis Abeba Action Plan (20042006), http://
english.Iocacsummit.org.
31
The Forum on ChinaAfrica Cooperation, http://www.Iocac.org; http://english.Iocacsummit.org.
26 LUKASZ GACEK
organized on the occasion oI ministerial meeting, ca. 20 contracts Ior the sum oI ca. USD
460 million were signed.
32
All the above mentioned activities prove that China tend to work out a new model oI
mutual relations with AIrican countries. Simultaneously, they create a new mechanism oI
dialogue and long-lasting cooperation.
AIrica is still a continent dealing with multiple problems oI social and economic character.
Such a view is not changed even by the report published by the UN concerning the situation
in AIrica, indicating that countries oI this continent develop Iaster and Iaster. In 2006, the GNP
growth Ior the entire AIrica made 5,7. In the two previous years it was also maintained above
5 (2005 5,3, 2004 5,2).
33
At the beginning oI the decade, in the year 2000, GNP growth
made 4.
34
Nonetheless, it has to be remembered that quite big diIIerences in development
between various regions still remain. In 2006, it were the oil-exporting countries which generated
57,5 oI the total economic growth oI AIrica.
35
AIrica still remains a continent oI contrasts,
which is easily visible in a comparison oI the Iastest and the slowest developing countries.
Analyzing these Iigures, it has to be underlined that Iive oI the countries Irom the group oI
the Iastest developing ones are oil exporters (Angola, Libya, Mauritius, Republic oI Congo and
Sudan). Another two (Democratic Republic oI Congo and Mozambique) are also countries
possessing big reserves oI raw materials. Liberia clearly regains its position aIter the period oI
war conIlicts. Ethiopia, on the other hand, took advantage oI growing prices oI tea and coIIee,
being one oI their biggest exporters. Malawi noted the biggest economic growth in one year in
comparison to the previous one; in 2005, GNP growth oI this country made only 1,9. Malawi
economic success results mostly Irom reIorms carried out in agriculture since 2005.
36
The activities oI China in AIrica shows that the discussed issue is a diplomatic oIIensive
in many areas. Some oI them tend to provide a Iriendly atmosphere Ior the Iuture, which is
particularly visible in the case oI programs oI support Ior AIrica. A great problem oI AIrica
are inIective diseases. The most dangerous ones are malaria, HIV/AIDS and tuberculosis.
According to statistics Irom 1999, 70 oI AIDS-inIected population lives in AIrica. Among
34 million oI germ carriers, 23 million are AIricans. Malaria, on the other hand, kills ca. one
million human beings yearly (WHO, 1999). Tuberculosis leads to similar losses among
AIrican population. Only in 1999, 864 thousand oI tuberculosis inIections were observed
in AIrica.
37
The present situation does not look much better. Nowadays, AIrica is populated
by 25 million oI HIV virus germ carriers. In 2005, 2.8 million oI deaths Ior that disease were
observed in the world. Most oI the victims (2 million) were AIricans.
38
There is no doubt
that Iinancial support in struggling against negative phenomena in AIrica is oI crucial
32
P. Picquart, Imperium chinskie. Historia i tera:niefs:osc chinskief diasporv (LEmpire chinois.
Mieux comprendre le futur numro 1 mondial: histoire et actualit de la diaspora chinoise), trans. by
I. Kaluzynska, Warsaw: Wydawnictwo Akademickie Dialog, 2006, p. 165167.
33
Economic Report on Africa 2007. Accelerating Africas Development through Diversification,
Addis Abeba: Economic Commission Ior AIrica, 2001, p. 2.
34
Transforming Africas Economies. Economic Report on Africa 2000, Addis Abeba: Economic
Commission Ior AIrica, 2001, p. 1.
35
Economic Report on Africa 2007..., p. 2.
36
Ibid., p. 3839.
37
UNAIDS 1999, Transforming Africas Economies..., p. 2829.
38
Economic Report on Africa 2007..., p. 56.
importance. Support oI international society Ior AIrica still remains on a non-satisIying
level. Thus, in the recent years, the attention oI AIrican countries is more and more Iocused
on Asia, particularly China.
It is worth noting that at the beginning oI the present decade, China cancelled the debts
oI 31 AIrican countries. Various kinds oI support programs Ior the poorest AIrican regions
are organized. Quite oIten can Chinese investment allocated in low-eIIicient and low-
income sectors be observed. China also supports aspirations oI AIrican countries that do
not belong to the World Health Organization (WHO) Ior joining this organization. China
slowly builds up capital Ior the Iuture, gaining the trust oI these countries. In the way oI
enlarging its inIluences in nearly all areas, China becomes the biggest player in this
continent. A practical expression oI such new Iorce are the votes oI AIrican countries on
the Iorum oI United Nations, oI vital importance Ior the People`s Republic oI China.
Within the period oI Iive years, 20002005, China established its position in AIrica. The
mutual trade at the end oI 2005 reached the level oI USD 39,7 billion, meaning a Iour-times-
increase in comparison to the year 2000.
39
In 2006, the results were even better. Trade
exchange between both parties made USD 55,5 billion. That meant 40 growth in comparison
Table 2. Top 10 and bottom 5 perIormers in AIrica in 2006 ( annual growth)
Source: EIU, January 2007, Economic Report on Africa 2007..., p. 39.
39
'ChinaAIrica Cooperation FruithIul Over Past 50 Years, in Xinhua, China Dailv, 30.01.2007.
Country
Angola
Mauretania
Sudan
Etiopia
Liberia
Libya
Mozambique
Kongo R.
Malawi
Kongo DR
Cote dÌvoire
Comoros
Swaziland
Seychelles
Zimbabwe
annual
growth
17,6
14,1
9,6
8,5
8,1
8,1
7,9
7,5
6,9
6,4
1,2
1,2
1,2
1,0
4,4
28 LUKASZ GACEK
to the previous year. Chinese export to AIrica made USD 26,7 billion (a 43 increase), while
import USD 28,8 billion (a 37 increase).
40
In the meanwhile, China cancelled the debts oI
the poorest AIrican countries Ior a total sum oI USD 1,38 billion. Among many other
solutions Irom this time, the Chinese government approved implementing a 'zero customs
level Ior some products exported Irom AIrica to China. By the end oI the year 2005, the
authorities oI People`s Republic oI China helped in establishing ca. 720 various projects
Ior AIrica (including also 18 thous. oI government education grants in China). The support
included also training oI specialists and development oI human resources. The cooperation
was widened to culture, which resulted in signing 65 agreements with AIrican countries,
establishing 151 plans oI cultural exchange.
41
Among the most important events, tending
to deepen the mutual knowledge, the Young Chinese and Africans Festival, an international
Iestival dedicated to AIrica Meeting in Beifing, as well as Chinese cultural travels to
Africa were organized in 2004.
42
In Autumn 2006, the third Forum on China-AIrica Cooperation was held in Beijing.
The conIerence, lasting Ior two days (November 45, 2006) was attended by leaders oI
48 AIrican states. Moreover, representatives oI Iive other countries (Burkina Faso, Malawi,
Gambia, Swazi, Saint Thomas and Prince Islands) participated, despite having no Iormal
diplomatic contacts with Beijing but with the Republic oI China in Taiwan. Such a clever
move oI the People`s Republic oI China`s authorities aimed at breaking some barriers.
The Beijing`s position is the existence oI 'one China, Taiwan being part oI it. For this
reason, it is impossible to keep simultaneous diplomatic relations with Beijing and Taipei.
It seems that PRC activities can soon result in gaining the undecided states on its side.
In accordance with the Chinese proverb oI 'water drilling a rock (shuidao qucheng), in
the author`s opinion, changes in this area can be expected. In accordance with the idea
oI 'Iriendship, peace, cooperation and development, China provided a program oI Iurther
cooperation. The participants oI the conIerence accepted the conception oI Beifing
Action Plan of the Forum on ChinaAfrica Cooperation (20072009),
43
deIining the
basic assumptions oI political, economical and cultural cooperation Ior the coming three
years. In his speech delivered on the conIerence, the president oI China, Hu Jintao,
underlined the meaning oI ChineseAIrican cooperation. He noticed that Iorming a new
kind oI strategic partnership derives Irom the dynamic oI mutual cooperation, being
simultaneously an expression oI common work oI both parties Ior promoting global
peace and development. Hu also noticed the necessity oI deepening cooperation in
some areas. Bringing up the relations onto a higher level, he deIined eight conditions oI
such cooperation.
Doubling the help Ior AIrica Irom the present level within three years, by 2009
Proposal oI providing USD 3 billion in Iorm oI privileged loans and USD 2 billion as
export credits Ior AIrica within the nearest three years
40
'AIrican Counties Seek Investment, Business in Central China, in Xinhua, People Dailv,
5.07.2007.
41
'ChinaAIrica Cooperation FruithIul Over Past 50 Years, in Xinhua, China Dailv, 30.01.2007.
42
Picquart, op.cit., p. 166167.
43
Declaration of the Beifing Summit Of the Forum on ChinaAfrica Cooperation, Ministrv of
Foreign Affairs of the Peoples Republic of China, 16 November 2006, http://english.Iocacsummit.org.
Establishing a special Iund oI USD 5 billion, supporting Chinese enterprises carrying
out investments in AIrica
Erecting AIrican Union conIerence center, aimed at deepening cooperation within
this continent
Canceling a part oI debts oI the poorest countries
Increase oI the number oI goods (Irom 190 to 440) Iree Irom Chinese import tax
Establishing, by 2009, three to Iive economic zones in AIrica
Training 15 thousands oI AIrican specialists; sending 100 Chinese agricultural experts
to AIrica; establishing 10 exhibition centers Ior agriculture in AIrica; erecting 30 hospitals;
providing USD 300 million Ior Iighting malaria; sending 300 young Chinese volunteers to
AIrica; erecting 100 schools in rural areas; increasing the number oI educational grants in
China Irom the present 2000 to 4000 per year in 2009.
44
A coordination plan Ior the coming three years was elaborated in Beijing. During the
next Forum, which is to be held in 2009 in Egypt, results oI this cooperation can be assessed.
Paralelly to the Forum, a second ChinaAIrica business meeting was held, with participation
oI entrepreneurs Irom both sides. Chinese companies signed agreements with eleven AIrican
ones Ior the total sum oI USD 1,9 billion. They concern undertakings in the area oI inIrastructural
and technological investments, also in mining, energy, Iinances and insurances.
45
A good prooI oI the role given to AIrica by China can be the Iurther moves oI Chinese
authorities. Within only three months since the Iinishing oI the Forum, a step was made
towards approaching particular countries oI AIrica. At the beginning oI 2007, the president
oI PRC, Hu Jintao, took up a travel across AIrican states. From January 30 to February 10,
he visited eight states: Cameroon, Liberia, Sudan, Zambia, Namibia, RSA, Mozambique
and the Seychelles. The character oI those visits represented maintenance oI the policy
carried out Ior last Iew years. On the basis oI these visits, one could try to deIine the
general tendency in Chinese Ioreign policy towards AIrica. Pursuing the 'strategic
partnership, Chinese authorities took proper advantage Irom this visit to promote
themselves and strengthen their position in this continent. The travel itselI was organized
as a 'journey oI Iriendship and cooperation. During the visit to one oI AIrican countries,
president Hu Jintao said that 'China is the biggest developing country and AIrica is the
continent with the largest number oI developing countries.
46
This higlights basic
assumptions oI the Chinese policy. The spokesman oI the Chinese Ministry oI Foreign
AIIairs, Liu Jianchao, underlined the hope that president Hu`s travel would galvanize
Iriendship with AIrica, simultaneously being a promotion oI detailed cooperation in many
Iields and, thus, letting deIine the draIt oI strategic partnership.
47
The Iirst country visited by Hu Jintao was Cameroon. Diplomatic relations with this
country were established in March 1971. Mutual trade, as with most AIrican states, remains
44
Address bv Hu Jintao at the Opening Ceremonv of the Beifing Summit of The Forum on
ChinaAfrica Cooperation, Beijing, 4 November 2006, http://english.Iocacsummit.org.
45
Beifing Summit adopts declaration, highlighting China-Africa strategic partnership, Xinhua,
5.11.2006, http://english.Iocacsummit.org.
46
'President Hu: We Are Forced Ior Peace, in China Dailv, 8.02.2007.
47
'Hu Arrives in Cameroon, Kicking OII AIrica Tour, in Xinhua, China Dailv, 31.01.2007.
30 LUKASZ GACEK
in an initial phase. Mutual trade exchange in 2006 made USD 338 million, being a double
result in comparison to the previous year. During this visit, the presidents oI both countries,
Hu Jintao and Paul Biya, signed agreements Ior providing two Chinese loans oI 30 and
40million yuan (USD 3,86 and 5,15 million) Ior economic and technical projects in Cameroon.
Additionally, China committed to provide a preIerence loan oI 350 million yuan Ior the
needs oI Iinancing the local telecommunication sector.
48
The cooperation is developed in
many Iields; cultural and educational areas can be good examples. In 1987 Zhejiang Normal
University established, with support oI local authorities, a Chinese language center in
Yaounde, Cameroon.
49
Another step oI Hu Jintao`s travel across AIrican countries was Liberia, where meeting
between Hu and president Hellen Johnson-SirleaI took place. During this visit, the president
oI China presented his program oI Iurther cooperation. He indicated the necessity oI
developing contacts oI political character, pragmatic trade and economical cooperation,
common activity towards enIorcement oI rules propagated during the Forum summit in
Beijing in the previous year, as well as cooperation in the area oI education, health, culture,
Ioreign policy. It has to be stressed that diplomatic relations with Liberia were established
only in October 2003. In 2006, mutual trade overturn exceeded the level oI USD 400 million.
50
The third AIrican country visited by Hu Jintao was the Sudan. This country has Ior
many years belonged to the group oI China`s crucial trade partners. Diplomatic relations
were established in February 1959. Mutual trade made USD 3,9 billion at the end oI 2005.
51
It is the Sudan which provides a big part oI crude oil imported by China. On the other hand,
China National Petroleum Corporation is the biggest Ioreign enterprise active in this area.
China remains the Sudan`s biggest trade partner. Developing this positive tendency was
the subject oI discussions oI two presidents, Hu and Omar Zassan Ahmed al-Bashir.
Chinese cooperation with Zambia reaches back to the 1960s; that was the time (1964)
when oIIicial diplomatic relations were established. At the beginning oI the 1990s, trade
overturns oscillated around USD 20 million. At the end oI 2005, this sum grew up to USD
300 million. Currently, China is the third investor in Zambia, lesser only than RSA and Great
Britain. Around 200 Chinese companies invested in Zambia, mostly in such sectors as
mining, textile industry, construction industry or Iinances. During the Beijing Forum,
governments oI both countries signed a commitment on investing USD 200 million in
copper industry.
52
During his visit to Zambia, Hu Jintao together with the president oI this
country, Levy Patrick Mwanase, oIIicially opened the Zone oI Economic and Trade
Cooperation in Lusaka.
53
Chinese authorities tend to encourage domestic entrepreneurs to
invest in this area. Earlier undertakings are also worth recalling. Already a year earlier,
Zambia had purchased Iew Chinese multi-purpose Y-12 planes, designed Ior transportation
48
'Multi-million Deals Inked with Cameroon, in China Dailv, 1.02.2007.
49
'ChinaCameroon Cooperation Posts Steady Growth, in Xinhua, China Dailv, 30.01.2007.
50
'ChinaLiberia Ties Moves Forward Steadily, in Xinhua, China Dailv, 31.01.2007.
51
'SudanChina Ties Exemplary in SouthSouth Cooperation, in Xinhua, China Dailv,
3.11.2006.
52
'China, Zambia Witness Booming Economic Cooperation, in Xinhua, China Dailv, 2.02.2007.
53
'China Launches 1st Economic, Trade Co-op Zone in AIrica, in Xinhua, China Dailv,
05.02.2007.
oI troops and rescue actions in emergency situations.
54
Since 1967, China has perIormed
dozens oI investments projects (e.g. construction oI roads, TanzaniaZambia railway, etc.).
In 1997, Bank oI China established its unit in this country. A year later, China National
NonIerrous Metals Industry Construction Co. Group purchased a copper mine (Zambian
Chambishi Copper Mine) Ior USD 20 million. The production started in the year 2000.
55
In Namibia, president Hu Jintao met his counterpart, HiIikepunye Pohamba. The strategy
oI perIormance towards Namibia was draIted in Iour points, presented by Hu. These
concerned political exchange, increasing economical and trade cooperation, widening social
contracts (development oI such areas as education, health, culture, tourism), cooperation
in the area oI international aIIairs (mostly on the Iorum oI the UN and other international
organizations). Diplomatic relations between these countries were established in March
1990. Since that time, the mutual cooperation has started to develop in many Iields. In the
recent time, increased economical cooperation can be observed. At the end oI 2005, mutual
trade overturn made USD 140 million. A year later, this sum was nearly doubled.
56
Republic oI South AIrica belongs to the group oI China`s most important trade partners
in AIrica. Diplomatic relations were established quite early, in 1998, in the period oI Nelson
Mandela`s presidency. Since that moment, a signiIicant change in regarding mutual relations
has occured. RSA remains an important ally oI China in international organizations,
particularly the UN and WTO. It is not by accident that the authorities oI both countries
deIined their mutual relations as 'strategic partnership in 2004. This Iact was underlined
in Hu Jintao`s discussions with RSA president, Thabo Mbeki, during his visit to AIrican
countries in 2007. Economical Iactors seem to support this thesis. At the end oI 2006, trade
overturns oI China and RSA made USD 9,856 billion, a third part more than in the previous
year.
57
It is worth remembering that since June 2005 Kung-Iootsy`s Institute has been
active in RSA promoting Chinese culture and language.
In Mozambique, a meeting oI Hu Jintao with president Armado Emilio Guebuza took
place. The subject oI the discussions was enlarging mutual political and economical
contacts. China established diplomatic relations with Mozambique in June 1975. Since that
moment, the catalogue oI common activities has got signiIicantly wider. In 2006, China`s
Export Import Bank (Eximbank) decided oI a possibility oI investing USD 2,3 billion Ior
constructing hydro-power plants in Mozambique, to provide energy Ior mining in this
country.
58
The last step oI Hu`s travel across AIrican states were the Seychelles. Diplomatic
relations between both countries were established in 1976. The president oI China was
received by his counterpart, James Michale. It seems likely that in the Iuture China will take
advantage oI the strategic location oI this area.
Visits oI the Chinese leader, paid to such diIIerent countries, show that Chinese Ioreign
policy towards AIrica escapes any simple classiIication. It is worth noting that China
54
'China Exports Light, Multi-purpose Airplanes to Zambia, in Xinhua, China Dailv, 1.08.2006.
55
Ministrv of Foreign Affairs of the Peoples Republic of China.
56
'China, Nambia Set to Maintain All-Weather Relationship, in Xinhua, China Dailv,
4.02.2007; 'China, Namibia to Hold Talks on Expanding Trade Cooperation, in Xinhua, China
Dailv, 4.11.2006.
57
'Hu`s Visits to Boost ChinaS. AIrica Strategic Partnership, in Xinhua, China Dailv, 5.02.2007.
58
'China to Loan Mozambique $2.3b Ior Power Plant, in China Dailv, 10.05.2006.
32 LUKASZ GACEK
signiIicantly galvanized its position in particular countries. The Iirst halI oI the present
decade, when important decisions Iacilitating expansion in AIrican markets were made,
turned out to be a breakout.
There is no doubt that AIrica provides a perIect hinterland Ior rapidly developing Chinese
economy. China requires Iuels, while AIrica perIorms perIectly as its supplier. Various
agreements concerning this matter seem to support this thesis; examples can be multiplied.
At the beginning oI 2004, Total Gabon consortium signed a contract with Chinese Sinopec,
allowing crude oil sales to China. In the same year, Chinese vice-president Zeng Qinghong
visited Tunisia, Togo, Benin and RSA. Contracts Ior various investments projects were
signed at that time. At the beginning oI the next year, Angola deIined the way oI utilization
oI USD 2 billion loan obtained Irom the Chinese government Ior inIrastructure restructuring.
In July 2005, China and Nigeria signed a USD 800 million contract on crude oil sales
between Petrochina International and Nigeria National Petroleum Corporation (NNPC).
The volume oI crude oil delivered to China was Iixed at the level oI 30 thous. barrels daily.
In January 2006, CNOOC conducted its biggest Ioreign investment, allocating USD 2,3billion
in Nigeria, in areas oI crude oil and natural gas reserves.
59
On May 13
th
2007, Nigeria
launched its second satellite Irom Xichang cosmodrome in Sichuan, China. The Iirst one
had been launched Iour years earlier Irom the Russian cosmodrome in Plesieck. The satellite
was Iully projected and constructed by the domestic company Great Wall. What turned
out to be important was the readiness oI Chinese government to provide a credit Ior
Iinancing two thirds oI the undertaking, worth over USD 300 million.
60
In April 2006, Algerian
government provided a contract, estimated at ca. USD 7 billion, Ior constructing a 1300 km
long motorway Irom Tunisia to Morocco Ior a Japanese-Chinese consortium. In the same
month, Hu Jintao signed an agreement with Kenyan authorities, allowing CNOOP to carry
out searching in the south and the north oI the country. Nearly at the same time, Nigeria
was granted a USD 4 billion loan, including subventions Ior common economical
undertakings, as well as Iighting malaria. In November 2006, China signed agreements with
AIrican countries oI total value oI 1,9 billion USD.
61
In September 2007, China undertook
one oI the biggest Iinancial actions in AIrica, signing a contract with the government oI
the Democratic Republic oI Congo Ior providing a USD 5 billion loan Ior constructing the
local transport inIrastructure and restructuring mining sector. A larger part oI this sum, ca.
USD 3 billion, will be consumed by inIrastructural investments. Among them, construction
oI a 3,400 km long road connecting the city oI Kisangani in the North-East with Kasumbalesa
in the south, at the Zambian border, is included. A 3,200 km long railway line, connecting
the mining centre with port oI Matadi is also planned. 31 hospitals, 145 health centers and
2 universities are to be erected. The rest oI the loan is to be invested in the mining sector.
In the opinion oI Congo`s minister oI inIrastructure, public works and reconstruction,
Pierre Lumbi Okongo, the agreement guaranties paying back the loan by providing China
with mining licenses, as well as allowance to charge the tolls on motorways and railway
lines that are to be constructed in the Iuture.
62
As by now, China has Iinancially supported
59
'ChinaAIrica Trade Links, in China Dailv, 29.01.2007.
60
K. Godlewski, ,Pekin buduje klub kosmiczny na przekor USA, in D:iennik, 25.05.2007.
61
'ChinaAIrica Trade Links, in China Dailv, 29.01.2007.
62
,Chiny pozycza Kongo 5 mld USD na inwestycje w inIrastruktur, in Puls Bi:nesu, 18.09.2007.
around 800 help projects in AIrica. These include 137 projects concerning agriculture and
133 inIrastructural ones.
63
Representatives oI Chinese authorities indicate that investments in AIrica in 2006 reached
the sum oI USD 11,7 billion. Donald Kaberuka, the chairman oI AIrica Development Bank,
assesed the amount oI expected Chinese investments in 2007 at USD 2 billion. In June 2007,
the government oI People`s Republic oI China dedicated USD 1 billion Ior support oI trade
and investment activity in AIrica.
64
There can be no doubt that a thorough evolution is observed in the area oI deIining the
basis oI Chinese Ioreign policy. Ideological issues have been visibly shiIted into the
background. Their place was taken by pragmatic policy, taking into account the temporary
current conditions. The diplomatic oIIensive tending to obtain Ioreign sources oI raw
materials results Irom problems which conIront the rapidly developing Chinese economy.
Establishing a system Ior diversiIying sources oI supply proves it to be a well-considered
strategy. It is worth noting that by its activity China makes AIrican states more and more
dependent on it. Thus, there is nothing strange in the Iact that more and more critical
voices can be heard, trying to show the second side oI the coin. Activity oI Chinese
entrepreneurs leads to some changes in AIrican markets. Accusations oI abusing and
mistreating local labor Iorce become widespread, being raised up by many trade unions.
What shall be also taken into account is the Iact that on the edge oI business and politics
opportunities Ior Iinancial abusements appear. Cases oI corruption and bribes compromise
the local authorities in the opinion oI the citizens. Among critical voices, the ones inIorming
about inIlow oI cheap Chinese products to some AIrican countries can also be Iound.
Together with being provided with credits by PRC the local governments lose some part oI
their independence. The increasing debt oI AIrican states leads to Iurther dependence on
China.
The activity oI China in AIrica is mostly the struggle Ior the primary position in the
world. The moves oI Beijing establish the ground Ior carrying out Iuture empire dealings.
In AIrica, as in other parts oI the globe, a conIlict oI powers takes place. Discussions are
concentrated on enlarging the inIluences in these strategic regions. ConIlict between
countries dominating in the world is included in the very nature oI mutual relations. China
plays one oI the primary roles in this game. AIter the breakdown oI the bipolar model oI the
world on the global scene, the United Sates remained the only global power. In the current
reality, China is a local empire only. For the current needs, Chinese authorities Iorce the
concept oI multi-polar world, without one dominating centre. Such a concept will surely be
modiIied. Within the coming decades, China should become a real counterweigh Ior
inIluences oI the USA. Chinese moves in AIrica prove this vision to be more than possible.
63
Ministrv of Commerce Peoples Republic of China.
64
'AIrican Countries Seek Investment, Business in Central China, in Xinhua, Peoples Dailv,
5.07.2007.
34 PIOTR KOWNACKI
ACTA ASIATICA
VARSOVIENSIA
No. 20, 2007
PL ISSN 08606102
PIOTR KOWNACKI
The Globalization Aspect oI JapaneseChinese
Economic Relations
1. Introductory Remarks
Presentation oI the issues connected with the economic partnership oI Japan and China
is a diIIicult task because oI the complexity oI judgments and opinions expressed in the
existing publications. Those judgments and opinions, presented Irom various and oIten
even opposite positions, are also characterized by radical inconsistence and thus problems
cannot be captured on a single theoretical and cognitive plane.
The judgment on the causes oI the economic development achieved in both Asian
countries in diIIerent periods and as a result oI the conditions connected with those
periods, is oIten reduced to a common plane, seen as representing the speciIics oI economic
inIluence oI the state. What comes to the Iore in this view is the common cultural heritage,
marked with the notions and values oI ConIucianism. The belieI that according to
ConIucianism the use oI persuasion is more important in ruling a country than the use oI
violence, and that according to ConIucianism the society is obliged to obedience and
loyalty to the authorities, is used in assessing economic phenomena. Such an interpretation
is reIlected in the judgments on the economic development observed in both countries,
which range between two extreme views. One stresses the superior role oI the state in
achieving impressive economic results, while the other, opposite view, proclaims a negligible
role oI the state due to the society`s obedience and loyalty, which allegedly limit the need
Ior excessive state activity. According to the latter interpretation, the decision-making
process in the economy oI countries with ConIucian traditions, in opposition to the Western
cultural speciIics and tradition, did not require reIerring to legal grounds, but was based on
recommendations and persuasion, where the ConIucian traditions were deemed to be useIul.
Despite the awareness oI the cultural diIIerences between the determinants oI the
economic development in the discussed Asian countries, a decisive majority oI the studies
concerning this issue, because oI their authors` proIessional specialties, does not examine
in any depth the cultural aspect oI the economic growth and does not attempt to Iind an
answer to the question to what extent the ConIucian norms and values are shared in those
countries, and to what degree they have contributed to achieving the economic results.
Instead, the said studies choose the path oI explaining the problem with the conceptual
apparatus oI economics.
The speciIics oI an economic explanation oI economic development is not unlike that oI
an explanation oIIered by political economy. It should be noted that the economic sphere
The Globalization Aspect oI JapaneseChinese Relations 35
is not Iree oI political inIluences, whether based on legal grounds or on the norms and
cultural values perpetuated by tradition.
An explanation oI both the Chinese and Japanese economic development, without which
any attempt at capturing their mutual economic relations would necessarily have
aIragmentary character, cannot disregard the political aspect, and hence also requires an
approach based on political science. All the more so since the economic growth did not
take place in the same period in both the countries, and this temporal diIIerence had
apolitical character. Any disputes whether in the discussed issue the motives oI
considerable or insigniIicant involvement oI the state in the economic decision-making
processes stemmed Irom the political and legal reasons, or Irom the cultural and religious
ones, can be considered pointless.
It is to be kept in mind that at the time when Japan was experiencing growth, China was
doomed to regression. The allegedly common ConIucian values and norms did not give
Iruit in China, whose economic relations with the Iormer Japanese partner had suIIered
acomplete atrophy. Their renewal and increased importance were accompanied by the
deteriorating Japanese economic results and the growing Chinese economic successes.
Hence the causal Iramework oI the economic development in those countries, which
underlies the essence oI their mutual relations, is certainly broader, and the phenomena
related to them more complex.
2. Temporal and Political Differences between the 1apanese and Chinese Development
Strategies and the Issue of Mutual Economic Relations
An explanation oI the eIIiciency oI the state and the eIIective mobilization oI the society
towards economic development oI the Asian countries under discussion requires a broader
approach, based on the political science. Until 1952, aIter the lost war and capitulation,
Japan did not show any economic successes that could be a starting point Ior its later
development. The United States, as the wartime victor and occupier, did not have any
intent to allow any possibility oI the deIeated country`s transIormation into a political and
economic power. It was doing all it could to keep the Iormer aggressor and wartime enemy
at the level oI an underdeveloped country, unable to renew its world power status and to
take revenge.
The change in the position oI the United States, which decided to grant Japan the status
oI a regional ally with a strategic importance, is explained in the literature in a way remote
Irom the actual context oI the problem. The interpretation oI this change as related to the
Communist threat, reinIorced by the victory oI the Chinese revolution, needs some
qualiIications. Until 1952, three years had passed since the Chinese revolution, and during
that time there had been no need Ior Japan as a strategic ally. AIter the Japanese capitulation,
the World Bank loans granted in 1946 were only aimed at preventing the threat oI Iamine,
renewing coal mining and activating the steel industry in Japan. There was no idea oI
supporting the industrial sector whose reconstruction could result in rebirth oI the weapon
industry and the armament potential oI Japan. The change came with the Korean war,
which generated demand Ior Japanese production, due to the wartime military demand.
The Iactor oI essential signiIicance was the territorial proximity oI Japan. The issue oI vital
importance Ior the change in the position oI the United States, which this time wanted to
enhance the status oI Japan, was not the Communist threat, but China`s access to the
36 PIOTR KOWNACKI
Korean war, which could endanger American victory on the Korean peninsula. Up to that
time, the main problem Ior the United States was to control the deIeated Japan rather than
to make it an ally in the alleged striIe with international Communism, which was to threaten
the position oI the United States in the Asian region.
The earlier reIusal oI the United States to involve its Soviet ally Irom the recent past in
controlling the deIeated Japan by assigning it an occupation zone Iacilitated the Iuture
process oI social and political normalization in the occupied country. It was also unthinkable
Ior the United States to involve in controlling Japan the Chinese ally and coalition partner
embodied by the government oI Chang Kai-Chek, preparing Ior such a role and expecting
economic support Ior reconstruction oI the economy ruined by the Japanese aggression
and the resultant destructive war.
Participation oI the United States in reconstruction oI the Chinese economy and
undertaking the next to impossible task oI reconciling China and Japan, involved in a deep
conIlict due to a bloody and destructive war, exceeded the possibilities oI the US and was
not compliant with its either economic or political interests.
The careIully thought-over and calculated saIety measures undertaken by the United
States to prevent a pointless involvement in Chinese matters with the intention oI keeping
the nationalist and anticommunist group in power, created only a bigger problem Ior the
Soviet Union, connected with the issue oI relations between the USSR and China, governed
by ideologically similar political groups.
The marginalization oI the nationalist group and Chang Kai-Chek`s government, as well
as their moving to Taiwan, represented an optimum solution Ior the United States and
also a much cheaper one, compared to the costs oI taking the responsibility Ior providing
support to the coalition partner and reconstructing the Chinese economy. Hence the decisive
Iactor was the pragmatism characteristic oI the policy oI the United States, which gave
priority to its own interests and the capability oI discharging the commitments expected by
the Western allies.
The Korean war showed China`s capability oI playing a role that had not been expected
oI it. It was just the need Ior a new economic inIrastructure in the region which made it
necessary to divide the burden oI the military involvement and to adapt Japan to its new
role. Up to that time, possibilities oI the Japanese independently making use oI credit and
investing on their own had not even been taken into consideration by the victorious
occupier. It should also be stressed that the position oI the local Japanese administration,
the attitude oI Japanese entrepreneurs and oI the society at large had not suggested any
intent on their part to cooperate with Ioreign capital. And the deIiciency was so great that
a complete breakdown oI the whole Japanese economy was Ieared. And so it would have
probably been the case but Ior the Korean military conIlict.
Until then, the ConIucian norms and values had not triggered any economic results and
had not shown any signs oI becoming the Ierment oI the Iuture economic development to
which they allegedly were to contribute.
During the Korean military conIlict, the North-American SCAP occupation authorities
enIorced on Japan implementation oI social and institutional reIorms. The reIorms resulted
in Iormation oI a political and economic coalition that commenced execution oI the task set
out in the development strategy, which ultimately resulted in the later economic growth.
The coalition exhibited an ability to overcome the apathy oI the society, aIIlicted by the
deIeat in the war and Ioreign occupation, and secured Ior itselI the necessary support by
mobilization oI the people. Breaking the economic isolation opened the way Ior international
cooperation and the desirable reception oI Ioreign investments within the established
legal Ioundations modeled on Western solutions rather than Iollowing the local, ConIucian
principles.
Without going into the details oI social and institutional reIorms implemented in Japan,
we should stress that SCAP was exerting pressure towards empowering the civil government
bureaucracy, which it qualiIied as an apolitical Iorce, not bearing any responsibility Ior the
wartime past.
The situation outlined above clariIied the conditions in which the Chinese economy
was bound to suIIer. They were due not only to the internal socio-political change in the
country, caused by the strengthening oI the victorious revolutionary group, but also, or
even Iirst oI all, to the international position oI China, determined by the Cold War
conIrontation between the world powers and the rivalry between the political systems.
The issue oI the economic development path to be taken by continental China was
decided in the course oI the conIrontational Cold War. Up to the time oI the Korean military
conIlict, the Chinese development concept had not been clearly and Iinally deIined. It is to
be remembered that already during the civil war, which ended in the victory oI the Communist
group over the nationalist wing, Mao Zedong was making eIIorts to retain relations with
the Unites States and the Western countries, assigning special importance to maintaining
economic relations. The economic links oI China with the Western world unequivocally
committed the country to economic thinking and the appropriate choice oI the cooperation
directions with respect to the paths and methods oI economic development.
The Iear oI isolation and its consequences was Iully justiIied in China. The country`s
reserved attitude to the bonds with the economies oI the Soviet Union and the CMEC
1
countries stemmed Irom the awareness that economic relations with the Eastern block
could not be treated as a substitute Ior the development possibilities lost because oI
China`s isolation.
As a result oI the Korean military conIlict, the hopes Ior retaining signiIicant economic
bonds between China and the Western countries, as well as the related calculations
concerning the development concept, became outdated, and hence pointless. The newly
established relations with the Eastern block did not open any rational perspectives. The
size oI the Chinese demand driven by the reconstruction oI China`s economy exceeded the
capabilities oI the Eastern block more exactly, oI the Soviet Union, Ior the remaining
countries oI the block played here only a negligible role.
The isolation oI China, which the authorities had Ieared but did not manage to avoid,
revealed new problems oI the Eastern block, visible especially in the Soviet economy. Its
production Ior the needs oI Chinese demand, driven by the recovery oI the industry ruined
by the war, had grown. However, this did not wholly solve the problem on the scale oI
Chinese needs, Ior the demand was too high. On the Soviet economy scale, the above
growth deepened the imbalance and intensiIied the crisis-generating mechanism oI that
economy, which consisted in the dominance oI the manuIactured capital goods over
consumer goods.
1
Council Ior Mutual Economic Assistance
38 PIOTR KOWNACKI
China`s economic coexistence with the Soviet Union was never established as
acompensation Ior the deIiciency resulting Irom the isolation imposed on China. Search
Ior the method to overcome that isolation became the basic goal oI Chinese politics, and
strengthening oI Chinese-Soviet relations did not contribute to achieving that goal. On
the contrary, the Chinese people saw in a conIrontation with the Soviet Union a method
Ior China showing itselI on the international Iorum as a sovereign, non-subjugated
entity.
China`s isolation hampered the possibilities oI an external investment support Ior the
country`s economy. The impaired capability oI participation in the world economy,
undermined by the lack oI access to international development centers, and especially to
the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund, deprived the country oI the
possibility oI acquiring Iunds and using them to implement the optimum solutions. China`s
ambition was not to maintain the state oI the economy prior to the isolation and its
connections with the world economy. The strategic goal was to overcome the unsymmetrical
relations with the world economy centers and to expand the internal market. Although
opening the Chinese economic space to external investment was both possible and taken
into consideration, such a solution was rejected. Autarchic development was chosen despite
the stagnation which it triggered and maintained. But the autarchy was not a matter oI Iree
and satisIactory choice. It was enIorced by the isolation imposed by the external
environment. The endeavors to overcome isolation were at the same time endeavors to
abolish autarchy.
When assessing the Chinese autarchic development option stemming Irom the country`s
isolation and the Japanese strategy one can turn to the comparative discussions presented
in the literature. Without considering in detail to what degree the Chinese and Japanese
states and societies were bound by ConIucian norms and values, we should note that
these were not decisive Ior the direction and results oI development. A Iactor oI vital
importance were the diIIerences in the political positions oI China and Japan in the
international relations and in the world economy.
In the circumstances presented above, the economic relations the two countries had
enjoyed earlier completely died out, and their renewal was not even deemed probable. The
Cold War conIrontation between the world powers and the rivalry between the political
systems deepened the riIt between the Chinese and Japanese economies. Durable separation
was seen as certain, without any possibility oI Iinding a plane where the interests oI both
the Asian powers could converge.
However, the development oI the world economy was not determined by the development
oI the political situation; the latter was also aIIected by the Iormer. The transIormations
taking place in the world economy enIorced a change in the global political situation as
well. The detente in the relations between the world powers, as well as between the Eastern
and Western blocks, were both a consequence oI, and the reason Ior, the change in the
world economy, which triggered the need Ior China`s presence. The overcoming oI Chinese
isolation was parallel with the gradual slowdown oI the Japanese economic growth. It were
just these circumstances that gave rise to the Chinese economy`s demand Ior Japanese
participation, seen as a means Ior regenerating China`s own economy. This opened the
way to initiating mutual economic relations, whose renewal had been deemed improbable,
or even pointless, just a short time beIore.
3. Renewal of Chinese-1apanese Economic Relations
A turning point in overcoming Chinese economic autarchy, which initiated intensiIication
oI Chinese-Japanese economic relations, was the proclamation oI the so-called 'program
oI Iour modernizations in China. This all-important event, which was a harbinger oI China`s
opening to the world economy, took place in late 1978.
One should also keep in mind that China decided to implement the appropriate solutions
by establishing the legal grounds Ior them, which allegedly are not oI primary importance
in a society with ConIucian traditions.
The Iirst act oI law encouraging Ioreign investors to participate in the Chinese economy
was the act on joint venture undertakings with combined Chinese and Ioreign capital, which
came into Iorce on July 1, 1979. The act introducing the institution oI a prosecutor`s oIIice,
established to guard the law and enIorce its observance, came into Iorce aIter Iour more
days. Finally, the act oI vital importance Ior opening Chinese economy to the participation oI
Ioreign investors came into Iorce aIter Iour months. The act proclaimed either validity or
annulment oI the regulations in Iorce until that time, the uncertainty oI which could raise the
investor`s caution and reserve, and result in their distrust. This was because the thitherto
existing regulations were suited to the Iunctioning oI an autarchic economy, which did not
provide Ior participation oI Ioreign investors. The act opened the way to new, reIormist
legislation, which Iavored China`s opening to the world economy, and to a transIormation
which consisted in moving Irom the policy oI isolationist selI-suIIiciency to the policy oI
global interdependency, based on a pro-export strategy oI economic development.
The Chinese-Japanese economic relations established in the trade zone had been already
developing earlier. The normalization oI the bilateral ChinaUSA relations and China`s
taking a seat at the UN as a permanent member oI the UN Security Council undermined the
justiIiability oI maintaining the mutual separation, motivated politically. Besides the trade
exchange, prior to the opening oI Chinese economy to Ioreign participation, there had also
been inter-governmental contacts between China and Japan. Chinese orders were beneIicial
Ior many branches oI the Japanese economy, whose production had a guaranteed market
in China. However, the real test Ior Japanese capabilities oI participation in the Chinese
economy turned out to be the opening oI the latter to the world economy through the new
legal regulations. Indeed, this amounted to increasing the importance oI non-governmental
entities participating in the Chinese economy. Their growing number and rivalry Ior position
in the Chinese economy were also related to their condition and competitive capabilities.
At that time, the condition oI the Japanese economy did not enable it to determine the
course oI things in the Chinese economy by its own expansion. Japanese economy was
immersed in its own problems and the striIe to solve them.
The economic development oI Japan aIter 1952, based on pro-export industrialization,
took place under the inIluence oI the external determinants which enIorced it. In Iact, Japan
was not rich in natural resources, and as a result oI the deIeat in the war it lost its overseas
possessions and the control over the thitherto used natural resources. Hence the source
oI Iunds Ior the necessary raw materials purchases could only be pro-export production.
The disturbances in the world market, and especially the energy crisis in 1973, repeated
also later, aIIected the Japanese economy particularly strongly, resulting in a regress in
production and a breakdown visible in almost all branches and sectors.
40 PIOTR KOWNACKI
The opening oI the Chinese economy to external investment did not result in
immediate Japanese involvement. It is worth noting that Japanese economy was not
the Iirst to make use oI the opening, despite the countries` territorial proximity and
common ConIucian traditions. Namely, Japan was outdistanced by Hong Kong, and at
the same time motivated by it to participate in the Chinese economy. The inspiration
stemming Irom the example given by Hong Kong had an even greater importance and
spread to other countries and economic entities too, Ior the said example conIirmed the
credibility oI Chinese partnership.
The important position oI Hong Kong`s economy in the Asian economy is also aresult
oI a speciIic, unexpected development oI the situation in the region. Just as the occupation
authorities initially did not intend to Iavor the revival oI Japanese economy, the British
colonial authorities also did not intend to Iacilitate economic advancement oI the enclave
in the territory oI continental China. The immediate neighborhood oI China enIorced
cautiousness on the part oI Britain, which, as opposed to the US, recognized China and
maintained mutual relations with that country. Though those relations did not
counterbalance the imposed isolation, they were not without importance. Antagonization
oI the Chinese-British relations was neither in the Chinese nor in the British interest, and
the British caution, maintained in the name oI political pragmatism and political prudence,
contributed to Hong Kong`s development beyond the status oI just one oI the many
British colonies.
AIter the Chinese revolution, a sizeable part oI the Chinese population moved to Hong
Kong. As a result, the colonial authorities Iaced the problems oI its adaptation and by no
means certain loyalty. A Iact that is especially worth noting is that the migrants to Hong
Kong included a numerous group oI Chinese businessmen and managers, who could not
Iind a place Ior themselves in the continental China, since they did not accept its political
and economic system. The presence oI Chinese businessmen and managers in Hong-
Kong bore Iruit in the Iorm oI impressive results oI their economic activity, aided by their
open access to the Western world and to the international development centers. Had the
Great Britain even tried to slow down the economic development oI Hong Kong, it could
not have been either reversed or marginalized.
The importance oI Hong Kong economy turned out to be essential Ior the Chinese
reIormist endeavors. Upon the opening oI the Chinese economic space to Ioreign investment
the Iirst reaction came Irom Hong Kong, represented by a population oI Chinese origin,
speaking the same language, and shaped by the same culture rather than by the British
colonial authorities oI the enclave. For that reason, the economic cooperation between
China and Hong Kong, as Chinese-Chinese one, progressed easily and without problems.
This example was Iollowed by Japan, which initiated its activity in the Chinese economy,
sure oI the Chinese partnership and its credibility, as shown in the relations with Hong
Kong. Japan was not the Iirst to participate, but it was not the last, either. The investment
activity in the Chinese economy coming Irom the outside grew almost in a geometric
progress.
Nevertheless, the Japanese investment activity in the Chinese economy slowed down
and became limited in the circumstances oI economic globalization. Without going into the
details and the intricacies oI economic globalization, which is not understood uniIormly,
we should consider its consequences Ior Japanese economy.
AIter transIormation oI the Soviet economy to a market one, the tendencies to maintain
protectionist and isolationist options in the peripheral sector oI the world economy virtually
disappeared. This change resulted in commencement and intensiIication oI the investment
transIer Irom the highly developed countries to underdeveloped ones. Economic
globalization has Ireed the investors Irom the limitations inherent up to that time in both
the command-driven planned economy and the socialist market economy. Special activeness
oI the investors is seen in the countries on the economic peripheries. Even the greatest
companies Irom the highly developed countries provide investments, technologies, Iunds,
licenses and consulting to the countries seen until now as not advanced in development,
and in this way contribute to establishment oI expansive production centers in such
countries. This process continues despite the high unemployment level persisting in the
highly developed countries, which are not looking Ior solutions aimed at utilization oI the
local production capabilities and protection oI jobs. The investments are more willingly
directed to countries less advanced in development, seemingly against the interests oI the
highly developed countries themselves. Economic globalization does not trigger the
investor`s Iear oI the nationalization acts, undertaken in the past in order to provide
asubstitute Ior import, or to implement para-socialist solutions. The investor treats
underdeveloped countries as a zone more proIitable Ior a capital investment. Though the
investor`s interests clash with the aspirations oI the society in the highly developed country
oI his origin, the issue has a diIIerent context than in the past. In the conditions created by
economic globalization, this problem has also a global dimension rather than a national or
regional one. This Iollows Irom the increasingly stronger common interests oI the
shareholders Irom the highly developed countries and the elites Irom the underdeveloped
countries, where the labor costs are low, and social beneIits small or completely unknown.
In such circumstances, the investor`s proIits are higher than those which can be obtained
in highly developed countries, with a socialist-biased economy. The most proIitable Iield
Ior investments have turned out to be the Indian and Chinese economies.
The emergence oI the tendency signaled above is oI essential importance Ior explaining
the development directions oI the Chinese and Japanese economies, and the scope oI their
mutual relationship. The economic power oI Japan has never resulted Irom a Iree-market
development, since it was built on the basis oI social harmony and nationwide consensus.
In the past, Japan overtook in development also countries outside the Asian region, but
the belieIs that it would become the leader oI world economy were based on appearances
rather than Iacts.
The Japanese economic development and export expansion, which in the past were
especially Ielt by the US economy broke down in the course oI globalization processes
also Ior system-based reasons, characteristic oI highly developed countries. The Japanese
democratic system included also institutions representing the state`s social-oriented
involvement in economic actions, which diverged Irom the processes taking place in the
other Asian countries, where democracy was limited to elections only.
The Japanese economic power Iormed as a result oI the priority oI national interests
imposed by the state and articulated by the government elite to both the producers and the
consumers. The state Iully controlled the development oI the economy by protecting
weaker branches, supporting new ones, and enIorcing Iull employment. In order to avoid
violating the nationwide consensus, the state decided to artiIicially support non-proIitable
42 PIOTR KOWNACKI
companies and to subsidize bureaucratic banks which drowned their Iunds in bad credits.
The decrease in the production growth temporarily stopped, which allowed the country to
hope that good economic conditions had returned and would persist Ior a longer time.
However, the real course oI things was diIIerent, and at the turn oI the century the situation
deteriorated so much that the unemployment, which used to be unknown in Japan until
that time, reached the 5 level. It is to be remembered that at that time the Chinese economy
did not share the problems pervading the Japanese economy. The volume oI Chinese
production kept growing, its proIile diversiIied, and its export expansion strengthened.
Economic globalization, associated in the most general way with Iree capital Ilows, is
most oIten imagined in the context oI capital inIlow. However, one should be aware oI the
other side oI it, which is capital outIlow and its consequences. And the special consequences
oI capital outIlow were experienced by the Asian economy in 199798, Iirst oI all by the
Japanese economy, aIIected earlier by an economic breakdown. It was Ior the Iirst time that
economic growth was expressed in negative digits, reaching 2.8. Economic recovery
was achieved just aIter one year, when a 1.4 growth was obtained, but the price Ior this
was 250 billion dollars. The money was invested in new branches, with the hope that they
would play a signiIicant role in the coming years, but this brought about the Iall oI companies
in the obsolete branches oI economy, particularly in the metal industry and the building
industry. This resulted in increased unemployment, social dissatisIaction , and problems
with elections Ior the ruling group.
The Japanese economic breakdown was in an essential way related to the country`s
democratic political system, within which decisions concerning the economy were made.
The heart oI the matter was the need to take into consideration the opinion oI the
constituency, which guaranteed the ruling party power in return Ior a socially oriented
economic policy. In this context and Ior this reason, adjustment to the globalization
requirements was being postponed, and eventually delayed. The timely undertaking oI the
necessary restructuring moves was delayed by what was inherent in the very nature oI the
Japanese political system, namely the need to consider Iuture elections. In order to avoid
undermining the social harmony, the retreat Irom an excessive level oI economy control
was being delayed. The durability oI socially oriented control over the economy was itselI
a negation oI Iree market-based development, which came to be appreciated again in the
on-going globalization processes.
The developments in the Chinese economy were totally diIIerent. Instead oI undergoing
a breakdown, its development resulted in a high, two-digit production growth, increased
export and a growing interest on the part oI Ioreign investors. It was just then that China
decided Ior access to the WTO, in spite oI the earlier Iears oI excessive opening oI the
Chinese market to imported products and possible diIIiculties in coping with the
requirements oI increasing competition.
The diIIerence in the development situations in the Chinese and Japanese economies
decided that the evolution which had taken place starting Irom the establishment oI
economic relations between those countries through their intensiIication stopped because
oI the need to overcome the eIIects oI the Iinancial crisis which rolled through the Asian
countries in 19971998, and to prevent its Iuture repetition. Then the issue oI a possible
common Asian endeavour aimed at preventing the crisis consequences came on the agenda,
and the countries started considering integration moves Irom that viewpoint.
4. Asian Regional Integration and 1apanese-Chinese Economic Relations
The issue oI Asian regional integration is connected with the talks initiated by China,
Japan, South Korea and the ASEAN countries on the subject oI establishing an economic
group able to protect itselI against the crisis situations and their consequences. Since
arepetition oI the crisis was recognized as the greatest threat Ior stabilization oI the whole
region, the task oI the intended integration would be to work out appropriate coordination
arrangements. The most important issue was developing a mutual crediting mechanism
and an early warning system Ior the threatening crises, guaranteeing predictability oI
short-term capital circulation. The countries also undertook preparations Ior establishing
a common currency basket, enabling resignation Irom a strict connection with dollar, and
in the Iuture even introduction oI a common currency, to be called asio.
During the discussions on Asian regional integration, initially both China and Japan
had the same views on the rationality oI introducing a mechanism protecting Asian
economies against a renewed crisis. In response to the crisis threat, Japan was the Iirst to
put Iorward a proposal oI establishing an Asian currency Iund. The integration discussions
covered even broader plans oI cooperation. The countries recognized special importance
oI coordinating the energy policy in view oI the destabilization oI oil prices prevalent at
that time, which implied an increase in production cost. The plans Ior storing energy
resources and searching Ior alternative Iuels were to constitute one oI the essential pillars
oI the integration aimed at economic stability.
Asian regional integration was undertaken as a deIense enIorced by the crisis threat.
However, the discussions on integration could not disregard the global development trends.
Those trends revealed the incompatibility oI the processes taking place in the economies
oI the Asian countries, which did not Iacilitate the integration endeavors at all. The economic
growth achieved in the region took place in the countries which did not control the economy
with the help oI regulations aimed at maintaining the democratic social and political order
through social involvement oI the state, as was the case in Japan. The state interventions
were aimed at achieving good economic results through promotion oI new production
branches and the export merchantability oI production, winning new markets and protecting
one`s own. Unlike in Japan, the political position oI the state was Iree oI the burden oI
social involvement towards a social consensus within the democratic order.
The Asian countries did not interpret their crisis situation as a consequence oI their
mistaken decisions, but as a result oI a deliberate action undertaken against them. This
resulted in perceiving economic globalization not as a process driven solely by economic
vectors and motivated by Iree capital Ilows. In the Asian countries, there was a growing
belieI that the mass outIlow oI capital resulting in the Iinancial crisis had been deliberately
and purposeIully caused by Iinancial centers supervised by the United States, Ior
competitive and rivalry-oriented reasons. This was because the Asian countries had
agreater capability oI adjusting in a natural way to the requirements oI globalization than
the highly developed countries, and were more proIitable as a space Ior capital inIlow.
The Iactor which determined the resignation Irom the integration endeavors undertaken
by the Asian countries was the divergence in the development oI the Chinese and Japanese
economies. The decreasing position oI the Japanese economy in the whole Asian economy
undermined the sense oI seeing Japan as an integration partner. The earlier belieI that
44 PIOTR KOWNACKI
economic cooperation in the Asian region with considerable participation oI Japan would
be Iavorable Ior the other integration partners, and that the Japanese economy can be
adriving Iorce Ior the integrated group, was not conIirmed. Japan was Iorced to Iocus on
itselI, and the expansive sectors oI its economy showed a special interest in investments in
other Asian countries, and especially in the Chinese economy, which was the only one not
aIIected by the Iinancial crisis suggesting the integration solutions.
The growth in the Chinese economic power, outdistancing the Japanese economy, is
also connected with the better position acquired by the Chinese state in its relations with
the United States. The mutual economic connections between China and the North America
show even the signs oI advanced interdependence and long-term enIorced partnership oI
the two global economic powers. On the one hand, the growing trade with China provides
the United States with the goods and mortgage loans desired by the citizens oI that country.
On the other hand, the trade ensures a high employment level and relative social and
political stabilization in China. However, the Chinese export increases the trade deIicit oI
the United States. Hence the recent demands oI the US Ior the Chinese government to
carry out a signiIicant revaluation oI yuan in order to stop the outIlow oI jobs and dollars
to China cannot be seen as a maneuver oI no importance Ior the Iuture, when China, in
contrast to Japan, can be leIt without the system-based protection against social
dissatisIaction.
The North American administration and decision makers have Ior a very long time
tolerated the undervalued exchange rate oI yuan, thanks to which China directed its cheap
exports to the United States and as a result collected great sums in dollars, since it also
involves a positive aspect Ior the United States. The Chinese export expansion has helped
to maintain low interest rates in the US. Milton Friedman termed the developed and
strengthening interdependence between China and the United States 'the TexasTiananmen
transaction, adding that its sudden and not well thought-out breaking could have Iatal
consequences Ior the North American economy. Indeed, iI the value oI dollar and the
interest rate suddenly decreased, which is unavoidable in the case oI revaluation oI yuan,
this could result in a recession or a stagIlation. On the other hand, revaluation oI yuan can,
through a sudden increase in its exchange rate, cause a regression in China, resulting Irom
the country`s inability to sell the production whose export has been ensured up to this
time. This can be Iollowed by an increase in unemployment and the related social and
political tensions, or even a rebellion against the country`s rulers, who bear the
responsibility Ior economic growth.
Reorientation oI the political and economic system in China aimed at coping with the
situation described above would be equivalent to weakening the authoritarian rule, which
up to now has ensured economic stability in the country. Destabilization oI the Chinese
economy would also be a circumstance showing the advantage oI the democratic Japanese
political and economic system, which is able to prevent social dissatisIaction, despite
representing a burden Ior the economy. Hence the system-based aspect oI Chinese-Japanese
relations is also perceived as limiting Iar-reaching cooperation possibilities.
Nevertheless, the scope oI cooperation is becoming wider and wider. In Iact, the latest
data show changes in economic positions on the global scale. For many years, Japanese
economy was the main partner oI the US economy, but at present is has given way to
China. However, it has also become the main partner oI the Chinese economy. Reconciliation
oI Japanese and Chinese interests will be a matter oI the Iuture, when both the conciliation
and the rivalry aspect will be revealed.
5. Final Remarks
The present paper presents the issue oI depreciation oI Asian regional integration as
aresult oI dissent in the Chinese-Japanese relations, with the intent oI signaling it rather
than exhausting the subject. The system-based aspect oI the dissent in the Chinese-
Japanese relations cannot be seen as a paradigm rashly suggesting certain regularities.
The crisis oI the Japanese economy controlled by the institutions oI a democratic system
and the success oI the Chinese economy controlled by an authoritarian system cannot be
interpreted as discrediting democracy because oI economic deIiciencies, or as praising an
authoritarian regime Ior impressive economic achievements.
The durability oI Chinese economic achievements is neither guaranteed nor
unthreatened, and the issue oI overcoming social dissatisIaction, should it become
necessary, might suggest democratization as an alternative. ReIerring to the constituency
according to the democratic procedure does not simpliIy the task oI bringing the Japanese
economy out oI the crisis state, but an authoritarian threat to the democracy is not probable.
The institutional permanence oI the Japanese democratic system has not been undermined
by the serious economic breakdown, and there is no Iear that an authoritarian system will
be seen as an alternative more eIIective in achieving economic successes.
Though we should not generalize temporary circumstances and derive Irom them any
unquestionable regularities, yet we should agree with the opinion that the countries with
the lowest degree oI democratization were most eIIective in counteracting the consequences
oI the Iinancial crisis which aIIected the Asian countries, and the only country which
managed to completely avoid the crisis was the authoritarian China.
Any generalization oI the system-based determinants oI economy would be
asimpliIication oI the problem. We should agree with the opinion expressed in the Asian
countries that Iinancial crises can be provoked and caused Ior competitive and rivalry-
based reasons, with crushing consequences, and regardless oI the system-based conditions.
This is because economic globalization involves rivalry Ior a position in the world economy,
either in its center or on its peripheries. On the other hand, inside the state entities there is
also striIe Ior power, involving overt or hidden endeavors to bring about a crisis oI the
political and economic system. Such intentions can also be Iacilitated by the country`s
economic position, being a test Ior the robustness oI that system.
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Oneiric Themes and Conventions in Gao Xingjian`s Dramas 47
ACTA ASIATICA
VARSOVIENSIA
No. 20, 2007
PL ISSN 08606102
IZABELLA LABJDZKA
Oneiric Themes and Conventions in Gao Xingjian`s
Dramas
The Other Shore of Cognition
The Other Shore (Bian, 1986) continues the discourse on the art oI acting, and also
documents another stage in the Iormation oI Gao Xingjian`s (1940) idea oI theatre and oI
his concept oI the modern art oI acting. The playwright admits that he wrote this work with
actors in mind and the chance to test new possibilities in acting by combining certain
techniques oI the Beijing opera and the Western style oI acting. In an interview in 1987,
Gao conIirmed that while writing the play he Iocused on creating a versatile actor (quanneng
de vanvuan), shaped in opposition to the existing model oI acting which cultivates the art
oI word.
1
The stage directions which Gao habitually attaches to the texts oI his plays Iully
disclose the intention oI the playwright who aims at liberating the theatre Irom the dictates
oI language and restoring perIormative qualities oI the drama. In order to achieve this, it is
necessary to educate a new type oI actor, who should be able to act in the classic Western
repertoire and to sing, who should know martial arts and the stylized gesture oI the traditional
Chinese theatre and be acquainted also with the art oI mime and musical. 'Our play, writes
Gao, 'aims at training actors who can be as versatile as the actors in Chinese traditional
operas, but it is not our intention to create a new set oI conventions Ior modern drama,
because the latter aspires to the kind oI acting which is non-Iormulaic, unregulated, and
Ilexible. BeIore the actual perIormance, the actor should enter into a state oI competitiveness
similar to that oI an athlete beIore a game, or a cock preparing to slug it out in a cock-Iight,
ready to provoke as well as to receive his partner`s reactions. Thus the perIormance must
be Iresh, regenerating, and improvisational, which is essentially diIIerent Irom gymnastic
or musical perIormances.
2
In his stage directions, Gao also emphasizes that the selI-exploration oI an actor who
discovers himselI occurs in the course oI the process oI entering reciprocal relations with
the partners on stage. 'II the actor, says Gao, 'without being obsessed with his own selI,
1
Gao Xingjian, 'Jinghua yetan (Night talks in Beijing), in Gao Xingjian, Dui vi:hong xiandai
xifu de :huiqiu (In search oI modern theatre), Beijing: Zhongguo Xiju Chubanshe, 1988, p. 215.
2
Gao Xingjian, 'Some Suggestions on Producing The Other Shore, in Gao Xingjian, The Other
Shore. Plavs bv Gao Xingfian, trans. by Gilbert C.F. Fong, Hong Kong: The Chinese University
Press, 2000, p. 44.
48 IZABELLA LABJDZKA
is consistently able to Iind a partner to communicate with him, his perIormance will always
be positive and lively, and he will be able to gain a real sense oI his own selI, which has
been awakened by action, and which is alert and capable oI selI-observation.
3
The liveliness
oI the show is determined by the intensity oI the intuitive and improvised element. Gao
prioritizes the intuition and physicality oI an actor over a logical, analytical approach to the
part. He also says: 'On the stage as in real liIe, the actor sees with his eyes, hears with his
ears, and captures his partner`s reactions with his Iree-moving body. In other words,
aperIormance can only be lively without the use oI intellect.
4
In The Other Shore stage props perIorm a particularly important Iunction in establishing
interpersonal relations. The play requires no setting. In tune with Gao`s suggestions, it can
be acted anywhere: in a theatre, rehearsal room, circus tent, gym hall or in any empty space
iI it can accommodate an appropriate lighting and sound system. This empty space in
asense Iollowing the example oI the Beijing opera burdens the actor and the stage props,
brought to liIe by the physical activities oI the actor, with the task oI creating imagined
worlds. The stage prop is not just a liIeless item or decoration, but a partner to the actor
and a catalyser oI his activity on stage, a support Ior the imagination oI actors and their
audience.
Gilbert C.F. Fong is right when he Iocuses our attention on the concept oI neutral actor
present in the play, although naturally one may argue against his statement that 'the play is
also the Iirst piece oI work by the playwright embodying his idea oI the neutral actor.
5
Monologue (Dubai, 1985) and even The Bus Stop (Che:han, 1983) seem to prove just the
opposite.
6
However, it is true that this concept, in the Iorm oI in-depth theoretical
considerations seems to have been crystallized in the second, and not in the Iirst halI oI the
1980s. Fong quotes a Iragment oI the commentary by Gao Xingjian provided aIter The
Other Shore was staged by the Hong Kong Academy Ior PerIorming Arts (1995) concerning
the initial episode oI the play in which actors who play with ropes cross to the imagined
other side and begin to act the part oI the Crowd: 'AIter the rigorous movements oI
playing with the ropes and rapidly exchanging partners, the actors relax their bodies and lie
on the Iloor to listen to the music. As they let the music evoke their Ieelings, their bodies
are not motivated by ideas. This is a process oI selI-purgation.
7
In the course oI this
process, the actors seem to Iorget about themselves and enter the stage oI conscious
development oI the part. CareIul observation oI their own bodies and listening to their own
voices allows them to enter the parts Ireely.
8
ReIlections related to the concept oI neutral
actor lead to the introduction oI the part oI the Shadow. Gao explains the dramatic Iunction
oI this character in the Iollowing manner: '(.) I am not making the Shadow an imitator oI
3
Ibid., p. 43.
4
Ibidem.
5
Gilbert C.F. Fong, 'Introduction, in Gao Xingjian, The Other Shore. Plavs bv Gao Xingfian,
p.29.
6
See Chapter II and Chapter IV.
7
Gao Xingjian, 'Bian daoyan houji (Written aIter directing The Other Shore), quoted aIter
Gilbert C. F. Fong, 'Introduction, p. 29.
8
Gao Xingjian, 'Bian daoyan houji (Written aIter directing The Other Shore), in Gao Xingjian,
Meivou :huvi, Xianggang: Cosmos Books Ltd., 1996, p. 225.
the Man, but I allow the actor perIorming the part oI the Shadow to retain all the time the
status oI the neutral actor, who observes, evaluates and ridicules the Man.
9
The distanced
and critical Shadow who at times resorts to irony or plain ridicule, serves as a contrast to
the Man. In spite oI the Iact that the Man belongs to the order oI reality, while the Shadow
to the order oI Iiction, the presence oI the Shadow makes it possible to question the rules
oI reality and to strip them oI their apparent, obvious quality, ascribed to the human world
by logic and common sense. Irony prevents us Irom sentimentalism, which is not desirable
in the circumstances, and again proves to be Iully reliable when critical distance is needed.
The Other Shore is still another proposal oI Gao, aiming at the departure Irom the
traditional approach to the categories oI the characters and the plot. The playwright has
called his work a contemporary poetical drama
10
or just plainly calls it a poem.
11
By this,
he does not mean a stereotypical understanding oI the lyrical, but rather the creation oI
poetical quality through images built oI verbal matter.
12
Gao would like to reinstate this
aIIinity oI theatre and poetry, characteristic oI numerous theatrical styles and trends,
starting Irom ancient Greece and ending with the symbolists, and so painIully absent in
the theatre oI today. However, he is aware that such reinstatement requires a radical
renewal oI language and the art oI acting.
13
He says that he wrote the play intending to
create a 'pure drama, Iollowing the example oI 'pure music: 'The Other Shore is
diIIerent Irom conventional drama. One oI the diIIerences is that the play does not
attempt to put together a coherent plot. I only intend it to be a revelation, to portray
some oI liIe`s experiences and Ieelings in a pure dramatic Iorm, i.e., in the same way that
music is pure.
14
It would not be unjustiIied to describe The Other Shore as a series oI
poetical images. The plot, in the traditional sense oI the word, is replaced in the play by
a well-thought-out system oI images, careIully arranged visually and acoustically.
Individual images resemble ideograms in the theatrical space, as they are equipped with
physical shape and sound. One may analyze them as individual units oI meaning, but
they also Iorm longer and more complex sequences oI meanings. Their combination and
interpretation depends only on the invention oI the interpreter. The author`s play with
the imagination oI actors and the audience results in creating numerous potential
meanings in place oI a single, Iinal point. In this context, Fong`s words seem to carry
awarning when he says that 'we are treading on dangerous ground in attempting to
interpret the unity and the meaning oI the play.
15
However, it is tempting and necessary to seek the principles oI coherence present in The
Other Shore. The author is again providing certain hints: the structuring oI images into
larger sequences has to be subject to the rules governing the theatre, where key concepts
are the action (dong:uo) or process (guocheng) and resulting ideas oI contrast (duibi),
9
Ibid., p. 226.
10
Ibid., p. 225.
11
Gao Xingjian, 'Jinghua yetan, p. 226.
12
Ibid., p. 227.
13
Ibid., p. 228.
14
Gao Xingjian, 'Guanyu Bian (About The Other Shore), quoted aIter Gao Xingjian, The
Other Shore. Plavs bv Gao Xingfian, p. 27 (Gilbert C.F. Fong, 'Introduction).
15
Gilbert C.F. Fong, 'Introduction, p. 29.
discovery (faxian), metamorphosis (bianhua) and wonderment (fingqi).
16
The play, says
Gao, is a presentation oI a process (guocheng). The concept oI a process is Iundamental in
Gao Xingjian`s aesthetics, as it is a quality ascribed not only to a theatrical play, but also to
reality. The characteristic oI unceasing metamorphosis is immanent Ior both; they are not
characterized by states and permanent Iorms, but by never ending dynamic transIormations.
'The theatre oI today has rediscovered the Iact that process is the theatre. Action always
maniIests itselI as a process. Events and internal experiences or emotional changes are all
characterized as processes; thereIore, it is enough to present actions oI the characters and
the process oI their psychological or emotional metamorphosis to bring theatre into
existence.
17
The approach oI treating theatre as a process aIIects the structure oI the
dramatic work, which remains purposeIully 'ajar. The discussed play, along with some
other works by Gao, lacks an ending or has an ambiguous ending. This allows the playwright
to resist the convention which demands that a Iinished work should be presented.
Completion oI the whole is a task leIt Ior the audience or readers. ThereIore, the number oI
proposed endings can equal the number oI spectators or readers. It is not without reason
that Gao, discussing theatre as a process, reIers to the theatrical concepts oI Tadeusz
Kantor
18
who, in his 'Ideas oI Cricot 2 Theatre. Revindications discusses a work oI art
which ceased to be an object Ior viewing and became a process.
19
Kantor also emphasizes
that: 'Cricot 2 Theatre restored the rules oI strong metamorphosis in acting which are oI
capital importance Ior theatre; while building the spectacle and the acting part it used
poetical metaphor and distant associations.
20
It is worth mentioning that in 1985 Gao
Xingjian saw in Paris Let the Artists Die perIormed by Kantor`s theatre; he reIers to this
perIormance when discussing the process and action.
21
I do not intend to determine here to what extent Kantor`s theatrical concepts aIIected
Gao Xingjian; my aim is rather to point out the similarities in the direction oI their thinking
16
Gao Xingjian, 'Jinghua yetan, p. 227, see also Gao Xingjian, 'Wo de xijuguan (My idea oI
a theatre) and Gao Xingjian 'Yao shenmeyang de xiju (What kind oI theatre do we need?) in Gao
Xingjian, Dui vi:hong xiandai xifu de :huiqiu, 49, 64.
17
Gao Xingjian, 'Juchangxing (Theatricality), in Gao Xingjian, Dui vi:hong xiandai xifu de
:huiqiu, p. 20.
18
Ibid., p. 20. Tadeusz Kantor (19151990), Polish scene designer, director and visual artist;
graduated Irom the Cracow Academy oI Fine Arts in 1939. 'DissatisIied with institutionalized
avant-garde he organized his own theatre in 1956 with the group oI visual artists, calling it Cricot 2,
to mark the continuity with the painters` theatre Cricot Irom the 1930s. In the 1960s Kantor
produced happenings, exhibited widely, and traveled with his company, creating an autonomous
theatre in which actors are used as props and manikins, and the text |.| exists as an object on a par
with other components oI the production. In the 1970s he developed The Theatre oI Death`, where
time, memory and the interpenetration oI liIe and death hold sway, and Kantor himselI appears as
amaster oI ceremonies at the seance. |Daniel Gerould, 'Tadeusz Kantor, in Martin Banham, ed.,
The Cambridge Guide to horld Theatre, Cambridge, New York, New Rochelle, Melbourne, Sydney:
Cambridge University Press, 1988, p. 540.|
19
Tadeusz Kantor, 'Idee Teatru Cricot 2. Rewindykacje, in Tadeusz Kantor, Teatr Smierci.
Tekstv : lat 19751984 (Theatre oI Death. Texts written in 19751984), KrzysztoI Plesniarowicz,
ed., Wroclaw: Ossolineum, 2004, p. 429.
20
Ibid., p. 428.
21
about this art. Both Gao and Kantor are painters convinced that the visual in theatre
consists in the minimalism oI the means and not in the richness oI setting and costumes.
Kantor writes: 'I am sure that greatness lies in the restriction oI means. I think that the main
element in the theatre is action, which expresses the whole emotion which I wish to convey
to the spectator |.| The most important element is the actor, who brings in all his past and
individuality and develops his own plot`.
22
Gao presents the Iollowing project oI theatrical
renewal: 'I would like to restore this original simple action on the stage oI a modern theatre
|.|.
23
Providing a more detailed deIinition oI his idea oI the Modern Eastern Theatre, he
says that such theatre 'Iollowing the model oI the traditional music drama, Ireely presents
time and place on the empty stage, being based only on the acting.
24
There are many other
similarities oI this type, such as the approach oI both artists to the stage prop enlivened by
acting and to mannequins who carry the message oI Death, or even to imagination, which
is seen by both as the key Iactor in art, and to unceasing oscillation between illusion and
reality, which is the very essence oI the art oI theatre; another common area is their struggles
with memory and inevitable departures. Both Kantor and Gao see the theatre 'as a Iord on
the river (he must have meant the Styx) which the dead (according to him, all characters in
written plays are |the| DEAD) cross, coming Irom the other side to the one where we are.
25
The Other Shore presents the process oI getting Irom one shore to the other, Irom this
world to the other one. The 'other shore in the title is not an unambiguous concept, as it
reIers, among other things, to Buddhism and to the concept oI paramita or 'the thing
which reaches the other shore. Paramita interpreted as 'perIection means virtues such
as generosity, modesty, patience, eIIort, meditation and wisdom cultivated to perIection,
which Iinally leads to Ireeing oneselI oI the desire oI possession, to the annihilation oI
passion, to understanding the reason Ior all things, to liberating oneselI Irom the prison oI
'selI and to experiencing the live bond with other beings.
26
In the drama, a group oI
persons crosses the river which seems to separate the world oI the living Irom the world oI
the dead; the characters cross the dead water, the water oI oblivion, aiming towards a place
oI no return, the land oI darkness. Perhaps they wish to check whether it is possible to
break Iree Irom the torments oI this world.
The story is constructed oI a number oI independent images - symbols, bonded by the
character oI Man who appears in the images in his various impersonations: oI a Young
Man, Shadow and abstract Heart. These diIIerent impersonations reIer to various stages
oI human existence: youth, maturity and old age. They are also records oI a process oI
22
Tadeusz Kantor, 'Moja droga do Teatru Smierci (My Path to the Theatre oI Death), in
Tadeusz Kantor, Teatr Smierci, Tekstv : lat 19751984, p. 465.
23
Gao Xingjian , 'Jinghua yetan, p. 161162.
24
Gao Xingjian, 'Xiqu buyao gaige yu yao gaige (The pros and cons oI the reIorm oI traditional
music drama), in Gao Xingjian, Dui vi:hong xiandai xifu de :huiqiu, p. 74.
25
Tadeusz Kantor, 'Mowic o sobie w trzeciej osobie (To talk about oneselI in the third
person), in Tadeusz Kantor, Teatr Smierci. Tekstv : lat 19751984, p. 437.
26
See 'Paramita, in Encvklopedia mdrosci hschodu (original title: Lexikon der stlichen
Weisheitslehren), eds. Stephan Schuhmacher, Gert Woerner, trans. Irom German by Mieczyslaw
J.Knstler, Warszawa: Warszawski Dom Wydawniczy, 1997, p. 252. See also Gilbert C.F. Fong,
'Introduction, p. 27.
achieving knowledge oI oneselI. Gao Xingjian also uses there another characteristic
dramatic principle the contrast (duibi). One is liberated Irom the illusion in the process oI
constant conIrontation oI the Man with others, who are the Crowd, the Card Player, the
Father, the Mother, the Young Girl and the Mannequins. Each oI the scenes/images is
aseparate study oI the Man, struggling helplessly against restrictions enIorced by others,
powerless against the rule oI language and manipulators oI various types juggling with
words, and also oI objects which set themselves Iree Irom the human rule and begin to live
their own, dangerous lives. Succesive episodes disclose various mechanisms oI
manipulation, including the opening scene which involves actors beIore they take on their
parts. This scene shows how easy it is to turn an innocent, childish rope game into
adangerous game oI the adults, which leads to enslaving some beings by others:
Actor playing with ropes: |.|
Now I want all oI you to hold on to one end oI your rope and give me the other end.
This way you`ll be able to establish all kinds oI relationships with me, some tense,
some lax, some distant, and some close, and soon your individual attitudes will
have a strong impact on me. Society is complex and ever-changing, we`re constantly
pulling and being pulled. (Pauses.) Just like a Ily that`s Iallen into a spider`s web.
(Pauses.) Or just like a spider. (Pauses.) The rope is like our hands. (He lets go one
rope and his partner also lets go. The rope falls on the ground.) Or like an extended
antenna. (He lets go another and his partner follows.) Or like the language we use,
Ior instance when we say 'Good Morning! or 'How are you! (Another rope falls
to the ground.) Or perhaps it`s like looking at each other, (Replaces another rope.)
or like the thoughts in our minds.
27
The merciless mechanism oI manipulation and enslavement oI man involves, most oI all,
the language. This discloses the ambivalent character oI language. On the one hand, the
knowledge oI language allows the mute group remaining on the 'other shore to regain
human identity, to divide things into categories and to name them. On the other hand, it
shows how Iaint the boundary between good and the evil is, how close hate is to love and
how near beauty is to ugliness and crime. One can turn into the other just in a Ilash, in the
brieIest moment when one pronounces a word. And the word, depending on who pronounces
it, can have the power to destroy or to create. The scene with the Card Player discloses the
mechanism, common in social circumstances, oI enslaving the innocent community by
acunning player who uses relatively primitive but eIIective methods: marked cards, smooth
words, pretended soIt persuasion or just the opposite brutal intimidation. The sequences
which Iollow are a speciIic study oI the mob and an individual conIronted by it, trying to
save his/her distinctiveness, uniqueness, sense oI criticism and resulting Ireedom. In spite
oI attempts to resist and to retain common judgement, the Man suIIers a deIeat and the
Crowd perIorms a horriIying dance oI triumph over him. The peculiar relations between the
Young Man and the Father and the Young Man and the Young Girl are yet another prooI oI
27
Gao Xingjian, 'The Other Shore, in Gao Xingjian, The Other Shore. Plavs bv Gao Xingfian,
p. 4.
Iailure. Language seems to Iail also as a tool used to establish close and durable contacts
with one`s Iamily. The Other Shore, as Henry Y. H. Zhao rightly noted, 'inveighs against
any eIIort oI collective discourse which, the play shows, can only lead to tyranny. Ultimately,
the other shore is unreachable because human beings have to use language to Iorm
relationships, and are thus predestined to destroy individual thinking, because language
has to be based on socially-accepted codes. In other words, to associate with other people
is to associate with coercion, violence, and degeneration.
28
As others are invariably the source oI disillusionment or torment, the only chance to
create reality in tune with some pre-developed concept is to resort to the world oI mannequins.
The Man enters that world and tries to organize it as iI he were a demiurge. He puts them
together, arranges, rearranges them and communicates with them in acharacteristic language
oI shouts. Finally they slip away Irom his rule and begin to live their own, dangerous lives
and leave the exhausted, powerless Man, unable to rule his own creation. The Man, who
tried to get Iree oI mechanisms oI violence, created another such mechanism himselI, using
objects which seemed to be liIeless, and in addition, he had to accept its superiority.
Paradoxically enough, it proved that objects had more independence than a human being.
When Gao was writing The Other Shore, and also at the beginning oI the 1990s, the
playwright seemed to be Iascinated by mannequins, by the new prospects Ior using stage
props in the theatre, by partial reiIication oI a live actor on stage; this is conIirmed also by
Iragments oI Between Life and Death and Dialogue and Rebuttal. It might have been
inspired by Gao Xingjian`s contact with Kantor`s theatre, with the latter`s bio-objects and
reIlections on mannequins, which seems to be conIirmed by numerous reIerences which
Gao made at that time to the Polish artist.
29
Kantor wrote: 'An actor achieves his ultimate
perIection in acting by means oI a mannequin. This is my credo. I do not mean actors
imitating automatons; this is very easy and actors do not do it. But the extremely perIidious
involvement oI mannequins into the play which is progressing there creates an atmosphere
necessary Ior the acceptance oI death. Yes the acceptance oI death!
30
A mannequin
made in the likeness oI man, although devoid oI liIe and consciousness, was perceived by
Kantor '(.) as a maniIestation oI this Dark, Nightly, Rebellious side oI human activity.
Crime and the Trace oI Death as the source oI knowledge,
31
and also the ideal Iigure oI
theatre. He also wrote: 'Its |the mannequin`s| appearance agrees with my growing conviction
that l i I e may be expressed in art only by the l a c k o I l i I e , by reIerring to DEATH, by
PRETENCES, by EMPTINESS and lack oI MESSAGE. The MANNEQUIN in my theatre is
to become a MODEL which conveys a strong sense oI DEATH and the condition oI the
Dead. It is to be a model Ior the Live ACTOR.
32
28
Henry Y. H. Zhao, Towards a Modern Zen Theatre. Gao Xingfian and Chinese Theatre
Experimentation, London: School oI Oriental And AIrican Studies, 2000, p. 131.
29
See especially Gao Xingjian, 'Wo de xiju he wo de yaoshi (My theatre and my key), in Gao
Xingjian, Meivou :huvi, pp. 235252. This text was written in 1991.
30
Tadeusz Kantor, 'Moja droga do Teatru Smierci, in Tadeusz Kantor, Teatr Smierci. Tekstv
:lat 19751984 p. 464.
31
Tadeusz Kantor, 'Teatr Smierci (Theatre oI Death), in Tadeusz Kantor, Teatr Smierci. Tekstv
: lat 19751984, p. 18.
32
Ibidem.
Journey to the 'other shore does not lead to a discovery oI a new, better world with
aIairer and wiser order. The other world is made in the likeness oI this shore, with all its
suIIering and imperIections. The end oI this quest in vain could be just death, but
paradoxically enough, it is not certain whether death can end anything. The characters
have crossed dead waters only to see that neither the torment oI their quest, nor violence,
nor attempts to enslave others come to an end at the other shore. However, this quest, like
any other journey within oneselI, Iinally leads to wisdom - to the identiIication oI one`s
limitations and to recognizing that the hardships oI the quest have been in vain. At the
same time, we begin to suspect that things which are really meaningIul are always hidden
beyond the pronounced words. The audience is reminded about it by the Monk, who
serves as still another contrast to the Man and his world built oI tiny Iragments oI the past,
blurred particles oI memory, tormenting recollections and random Iragments oI the present
combined into a dreadIul inIerno which we Ieel in the presence oI others. The Monk
symbolizes the type oI knowledge which is well owned, secure and opposite to things Ior
which we search, although they still seem volatile and out oI reach. Gao Xingjian has oIten
explained his understanding oI Zen in his theoretical works and in interviews. He sees Zen
as one oI the pillars oI the spiritual culture oI China, and also as a way to understand the
world and man, in addition to being a belieI.
33
In The Other Shore, Gao treats the Monk not
only as a character, but also as an eIIort to break Iree Irom the torments oI human existence,
in tune with his own understanding oI Zen, or a method oI selI-cognition and oI seeking
equilibrium in relationships with the world at large. One may liberate oneselI Irom the
burdens oI everyday liIe also by stepping outside the 'selI.
34
The reIerence to Zen is also
a sign oI turning towards intuition and trusting the things which are natural and
unconstrained.
The playwright suggests that actors, while working on the perIormance, should avoid
any reliance on things which are within the sphere oI rationality; instead, they should trust
their imagination. 'Even though our play is abstract, the perIormance should not aim at
sheer conceptualization in the stark Iashion oI the play oI ideas. Our aspiration is to
achieve a kind oI emotive abstraction through perIormance, i.e., a non-philosophical
abstraction. The play seeks to set up the perIormance on the premise oI non-reality, and to
Iully mobilize the imagination oI the actors beIore evoking abstraction through emotion.
35
The quoted Iragment helps to understand the special privileged position given by Gao to
dreams and oneiric poetics. The dreams as Olga Tokarczuk, a Polish contemporary prose
writer, said embarrass the rational mind.
36
Things which are abstract, symbolic and unreal
in the play, are rooted in the hard soil oI reality; yet this reality is subjected to the procedure
oI alienation. This complies with the rules oI dreams, because: 'The basic convention oI
adream is by no means the grotesque, but just its opposite the naturalness oI things
which are most queer and derive Irom various spheres oI reality or the psyche. The dream
33
34
Ibid., p. 196197.
35
Gao Xingjian,Some Suggestions on Producing The Other Shore, in Gao Xingjian, The Other
Shore. Plavs bv Gao Xingfian, p. 42.
36
'Czas Olgi (Olga`s time), Anna Sobolewska`s conversation with Olga Tokarczuk, Zvcie 1997,
no. 214, p. 10.
does not use a surrealistic shock, but creates the sense oI obviousness oI all things
absurd.
37
Scenes Irom the 'other shore present an image oI the world which seems to be
well known, but which at the same time slips away Irom the commonsense cognition. There
are many ways to alienate it and to set it at a distance, in order to be able to see it Irom
adiIIerent perspective. One oI such techniques is to use the Iramework structure which is
among typical metadramatic techniques. The Iramework is constructed oI initial scenes
beIore actors take up their parts, and oI Iinal scenes when they return to their acting
identities and random phrases Irom everyday conversations are interspersed with sounds
oI a child`s cry and a car engine starting. The Iinal words: 'It`s so bad, what kind oI stupid
play is this anyway?,
38
leave no doubt that everybody is already on 'this shore.
The 'other shore is governed by a diIIerent set oI rules. Its language is similar to ours
but diIIerent in its essence, because in addition to elegant and Iluent dialogues, it is Iull oI
unIinished sentences torn out oI their context, marked by strange syntax, or sentences
which are correct grammatically but astonishing or absurd as Iar as their sense goes; what
is more, they neighbour with some other sentences which we begin to inspect in greater
detail and discover, under their banal appearance, a deeper sense which has been
camouIlaged on purpose. The Other Shore is a text oI diverse linguistic structure, both
with respect to style and to sound. An everyday conversation is set beside a poetic
monologue, and a monologue can be orchestrated into a number oI voices such as in the
scene Ieaturing the Man and the Shadow and possess characteristics oI an automatic
record which registers thoughts in the shape and order oI their development in the mind,
that is, as a series oI unIinished thoughts which are not coherent but Iree Irom the bonds
oI logic. It can also be the language oI holy books, diIIicult and incomprehensible Ior lay
people, rich in symbols, metaphors and reIerences to things which are alien to the audience/
reader. In addition, lack oI language can serve as language, just as can the silence in the
scene with mannequins, slowly Iilled in with inarticulate sounds, cries, sighs and murmurs.
Gao Xingjian aims at expanding the expressive potential oI language and going Iar beyond
the composition oI skilIul dialogues. His primary aim is to restore to language the Iullness
oI its sound value. 'In this play, says Gao in his remarks on staging The Other Shore, 'all
the sounds uttered by the actor in the prescribed circumstances are also voiced language.
II an actor has learned to communicate using Iragmented language which Ieatures unIinished
sentences, disjointed phonetic elements, and ungrammatical constructions, he will be better
able to make the unspoken words in the script come to liIe as voiced language.
39
An ideal
perIormance should aim at a perIect balance oI the visual values related to the physicality
oI the actor and the movement oI his body in space with the acoustic values oI language.
Gao warns against separating language Irom movement, both during rehearsals and
perIormances.
40
37
Anna Sobolewska, 'Jak sen jest zrobiony? Poetycka materia snu (How is a dream made?
Poetical substance oI dreams), in eds. Ilona Glatzel, Jerzy Smulski, Anna Sobolewska, Onirvc:ne
tematv i konwencfe w literatur:e polskief XX wieku (Oneiric themes and conventions in Polish literature
oI the 20th century), Torun: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Mikolaja Kopernika, 1999, p. 21.
38
Gao Xingjian, 'The Other Shore, p. 41.
39
Gao Xingjian, 'Some Suggestions on Producing The Other Shore, p. 44.
40
Ibid., p. 42.
Language is placed in a diametrically diIIerent position when it serves as an 'advertising
tool in the scene with the 'Dogskin Plaster Seller and as a method oI mastering the minds
oI other people (in the scene with the Card Player). In such circumstances, language may turn
into Iunny prattle, more or less sophisticated persuasion, a terrorism oI words which begin to
stick around man, to choke him, shout him down and Iinally, dominate him. However, each
time again language exposes its own imperIection and unreliability. It proves useless whenever
one seeks the essence oI things, the sense oI existence, the true value. Nevertheless, getting
rid oI language is not a solution, either. Once again, the ambivalent nature oI language is
displayed; it is useless, but we have nothing else.
Scattered Identity
The Other Shore, Between Life and Death (Shengsifie, 1991) and Nocturnal handerer
(Yevoushen, 1993) are invitations to enter a dream permeated with magic, mystery and
horror. They study the dark and IearIul side oI man`s internal world and the world outside,
which surrounds him, or rather is created by him in the oneiric convention. The plays are
Iocused on boundary states and situations located in the intangible realm between liIe and
death, reality and illusion. Reality is in these plays just a starting point, or a point oI
transition to the sphere beyond reality, hidden behind the realistic Iaade. According to
the playwright`s intentions, these plays aim at catching the internal psychical experience
in all its nakedness, with no redundant ornaments, in order to see the man in Iull, in his
human dimension.
41
An attempt to understand such a dream is also an attempt to understand
oneselI, in the hope oI acquiring knowledge slightly broader than individual one, as the
dreams record universal experiences common to the whole mankind.
42
However, 'dreaming
as Milan Kundera says in The Unbearable Lightness of Being 'is not merely an act oI
communication (or coded communication, iI you like); it is also an aesthetic activity, agame
oI imagination, a game that is a value in itselI.
43
The aesthetic rules oI this game result Irom redeIinition oI the concept oI dramatic plot
and character. The key to the interpretation oI these plays could be the concept oI
metamorphosis in the sense described by Hans-Thies Lehmann, Ior whom the heart oI acting
is certainly not the transIer oI meanings, but rather the archaic Iear and pleasure derived Irom
the play, Irom the metamorphosis as such. The pleasure derived Irom hiding oneselI under
amask is paired with some other, equally strange pleasure; the looks cast Irom under a mask
see the world transposed, totally strange, seen at an angle yet unknown. Whoever looks at
the world through narrow slits in the mask, acquires the perspective oI an animal, a camera,
a being unknown to himselI and to the very world. The theatre is a metamorphosis, a change
in all its aspects. ThereIore, one has to take into account a hint given by anthropologists oI
theatre, who say that every known model oI plot hides a more basic structure oI
metamorphosis. This explains the Iact that the Iarewell paid to the 'mimesis oI plot does not
by any means signiIy the end oI the theatre. Focusing on the processes oI metamorphosis
41
Gao Xingjian, 'Ling yizhong xiju (Another kind oI drama), in Gao Xingjian, Meivou :huvi,
p.191.
42
Anna Sobolewska, 'Jak sen jest zrobiony? Poetycka materia snu, p. 11.
43
Milan Kundera, The Unbearable Lightness of Being, trans. by Michael Henry Heim, New
York: Perennial Classics, 1999, p. 59.
emphasizes the existence oI a diIIerent principle oI credibility, in which the recognition is
continually interrupted by a play oI surprises, not rooted in any order oI probability.
44
Gao
Xingjian is Iascinated not only by the technical and aesthetic dimension oI the
metamorphosis oI an actor into a character, oI a character into an object, oI reality into
illusion which are issues oI Iundamental signiIicance Ior his idea oI theatre but also by
the ethical aspect oI the transIormation oI good into evil, beauty into ugliness, love into
hate and, Iinally, by this ultimate and irreversible metamorphosis: liIe turning into death.
Shengsifie is a story about dying in the literal and metaphorical sense: about the aging oI
the body which turns into its reiIication, about the impoverishment oI the emotional sphere
and the progressive degradation oI Ieelings, about the withering oI the spiritual bond with
others and the coexistence with others which irrevocably turns into the dreaded loneliness.
The non-realistic tendency in Between Life and Death is suggested in the author`s
stage directions. The search Ior a modern Iorm oI perIormance is achieved by returning to
the concept oI the traditional Chinese theatre. However, the point is not to intercept selected
ideas and techniques oI that theatre, but rather to use the general idea oI that art, which in
its essence does not aim to develop on stage a simulacrum oI the real world, but to
emphasize the theatricality, playing and pretending. The bond with the traditional theatre
is underlined by the coexistence oI tragic and comic elements in the play, and by using
elements oI acrobatics, mime show, dance and almost magical eIIects.
45
Acting, setting and
language oI the play are liberated Irom the restrictions oI realistic convention and the
excess oI reality. The empty stage hosts but a Iew stage props, which acquire symbolic
signiIicance in the process oI acting perIormed by the Woman, who grinds out her long
monologue. The key stage props are male clothes, a house oI building blocks, a mannequin,
and a jewellery box. The murdered husband turns into a heap oI Iolded clothes, a house oI
building blocks triggers a series oI recollections related to the home oI childhood and
Iragments oI the mannequin symbolize physical and mental disintegration oI a person; the
jewel box turns into a sarcophagus into which the Woman deposits, together with her
jewellery, all her past and womanhood.
Between Life and Death is a detailed study oI the human psyche, examined in relations
with the husband, parents, strangers and in reactions to loneliness, rejection, betrayal,
aging and death. It is an analysis oI identity, oI the essence oI 'selI, its boundaries and
the potential oI cognition. The Woman asks:
Is this about him, about you, about me, about her who is that girl, about her but not
her, not about you, not about me, and not about you or all oI you, just as what you all
see is not her, not me, and not you, it`s merely the selI, but the me you all see is not me,
not her, it`s only that so-called selI looking at her, what more can you or I say?
46
44
Hans-Thies Lehmann, Teatr postdramatvc:nv (original title: Postdramatisches Theater), trans.
Irom German by Dorota Sajewska, Malgorzata Sugiera, Krakow: Ksigarnia Akademicka, 2004,
p.117.
45
Gao Xingjian 'Some Suggestions on Producing Between Life and Death, in Gao Xingjian, The
Other Shore. Plavs bv Gao Xingfian, p. 80.
46
Gao Xingjian, 'Between LiIe and Death, in Gao Xingjian, The Other Shore. Plavs bv Gao
Xingfian, p. 78.
Let us add that no direct answer to this question has been given, and it seems that it
cannot be given at all.
The monologue-like structure oI the drama allows Gao to use the technique oI the
stream oI consciousness and as the playwright describes it the technique oI the stream
oI language (vuvanliu). The stream oI consciousness, used successIully by writers
representing various literary traditions and languages is, according to Gao, one oI narrative
methods which proved to be particularly useIul in modern times. It was inspired by research
and eIIorts oI modern psychology. The shiIt oI the Iocus Irom the exploration oI objective
rules oI the external world to learning the internal world oI man, along with the discovery
that the inner world is not governed by simple rules oI logic and that it is a meeting place
Ior the consciousness and subconsciousness, thoughts, Ieelings, desires and memories,
was reIlected in the narrative prose which gradually took more interest in the hidden, dark
inside and in the external world seen Irom the perspective oI a character.
The point oI departure Ior the stream oI consciousness is the concrete perception
oI the selI` oI a character. II an author is able to capture authentic perceptions oI
the described character, it will not be diIIicult to Ieel its pulse. This type oI language
is particularly attractive, it can encourage the reader to explore the internal
experiences oI the character. ThereIore one may say that the stream oI
consciousness is a kind oI artistic language which leads the reader to the experience
oI selI`.
This kind oI narrative language does not care about the sequence oI time, it can
combine recollections and reality, the past and the imagination. Naturally enough, it
is also able to break any established constraints oI space. A single chapter or even
paragraph can be an intertwining oI illusion, dream and reality.
47
Such a narrative method has the advantage oI Iocusing on the presentation oI the inner
experience oI a character and at the same time, it provides an image oI the external world,
which is always perceived by the mind and senses oI a character. The method slips away
Irom the rules oI rationalism and logic; it is more interested in the thinking and perceptive
processes as such. In order to deIine the stream oI consciousness in a more precise way,
Gao resorts to a metaphor derived Irom painting. The stream oI consciousness is not in any
way similar to classic Chinese ink painting based on precise lines; it rather resembles the
technique oI Western oil painting which uses colour spots that turn into a discernible
contour only when seen Irom a distance.
48
The combination oI planes so divergent as reality and illusion, recollection and dream
within the stream oI consciousness means an intermingling oI the past, present and Iuture,
as well as the coexistence oI diIIerent spaces. Breaking the limits oI time and space results
in the need to Iind new Iorms oI expression Ior the incessant interchange oI places and
moments. Certain solutions with regard to narration are also provided by Iilm. Some oI its
techniques can be translated into an appropriate narrative style. It is quite an interesting
47
Gao Xingjian, 'Tan xiaoshuoguan yu xiaoshuo jiqiao (On the idea oI Iiction and writing
technique), Zhongshan, 1982, no. 6, p. 238239.
48
Ibid., p. 238.
idea to replace the changing speed oI images, typical oI Iilm, with literary changes in the
rhythm oI sentences, where short sentences are to accelerate the speed, and long sentences
to reduce it. Complex psychological processes are reIlected by images and rhythm oI the
narrative language. The nature oI images can be diversiIied. Some may provide objective
depictions oI the external liIe, others can be subjective creations oI the psyche. A writer is
Iully authorized to combine the perspective oI the narrator with the perspective oI the
character, the objective reporting with subjective perception. He may disturb the traditional
time and space relationships and create new ones, Ior the purpose oI a speciIic work.
49
The
margin oI writer`s Ireedom has expanded considerably, but the search Ior new means oI
expression is not an aim in itselI. According to Gao, the Iormal aspect oI a work is the
external maniIestation oI its subject matter.
In Between Life and Death, the reality is seen and analyzed Irom the point oI view oI the
Woman who does the talking. However, the Woman is not only a dramatic character. The
talking Woman and the woman who is the main character in the story are by no means
bound by a simple relationship oI identity. Gao explains the complexity oI relationships
between the writer, narrator and the character, as well as his own attachment to pronouns,
in the Iollowing way:
Borrowing Irom Descartes, it could be said oI the writer: I say thereIore I am. However,
the I oI the writer can be the writer himselI, can be equated to the narrator, or become
the characters oI a work. As the narrator-subject can also be he and you, it is
tripartite. The Iixing oI a key-speaker pronoun is the starting point Ior portraying
perceptions and Irom this various narrative patterns take shape. It is during the
process oI searching Ior his own narrative method that the writer gives concrete
Iorm to his perceptions.
In my Iiction I use pronouns instead oI the usual characters and also use the
pronouns I, you, and he to tell about or to Iocus on the protagonist. The portrayal
oI the one character by using diIIerent pronouns creates a sense oI distance. As
this also provides actors on the stage with a broader psychological space I have
also introduced the changing oI pronouns into my drama.
50
Gilbert C. F. Fong writes that 'Gao Xingjian`s experiments in the narrative modes oI
drama may have been inspired by the special Ieatures in the Chinese language. Many times
he has commented that the Chinese language, being an uninIlected language, Iacilitates
shiIting the angle` or perspective oI narration.
51
However, the new prospects which
opened Ior the narrative in the novel as the result oI using various personal pronouns,
were noticed some decades beIore Gao by creators oI the nouveau roman. Michel Butor, in
his essays devoted to modern narrative prose, discusses the play oI pronouns which not
49
Ibid., p. 237.
50
Gao Xingjian, 'The Case Ior Literature, trans. by Mabel Lee, The Stockholm Journal of East
Asian Studies, 2000, vol. 11, p. 8.
51
Gilbert C.F. Fong, 'Gao Xingjian and the Idea oI the Theatre, in Kwok-Kan Tam, ed., Soul of
Chaos. Critical Perspective on Gao Xingfian, Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press, 2001,
p.151.
only places characters in mutual relations, but also relates them to the reader, allowing
diIIerentiation between various levels oI consciousness. Butor notices advantages oI the
presence oI various narrative situations in a work which, Ior instance, has a main character
whose story is narrated, but which can also accommodate a representative oI the author,
telling his own story as the 'I or a representative oI the reader a person to whom the
author narrates its own story. He is right in noting that the use oI the third person leaves
us outside, while 'I introduces us inside.
52
Gao`s arguments seem to head in the same
direction: the subjectivity oI expression resulting Irom using the 'I can be easily made
objective, by changing the pronouns. The transIormation oI 'I into 'he/she results in
adopting the attitude oI uninvolved observation.
53
The Woman oI Between Life and Death, who tells a story about somebody`s liIe, tells it in
the third person. She names the object oI her story 'she, which makes an impression oI
distancing herselI Irom the character about whom she talks. However, her emotional
involvement in the story makes us doubtIul oI her status as an unemotional observer who
passionlessly analyzes the character and events involving the character. The speciIic type oI
narrative leads to the development oI dramatic relationship between the storytelling Woman
and the woman about whom the story is told. According to Sy Ren Quah: 'The coexistence
oI the third-person narrative and the required emotional engagement, however, induces
aseemingly irresolvable tension in the perIormance oI the neutral actor. In other words, as
she maintains the state oI neutrality, she shiIts Ireely between the objectivity oI the narrative
and the subjectivity oI the character`s world, and the conIlict between the two creates
adramatic tension.
54
At times, the boundary separating them is hardly discernible, only to
appear very clearly in the very next moment. The actress keeps telling the story, but at the
same time it seems that the woman is 'being told by her 'selI which becomes separated
Irom her and joins the spectator, aware that he views a perIormance, or the actor, aware that
he is acting a part. Gao himselI hints again that: 'The narrator in the play, i.e., Woman, should
not be regarded as the same as a character. She is both in and out oI the character, but still
preserving her status as an actress.
55
However, the actress perIorms also the part oI the
narrator. Gao purposeIully transIers to the play the technique characteristic oI narrative
prose. He is alternately ampliIying and reducing the involvement oI the Woman/actress/
narrator in her story, skilIully disrupting the convention oI a cold, and seemingly indiIIerent
narrative. This ambiguous status oI the Woman in the drama becomes an excellent opportunity
to present again in practice what the concept oI neutral actor is, and what prospects it opens
Ior the actors and the audience, particularly with respect to constant metamorphoses oI
characters, new impersonations oI actors and new realms which open Ior the interpretative
invention oI the audience. Now, instead oI Iollowing intricate plots, the audience Iocuses
rather on examining the internal pulsation oI the metamorphoses and transIormations.
52
Michel Butor, 'Recherches sur la technique du roman, in M. Butor, Repertoire II. Etudes et
conferences 19591963, Paris: Les Editions de Minuit, 1964, p. 9798.
53
Gao Xingjian, 'Wenxue yu xuanxue: guanyu Lingshan (Literature and metaphysics: about
Soul Mountain), in Gao Xingjian, Meivou :huvi, p. 174175.
54
Si Ren Quah, Gao Xingfian and Transcultural Chinese Theater, Honolulu: University oI
Hawaiì Press, 2004, p. 138.
55
Gao Xingjian, 'Some Suggestions on Producing Between Life and Death, p. 80.
The process oI discovering the 'selI is a never-ending struggle against one`s own
memory, a silent partner and one`s own illusions and biases; it is a series oI pathetic
attempts to separate illusion Irom reality and truth Irom Ialsehood; it is a vain search Ior
evidence to conIirm one`s own existence, an unending eIIort to break Iree Irom the enclosure,
Irom the prison oI obsessive thoughts, Iears and delusions: 'She`s too hurt to Iree herselI
Irom suIIering now, but she still keeps on analyzing herselI in the desperate pursuit oI her
true selI, to Iind out Ior sure iI she`s real or just a body without a soul.
56
As iI an analytical
thought, discursive language and being true to logic could save her, introducing order in
the immense chaos which surrounds her Irom outside and reigns within. However, even
these supports disclose their unreliability, when one has to use them in order to get hold oI
things which slip away Irom reason. Even the recollections Irom the past cannot bring any
comIort and conIirmation oI her own reality, as they also intertwine Iacts with illusion.
Zygmunt Bauman provides a penetrating insight in the problems which modern man has
with his identity:
Like everything else, the selI-image splits into a collection oI snapshots, each having
to conjure up, carry and express its own meaning, more oIten than not without
reIerence to other snapshots. Instead oI constructing one`s identity, gradually and
patiently, as one builds a house through the slow accretion oI ceilings, Iloors,
rooms, connecting passages a series oI new beginnings`, experimenting with
instantly assembled yet easily dismantled shapes, painted one over the other;
apalimpsest identitv. This is the kind oI identity which Iits the world in which the
art oI Iorgetting is an asset no less, iI no more, important than the art oI memorizing,
in which Iorgetting rather than learning is the condition oI continuous Iitness, in
which ever new things and people enter and exit without much rhyme or reason the
Iield oI vision oI the stationary camera oI attention, and where the memory itselI is
like video-tape, always ready to be wiped clean in order to admit new images, and
boasting a liIe-long guarantee only thanks to that wondrous ability oI endless selI-
eIIacing.
57
The world which, according to Bauman, is characterized by constant insecurity, the lack
oI Iixed and stable points oI support, the breakdown oI the opposition between reality and
simulation and thing and its representation, the world where any kind oI knowledge has
the same value, lacks 'a tough canvas in which one could weave one`s own liIe itinerary.
58
This world, says the philosopher, lets human relations break down into series oI encounters,
lets identities break down into a collection oI masks worn one by one, the story oI liIe
into a collection oI episodes with their sense reduced to memories, as elusive as the
memory itselI.
59
56
Gao Xingjian, 'Between LiIe and Death, p. 5657.
57
Zygmunt Bauman, Postmodernitv and its Discontents, Cambridge: Polity Press, 1997,
p.2425.
58
Ibid., p. 24.
59
Ibidem.
The very structure oI the story oI the Woman who has to construct and reconstruct her
identity by unending review oI the tapes oI her memory with recorded, overlapped or blurred,
incoherent Iragments oI her own liIe and the liIe oI some other person, reIlects the lack oI
coherence, continuity and order, typical oI the modern identity. The stream oI her history, the
stream oI language carries rubbish and treasures alike, and the Iormer are inseparable Irom
the latter. There is no whole, no completeness or unity; man and the surrounding world are
amosaic oI particles, bits and pieces; we can only try to match them together without hope
to make a harmonious image. According to Aleksandra Kunce, the identity oI modern man is
scattered, broken down into details which must be collected painstakingly. Kunce has noted
that the phrase 'man is . has been replaced by another descriptive option: 'a man without
something/anything, 'a man without man , 'a man without characteristics:
It is important that individual experiences stubbornly disclose the momentary
character oI identiIications, their contextual Ieatures and the impotence oI the 'selI.
It is a reminder oI incessant rotation in one place, postponement, slowness,
procrastination - in the end, nothing is able to reveal anything.
Such movement oI identity/non-identity is perIormed by the multitude oI things
which create it/not-it, by the endless e x c e s s. On the other hand, such movement
oI identity is characterized by the i mp o v e r i s h m e n t oI the thing which is/is not
the selI-identity, unable to appoint an integrated 'selI. The way towards describing
identity/non-identity oI man leads through o r n a m e n t s, through things which
amass in the course oI living, through the constant lack oI any things which could
lead towards the selI. One is orchestrated by actions, one remains in the mu l t i t u d e
oI things, one is Iull oI non-selI.
60
The last words pronounced by the Woman on stage are: 'What is the selI? Besides these
words, these empty, hollow words about nothing, what else is leIt?
61
Terry Siu-Han Yip and
Kwok-Kan Tam suggest that in his later plays Gao Xingjian 'seeks to return to the originary
selI as a way to explore human existence in its primordial state. |.| He sees the role language
plays in the Iormation oI the selI, but he attempts to go beyond language to uncover the
preconscious mode oI selI that is lost in such a Iormation. Gao believes that the true selI lies
in the prelinguistic state oI human consciousness.
62
The critics see a similarity between
Gao`s approach and ' the Daoist concept oI intuition that emphasizes the non-linguistic and
non-intellectual state oI being.
63
They also shed new light on Gao`s speciIic narrative strategy,
that is, the use oI pronouns, and the method oI 'selI-transcendent observation:
In Gao`s theatrical experiments, the selI is presented as both the perceiving subject
as well as the perceived object. By adopting the method oI selI-transcendent
60
Aleksandra Kunce, 'Zlokalizowac tozsamosc (To localize the indentity) , in Wojciech Kalaga,
ed., Dvlematv wielokulturowosci (The dilemmas oI multiculturalism), Krakow: Universitas, 2004,
p. 90.
61
Gao Xingjian, 'Between LiIe and Death, p. 78.
62
Terry Hsiu-Han Yip, Kwok-Kan Tam, 'Gender and SelI in Gao Xingjian`s Three Post-Exile
Plays, in Kwok-Kan Tam, ed., Soul of Chaos. Critical Perspective on Gao Xingfian, p. 217.
63
Ibid., p. 217218.
observation` (choushen fingguan), which he took Irom Chinese Zen Buddhism and
used in his middle and later plays, Gao shows a prelinguistic state in which the selI
is presented in a state oI primordial non-distinction. The selI is thus represented in
a dualistic state oI being as both the subject and the object. In such a state, the selI
is at the same time subject-in-object` and also object-in-subject`. This dualistic
selI as subject-object` that transcends mere bodily experience is what Gao considers
as the originary selI.
64
Between Life and Death is structured in tune with the poetics oI a dream, in contrast to
the logic oI everyday liIe. The counterpoints Ior the story oI the Woman, which by no
means lacks horror, unearthly atmosphere and amazing moments, are equally mysterious
and disturbing visual scenes involving some strange, unreal characters. From time to time,
the stage is crossed by a clown with a rat led on a string, a woman with an umbrella,
awoman with her head bandaged, a man wearing a mask and black clothes who gives
warning signals with a red Ilag, a Buddhist nun who disembowels herselI with scissors, a
thin man on stilts, with a large eye painted in his palm, watching the Woman, and a headless
woman. We do not know Ior sure what these characters stand Ior; they may just as well
symbolize nothing. Critics oIIer various explanations Ior the scenes Ieaturing these
unnerving characters, trying to Iind logical justiIication Ior their presence. Gilbert C.F.
Fong describes them as 'sideshows which accompany and complement the main action.
|.| These sideshows` enrich the main action, sometimes providing commentary, sometimes
serving as a stimulus Ior the audience to think and Ieel Ior themselves.
65
Following this
line oI thought, the bandaged woman becomes a memory oI the mother who was injured in
an accident (according to the story oI the Woman), the headless woman is interpreted as a
symbol oI soul leaving the body and the image oI the Buddhist nun disembowelling herselI
and washing her entrails may be reIerred to the Soul Mountain, where another story oI this
character is told. These characters seem to be the projections oI the Woman`s mind, which
is involved in constant analysis. Naturally, one may seek much deeper into Chinese tradition
Ior explanations Ior these symbolic images. Some oI these strange characters seem to come
Irom Iolk tradition oI popular Iorms oI village or ritual theatre. Such queer characters dwell
in the Iolk imagination, in myths, legends and Iairy tales oI ethnic minorities in southern
China, and they reappear in various seasonal shows which Ieature actors on stilts, characters
in strange costumes and persons with unnatural proportions oI their bodies. Entering the
common liIe, they bring a reminder oI the carnival, the Iolk culture oI laughter, the sneer
against deadly seriousness; they suspend the norms oI everyday liIe and principles oI the
world in which we live. Such characters are at the same time demonic and Iunny, as iI
reminding us about the basic, deep truth that seriousness is always lined with mirth. The
story about the woman should thereIore be perceived in two complementary dimensions:
tragic and comic.
64
Ibid., p. 218.
65
Gilbert C.F. Fong, 'Introduction: Marginality, Zen, and Omnipotent Theatre, in Gao Xingjian,
Snow in August, trans. by Gilbert C.F. Fong, Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press, 2003,
p.1415.
However, these 'sideshows may be seen in yet another way, Irom the perspective oI
their purely perIormance-oriented Iunction. Henry Y. H. Zhao writes: 'Between Life and
Death is Gao`s boldest experiment in theatre technique, as it incorporates all kinds oI stage
perIorming arts mime, dance, magic, shadow play, acrobatics all kinds oI body language`
and environmental support`. |.| And what is marvellous with his new experiment is that
the body-language perIormances do not serve as illustrations oI the monologue. OIten,
they are independent, sometimes as its counterpoint, sometimes as its contrast, but more
oIten as its negation, as iI to say that what is being talked about is better leIt uninterpreted.
66
The dominating means oI expression in the Woman`s story is the word which not only
brings messages but also possesses a musical quality; on the other hand, the mute scenes
which serve as counterpoints Ior the text are dominated by the clothes, stage props,
colours, lighting and gestures which make up the visual aspect oI every sequence. The
collision oI those diverse sign systems - words and images - gives rise to a new situation.
These two sign systems alternately approach each other and move away. Each seems to
add light and meaning to the other, but this mutual complementation, paradoxically, in no
way leads to a greater transparency oI meanings. On the contary, there is an increasing
impression oI complexity and ambiguity oI the world, in which we begin to see another
bottom and which seems to be the plane oI action Ior great powers which skip our deIinition,
but whose relentless pressure on our reality is clearly Ielt. Characters seem to be just
puppets or mannequins manipulated by someone else, which was perIectly well reIlected
in Alain Timar`s perIormance oI the play,
67
particularly with respect to the Man, tied down
and able to move only as much as the ropes let him. The identity oI the Man is not built by
himselI, but it is put together by the Woman Irom pieces oI her subjective impressions,
superstitions and her own illusions; actually it is not the Woman, but the voice which
sets itselI at a distance Irom her Iigure; a voice, which tells a story Iull oI shiIts, gaps and
blank spots, describing a surprisingly strange liIe story, which, actually, is not a story oI
astranger.
In the Iinal scenes, the Woman sees herselI as a person who crossed the boundary
between liIe and death. She is deserted by thoughts, she no more needs her analyses, she
is Iree Irom words and Ieelings. All seems to get immersed in the primordial chaos and to
return to non-existence. But it is just an appearance. AIter a moment, the world reappears
in its duality, at once great and small, Iinite and inIinite, noisy and monotonous. The basic
question oI 'what is the selI`? remains unanswered. The only answer is the gesture oI
the old man who tries to catch with his hat a Ialling snowIlake something as volatile and
elusive as the scattered 'selI.
On the Boundary between Night and Day
In the Nocturnal handerer, Gao Xingjian keeps experimenting with narrative techniques
used earlier in Between Life and Death and The Other Shore. One may also notice the
topical continuity: the desire to explore the essence oI the 'selI, the problem oI relationship
between an individual and the others, the relationship between the real and the imagined,
66
Henry Y. H. Zhao, Towards a Modern Zen Theatre, p. 145146.
67
Gao Xingjian, Au bord de la vie, dir. by Alain Timar, DVD recording oI the perIormance
presented at the Festival dÀvignon in 2001, SOPAT 2003.
the issue oI language being an unreliable medium oI expression and communications.
However, the playwright turns our attention also to new motives: the relationship between
God and Satan, the good and the evil, the suIIering and the salvation.
68
The play continues the search Ior ideal acting and the essence oI theatricality. Similarly
to Between Life and Death and the Dialogue and Rebuttal, Gao aims at balancing the real
and unreal element, the naturalness and convention, which is also enIorced by the subject
matter itselI. Gao writes: 'The play`s subject matter is a nightmare. Naturally it should
avoid real liIe situations and a naturalistic presentation; on the other hand, neither should
it resort to the bizarre. The pursuit oI psychological reality and that oI theatricality are not
mutually exclusive; in Iact they are to be equally emphasized Ior the reason that their
interaction also contributes to the tensions in the play. It is hoped that the actors can Iirst
build up their neutrality on the stage beIore they start to listen, narrate and play the roles.
This kind oI actorial neutrality also helps them to achieve a balance between experiencing
the character`s inner Ieelings and their awareness oI being perIormers on the stage.
69
This
task is made easier Ior the actors by the two-layer structure oI the play, by the story within
the story. The nightmare seems to be a long excerpt Irom a book read by the Traveller,
which allows Ior a smooth shiIt oI the narrative levels. The travellers on the train have their
counterparts in the book. The alter ego oI the Traveller is the Sleepwalker who, in turn, has
another double a man who steps into his way at the end oI the story and who Iorces him
to join in his last Iight oI liIe and death.
The rapid, dramatic dialogue is interlaced with substantial monologues written in the
stream oI consciousness technique. The Sleepwalker speaks in the second person singular,
while other characters mainly use the Iirst person Iorm; the Prostitute combines the Iirst
and the third person. These pronouns allow the perIormer to stay at a distance Irom the
character which he/she impersonates and to adopt the perspective oI an observer. 'Just as
he demands that his actors be neutral observers oI the perIorming selI, Gao Xingjian also
insists that his characters should observe themselves as the other through shiIts in narrative
mode.
70
The separation oI the speaker Irom the contents oI his utterance is a step towards
the ideal oI the neutral actor who builds his part on the constant tension between his
emotional identiIication with the character and uninvolved observation, between entering
the role and leaving it. The 'you Iorm not only places the actor away Irom the character,
but also sets the character closer to the audience, as the 'you has the potential to
accommodate any spectator.
71
In the theatre oI this type everything is based on perIect acting, although no one
neglects an opportunity to use the props or to manipulate the lighting. The props undergo
a metamorphosis in the process oI acting; they lose the status oI ordinary things, oI just
elements oI a modest setting, but they actively participate in creating dramatic situations.
'Once the actors make the shoes, the suitcase, the cardboard boxes, the heads, and the
68
Gao Xingjian, 'Some Suggestions on Producing Nocturnal handerer, in Gao Xingjian, The
Other Shore. Plavs bv Gao Xingfian, p. 189.
69
Ibidem.
70
Gilbert C.F. Fong 'Introduction, p. 38.
71
Gao Xingjian, 'JuzuoIa yu zhongxing yanyuan (Dramaturgical method and the neutral actor),
in Gao Xingjian, Meivou :huvi, p. 263.
doors come alive, the perIormance will be enriched and the longer monologues will not be
relegated to the status oI mere recitations.
72
In the play, things become 'actors oI
apeculiar type; they partner living actors, they participate in creating the nightmarish
atmosphere. The theatrical treatment oI the props again echoes with Gao Xingjian`s interest
in the theatre oI Tadeusz Kantor. Gao is Iascinated by Kantor`s ability to bring things to liIe
and to reiIy the man.
73
Closed suitcases with unknown contents, doors slightly ajar, with
dark and threatening space hidden behind them, human heads rolling on the cobblestones,
streets Iilled with Iog in a rainy night, are perIect elements Ior the construction oI the
terriIying world oI nightmare, which is the alienated reality. The things, torn away Irom
their everyday locations, stripped oI typical useIul Iunctions, uncannily separated and
transposed in the order oI things, begin to assist the actors in their magical transIormations
which are plentiIul in Gao Xingjian`s play, and which aIIect not only things, but also
people.
The magical quality is immanent in the play, constructed according to the rules which
govern oneiric imagination. 'Its many tricks and uncanny transIormations bring about
surprises Ior the audience and help to enhance the play`s dramatic eIIect.
74
What is more,
the play requires no sophisticated setting or special light eIIects. Unexpected
metamorphoses oI the characters, sudden shiIts in their mutual relationships, surprising
changes in the course oI the plot occur Iollowing the principles oI the poetics oI a dream,
and thereIore they are not obliged to respect the rules oI probability. 'The realm oI dreams
suspends the principle oI identity. In a dream, one can exist and not exist, eat and not eat,
be dead and alive at the same time.
75
For this very reason, the Prostitute shot in one scene
comes back to liIe in another one, and the Sleepwalker who rambles aimlessly, Iree oI
problems and worries, changes into a man hemmed in and Iinally turns into a murderer
without any scruples. The aggregation oI unexpected transIormations ampliIies the sense
oI artiIiciality and theatricality oI the situation. As a result, the spectator`s attitude remains
distrustIul and doubtIul, as he retains his emotional and intellectual distance. This is also
enhanced by the acting style, oscillating all the time between cold distance Irom the part
and the impersonation oI a character.
The Nocturnal handerer provides a meeting platIorm Ior various oneiric, painting and
poetical techniques. Although the word remains there the dominating means oI expression,
the visual quality oI the sequences is by no means neglected. This time, the picture is
painted in various shades oI black. However, the absolute minimalism oI the means oI
expression still remains obligatory. The painting eIIect is not achieved by an easy contrast
oI black and white, but by subtle emphasis on the nuances oI blackness, achieved by
means oI careIully applied lighting. The poetical quality oI the play results Irom using the
convention oI a dream dreams just have the poetic structure but, in addition to that,
certain monologues oI the Sleepwalker also have high poetic quality, which is emphasized
by their clash with commonplace, brutal or just primitive dialogues involving other
characters. The heterogeneous character oI the verbal substance used in the play splits it
72
Gao Xingjian, 'Some Suggestions on Producing Nocturnal handerer, p. 189.
73
Gao Xingjian, 'Wo de xiju he wo de yaoshi, p. 248.
74
Gao Xingjian, 'Some Suggestions on Producing Nocturnal handerer, p. 189.
75
Anna Sobolewska, 'Jak sen jest zrobiony? Poetycka materia snu, p. 23.
into diIIerent languages which, in turn, Irequently break into diverse, oIten contrasting
variations.
The poetics oI a dream not only determines the structure oI the plot in the play, but also
shapes the Ieatures oI characters. These characters, who are closer to archetypes than to
individuals the Traveller, the Old Man, the Young Woman, the Young Man and the Ticket
Inspector - are travelling by train, somewhere in Europe. The book read by the Traveller is
used as a means to transIer the persons travelling in one compartment into the world oI the
Sleepwalker, who seeks reIuge Irom the daily noise and everyday limitations in the cool
atmosphere oI a sleeping town. His desire to break Iree Irom everyday standards seemingly
lets him taste the absolute Ireedom. However, we are beginning to suspect, uncomIortably
enough, that the night is not the reverse oI the day but probably its distorted copy,
ahyperbolic repetition oI daily mechanisms oI control, manipulation and violence.
Nocturnal handerer is a study oI evil, shaped as a dramatic record oI a nightmare,
disclosing the true and Iearsome Iace oI the so-called man in the street, which he hides
during the day under his mask oI conventional behaviour, good manners and acquired
reactions. The play also discusses the death, stripped oI the majestic atmosphere oI dying,
devoid oI grandeur, a sudden unexpected death, death which is cruel because oI its random
character, which is appallingly commonplace and sometimes even strangely comical, similar
to the death Irom cheap thrillers where people only pretend to die. Moreover, the play
oIIers a deep philosophical reIlection on loneliness, Iear and the limits oI humanity. The
night scenery provides a setting Ior the act oI transgression. The transgression Irom light
to darkness means getting rid oI the constraining mask, the slow rejection oI basic reactions
oI decency and compassion, the increasing pleasure in provoking disaster, committing
evil, playing with human liIe just Ior Iun, and playing with death. During his night ramblings,
the Sleepwalker meets the others, witnesses acts oI violence and participates in them, is
instrumental in killing the Prostitute, murders the Thug who threatens him and strangulates
the Tramp who did him no harm. All this happens in tune with the logic oI dream, where we
constantly encounter the hyperbolizing oI desires and Iears. 'In a dream, a small conIlict
can easily turn into a premeditated murder.
76
The inimitable laughter oI the Tramp which is
his individual reply to the absurdity oI the world, becomes an excuse Ior murder to a man
who seems unable even to smile. Each oI these criminal acts is a dangerous game oI sorts,
which brings pleasure and a promise oI sudden illumination in return Ior violating a standard.
Travelling on the narrow margin which separates day Irom night, reality Irom dream and liIe
Irom death is as exciting to quote the words oI the protagonist as opening boxes which
we are Iorbidden to open. The only thing that counts is the moment oI brushing oneselI
against the mystery, the brieI moment just beIore the opening, and not the Iinalized action:
Now only when you`re Iace to Iace with evil, is the excitement enough to satisIy the
evil in your heart, you`re that close to death and you`re playing a death game. You
know it well, over there on the side oI death there`s nothing, nothing can possibly
exist.
77
76
Ibid., p. 22.
77
Gao Xingjian, 'Nocturnal Wanderer, p. 172.
The interest in borderline states arises Irom a suspicion that they hide the key to the
riddle oI the 'selI and provide a chance to separate truth Irom Ialsehood and conIabulation
Irom Iacts; this chance by no means turns into certainty, because the 'selI is travelling
through domains between which one can hardly discern. Reality and illusion keep permeating
each other incessantly, transgressing their spaces, disrupting them and adopting them
under their own terms and conditions:
You can`t map out the border between memory and imagination, iI memory is real
and imagination is mere Iantasy, how can you tell how much reality actually resides
in memory, which has already been processed by imagination, and how much oI it is
not mere Iantasy? In the Iinal analysis you can`t return to the reality which has
elapsed, and you`re destined to live in the here and now.
|.| You know that right now you`re sleep-walking, living in a world between dream
and reality, and you can`t be sure whether the reality you`re in is merely your
memory or imagination. You don`t even have the courage to disturb your dream, is
it because such a disturbance would mean the death oI your selI? There`s no way to
detect whether you, your selI, are real or Iictitious.
78
Once again it proves that such problems are not solved by the never-ending analytical
activity oI the mind, using language as its tool. The mind`s eloquence can only hide its
impotence. The creation oI still new combinations oI words is just the multiplication oI
nonsense. The knowledge about the essence oI the 'selI remains out oI our reach. Finally,
the 'selI is created by the very activity oI speaking. Also, it is irrelevant whether someone
talks wisely or stupidly .
The mind proves to be helpless in the world oI evil, oI blurred divisions and undermined
values. The symbolic gesture oI treading on the head questions the useIulness oI rational
thinking. In such a world, a rationally thinking man ceases to be the benchmark oI things
and the point oI reIerence. The Sleepwalker, Iollowed everywhere he goes by 'a pair oI
inquisitive big eyes
79
(as he describes them), Ialls into a trap Irom which there is no exit:
'You really can`t get away Irom this trap they`ve laid Ior you, either someone`ll push you
down or you`ll Iall down there yourselI. It`s a Iutile struggle, you`ve tried to pitch evil
against evil, anger against brutality, you`ve tried destroying others to save your own
skin, but in the end you still can`t help Ialling into their trap.
80
Evil is a Ieature oI
individual man, inasmuch as it is a Ieature oI the surrounding world. What is more, it is
as tempting as Satan. The absurd, unjustiIied acts oI evil committed by the Sleepwalker
are the reply to the absurdity oI the existence, and a sign oI rebellion against the
mechanisms which slip away Irom our power but they also serve as the only means oI
exploring the boundaries oI the 'selI which shirks any deIinition and cognition. While
strangulating the Tramp, the Sleepwalker, rambling in the darkness, makes a meaningIul
comment:
78
Ibid., p. 173174.
79
Ibid., p. 187.
80
Ibidem.
You can`t stand this kind oI taunting any more, you`ve got to let him know that
you`re not such a coward. You`re alive and kicking, you`re not a shadow oI other
people, you`re real and you really exist. You may be equally as meaningless as this
meaningless world you`re in, but your meaningless resistance against this
meaningless world more or less proves your meaningless existence!
81
The darkness oI the night and the dream serve as the setting Ior an act oI initiation oI
sorts, which leads to the conIirmation oI one`s existence as a result oI a conIrontation with
the others who threaten the 'selI and oI eliminating them. On the threshold oI the day, the
Sleepwalker sets on his way back as iI nothing had happened, heading towards the realm
oI light and rational mind. However, it remains unknown whether he will be able to reach
that realm. Suddenly, he is stopped in his tracks by a Iigure similar to himselI, Iorcing him
into a deadly Iight. Then, the sound oI an approaching train is heard in the darkness,
Iollowed by a piercing cry. We are leIt with an uncanny supposition that our liIe is also
atormenting nightmare with no way out, which we have to dream on in rainy and Ioggy
darkness, suIIering the eternal Iear oI something indeIinite, something which imprisons us
and sticks to us until we choke. In such circumstances, the Iollowing words sound more
like a sneer than a comIort: 'Then you`ll take a beautiIul hot bath, you will be clean all over,
and you`ll lie in your bed without a single worry in the world. You don`t need to think about
it any more, your nightmare will be over and gone Ior good.
82
But we have no guarantee
at all to believe that this nightmare will ever end.
81
Ibid., p. 186.
82
Ibid., p. 188.
70 QUANG THUAN NGUYEN
ACTA ASIATICA
VARSOVIENSIA
No. 20, 2007
PL ISSN 08606102
QUANG THUAN NGUYEN
VietnamPoland Relations in the New International Context
VietnamPoland relation has a long lasting tradition and vigorously developed during
the existence oI the COMECON. In the wake oI the collapse oI the Socialist system in the
Soviet Union and in Central Europe, this relation has undergone Iundamental changes,
shiIting Irom a relationship based on the principles oI socialist internationalism to those
based on market mechanism, equal-Iooting cooperation and mutual beneIits. In the new
international context oI the early 21
st
Century, particularly when Poland became a member
oI the EU and Vietnam joined the WTO, a new Ioundation is being Iormed Ior the
development oI relations between these two countries. This paper will attempt to analyze
the Vietnam-Poland relations in this current international context.
1. Vietnam-Poland Relations in Retrospect
In February 1950, Poland established oIIicial diplomatic relations with Vietnam. As
aIollow-up, on the 7
th
February, 1956 the First Economic and Trade Agreement between
Vietnam and Poland was signed. In the initial stage, VietnamPoland relations were
insigniIicant. However, towards the end oI the 1970s, particularly since Vietnam became
aIull member oI the COMECON 91978, VietnamPoland relations entered a new stage oI
remarkable development. It can be said that the relation between Vietnam and Poland Irom
the establishment oI oIIicial diplomatic relations between the two countries up to the 1980s
was based on the principles oI proletariat internationalism characterized by mutual aid and
assistance. Since the 1990s Vietnam and Poland have entered a new stage oI bilateral
relations which are based on the principles oI market Iorces, equality and mutual beneIits.
In the early years, the relation between the two countries witnessed a dramatic decline.
However, in the later years, it started to develop in response to the needs and beneIits oI
both sides. An important event that stimulated the rejuvenation and development oI relations
between Vietnam and its traditional partners in the wake oI political upheavals in the Soviet
Union and the Central Europe was the visits to 4 central European countries by the then
Vietnamese Deputy Prime Minister, Tran Duc Luong. During his visit to Poland on 28
th
to
31
st
September, 1992, important agreements between the two countries were signed, namely
Investment Assistance and Cooperation Agreement, Agreement on Avoidance oI Double
Taxation and Prevention oI Income Tax Evasion. During that oIIicial visit, the Polish side
initiated various recommendations to promote cooperation between the two countries.
Polish Iirms showed interest and willingness to cooperate with Vietnam to expand and
modernize Iactories equipped by Poland earlier and to engage in inIrastructure and industrial
development in Vietnam.
VietnamPoland Relations in the New International Context 71
The oIIicial visit to Vietnam Irom 5
th
to 8
th
December, 1995 by Polish Deputy Prime
Minister and Minister oI Finance Grzegorz W. Kolodko Iurther pushed Iorwards the
cooperation between Vietnam and Poland. During that visit, the two sides signed an
Agreement on Maritime Transport. In addition, relevant bodies oI the two countries signed
MOUs oI cooperation in upgrading and building a new sulIuric acid plant, a coal selection
plant, supply oI static electric technology Ior dust Iiltering system oI coal-Iired power
plants, etc. A Minute oI Agreement with speciIic conditions on the upgrading oI Ha Long
shipyard Irom 1996 to 2002 with a credit oI 185 million US dollars was signed and delegated
to VINASHIN AND CENZIN Ior implementation.
An important landmark in the relations between the two countries in the 1990s was the
oIIicial visit to Poland by the then Vietnamese Prime Minister, Vo Van Kiet, Irom 20 to 22
nd
May, 1997. On this occasion, the two sides conIirmed that their bilateral relations were
developing in Iavorable conditions. The Vietnamese side requested the Polish side to
assist the Iormer`s ship-building industry, provide supplies oI Iishing equipment, training
oI ship crew, assist Vietnam`s coal industry, chemical industry and consider imports to
Poland oI commodities that Vietnam can export, such as rice, rubber, coIIee, tea, textile and
garments, etc. The Polish side conIirmed its interest in cooperation with Vietnam. It also
recognized that the relations between the two countries were still below potentials and did
not meet the requirements oI both sides. The Polish side conIirmed its commitment to
provide Iinance Ior projects oI cooperation in the Iield oI ship-building, power generation,
coal mining, Iishing, Iood-processing and providing equipment, etc.
Vietnam-Poland relations continued to be consolidated by visits to Vietnam and summit
meetings by Polish President Aleksander Kwasniewski in 1999, the Chairman oI the Senate
in 2003, the Secretary oI State in the President Chancellery in Charge oI Foreign Relations
in August 2002, the visit to Poland by Deputy Prime Minister Tran Duc Luong in October
2003, etc. The two sides have signed Protocols to review Agreements signed earlier (in
2000); Agreement oI Cooperation in Fighting Organized Crimes (in July 2003); Agreement
on Repatriation oI Citizens (April 2004). These events were Iollowed by the visit to Vietnam
by the Polish Prime Minister in January 2005 which was a vivid maniIestation oI the
traditional and Iriendly relations between the two countries. The two sides discussed
ways and means to Iurther strengthen the bilateral multiIold relations, particularly in the
Iield oI trade, education and training, and other areas oI common concern. The agreements
oI cooperation in the Iield oI agriculture were signed on rural and agro-product market
development (January 2005); Cooperation Agreement on Education and Training between
20052008. It can be said that those agreements served as important Ioundation Ior promoting
VietnamPoland cooperation.
Cooperation in trade: cooperation between Vietnam and Poland dropped dramatically in
the Iirst years oI transition. Main explanation Ior this were economic diIIiculties and the
changes in the goals as well as in the cooperation mechanism between the two sides.
When the reIorms in Poland achieved good results, the cooperation between the two
countries gradually regained its momentum. Poland continued to consider Vietnam as its
important partner in Southeast Asia. ThereIore, bilateral economic and trade relations
developed day by day. Bilateral trade volume has seen tremendous growth over the last
years and with trade surplus on the Vietnam side by and large. Trade volume reached 242.5
million USD in 2005, oI which Poland exports to Vietnam were registered at 53.4 million USD
and imports Irom Vietnam at 189.1 million USD. Trade volume continued to rise in 2006 to
330 million USD. It is estimated that trade volume could hit 350 million USD in 2007. Most
oI exports Irom Vietnam to Poland are garment, agricultural products, Ioods, etc. Exports
Irom Poland to Vietnam include powder milk, medicines, machinery and mechanical equipment
Ior coal mining, steel production and consumer goods, IoodstuIIs.
Table 1. VietnamPoland Trade
Year
Volume
1992
20,0
1999
117,9
2000
130,0
2001
125,0
2002
142,9
2003
176,0
2004
220,0
2005
242,5
2006
330,0
Source: Vietnamese Ministry oI Foreign AIIairs.
Table 2. FDI Irom the EU to Vietnam in 19882006
(Only projects valid as oI 18
th
December 2006)
Source: Foreign Investment Department Vietnamese Ministry oI Planning and Investment.
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
Country
Holland
France
UK
Germany
Denmark
Poland
Belgium
Italy
Sweden
Czech
Finland
Austria
Spain
Hungary
Slovakia
Bulgaria
Cyprus
Ireland
Romania
No. of
projects
74
178
79
80
35
8
27
21
11
8
3
10
5
3
1
1
1
1
1
Total investment
2.365.339.122,0
2.197.723.735,0
1.360.181.531,0
368.754.832,0
178.794.364,0
92.721.948,0
80.349.379,0
55.738.988,0
36.693.005,0
36.628.673,0
16.335.000,0
12.075.000,0
6.889.865,0
1.806.196,0
850.000,0
720.000,0
500.000,0
200.000,0
40.000,0
Legal capital
1.373.473.674,0
1.339.935.010,0
642.559.051,0
15.009.445,0
87.648.929,0
32.654.000,0
38.607.606,0
26.000.826,0
17.285.005,0
14.128.673,0
5.350.000,0
4.766.497,0
5.249.865,0
1.007.883,0
300.000,0
504.000,0
200.000,0
200.000,0
40.000,0
Implemented
capital
2.029.343.440,0
1.128.417.648,0
643.131.433,0
160.110.013,0
83.545.388,0
13.903.000,0
60.730.558,0
27.439.591,0
14.091.214,0
9.322.037,0
6.006.758,0
5.245.132,0
195.000,0
1.740.460,0

Investment: direct investment Irom Poland to Vietnam is Iar below potentials and
cooperation needs oI the two countries. In this regard, Poland currently ranks 32
nd
out oI
78countries and territories, having 8 FDI projects being implemented in Vietnam with
13.9million USD capital already implemented out oI 92.7 million USD commited. Most oI
Polish investment go to coal mining and ship-building. This Iocus is in line with Poland`s
strengths and Iacilitated by the credit oI 70 million USD Iunnelled to the ship-building
development oI the 19992005 period.
It is clear that investment Irom Poland is still very little against the potentials Ior
cooperation oI the two sides and Vietnam`s expectations. This has been re-aIIirmed by H.E
Zbigniew Pawlik, Trade Councillor oI the Embassy oI the Republic oI Poland in Hanoi: 'Up
to this moment, there`s still a lack oI interest oI Polish companies in investing in Vietnam.
However, we have seen indications oI increased investment on a large scale by Vietnamese
living in Poland.
1
OIIicial Development Assistance: Poland is one oI Eastern European countries that
provide ODA Ior Vietnam. In 2000, Poland provided Vietnam with ODA oI 0.2 million USD.
In Donors ConIerences in 2005, 2006 and 2007 held in Hanoi, Poland decided to increase its
ODA Ior Vietnam up to 0.3 million USD/per year. Poland`s ODA is budgeted Ior training oI
personnel, restoration oI Imperial Relics in Hue, Cham Tower in Binh Thuan, Cu Chi Tunnel,
etc. Poland continues to provide ODA Ior Vietnam in training, upgrading projects previously
built with Polish assistance, such as Poland-Vietnam Friendship Hospital.
Cooperation in Education, Training and Culture: Poland has trained Ior Vietnam over
4,000 university students and proIessionals; more than 3,500 skilled workers, mostly in coal
industry, wagon construction and ship building. Currently, Poland provides 10 scholarships
Ior university students and post-graduates until 2008 as a Iollow-up oI the visit to Vietnam
by the Polish Prime Minister in January 2005. Vietnam has Iunded 6 Polish interns Ior 10months.
Vietnam is expecting an agreement between the two countries on mutual recognition oI
education degrees. Both side wish to increase tuition education and training activities. In
addition, Poland has also helped Vietnam in training students, interns oI music and cultural,
literature, translation associations oI the two countries have maintained very close contacts
and cooperation. High cooperation eIIiciency has been achieved in the Iield oI restoration oI
historical relics, education, vocational training, assignments oI proIessionals and experts to
work in Vietnam, hiring Vietnamese labor and provision oI Iinancial support (e.g. 1 million
USD Ior the restoration oI Hue Citadel, Cu Chi Tunnel and Cham Thower). Poland was also
one oI the countries which wrote oII old debt Ior Vietnam and provides concessional credits
Ior Vietnam`s ship-building and energy industry.
In short, Vietnam and Poland are bonded in a long-standing relation. In spite oI upheavals
aIter the change oI political system in Poland, this relationship has been restored quickly
and is developing. At the threshold oI the 21
st
Century, changes in international arena and
in each country have created new conditions Ior the development oI the relations between
these two countries.
1
Thu Ha, Cooperation between Jietnam and Poland will develop continuouslv, http://
irv.moi.gov.vn/sodauthang/quocte/2006/5/15798.ttvn, 3.08.2006.
2. Vietnam-Poland relations in the new international context
VietnamPoland relations enjoy rich potentials, not only in economic, trade, investment,
science and technology, military technology Iields but also in cultural and training-
education areas. In the new international context, the Iast-moving globalization process
and the trend Ior enhanced multilateral, bilateral and regional cooperation new opportunities
are being created Ior continuous development oI relations between Vietnam and Poland.
Especially Poland`s Iull membership oI the EU in 2004 has given rise to new opportunities
Ior Iurther development oI VietnamPoland relations. The recent expansion oI the EU with
the admittance oI various Iormer East European socialist states, traditional Iriends oI Vietnam,
has brought about a new chance Ior the development oI VietnamEU relations in general
and Ior VietnamPoland relations in particular. Vietnam can make the best oI its relations
with Poland to Iurther enhance its relations with the EU and on the other hand, the EU and
Poland can build on their relations with Vietnam to Iurther enhance cooperation with ASEAN
in particular and with Asia in general. Furthermore, the results oI Vietnam`s reIorm over the
past 20 years has placed Vietnam in a new position with new strengths which allows it to
expand its international cooperation in service oI national development. Particularly, in the
capacity oI a Iull member oI the WTO, Vietnam enjoys new opportunities to enhance its
international relations in general, with the EU and Poland in particular. During his visit to
Poland in September, Prime Minister Nguyen Tan Dzung re-aIIirmed that Poland is Vietnam`s
trade partner number 1 in East Europe. The two countries are actively promoting cooperation
in areas where both sides have advantages, such as ship-building, mining, agricultural
production and processing. In the talks between Prime Minister Nguyen Tan Dzung and
his Polish counterpart, the two parties discussed ways and means to Iurther strengthen
bilateral relations in political, diplomatic, economic, trade, tourism, cultural, scientiIic and
technological, education and training, deIense Iields as well as in issues relating to the
Vietnamese community in Poland. The two Prime Ministers reached a high degree oI
agreement on all bilateral and multilateral issues oI common concern. Speaking at the joint
Press ConIerence, the Polish Prime Minister conIirmed that Vietnam is an important partner
oI Poland, playing a signiIicant role in Asia and the world. During the talks, the two parties
agreed upon an early discussion on opening direct air routes between the two countries in
order to push up investment, trade and tourism. The two parties will Iurther discuss
amendments to the Legal Assistance Agreement, creation oI conditions to develop bilateral
relations and start discussion on an agreement on inIormation exchange and inIormation
security. The two parties conIirmed that bilateral trade should be boosted in the coming
years in an eIIort to achieve bilateral trade volume oI 500 million USD. At present, Poland
is Vietnam`s largest trade partner in Eastern Europe. During this visit, the Polish side
endorsed a soIt credit oI 300 million USD Ior Vietnam`s Vinashin Corporation to develop
ship-building in Vietnam. In general, in the new international context, VietnamPoland
relations are enjoying Iavorable conditions Ior Iurther development:
First, Vietnam continues its policy oI economic integration with the world, particularly
with the EU and its members. The Political Report oI the Central Committee oI the Party at
the 10
th
National Congress declared: 'to actively carry out international economic integration
according to the roadmap and in accordance with the Strategy Ior National Development
Irom present to 2010 with a vision to 2020. The Report also stressed: 'To render our
international relations deeper, stable and lasting. To develop relations with all countries,
territories and international organizations on the basis oI respect Ior the independence,
sovereignty and territorial integrity, non-interIerence in the internal aIIairs oI each country;
without the use or threats to use Iorce; to solve diIIerences and disputes by means oI
peaceIul talks, mutual respect, equality and beneIits.
2
Regarding relations with the EU, on the 14
th
June, 2005, the Prime Minister issued Decision
No. 143/2005/QD-TTg on the Action Plan and Program oI the Government on the development
oI Vietnam EU relations to 2010 and with an eye to 2015. Thus, Vietnam has given special
importance to its relations with the EU, guided by the motto: 'Equal-Iooting partnership,
comprehensive cooperation, lasting and Ior peace, development and 'Linkage bilateral
cooperation with each member oI the EU with multilateral relation with the whole EU.
ThereIore, Vietnam has taken proactive approach in its relations with the EU in general, and
attached special attention to developing relations with individual traditional partners, Ior
example Central and Eastern European countries, and Poland in particular. Poland became
oIIicial member oI the EU on 1
st
May, 2004, and as such it is obliged to implement goals,
commitments, agreements that the EU has signed with its partners, including ASEAN. On the
other hand, it is Poland`s policy to expand its relations, especially economic and trade ones,
with countries in the Asia-PaciIic region, particularly those with traditional relations with
China, Japan, India and ASEAN. ThereIore, Poland is strengthening its bilateral cooperation
with Vietnam. This was conIirmed by the Polish Prime Minister during his visit to Vietnam in
January 2005: 'Since its admittance into the EU, it is Poland`s policy to broaden its relations
outside Europe and oI course in Asia Vietnam is among the most important countries. We are
aware that in remote Asia, we have a traditional Iriend which is Vietnam.
3
Second, Vietnam-Poland bilateral relation is based on the Iramework oI regional
EUASEAN cooperation and ASEM. In Iurtherance oI the EU`s New Asia Strategy, in
July 2003, the European Commission advanced the trans-regional trade initiative in an
eIIort to Iurther promote investment and trade between the two regions. ThereIore, in
the new international context, ASEAN members, on the one hand strengthen regional
linkage by implementing and perIecting the ASEAN Free Trade Area (AFTA) and ASEAN
Investment Area (AIA), on the other are negotiating and signing bilateral agreements with
countries in the region, namely China, Korea, Japan, India, Australia, the US, New Zealand.
In the meantime, ASEAN and the EU are working on a bilateral agreement FTA. The goal
oI those bilateral agreements is to set up a Iree trade area which would be one oI the
Iavorable conditions Ior the development oI a East Asia Iree trade zone in the Iuture. As
amember oI ASEAN and ASEM, Vietnam is endowed with numerous opportunities to
develop its relations with the EU within the Iramework oI this strategy. At the same time,
Vietnam can serve as an important bridge to enhance mutual cooperation and understanding
between Vietnam and Poland within the Iramework oI EUASEAN and ASEM cooperation.
Likewise, within these Iorums, Poland has opportunities to engage in cooperation and
dialogue with Vietnam and ASEAN in all Iields: security, politics, culture.
2
ht t p: / / www. cpv. org. vn/ det ai l s. asp?t opi c157&subt opi c287&l eadert opi c717
&idBT670636280, 17.11.2007.
3
Vietnamese Ministry oI Foreign AIIairs, http://www.moIa.gov.vn/vi/nr040807104143/
nr040807105001/ns050118095126, 29.08.2007.
Third, the traditional Iriendship and cooperation between the two nations over the last
55years is a prerequisite Ior all-sided cooperation between Vietnam and Poland in the Iuture.
The traditional Iriendship and cooperation between Vietnam and Poland was established in
the 1950s. The upheavals in the wake oI the crisis in the Soviet Union and East European
countries yielded strong impacts on VietnamPoland bilateral relations. This relationship has
been gradually restored over the recent years, particularly since the visit by Prime Minister
Nguyen Tan Dzung to Russia, Czech Republic and Poland on 915 September, 2007. This
conIirmed the importance oI those countries in the open-door Ioreign policy oI Vietnam,
aimed at strengthening relations with traditional partners and Poland is one among them. The
strengthening oI all-sided cooperation with Poland will bring important opportunity Ior the
export oI Vietnamese commodities to the EU market.
Finally, the Vietnamese community is a Iactor to boost up VietnamPoland relations. About
40,000 Vietnamese are living in Poland who play a signiIicant role in socio-economic development
oI Poland and promote economic-trade relations between the two countries. There`s a trend
among the Vietnamese community in Poland to invest in Vietnam. This is also an important
channel Ior Polish goods to enter Vietnam`s market. ThereIore, both sides wish to work together
in order to create conditions Ior this Vietnamese community to reside and work legally in Poland
and to see the Vietnamese in Poland contribute positively to the strengthening oI the traditional
Iriendship and cooperation between the two countries in the Iuture.
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tabid612&ItemID18333.
Le Nguyen, 2005, The Prime Minister of the Republic of Poland. 'The Jietnamese
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doisongnvx/hdvktrongnuoc/2005/01/366839/.
Ministry oI Foreign AIIairs, Activities of the President of the Republic of Poland in Jietnam,
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Minister of the Republic of Poland, http://www.moIa.gov.vn/vi/nr040807104143/
nr040807105001/ns050117161720.
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Poland, http://www.moIa.gov.vn/vi/nr040807104143/nr040807105001/ns050509075844.
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78 ROMAN SLAWINSKI
ACTA ASIATICA
VARSOVIENSIA
No. 20, 2007
PL ISSN 08606102
ROMAN SLAWINSKI
Taiwanese Traditional Religions
Post-war Taiwan has been the depositary oI traditional Chinese culture. There are many
reasons Ior it.
First oI all, expecting the Japanese occupation in the 1930s, the Chinese government
had organized the evacuation oI Chinese relics oI art, including the most valuable ones,
gathered in the Palace Museum in Beijing. Initially, they had been taken to Nankin, but
when Nankin was also endangered by the invasion oI the Japanese army, they were moved
to Chongqing. Soon aIter the Second World War, another military conIlict emerged between
the two most powerIul political parties: the Kuomintang and the Communist Party. When
the Kuomintang suIIered a deIeat on the Chinese Mainland the exodus oI 2 million people
to Taiwan took place. It was connected with taking out on the island the most valuable
relics oI the Chinese culture that Iound their place in the new-built National Palace Museum
in Taiwan. The Academy oI Science, called Academia Sinica and established in 1929, was
also moved to Taiwan. The elite oI Chinese intelligence oI the 1950s moved to Taiwan and
made a remarkable contribution to the building oI an educational system oI a very high
level. Undoubtedly, the migration oI Chinese intelligence oI those days contributed to the
continuation oI traditional culture on the island. Cultivating the Chinese language and
keeping the traditional hieroglyphs, simpliIied in the Mainland, may be a good example.
In the Mainland, the essential changes were introduced, also in the Iield oI culture.
According to the declared in China, nota bene borrowed Irom Russia, allegedly universal
conception oI Iive stages oI the mankind`s development, the traditional Chinese culture was
recognized as 'Ieudal. Under the change oI the system, it was supposed to be modiIied, at
Iirst as the so called 'new-democratic culture, designed Ior 'workers, peasants and soldiers,
as it was Iormed in the 1940s in Yanàn. Traditional ConIucian culture was treated as a relict
oI the past, associated with the deIeated bourgeois classes. ThereIore, in the simpliIied way,
ancient ConIucian ideas oI humanity (ren) and justice (vi) were put under the same label with
much more later degenerations connected with NeoconIucianism. However, the chieI aim
was to discredit all the ideas incompatible with the propagated and continually sharpened
ideology oI the class Iight. In consequence, ConIucianism as a philosophical and religious
system was Iorbidden and attributed to the opponents as a contemptuous label during Mao`s
liIetime. For this reason, in one ideological campaign, ConIucius and Lin Biao, the Iigures that
had nothing in common, were Iought down. In Taiwan, on the contrary, ConIucianism, and
particularly its ethics, was recognized as worth to be continued and reconstructed through
publishing classical literature, reconstruction oI ancient music and rituals connected with the
cult oI ConIucius, etc. The patron oI those activities became the Council Ior Chinese Culture
Reconstruction, an institution subordinated directly to the president.
Taiwanese Traditional Religions 79
The next reason Ior development oI the Chinese culture in Taiwan is the Iact that all
religions oI the Mainland China 'classical, traditional, and the subsequent ones, connected
with sects and Iolk societies, were Iought down as diIIerent, competing outlooks on the
world. In 1950, persecutions oI the syncretic belieI called Yiguandao (the Unity Sect) started,
Ior opposing the land reIorm. This religion has survived in Taiwan and it is at the third place
aIter Taoism and Buddhism among the religions with the greatest number oI believers.
In 1958, the madness oI the Great Leap started, including the insane campaign oI melting
steel in primitive conditions. Steel was not obtained, but everything that could be Iound in
the villages was being melted, including bells and censers Irom the temples. Buddhist and
Taoists monks were sent to do physical work.
As a result, thanks to the systematic propaganda oI atheism, the three main religions:
Taoism, Buddhism and ConIucianism, suIIered great losses, as well as Tibetan Lamaism
and Christianity. It was particularly true oI the Tibetan monasteries that were destroyed
aIter the successive uprisings.
A thaw in the approach toward religion occurred with the rejection oI the extreme Maoism
by Deng Xiaoping`s reIormists. The government permitted studying ConIucianism,
reconstructing the Mosque in rmqi and a Iew most important monasteries in Tibet, there
also appeared new Buddhist and Tibetan monks. However, the possibility oI a submission
oI the Chinese Catholics to the Holy See was still being rejected.
The new-born Falungong sect was persecuted, although the key contribution to its
establishing was the propagation by the authorities oI the traditional gymnastics qigong.
Falungong gathered 100 million oI believers, who were aIterwards Iorced to emigrate or to
go underground. The sect still exists in Taiwan and among the overseas Chinese in the
Western countries. In 2007, during the parade oI the representatives oI Chinese communities
in Chinatown, Los Angeles, which was organized a week aIter the celebration oI the Chinese
Year oI the Pig, the authorities did not permit a group oI Falungong believers to participate
in the event. Dressed in traditional yellow robes, they were only permitted to Iollow the
route oI the parade on the pavement, when it had been Iinished.
In the history oI China some religions were Iavoured, Ior example Buddhism was Iavoured
by empresses Wu, Hu and Wu Zetian; this religion achieved even the status oI the state
religion. However, most oIten the authorities treated the monks with reserve. The Buddhists
were the animators oI the traditional secret societies under the sign oI White Lotus, which
overthrew the reign oI Mongols in China. Taoists usually represented an asocial attitude
and thereIore they were treated with mistrust. There were also religious persecutions, Ior
instance the persecutions oI Christians during the Iamous Boxer Uprising at the turn oI the
19th and 20th century. But there were no big religious wars in China, as it used to be the
case in the Medieval Europe. One oI the characteristic Ieatures oI traditional Chinese
religions, as well as new-born Taiwanese ones, has been their syncretic character.
The Characteristics of the Religious Syncretism in China and in Taiwan
It seems that religious syncretism in China and in Taiwan has several aspects, which can
be described as Iollows:
1. Historic syncretism. Despite the many-century-long competition between the native
Taoism and Ioreign Buddhism (brought Irom India via Central Asia), the Iormer borrowed
80 ROMAN SLAWINSKI
its Chinese terminology Irom the latter, though interpreted in a bit diIIerent way (aIter
previous unsuccessIul attempts oI transcribing the Ioreign notions Irom Sanskrit or
Pali) in order to make the communication and expansion oI Buddhism in China possible,
as was also the case in Korea and Japan. An additional result was the Sinicization oI
Buddhism under the emerging chan Buddhism, in the Western world known better
under its Japanese name :en. The insularity oI traditional Chinese culture made it
necessary Ior Ioreign ideas to be Sinicized beIore they could be understood by the
Chinese people. Sinicization oI Marxism in Maoism constitutes another historic example
oI that process.
2. Religious syncretism. One oI its characteristics is the Iact that the same person may
be a believer oI the ConIucian ancestor cult, may attend a Buddhist temple in order to
obtain grace oI Goodness oI Mercy Guanyin, and may invite the Taoist monk Ior
aIuneral to provide the proper exorcist ritual, and aIter that, as an animist, may burn
the sacriIicial 'notes, assigned to be used by the 'ghost oI the dead in the spiritual
world.
3. Contemporary syncretism. It is based, among others, on the Iact that a signiIicant part
oI the so-called 'new religions draws extensively on the existing cults, adjusting them
to the contemporary needs, thanks to the charity, publishing, educational activities and
even nutritional activity oI the Buddhist and Taoists vegetarian eating-houses. New
religions are looking Ior their way to Iace the Iears oI their believers concerning the
world oI wars, aggression and the perspective oI destruction oI the world. Moreover,
none oI the religions (except Ior the Falungong) does impose on a neophyte the rejection
oI the belieI or belieIs cultivated up till now.
It also seems that with such complex syncretism oI the major religions Taoism, Buddhism
and ConIucianism primordial, animistic belieIs could absorb many elements oI the above
mentioned religions and in this way the so-called traditional Iolk religions have emerged,
which have lasted in Taiwan up until now. There are, Iurthermore, new belieIs that are
emerging at the moment and could be described as contemporary Iolk religions. This
situation is opposite to the case oI the so-called 'new Christianity, when, in the process
oI Christianization oI the Middle Europe, Christianity absorbed many pagan elements oI
culture, and simultaneously Iorbade practicing diIIerent religions.
Taiwanese Folk Religions
In the case oI Taiwan, the animistic Iolk religions were enriched by elements oI
ConIucianism, the chan Buddhism and Taoism, brought by Chinese immigrants. This process
was long-lasting and slow, because Taiwan was recognized in China as a very diIIicult land
Ior colonization. The attempts to capture the island usually met with Iierce resistance oI
the native inhabitants, the so-called Taiwanese aborigines. Acceleration oI this process
occurred in the 17th century, when under the pressure oI the Manchu, the Ming dynasty
was withdrawing Iurther and Iurther to the south. Then it obtained Ior some time the
support oI Coxinga,
1
who at last had to surrender and to withdraw Irom the coast oI
1
Coxinga is the Latinized Iorm oI the title reIerred to Zheng Chenggong. In the Chinese language
it was Guoxinye.
Southern China to Taiwan, aIter previously expelling the Dutch colonists. During the Manchu
rule (16441911), Chinese colonization oscillated Irom the prohibition oI moving to Taiwan to
the planned sending oI the settlers. When the Japanese competitor appeared on the horizon
Taiwan, thitherto a part oI the Fujian province, ruled by its governor, became a separate
province oI the Empire. Yet the Empire, weakened during the opium wars, was not able to
oppose the Japanese invasion, and in 1885 Taiwan was handed over to Japan. But beIore this
happened, the settlers Irom Fujian and Guangdong had been bringing wax Iigures oI their
gods and building temples in Taiwan. These were normally Buddhist, Taoist and ConIucian
temples, most oI them being small Iamily temples belonging to the most important Iamilies.
The new gods also appeared, like the above mentioned Coxinga, who had won the divine
status and was called Kai Tai Shengwang (the Saint Pioneer-King oI Taiwan).
Thus a whole system oI traditional Iolk religions oI Taiwan was established. It consisted
oI cults oI gods oI Heaven and Earth, gods oI Hades, as well as astral gods and Iolk gods.
2
It is worth mentioning that although many gods are attributed to diIIerent spheres: Heaven,
Earth or Hades, they constitute, in sum, a complex, hierarchic system, bearing a striking
resemblance to the Chinese imperial court. Whereas the Iigures oI Buddhist or Taoist
pantheon and sanctiIied ConIucians are generally well-known, we know much less about
the ancient animistic belieIs.
Animistic Beliefs
According to the typology oI a Taiwanese ethnologist, ProIessor Juan Chàng-rue, those
belieIs embrace Iour spheres: the ghost cult, the nature cult, the cult oI magic objects, and
taboo. In the ghost cult people and things are only tools oI a ghost or a demon who is the real
master oI liIe. Ghosts are divided into three categories: the ghosts oI outstanding personages
(weiren), ghosts oI the dead ancestors (:uxian), and demons (vougui). The nature cult
concerns the astral gods (tianshen), earthly gods (di:hi) and the spirits oI things (wugui).
The cult oI objects includes also arteIacts. Magic and taboo aim at controlling nature.
The above mentioned cult oI demons embraces two particular categories: the ghosts oI
people who died oI natural causes, called lonely or 'wild demons (vegui), and the ghosts oI
people who didn`t have a 'good death (e.g. they died in an execution or in an accident), called
spectres (ligui). Like the ghosts oI the ancestors, they are also made oIIerings to on the 1
st
and
15
th
day oI a month according to the Chinese calendar, based on the solar-lunar system. On
adaily basis, it is enough to have a domestic altar with nameplates oI parents or grandparents,
lampions, candles, three (theoretically it should be Iive) small bowls Iilled with water or tea,
sacriIicial Iruits, cookies and Iragrant joss sticks, necessary Ior making an oIIering to gods.
Heaven and the Earthly World. Hades
The seat oI the highest god the Great Nephrite Emperor (Yuhuang Dadi) and his court
is the Heavenly World (tianfie). Religious people and outstanding personages may aIter
2
An ambitious attempt at typology oI those belieIs: Juan Chàng-rue, Tradvcvfne wier:enia
Tafwanu (Taiwan minjian xinyang), trans. by R. Slawinski, Cracow: Ksigarnia Akademicka,
2007.
82 ROMAN SLAWINSKI
death go to Heaven and become gods, as Ior example the legendary rulers Yao, Shun and
Yu, who became even Princes oI the Three Worlds (Sanfiegong).
The Earthly World, also called 'the sphere oI light (vangfie), is Iilled with all things
and spirits oI alive people (shengling). This world is controlled by various gods who make
reports to Heaven (on which their Iate depends). An example can be the God oI Kitchen
(Zaofun), whose representations are glued to the wall next to a kitchen oven, or the All-
Seeing One (Qianlivan, literally 'the eye which sees one thousand li), and the All-Hearing
One (Shungfenger, literally 'the ear which hears what the wind brings). Their large Iigures
usually accompany the main god in the temples.
Hades, actually in Sanskrit described as Naraka, has diIIerent names in Chinese, but it is
most Irequently described as a 'twilight zone (vinfie). That place oI rest Ior demons and the
seat oI spectres is also a place oI punishment Ior oIIences. Good ghosts can bring well-being
to their descendants, and that is why they should be made various oIIerings to, e.g. burning the
'sacriIicial notes. The sacriIicial rituals are also due to the spectres, Ior example to suicide
ghosts, who cannot come back to the human world Ior a New Year, but may be harmIul, bringing
diseases, plague, etc. Hades consists oI 10 palaces oI the ruler oI Hell, Yanluo, and 18 Iloors oI
Hell. For instance, the Second Palace contains: the First Hell Hell oI Cutting oII a Tongue,
designed Ior lies in result oI which someone was punished or as a punishment Ior court
litigiousness; the Second Hell Hell oI a Scissors, used Ior cutting oII the Iingers oI people
who Iorced others to prostitution; the Third Hell Hell oI the Iron Gallows, where those who
lost their Ieelings towards a Iather and the respect Ior their older brothers are supposed to hang
upside down. The Iurther, the more dreadIully. For good acts, aIter the sentence passed in the
Tenth Palace, it is possible to get to the Paradise, i.e. to the Western Land.
The Most Important Gods
There is a whole impressive cast oI gods that come Irom main traditional religions and
have become a part oI the so-called Iolk religions (minfian xinvang).
3
Gods connected with
Buddhism are obviously the historical Buddha Sakyamuni (Shijia Fozu), bodhisattva
Avalokitesvara (The Goddess oI Mercy Guanyin pusa) or 18 arhats (Shiba luohan).
4
Taoists
provided, among others, their Iirst saint Laozi. ConIucians on the other hand oIIered
ConIucius and the God oI War, Guangdi. Both Taoism and ConIucianism include the Iigure oI
a legendary Yellow Emperor, as well as cosmogonist gods, like Pangu or Nwa. Furthermore,
there occur the meritorious generals and courtiers, skilIul proIessionals, obedient and chaste
women, heroes and seven immortal ladies (Qi xian n).
Progenitors oI the particular Iamilies also occupy a prominent place in Iolk religions
which had settled in Taiwan, as the Pioneer oI the Continent (Kai:hang shengwang)
5
and
3
Some authors, e.g. Paul Katz, describe Iolk religions as 'local religions. In view oI the emerging
new syncretic belieIs, in Taiwan above all, I propose, when talking about the 'classic Iolk religions
to add the adjective 'traditional. SigniIicant dissimilarity oI those belieIs, traditional religions being
mainly practiced in the rural areas, while the new ones in the city, seems to justiIy this.
4
Two Chinese men were also numbered among the circle oI the most true Buddha`s disciples.
5
He was a historical Iigure, called Chen Yuanguang. He rendered considerable services to human
beings in making liIe better in seven districts located in Zhangzhou, during the reign oI emperor
Xizhong Irom the Tang dynasty, who ruled in the years 874879. He has been particularly revered
by the reIugees Irom Zhanzhou.
the Pioneer oI Taiwan (Guioxingye, i.e. Coxinga),
6
as well as Iigures connected with religious
Taoism, like the Kings oI Five Families (Wangye) or the demon Youying Gong. Last but not
least, numerous gods oI nature are also objects oI cult: the Real God Fude, also called the
God oI Earth;
7
astral gods: the Master oI the Sun Star Taiyanggong, the Lady oI the Moon
(Taivin niangniang) and gods oI various constellations, as well as gods oI mountains,
Iire, sea, wind, rain, thunder, etc. There exist, moreover, cults oI selected animals and
plants, mainly trees.
8
Eventually, we have the well-known God oI City (Chenghuang) and
the gods related to the domestic place: Gods oI Doors (Mensheng), God oI Kitchen (Zaojun),
Master oI Foundations (Diji zhu) and many more.
What is a signiIicant, speciIic Ieature oI Taiwanese Iolk religions is the Iact that many oI
them have come Irom the Mainland, because they were brought by immigrants Irom Fujian
and Guangdong. However, it became popular over time to put many Iigures oI diIIerent
sizes oI the same god (fensheng) on altars, together with a syncretic adoration oI the
Buddhist and Taoist gods in the same temple.
The Cult of the Goddess of Seas - Mazu
Especially worth noting is the cult oI the Goddess oI Seas, Mazu.
9
Admittedly, as most
oI the gods, she comes Irom the Mainland, but because oI the extraordinary diIIiculties oI
passage Irom the continent to the island through the disquiet Taiwan Strait, especially in
the times oI the Manchu bans Ior setting sail in the Strait and settling on Taiwan, the cult
oI Goddess oI Seas became very common and well-established, not only among the 'sea
people.
An example can be the temple sacriIiced to her which is located in a Iishing harbour in
Suao on the PaciIic cost. This unique temple has a big statue oI Mazu on its second storey.
The statue was Iounded by Canadian immigrants and made oI one block oI nephrite. On
the third storey, there is also a great golden statue Iounded by local Iishermen (in 1995).
Taiwan is proud oI possessing the oldest statue oI Mazu, so-called Er Ma, i.e. the Second
Mother. The Iirst one was destroyed in Fujian by Hongweibings, during the inIamous
6
He was born in 1624, in Japan, died in 1662. Although he was a son oI a pirate, as a great
patriot, the deIender oI the Ming dynasty Irom the Manchu, and the conqueror oI the Dutch in
Taiwan, he became an object oI cult during the reign oI a Manchu ruler, emperor Guangxu, when in
1875 the Iirst temple was built Ior him in Tainan.
7
The God oI Earth (Tudi Gong) is also called Houtu. This was the name oI a son oI Zuo
Chuanxu, a legendary ruler who reigned in the 3rd millenium B.C., and was supposed to divide the
plough into nine categories.
8
Very old trees, girded with a red ribbon, are object oI cult in Taiwan Ior people striving Ior
descendants.
9
Mazu (literally 'Mother oI Family) is a historical Iigure. The daughter oI a courtier, Lin Yuan,
and the mother called Wang, she was born on 23rd day oI the 3rd month oI the year 960 year and
lived 28 years. A Iervent Buddhist, Mazu became the example oI virtue oI obedience, according to
the ConIucian canon. She saved her brother Irom a surge and pulled to the shore the body oI her dead
Iather. She is held up as a model oI the child`s sacriIice Ior the parents. Numerous miraculous savings
on the sea are attributed to her attention. Even a resignation by the American aircraIt Irom bombing
oI Taipei in 1945 might have been the result oI covering the city with dark clouds by Mazu, which
made the military operation impossible.
84 ROMAN SLAWINSKI
'cultural revolution. The Iigure oI chronologically second Mazu with a black Iace (Irom
candles and incenses) is in Lugang (middle Taiwan). In 2004, the solid and rich-illustrated
study on that temple was published (Lugang Tianhougong :hi), thanks to the eIIorts oI
the local authorities.
Auguries, Magic and Exorcisms
Old as the civilization, Iortune-telling has maniIested itselI in diIIerent Iorms. In ancient
times, it was the Iortune-telling Irom milIoil, or made by burning with a rod a turtle shell or
an ox, in order to predict Irom the lines oI break oI a bone covered with signs. Contemporarily,
such Iorms like Iortune-telling with pulling out or shaking out oI the bamboo sleeves the
jackstraws (qianshi) with signs or numbers reIerring to the particular prediction on them,
or throwing Iortune-telling scones on a temple Iloor (beifiao) have survived in Taiwan.
AIter asking a question to the god, the answer is read Irom the position oI the previously
thrown scones: up with convex side is the best augury. The conIiguration oI two scones
up with convex side means the necessity oI repeating the augury. Moreover, most oI the
presented sentences are Iavourable Ior the seeker oI an answer.
Shamans, called wu, and magicians, called xia, soothsayers (luan:han), psychics Ialling
into trance (:hantong), exorcists (fashi), wizards using their amulets (fufashi) and spiritualists
(anvi) are the group oI Taoists who mediate between the world oI human beings and the
world oI demons. Using exorcisms and making oIIerings to gods and demons, they make
an eIIort to Iorce back the spectres. Bequeathing 'miraculous receipts, they enlarge the
clientele oI the traditional medicine. Fear oI diseases and natural disasters, common in
Taiwan, is conducive to their popularity.
Social Changes and the Religions of the Taiwanese
The post-war social and economic reIorms oI Taiwan have been very deep. There has
been, among others, a land reIorm conducted in a Sun Yat Sen`s manner. The state was
buying land Irom important landowners Ior bonds and then the government was dividing
it among the leaseholders in exchange Ior the repayment in 10 years with manuIactured
products. This is how a major part oI the countryside population could move to the cities
to Iind employment in the developing industry. The inner migration did not result in the
weakening oI religiosity or in a decrease oI the number oI temples.
Among the many Iactors three seem to be oI extreme importance Ior the nature oI religions
oI the Taiwanese: persecution oI the belieIs oI Chinese origin and destroying the Iigures oI
gods during the Japanese reign (18951945), and in the post-war period the uncertainty oI
existence resulting Irom the special legislation introducing the Martial Law, which was in
Iorce Ior 37 years, and the uncertainty oI the political status oI Taiwan. The oIIicial promotion
oI the reconstruction oI ConIucian culture and ethics, or the attachment to the tradition oI
the ancestor cult is also oI a considerable importance. The Iirst bore Iruit with building
temples oI ConIucius by the state, the second resulted in reconstruction oI temples oI
Iamilies, destroyed during the earthquakes (e.g. temple oI the Liu Iamily in Shigang, Middle
Taiwan, which since the times oI Manchu had been located on the 'hot dividing line between
aborigines and the Hakka people, completely ruined in result oI a strong earthquake).
The number oI believers and temples, according to the oIIicial census, is continuously
increasing. What is more bizarre, Taoists` inIluences also increase. It is probably not only
the eIIect oI popularity oI the philosophy oI nature and ecological behaviours. Auguries,
calendars with predictions, amulets, exorcisms, burning the sacriIicial notes, not only within
the area oI temples, but also in the streets and on squares, are still very popular.
Following the spirit oI the time, a well-known Iortune-teller Irom Taipei was using
acomputer Ior telling Iortunes! Her prognosis Ior elections was even used by journalists
oI Taiwanese TV stations. In private matters, she was using the horoscopes created by
aspecial computer soItware, she was also telling Iortunes with throwing the coins (avers,
reverse) and with Iortune-telling scones.
The Genesis and the Future of New Religions
The uncertainties oI the Iuture as well as everyday problems, which cannot be solved
by the social system, make Ior both the blossoming oI traditional Iolk religions and the
emergence oI new ones, also among educated persons. The promoted ideas usually have
a syncretic character and they reIer to ecology, to the threat oI the nuclear war or to the
social alienation oI elder, ill and helpless people. The main are:
Religion oI the Yellow Emperor (Xuayuanjiao), called so aIter the legendary Yellow
Emperor, the symbol oI excellence, was established in Taiwan in 1957 by Wang Hansheng.
Viewing the lack oI the national spirit as the main cause oI losing oI the continent by
Kuomintang, he decided to renovate it through the cult oI the Yellow Emperor as a source
oI sanctity that could be achieved through the spiritual selI-cleansing, selI-cultivation and
helping others.
10
The True Buddha School (ZhengIo Zongjiao) was established by Yang Shenglu in 1971.
He was a Christian who at the age oI 26 experienced a revelation in Taichung; he saw the
Golden Mother, and next, under the inIluence oI Taoist and Buddhist masters, he came to
the conclusion that he himselI was an emissary oI Siakjamuni, sent to the Earth as a Living
Buddha Liangsheng. The Iaith has 30 main temples, where his statues as the Iounder oI
True Buddha School are placed. In Taipei, one oI the temples was visited by the present
president oI Taiwan, Chen Shui-bian. The School has about 4 million believers (the Iounder
himselI is living in Seattle).
International Association oI Qinghai was Iounded in 1984, by a woman, Sima Qinghai
(Hue Dang Trinh), who came Irom a traditional Catholic Vietnamese Iamily. Sima Qinghai is
considered to be a reincarnation oI Buddha and Jesus, and puts an emphasis on
contemplation oI the Inner Light and Sound. She gained popularity among technologists
in Hsinchu Science Park. In 1997, she had about 300 thousand believers in Taiwan and
about 100 thousand oI them in USA.
The Children Way (Haizi Dao) is a Taiwanese religion which emerged in 1984. Its Iounder
was Li Jixiong, presenting himselI as a reincarnation oI Laozi. He proclaimed himselI Laozi`s
son, proIessing that the Earth shall be protected Irom annihilation by Master the Sun and
Master the Moon, which are children yet. Although the Iounder oI the religion reIers to the
Bible as well as to Daodefing, his Iollowers worship mainly many Chinese Iolk gods and
the Iounder himselI, who allegedly has the power to heal Irom a distance. In 2006, the
oIIicial statistics showed 39 thousand believers.
10
CI.: Huang Di fing (Book about the Yellow Emperor).
86 ROMAN SLAWINSKI
The religion oI the Emperor Heaven (Tiandijiao), established in Taiwan in 1985 by Li
Yujie (19011994), recommends meditation and healing with qi energy, and saying the
Mantra oI 20 Words, which shall Iacilitate becoming a medium. Li Yujie proclaimed himselI
the main emissary oI the Emperor Heaven Tiandi, who oIIers the salvation by his mediation.
The doctrine has been developed by his son, Li Weisheng, who called it the New Philosophy
oI Religious System. It claims complying with the commandments, meditation and
conIessions. In 2006, the total number oI believers was estimated as above 298 thousand
(also in Los Angeles and in Tokio). Li Weisheng is in Iavour oI peaceIul reuniIication oI
Taiwan and China, in Iear oI the danger oI a nuclear attack.
Falungong is the most Iamous religious organization, described by David Ownby as
'Chinese Iolk Iundamentalism. Established in 1992, it is connected with qigong, which at
Iirst was propagated by the government itselI. The Iounder oI the organization, Li Hongzhi,
acting in the Mainland China, popularized the rules in his Zhuan fa lun (Turning the Wheel
oI Law). AIter the split in the Falungong Research Association and changing its name into
Falun DaIa Research Association, he did not gain the acceptance oI the PRC`s government.
AIter the unexpected mass maniIestation oI 10 thousand members oI the Association under
the public buildings on 25 April 1999, the silent actions raised the anxiety oI the government,
probably Ior its great numbers, estimated even as 100 million people (which outnumbers the
number oI members oI the ruling party). The Association was banned by the parliament and
in result oI repressions it has become an underground movement. Like other syncretic religious
organizations oI this type, Falungong reIers to Iolk religions, Buddhism and Taoism, and
proclaims the striving Ior the gradual enlightenment that can be achieved only in the presence
oI Li Hongzhi. Its believers are recruited mainly Irom the 'cultural revolution generation.
The Association unlike other new religions does not accept the continuity oI the hitherto
prevailing belieI. Since 1989, the Iounder oI the Association has been a USA resident and his
Iollowers are operating in Taiwan, although they are not oIIicially registered.
The True Way (Zhendao) a religion established by the sociologist Hong Mingzhen,
called also the Church oI God the Saviour combines elements oI Buddhism, Taoism and
Christianity. It was established in Taiwan in the mid-1990s and was known in USA as Gods
Salvation Church. Hong was calling to escape to USA, in order to avoid the expected
apocalypse. He was using children, Jesus` and Buddha`s reincarnations. AIter unsuccessIul
announcement oI God`s appearance on a TV channel, most oI the believers came back to
Taiwan.
Forshang Buddhism (Fochengzhong) is a sect connected with the chan Buddhism, but
proclaiming the Iaith in UFOs. It was established in 1993, by Li Shundon (Li Shundan), the
trainee oI qigong, reIerring to the Buddhist sect Huayan; he proclaimed that Christ had
spent 18 years in India. He practices the Siakjamuni`s cult, recommends qigong and
meditation. He has many well-educated Iollowers.
Summary
1. It seems that since the emergence oI chan Buddhism, new religions have been oI
adecidedly syncretic character. Besides restoring the worship oI the 'classical Buddhist
and Taoist gods, and the worship oI Iigures connected with ConIucianism, their main
Ieature was, on the one hand, the domination oI elements oI Iolk religions, and the link
with everyday liIe and spiritual needs oI the natives on the other.
2. ThereIore, syncretic cults emerged and gained many believers in Taiwan. Those cults,
e.g. Yinguandao, have shown a great concern Ior everyday liIe oI their believers or they
have made themselves known as charity organizations. The above mentioned Unity
Sect took the third place in respect oI the number oI its believers (aIter Taoism and
Buddhism) and the Iirst place in respect oI the number oI schools and hospitals.
3. It seems necessary and useIul to make a terminological distinction between traditional
Iolk religions and new Iolk religions. The signiIicant diIIerence between them concerns
not only the chronology, when the turning point could be 1950, but also the Iact that
traditional religions were recognized as capable oI changing human Iate, determined by
Heaven, by using magic and exorcisms, whereas in the new Iolk religions the emphasis
is put on selI-improvement in order to avoid the apocalypse. This has probably been an
eIIect oI the considerable participation oI well-educated people in those organizations.
Both the traditional Iolk religions and the new ones can boast oI constant proliIeration
oI temples and believers, which proves their popularity among the Taiwanese. It may also
be a sign oI the social enthusiasm Ior charity, on which the new religions have Iounded
their mission, thus successIully Iilling the gap in the social activities oI the modernized
Taiwanese society.
88 STANISLAW TOKARSKI
ACTA ASIATICA
VARSOVIENSIA
No. 20, 2007
PL ISSN 08606102
STANISLAW TOKARSKI
A Global Identity the Indian Dilemma
India - a Global Partner in the New World Order
'For many years, wrote Nalin Surye seven years ago, 'the international media and
international economists were so taken in by the phenomenon oI the so-called tiger
economies that they ignored the rapid strides that the Indian economy has been making
over the last two decades in particular. While some analysts and respected Iinancial papers
such as the Financial Times and the Economist, both oI London, had begun to highlight
India`s achievements much earlier, it is the combined impact oI India`s ability to sustain the
South East Asian crisis oI 1997 and the subsequent aIIect oI Russian crisis that drew the
attention to Indian economy. 'India`s chosen path oI development has been steady.
Indeed, given the size oI the Indian population, the complexities oI India and the Iact that
we are the country Iirmly rooted in democracy and Iree market, I would even say that our
progress has been close to spectacular.
1
For a majority oI scholars dealing with the globalization oI rapidly developing countries
it means coming closer to one another through international economic relations in terms oI
international trade and investment. Thus the available resources in the world economy
would be better utilised, compared to what would have been possible in a less
internationalized world economy. The potential gains would bring the increased standard
oI living coming with various international trade agreements and regional economic
integrations. It implies the need Ior Iurther coordination and harmonization oI the
international economic policy. For the critics oI the whole process, it creates a challenge
and a threat Ior the national autonomy.
2
India is the best example in point. For some scholars, opposing the globalization on the
ground oI Indian identity, it means the 'cloning oI America, the danger oI losing national
coherence. In this view, globalization creates a trap Ior old civilisations, an attack on
democracy and national well-being.
3
On the other hand, Ior big countries like India it is
arare opportunity Ior rapid modernisation and economic prosperity, bringing about
1
Nalim Surie, Indian Economv. Its Performances and Prospects, Warsaw 2000, p. 12; Nalim
Surie, Indian Economv. Recent Performances and Prospect, Warsaw, 2000, p. 12.
2
G. Hanson, ,Internationalisation, Economic Integration and National Autonomy, in
B.Wawrzyniak, ed., Globalisation and Change, Warsaw, 2000.
3
H. Schuman, Die Globalisierungsfalle, Hamburg, 1996.
A Global Identity the Indian Dilemma 89
unavoidable cultural changes as well. This process has been widely debated in Indian
media and has been analyzed at Indian universities.
The range oI Indian cultural change has been discussed in a book written by Arjun
Appadurai, Modernitv at Large. Cultural Dimension of Globalisation.
4
The author is
ascholar well-known in Indian diaspora, an Indian-born proIessor oI American university,
Ior several decades living in USA. Arjun Appadurai analyzes the ways oI adaptation oI
some Asian countries to many globalization issues. In this respect, the example oI India is
most instructive.
For more than a hundred years India has been a scene oI conIrontation oI cultures. The
phenomenon oI oIIshoring, the IT revolution, and rapid increase oI high technology regions
are the last phases oI the process that began with the colonization, at the time oI the British
Raj. The Bollywood productions give evidence to the impact oI the Indian diaspora in
Europe and America. They illustrate the changes oI Indian identities resulting Irom traveling
abroad. The increasing cosmopolitism oI Indian elite is one oI the most important
components oI the identity oI Indian business class. Living abroad and business travels
have become a part oI a new style oI liIe. The traditionalists, Ieeling endangered, look Ior
the milestones oI Indian identity. Paradoxically, the part oI its Iormation has been the
belonging to the University cricket team. The attraction oI cricket, which has become 'the
new religion oI recent generations, has been a part oI anthropological analysis. Arjun
Appadurai writes about 'decolonization oI cricket, now the Indian national sport, calling
it the important part oI 'the play with modernity.
5
For Indian compatriots the globalization creates the Iundamental dilemma to be
anationalist or not? That question has been the Ioundation oI the Indian independence.
They say that the Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru invented the Indian nation or simply
'made India (see M.J. Akbar, Nehru, the Making of India, Delhi: Lotus Collection, 2002)
as the pattern oI integration based on the unity oI diversities. Federal system united the
Indian mosaic into one integral structure. The balance has been the principle oI democracy
and secularization oI politics. Nehru was not aIraid oI Islamic Iundamentalists, who Iormed
in India a minority oI 100 million people, but oI Hindu Iundamentalists, dangerous Ior the
process oI de-colonization. The last victory oI Congress Party coalition (see Sunil Khilnani,
The Idea of India, New Delhi: Penguin Books, 2000) means the globalization orientation oI
the winning elites.
It has been backed up by the reIorm oI Indian education. The critics oI Indian universities
observe that migrations oI persons with university education take a speciIic character, reIerred
to in the literature oI the subject as the brain drain or the brain flight. To attract the attention
oI the scientiIic elites, India creates some complex IT zones where opportunities oI studies
Ior giIted Indians have been strictly connected with opportunities to work in India. The
global character oI these investments is recognized at once as the 'IT revolution based on
international cooperation. India`s orientation towards high technologies has the same roots.
It has its Ioundations in Indian democratic pattern modelled on Western design.
6
4
Arjun Appadurai, Modernitv at Large. Cultural Dimension of Globalisation, University oI
Minnesota, 1996.
5
Ibid., p. 133168.
6
Sunil Khilnani, The Idea of India, New Delhi: Penguin Books, 2000.
The Indian presence in the new global order has a considerable impact in the theoretical
dimension. Traditionally, the Indian civilisation has been 'the light oI Asia, proclaiming
the soIt power Ior its external inIluence since the times oI Buddhist empire oI Asoka. The
colonization oI India acquired mainly the religious or cultural dimension. The same can be
said oI adopting the global economy in India, where the trade has been preceded by the
creation oI some cultural Iashions. The Indian`s appeal Ior the 'human Iace oI globalization
is also Iound, to my surprise, in some modern Chinese writings.
7
Growth accompanied by social justice and alleviation oI poverty have been primary
objectives oI Indian planning since its inception in 1951. Several anti-poverty measures
have been in operation Ior decades, Iocusing on the poor as the target groups. These
include programmes Ior the welIare oI weaker sectors, women and children, and a number
oI special employment and selI-employment programmes in rural and urban areas.
8
Since the beginning oI Independence the Indian transition has aimed at several
dimensions: transIormation oI administration, change oI the political system, and the quest
Ior a new identity. Postcolonial relicts could not be removed without the sound Indian
middle class, and this was born at the time oI the British Raj. To these groups appeal the
Indian technocratic elites proclaiming the Indian presence in the globalization. The Indian
zones oI rapid modernisation are the area oI the day by day richer and better educated
middle class, both in India and abroad, as a part oI Indian diaspora oI over 20 million
emigrants.
The global dimension of Indian foreign policy
Indian elites tend to support the view that economic partnership in the global order is
the key to Ioreign policy. ThereIore they would preIer to deal with Pakistan and China
through territorial promise and negotiation, displaying military power only to supplement
diplomacy. They suggest that the nuclear programme has been important mainly Ior
energetic reasons, and are more and more inclined to accept its marginal role. They envision
a peaceIul change in the politics oI India`s neighbours. For the same reasons they have
been eager to protect minorities in India and in neighbouring countries, treating them as an
important part oI the Indian connections with the world.
On the other hand, the army enjoys a great respect, though many retired oIIicers have
spoken publicly in Iavour oI peace and disarmament in South Asia. They believe that
nuclearized South Asia is both risky and unnecessary. A high level oI deIense spending
slows down the pace oI economic growth oI very big countries, brings poverty and
instability Ior the small ones.
9
Almost every member oI the Indian elite thinks that Indian diplomacy draws on the
country`s ancient wisdom, Indian economic accomplishments have been melted with
civilizational impact and democratic orientation is considered more non-violent. Seen in
this perspective, Indian Iestivals organized in America attempt to create a Iavourable image
oI Indian politics. Indian considerable scientiIic capabilities are becoming symbols oI
7
See Zhang Shaohua, Mv Thoughts on Globali:ation, Sydney, 2001.
8
See Surie, Indian Economv. Recent Performances and Prospect, p. 14.
9
See L. Chibber, ,Indo-Pakistan Relations, The Impact on International Security, in South Asia
After the Cold har, eds. K.P. Bajpai & S. Cohen, Boulder: Colorado Press, 1993.
civilizational capacities. A similar approach is observed in India, where we see Arjun tanks,
Agni missiles. The names derived Irom Sanskrit and Indian religions make these attempts
manipulated public opinion.
For many Ioreign diplomats dealing with India, the idea oI Ilexible non-alignment was
apretext Ior a close relationship with the Soviet Union. Indian diplomats seemed compelled
to lecture their Western counterparts on the evils oI the Cold War. This combination oI
arrogance and ethics was inherited Irom the British Raj. Gandhi`s attitude was combined
with the British experience in the times oI Nehru. To continue this line aIter halI a century
is diIIicult. With the advent oI economic liberalization and the privatization oI government
corporations, this system has become disIunctional. In search oI a new strategy, Indian
Ioreign policy Iinds it diIIicult to compete abroad.
Leaders of the Global Way
A new generation oI leaders has been born Ior whom impacts oI various cultures are not
so uncomIortable. One oI them is Sonia Gandhi, the author oI the last victory oI Indian
Congress Coalition. It has been called (see the cover oI Outlook, 22 March 2007) Sonias
rope trick. (You throw three parts oI a rope in the air and observe the alive snake coming
back.) It is a rule that whenever the Congress Iorms the Government at the Centre, priority
is given to loyalty to the Nehru-Gandhi Iamily.
10
A part oI Sonia strategy has been the
resignation Irom the leading position. AIter the nomination oI the new Prime Minister,
Rammohan Singh, the Hindu Iundamentalists could not revoke the issue that Sonia had
been a Ioreigner. In Iact, more than a quarter oI century ago she came to India Irom Italy
with her husband, as a wiIe oI prime minister Irom the Gandhi-Nehru Iamily.
Another good example is the Indian President, Dr. Abdul Kalam. His position Ior
renomination has been discussed in The heek in the article 'Salam Kalam, now is our
term. His religion is Islam and his Iirst vocation has been the nuclear physics. They have
called him the godIather oI Indian atomic bomb. Because oI this double background, as
ascientist and a Muslim, he understands perIectly the problems oI Iundamentalisms, both
Hindu and Muslim, although he gives the priority to scientiIic wisdom in the complexity oI
issues oI Indian modernisation. He has always been the best choice Ior India, as a politician
with the exemplary background oI the cross-cultural dialogue. In the beginning oI his
presidency Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam spoke about his vision oI India 2020. He opted Ior
amore integral India, based not only on a sound political order but also on a strong and
developing economy. Politicians cannot Iorget about the pace oI growth. The emergence
oI multi-party coalition as a regular Iorm oI government brings about many challenges (The
heek, May 27, p. 37).
An important leader oI the new Indian order is the Prime Minister Rammohan Singh. He
strongly believes in a transition connected with Ioreign investments, but also with Iinancial
strategy oI Indian banks. India`s Iederal structures are an important part the new economic
order in this country. Many reIorms have been done in India, but there is still a lot to be
done. Singh does not believe in technocratic utopia, he knows that transition has to be
done by many channels oI transIer oI power. He also looks Ior allies in USA, Great Britain,
UE and China.
10
See 'Embarrasing choice, India Todav, July 9.
The advent oI global order in India has been oIten connected with the new generation
oI Indian political elites. For S. Bhutani, globalization Iosters democratization,
democratization Iosters globalization.
11
This is obvious in South India, especially in
Bangalore. Every year the Indian universities give their diplomas to hundreds oI thousands
oI students who start working in highly specialized gigantic international institutions that
are a part oI the new global order. These 'new Indians have a rare opportunity to work in
India and abroad in the most developed countries. Their experience in the new technologies
is an important part oI the globalization and is highly appreciated all over the world. That
has created a special kind oI Indian cosmopolitism. Because oI the weak governance, Ior
some oI them, the state is the main obstacle in the process oI reIorm leading to modernization
oI India. The political weight oI democracy is so heavy that an economic price is paid at
every step.
'Over-politisation oI the polity, writes S. Bhutani, 'is the end result. A politician in
India is not prepared to take any risk where he can lose his power in the next election.
Hence the pace is very slow. Over the years the system has become too Iragile and population
explosion has taken a heavy toll oI the already over-burdened inIrastructure. The only
saving grace is that India has suIIicient Ioreign exchange reserves oI 66 billion dollars. It
seems that the bulk oI money oI the Indians and NRIs (non-resident Indians) which was
lying in Ioreign banks has come back to India, as the rate oI interest is at present better in
India than in Western banks. But it is not hot money mostly and with the Ilick oI mouse oI
the computer can go back to Western banks iI political, economic, and social situation
become grim.
12
Western investments in India have been an important condition not only Ior the
globalization oI India, but Ior the global order oI our new world. The Iirst to express this
opinion was the US President Bill Clinton. We cannot aIIord to have India poor, he said. As
the sole superpower, the United States has a special responsibility Ior developing strategy
to neutralize, contain and through selective pressure, perhaps eventually to transIorm
some backlash states into constructive members oI the international community. The main
reason is a huge possibility oI the Indian market, iI the middle class oI this country increase
its possibility oI payment and buying power.
13
Since the end oI the second millennium
there has been a race between China and India, a race between the largest democracy oI the
world and the largest authoritarian economy in the world. Blocking India and helping
China is the wrong choice Ior the Western democratic world. It would mean that post-
Communism may prevail in the new world order at the times oI globalization.
Considering the new situation India has to rethink its national economic strategy. In
ademocratic country where 200 million people are very poor (one man, one vote) the choice
is not easy, especially iI the Indian Congress Party makes the coalition with some parties oI
the social LeIt. 'The rolling back oI state on the economic issues, writes R.B. Jain,
11
See Hemispheres, 17/2002.
12
Surender Bhutani, 'Globalisation and Challenges Ior Global Power. India as a Case Study,
inHemispheres, 17/2002, p. 23.
13
As quoted by Prem Shankar Jha, 'Democracy, Globalisation, and War, in horld Affairs. The
Journal of International Issues, April 2001, p. 26. This was an opinion oI Anthony Lake, Clinton`s
National Security Adviser.
'necessitates a re-deIining oI its new role and a re-examination oI its structure and processes.
It may be no longer remain the owner oI strategic industries, but it is still pro consumer
regulator that oversees and prevents the abusers oI the market, and provides the legal,
physical, and human inIrastructure. It has to concentrate on development dynamics
that would primarily beneIit the poor and the disadvantaged.
14
Three slogans are popular in India: 1. India is the greatest (or the largest) democracy in
Asia and in the world; 2. It is potentially the greatest reserve oI human resources, with
cheap but highly qualiIied labour; 3. This country is a great opportunity Ior the middle
class. Underlying all these statements is demography. Politicians go to campaigns with the
words 'India Now. In 2020 most oI the Indians (820 million) will be in the productive age.
For many other countries the demographic explosion would be a total disaster. Not Ior
India. During halI a century the number oI India`s inhabitants was doubled. In that period
the Indians had three peaceIul revolutions. The green revolution provided India with Iood
to such an extent that it does not import the grain oI any kind. The non-violence revolution
gave it Ireedom and a democratic system capable oI keeping pace with the biggest countries
oI the world with the highest rate oI growth.
The IT revolution created Ior Indian students the opportunity to work in India and
abroad. They are the richness oI India, a real human resource. This looks like a miracle. The
Indian IT experts, as well as Indian experts on high technologies, medicine, physic,
mathematics, astronomy, Iilm making, music, are welcome all over the world. This is the Iirst
step to globalization oI the Indian mind.
14
R.B. Jain, 'Globalisation, Liberalisation, and Human Security in India, in The Journal of
Developing Societes, vol. XVII, p. 111128.
94 KARIN TOMALA
ACTA ASIATICA
VARSOVIENSIA
No. 20, 2007
PL ISSN 08606102
KARIN TOMALA
Die Frage der Menschenrechte und der Wandel
des Zivilisationsbewusstseins im heutigen China
China ist fr den hesten Svnonvm fr Menschenrechtsverlet:ungen-
doch die Chinesen kmmern sich wenig um diese Empfindlichkeiten.
Die Entwicklung und somit auch der handel bewegen sich :wischen
der groen Tradition und den Erfordernissen der Moderne.
Einleitung
Alles ist im Wandel begriIIen, auch das chinesische Menschenrechtsverstndnis und die
Wahrnehmung der eigenen kulturellen Identitt unterliegt diesem Wandel, obgleich Ir den
westlichen Beobachter im ,Reich der Mitte weiterhin alles Iremd anmutet. Der Westen kritisiert
Chinas Menschenrechtslage, doch die meisten Chinesen verstehen das nicht. Wieder entdeckt
werden dagegen die konIuzianischen Klassiker, die als Quelle Ir wahre Menschenrechte
gesehen werden.
1
Im KonIuzianismus wie auch im maoistischen Kommunismus standen die
PIlichten weit vor den Rechten. Heute ist die Tradition wieder erwacht doch angesichts der
Globalisierung Ihrt zweiIelsohne kein Weg in die alte Zivilisation zurck.
Angesichts der dramatischen ErIahrungen im 20. Jahrhundert mit Brgerkriegen, Terror,
Hungersnten und Zwangskollektivierungen glauben heute die meisten Menschen in China,
ber ihr eigenes Leben Ireier entscheiden zu knnen als je zuvor. Und wer unter Experten
die Entwicklung in China seit einem lngeren Zeitraum beobachtet, muss, ob er will oder
nicht, eingestehen, dass Chinesen ihre persnlichen Rechte, die sie nun in vielen Bereichen
besitzen, emsig nutzen, um ihr Leben in die eigenen Hnde zu nehmen, doch auch gleichzeitig
von dem Wunsch getragen werden, einen Beitrag zu leisten Ir ihr Land, damit es im
21.Jahrhundert zu einer mchtigen Macht in der Welt auIzusteigen vermag.
In dieser Studie wird der Versuch unternommen, den Wandel des Menschenrechts-
verstndnisses und damit den Wertewandel, der sich insbesondere in den letzten Jahren
vollzieht, zu untersuchen, wobei gleichzeitig das pragmatisch-kulturelle Herangehen
politischen Handels auIgezeigt werden soll. Dabei sttzt sich die Autorin auI zahlreiche
Neuerscheinungen in der KonIuziusIorschung, die sie whrend ihrer letzten Studien-
auIenthalte erwerben konnte.
1
Eds. Chen Qizhi, Zhang Shuhua, Rufia chuantong vu renquan. Min:hu sixiang (KonIuzianische
Tradition und Ideen zu Menschenrechten und Demokratie), Jinan: Jinan shushe Chubanshe, 2004, p. 4.
Die Frage der Menschenrechte und der Wandel des Zivilisationsbewusstseins... 95
ber die Frage der Menschenrechte hat die Autorin bereits in zahlreichen Studien
geschrieben, wobei die Entwicklung verschiedener Menschenrechtspositionen vor dem
Hintergrund des sich vertieIenden Globalisierungsprozesses dargestellt wurde.
2
Zum besseren Verstndnis scheint es jedoch wichtig zu sein, einige grundlegende
BegriIIe, wie sie im chinesischen Selbstverstndnis verstanden werden, zu erlutern.
Im Mittelpunkt dieser Studie steht der komplizierte Wandel kultureller Selbstwahrnehmung
von Personen, Staat und GesellschaIt, die mit zahlreichen neuen Merkmalen, natrlich
unterschiedlich in der Perzeption, voranschreitet und auch im diIIerenzierten
Menschenrechtsverstndnis seinen Ausdruck Iindet. Trotz Wandel beruIt man sich in der
groen Politik sowie auch in den WissenschaIten wieder gern auI die Bedeutung der
konIuzianischen Klassiker.
Doch man kann sich nicht des Eindrucks erwehren, dass man in China dabei ist, ein
Gegenmodell zur abendlndischen Zivilisation zu schaIIen.
3
Dabei lsst man sich von
der weisen Maxime leiten, die einst der groe chinesische Denker KonIuzius Iormulierte,
dass sich die Menschen gleichen, doch sich auIgrund der Gewohnheiten in ihrem
Denken und Handeln auseinander entwickeln. Das ist auch die Essenz des
Menschenrechtsverstndnisses.
Mit der beschleunigten Entwicklung des Landes wandeln sich auch traditionelle
LebensentwrIe, und es entstehen neue Lebensmodelle, Mentalitten und Gewohnheiten.
Damit einher gehen die Vernderungen von zivilisatorischen Identitten und althergebrachten
Verhaltens- und Denkweisen in den verschiedenen Bereichen des gesellschaItlichen Lebens.
Doch in der MenschenrechtsIrage beruIt man sich auI das Theoriengerst von besonderen
Entwicklungsbedingungen und den kulturellen Ausprgungen der Tradition.
4
Wenn wir die MenschenrechtsIrage untersuchen, so gilt zweiIelsohne, dass das Subjekt
sowohl der Mensch als auch die GesellschaIt sowie die die GesellschaIt prgende Kultur
ist. Doch auch hier ist immer wieder zu bedenken, dass nichts statisch bleibt, auch nicht die
zivilisatorische Identitt, sondern sie unterliegt ebenIalls dem Wandel.
In der Arbeit wird ein politologisch-soziologischer Ansatz verwendet, wobei sich die
Analyse auI die Wechselwirkung zwischen politisch-konomischer Entwicklungsstrategie
und sozialem Wandel sttzt.
1. Das ,kulturelle China - zu einigen Begriffserklrungen
1.1. Was verstehen wir unter Identitt und dem chinesischen Selbstverstndnis?
BegriIIe wie Identitt, Kultur, Tradition oder auch Modernisierung knnen wir nicht
nach westlichem Verstndnis deIinieren, sondern wir mssen versuchen, das chinesische
Verstndnis wiedergeben, zu erlutern, was man in China darunter versteht. Es macht
ebenIalls wenig Sinn, nur ber die Entwicklung in China zu sprechen. Wichtig ist es Ir den
2
Karin Tomala, ,GesellschaIt und Menschenbild im 21. Jahrhundert. Der Westen und China, in
Hemispheres, No. 17, 2002, p. 7991.
3
Liu Zongzhi, Cai Dechong, Dangdai dongfang ruxue (Die Bedeutung der konIuzianischen
Klassiker Ir den heutigen Osten), Beijing: Renmin Chubanshe, 2003, p. 35 and 496500. |Unter
Osten werden die nichteuropischen Kulturen in Asien und AIrika verstanden. K.T.|.
4
Ibidem, p. 502503.
96 KARIN TOMALA
Westen, sich in dieser EntwicklungskonIrontation selbst besser zu erkennen und sich
global einzuordnen, die strittigen Anschauungen ber die so unterschiedlichen
Menschenrechts- und auch Identittskonzeptionen neu zu reIlektieren.
Chinesisch wird der BegriII ,Identitt mit tongyixing wiedergegeben, was so viel
bedeutet, wie gleich sein mit der Natur oder auch gleich sein im Wesen. Man knnte viele
DeIinitionen anIhren, was in den verschiedenen WissenschaIten unter ,Identitt
verstanden wird. Das wrde jedoch ber den Rahmen dieser Arbeit hinausgehen. Zu
betonen gilt, dass der BegriII ,Identitt ursprnglich aus der Philosophie kommt und
sowohl als die Wahrnehmung eines Wechselverhltnisses zwischen Personen und Dingen
als auch als konkreter Inhalt der jeweiligen Beziehung verstanden wird.
1.2. Chinesische Zivilisationsidentitt
In dieser Studie lasse ich mich von dem Verstndnis leiten, dass die Herausbildung
eines Identittsbewusstseins vor allem von der Kultur geprgt wird.
5
Deshalb spreche ich
auch von einer Zivilisationsidentitt, die in China bis auI den heutigen Tag auch die nationale
Identitt beinhaltet.
Die Verbindung, die das so unterschiedliche Wechselverhltnis ausmacht, sttzt sich
auI bewusste oder auch unbewusste Haltungen eines Menschen gegenber eines anderen
Menschen, einer GemeinschaIt, der GesellschaIt, der Kultur und ihrer Tradition, wie auch
der GesellschaIt im Wechselverhltnis zur Kultur und zum Einzelnen.
6
Doch wichtig ist
dabei zu untersuchen, wie tieI dieses Bewusstsein ber das Vorhandensein dieser
Wechselbeziehungen ist. Ausdruck dieser Beziehungen Iinden wir dann in der Mentalitt,
in den Emotionen und im zwischenmenschlichen Verhalten sowie im Verhalten gegenber
der GesellschaIt, was insgesamt den Identittsstand des Einzelnen und der GemeinschaIt
im gesellschaItlichen und kulturellen UmIeld kennzeichnet.
Erinnern wir daran, wenn wir ber die kulturelle Identitt sprechen, dass sich die
chinesische Hochkultur ber zwei Jahrtausende lang ohne einen ernst zu nehmenden
Gegner an seinen Grenzen herausbilden konnte. Obgleich es an gewaltigen WechselIllen
in der Geschichte des chinesischen Kaiserreiches wahrlich nicht Iehlte, wurde immer
wieder demonstriert, wie die Identitt chinesischer Staatlichkeit zivilisatorisch behauptet
wurde. Die strukturelle Identitt wurde in den Institutionen verIestigt und konnte bis
zum Sturz der letzten Dynastie im Jahre 1911 stets IortgeIhrt werden, wobei die
Staatsbrokratie die Grundlage des HerrschaItssystems darstellte und die konIuzianische
Lehre wie eine Fessel die bereist im 19. Jahrhundert begonnenen Emanzipationsbestrebungen
umspann.
7
So wundert es nicht, dass BegriIIe wie Freiheit und Menschenrechte zum
ersten Mal erst Ende des 19. Jahrhunderts in die chinesische Ideenwelt auIgenommen
wurden.
5
Compare with: Erika H. Erikson, Identitv and the Life Cvcle, New York, London: W.W. Norton
& Company, 1980.
6
Anna Galdowa, ed., To:samosc c:lowieka, Krakow: wyd. Uniwersytetu Jagiellonskiego, 2000,
s. 11.
7
Compare with: Karin Tomala, ,Proby modernizacji gospodarki za Mandzurow blaski i cienie
modernizacji pod wplywem Zachodu, in Roman Slawinski, ed., Historia nowo:vtnvch Chin, Krakow:
wyd. Uniwersytetu Jagiellonskiego, 2005.
1.3. Das moderne chinesische Selbstverstndnis
Bereits mit den revolutionren Vernderungen in China AnIang des 20. Jahrhunderts
hatte sich auch das chinesische Selbstverstndnis verndert. Es war die InIragesellung
und die auIkommenden ZweiIel an der traditionellen und sozialen Ordnung. Hinzu kam das
erlebte Trauma der chinesischen Elite, dass sie inIolge der Demtigungen als stolze
Kulturnation durch die westlichen Industriestaaten erIahren hatten. Trotz ZweiIel und
Demtigungen blieb Ir die moderne Elite das verpIlichtende traditionelle Ethos in seinen
Grundstrukturen bestehen. Unter richtigem Handeln verstand man die Maxime, nach der
staatliche Politik zum Wohlergehen von Staat und GesellschaIt Ihren sollte. Dieser
ehrenwert beschriebene Anspruch verblieb jedoch nur als Maxime im Tugendkatalog.
Doch schon in dieser Zeit der Umbrche meldeten sich Kritiker zu Wort, die zwar die nationale
Strategie ,richtigen Handels beIrworteten, doch ZweiIel anmeldeten ob ihrer Realisierbarkeit.
Das Grundbel der konIuzianischen Tradition erblickten sie in der Autorittshrigkeit, die
bis heute ein wichtiges Element des chinesischen Zivilisationsbewusstseins darstellt.
Nach der Grndung der Volksrepublik China und der Errichtung eines totalitren
HerrschaItssystems wurde der KonIuzianismus in die Requisitenkammer der Ieudalistischen
Ausbeutung verbannt. Doch im Kern sttzte sich die neue politische Elite auI das
Grundgerst des KonIuzianismus, nur unter anderen begriIIlichen Vorzeichen. Die
Unterordnung und Einordnung des Einzelnen in das Klassensystem wurde zur
Grundvoraussetzung Ir das kommunistische Regieren. Die Kommunistische Partei Chinas
legitimierte ihren HerrschaItsanspruch nach der traditionellen Doktrin, Wohlstand Ir das
ganze Volk zu schaIIen. Sie sah sich auch auIgrund ihrer revolutionren ErIahrungen in der
chinesischen Geschichte beruIen, die Macht auszuben.
Die Verwendung traditioneller BegriIIlichkeiten wie Staat, Nation, Gemeinwohl, Autoritt
oder auch PIlichterIllung wurden wie zu alten Zeiten als Integrationsinstrument benutzt.
Sie wurden zum Schlssel chinesischen revolutionren Zivilisationsverstndnisses in Zeiten
des KlassenkampIes.
1.4. Stellenwert der chinesischen Zivilisation
Die Debatte ber den Stellenwert der chinesischen Zivilisation, die seit Mitte des
19.Jahrhunderts in China anhlt, und heute wieder auIgegriIIen wird, Iindet ihren
Niederschlag im Konzept zhongti xiyong, was soviel bedeutet, wie im Kern an der
chinesischen Zivilisation Iesthalten und alles Ir China Ntzliche vom Westen bernehmen.
Was bedeutet aber, am Kern an der chinesischen Zivilisation Iesthalten? Es bedeutet die
Orientierung am traditionellen Wertesystem und damit an den althergebrachten
BegriIIlichkeiten, wie ren Menschenwrde, die man erst auI dem Wege der eigenen
Vervollkommnung erreicht, in einem System der Ein- und Unterordnung.
Dieses Wertesystem prgt zweiIelsohne die chinesische Kultur. In der Publikation
Ahistory of Chinese educational thought wird diese Tradition in ihrem geschichtlichen
VerlauI skizziert und gleichzeitig auI ihre Bedeutung Ir die Globalisierung verwiesen. So
kommt auch der bekannte britische Historiker Arnold Joseph Toynbee zu Wort, der die
Ansicht vertritt, dass die konIuzianischen Tugenden von Liebe und Wollwollen heute in
Zeiten der HerausIorderungen der Globalisierung als universale Ethik in modernen
GesellschaIten anerkannt werden mssten. So eine Ethik knnte die GeIahr eines globalen
98 KARIN TOMALA
Chaos verhindern. Verwiesen wird ebenIalls auI das Ende 1998 in Peking durch die UNESCO
organisierte internationale Symposium, das zum Thema Diskussion on education for the
21 st Century stattIand. In der ,Abschluresolution Learn to be concerned about each
other wurde hervorgehoben, wie wichtig es gegenwrtig sei, sich doch wieder auI
traditionelle Elemente zu besinnen, wie die Bedeutung der Familie, Freunde, GemeinschaIt,
Land. Wichtig sei es, die Erde als ganzen, einheitlichen Globus wahrzunehmen. In dieser
Arbeit werden auch die Worte von Nobelpreistrger zitiert, die in einer globalen Besinnung
auI den Tugendkatalog von KonIuzius die Rettung Ir unser 21. Jahrhundert sehen.
8
Doch neben diesem Diskurs werden auch Debatten geIhrt, die neue Akzente setzten,
und den KonIuzianismus und das Konzepts zhongti xiyong als Instrument Ir die Moderne
als trgerisch ansehen. Andere wiederum, wie die Philosophen Liu Zongjian und Cai Degui
betonen in ihrer Arbeit ber den KonIuzianismus, dass China heute eine gegenseitige
Interaktion mit dem Westen bruchte. Sie beIrchten, wenn die Realitten verzerrt
wahrgenommen werden, die groen ZielauIgaben, die man sich Ir das 21. Jahrhundert
gestellt hat, zu verpassen.
9
1.5. Humanisierung der Globalisierung
Angesichts der neuen HerausIorderungen mssen grundlegende ethische Fragen global
neu beantwortet werden. ber das Buch des deutschen Theologen Hans Kng heltethos
fr heltpolitik und heltwirtschaft
10
, inzwischen in mehreren AuIlagen erschienen, wurde
im Westen hei debattiert und es Iehlte nicht an Kritikern, die seine Vision als unrealistisch
verwerIen. Auch in China wird so eine Debatte geIhrt und die Stiftung heltethos gegrndet,
die sich am First World Congress of Global Civilization in Sudnej 2001 beteiligte.
Interessant sind die ReIlexionen des Prsidenten der chinesischen StiItung Zhang Shaohua,
der auI diesem Kongress von der Dringlichkeit der Humanisierung der Globalisierung
sprach.
11
Wenn es um die Humanisierung der Globalisierung geht, so denke ich, sollten auch
solche Iundamentalistischen Konstrukte kritischer hinterIragt werden, mit denen die
SchaIIung eines notwendigen neuen Vlkerrechts begrndet werden soll, wonach
KriegsIhrung als Prvention und zur Errichtung von Demokratien (wie die Doktrin zur
RechtIertigung des Irakkriegs) gesichert werden knnten. Die Forderungen nach
Humanisierung der Globalisierung setzen neue Akzente. Hierbei geht es nicht nur um die
kritische berprIung von Wahrheitsansprchen zur Gesundung der Welt
In diesem Zusammenhang bedarI es einer kritischen berprIung solcher
Alleinvertretungsansprche. In Erinnerung sei geruIen, dass doch Demokratie und Freiheit
als Ordnungsmuster auch in westlichen GesellschaIten immer huIiger im Widerspruch
zu ihren Grundkatalogen stehen. Obgleich in der westlichen Welt der Gedanke des
8
Guo Qijia, A Historv of Chinese Educational Thought, Beijing: Foreign Languages Press, 2006,
p. 588589.
9
Eds. Liu Zongjian, Cai Degui, op. cit., p. 180192.
10
Hans Kng, heltethos fr heltpolitik und heltwirtschaft, Mnchen, Zrich: Piper Verlag,
1998, 3. AuIlage.
11
Zhang Shaohua, Mv Thoughts on Global Civili:ation, Sydney: Secretariat oI Organization Ior
Promoting Global Civilization, 2001, p. 30.
Menschenrechts als angeborenes, unveruerliches und unantastbares Recht des
Menschen als moralische Grundlage staatlicher und rechtlicher Ordnung gilt, und daraus
sich die grundlegenden Identitten der Menschen im Abendland herausgebildethaben,
bedeutet das nicht, dass die gesellschaItliche Entwicklung in einer Ir immer
Iestgeschriebenen Eigendynamik im SelbstlauI verluIt und keine neuen GeIahren drohen.
Die Humanisierung der Globalisierung bedeutet auch, eine sozialvertrgliche Entwicklung
anzusteuern.
Die Frage der Menschenrechte wurde in China seit der IInung des Landes und der
InangriIInahme von ReIormen Ende der 70er Jahre zu einem SchlsselIaktor politischer
und konomischer Strategie zur Entwicklung des Lande wie aber auch zu einem Kernpunkt
in den internationalen Beziehungen. Gewiss, der Globalisierungsprozess vertieIt sich auch
in China. Doch das bedeutet nicht automatisch, dass das traditionelle Wertsystem beseitigt
wurde. Die groen Zivilisationen, die die Menschheit hervorgebracht hat, das gilt sowohl
Ir die konIuzianische wie auch Ir die abendlndische Zivilisation stehen vor der groen
HerausIorderung, ber Wege in eine zukunItsIhige gute Gemeinsamkeit menschlicher
GemeinschaIten nachzudenken. Das kann nicht in einer trichten GegnerschaIt geschehen.
1.6. Chinesische Elite setzt eigene Scherpunkte
Die Problematik der MenschenrechtsIrage und der Identitt von Staat, GesellschaIt und
Individuum kann nicht allein vor dem Hintergrund politischer und rechtlicher Kategorien
analysiert werden, sondern die zivilisatorische, d.h. die kulturelle Perspektive, sollte als
Erklrungsansatz mit einbezogen werden, um eben die andere historische und ideelle
Verstndnisperspektive auIzuzeigen vor dem Hintergrund der Herausbildung politischer
Handlungsziele, wie aber auch pluralistischer LebensIormen, die neue Identitten, Freiheiten
und UnIreiheiten schaIIen.
Die Anerkennung der Universalitt der Menschenrechte durch die internationale
StaatengemeinschaIt, auch durch China, gehrt zu den groen ErrungenschaIten des
20.Jahrhunderts. Das bedeutet jedoch nicht, dass die Wrde und Freiheit des Menschen,
die Kernaussage der Menschenrechtsidee, menschliches Dasein in unserer Welt
charakterisiert. Die StreitIrage geht weiter darum, ob ein Menschenrechtskatalog in
unterschiedlichen Kulturen unter verschiedenen Entwicklungsvoraussetzungen universal
deIiniert werden kann. Die chinesische politische Elite setzt in der Menschenrechtspolitik
ihre eigenen Schwerpunkte. AuI die Frage, warum die Werte chinesischer Ideengeschichte
in China so prsent seien, erhalten wir die Antwort, weil diese Ideengeschichte so
tieIgrndig und allumIassend wre. Kern sei die Gerechtigkeit Ir alle.
12
Wir mssen also Iesthalten, dass die chinesische Identitt in ihrer Essenz noch immer
durch die konIuzianische Ethik geprgt ist, in deren Mittelpunkt das enge soziale
BeziehungsgeIlecht zwischen den Menschen (renmen) steht und dem sittlichen,
tugendhaIten Herrscher, der dazu beruIen sei, den Staat zu regieren (zhili guojia).
13
12
Wang Zhengping, Zhou Zhong:hi, Xiandai Lunli xue (ber Fragen der heutigen Ethik), Beijing:
Zhongguo shehui kexueyuan, 2002, p. 367377.
13
Chen Ying, ed., Zhongguo lunli sixiangshi (Zur Ideengeschichte chinesischer Ethik), Jinan:
Hunan jiaoyu chubanshe, 2004, p. 79.
100 KARIN TOMALA
2. Rezeption der Menschenrechtsidee in der chinesischen Tradition
2.1. Konfuzianisches Konzept vom Menschen und dem Ordnungsprinzip
Zum besseren Verstndnis des chinesischen Menschenrechtsverstndnisses ist es
notwendig, die Grundstrukturen sozialphilosophischen Denkens der chinesischen
Zivilisation kurz zu skizzieren. Im KonIuzianismus galt nicht die AllvernunIt der
menschlichen Autonomie, sondern ein hierarchisches System der Einordnungen und
Unterordnungen als Grundlage der GesellschaIt. Das traditionelle sozialphilosophische
Denken basierte auI der Vorstellung, dass alles Handeln von der Quelle einer guten
Autoritt ausgehen msste.
14
Die oberste PIlicht der Herrschenden bestand darin, der GesellschaIt sozialen Frieden
und Harmonie zu sichern. Dabei wurde an die uralten Erkenntnisse angeknpIt, dass sich
Stabilitt nur bewahren liee, wenn die materiellen Grundvoraussetzungen gegeben sind.
Das Primat der politischen Ordnung durch einen guten Herrscher stand im Vordergrund
und diente zur Legitimation despotischer HerrschaIt.
15
Der Philosoph Chen Ying erklrt
damit das Fehlen einer Rechtskultur, die sich auI dem Fundament der Menschenrechtsideen
im Westen herausgebildet hat. Damit wurden auch keine Werte geschaIIen, die zur Sicherung
individueller Freiheiten geIhrt htten.
16
HerrschaIt wurde auIgrund von Ethik und Moral
deIiniert. Das anzustrebende Ideal im traditionellen China bestand nicht darin, die Rechte
des einzelnen zu garantieren, sondern es ging um die Nutzbarmachung des Individuums
Ir die GemeinschaIt.
Der BegriII ,ren, der ethische Kerngedanke des KonIuzianismus, beinhaltet die Werte
Menschenwrde, Menschlichkeit oder auch Piett, die in eng verIlochtenen, wechselseitigen
Beziehung zwischen Menschen in der GesellschaIt gelebt werden sollten. Das bedeutet,
dass der Mensch nur als Mensch deIiniert werden kann, wenn er eine ethisch verpIlichtende
Beziehung ren vi zu einem anderen Menschen eingegangen ist, eingedenk der hierarchischen
PIlichten, wobei die Familie im Zentrum der Beziehungen steht.
17
Nach dieser Vorstellung
stellt die Familie eine Art Brcke dar zwischen dem Individuum und der GemeinschaIt. So war
im chinesischen Denken vorwiegend der Mensch und nicht das Individuum von Interesse.
AuIgrund dieses konIuzianischen Konzepts vom Menschen haben sich die grundlegenden
Strukturen der chinesischen GesellschaIt herausgebildet.
18
Im KonIuzianismus Iinden wir jedoch auch Kategorien zur Machtbegrenzung und
Menschenwrde. Galt das ,Mandat des Himmels zwar als unteilbar, so verwirkte der
chinesische Herrscher sein Mandat, wenn er nicht vermochte, das Wohlergehen von Staat
und Volk zu sichern. Diese Art von Widerstandsrecht gegen Willkr und einen tyrannischen
Herrscher wurde zu einer der Wurzeln der Idee vom Menschenrecht in China.
14
Zhang Huanwen, ,Zhonghua chuantong wenhua yu renquan, in Shifie renquan :ongheng
(ber die Menschenrechte in der Welt), Beijing, 1993, s. 205207.
15
Chen Ying, Zhonguo lunli sixiang shi (Zur Geschichte der Ethik in China), op. cit., p. 219229.
16
See: Benjamin J. Schwarz, The Primacv of Polical Order in East Asian Societies, in S.R.
Schram, ed., Hongkong: Foundation and Limits oI State Power in China, 1987.
17
Chen Ying, Zhonguo lunli sixiang shi (Zur Geschichte der Ethik in China), op. cit., p. 8183.
18
Xia Yong, ,Renquan yu zhongguo chuntong, in Liu Nanlai, ed., Renquan de pubianxing he
te:huxing (Allgemeingltigkeiten und Besonderheiten der Menschenrechte), Beijing, 1996, p. 67.
2.2. Das Prinzip ,Herrschaft des Volkes minzhu
Die ,HerrschaIt des Volkes bedeutete ,Souvern, der die hchste politische Autoritt
darstellte, mit dem Himmel verbunden und deshalb mit menschlichen EigenschaIten und
moralischem Wille ausgestattet war. Man glaubte, dass er beIhigt sei, ,die Interessen des
Volkes zu erkennen und sie auch zu gewhren.
19
Dieses Prinzip stand in enger Verbindung
mit dem traditionellen Prinzip minben (,Das Volks als Grundlage).
20
Auch der BegriII Demokratie oder VolksherrschaIt min:hu wurde in Anlehnung an das
traditionelle Weltbild interpretiert.
Als im 19. Jahrhundert KauIleute nach China eindrangen, brachten sie auch westliches
Ideengut ins Land. 1864 wurde der BegriII Menschenrechte zum ersten Mal aus dem
Englischen human rights ins Chinesische bersetzt. Ren quanli bedeutete soviel wie
Menschen und Rechte. Diese bersetzung entsprach nicht dem traditionellen Verstndnis
von HerrschaItsanspruch und Rechten. Der Mensch besa als Person keine Rechte. So
wurde ein neuer BegriII renquan geschaIIen, der soviel wie Mensch und Macht bedeutet.
Hierbei ging es nicht um die Relativierung der Menschenrechte, sondern um ein anderes
Verstndnis des Verhltnisses zwischen Individuum und Staat.
In der modernen chinesischen Geschichte wurden Demokratiemodelle vor allem als ein
politisches Konzept zur nationalen Strkung, zur Erlangung der nationalen Unabhngigkeit
im KampI gegen die westlichen Eindringliche betrachtet.
21
Die Forderungen des Primats
der Freiheit der Nation vor den Individualrechten macht das traditionelle Grundprinzip von
min:hu (HerrschaIt des Volkes) aus. Der Staat muss die Verantwortung Ir die
GrundbedrInisse des Einzelnen bernehmen und ihn mit Nahrung, Kleidung, UnterkunIt
versorgen. Das heutige ,sozialistische Demokratiekonzept zeigt viele hnlichkeiten.
2.3. Erinnerung an Unrechtserfahrungen
Als die westlichen Kolonialmchte China gewaltsam IIneten und dem Land die
zahlreichen ,ungleichen Vertrge auIzwangen, geschah das nicht im Geiste der
Menschenrechtsidee. Diese UnrechtserIahrungen prgten zweiIelsohne auch das
chinesische Menschenrechtsverstndnis in der neueren Geschichte. In der chinesischen
Historiographie wird von einer doppelten Moral gesprochen, die die Moderne gezeigt
htte. Mit Nachdruck wird in der IIentlichen Debatte daran erinnert, dass bis zur
Verabschiedung der Allgemeinen Erklrung der Menschenrechte 1948 die Universalitt
der Menschenrechte zwar immer wieder gepriesen, jedoch von den westlichen Staaten
selbst nicht beIolgt wurde. Das, was die Weltpolitik bestimmte, sei eher eine Iaktische
19
Li Cunshan, ,Development oI Democratic Concepts, in Social Sciences in China, 1998,
No.2, p. 6869.
20
Jun Tiengen, ,Lun ruxue zhong minzhu de kenang yu Iou (ber die Mglichkeit von
demokratischen Anstzen in den konIuzianischen Klassikern), in Chen Qizhi, Zhang Shuhua, Rufia
chuantong vu renquan. Min:hu si xiang, op. cit., p. 48.
21
Xia Yong, ,Renquan yu zhongguo chuntong, in Liu Nanlai, ed., Renquan de pubianxing he
te:huxing (Allgemeingltigkeiten und Besonderheiten der Menschenrechte), Beijing, 1996, p. 65.
22
Liu Nanlai, Developing Countries and Human Rights, in P.R. Baehr, ed., Human Rights:
Chinese and Dutch Perspective, Amsterdam, 1996, p. 104.
102 KARIN TOMALA
Ignorierung der Ideale gewesen. Hinzu kme, so der VorwurI an die Adresse des Westens,
seien die Menschenrechte auI die Menschen europischer Abstammung und mnnlichen
Geschlechts beschrnkt gewesen. Liu Nanlai, RechtswissenschaItler an der Chinesischen
Akademie Ir SozialwissenschaIten, bezeichnet die Menschenrechte, die in Nordamerika
und Europa eingeIordert wurden, die Menschenrechte der Kolonialisten. Chinesen wurden
doch nicht als menschliche Wesen betrachtet, schreibt er in einer seiner Arbeiten, wenn in
Shanghai auI einem Parktor gro geschrieben stand ,Fr Chinesen und Hunde verboten.
22
In einer anderen Publikation betont derselbe Autor, dass diese immer wieder
thematisierten UnrechtserIahrungen gewiss auch ein Grund daIr seien, dass in China die
Konzepte ber unveruerliche und individuelle Menschenrechte nicht entstehen
konnten.
23
In der Menschenrechtsdebatte, die im Westen geIhrt wird, Iinden diese Aspekte
allerdings wenig Verstndnis, obgleich sie doch mehr Beachtung Iinden sollten.
3. Kulturelle Identitt begrndet Menschenrechtsverstndnis
3.1. Zwischen Tradition und Moderne
In keinem Land der Erde hat es ber einen so langen Zeitraum hinweg eine Kontinuitt
der kulturellen Identitt gegeben wie in China, auch wenn es an Brchen nicht Iehlte. ber
vier Jahrtausende reIlektierte man nach einem kosmischen Verstndnis, nach dem China
als ,Reich der Mitte und als Land der Zivilisation den AuItrag zu erIllen habe, den nicht
zivilisierten Vlkern und Lndern chinesische, also wahrhaIte Zivilisation, zu vermitteln.
Dieser Anspruch ist Ireilich, was die Gegenwart betriIIt, verblasst. Doch wenn es um die
ZukunItsvisionen geht, so wird das nationale Bewusstsein der chinesischen Elite, der
chinesischen Intelligenz, von der Vision bestimmt, eine Mission vollenden zu mssen.
Man kann sich nicht des Eindrucks erwehren, dass nicht wenige chinesische
WissenschaItler in ihren Publikationen mit Stolz von der eigenen glnzenden Zivilisation
sprechen und die HoIInung haben, auch in Zeiten der Globalisierung wieder eine wahre
nationale SolidargemeinschaIt SchaIIen knnen.
24
Stolz auI die ErIolge, die China in den ReIormjahren erzielen konnte, wchst das
SelbstgeIhl und Selbstbewusstsein im Lande. Die Publikation ,China kann Nein sagen
(zu dem, was der Westen Iordert) verdeutlich das eindrucksvoll.
25
China bewegt sich in
seiner geistigen Auseinandersetzung zwischen der groen Tradition des Sinozentrismus
und den ErIordernissen der Moderne, in der es eines Konsenses und der Zusammenarbeit
bedarI.
3.2. Streit um den Stellenwert der Tradition
In de Debatte ber die chinesische Zivilisation streiten sich die Schulen und es gibt die
unterschiedlichen Bewertungen der eigenen Kultur und der Entwicklungskonzeptionen
Ir den Modernisierungsweg des Landes. Es geht, wie auch in den vorhergehenden
23
Liu Nanlai, ed., Renquan de pubianxing he te:huxing (Allgemeingltigkeiten und Besonderheiten
der Menschenrechte), op. cit., p. 45.
24
Luo Rongqu, ,The Historical DeIinition oI Modernization and a New Understanding oI Modern
Worlds Development, in Social Sciences in China, Peking, No. 3/1996, p. 92102.
25
Zhang Xueli, Zhongguo kevi shuo bu (China kann nein sagen), Peking, 1996.
ReIormdebatten, um die Klrung der Frage, ob und inwieweit die Tradition auI die Gegenwart
nachwirkt, wie sie Ir die Gegenwart genutzt werden kann oder aber auch, inwieweit die
Tradition Ir die prekre Situation der Rckstndigkeit im Lande mitverantwortlich zeichnet,
ob die ,Verwestlichung der Macht- und WirtschaItsstrukturen wirklich die einzige Rettung
Ir China sei?
In der Modernisierungsdebatte hatten sich in den 1980er Jahren drei Positionen
herauskristallisiert. Da waren einmal die oIIiziellen Meinungstrger um die herrschende
kommunistische Elite, die danach strebten, an der Ihrenden Rolle der KPCh Iestzuhalten
und tieIgehende ReIormen des Systems ablehnten; da gab es den gemigten ReIormIlgel,
der mittels politischer und konomischer ReIormen in enger Anlegung an die chinesische
Tradition auch Ir China eine ,Iriedliche Revolution herbeizuIhren wnschte; drittens
hatte sich eine radikale Orientierung herausgebildet, die die chinesische Tradition verwarI
und die Modernisierung des Staates einzig und allein mit HilIe der ,Verwestlichung, also
der EinIhrung westlicher politischer und konomischer Strukturen Ir mglich hielt. Sie
postulierten den Bruch mit der eigenen Tradition und die Errichtung einer demokratischen
und pluralistischen HerrschaItsIorm. Einige junge Intellektuelle gingen in ihrer Wertung
der Tradition so weit, dass sie allein im Bruch mit der Tradition die weitere Modernisierung
des Landes Ir mglich hielten. Doch Ihre Zahl blieb im Vergleich zu den beiden ersten
Gruppen verhltnismig gering.
Bei den Debatten ging es also um den Stellenwert der chinesischen Tradition und
Kultur und ihre Anwendung Ir die Moderne, um Fragen des Sinozentrismus, der
KonIuziusIorschung, um die Rolle des Individuums in der GemeinschaIt, den Humanismus
in der europischen und chinesischen Philosophie, um Moralsysteme sowie ihre Bedeutung
Ir den gesellschaItlichen Fortschritt. An kritischen Stimmen Iehlte es nicht. Vor allem die
in der Akademie der GesellschaItswissenschaIten initiierte Diskussion ber den Inhalt
einer sozialistischen GesellschaItsIormation Ihrte zu heItigen Streitgesprchen ber
BegriIIe wie Demokratie, Menschenrechte, Freiheit und autoritre Machtstrukturen.
26
Zu
einem der bekanntesten ReIormvertreter gehrte der Direktor des Akademieinstituts Ir
Marxismus-Leninismus, Su Shaozhi, der sich Ir die Realisierung eines ,humanen
Sozialismus einsetzte und sich gleichzeitig dagegen verwehrte, solche BegriIIe wie
,humaner Sozialismus als ,brgerliches Gedankengut abzutun. Su Shaozhi sprach sich
daIr aus, solche Ideen wie Demokratie und Freiheit nicht ideologisch zu werten und ihnen
universelle Gltigkeit zuerkennen.
27
GeIordert wurde Demokratie als Grundlage des
Sozialismus.
28
Vertreter radikaler ReIormideen, wie der bekannte Dissident Fang Lizhi
sprachen sich oIIen gegen die Parteidiktatur aus. In einem Interview Ir die Zeitung
Guangming Ribao betonte er, dass in einer modernen GesellschaIt die Technik und
wissenschaItliche InIormationen wichtige TriebkrIte Ir die GesellschaIt seien. Diese
Entwicklung werde zu einer vernderten AuIIassung Ihren, wem die Ihrende Rolle in der
GesellschaIt zukme.
29
Die Vertreter der antitraditionellen Strmung lehnten jegliche
26
See: das DiskussionIorum mit Mitarbeitern der Akademie Ir GesellschaItswissenschaIten
ber den ,Sozialismus chinesischer Prgung, in Zhongguo shehui kexue, Nr. 4/1986, p. 4864.
27
Renmin Ribao, 15. August 1986.
28
An Zhiguo, 'Die Demokratie macht Fortschritte, in Beifing Rundschau, Nr. 41/1986, p. 4.
29
Guangming Ribao, 22.9.1986.
104 KARIN TOMALA
Neuinterpretation des alten Systems ab und Iorderten dessen berwindung. Wie in der
,Neuen Kulturbewegung AnIang des 20. Jahrhunderts wehrten sie sich gegen traditionelle
GemeinschaItsideale, die die Entwicklung nur hemmen wrden.
3.3. Kulturelle Identittskrise
Das Grundanliegen der Modernisierung, die Ende der 70er Jahre eingeleitet wurde, besteht
darin, das Land zu modernisieren und stark zu machen (fuqiang). Gleichzeitig sollen damit die
Grundlagen gelegt werden, ein neues Gleichgewicht in der ungleichen KrItekonstellation
mit den westlichen Industrielndern zu Iinden, damit China eine KonIrontation oder auch
Auseinandersetzung mit dem Westen nicht mehr zu beIrchten braucht.
Doch welche Wahrnehmungen herrschten in den ersten ReIormjahren vor? Glaubte man
an die KraIt der chinesischen Zivilisation, mit der solche Zielsetzungen erreicht werden
knnen? Nach der Kulturrevolution war die AuIbruchsstimmung unverkennbar. Doch ZweiIel
an der eigenen Kultur begleiteten sie. In den 80er Jahren begann in China neben den
WirtschaItsreIormen der Ausbruch eines neuen ,KulturIiebers (wenhua re), das sich in
einer Art Identittskrise niederschlug. Einige Intellektuelle strebten den vlligen Bruch mit der
Tradition an, um Freiraum Ir das westliche Zivilisationsmodell zu schaIIen. Die Gegenstrmung
lie nicht lange auI sich warten. Doch inIolge der kritischen Betrachtung der eigenen Kultur
und der daraus herrhrenden SelbstreIlexion wurde es mglich, im breiteren Rahmen den
Unterschied zum Fremden zu erIahren, was zu einer gewissen Identittskrise Ihrte.
3.4. Die Debatte um die Fernsehserie Heshang
Ausdruck dieser Identittskrise war die groe Debatte ber die chinesische Zivilisation.
In China hat das Streiten von Schulen auI der Suche des ,Knigsweges eine lange
Tradition. Neben dem KonIuzianismus kamen immer wieder neue Schulen hervor, die sich
jedoch gegenber dem KonIuzianismus als zu schwach erwiesen, als dass ihre Ideen zum
tragenden Element der GesellschaIt werden konnten.
Die Debatte um die Fernsehserie Heshang (Fluelegie) zeigte, wie unterschiedliche
die Haltungen zur eigenen Tradition waren.
30
In der Fernsehserie wurde die ,gelbe Kultur,
die chinesische, als eine konservative, durch die groe Mauer beengte Zivilisation
beschrieben, die aus ,zivilisatorischem Hochmut gegen alles Fremde, Nichtchinesische,
Nichtzivilisatorische den Anspruch erhoben habe, sich abschotten zu mssen. In diesem
Grundverstndnis der chinesischen Kultur erblickten die Antitraditionalisten Grnde Ir
die Entwicklung einer verIestigten Brokratie, die nicht nur zu erbarmungsloser Korruption,
sondern zu Enge und einer stagnierenden Kultur geIhrt htten. Die Anspielungen auI die
gegenwrtige Situation waren dabei nicht zu bersehen. Mit der Prsentation der ,blauen
Kultur, der maritimen oder auch der westlichen Kultur, versuchten die Filmemacher den
,positiven Charakter dieser Kultur nachzuzeichnen. Der Autor des FernsehIilms
,Fluelegie betonte in einem Interview, dass das Anliegen dieses Films darin bestanden
htte, dem Volk Realitten zu spiegeln und es auIzurtteln, damit eine neue Zivilisation
geschaIIen werden knnte.
31
30
Christina Neder, Flusselegie. Chinas Identittakrise. Die Debatte um die chinesische
Fernsehserie Heshang 19881994.
31
Xinhua, 29.6.1988.
3.5. Gegenaktion - Kampagne gegen die ,geistige Verschmutzung
Angesichts der zahlreichen ,westlichen Ideen und MenschenrechtsIorderungen, die
Eingang in das gesellschaItliche Bewusstsein vieler Chinesen geIunden hatten, sah sich
die politische Fhrung bereits AnIang der 1980er Jahre gezwungen, eine Kampagne gegen
die ,geistige Verschmutzung zu starten. So war es Deng Xiaoping, der auI der
2.Plenartagung des XII. Zentralkomitees der KPCh den KampI gegen die ,geistige
Verschmutzung an der ideologischen Front ankndigte.
32
AuI der 6. Plenartagung des
XII. Parteitages wurde die ,Resolution des Zentralkomitees der Kommunistischen Partei
Chinas ber die Fhrungsprinzipien Ir den ,AuIbau einer sozialistischen geistigen
Zivilisation angenommen.
33
Unter ,geistiger Verschmutzung wurde die InIiltration ,Ialscher Theorien verstanden,
so die Theorien ber den allgemeinen Humanismus und der Menschenrechte. Kritisiert
wurde die Theorie des Existenzialismus und der individuellen Selbstverwirklichung (ziwo
shixian), die Ideen von politischer und konomischer Freiheit, die besonders in den Werken
des Iranzsischen Philosophen Jean Paul Satre geIordert wird. Die ,Bewegung zur
BekmpIung der geistigen Verschmutzung hnelte in ihren Zielsetzungen und in ihrem
Inhalt der Bewegung ,gegen die brgerliche Liberalisierung, die im Sommer 1981 gestartet
wurde. In einem Leitartikel der Parteizeitung Renmin Ribao lesen wir u.a., dass das Wesen
der ,geistigen Verschmutzung in der Propaganda aller mglichen Arten von dekadentem
und zum Sterben verurteiltem Gedankengut der Bourgeoisie und anderer Ausbeuter bestehe,
deren Ziel es sei, Vertrauen am Sozialismus, Kommunismus und der Kommunistischen
Partei Chinas zu verlieren.
34
Die Parteipropaganda vermochte nicht die Debatten ber Freiheit und Menschenrechte,
die unter Studenten und Akademikern geIhrt wurden, zu unterbinden. Beunruhigt ber die
,Disziplinlosigkeit unter den Jugendlichen wurden AnIang 1989 in einer Verordnung des
Zentralkomitees der KPCh die ,Anleitungen zur moralischen Erziehung herausgegeben.
Junge Menschen wollte man damit berzeugen, sich wieder gesellschaItlich mehr
einzubringen.
35
Die Partei hoIIte, mit diesen Kampagnen wieder alles in GriII zu bekommen.
Doch die Debatten eskalierten und die ,Erziehungskampagnen wirkten nicht mehr wie zu
alten Zeiten. Es kam zur groen AuIruhr auI dem Platz des Himmlischen Friedens, auI dem
neben vielen Forderungen auch die Forderung nach Achtung der Menschenrechte gestellt
wurden.
4. Kultureller Ansatz als Verstndnisgrundlage
4.1. Menschenrechte als Ergebnis historischer Entwicklungen - Unterschiedliche
Perspektiven
In der Studie wird die zivilisatorische, d.h. die kulturelle wie aber auch die politisch-
globale Perspektive als Erklrungsansatz benutzt, um eben die andere historische und
32
Renmin Ribao, 25.10.1983.
33
34
35
106 KARIN TOMALA
ideelle Verstndnisperspektive in Zeiten der Globalisierung auIzuzeigen, die bei uns im
Westen oIt negiert oder als Legitimationsgrundlage des HerrschaItssystems kritisch
betrachtet wird.
Wenn wir ber Menschenrechte sprechen, ist es wichtig, sich immer wieder bewusst zu
machen, dass sie als normative OrdnungsIaktoren nicht in einem Raum jenseits von
Tradition und historischen ErIahrungen geboren wurden. Und dieser Ansatz hat wohl
nicht im geringsten mit kulturellem Relativismus zu tun, wie es oIt den KulturwissenschaIten
vorgeworIen wird, sondern allein mit unterschiedlichen Sichtweisen von Lebens- und
Ordnungsmodellen, die sich historisch in der jeweiligen Ideengeschichte der Zivilisationen
entwickelt haben. Doch auch die sind im Wandel begriIIen.
4.2. Differenz zwischen chinesischem Zivilisationsbewusstsein und dem
europisch-angelschsischer Kulturen whrend des Modernisierungsprozesses
Wichtig scheint es mir zu anIangs zu betonen, dass Grenzziehung zur Sicherung der
eigenen Identitt notwendig ist. Die zivilisatorische Abgrenzung zum Fremden konnte
auch inIolge des Modernisierungsprozesses in China nicht auIgehoben werden. Fremdes
dagegen wurde in unterschiedlichen Formen und Inhalten selektiv auIgenommen und in
Eigenes verwandelt. Die Abgrenzung zum Anderen bleibt, wie uns historische ErIahrungen
lehren, eine wichtige Quelle der Kohrenz und somit auch der sich daraus ergebenen
Identitt jedes Gemeinwesens und jedes Einzelnen. Nach der berwindung totalitrer
Strukturen, war es notwendig geworden, sich eine neue politische Identitt zu schaIIen.
Dabei erIhrt die Reinterpretation der eigenen Kultur an Bedeutung. Damit ist auch eine
neue Situation entstanden, China und die Chinesen sind nicht mehr nur die Rezipienten
von Interpretationen, sondern sie werden zum Subjekt, das neu interpretiert und neu schaIIt.
Andererseits wird die chinesische Kultur nicht mehr nur einseitig von der westlichen
WissenschaIt beurteilt, sondern von den Chinesen selbst.
Trotz aller VerIlechtungen, Grenzberschreitungen, berschneidungen wie auch ersten
geistigen Durchdringungen bleibt die ausgeprgte DiIIerenz zwischen dem chinesischen
Zivilisationsbewusstsein und dem der europischen und angelschsischen Kulturen
erhalten und mit neuen Aspekten erIahrbar. Erinnern wir an die Stereotypen, die Halbwissen
oder auch Unwissen ber eine Zivilisation hervorgebracht haben. Wurden doch auI diese
Weise Ialsche Wahrnehmungen projektiert.
4.3. Verflechtung und Differenz der Kulturen
Bisher gibt es wenig Zeichen daIr, dass der MarktwirtschaIt, die sich seit ber 20Jahren
in einem beschleunigten Tempo entwickelt, die Demokratisierung politischer Strukturen
und die Gewhrung von politischen BrgerIreiheiten Iolgen knnten. Doch durch das
Festhalten am eigenen Entwicklungsmodell wird die Welt natrlich noch lngst nicht
chinesisch, wie es in UnkenruIen zahlreicher Bedrohungsszenarien apostrophiert wird.
InIolge der Modernisierungsbewegung sind heute in China sowohl DiIIerenz wie auch
VerIlechtung mit der westlichen Kultur zu neuen Bestandteilen der Identitt geworden.
In der Studie wird die These auIgestellt, dass die rapide Entwicklung Chinas neue Signale
setzt. Ein Gegenmodell zu westlichen WirtschaIts- und Sozialordnungen, angeIllt mit
Elementen aus diesem Modell, ist im Entstehen begriIIen. In diesem Modell, obgleich es in
seiner konkreten Umsetzung auch von der Maximierung des ProIits, der Jagd nach mehr
Reichtum und Konsumzwnge gekennzeichnet ist, hat das traditionell eingebte Verhltnis
zwischen Individualitt und GemeinschaIt in Politik und GesellschaIt kaum etwas an
Bedeutung verloren. Nach den Jahren erIolgreichen WirtschaItswachstums, wo
sozialvertrgliche Entwicklungsaspekte nur politische Zielkataloge blieben, zwingen die
KassandraruIe die HerrschaItselite dazu, in die Politik die Harmonierung der GesellschaIt
als Modernisierungsziel auIzunehmen.
36
4.4. Das ,kleine Ich und das ,groe Ich
ZweiIelsohne hat sich die chinesische Kultur, insbesondere in den letzten 200 Jahren,
auch unter dem EinIluss des Westens in ihrer Geschichte verndert. Zu nennen seien hier
WissenschaIt, Politik- und Sozialorganisation, WirtschaIt, Architektur, politische Theorien
oder auch literarische Werke, die sie beeinIlussten. Dies hat jedoch nicht bewirken knnen,
das Essenzielle, das Verhltnis zur GemeinschaIt und zum Staat auIzugeben. Chinesische
WissenschaItler sprechen von dem ,kleinen Ich, was sich in China inIolge des Wandels
herausbildet hat im Unterschied zum ,groen Ich, das im Westen die GesellschaIten prgt.
Der Unterschied zwischen China und dem Westen bestnde in der Quantitt und Qualitt
des Ichs.
37
In der chinesischen Tradition sind, wie wir wissen, auch Anstze menschenrechtlichen
Denkens wie im Abendland zu Iinden, jedoch hatten die Ideen vom Widerstand gegen die
,HerrschaIt des Himmels, wenn sie ihre PIlichten nicht erIllt, wenig Chancen im politischen
und rechtlichen System des traditionellen wie auch im modernisierenden Chinas im 19. und
20. Jahrhundert sich zu entIalten. Im ReIormchina, wo heute junge Menschen und
Intellektuelle nach mehr Freiheit und mehr Individualitt streben und sich gegen die Willkr
von Macht auIlehnen, breitet sich wohl das kleine Ich weiter aus. Doch zum ,kleinen Ich
gehren gleichIalls, sich Ir den Wohlstand der Nation und die Strke des Landes zu
engagieren. In so einem Verstndnis werde auch die Grundlage Ir die Menschenrechtspolitik
in China gesehen, schreibt der PolitikwissenschaItler Chen Ying in einer seiner
Abhandlungen ber die chinesische Ideengeschichte.
38
Dieses Argumentationsmuster ist
in China weit verbreitet und wird von der Mehrheit der Bevlkerung, darunter auch den
Intellektuellen akzeptiert. Es erklrt, warum wir bis heute noch vielerorts traditionelle
Einstellungen vorIinden, die autoritren HerrschaItsstrukturen im Modernisierungsprozess
nicht in Frage stellen.
4.5. Die westliche Kultur ist keine universale Kultur
Obwohl im Westen die meisten Menschen von der berlegenheit der eigenen Kultur
berzeugt sind, ihre Zivilisation als den Haupttrend in der Geschichte sehen, wird die
westliche Zivilisation damit noch nicht zur universalen Weltkultur. In Erinnerung sei geruIen,
dass doch alle groen Zivilisationen von dem Anspruch ausgehen, dass ihre Kultur letzt
endlich die beste sei. Wenn die politische Elite in China heute dem interkulturellen Dialog
ber essentielle Fragen des zuknItigen Menschseins oIIen gegenbersteht, bedeutet das
36
Liu Hainian, ed., Yifa :higuo vu kang:heng fianshe (Gesttzt auI das Recht regieren und eine
gesunde Regierung schaIIen), Beijing, 1999, p. 471479.
37
Chen Qizhi, Zhang Shuhua, Rufia chuanton vu renquan. Min:hu si xiang, op. cit., p. 160163.
38
Chen Ying, ed., Zhongguo lunli sixiangshi, op. cit., p. 587.
108 KARIN TOMALA
wahrlich eine HerausIorderung Ir das ,christliche Abendland, mit dessen Ideen sich die
,westliche Zivilisation identiIiziert. Die Modernisierung der GesellschaIt nach westlichem
Vorbild ist in China eine umstrittene Entwicklungskonzeption.
39
Umstritten bleiben somit
auch universelle Modernisierungsgesetze, weil der Traum von der Moderne viel an seiner
Plausibilitt verloren habe. Seit mehr als 150 Jahre hlt nun in China bereits die Debatte an,
welchen Weg China beschreiten msste, um seine GesellschaIt zu modernisieren.
40
So
einig man sich ber das Ziel ist, China als Staat und KulturgemeinschaIt seine verlorene
Gre wiederzugeben, so umstritten bleiben weiterhin die Mittel und Wege.
5. Selbstfindung durch ,Wiedergeburt der Tradition
5.1. Tradition wird neu entdeckt
SelbstIindung in den ReIormbewegungen wie in den seit Mitte des 19. Jahrhunderts
immer wieder in AngriII genommenen Versuchen, das Land zu modernisieren, versteht man
auch die neue Modernisierungsstrategie, und zwar traditionell nach dem ,ti-yong Prinzip.
In der Modernisierungsstrategie geht es um die Strkung der eigenen Nation und der
SelbstIindung der GesellschaIt in Zeiten der Globalisierung.
5.2. Kritische bernahme der eigenen traditionellen Werte?
Wenn es um die Kulturen geht, so unterliegen alle Kulturen dem Wandel in Zeit und Raum
durch unterschiedliche EinIlsse, wie Migration, Aueneinwirkungen und IInung nach
auen. Die chinesische Hochkultur, auch als Nationalkultur verstanden, erIhrt trotz zahlreicher
Brche eine bemerkenswerte Kontinuitt, und das in Bereichen der SchriItsprache, der Bildung
im kanonischen SchriIttum, Dichtung und Malerei, Zentralismus von Verwaltung und
Institutionen sowie im Familiensystem.
Seit Mitte der 90er Jahre hat die neu entdeckte Tradition in China wieder Konjunktur, und
das in politischen, sozialen und gesellschaItlichen Bereichen. Als elitrer Bildungskanon gilt
das Besinnen auI die Hochkultur, die zu Zeiten Mao Zedongs als Ieudal und rckstndig
verworIen war. Der chinesische ,Sonderweg wird als Widerspieglung chinesischen Denkens
gesehen. Doch diejenigen, die wagen, kritisch mit den Inhalten kulturellen Gedchtnisses
umzugehen, wie in den 80er Jahren, ist nicht gro. Doch die KassandraruIe, dass die chinesische
Kultur auIgrund der Rckstndigkeit des Landes zum Untergang verurteilt sei,
41
sind
gegenwrtig lngst verhallt, nachdem China zur WirtschaItsgromacht auIgestiegen ist.
Man sollte sich bewusst machen, dass Chinesen sich heute strker als zu Beginn der
ReIormen durch ihre Kultur deIinieren, ob es uns genehm ist oder nicht. Nicht nur die
Zubereitung der Tasse Tee in den neu entstandenen Teehusern, das Angebot von
verschiedenen Utensilien zur Zubereitung in den TeegeschIten, die Wiederbelebung lokaler
39
See: Zhang Liwen, Chuantong wenhua vu xiandaihua (Traditionelle Kultur und Modernisierung),
Beijing, 1987.
40
Luo Rongqu, ed., Cong xihua dao xiandaihua wu si vilai vouguan. Zhongguo de wenhua qu
xiang he fa:han daolu lun:heng wenxuan (Von der Verwestlichung zur Modernisierung ausgewhlte
SchriIten zur Diskussion ber Tendenzen und Entwicklungswege der chinesischen Kultur seit dem
4. Mai), Beijing, 1990, p. 3035.
41
Jonathan Unger, Using the Past, to serve the Present Historiographv and Politics in
Contemporarv China, New York: Armong, 1993, p. 124150.
Theaterstile und regionaler Kochrezepte sowie PilgerIahrten zu traditionellen Kultsttten,
wie die Heiligen Berge oder auch zu dem Geburtsort von KonIuzius, QuIu, stehen hoch im
Kurs. In den bisherigen WirtschaItserIolgen sieht man eine Besttigung des positiven
konIuzianischen Denkens und Handels.
Nach klassischem Muster in ein traditionelles Gewand gekleidet und im traditionellen
Duktus vorgetragen werden Entwicklungsprobleme analysiert. Der KonIuzianismus wird als
eine Art HilIs-Ideologie Ir die Probleme der Gegenwart genutzt, da er sich, wie betont, stets
entsprechend der neuen Situation als eine anpassungsIhige hilIreiche Ideologie erwiesen
habe, ohne dabei sein Wesen von ren (Menschlichkeit) auIzugeben.
42
In der oIIiziellen
Sprachreglung wird das mit der ,kritischen bernahme der eigenen traditionellen Werte
umschrieben. Anarchie gilt nach wie vor als das schlimmste Unheil, was China begegnen
knnte. So wird man nicht mde, darauI zu verweisen, dass das weitere Schicksal Chinas davon
abhngen werde, in wie weit konIuzianische Wertvorstellungen, insbesondere die Normen
zhong ,von Ma und Mitte, die die Voraussetzungen Ir die Stabilitt sei, ihre Widerspieglung
in der Praxis Iinden.
43
Wie weit verbreitet das BedrInis nach Harmonie und Ausgleich verbreitet
ist und noch immer zum LebensgeIhl eines groen Teil der chinesischen Intelligenz gehrt,
zeigt die KonIuziusdebatte. Stabilitt, so kann man in oIIiziellen Verlautbarungen vernehmen,
knne nur unter der Fhrung der Kommunistischen Partei auIrechterhalten werden.
5.3. Konfuziusforschung
Im Herbst 1987 Iand in QuIu (Provinz Shandong), dem Geburtsort des groen
Philosophen und Staatsmannes KonIuzius, eine internationale KonIerenz ber den
KonIuzianismus statt, die erste dieser Art nach der Grndung der Volksrepublik China.
Eine Verwestlichung Chinas wurde verworIen, weil, wie in den Vortrgen betont, kein Land,
insbesondere eine Nation mit einer so langen Tradition, seine Tradition zur Seite legen und
eine Iremde bernehmen knne.
44
Doch Modernisierung und Globalisierung ohne ethische
Regeln knnten zu einer Falle werden. Die konIuzianischen Klassiker seien heute mehr als
je geIragt, da die ethischen Regeln Lsungsanstze Ir zahlreiche Probleme, die in der
Gegenwart entstanden sind, anbieten. Die Moderne msse zu gesunden.
45
Die KonIuziusIorschung blht, besondere Zentren und Lehrsthle wurden eingerichtet,
da heute in China die allgemeine Ansicht vertreten wird, dass die konIuzianische Lehre
nicht nur Ir China eine wichtige Ethik sei, sondern Ir die gesamte Welt. Moralische,
altruistische und politische Aspekte stehen hier im Vordergrund wie ren (Menschlichkeit)
oder cheng (AuIrichtigkeit), nach denen der Wohlstand Ir alle vor der persnlichen
Bereicherung Prioritt haben sollte.
46

42
See: Zhongguo Kongzi jijinhui xueshu weiyuanhui, ed., Jin si shi nian lai Kong:i vanfiu
lunwen xuanbian, Jinan, 1987.

43
Luo Zuji, Zhongvong shehui :hun:e shuo. Jian lun :hongvong :hi dao vu :he:hong:huvi, in
Luo Zuji, ed., Jinan: Kongzi sixiang yanjiu lunji, 1987, p. 160163.
44
Guangming Ribao, 1.09.1987.
45
Zhang Xiaowei, ,Xiandaihua de xianjing (Die Falle der Modernisierung), in Chen Qizhi,
Zhang Shuma, Rushang vu er shi shifi, op. cit., p. 377380.
46
Na Kai, ,Lun Ruxue zai quanqiuhua jingcheng Hong de zuoyong (Bedeutung der
konIuzianischen Forschung Ir den Gobalisierungsprozess), in Chen Qizhi, Zhang Shuma, Rushang
vu er shi shifi, op. cit., p. 491505.
110 KARIN TOMALA
5.4. Neuer, alter Wertekanon
Im Zuge der ,Modernisierung haben sich gewisse moralische Einstellungen und
Verhaltensweisen natrlich rapide verndert und das ,kleine Ich ist weiter im Vormarsch,
sich zu vergrern. Mit einer Art gesteuerter Rckbesinnung auI ,positive Elemente der
konIuzianischen Tradition versucht die politische Elite die Tradition zu instrumentalisieren
und auI das Bewusstsein der GesellschaIt einzuwirken. Hierbei geht es um solche
moralischen Werte, die in den neuen Katalog auIgenommen werden sollen, damit die
Regierung wieder leichter regieren kann. Im Vordergrund stehen hier solche Werte wie:
Menschlichkeit ren; Gerechtigkeit yi, auch als chinesische Demokratie verstanden; Piett
xiao, die Achtung vor den Eltern und den lteren, Hochachtung gegenber den Ahnen
und politischen Autoritten; Ma und Mitte zhong yong, Bescheidenheit, Ausdauer, keine
malosen Forderungen stellen; Gte, Gelassenheit zhongshu, nicht revoltieren und keine
Aggressionen zeigen; Sparsamkeit jian, nicht verschwenderisch umgehen; Flei nuli, die
Arbeit lieben.
Bei diesem neuen Wertekatalog, der als politisches HilIsinstrument Verwendung Iindet,
geht es nicht nur um die Gesundung der sich vertieIenden gesellschaItlichen Probleme,
sondern vor allem auch um die Humanismus- und Demokratiedebatte, um den so
genannten Unterschied zwischen einem ,brgerlichen und einem ,sozialistischen
Humanismus sowie zwischen ,brgerlicher und ,sozialistischer Demokratie.
Menschlichkeit, als Menschenliebe nicht nur gegenber den Blutsverwandten, sondern
als Liebe zum ganzen Volk verstanden, wird nicht nur als Kerngedanke des KonIuzianismus
gesehen, sondern als universeller BegriII Ir Menschlichkeit und Humanitt,
47
als
universeller Humanismus interpretiert, womit gesagt werden soll, dass in China die Idee
des wahren Humanismus schon viel lnger existiere als im Abendland und heute wieder
darauI zurckgegriIIen wird.
5.5. Recht und Ethik
Der Stellenwert der Ethik, die nach dem Sinn und der Richtigkeit von menschlichen
Handlungen Iragt, scheint sich bei der Herausbildung neuer Identitten, Doppelidentitten
und neuen Lebensinhalten in einigen gesellschaItlichen Gruppen zunehmend zu verIlchtigen.
Konsumangebote und Konsumzwnge beschleunigen in der DigitalwirtschaIt Lebenstempo
und die Begierde nach dem Erleben des Augenblicks. In der ErlebnisgesellschaIt geht es
wohl weniger um ethische Normen und bisher traditionelle gemeinschaItsbezogene
verantwortliche Verhaltensweisen. Im Zuge der Computerisierung, Automatisierung, der
Innovation steht oIt das eigene Selbst im Vordergrund. Die Selbstverwirklichung der eigenen
Person oder auch einer sozialen Gruppe gehren zu neuen Identittstendenzen in China.
Postmodernistische Tendenzen, in dem man sich vollkommnen dem GeIhl der
Selbstverwirklichung hingibt, Ihren zur Subjektivierung der Person, die die Wirklichkeit
durch eigene menschliche ErIahrungen schaIIen will. Besonders in den groen chinesischen
Metropolen kann man heute immer mehr Menschen begegnen, die sich von traditionellen

47
Fu ShuIang, ,Positive Faktoren in den Gedanken des KonIuzius, in eds. Silke Krieger, RolI
Trauzettel, Mainz: Konfu:ius und die Modernisierung Chinas, 1990, p. 217.
Zwngen zu beIreien suchen. AugenIllig ist das nicht nur in neuen LebensIormen, sondern
auch in einigen Bereichen der Kunst.
Wenn es um die Suche einer neuen Identitt geht, so verluIt der Prozess vielschichtig
und mehrgleisig. Die Legitimation von HerrschaIt und die staatspolitische Identitt, die damit
zusammenhngt, wird auch nach Iast 30 Jahren, nachdem sich China geIInet hat, nicht nach
dem Recht, sondern auIgrund von zivilisatorischen Aspekten der chinesischen Ethik deIiniert.
Und es sollte trotz allen AuIbruchs und Wandel immer wieder daran erinnert werden, dass die
chinesischen Traditionalisten, die geistige Debatte ber das zuknItige Menschenbild im
Lande versuchen zu steuern, da sie, wie in alten Zeiten, dem Irrglauben verhaItet zu sein
scheinen, dass auIgrund des Stellenwertes der Ethik in der chinesischen Kultur diese
hherwertig als die abendlndische Zivilisation sei. In der westlichen Kultur, so wird betont,
sei der Mensch zum konomischen Subjekt erniedrigt worden,
48
ohne die pragmatische
einseitige Wachstumsstrategie seit Beginn der ReIormen, die zu riesigen Entwicklungs- und
EinkommensgeIllen in der chinesischen GesellschaIt geIhrt haben, genauer zu hinterIragen.
5.6. Entzauberung von Mythen und die Herausbildung pluralistischer Lebensformen
In der chinesischen GesellschaIt sind die Menschen dabei, eine neue Identitt zu Iinden.
Dabei werden alte Mythen von vollkommenen Menschenbildern, und das betriIIt nicht nur
die Zeit der totalitren HerrschaIt unter Mao Zedong, sondern auch die traditionellen
Utopien, entzaubert. Wir beobachten einen Paradigmenwechsel, in dem die GesellschaIt
vor die Alternative gestellt wird, sich von Zwngen zivilisatorischer Ansprche zu beIreien.
Damit gehen Ausgrenzung, Entgrenzung der Normen und die Herausbildung vielIltiger,
pluralistischer LebensIormen einher, die sowohl neue Freiheiten wie auch neue UnIreiheiten
schaIIen, wie die VerIgbarkeit und UniIormierung jedes einzelnen. Das gilt nicht nur Ir
die entwickelten Industrielnder des Westens. Entgrenzung und VerIgbarkeit der Person
sind auch in Chinas zu einem bedrohlichen GesellschaItsphnomen geworden. Obwohl
Symptome der Entgrenzung doch Folge eines neuen neoliberalen WirtschaItsgeistes
gehren, sind sich die meisten Menschen dieser neuen Vereinnahmung und deren Folgen
kaum bewusst, sondern empIinden es vor allem als Freiheitsgewinn.
5.7. Herausbildung persnlicher Identitten von Gewinnern und Verlieren
Die rasante WirtschaItsentwicklung hat in China Gewinner und Verlierer hervor gebracht,
die eine unterschiedliche persnliche Identitt entwickelt haben. Die Gewinner
unterschiedlicher Couleur identiIizieren sich vor allem als Person inIolge ihres ErIolgs und
des erzielten Wohlstands. Zur neuen Identitt gehrt in gewissen Wohlstandskreisen auch
Hedonismus, der hier im Kommen ist mit neuen Lebensmodellen, die von Spa, Genuss,
KomIort und grenzenloser persnliche Freizgigkeit gekennzeichnet sind. Mit der
persnlichen Freiheit erIasste auch die Droge des Glckspiels wieder die Herzen vieler
Chinesen.
49
Unter Mao Zedong war die SpielleidenschaIt der Chinesen als Laster des alten
48
Werner Meiner, ,Intellektuelle im Zwiespalt, in eds. Karl Hein Pohl, Gudrun Wacker, Liu
Huiru, Chinesische Intellektuelle im 20. Jahrhundert :wischen Tradition und Moderne, Hamburg,
1993, p. 126127.
49
Erst unlngst wurde eine Kampagne gegen menschliche Laster, KampI gegen Spiele in Kasinos
ins Leben geruIen.
112 KARIN TOMALA
Chinas verpnt. Heute ist es zu einem neuen Laster geworden. Viele Arten des Glcksspiels
gibt es in China, dazu Sportwetten, die abgeschlossen werden, inzwischen auch auI der
Webseite. Viele meinen, es gehre zur chinesischen Mentalitt. Die SpielleidenschaIt kostet
Geld, und das holt man sich aus illegalen GeschIten und der Grauzone. OIIiziell wird
beklagt, dass mit der zunehmenden Korruption auch die Branche des Glcksspiels wuchs.
Es wird als das Opium des 21. Jahrhundert gebrandmarkt.
50
So locken Touristikangebote,
indirekt auch die Mglichkeit anbietend, in Grenzkasinos spielen zu knnen. Zu Spielpltzen
Ir Chinesen vom Festland sind Macao und Hongkong, aber auch die Nachbarlnder Sd-
Korea, Nordkorea, Russland, aber auch Macao und Hongkong geworden.
2004 gab die Parteizentrale diesbezgliche VorschriIten Ir ihre Mitglieder heraus. Danach
werden Parteimitglieder aus der Partei ausgeschlossen, wenn sie spielen. Landesweit ist das
Ministerium Ir IIentliche Sicherheit beauItragt worden, dagegen anzukmpIen. Mit
Sonderkommandos und InIormationen auI Webseiten soll dagegen vorgegangen werden.
51
Es
wird berichtet, dass innerhalb sechs Monaten die Polizei whrend dieser Kampagne 281 Mio.
US $ Glcksspielgelder beschlagnahmen sowie 77.000 PC und Videogerte sicherstellen konnte.
52
AuI der anderen Seite nehmen solche Erscheinungen wie Armut, Ausgrenzung und eine
rcksichtslose Versklavung der Schwachen zu. Der Arme und Schwache sieht sich als
Ausgegrenzter an, obgleich auch er auI eine rettende Hand der MarktwirtschaIt gewartet
hatte. Sie betrachten sich nicht als Gewinner der neuen ReIormpolitik, obgleich sich auch ihre
Lebensverhltnisse insgesamt verbessert haben. Sie sind enttuscht und identiIizieren sich
als Verlierer und OpIer.
Gewiss menschliche Begierden gehren zum Menschsein. Auch wenn in der konIuzianischen
und buddhistischen Lehre das malose Streben des Individuums nach BeIriedigung seiner
Begierden als Wurzel allen menschlichen Elends gesehen wird, so vermochte der
zivilisatorische Anspruch, Gengsamkeit zu pIlegen, nicht verhindern, dass auch in China
die BeIriedigung der Begierden zum Menschsein gehrte. Der Mensch mit seinen ideellen
BedrInissen rckt in den Hintergrund. Die BeIriedigung der materiellen BedrInisse werden
zum IdentiIikationsmotor von Entwicklung und eines menschenwrdiges Daseins erklrt.
Wir sind jedoch Zeugen, wie auch in China das menschliche Dasein zunehmend durch den
Konsumterror kommerzialisiert wird.
6. Wandel in der Menschenrechtsauffassung
6.1. Menschenrechte - vom imperialistischen Werkzeug zu allgemeinen
Menschenrechten
Unter Mao Zedong wurden Menschenrechte als imperialistisches Werkzeug im KampI
gegen den Sozialismus betrachtet. Seit der Proklamierung des ReIormkurses im Jahre
1978werden sie nicht mehr verworIen, sondern sind zu einem positiven BegriII geworden,
obgleich sie nach eigenen Besonderheiten kulturspeziIisch interpretiert werden.
53
In dieser
50
Renmin Ribao, 2. February 2005.
51
Xinhua, 25. May 2005.
52
Xinhua, 14. July 2005.
53
Chang Jian, Renquan de lixiang, beilun, xianshi (Theorie, Widersprche, Praxis der
Menschenrechte), Chengdu, 1992, p. 134136.
Zeit beginnen zum ersten Mal Debatten ber allgemeine MenschenrechtsIragen. Zur
theoretischen Begrndung wird der Wandel des bisherigen Menschenrechtskonzepts als
ein ,notwendiges Ergebnis der Entwicklungslogik unserer Zeit bezeichnet.
54
Betont wird,
dass trotz zahlreicher Menschenrechtskonventionen, die von der UN verabschiedet worden
seien, es noch keine einheitliche Menschenrechts-Theorie gebe. Fehlen wrde auch ein
einheitlicher Mastab zur Beurteilung dessen, was zu den Menschenrechten in einer
historischen Etappe gehre oder nicht.
55
Das bedeutet, dass es eben in der Praxis noch
keine Universalitt gebe, sondern nur ,relative und konkrete Menschenrechte.
56
In der Politik und WissenschaIt wurde das Konzept der ,drei Generationen auIgestellt
der politischen, sozialen und kollektiven Menschenrechte-, die in der ,Deklaration der
Menschenrechte ihren Niederschlag geIunden htten, da hier in Visionen auIgezeigt
worden sei, wie man global und national zu einer wahren SolidargemeinschaIt kommen
knnte.
57
6.2. Traditionelle Weisheit ist neu zu erkunden
Trotz positivem Wandel in zahlreichen Bereichen der Menschenrechte ist das
chinesische Menschenrechtsverstandnis weiterhin von historischer Kontinuitt geprgt.
So kann man huIig vernehmen, dass das heutige China nichts anderes sei als die
Widerspieglung der historischen Entwicklung des Landes. Deshalb sttze man sich auch
beim ,AuIbau der geistigen Zivilisation des Sozialismus mit chinesischen Besonderheiten,
auI die traditionelle moralische Weisheit, die man neu erkunden msse.
58
Diese Position
wurde bereits auI der 2. MenschenrechtskonIerenz in Wien 1993 vertreten, auI der zum
erstenmal das westliche Menschenrechtsverstndnis global zur Debatte stand. Die
chinesischen Vertreter legten ihr eigenes Menschenrechtsverstndnis vor und traten
gleichzeitig in der Rolle eines Anwalts der nichtwestlichen Staaten auI. Entwicklung, so
der chinesische Vertreter, sei die wichtigste Voraussetzung Ir die Realisierung von
Menschenrechten.
59
Indirekt verwies er damit auI die Geschichte des Kolonialismus, als
zahlreichen Vlkern die Mglichkeit verwehrt wurde, sich zu entwickeln.
In diesem Kontext sei ebenIalls daran zu erinnern, dass bereits 1986 unter Druck der
chinesischen Politik das Recht auf Entwicklung als kollektives Menschenrecht in der
UNO verabschiedet werden konnte. AuI Initiative Chinas wurde am Rande der
2.MenschenrechtskonIerenz, die Bangkok Declaration of Human Rights unterzeichnet.
Hier wurde mit allem Nachdruck auI die besonderen historischen, kulturellen und religisen
54
Ibidem.
55
Xu Weidong, Shen Zhengwu, Zhen Chengliang, Ideological and Legal Criteria Ior Human
Rights, in Social Sciences in China, Summer 1993, p. 76.
56
In einem Interview Ir die hashington Post benutze der Generalsekretr der KPCh Jiang
Zemin diese BegriIIe, als er betonte, dass das Konkrete darin bestehe, daIr zu sorgen, dass das Volk
gengend Nahrung, Kleidung und Arbeit habe und Stabilitt im Staate herrsche.
57
Luo, Rongqu, The Historical DeIinition oI Modernization and a New Understanding oI Modern
Worlds Development, in Social Sciences in China, No. 3/1996, p. 92102.
58
S. Wang Zhengping, Zhou Zhongzhi, Xiandai lunlixue, Beijing: Zhongguo shehui kexue
Chubanshe 2001, p. 1819.
59
Kommentar zur Wiener MenschenrechtskonIerenz in Renmin Ribao, 26.06.1993.
114 KARIN TOMALA
Bedingungen eines Landes verwiesen, die bei der Entwicklung zu bercksichtigen seien.
60
Zu den globalen Menschenrechten zhlt man heute in China ebenIalls die Erhaltung des
WeltIriedens und die Iaire internationale Zusammenarbeit, die durch souverne Nationen
realisiert werden sollten.
China wurde von den westlichen Staaten vorgeworIen, auI der MenschenrechtskonIerenz
in Wien, zusammen mit einigen anderen asiatischen Staaten, wie Indonesien und Malaysia,
die Kontroverse ber die Universalitat der Menschenrechte als eine Ersatzdiskussion an
Stelle des bisherigen Ost-West-KonIlikts entIacht zu haben.
61
6.3. Was ist nun das Besondere an der chinesischen Entwicklung?
In der heutigen Entwicklungsetappe, die die chinesische GesellschaIt zu kleinem
Wohlstand zu Ihren soll, gewinnt die Tradition an Bedeutung. Doch was ist das Besondere
daran? Die bekannte KonIuziusIorscherin Chen Qizhi antwortet auI die Frage, was wohl
das Besondere am chinesischen Entwicklungsweg, der sozialistischen MarktwirtschaIt mit
chinesischen Merkmalen, ausmachen wrde, wie Iolgt: Die so genannten chinesischen
Besonderheiten haben ihren Ursprung in den traditionellen Besonderheiten der
hervorragenden chinesischen Kultur und hervorragenden chinesischen Geschichte, wobei
die konIuzianische Tradition den Kernpunkt dieser Zivilisation ausmacht.
62
7. Weibcher ber die Menschenrechtslage in China
7.1. Das erste Weibuch ber Menschenrechte
In den vorgehenden Kapiteln wurde auIgezeigt, wie mit der IInung des Landes
eine umIangreiche Debatte ber MenschenrechtsIragen in den verschiedenen
WissenschaItsbereichen einsetzte, die das theoretische Gerst Ir die politische
Argumentation lieIerten. Gab es bisher nur oIIizielle Stellungnahmen chinesischer Politiker,
so verIIentlichte das InIormationsbro des Staatsrates 1991, zwei Jahre nach der
Niederschlagung der Protestbewegung 1989, das erste Weibuch ber die Menschenrechte
in China. In gebndelter Form wurde hier das chinesische Menschenrechtsverstndnis als
eigene Wertekonzeption vorgelegt. So lesen wir bereits im Vorwort, dass zwischen einem
,universalen Ideal und ,umIassenden Menschenrechten und denen, die in der
Wirklichkeit respektiert werden oder respektiert werden knnen, doch groe Unterschiede
bestnden.
63
Mit der Dialektik der Widersprche wird das Wesen des chinesischen
Menschenrechtsverstndnisses erklrt. Sie seien sowohl universal wie aber auch
gleichzeitig speziIisch. Wenn unterstrichen wird, dass in der chinesischen VerIassung
60
Jin Deyue, ,Rujia de renquan sixiang, in Chen Qizhi, Zhang Shuhua, Rufia chuan tong vu
renquan. Min:hu sixiang, op. cit, p. 180.
61
Karin Tomala, Das chinesische Selbstverstndis und die Frage der Menschenrechte, Warschau,
1993, p. 4143.
62
Chen Qizhi, ,Rushang de xiandai yiyi weilai zuoyong (Die heutige Bedeutung und zuknItige
Rolle der konIuzianischen Schule), in Chen Qizhi, Zhang Shuma, Rushang vu er shi shifi, op. cit.,
p.30.
63
InIormation OIIice oI the State Council oI the People`s Republic oI China ed., Human Rigths
in China, Beijing, 1991, p. 1.
und in den Gesetzen die Menschenrechte an erster Stelle stnden und auI deren
Unverletzlichkeit geachtet werde, so kann man daraus ersehen, wie ,speziIisch das
Menschenrechtsverstndnis konzipiert wird. Diese Dialektik ist ein Gegenpol zum
westlichen Verstndnis, nach dem in China die Menschenrechte eben nicht in Gestalt
verIassungsmiger Grundrechte positiviert sind, da es den demokratisch legitimierten
Gesetzgeber nicht gibt.
Das ,Recht auf Leben wird als das wichtigste Menschenrecht bezeichnet. Bereits in
den konIuzianischen Klassikern stellte das Recht auI Leben die Grundlage gesellschaItlichen
Handelns dar.
64
In der chinesischen Menschenrechtspolitik bedeutet danach die Gewhrung
der Sicherstellung der grundlegenden Existenzgrundlagen das wichtigste Menschenrecht.
So heit es im Weibuch, wer kein Recht auI Leben habe, Ir den seien alle anderen
Menschenrechte bedeutungslos.
Behandelt werden auch Fragen der ReligionsIreiheit, der Nationalen Minderheiten und
der Familienplanung. Mit allem Nachdruck wird aber auch darauI verwiesen, dass die Interessen
des Staates vor den Interessen des Individuums Prioritt htten. Wer die Interessen des
Staates verletze, Anschlge auI die Regierung plane, die Spaltung des Landes anstrebe, wer
Menschenansammlungen zur bewaIIneten AuIruhr auIwiegle, werde nach dem StraIgesetz
von 1979 als ,konterrevolutionrer Verbrecher klassiIiziert und bestraIt. Nach dieser
Auslegung gibt es im chinesischen Recht keine Kategorie Ir politische HItlinge, wie wir es
im Westen kennen, sondern nur die Kategorie der ,Konterrevolutionre.
7.2. ,50 1ahre Entwicklung der Menschenrechte in China
Im dritten Weibuch (2000), das unter dem Titel erschien 50 Jahre Entwicklung der
Menschenrechte in China,
65
wird die Entwicklung der Menschenrechte in den letzten
50Jahren als ,groer historischer Sprung in der chinesischen Geschichte gewertet.
ZweiIelsohne hat sich das Antlitz Chinas verndert ,Das einst schwache, arme und
gedemtigte China habe sich in einen ,unabhngigen und prosperierenden Staat verwandelt.
Die Etikette des ,kranken Mannes in Ostasien habe China abgelegt und Ihre ein
wohlhabendes, zivilisiertes, gesundes Leben und geniee Freiheiten und demokratische
Rechte wie nie zuvor.
66
,Grosse Fortschritte, so das Weibuch, seien im Bereich der
brgerlichen und politischen Rechte zu verzeichnen, da ,Demokratie an der Basis (gemeint
sind die DorIwahlen) eingeIhrt und die VerIassung novelliert worden seien. Dann wird mit
allem Nachdruck darauI verwiesen, dass China auIgrund der ,Rckstndigkeit des Landes
und ,als Entwicklungsland des Ostens erst einmal andere Prioritten als die Industrielnder
setzen msste. Vorrang besen deshalb auch im 21. Jahrhundert die ,Rechte auI Leben und
Entwicklung. Doch wie bereits im ersten (1991) und zweiten Menschenrechtsweibuch
(1996) wird auch im dritten die BereitschaIt der chinesischen Fhrung zum internationalen
Dialog erklrt, gleichzeitig aber unterstrichen, dass in China die westlichen
MenschenrechtsauIIassungen nicht einIach kopiert werden knnten.
64
Chen Qizhi, ,Ruxue de renquan yu minzhu sixiang, in Chen Qizhi, Zhang Shuhua, Rufia
chuangtong vu renquan. Min:hu sixiang, op. cit., p. 112.
65
,Presseamt des Staatsrates der Volksrepublik China, Februar 2000; Beifing Rundschau, 2000,
No 11.
66
Ibidem.
116 KARIN TOMALA
7.3. ,Der Staat respektiert und gewhrt Menschenrechte
Im vierten Weibuch (2004) erklrt man mit gewisser Genugtuung, dass in die
VerIassung der Passus auIgenommen wurde ,Der Staat respektiert und gewhrt die
Menschenrechte.
67
Der chinesische Volkskongress wrde den eingereichten Petitionen
groe AuImerksamkeit widmen. So gab es 2003 ber 31. 000 Besuche und 57.000 Eingaben.
Auch bei der EinIhrung drIlicher Direktwahlen seien groe Forschritte zu verzeichnen.
Zahlreiche Unregelmigkeiten wren in der Justiz auIgedeckt worden. Hervorgehoben
wurde auch, dass Ir die Sicherung der Rechte der Frauen und Kinder entsprechende
Manahmen eingeIhrt wurden.
Festgehalten wird an der Argumentation, eigene Wege in der Menschenrechtspolitik
umzusetzen, da China ein Entwicklungsland mit einer groen Bevlkerung und einer
langen eigenstndigen Zivilisation sei. Damit wird auch begrndet, warum das ,Recht
auI Leben und Entwicklung in der augenblicklichen historischen Phase vor politischen
Brgerrechten stehen msste. Trotzdem lsst sich eine gewisse Akzentverschiebung
beobachten. Es werden nicht nur ,Fortschritte der brgerlichen und politischen Rechte
der Brger angemerkt, sondern die Notwendigkeit der Verbesserung des Rechtssystems
geIordert.
7.4. Menschenrechte in Tibet und Xinjiang
Die Minderheitenpolitik Chinas, vor allem gegenber den autonomen Regionen Tibet und
Xinjiang, gehren zu den bedeutenden Kritikpunkten der westlichen Menschenrechtspolitik
gegenber China. Im Jahre 1992 kam ein heibuch ber die Menschenrechte in Tibet
68
heraus, das zweite im Jahre 2002, und im Jahre 2003 wurde ein heibuch ber die Geschichte
und Entwicklung von Xinfiang verIIentlicht.
69
Der Soziologe Zhao Zhidong von der Universitt in Macau, der sich mit dem Phnomen
der kritischen Intelligenz in China beIasst hat, zeigt an Hand von Beispielen, wie kompliziert
sich doch die MinderheitenIrage Ir Chinesen darstellt. So gebe es bei WissenschaItlern
volles Verstndnis bezglich der Frage der Unabhngigkeit von Volksgruppen, die von der
chinesischen Regierung abgelehnt werde. Doch er verweist auI kritische Stimmen, die man
ebenIalls ernst nehmen msste, da mit Tibets Unabhngigkeit China ein Viertel seines
Territoriums verlieren wrde. Andere Vlker, wie die Mongolen oder die Muslime knnten
nach so einem Fallbeispiel gleichIalls danach trachten. China verlre dann ber die HlIte
seines gesamten Territoriums. Deshalb sei es undenkbar Ir China und Chinesen diesem zu
zustimmen, auch wenn China ein demokratischer Staat werden wrde.
70
67
InIormation OIIice oI the State Council oI the People`s Republic oI China ed., ,Tibet Its
Ownership and Human Rights Situation, Beijing, 1992; InIormation OIIice oI the State Council oI
the People`s Republic oI China ed., Tibets March toward modernisation, Beijing, 2001.
68
InIormation OIIice oI the State Council oI the People`s Republic oI China ed., Historv and
Development of Xinfiang, Beijing, 2003.
69
,Xizang: Ershiyi shiji zhongguo de ruanlei (Tibet: the soIt rib oI the twenty-Iirst century
China), Da Gongbao, March 31.1999, cit. Irom: Hao Zhidong, ,Mainland China vs Taiwan: The
Role oI Intellectuals, in Acta Asiatica Jarsoviensia, No. 17, 2004, p. 45.
70
InIormation OIIice oI the State Council oI the People`s Republic oI China ed., Beijing: The
Situation oI Chinese Women, 1994.
7.5. Frauenrechte sind Menschenrechte
1994 erschien das erste heibuch ber die Situation der Frauen in China.
71
Angesichts
der Vorbereitungen der Internationalen FrauenkonIerenz in Beijing war dieses Weibuch
als eine Art RechenschaItsbericht ber die Situation der Frauen im Lande herausgekommen.
Man wollte auch auIzeigen, wie viel wichtige Gesetze zum Frauenschutz inzwischen
verabschiedet wurden. Die Situation der Frauen hat sich zweiIelsohne seit 1949 verbessert
und die chinesische Regierung kann, wenn es um die Gleichberechtigung und ihren Status
in der GesellschaIt geht, ErIolge auIweisen. So nimmt sie in der internationalen GemeinschaIt
an allen Arbeiten ber Fragen der Gleichberechtigung von Frauen in der GesellschaIt teil.
Frauenrechte sind Menschenrechte, die zu achten seien, heit es in der oIIiziellen Politik.
Doch auIgrund traditioneller Verhaltsweisen wie auch der neuen WirtschaItspolitik sind in
vielen Bereichen neue Probleme und zahlreiche Verste sowohl in der GesellschaIt als auch
in der Familie zu beobachten. So sah man sich gezwungen, im Jahre 2005 das zweite heibuch
:ur Gleichberechtigung der Frauen herauszugeben.
72
Eine besondere Rolle beim Schutz der
Frauenrechte, die gesetzlich verankert sind, spielen die regierungsnahen NGOs, insbesondere
der Frauenverband. Seit 1949, so das Weibuch, sei eine Anzahl von Gesetzen zum Schutze
der Frauen erlassen worden. AuIgrund der zahlreichen Probleme sowohl bei der
BeschItigung, in der GesundheitsIrsorge wie auch bezglich der Gewalt gegen Frauen in
der Familie hatte das Stndige Komitee des Nationalen Volkskongresses im August 2005eine
Novelle zum ,Gesetz zum Schutz der Rechte und Interessen der Frauen verabschiedet, die
am 1. Dezember in KraIt trat. Xinhua meldete, dass in 30 aller Familien Gewalt auItreten
wrde und dabei die Frauen zu ber 90 die OpIer seien.
73
ber Gewalt in der Familie wurde
in China lange geschwiegen. Zum ersten Mal Iand dieser Aspekt seinen Niederschlag in
der Novelle des Ehegesetzes im Jahre 2001.
7.6. Weibuch zur politischen Demokratie
China ist kein demokratisches Land. Die ,sozialistische Demokratie hat jedoch bereits
zum Wandel in den Machtstrukturen geIhrt, wenn auch nicht in den substantiellen.
Bemerkenswert ist die BeschItigung mit Problemen der Demokratie in China. Die
GesellschaIt schaIIt an der Basis Institutionen, die Brgercharakter haben. OIIiziell wurde
in einem Weibuch im Oktober 2005 zu dieser Entwicklung Stellung genommen. Der
Herausgeber ist bei den anderen Weibchern das InIormationsbro beim Staatsrat. Der
Titel der VerIIentlichung lautet: Aufbau von politischer Demokratie in China. Wenn man
den Inhalt des Weibuches analysiert, so Iinden wir darin eigentlich keine bedeutenden
neuen Erkenntnisse, wenn es um die Wertung des Ordnungssystems im Lande geht. hnlich
wie in den Weibchern ber die Menschenrechtslage in China wird in dieser Broschre
auI die besondere Situation des Landes verwiesen, inIolge der China seinen eigenen
EntwicklungspIad beschreiten msse. Interessant ist jedoch in dieser Publikation, dass
auI die Notwendigkeit hingewiesen wird, ErIahrungen, die in anderen Zivilisationen gemacht
71
InIormation OIIice oI the State Council oI the People`s Republic oI China ed., The Situation
oI equality oI Chinese Women, Beijing, 2005.
72
73
Xinhua, 19.10.2005; http://english.people.com.cn/20051019/eng20051019-215257.html.
118 KARIN TOMALA
worden seien, mit zu bercksichtigen. Interessant ist auch die Akzentverschiebung bezglich
der Fhrungsrolle der KPCh. So heit es u.a., dass die Partei solange als FhrungskraIt die
Geschicke Landes in der Hand halten werde, bis die Menschen gelernt htten, ihre
Geschicke selbst in die Hand zu nehmen. Wann dieser Zeitpunkt eintreten knnte, hngt
dementsprechend vom Willen der KPCh selbst ab, denn sie entscheidet, wie die
Lernerergebnisse zu beurteilen sind. Dargestellt werden die politischen Vernderungen
am Beispiel der Wandlung des Funktionierens des Volkskongresses. Verwiesen wird auI
das ,Mehrparteiensystems unter der Fhrung der KPCh und den AuIbau der Demokratie
auI unterster Ebene in den DrIern. Ende 2004 seien in Iast allen Landesstrichen, nmlich
zu 80, die Selbstverwaltungsorganisationen errichtet. Landesweit gebe es ber
640.000DorIkomitees. Hier werde demokratisch gewhlt, demokratisch entschieden,
demokratisch kontrolliert, so dass die DorIbevlkerung ihre Angelegenheiten selbst in die
Hnde nehmen knnten, heit es im Weibuch.
Mit der komplizierte Frage der Menschenrechte in China beIasst sich Kapitel 7. Betont
wird, dass auI Antrag des Volkskongresses im Mrz 2004 in die chinesische VerIassung ein
Kapitel ber die Sicherung von Menschenrechten auIgenommen worden sei, in dem der
Staat sich verpIlichte, die Menschenrechte zu achten. Es wird darauI verwiesen, dass heute
die chinesische VerIassung und das Rechtssystem den Brgern viele Freiheiten gewhren,
wie ReligionsIreiheit, RedeIreiheit, PresseIreiheit und VersammlungsIreiheit. Die Brger htten
wieder das Recht erhalten, Eigentum zu besitzen und den Brgern werde die Sicherheit ihrer
Person garantiert. Garantiert seien auch viele Rechte, wie das Recht auI Arbeit, auI Erholung,
Geschlechtergleichheit, gleiche Bezahlung Ir gleiche Leistung, Sicherung des geistigen
Eigentums, der SozialIrsorge, Gesetze, die die Regeln in der Ehe und Ir die Scheidung
bestimmen. Doch in der Praxis heit es, sei es nicht leicht, diese Rechte umzusetzen. Es ist
eher ein Katalog von Wnschen, der in dieser Form nicht umzusetzen ist.
Betont wird, dass China bisher 21 internationale Menschenrechtskonventionen unterzeichnet
habe. Es Iehlt aber auch nicht die Beteuerung, dass der AuIbau der ,sozialistischen Demokratie
Chinas sich immer von den Prinzipien der marxistischen Theorie im Verbund mit Chinas
Wirklichkeit habe leiten lassen, wobei demokratische Elemente chinesischer Kultur und ntzliche
Elemente aus dem Schatz der ErrungenschaIten der politischen Zivilisation der Menschheit
bernommen worden seien. ,Sozialistische Demokratie bedeutet also nach diesem Verstndnis,
dass nur die KPCh garantieren knne, die Chinesen zu beIhigen, ihr Land weiter zu entwickeln.
Der staatliche Sektor in der chinesischen WirtschaIt sei die Grundlage Ir das sozialistische
Marktsystem in China. So lesen wir, dass in der ersten StuIe des Sozialismus eben gerade der
Staat in der Zusammenarbeit mit anderen EigentumsIormen noch eine entscheidende Rolle zu
spielen habe. Die Forderung steht im Raum, dass Chinas Demokratie nicht vom Kapital
manipuliert werden sollte. China sei keine Demokratie Ir eine kleine Minderheit, die Kapital
besitze. Deshalb wende man sich gegen solche Parolen, Demokratie Ir alle, die Anarchie
bedeute. Chinesische Demokratie sei Zentralismus.
Das Weibuch ist konzipiert als LeitIaden zur ideologischen Arbeit, um die oIIiziellen
Leitlinien zur Menschenrechtspolitik zu vermitteln. Obgleich es an ideologischen
Schulungen nicht Iehlt, zeigt die raue Wirklichkeit der ReIormbewegung andere
Verhaltensweisen, die sich in der GesellschaIt verbreiten. Geld ist zum neuen Gott geworden,
die Jagd nach der ProIitmaximierung und dem Konsumrausch gehrt in der anwachsenden
Mittelschicht mit zum chinesischen Alltag. Im Weibuch erIahren wir wenig ber die
Probleme der chinesischen Entwicklung, ber die EinkommensgeIlle, das Heer der
Arbeitsuchenden und der Ausgrenzungen aus der GesellschaIt, wichtiger erscheint immer
noch, in der Politik mit Doktrin zu argumentieren, konkret vor allem mit der Theorie, die die
Entwicklung im Lande auIgrund der ,chinesischen Besonderheiten zu erklren versucht
und die vom Ausland als Weiterentwicklung der Modernisierungstheorie endlich anerkannt
werden sollte. Anders als im Westen, wo unter Moderne vor allem die gesellschaItliche
Gewhrleistung individueller Freiheiten, Autonomie und Herstellung von sozialer
Gerechtigkeit verstanden wird, versteht man in China Moderne als Modernisierung des
eigenen Landes, die den Staat strken und den Menschen eine GesellschaIt in Wohlstand
bringen soll.
8. Das chinesische Ordnungsprinzip
8.1. ,sozialistische Demokratie
Der BegriII ,sozialistische Demokratie hat wenig mit dem westlichen Demokratieverstndnis
zu tun. Diese Art von Demokratie beinhaltet den uneingeschrnkten Machtanspruch der
KPCh, das Land zu regieren, auch wenn einige Strukturen im Ordnungsprinzip auIgelockert
wurden. Der Machtanspruch kommt nicht mehr aus der Klassenanalyse, wo sich einst die
KPCh als Avantgarde der Arbeiterklasse und Bauern verantwortlich Ir die Entwicklung
Ihlte. Heute legitimiert sich die politische Elite mit WirtschaItswachstum, das nur unter
stabilen Verhltnissen kontinuiert werden knnte. Aber es ist doch nicht mehr zu bersehen,
dass die Entwicklung zu groen Ungleichgewichten und UnzuIriedenheiten geIhrt hat.
74
Obgleich die Partei in der letzten Zeit immer huIiger mit zahlreichen Krisensymptomen
konIrontiert wird, die die Entwicklung geIhrden knnten, gibt sie sich optimistisch. Nach
traditionellen Mustern verkndet sie Wohlstand Ir die Bevlkerung und Harmonie Ir die
GesellschaIt. So heit das neue Entwicklungskonzept ,Harmonische Entwicklung in der
WirtschaIt und der GesellschaIt.
8.2. Harmonisierung der Gesellschaft als Ordnungsmodell
In der konIuzianischen GesellschaItslehre, als Staats-, Moral- und Lebenskodex
verstanden, kommt der Harmonie eine besondere Stellung zu. Nach diesem Verstndnis
wurde das Vorhandensein von Harmonie in der Familie als Grundlage Ir die Harmonie und
Ordnung in der GesellschaIt und im Kosmos betrachtet. Damit waren dem Individuum, der
einzelnen Person, Grenzen gesetzt. Nur innerhalb dieser Grenzen, also in der Familienstruktur,
in der GemeinschaIt, war es erlaubt, sich nach den moralischen Grundstzen zu bewegen.
Danach stand es dem Individuum nicht zu, Eigeninitiative zu selbstschtigen, eigenwilligen
Absichten auerhalb der GemeinschaItsstrukturen zu ergreiIen. Nach den ethischen
Moralprinzipien galt das als verwerIlich. Es galt der Moralkodex, dass ,der Edle kein eigenes
Ich besitze. Das traditionelle chinesische Ordnungsprinzip war also nichts anderes als die
grundlegende Funktion Ir menschliches Verhalten. ZweiIelsohne ist die konIuzianische
Maxime nach wie vor allgegenwrtig, doch die Entwicklung im Lande zeigt andere Tendenzen.
Liberale Denker in Europa, wie RalI DahrendorI, warnen heute davor, dass die Entwicklung
74
Siegmar MosdorI, ,Ligaturen moderner Ordnungspolitik, in Neue Gesellschaft. Bonn:
FrankIurter HeIte, 11/2005, Dietz Verlag, p. 32.
120 KARIN TOMALA
vom konomischen bestimmt werde. Das reicht nicht aus, um ein Iunktionierendes
Gemeinwesen zu begrnden.
75
Die politische Fhrung ist sich der zahlreichen Widersprche, die mit der Entwicklung und
Modernisierung des Landes zum Vorschein kommen, immer mehr bewusst. So sucht sie nach
neuen Lsungen, um die Stabilitt im Lande zu bewahren. Wie zur Grnderzeit in den
westlichen Industrielndern bestimmen in der chinesischen Modernisierungsentwicklung
der Markt und das WirtschaItswachstum die Prioritten. Entgegen den Deklarationen
vollzog sich jedoch alles nach dem Primat der konomisierung. Jetzt soll die Kehrtwende
vollzogen werden, damit das Gemeinwesen auch zukunItsorientiert Iunktionieren kann.
8.3. Harmonisierung der Modernisierung
Das Konzept zur ,Harmonisierung der GesellschaIt wurde zum ersten mal vom
chinesischen Ministerprsidenten Wen Jiabao Ende 2004 vorgelegt und im Februar 2005auI
dem Nationalen Volkskongress vorgetragen. Harmonische Entwicklung unter der Fhrung
der Partei das war die Parole, unter der der 11. FnI-Jahresplan (2006) auI dem 5. Plenum
des ZK der KPCh im Oktober 2004 angenommen wurde. Im oIIiziellen Kommunique wird
oIIen ber die Schattenseiten, die die Entwicklung begleitet, gesprochen. So wird geIordert:
neue Arbeitspltze zu schaIIen, die Lebensbedingungen der Landbevlkerung zu
verbessern, sich intensiver mit dem Umsetzung des Umweltschutzes zu beIassen. Doch
die WirtschaItsdynamik soll beibehalten werden. Wie dieser Widerspruch zu lsen ist,
erIahren wir nicht. AuI dem Lande kam es in letzter Zeit immer Iter zu Protesten gegen die
Arbeits- und Sozialpolitik der Lokalregierung. Die Menschen schauen heute kritischer auI
die Politik der gewhlten Vertreter. Als Ursachen von KonIlikten gelten: Nepotismus der
lndlichen lokalen Behrden, Landnahme der Bauern ohne entsprechende Entschdigung,
Korruption, illegale FinanzgeschIte, Brokratie, VetternwirtschaIt und Korruption der
Finanzinstitute, mangelnde Versicherungssysteme, mangelnde Bildungsstruktur auI dem
Lande. KonIlikte entstehen auch beim Abreien der alten Wohnsiedlungen, weil die
Einwohner keine entsprechende Entschdigung erhalten, woIr sie sich eine neue
Wohnung kauIen knnten.
AuI die Dringlichkeit der Harmonisierung der Modernisierung eingehend, verwies der
chinesische Ministerprsident Wen Jiabao auI der 3. Tagung des 10. Nationalen
Volkskongresses im Frhjahr 2006 erneut auI die dringende Lsung der anstehenden
Probleme, die inIolge der Modernisierung des Landes entstanden seien. So betonte er,
obgleich die neue Entwicklung zum Wachstum der WirtschaIt beitrage und einem Teil der
Brger Wohlstand bescherte, gebe es noch zahlreiche gesellschaItliche und soziale
Faktoren, die gelst werden mssten, um eine harmonische, sprich stabile GesellschaIt zu
schaIIen. Er musste eingestehen, dass die UnzuIriedenheit in der GesellschaIt genhrt
werde durch die Korruption, das groe EinkommensgeIlle in den einzelnen Regionen,
zwischen Stadt und Land, Arbeitslosigkeit, Armut, schwache Sicherheitsstrukturen der
Produktion und der Umweltverschmutzung. Zu den dringendsten Problemen gehre jedoch
die Ausbildungssituation auI dem Lande und das Fehlen eines komplexen Sicherheits-
und GesundheitsIrsorgesystem im Lande.
75
Peter Schumpeter, ,ber den Kapitalismus, in eds. Gunnar Folke Schuppert, Ingold Pernice,
Ulrich Halton, Europawissenschaft, Verlag Nomos, September 2005.
Nach einem Jahrzehnt strmischen und chaotischen Wachstums soll der neue
Entwicklungskurs mehr auI Nachhaltigkeit und sozialen Ausgleich ausgerichtet werden.
Die Partei spricht in diesem Kontext nicht mehr von Plnen (jihua), sondern von
Richtlinienzielsetzungen (guihua mubiao).
8.4. Kassandrarufe
Das Modell der harmonischen Entwicklung greiIt auI die konIuzianische Traditionen
zurck, wonach das oberste Ziel der Politik darin bestehen sollte, Ir Harmonie in der
GesellschaIt zu sorgen. Wurden in China mit dem ReIormprogramm der eigene Gewinn und
die persnliche Bereicherung als die wahren Motoren Ir die stuIenweise Entwicklung
angesehen, steht gegenwrtig das IIentliche Wohl nach dem alten Grundsatz salus publica
suprema lex wieder im Mittelpunkt IIentlichen Interesses.
Harmonisierung der gesellschaItlichen Entwicklung ist heute global geIragt. Nachdenklich
stimmen die KassandraruIe von P. Schumpeter, der in seiner ,Kapitalismuskritik, die
Zerstrung von GesellschaIten an den ueren ErIolgen des Kapitals Iestmacht. Der
Kapitalismus, so Schumpeter, werde an seinen ueren ErIolgen zu Grunde gehen, da er
nach keinem Wertesystem handle. Er sehe sich aber durch den ErIolg gezwungen, seine
marktwirtschaItlich organisierten Prinzipien in solche Bereiche auszudehnen wie Familie,
Religion und Wertesystem, die die GemeinschaIt auIbrechen und lebensuntchtig machen.
76
Das ist gewiss nicht nur eine Kritik an der Entwicklung im Westen, sondern global, die
auch auI die Entwicklung in China zutreIIen knnte, wenn der Raubtierkapitalismus im
konIuzianischen Gewandt IortgeIhrt wird.
8.5. Protestbewegungen und die Menschenrechtsfragen
Bei den Protestbewegungen, die die politische Elite stets verunsicherten, ging es immer
auch um MenschenrechtsIragen. Zu erinnern sei an die ,Hundert-Blumen-Bewegung 1957,
wo eine Grundsatzdiskussion ber HerrschaItsIormen und Legitimitt des Fhrungsanspruchs
der Partei geIordert wurde. Nach der Beendigung der ,Kulturrevolution (19661976) ergossen
sich in vielen Stdten des Landes groe Protestbewegungen (1976; 19781979) gegen die
Diktatur des Regierens. Was in dieser Zeit auch immer unter dem BegriII ,Demokratie
verstanden wurde, so entIachten die Bewegungen und die geIhrten politischen Debatten
neue Funken. Zu erinnern sei, dass die ,Vereinigung Ir die Menschenrechte in dieser Zeit
gegrndet wurde. GeIordert wurden die Freilassung politischer GeIangenen, die Freiheit,
sich Irei im Lande bewegen zu knnen, MeinungsIreiheit und RedeIreiheit.
77
Der Oppositionelle
Wei Jingsheng, der bald zum Ihrenden Sprecher der Menschenrechtsbewegung wurde,
Iorderte die ,FnIte Modernisierung, die politische.
78
Solche Forderungen gingen weit ber
den politischen ReIormrahmen hinaus. Er wurde wegen ,Verrat von Militrgeheimnissen
76
,ManiIesto oI the Alliance Ior Human Rights in China, Index on Censorship 8, September
October 1979: 36, cit. Irom: Roberta Cohen, ,People`s Republic oI China: The Human Rights
Exception, in Contemporarv Asian Studies, 1988 (86), No. 3, School oI Law University oI
Maryland.
77
Wei Jingshen, ,The FiIth Modernization: Democracy, Index on Censorship 8, September
October 1979: 911, cit. Irom: Roberta Cohen, op. cit., p. 68.
78
122 KARIN TOMALA
angeklagt und zu langjhriger FreiheitsstraIe verurteilt. Wie hart man mit der Opposition, die
sich in der Protestbewegung von 1989 (4. Juni) etablierte, umzugehen beabsichtigte, zeigte
das Massaker auI dem Tienanmen-Platz. In der oIIiziellen Sprachregelung wurde die
Niederschlagung als Sieg gegen die ,Iriedliche Revolution und die ,brgerliche
Liberalisierung geIeiert. Es hie, dass der KampI zwischen der ,Iriedlichen Evolution und
der ,antiIriedlichen Evolution noch eine lange Zeit andauern wrde.
79
Der Westen wurde
beschuldigt, mit seiner ,hegemonalen Menschenrechtspolitik auch in China das ,Feuer der
osteuropischen Freiheit zu legen.
80
Interessant ist hier die sptere Analyse des
Literaturkritikers und Ihrenden Dissidenten jener Zeit Lu Xiaobo, der in die USA emigrierte.
Er korrigierte seine Ansichten von damals. In einem Essay schrieb er, dass Ihrende
Dissidenten damals nicht begriIIen htten, dass die GesellschaIt vor allem besser leben und
mehr verdienen wollte, dass sie lediglich an wirtschaItlichem Wachstum interessiert gewesen
sei. Man sah demonstrierende Massen, schreibt er, ohne redlich zu analysieren, wie viel davon
wirklich Ir Demokratie in China stritten. Auch wurden die Folgen nicht bedacht, als man mit
stndig neuen Forderungen an die Regierung herantrat, die auerhalb der politischen Realitt
standen. Die 4. Juni-Bewegung 1989, so Lu Xiaobo, sei durch die Demokratisierungswellen in
der Welt inspiriert worden und so ging die chinesische Opposition, die engen Kontakt zu
Vertretern der Menschenrechtsbewegung des Westen unterhielt, davon aus, westliche
Demokratien wrden sie schon schtzen. Man kann dem Autor bei seiner Analyse nur zustimmen,
dass heute in China wahrlich noch immer die entsprechenden Bedingungen Iehlen, um Demokratie
und Menschenrechte nach westlichen Standards umzusetzen, weil eine breite Zustimmung in
der Bevlkerung zu solchen Prioritten noch Iehlen.
8.6. Lehren aus dem traditionellen Herrschaftsmodell
Wie wir aus dem oben Dargestellten ersehen knnen, wird die Legitimation der HerrschaIt
auch nach Iast 30 Jahren, nachdem sich China geIInet hat, nicht nach dem Recht, sondern
auIgrund von zivilisatorischen Aspekten der chinesischen Ethik deIiniert. So Iindet eine
Position ihre BeIrworter, obgleich es an verhaltender Kritik Iehlt.
In der Publikation ,Zur heutigen WissenschaIt der Ethik wird betont, dass nach
chinesischer Tradition das Regieren von einem sittlichen Herrscher dezhi ausging. Diese
Art des Regierens Ihrte dann zum Regieren auI der Grundlage des Rechts fa zhi. Recht
entstand somit inIolge von Sittlichkeit. Die beiden Autoren dieser Publikation geben ihrer
berzeugung Ausdruck, dass man in der heutigen Zeit aus diesem so weisen traditionellen
Zivilisationsverstndnis Lehren ziehen sollte. Der Moral sollte genau so groe
AuImerksamkeit erwiesen werden wie den Gesetzen gegenber.
81
Protestbewegungen richten sich heute gegen Machtwillkr und Iordern Kontrolle ber
die AmtsgeschIte von EntscheidungsbeIugten. Es mehren sich die Stimmen, die daIr
pldieren, sowohl aus der chinesischen Tradition wie auch von westlichen RechtsauIIassungen
79
Zhou Jirong, ,Zhongguo mianlin de renquan douzheng xingshi (Die gegenwrtige Situation
des KampIes um die Menschenrechte in China), in Shifie renquan :ongheng (ber die Menschenrechte
in der Welt), Beijing, 1993, p. 313314.
80
Wang Zhengping, Zhou Zhongzhi, Xiandai lunlixue, op. cit., p. 3738.
81
Li Buyun, ,Development oI Jurisprudence in the New Era, in Social Sciences in China, 2000,
Sommer, p. 99100.
zu lernen. Das sei auch der bisherige Wege in der Menschenrechtspolitik gewesen, einige
Dinge anders als Irher zu sehen.
82
Zu erwhnen wre in diesem Zusammenhang, dass zum
ersten Mal in der Geschichte der Partei ,die Achtung und der Schutz der Menschenrechte
im Bericht des 15. Parteitag der KPCh im Jahre 1997 auIgenommen wurde. Wurden
Menschenrechte anIangs noch sehr ,speziIisch wahrgenommen, indem das Recht mit der
weisen Rhrung der ParteiIhrer gleichgesetzt wurde, so spricht man heute von der
HerrschaIt des Gesetzes. Doch die Ihrende Rolle der Partei wird dadurch nicht negiert,
aber in Schranken gesetzt.
83
Von Thomas Hobbe stammt der Satz, dass Autoritt und nicht Wahrheit ein Gesetz gltig
macht. In China richten sich Richter und Staatsanwlte immer noch zu wenig nach Regeln
und Gesetzen, die Gebote der von der Partei verkndeten Sittlichkeit und Moral, Recht zu
sprechen, stehen im Vordergrund. Ohne bertreibung kann man sagen, dass Ir die chinesische
politische Elite, wenn es um SystemIragen geht, ein eigenes Rechts- und Moralverstndnis
gilt, obgleich in der WirtschaIt recht pragmatisch westliche Rechtsstandards eingeIhrt
werden, um Investoren ins Land zu locken.
9. Neue Bedeutung de Menschenrechtspolitik
9.1. Schlsselfaktor internationaler Beziehungen und strategischer
Entwicklungskonzeptionen
Seit Beginn der groen ReIormbewegung vernehmen wir in der chinesischen Politik das
Bekenntnis ber die Dringlichkeit der Umsetzung der Menschenrechte. Angesichts der
Tatsache, dass die MenschenrechtsIrage zu einer SchlsselIrage in den internationalen
Beziehungen geworden ist, kann sich heute kein Staat in der Welt mehr erlauben, vor allem
nicht die VRCh, dem Schutz der Menschenrechte auI der internationalen Bhne nicht volle
Untersttzung zu erweisen. Allerdings sollte man sich bewusst machen, dass hinter
allgemeiner Zustimmung zahlreiche partikulare Konzeptionen verborgen bleiben.
Seit der IInung des Landes wurde die MenschenrechtsIrage zum ersten Mal in der
Geschichte Chinas zu einem so bedeutenden SchlsselIaktor in den internationalen
Beziehungen. Wir knnen diesen Wandel nur vor dem Hintergrund des sich vertieIenden
Globalisierungsprozesses nachvollziehen. Bei der Beurteilung sollten wir jedoch nicht dem
Irrglauben verIallen, dass sich China in seiner Entwicklung bereits auI dem Wege zur
Verwestlichung beIindet. Wenn in China ber Menschenrechte gesprochen wird, steht
dahinter das eigene Menschenrechtsverstndnis, das in den wichtigsten Fragen ein
Gegenpol zum westlichen Menschenrechtsverstndnis darstellt, und das sowohl im
internationalen Vlkerrecht als auch bezglich der eigenen Entwicklungskonzeptionen.
Wenn es um die internationale Rolle geht, so sei daran zu erinnern, dass China, nachdem
es AnIang der 70er Jahre zur groen diplomatischen Anerkennungswelle gekommen war,
82
ibidem, p.102
83
Artur Gradziuk, ,Unia Europejska jako inicjator w stosunkach z Chinska Republika Ludowa,
in Polski Pr:egld Dvplomatvc:nv, Nr. 5, 2004, p. 98. Ist der grte Handelspartner Chinas, das
Handelsvolumen betrug 2004 174 Mrd. US D, die Investitionen betragen 35 Mrd. Seit 1978 hat sich
das Handelsvolumen 40 mal vergrert.
124 KARIN TOMALA
BereitschaIt zeigte, an Arbeiten ber MenschenrechtsIragen teilzunehmen (1974).
1981wurde China zum Mitglied der UN-Menschenrechtskommission in GenI gewhlt, in
deren NachIolgeorganisation die chinesischen Vertreter eine aktive Politik betreiben.
Inzwischen hat die VRCh zahlreiche Menschenrechtskonventionen unterzeichnet. Von
besonderer Bedeutung ist die Unterzeichnung des ,Internationalen Pakts ber
wirtschaItliche, soziale und kulturelle Rechte (1997) sowie des ,Internationalen Pakts
ber brgerliche und politische Rechte (1998). Obwohl auch die Unschuldsvermutung im
chinesischen Recht verankert wurde, wre zur Verbesserung der Menschenrechte ein Iaires
Rechtssystem und Kontrollinstrumente vonnten, wie z.B. die Individualbeschwerde. Diese
gibt es bis heute noch nicht im chinesischen Recht.
9.2. Zusammenarbeit mit der EU
AuI internationaler Ebene entwickelt sich eine breite Zusammenarbeit beim Schutz der
Menschenrechte. Hier sei vor allem die Zusammenarbeit und der Dialog ber
MenschenrechtsIragen mit der Europischen Union zu erwhnen. Die Kooperation erstreckt
sich auI die verschiedenen Gebiete, wie im Rechtswesen, in der Kommunalpolitik und
Umweltpolitik. Die Beziehungen zur EU wurden im Jahre 1975 auIgenommen und haben
sich in den Iolgenden Jahren stetig entwickelt, als von Seiten der EU Konzepte zur
Entwicklung der Zusammenarbeit mit China verabschiedet wurden. Im Dokument ,Building
acomperehence Partnership with China, wurden von Seiten der EU die wichtigsten
Schwerpunkte Ir die kommende Kooperation Iestgelegt. 2001 wurde ein neues Dokument
,EU strategy towards China. Implementation oI the 1998 communication and Iuture Stepps
Ior more eIIective EU-policy verIIentlicht, in dem die bisherige Zusammenarbeit eine
positive Bewertung erIuhr.
84
Fr die chinesische Auenpolitik, die eine multilaterale Weltordnung anstrebt, bedeutet
die EU ein besonderer Partner in der Weltpolitik, mit dem sie die politischen und
konomischen Beziehungen entwickeln und Iestigen mchte. Anders als die US-
Administration, die von der globalen Konstellation, vor allem jedoch in der Taiwan oder
TibetIrage abhngig ist, China Untersttzung verspricht oder verwehrt, hat die EU-Politik
einen eindeutigen Standpunkt eingenommen und untersttzt die oIIizielle Ein Chinapolitik
und unterhlt seit Jahren in vielen Bereichen kooperative Zusammenarbeitsprojekte, wie
bei der Untersttzung von DemokratisierungsauIgaben, bei der SchaIIung eines mehr
oIIenem Rechtssystems oder der Ausbildung von Juristen. Nach dem Massaker auI dem
Platz des Himmlischen Friedens (1989) hatten sich die Staaten der EU entschlossen, ein
WaIIenembargo gegenber China zu verhngen, ber dessen AuIhebung gerade in der
letzten Zeit heItig gestritten wird.
Auch die Debatten in der EU, vor allen in Deutschland und Frankreich, ber die
AuIhebung des WaIIenembargos gegenber China zeigen, wie sich die Beziehungen
verndert haben.
In den letzten Jahren versucht China sich auch auenpolitisch der EU weiter anzunhern,
um sich der amerikanischen Umklammerung zu entziehen. China versucht, die EU als
internationalen Akteur in der Welt zu untersttzen. In dem im Oktober 2003 verIIentlichten
84
,New York Times', 3.12.2000, cit. Irom: China aktuell, Hamburg, November 2000,
p.263.
,EU Weibuch, das erste dieser Art, bringt die chinesische Regierung nicht nur ihre
Anerkennung gegenber den WirtschaItsleistungen der EU zum Ausdruck, sondern
verweist auch auI die besondere Sicherheitsrolle, die die EU bei der SchaIIung einer
multilateralen Weltordnung spielen knnte. ZweiIelsohne besteht nach wie vor ein
essenzielles Interesse von Politik, WirtschaIt und GesellschaIt im Lande, die Modernisierung
unter Bedingungen eines gnstigen internationalen UmIelds IortzuIhren.
In den Jahren 19901996 standen in GenI in der UNO-Menschenrechtskommission
Antrge zur Verurteilung Chinas wegen Menschenrechtsverletzungen zur Debatte, die
die EU zusammen mit den USA jhrlich eingebracht hatten. Da China jedoch in den
letzten Jahren immer mehr BereitschaIt zum Dialog und zur Kooperation zeigte, haben die
EU-Lnder darauI verzichtet, solche Eingaben vorzubringen. Sie untersttzten somit
auch nicht mehr den Antrag der USA zur Verurteilung der Menschenrechtslage in China.
Bereits auI der 56. Sitzung der UNO-Menschenrechtskommission am 18. April
2000mussten die USA zum neunten Mal erleben, dass ihr Antrag, eine Debatte ber die
Menschenrechtssituation in China zu Ihren, mit Stimmenmehrheit abgelehnt wurde.
Dieses Abstimmungsergebnis wiederholt sich nun Jahr Ir Jahr. Zu erwhnen wre, dass
die polnische Regierung noch im Jahre 1999 den Antrag der USA zur Verurteilung Chinas
voll untersttzte.
Immer wenn im Mrz in GenI die Tagung der UN Menschenrechtskommission
bevorstand, gab es zahlreiche Verlautbarungen, vor allem aus den USA, dass sich die
Menschenrechtssituation in China verschlechtert habe. Die chinesische Regierung reagierte
dann auI die Jahresberichte ber die Menschenrechtslage in China mit einer massiven
Gegenattacke. Seit dem 11. September hat sich das Klima verbessert. China ist Mitglied des
Antiterrorbndnisses geworden, und die USA haben im April 2005 in GenI dem chinesischen
Partner zuerkannt, dass bedeutende Schritte bei der Verbesserung der Menschenrechtslage
zu verzeichnen seien.
9.3. Rechtstaatlicher Dialog und Zusammenarbeit beim Schutz der Menschenrechte
Es geht bei der PartnerschaIt zwischen der EU darum, die Anliegen gegenber China
nicht nur in kurzIristiger, sondern auch langIristiger Zeitperspektive zur Geltung zu bringen.
Diesem Ziel soll auch die im Jahre1999 abgeschlossene Vereinbarung ber einen
rechtsstaatlichen Dialog dienen. Chinesen denken in langIristiger Perspektive, da lohnt es
sich, von China zu lernen. Beim Menschenrechtsdialog sollten unsere Werte plausibel
gemacht werden. OIt hrt man von Politiker, wir wollen, dass sich China vernnItig
entwickelt. Doch was ist vernnItig?
Das chinesische Auenministerium und die UN-Hochkommissarin Ir Menschenrechte,
Mary Robinson, unterzeichneten im November 2000 in Beijing ein Memorandum ber die
Zusammenarbeit beim Schutz der Menschenrechte. Hierbei geht es vor allem um
Kooperationsprogramme, deren AuIgabe darin bestehen soll, mit westlicher HilIe
chinesische Richter, Staatsanwlte wie auch Akademiker Iortzubilden. Vertreter von Human
Rights Watch werteten diesen Besuch uerst kritisch, da sich die UN-Hochkommissaren
Ir Menschenrechte zu kooperativ gezeigt und zu wenig Kritik geuert htte.
85
Es ist
unverstndlich, wie eine Zusammenarbeit auI diesem so wichtigen Gebiet abgelehnt werden
85
Xinhua, 16.09. 2005.
126 KARIN TOMALA
kann, werden doch erste Schritte getan. Ein konstruktiver Dialog und konkrete HilIe, wie
bei der Weiterbildung von Juristen Ihren im EndeIIekt doch weiter als eine konIrontative
Politik.
9.4. Unterschiedliche Positionen in der internationalen Gemeinschaft
In den vergangenen Jahren haben sich in der internationalen GemeinschaIt zwei
verschiedene Positionen in Fragen der Zusammenarbeit mit China herausgebildet. Fordern
die einen, eine geschlossene Strategie der Konditionalitt zu entwickeln, d.h.
EntwicklungshilIe an menschenrechtliche Bedingungen zu binden, um China unter Druck
zu setzen, so geht die andere Position darauI aus, aktuell scheint sie sich in der
internationalen GemeinschaIt durchzusetzen, dass die wachsende WirtschaItsgromacht
nicht erpressbar sei. Prognostizierte man doch im Westen nach der Niederschlagung der
Studentenbewegung Stagnation und Terror, der das Land wieder bersen wrde, so zeigte
die Entwicklung, dass es keine Stagnation gab. Doch das autoritre HerrschaItssystem in
China steht vor der HerausIorderung, in die Politik Transparenz zu bringen. Statt einem
RckIall in die PlanwirtschaIt, wie dstere Prognosen voraussahen, werden weiter hin
hohe Zuwachsraten verbucht, wie die Presseagentur Xinhua
86
stolz vermeldete, auch wenn
immer mehr ProblemIelder die Entwicklung begleiten. Damit hat sich weder die Konzeption,
politische Demokratisierung als Vorbedingung Ir eIIektive WirtschaItsentwicklung, noch
die Politik auI eine Demokratisierung zu verzichten, als Iruchtbar erwiesen. Mag man
auch im Westen die universale Geltung der Menschenrechte beanspruchen, so mssen
wir uns bewusst sein, dass sie sich einer universalen Lesart nicht so schnell erIreuen
wird.
Viele Chinabeobachter stimmen darin berein, dass eine Ausgrenzung Chinas, welcher
Couleur auch immer, zu einer negativen SprengkraIt werden knnte. Wichtig ist, den Dialog
und die Zusammenarbeit in der MenschenrechtsIrage Iortzusetzen. Doch wichtig ist
ebenIalls, den Dialog nicht allein aus einer westlichen Missionshaltung heraus zu Ihren.
Zentrales Anliegen sollte die Entwicklung und Frderung des politischen Wandels zu
Rechtsstrukturen und die Verbesserung des Schutzes der Menschenrechte darstellen. Eine
einseitige Gesinnungsethik wird sich als kaum hilIreich erweisen. Immer mehr setzt sich die
berzeugung durch, dass alle Kulturen Konzepte ber die Wrde des Menschseins
beinhalten. Mit dieser Erkenntnis sind auch Voraussetzungen entstanden Ir einen
dialogIhigen MenschenrechtsbegriII.
Die Modernisierung Ostasiens, die sich nicht nach westlichen Standards vollzieht,
bedeutete zweiIelsohne Ir den Westen eine HerausIorderung.
9.5. Menschenrechtssituation in China
Trotz aller ,Besonderheiten, auI die die chinesische Elite bei der MenschenrechtsIrage
pocht, beobachten wir einen sanIten Wandel in der Menschenrechtssituation. Hierbei
geht es nicht um die Gewhrung zahlreicher Rechte, die in der chinesischen VerIassung
auIgelistet sind, Das muss im Lichte der Prambel bewertet werden. Sie sind den Prinzipien
der Kommunistischen Partei und ihrem theoretischen Entwicklungskonzept vom AuIbau
des Sozialismus mit chinesischen Besonderheiten untergeordnet. Zu erwhnen seien
86
Xinhua, 16.09. 2005
aber der AuIbau eines Rechtssystems in Zusammenarbeit mit dem westlichen Ausland,
die Zuerkennung der persnlichen Freiheiten Ir die Brger oder auch die Bemhungen
in der Umweltpolitik. Aktuell hat die Regierung beschlossen, das diskriminierende
Haushalsregistrierungssystem Ir die Landbevlkerung als probeweise in 23 Provinzen
abzuschaIIen. Damit erhalten die Wanderarbeiter die Chance, sich im Ort ihrer BeschItigung
registrieren zu lassen und gleichberechtigte Brger zu werden. Das sei ein weiterer Schritt
zur Verbesserung der Menschenrechtslage in China.
87
Nachdem die chinesische Regierung UNO-Experten Ireien Zugang zu HaItanstalten erteilt
hatte, um Folterpraktiken im chinesischen HaItsystem zu untersuchen, kam der Vorsitzende
und SonderbeauItragten der Menschenrechtskommission der UNO ManIred Nowak zu
dem Ergebnis, dass man China von dem VorwurI systematischer Folter zu entlasten sei. Die
internationale Reaktion darauI Iiel dagegen sehr verhalten aus.
88
Bei aller Anerkennung des positiven Wandels im Bereich der Menschenrechtspolitik,
muss man jedoch betonen, dass in China noch immer zahlreiche Menschenrechtsverletzungen
an der Tagesordnung sind. Die Liste der Menschenrechtsverste ist lang: Die TodesstraIe
wird immer noch zu schnell verhngt, obgleich ein strkeres Kontrollsystem eingeIhrt wurde.
In der HaIt wird geIoltert, Andersdenkende sitzen ohne GerichtsverIahren im GeIngnis oder
verben eine StraIe im Arbeitslager. Beklagt werden Zwangsarbeit und VerIolgung von
religisen Wrdentrgern, GlaubensgemeinschaIten, Angehrigen Nationaler Minderheiten
wie in Tibet oder auch Xinjiang. Es gibt weiterhin Berichte ber die Ttung weiblicher Suglinge
und ber den Organhandel. Dissidenten oder ,Separatisten werden als Landesverrtern
verurteilt, die die ganze Hrte des StraIrechts triIIt. Trotz allem Fortschritt bezglich bestimmter
Menschenrechte gibt es keine unabhngige Justiz und die Tradition der Abschreckung gilt
immer noch als eines der wichtigsten Mittel zur Kontrolle der Bevlkerung.
Abschlieende Bemerkungen
Die politische Elite bedarI bisher keiner demokratischen Legitimation, weil sie sich beruIen
Ihlt, Volkswohl zu schaIIen, die Grundbedingungen Ir eine menschliche Existenz mit HilIe
von WirtschaItsentwicklung und sozialer Modernisierung zu legen. WirtschaItswachstum
legitimiert sie bis jetzt. Als das wichtigste und erste Menschenrecht gilt wie zu uralten Zeiten
das ,Recht auI Leben und Existenz, um das das chinesische Volk lange Jahre gekmpIt htte
und nun besitze.
Die VRCh versucht in der MenschenrechtsIrage weiterhin ihren ,Sonderweg zu gehen,
obgleich auch dieser nicht statisch ist. Die Modernisierung des Landes in Kooperation mit
den westlichen Industrielndern wird unweigerlich Auswirkungen auI den Kurs des
,Sonderwegs zeitigen und das rechtliche, politische und gesellschaItliche System weiter
verndern.
Als abschlieende ReIlexion sei die Frage in den Raum gestellt, mit welcher Begrndung
die bestehenden Menschenrechte einen universalen Anspruch erheben. Ich denke, die
Antwort kann nur lauten, dass der Anspruch nur dann gerechtIertigt ist, wenn alle Kulturen
ihren Beitrag zum Menschenrechtsverstndnis geben. Nur langsam scheint sich die
berzeugung herauszubilden, dass es weder Ir die Entwicklung noch Ir die
Modernisierung noch Ir den AuIbau von HerrschaItsstrukturen einen universellen Weg
87
China aktuell, 6/2005, p. 61.
128 KARIN TOMALA
geben kann. Jeder Modernisierungsprozess ist kulturell und traditionell in die eigene
Geschichte eingebunden. Aus der Geschichte der unterschiedlichen Zivilisationen wissen
wir gut, dass die groen Utopien der Menschheit, sich aus der HerrschaIt des materiellen
Daseins zu beIreien, in Kriegen und unzhligen Versprechungen, die Welt zu gesunden,
untergegangen sind. So verschieden auch die Wertung des Anderen sein mag, so wird in
den Kulturen jedoch weiterhin der Wunschtraum einer Identitt vom neuen Menschsein in
einer menschlichen GesellschaIt getrumt. Bedeutete im 20. Jahrhundert die Tradition eine
Last, so entdeckt man sie heute in China als kostbares Erbe, das China auI seinem Wege zu
einem modernen Staat verhelIen knnte.
Zur chinesischen Identitt gehrt, sich zu vervollkommnen, wie es KonIuzius lehrte,
d.h. immer wieder bestrebt sein, etwas Groes zu vollbringen. So gehrt China inzwischen
zu den Nationen, denen es gelungen ist, einen Mensch ins All zu schieen. Taikong das
All soll auch mit chinesischen Taikonauten (nicht Astronauten wie in den USA oder gar
Kosmonauten wie in Ruland) erobert werden. Fr 2010 ist die erste bemannte
Mondlandung geplant. Wenn das gelingen sollte, dann mchte China zum 60. Jahrestag
der Grndung der VRCh seinen Glanz aus alten Zeiten in ehrenwerter Gre wiedererlangen.
The Taiwanese SelI-image in the Presidential Campaign oI 2004 129
ACTA ASIATICA
VARSOVIENSIA
No. 20, 2007
PL ISSN 08606102
BOGDAN S. ZEMANEK
The Taiwanese SelI-image in the Presidential Campaign
oI 2004: Political Rhetoric and Creation oI a New Identity
1. Introduction
Taiwan and the Taiwan Strait are considered to be one oI the world hotspots, because oI
the strong political movement on the island, whose aim is to declare Iormal
1
independence.
This movement meets with equally strong opposition Irom the People`s Republic oI China
(PRC), who is willing to tolerate actual independence oI Taiwan as long as the legal Iiction
oI 'one China is preserved, but threatens to use Iorce iI Iormal separation is declared
this position being aditionally strengthened by adoption oI the so-called 'Anti-Secession
Law.
2
Taiwan`s pro-independence leaders assert that the Taiwanese people have as much
right Ior selI-determination as any other nation. But do the Taiwanese Iorm a nation? The
group oI people declaring themselves Taiwanese` (as opposed to e.g. the Chinese living
in Taiwan) is certainly increasing |Slawinski, 2002, Ho and Liu, 2002|,
3
and so is the number
oI people who actively promote their views oI the Taiwanese being diIIerent Irom the
Chinese and not merely overseas compatriots`. The media allied with these elites also
grow in importance |Wang, 2003b| and researchers discuss the question oI Taiwanese
nationalism |Shih, 2003|. The aim oI this study is to describe how the media allied with the
pro-independence elites describe the Taiwanese, what image oI their own group they
1
The discussion whether Taiwan (or more precisely Republic oI China on Taiwan) is an
(independent) state is still ongoing, mainly due to the extraordinary political sensitivity oI the
question. The legal and historical aspects oI this question I have discussed elsewhere (M. Klaczynski,
B.S. Zemanek, 'The Status oI the Taiwanese State in the Light oI International Law, Acta Asiatica
Jarsoviensa, no 18, p. 719).
2
Adopted at the Third Session oI the Tenth National People`s Congress on March 14, 2005. The
article 8 states: 'In the event that the Taiwan independence` secessionist Iorces should act under
any name or by any means to cause the Iact oI Taiwan`s secession Irom China, or that major
incidents entailing Taiwan`s secession Irom China should occur, or that possibilities Ior a peaceIul
reuniIication should be completely exhausted, the state shall employ non-peaceIul means and other
necessary measures to protect China`s sovereignty and territorial integrity. URL: http://
english.peopledaily.com.cn/200503/14/eng20050314176746.html, retrieved on 2007-10-17.
3
Even more pronounced is the decline oI 'Chinese only choice. Data compiled by the National
Zhengzhi University Ior the years 1992-2007 show that the number oI people choosing the latter
position dropped Irom 26.2 to a mere 5,5; at the same time the number oI respondents choosing
Taiwanese only` identity grew Iom 17.3 to 43.7. Election Study Center, N.C.C.U., Important political
attitude trend distribution, URL: http://esc.nccu.edu.tw/eng/data/data03-2.htm, retrieved on 2007-10-17.
130 BOGDAN S. ZEMANEK
create. Such a selI-image plays both a social and a political role, and since the question oI
the Taiwanese identity is a complicated one, it is certainly worth studying |Wachman,
1994a|. It is important to note that although only the media oI a certain political orientation
were analysed, they described the Taiwanese people as a whole, not a separate group oI
pro-indenpedentists or Pan-Green Iollowers.
4
The research was conducted during the presidential campaign oI 2004. I hoped the
debate would bring to the surIace many issues, such as those oI identity usually not
discussed, as they are taken Ior granted. Two coalitions competed in this election: the Pan-
Blue coalition oI two parties: the Kuomintang (Guomindang, KMT) and the People`s First
Party (Qinmindang, PFP), whose candidates were Lien Chan
5
and James Soong; and the
Pan-Green coalition, built around the Democratic Progressive Party (Minfindang, DPP),
with Chen Shuibian and Annette Lu as candidates. The two sides (subsequently reIerred
to as the Blue and the Green) were also identiIied as pro-uniIication` and pro-
independence`, respectively. The so-called
6
independence vs. uniIication issue turned out
to be the most important point oI divergence during the whole campaign. The economical
or social views oI the contestants were relatively similar, so the question oI independence
gained even greater additional importance. The similarity in other areas also caused the
campaign to be much concentrated on personal issues, with lots oI mud-slinging Irom both
sides which was very unIortunate Ior my research, as personal attacks replaced more in-
depth discussions.
I Iocused on the pro-independence side, because I believed that it was this wing who
had shaped the political discourse Ior more than a decade. To legitimize their claims Ior
aseparate state, they had to have` a nation, which meant they had to Iind ways to unite
the Taiwanese society, hitherto divided throughout its history. To achieve this goal they
introduced new ways oI thinking and speaking about the people oI Taiwan, diIIerent Irom
the earlier ethnic denominations. Such nation-building process is well-described in
theoretical literature |Anderson, 1991, Gellner, 1983|. The Iact that no-one even attempted
to openly oppose their statements about the existence oI the Taiwanese nation, is
undoubtedly their greatest success.
The pro-indenpedence side suIIered great political losses during the second term oI
Chen Shuibian`s presidency, mainly because oI the corruption scandals. Viewed as
apolitical device, the 'nation-uniIing rhetoric, which election-wise proved barely
suIIicient in 2004, may not be suIIicient at all in the incoming 2008 presidential elections.
The results presented below may serve as a reIerence material Ior analyses oI current
political rhetoric, creation and (re)construction oI Taiwanese ethnic and national
consciousness.
4
In this paper I omit the methodological issues oI selI-stereotype and selI-image, preIerring to
present more oI the actual contents oI the Taiwanese selI-description.
5
The names oI the parties and people I gave in the Iorm which appear most oIten in the English
language literature and which they themselves use; they are not uniIorm with regard to the
Romanisation, although hanvu pinvin equivalents are usually given.
6
In Iact neither side declared the will to unite with PRC or claim Iormal independence
immediately.
2. Research Method and Materials
The materials came Irom the two main pro-independence dailies, the Chinese language
Zivou Shibao (Libertv Times, abbreviated to ZS in this paper) and the English-language
Taipei Times (TT). Both are mainstream media, which are supposed to represent popular
opinions and not the views oI some marginal, extremist groups; they also enjoy wide
readership and are the most inIluential. I collected the editorials representative oI the main
ideological line oI the papers, which discussed the most important matters |Dijk, 1996|;
they were also consistent in Iorm. Because I was interested in the way the Taiwanese see
themselves I excluded all articles written by Ioreigners or overseas Taiwanese, even iI they
were perIect illustrations oI the newspapers` line. I planned to compare two samples, one
Irom the presidential campaign (the three months beIore the elections: December 20
th
2003
to March 20
th
2004) and the control` sample, Irom a similar period aIter the elections
(March 21
st
to June 20
th
2004). However, because oI the post-election political crisis, the
political debate did not cool down and the material turned out to be very uniIorm.
I used two newspapers in diIIerent languages in order to check whether any noticeable
diIIerences can be discerned in the presentation oI the same issues Ior local (ZS) and
Ioreign (TT) readers. I did not notice any major discrepancies that is also why most oI the
quotations below are Irom the Taipei Times. They present the same views as the other
paper, but the Taipei Times English is better than my own translations Irom the Chinese.
These quotations are representative as the best, the most clear examples` oI the issues
discussed and not as the most Irequent occurrences`.
The method used was that oI discourse analysis. I chose this qualitative method, as I was
mainly interested in the contents oI the discussion, in understanding its meanings, which is
exactly the goal oI discourse analysis. The main Ieature oI discourse analysis is analysing
the texts by placing them within a broader context, which is deemed crucial Ior understanding
them properly |Dijk, 1997, Sandig and Selting, 1997|. There can be many contexts Ior any
utterance: sociological, political, linguistic etc. I decided to use three contexts: historical,
ethnic and political. All oI them are very important to the creation oI the nation. Theoreticians
oI primordial school stress these three Iields as real constituents oI a nation (a common
ethnicity//culture, a common history oI the given community and the existence oI a political
unit which encompasses it), while the more constructivist-oriented ones enumerate them as
nation`s perceived constituents, on the basis oI which the concept oI nation is created
|Brass, 1991, Gellner, 1983|.
3. The Three Contexts
3.1. Historical Background
The history oI Taiwan has several particular Ieatures which set it apart Irom other
regions oI the broadly-deIined Chinese world. One oI these Ieatures is that the Han Chinese,
who now constitute 97 oI the island`s population, came there in several migration waves
in relatively recent times, i.e. the last 400 years; the original inhabitants, the so-called
Taiwanese Aborigines, were gradually marginalised and ended up either Iully assimilated
or as dwellers oI high mountains, oI little economical and political importance. The other is
that the island used to be a Ioreign colony. Both these Iactors caused the division oI
political power among various ethnic groups, which was typical oI Taiwan`s history,
although the lines oI division were diIIerent in diIIerent periods. The history oI Taiwan is
well described elsewhere
7
, so I shall mention only those elements that may be perceived as
distinct and/or constitutive oI the Taiwanese consciousness.
Prior to the arrival oI the Dutch in 1624, the Aborigines were sole masters oI the island.
Despite its close proximity to the China coast, the Chinese did not maniIest much interest in
this territory. Only aIter the Dutch colony was established, the Chinese immigrant workers
arrived in larger numbers; next wave oI the Chinese immigration was at the time oI Zheng
Chenggong`s invasion (1661), which ended the Dutch rule. The Qing dynasty managed to
establish its control in 1683; during 212 years oI its rule the immigration policies varied, but
the Chinese population increased, eIIectively absorbing the Aborigines |Chen, 1994|. In
1895 the island passed into the hands oI the Japanese, who were the Iirst to establish Iull and
eIIective control on the entire territory, subjugating the last independent Aborigines |Barclay,
1999| and the Chinese; they also developed local economy. In 1945 the Republic oI China, led
by the Kuomintang, took over power; unIortunately, the Chinese misrule caused widespread
tensions, which erupted in the February 28 Uprising oI 1947 (known as the 228 Incident)
|Lai etal., 1991|. A lasting eIIect oI the bloodily suppresed rising was the riIt between the
benshengren (literally locally born`) people whose IoreIathers came beIore 1895 and
waishengren (born outside`), recent newcomers Irom the mainland, mainly KMT Iollowers
and soldiers. The waishengren, who escaped to Taiwan aIter the KMT had lost the war with
the Communists on the mainland, established themselves as the ruling elite and their military
regime lost its rule only aIter the democratisation oI the country in the 1980s and 90s. In 2000,
the opposition, grouped around the DPP, which mainly appealed to local people`, won the
elections and ended the halI a century oI KMT rule.
3.2. Ethnic Background
The Iirst people on Taiwan were the ancestors oI the Aborigines. Despite being relative
latecomers, Han Chinese were able to quickly gain numerical superiority, thanks to the
more intensive agriculture, capable oI sustaining more people. The Hans were divided into
people Irom the Fujian province, speaking the minnan language, called Hoklo (Holo;
pronounced Fulao in the standard Mandarin Chinese), who were Iurther divided into people
Irom the Quanzhou and Zhangzhou regions; and Hakka people Irom the Guangdong
province. Until 1949, these three groups constituted 98 oI the Chinese population |Chen,
1987|. Throughout the 18th and 19th centuries (at least until 1860s), these groups Irequently
Iought each other (and also within themselves), which caused the settlement to be divided
into discreet, almost ethnically uniIorm, territorial units |Shepherd, 1993|. Apart Irom these
sub-ethnic Iights, there were conIlicts between the Hans and the Aborigines, mainly caused
by Chinese encroachment on Aborigine land, and conIlicts between the Hans, Aborigines
and the colonisers, Iirst Dutch, later Japanese. It made the island a very unstable place,
especially during the Qing rule |Lamley, 1981|.
7
See Ior example J.W. Davidson, The Island of Formosa, Past and Present. Historv, People
Resources and Commercial Prospects, Taipei: Southern Materials Center, Inc., 1903, 1988);
M.R.Slawinski, Historia Tafwanu (History oI Taiwan), Warszawa: Elipsa, 2000; W. Zhou, Taiwan
lishi tushuo (Ilustrated history oI Taiwan), Taipei: Lianjing Chubanshe, 2004.
The Japanese period brought about important changes in the ethno-cultural situation
oI the island. First, the Aborigines were totally subjugated Ior the Iirst time. Second,
among the Chinese there emerged new elites, inIluenced by modern political thought.
During the relatively liberal Taisho era there was quite a lot oI political activism among the
Taiwanese. Some oI them tried to develop a modern Iorm oI Chinese patriotism, some leant
towards localisation` and Taiwanese consciousness, and Iinally, many oI them became
partially Japanised (sometimes to a large degree) |Chen, 1972|. The primeval (sub)ethnic
backgrounds (Hakka or Hoklo and then Zhangzhou or Quanzhou) started to ebb slowly,
because the modernising society was becoming more uniIorm. Most importantly, all these
people shared the same experiences, radically diIIerent Irom those oI the mainland Chinese.
8
The clash between the two world-views oI the local inhabitants and the KMT ruling
elites, who came in 1945, Iormed a deep background Ior the incidents oI 1947. AIterwards
the benshengren/waishengren conIlict superseded all earlier ones. The tensions united
the Hoklos (70 oI population) and the Hakkas (15) into one group oI benshengren, and
the Mainlanders (who came Irom many provinces and were a very diverse group) into
relatively uniIorm waishengren 13 |Chang, 1994|. The waishengren assumed not only
political, but also cultural dominance |Cheng, 1994|. AIter 60 years, athough less pronounced
thanks to uniIormisation and intermarriage, the conIlict still goes on. A good example oI it
were the political tensions over the issue oI introducing the local languages into schools
and/or as the second oIIicial language, alongside the standard Chinese (guovu, Mandarin),
the mother tongue oI the waishengren |Shih, 2002|.
3.3. Political Background
The imminent political background oI the campaign was the competition between the
mainly Hoklo-based DPP and the waishengren-supported KMT inside the country; and
on the other hand, the competition between the PRC and the Republic oI China (ROC on
Taiwan) on the international scene.
AIter the KMT lost the civil war on the Chinese mainland, it withdrew to Taiwan, established
a military, authoritarian state and eIIiciently controlled the local population, although its
direct supporters were a minority. Only in the late 1970s, when it was obvious that reconquering
China was impossible, the ROC lost its place in the United Nations and became more and
more politically isolated, the KMT leadership decided to attract more benshengren into the
Party and then gradually democratise the state. In 1986, aIter 38 years, the martial law was
abolished. On the base oI previous dangwai (outside the party`) activists, the DPP was
Iormed. In 1996 the Iirst direct, Iree presidential elections were organized.
9
At the time, the
8
Many researchers point to the Japanese period as Iormative Ior the Taiwanese consciousness; see
e.g. A. Hsiau, Contemporarv Taiwanese Cultural Nationalism, London and New York: Routledge, 2000.
9
This period is much analysed and described. See Ior example: T. Chengj., Haggard S., Political
change in Taiwan, London: Lynne Rienner Publishers, Inc., 1992; Y. Chu, The Challenges of
Democratic Consolidation, p. 149167, London: Macmillan Press Ltd., 1999; B.J. Dickson,
Democrati:ation in China and Taiwan. The Adaptabilitv of Leninist Parties, OxIord: Clarendon
Press, 1997; C.S. Meaney, Liberali:ation, Democrati:ation, and the Role of the KMT, p. 95120,
London: Lynne Rienner Publishers, Inc., 1992; S. Tsang, H. Tien, Democrati:ation in Taiwan.
Implications for China, London: Macmillan Press Ltd., 1999; A.M. Wachman, Taiwan. National
Identitv and Democrati:ation, New York: M.E. Sharpe, Inc., 1994.
PRC, which Ior the previous two decades had been too absorbed with its domestic trouble,
started to pay more attention to the ROC and tried to intimidate Taiwanese voters by
launching missiles close to the island. The tactic misIired and the moderate pro-
independence candidate, Lee Teng-hui, won.
10
During the 1990s, several more political reIorms took place, streamlining political organization
oI the state and Iorming a stable legal basis Ior multi-party democracy. The Iollowing elections
were won by Chen Shuibian, the DPP candidate, mainly thanks to the split votes oI the KMT
Iollowers. Some oI them voted Ior the main KMT candidate and some Ior the Iormer KMT
member, later a leader oI his own People`s First Party, James Soong. The Iirst term oI Chen`s
presidency was marked by Iurther reIorms, although he did not attempt to change the constitution,
which is still written Ior the ROC encompassing the entire territory oI China; such movement
would be tantamount to declaring Taiwan`s Iormal separation Irom mainland China.
During the last two decades, the PRC maintained steady political pressure on the island,
backed up by military build-up |JoIIe, 1997, Shambaugh, 1998, Yu, 1997|; at the same time,
it attracted Taiwanese investors and visitors |Yang and Hung, 2003|. The PRC enjoyed
huge economic growth and the contacts and economic exchange across the Taiwan Strait
are also growing Iast, although neither oI the states legally recognizes the other and the
political tensions grow rather than diminish. At the moment the situation in the Taiwan
Strait is a stalemate: China wants to incorporate the island and hardened its position by
withdrawing Irom Deng Xiaoping`s 'one nation, two systems plan (on which Hong Kong-
style autonomy is based) and adopting the already mentioned 'anti-secession law. Taiwan
wants to remain separate, either preserving the status quo or declaring Iormal independence.
4. Discussion
The heated atmosphere oI the 2004 presidential campaign certainly did not Iacilitate in-
depth reIlection on the subject oI identity.
11
The descriptions listed below were Iished Irom
among personal attacks and vehement political diatribes. The temperature oI debate caused
the political element to overshadow the other two. In this paper I have alotted almost equal
space Ior each oI the three areas discussed, but in articles I read the political aspect
occupied Iar larger space. Also in the discussion I oIten reIer to the articles about Taiwan,
and not the Taiwanese people. However, Taiwan was oIten used as a metonymy Ior its
inhabitants and was described with such personal attributes like courage` or wisdom`.
4.1. The Taiwanese - a General Description
The Taiwanese were described mainly through their latest achievements, among which
democracy was the dominant theme. They were depicted as supporting democracy, loving
10
This so-called 'Third Taiwan Strait Crisis and its political and social eIIects have been extensively
discussed (R.S. Ross, 'The 19951996 Taiwan Strait ConIrontation: Coercion, Credibility, and Use oI
Force, International Securitv, no. 25, 2000, p. 87123, includes a detailed description oI the events).
11
Dr Hermann Halbeisen Irom Cologne University, who has been Iollowing the developments oI
Taiwanese press Ior a long time, noted in his comments on the earlier version oI this paper that the
press in Taiwan is so deply entrenched in political divisions that such discussions are usually
relegated to the books or other non-periodical publications. ThereIore the quotations below can be
regarded more as a political rhetorhic. I hope they are still interesting, at least as a view on a certain
political project.
Ireedom, acting legally, but lacking dignity, denied to them by the PRC and the international
community, which believed in the PRC`s lies.
Wisdom and rationalism were the central personality traits attributed to the Taiwanese.
Their courage, which was also underlined, was tempered by wisdom. Thanks to these
characteristics the islanders were able to cope with crises: 'Although Taiwan was in an
unIavourable position and Iaced various threats, the Taiwanese people successIully resolved
the diIIiculties with their rationality and wisdom. Some oI their wisdom had been gained in
a hard way: 'baptised by a long period oI vicious partisan wrangling, voters have gotten
smarter. They will not be easily manipulated by partisan propaganda |TT 2003-12-18|. Wisdom
is usually attained with maturity and indeed, such a trait was also listed as typical: 'the people
oI Taiwan and Taiwanese democracy are already quite mature. This enabled them to Iinish the
elections despite the assassination attempt directed at Chen Shuibian |TT 2004-03-22|.
These traits were sometimes juxtaposed with the politicians` character, seen as not always
rising to these standards. They 'underestimated the voters wisdom |TT 2003-12-18|. In Iact
they sowed distrust among the people, and their manipulations and quarrels tired the
population: 'exhausted by partisan disputes, ethnic divisions and extremism on both sides
oI the uniIication-independence dichotomy, the country wants political leaders to resolve
their diIIerences |TT 2004-05-01|. From this we can inIer that the Taiwanese used to be
atrusting people with no love Ior conIlicts. Although not directly stated, such a description
is consistent with their love Ior peace and warm-heartedness, depicted elsewhere.
Let us now see what the situation looks like in more speciIic contexts.
4.2. The Taiwanese throughout the Ages
Historical reIerences were relatively numerous, but mostly limited to modern history
and more oIten served as vehicles Ior political attacks rather than as illustrations oI the
Taiwanese character. Typically they recalled the 'Iive decades oI authoritarian rule and
`black gold` politics |TT 2004-02-28|, during which the '|KMT acquired| expertise in the
dark arts oI vote-rigging |TT 2004-05-10|. The times oI the Dutch and Japanese colonisation,
the latter Iormative Ior the Taiwanese consciousness, were hardly mentioned. The problem
was that although this period was so important and on the whole not too negatively
perceived by the benshengren, praising Ioreign occupation was not a good policy Ior
apro-independence party. Attacks on Japan were also not a viable option, since the Green
coalition was (and still is) very interested in maintaining good contacts with the Japanese,
Ior economical reasons. The political rhetoricians had to choose a very narrow path here.
In the historical context Zivou Shibao mentions Japan twice in six months. First, when
developing a lengthy parallel between Japan and the KMT, with a conclusion that although
'love Ior Taiwan was always in the mouth oI the Japanese, their acts showed only selI-
interest their Ialsehood was equal to the Chinese Kuomintang`s |ZS 2004-04-21|. The other
article lists the Ioreign occupants whom the Taiwanese had to endure: the Dutch, the Japanese
and 'Chiang Kai-shek`s regime. Two points should be addressed here: Iirst, all three rulers
are put on equal Iooting (which is consistent with other articles calling the KMT`s government
'alien and 'colonising); second, the text introduces a mythical Iigure oI the Taiwanese,
who survived their rule and learned how to love his country. Similarly, when saying that 'the
Taiwanese |...| is a person who embraces what Taiwan represented Ior the last 300 years |TT
2004-03-01| the article leaves it up to the readers to decide what exactly 'Taiwan did represent.
We may guess the author oI the article would rather choose the Ireedom and new possibilities
Ior the Chinese immigrants and not banditry, abuse oI Aborigine rights and ethnic warIare,
which were equally (iI not more) typical oI historical Taiwan.
The other not much discussed part oI the island`s history was which may appear
surprising the democratisation process oI the 80s and 90s. The KMT (or Chiang Kai-
shek`s) dictatorship and the current democracy were both mentioned, but usually in general
terms. Chiang Ching-kuo and Lee Teng-hui, the Iormer ROC presidents responsible Ior
initiating and then continuing the democratisation process |Cheng and Haggard, 1992|,
were remembered Iavourably, but not much more was said about them. Obviously, the
Green elites are more Iuture-oriented and they stick to the policy oI no reprisals, which
allowed the KMT to retain its huge property, in exchange Ior peaceIully stepping down
Irom power. I guess that was the reason why there were no 'combatant stories in the
newspapers. The general tone towards history was reconciliatory in the words oI vice-
president Annette Lu, talking about the 228 Incident, 'the tragedies oI history can be
Iorgiven, but they cannot be Iorgotten |TT 2004-02-29|.
Both the relative scarcity and the contents oI the historical remarks are consistent with
Gellner`s and Anderson`s 'Iorward-oriented theories oI nation building, which stress the
importance oI education and the press (or media) in reconstructing nation`s history.
12
4.3. The Issues of Ethnicity
The most important point the very existence oI the Taiwanese nation was actually
never discussed. The nation`s ethnic diversity/unity were discussed, but the question
whether such entity exists at all was never raised.
The Iollowing quotation is representative oI the way ethnic issues were presented: 'Ethnic
issues involve vested interests, the power to interpret history, the power to guide culture and
the power to allocate resources over the past halI century, as well as Taiwan`s ultimate problem
a review oI national identity |TT 2004-01-15|. As we can see, the articles discussed what
constitute the national identity, but they assumed all the time there was a national identity.
The ethnic diversity was not discussed in great detail much more stress was placed
on the national unity.
13
The Pan-Green coalition, oIten accused oI being a party oI the
Hoklos, acknowledged it ('DPP obviously can win an election on Hoklo votes alone
|TT 2004-03-01|), but stressed that it was the other side who tried to play dirty with ethnicity
and spread discord ('KMT insincere on ethnic harmony said a headline |TT 2004-01-15|).
The Chinese Kuomintang (using the whole name was a way to show that it was not a true
local Taiwanese party) was presented as an alien rule, which exploited the local ethnic divisions
and relied on the Aborigine minorities and the Hakkas, just as the Qing dynasty government
used to do (the author even used the word vimin ('loyal people), meaning the Hakkas`
militias who supported the Qing |TT 2004-04-22|). The reason the waishengren supported
the Blue was because these politicians 'had always used ethnic campaigning to reinIorce
12
Such reconstruction demands quite a lot oI remembrance and oI Iorgetting (as easily seen in the
above mentioned omissions oI important historical Iacts), which puts vice-president Lu`s words in
somehow ironical light.
13
Some articles openly stated the ethnic problem was not so signiIicant: the weakening oI
people`s trust because oI the partisanship and political quarrels was much worse |TT 2004-04-21|.
this by playing up a siege mentality among the Mainlanders, Irightening them with tales oI
avengeIul Hoklo-dominated DPP |TT 2004-03-01|.
The proposed cure Ior all these ills was ethnic unity: 'II we want to thoroughly break the
curse oI ethnicity |...| we need an ethnicity-transcending political platIorm and mind-set.
Only by uniting under the banner oI national consciousness can we become one instead oI
Iragmenting into diIIerent ethnic groups |TT 2004-04-22|. To achieve this, the authors
tried to develop new, all encompassing deIinitions oI the 'Taiwanese. The simplest one
was presented by the article about the rally commemorating the 228 Incident: 'Everyone
who lives here is Taiwanese. The same text stated that:
in the past many people in Taiwan perceived the 228 Incident as a massacre oI native
Taiwanese by the ruling Chinese regime, |now| people in Taiwan across all ethnic
groups have come to realize that such an interpretation is an over-simpliIied depiction
oI the tragedy.|...| it was the intention oI the organizers to highlight the theme oI
ethnic harmony and unity through this rally as demonstrated by the participation oI
people Irom every ethnic group |...| and the invitation oI representatives Irom the Iive
major ethnic groups in Taiwan to stand next to |the president| |TT 2004-02-29|.
It was not clear what Iive groups were reIered to (the usual number is Iour: the Aborigines,
Hakka, Hoklo and waishengren |Wang, 2003a|), but it should be noted that using the
event which created a riIt between the ben- and waishengren groups as a symbol oI unity
was a powerIul rhetoric device.
Another article went Iurther and incorporated in the discourse the concept oI the 'New
Taiwanese originally coined by Lee Teng-hui and sometimes criticised Ior being a tool Ior
winning Hoklo support Ior the KMT. The author explained:
AIter all, this is why any person oI Han origin is in Taiwan. It doesn`t matter iI they
came to Taiwan in the 1630s to work Ior the Dutch, the 1940s to escape the Communists
or yesterday as an illegal immigrant to escape the hellhole that is China today. All
came to Taiwan to get away Irom China.
Turning your back on China and turning toward the opportunity that Ior 300 years
Taiwan has represented that is a pretty good deIinition oI what it means to be
aNew Taiwanese |TT 2004-03-01|.
The main point here is the opposition between Taiwan and China, an opposition which
was even more pronounced in the politically-minded texts. To be a Taiwanese it is necessary
to declare oneselI as not-Chinese.
Interestingly, the Aborigines and their relations with the Hans were almost leIt out oI
the picture. One possible explanation is their small number;
14
the other one is that they
usually support the KMT, so it was probably taken Ior granted that the Green politicians
14
Despite reIorms, the Aborigens are still a weak minority in Taiwan. CI.S. Hsieh, 'From Shanbao
to Yuanzhumin: Taiwanese Aborigines in Transition, in M.A. Rubinstein, ed., The Other Taiwan.
1945 to the Present, New York: M.E. Sharpe, 1994, p. 404421; F. Wang, Dangdai Taiwan shehui de
:uqun sixiang (Ethnic Imagination in Contemporary Taiwan), Taipei: Zuxue Chubanshe, 2003.
could not inIluence their political options. Taipei Times acknowledged that 'indigenous
people |...| land has been exploited by the Hoklo` so they may Ieel resentment, but Zivou
Shibao reminded that during KMT rule the Aborigines had been doubly denied their
identity: Iirst because the regime decreed they were all members oI one nation, together
with all other people oI China; and that it was Chinese (Han) nation |ZS 2004-02-16|.
4.4. Politics: the Central Theme
The Taiwanese were most thoroughly discussed, deIined and re-deIined in the context
oI politics. The dominant theme was Taiwan`s relations with the PRC. In short, Taiwan was
depicted as everything the PRC was not; there was a polar opposition between the images
oI the two states: democratic autocratic, peaceIul warlike, benevolent malevolent,
open close minded. Most oI the texts Iocused on the states (PRC and ROC/Taiwan
respectively) and not on the people, but as I have already noted, in this discourse the
states and the people were used interchangeably.
The issue placed above all others was that oI Taiwan`s sovereignty, which 'can never
be laid aside |TT 2004-02-17|, because without it human rights, property rights etc. could
not be protected (which leads the readers to inIer that the Taiwanese now enjoy and
should enjoy these rights). As a separate country, Taiwan has the right to establish normal
international relations |ZS 200405-02|; the division between the PRC and ROC was depicted
as a Iact and the Taiwanese accepted the existence oI two states on the two sides oI the
Strait (which China was unable to do) |TT 2004-06-08|. In the context oI the elsewhere
noted 'pigheaded obstinacy oI the Beijing leaders, we can derive here the opposition
between the Taiwanese (realists) and China (not willing to Iace the Iacts).
The texts noted that the Iact that the Taiwanese considered the PRC to be a separate state
did not mean they were hostile towards it. On the contrary, they supported the dialogue, but
only on condition oI maintaining their sovereignty and under supervision oI the international
community otherwise they would have no reason to trust the PRC |TT 2004-01-18|. They were
too wise to trust blindly and in the past they had learnt the costs oI the authoritarian rule the
228 incident taught them how cruel the dictatorship oI a single party was. They observed the
situation in Hong Kong under the Chinese rule and decided that the 'one country, two systems
deal proposed by the PRC, 'bankrupted |...| and is looked upon with contempt. |...| That`s why
the Taiwanese stubbornly stand by independence and sovereignty |ZS 2004-04-03|.
The Taiwanese were not hostile towards China, but the same could not be said about the
other side. The PRC was described in unequivocal terms as 'alien, hostile regime |TT 2004-
02-11|, 'sucking Taiwanese capital and vitality |TT 2004-01-13|, which attacked businessmen,
which supported the Green during the elections |TT 2004-06-08| and whose tactical missiles
aimed at Taiwan were a menace hundredIold worse than SARS and could cause the Taiwanese
state to 'die young |ZS 2003-12-21|. The PRC did not show any respect Ior the democratically
elected president oI the ROC |TT 2004-04-10| and although its leaders claimed they wanted
to listen to 'the hearts and minds oI the Taiwanese |TT 2004-03-19|, their opposition towards
any reIerendum on the island proved they did not really mean it. China used all means to hurt
Taiwan e.g. 'buying Taiwan`s Iriends (allies) |TT 2004-04-10| and blocking Taipei`s eIIort to
join the international organizations. The Beijing regime oIten acted treacherously and the
islanders needed to be on guard, because although the PRC may 'sweeten its poison, iI
they got Iooled by it they would be no more than 'meat on a Chinese chopping block |TT
2004-02-04|. Yet they were experienced in dealing with dictatorships and were only disgusted
by 'Beijing`s dirty propaganda tricks |TT 2004-04-15|.
The Taiwanese response to all these threats was peaceIul: it was emphasized that Taiwan
had no oIIensive weapons which could be used to attack the mainland. 'Against Chinese
missiles the Taiwanese present only deep wishes Ior peace, coming Irom the bottom oI their
hearts said Zivou Shibao. The voting ballot was their single weapon against Chinese missiles,
a 'weapon not dangerous to the PRC, since it could not reach the continent |2004-01-02|. It
is important to note that the Taiwanese were presented as opposed to the Beijing regime, and
not to Chinese people. This meant that the people oI Taiwan had their own voice, were Iree
to speak Ior themselves and they were not enemies oI mainland Chinese, who were not
allowed to express their opinions Ireely, but only oI the oppresive PRC`s governement.
The wisdom, level-headedness and maturity oI the Taiwanese were asserted again:
indeed these very characteristics, together with their courage enabled them to Iace both
the crisis oI 1996 and the current threats. They acted oI their own will and the results oI
their voting were very diIIerent Irom what Beijing would wish Ior |ZS 2003-12-23|.
The Taiwanese represented the 'soIt power oI morality against brute Iorce. Their
human chain across the island (commemorating the 228 Incident) was called their 'Great
Wall: not made oI stone like the more Iamous symbol oI Chinese isolationism, but oI real
people. The Taiwanese people were described as victims oI many-sided Chinese aggression,
but they were not helpless victims: they were a proud, wise and brave people, peaceIul and
open-minded, but unwilling to become subjects oI an alien rule again. Their love Ior their
country and Ireedom were underscored, but there were no voices suggesting the Taiwanese
people were ready to Iight Ior it. This would undoubtedly be called war-mongerism and
would rather Irighten away the voters than rally them.
4.4.1. Democracy and the Feelings of Identity
These two issues were oIten discussed together; in Iact the texts openly suggested that
the latter resulted Irom the Iormer. 'The Ieelings oI community and identity became key
values oI democratic Taiwan |ZS 2004-03-04|. Not only such Ieelings existed and were
treasured at the national level, but they were also typical oI democratic Taiwan (as opposed
to the previous, authoritarian era). The diIIerence between the Chinese and the Taiwanese
was stated very clearly:
|it is| an ironclad Iact: While there are still a Iew people who regard China as their
motherland, there are more and more people in Taiwan who see this nation as their
one and only homeland. |...| Apparently, like it or not, our group versus their
group` and Taiwan versus China` have gradually become mainstream opinion.|...|
Simply put, it is not so much about how politicians manipulate the people but rather
how people might and should dictate to the politicians.|...| AIter decades oI
separation oI the two sides oI the Taiwan Strait, and due in large part to the
democratization oI Taiwan, this country has developed its own ethnically and
politically unique identity |TT 2004-03-19|.
The articles repeatedly reminded that Taiwan was a democracy, sometimes with much
pathos: 'great phrases oI that purpose |with which Taiwan`s democracy was Iounded| still
sound in every Taiwanese person`s heart |TT 2004-02-28|. The Taiwanese value their
democracy so much that they 'will never give it up and subject themselves to the Beijing`s
regime |TT 2004-02-29|. They could count on the international community, which was
impressed by their achievements on the road to democracy and in building a Iree, law-
abiding state. However, the tone oI the articles was slightly bitter when they discussed the
international reactions to the Taiwanese issue. The world was not really ready to accept
the Taiwanese democracy, although it was the only true one in the region |TT 2004-03-19|,
and was easily Iooled or blackmailed by the PRC. The people oI Taiwan were oIten leIt
alone despite their great achievements and were denied proper recognition.
5. Concluding Remarks
I have not listed all the characteristics oI the Taiwanese which can be derived Irom the
texts, preIerring to let the quotations to 'speak in their own words as much as possible.
Obviously, iI the Taiwanese are denied dignity and recognition it means they are people
worth oI both dignity and recognition. By the same token, we can easily reconstruct the
Taiwanese Ieatures, on the basis oI the negative descriptions oI the PRC. Simply, the islanders
were not 'treacherous, 'aggressive, 'sneaky etc.
The lack oI cultural markers oI identity was noticeable an attempt to create them would be
just too risky. Culturally the predominant majority oI the Taiwanese are Han Chinese, or, on the
sub-ethnic level, Hoklo, Hakka etc. These were the very categories the Taiwanese nationalists
wanted to do away with. Although we can already sensibly speak about the separate Taiwanese
culture |Bosco, 1994, Hsiau, 2000|, it is a relatively recent phenomenon, characterised by many
borrowings Irom the neighbours` cultures; thereIore it is diIIicult to deIine it very clearly,
especially because it lacks a distinct language, the most obvious cultural Ieature.
Seen as an active attempt oI group (nation) building, the analysed texts Iit better these
national identity theories which (like B. Anderson`s or E. Gellner`s) stress the creation oI
anation, which (like A. Smith`s, 1998) Iocus on ethnic and cultural core oI the group. Following
Smith`s deIinitions the Taiwanese are very much a 'civic nation: they have a common state
(with the historically deIined, but at the same time contested, territory), economy, legal rights
and duties; whereas their common ancestry, history, myths are less clearly deIined in Iact,
less clearly 'common. This, in due course, may change: the Taiwanese are situated outside
oI scope oI the PRC`s cultural, historical and ethnic narratives and inside ROC`s scope oI
such narratives; no matter who will be in power in ROC (which functionallv is a Taiwanese
state), such Taiwanese narratives will be present there, and may inIuse the islanders with the
'common ancestry and history Ieeling and knowledge |Brown, 2004|.
The Taiwanese, at least at present, appear to be a politically deIined group. DeIined Irom
outside, their national identity Iits S. Verba`s and L. Pye`s deIinition: '|national identity| is
a set oI individuals who Iall within the decision-making scope oI a state |Dittmer and Kim,
1993, p. 6|. At the same time they show at least three oI Iour Pye`s 'Iundamental Iorms oI
the national identity crisis. Their territory in legal and real sense does not overlap; they are
ethnically divided and their historical-cultural exclusiveness is hard to pinpoint correctly.
15
15
The Iourth type a class-conIlict is not much pronounced in Taiwanese society, eds. L.Dittmer,
S.S. Kim, China Coast Identities. Regional, National, and Global, Ithaca: Cornell University Press,
1993, p. 7).
The quoted press material shows clearly that attempts to resolve these crises Iocus on
politics: even the personal traits underlined as important Ior the Taiwanese have political
Ilavour, e.g. love Ior Ireedom or pride in democracy.
ThereIore, since the culture cannot be used as a group marker, the boundary between
them and the Chinese had to be built on something else. The creation oI a boundary may
be even more important to the group existence than the deIinition oI its core values |Barth,
1969|. This boundary is in this case created between the Chinese and the Taiwanese,
Iollowing the de facto (but not de iure) political border betwen the PRC and ROC.
It seems that history repeats itselI: in 1945 the benshengren, although set apart by their
experience oI Japanese rule, were quite willing to re-unite with China but the events oI
the political history, mainly the 228 Uprising, 'pushed them into 'local consciousness.
Nowadays the Taiwanese are at least to some extent 'pushed into nationalism by the
PRC`s attempts to intimidate them. The threats show the people oI Taiwan that the state on
the other side oI the Straits is not theirs, in Iact it appears to be their enemy. In the eyes and
speech oI pro-indenpedence party they need to diIIerentiate Irom it and so the PRC becomes
a 'measure oI the Taiwanese identity.
16
In the words oI Taipei Times |2004-04-11|:
Beijing need to come to grips with the Iact that in this increasingly globalized world,
where people give high priority to Iundamental values such as human rights,
democracy and Ireedom, the people oI Taiwan are no longer happy with undigniIied
isolation and demeaning treatment Irom the international community particularly
Irom China. It is isolation and poor treatment that have stimulated the growth oI
Taiwanese national pride and Taiwanese identity.
Whether this 'growth will bear any Iruits remains now an open question in the current
global political situation.
References
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Nationalism, London: Verso, 1991.
Barclay P.D., Japanese and American Colonial Profects. Anthropological Tvpification
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difference, Boston: Little, Brown, 1969.
Bosco Joseph, 'The Emergence oI Taiwanese Popular Culture, in The Other Taiwan.
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Publications, 1991.
Brown MelissaJ., Is Taiwan Chinese? The Impact of Culture, Power and Migration on
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16
It is sometimes called the 'reIerence group (E. Lewandowski, Svndromv etnic:ne spolec:enstw
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Huang, Taibei: Institute oI Ethnology, Academia Sinica, 1994, chapter5, p. 93151.
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Cheng Tun-jen and Haggard Stephen, Political change in Taiwan, London: Lynne Rienner
Publishers Inc., 1992.
Chu Yun-han, 'The Challenges oI Democratic Consolidation, in Democrati:ation in
Taiwan. Implications for China, eds. Steve Tsang i Hung-mao Tien, London: Macmillan
Press Ltd., 1999, p. 149167.
Davidson, JamesW., The Island of Formosa, Past and Present. Historv, People Resources
and Commercial Prospects, Taibei: Southern Materials Center, Inc., 2
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edition, (1903)
1988.
Dickson, Bruce J., Democrati:ation in China and Taiwan. The Adaptabilitv of Leninist
Parties, OxIord: Clarendon Press, 1997.
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4
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International Svmposium of Critical Discourse Analvsis, Language, Social Life
and Critical Thought, 1416 December 1996, URL: http://www.discourses.org/
UnpublishedArticles/Opinions20and20ideologies20in20editorials.htm, retrieved
on 2007-12-24.
Dijk Teun A.v., The Studv of Discourse, London: SAGE Publications, 1997, vol.1, p. 135.
Dittmer Lovell and Kim SamuelS., eds., Chinas Quest for national Identitv, Ithaca: Cornell
University Press, 1993
Gellner Ernest, Nations and nationalism, OxIord: Basil Blackwell, 1983.
Ho Shu-yin and Liu I-chou, 'The Taiwanese/Chinese Identity oI the Taiwan people in the
1990s, American Asia Review, 2002, vol. XX, no. 2, p. 2974.
Hsiau A-Chin, A Contemporarv Taiwanese Cultural Nationalism, London and New York:
Routledge, 2000.
Hsieh Shih-Chung, 'From Shanbao to Yuanzhumin: Taiwanese Aborigines in Transition,
in The Other Taiwan..., 1994, chp. 15, p. 404421.
JoIIe Ellis, 'How much does the PLA make Ioreign policy?, in China Rising, eds. David
S.G. Goodman and Gerald Segal, London: Routledge, 1997, chp.4, p. 5371.
Klaczynski Michal and Zemanek BogdanS., 'The Status oI the Taiwanese State in the
Light oI International Law, Acta Asiatica Jarsoviensa, 2005, vol. 18, p. 719.
Lai Tse-han, Myers Ramon W. and Wei, Wou, A tragic beginning. The Taiwan uprising of
Februarv 28, 1947, StanIord, CaliI.: StanIord University Press, 1991.
Lamley Harry, J., 'Subethnic Rivalry in the Chìng Taiwan, in The Anthropologv of
Taiwanese Societv, eds. Emily M. Ahern and Hill Gates, StanIord: StanIord University
Press, 1981.
Lewandowski Edmund, Svndromv etnic:ne spolec:enstw (Ethnic Syndromes oI the
Societies), Lodz: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Lodzkiego, 1996.
Meaney ConstanceSquires, 'Liberalization, Democratization, and the Role oI the KMT,
in Political change in Taiwan, eds. Tun-jen Cheng and Stephan Haggard, London:
Lynne Rienner Publishers, Inc., 1992, chp.5, p. 95120.
Ross Robert S., 'The 19951996 Taiwan Strait ConIrontation: Coercion, credibility, and use
oI Iorce, International Securitv, 2000, vol. 25, p. 87123.
Sandig Barbara and Selting Margret, 'Discourse styles, in Discourse as Structure and
Process. Discourse Studies. A Multidisciplinarv Introduction, Teun A. van Dijk, ed.,
London: SAGE Publications, 1997, vol.1, chp.5, p. 138157.
Shambaugh David, Contemporarv Taiwan, New York and OxIord: OxIord University Press,
1998.
Shepherd John Robert, Statecraft and Political Economv on the Taiwan Frontier
16001800, StanIord: StanIord University Press, 1993.
Shih Cheng-Feng, 'Language and Ethnic Politics in Taiwan, paper presented at
International Conference on Globali:ation, Education and Language, Tamkang
University, Tamsui, November 1516 2002, URL: http://mail.tku.edu.tw/cIshih/seminar/
20021115.htm, retrieved on 2007-12-24.
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Publishing Company, 2003.
Slawinski Roman M., Historia Tafwanu (History oI Taiwan), Warszawa: Elipsa, 2000.
Slawinski Roman M., 'Cultural Identity oI the Taiwanese People in the Globalization Era,
Hemispheres, 2002, vol. 18, p. 91106.
Smith Anthony, Nationalism and Modernism, New York: Routledge, 1998
Tsang Steve and Tien Hung-mao, Democrati:ation in Taiwan. Implications for China,
London: Macmillan Press Ltd., 1999.
Wachman Alan M., 'Competing Identities in Taiwan, in The Other Taiwan..., 1994, chp.1,
p. 1781.
Wachman Alan M., Taiwan. National Identitv and Democrati:ation, New York: M.E.
Sharpe, Inc., 1994.
Wang Fuchang, Dangdai Taiwan shehui de :uqun sixiang (Ethnic Imagination in
Contemporary Taiwan), Taibei: Zuxue Chubanshe, 2003.
Wang Tianbin, Taiwan baove shi (History oI Taiwanese newspapers), Taibei: Yatai Tushu
Chubanshe, 2003.
Yang Chyan and Hung Wan, 'Taiwan`s Dilemma Across the Strait: LiIting the Ban on
Semiconductor Investment in China, Asian Survev, 2003, vol. 43, no. 3, p. 681696.
Yu TaiIa, 'Taiwan Democracy Under Threat: Impact and Limit oI Chinese Military Coercion,
Pacific Affairs, 1997, vol. 70, no. 1, p. 736.
Zhou Wanqiao, Taiwan lishi tushuo (Ilustrated history oI Taiwan), Taibei: Lianjing
Chubanshe, 2004.
144 BOOK REVIEWS
ACTA ASIATICA
VARSOVIENSIA
No. 20, 2007
PL ISSN 08606102
BOOK REVIEWS
Edward Luce, In Spite of the Gods: 1he Strange Rise of Modern India (London, 2006)
388 pp.
Suddenly there is an upsurge about India among the scholars and journalists and everyone
is curious to Iind out what is the 'reality about this phenomenal progress in the subcontinent
polity called India. Big slogans have emerged, such as 'India Is Shining and 'Incredible
India. Edward Luce who was The Financial Times correspondent based in New Delhi Ior
Iive years (20012005) has Ielt brave enough to write this entertaining book. Nowonder it is
not only Iun to read, but oIIers also a deeply insightIul account oI contemporary India. The
book may serve both as a Iine introduction Ior unrelated outsiders and as a mature scrutiny
that is bound to stimulate insiders like the present reviewer. Luce has proved himselI an
aIIectionate and perceptive observer oI the contemporary Indian scene. The book may
become a reIerence to those who want to interpret Indian scene, which is very oIten chaotic,
but has a historical continuity to preserve its civilizational synthesis despite many constraints
and challenges oI modernization. Indian polity today has crossed more than a billion
population and the way it is increasing its population it is going to surpass China in the next
25 years or so. It has 350 million oI strong middle class which is more than the middle class
number oI the whole European Union. It has exactly the same number oI people who are
earning less than a dollar a day. Thus India is a thriving paradox.
The muting numbers speak Ior themselves and no great economist Irom Noble Laureate
Amartya Sen to JeIIrey Sacks has any magic Ilute to wish them away. As to the way India
works, Iamous American economist ProIessor John K. Galbraith called it a Iunctioning
anarchy. 'How is India being ruled? This question exposes the believers and non-believers
and the latter category is inclined to say, 'Only God can rule this country. It is no surprise
that Luceentitled his book as he did, and he himselI says that to some extent he was
inspired by India`s Iirst Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru. It was 'Nehru`s contention that
India`s greatest strengths are not exclusively, or even necessarily, located in its religious
traditions. India`s advantages are Iound in its vibrant democracy, which has conIounded
expectations by not only surviving but entrenching itselI deep within India`s culture
(p.18). India is still kicking and Ior the past seven years it has been maintaining a healthy
rate oI growth oI seven to eight per cent annually; the Iuture projections are also quite
rosy, optimistically speaking. The over-ambitious spin doctors, including many Western
and Indian economists, think that India is booming, poised to become one oI the world`s
largest economies in the next generation and to overtake China by 2050.Yet, the spectacular
growth is taking place against the backdrop oI a society that has still Iully to come to terms
with liberal modernity. With an enduring anti-materialist philosophy it plays host to some
oI the world`s most cutting-edge research and development, and still is home to one oI the
BOOK REVIEWS 145
intolerant, religious chauvinist movements in the world. And India is a nuclear weapon
power state.
It is always quite diIIicult to structure a book like this one, but Luce has managed well by
breaking up the narrative into well-deIined chapters, each dealing with a diIIicult theme and
each capable oI standing on its own Ieet. His introductory chapter is a masterpiece essay
where he maps out the skeleton oI his book. Like all good writers he traces the value oI Indian
philosophy, culture and tradition oI interpreting human liIe on this planet. He quotes many
Western seekers oI truth and the meaning oI liIe who adopted India as their spiritual home, as
e.g. Andre Malraux, a French novelist who wrote: 'Remote Iromourselves in dream and in
time, India belongs to the Ancient Orient oI our soul, or Arthur Schopenhauer, a German
philosopher who said that the ChristianNew Testament must have come Irom India since it
had the gentlest civilisation. On the other hand, Lord Macaulay, who authored India`s Iirst
national penalcode, inIamously wrote that the entire corpus oI Indian philosophy and
literaturewas not worth a single bookshelI oI Western writing, and British Prime Minister
Sir Winston Churchill said India was 'a beastlycountry and a beastly religion and that it
was 'no more a country than theEquator (p. 4).
To an extent, Rabindranath Tagore, perhaps India`s greatest poet who won theNoble
Prize Ior literature in 1913, aptly described the so-called Western Iascination with Indian
philosophy when he said: 'To a Western observer our civilisation appears as all metaphysics,
as to a deaI man piano playing appearsto be mere movements oI Iingers and no music.
The Iact oI the matter is thatcomprehending Indian philosophy and India is a complex
problem. When thingslook simple they are not that simple and when things look too
diIIicult they arenot that diIIicult. II Indian religion is a way oI liIe, so is its politics. It may
appearcumbersome and chaotic, but to Indians it is quite natural and liveable. AsAmartya
Sen rightly observed: 'The European exoticisms` interpretations andpraise Iound in India
an army oI appreciative listeners, who were particularlywelcoming given their badly
damaged selI-conIidence resulting Irom colonialdomination (p. 5). PowerIul new images
oI India have emerged in the last decade or so, Ied mostlyby its success in inIormation
technology and oIIshore call centres, the growingreach oI Bollywood abroad - popularised
in part by the increasing wealth andvisibility oI Indian diaspora in the United States,
Britain and in the ArabianGulI and by India`s much-analyzed nuclear weapons programme
which wasopenly declared in 1998 and later on by a nuclear deal with the United Statesin
order to contain China in the distant Iuture. Thus India is rightly and truly on the radar
screens oI global politics. In India things happen when one least expects them. And vice
versa. It is a constant source oI both delight and Irustration.
That is how Luce Ielt living in India. His book grapples with some oImajor vulnerabilities
or Iaults which India is Iacing squarely these days and whathas gone by in the last sixty
years. He redesigns a new agenda Ior India Ior his readers and he does not let them down
when he goes into minutedetails. He is brilliant in his details and has done tremendous
homework beIorehe penned this valuable book. Much oI it consists oI interviews and
colourIul vignettes intended to illustrate the myriad statistic that can numb themind. The
blend oI anecdote, history and economic analysis makes an endlesslyIascinating way to
catch up on a very big story which is being unIolded.
Luce`s Iirst chapter deals with Indian economy which he terms as schizophrenic as it is
still global as well as medieval when one compares it withthat oI other developed countries.
146 BOOK REVIEWS
It is to the side oI the new express ways in theglaring billboards advertising mobile phones,
iPods and holiday villas and in theshy gas stations with their air-conditioned mini-
supermarkets that the globalaspect is visible. Behind them, around them and beyond them
open unending vistasoI the India where 68 per cent people live, oI yoked bullocks ploughing
the Iieldsin the same manner they have Ior three thousand years and the primitive brickkilns
that do the endless patchwork oI Iields oI rice, wheat, pulses andoilseed. Contrast is
visible though the rural India is gradually changing its Iace. LucedeIends the economic
policies oI Jawaharlal Nehru as now it has become Iashionable to criticise him Ior socialist
and semi-command policies. The criticsIorget that Nehru had to Iace the consequences oI
two hundred years oI theBritish colonialism when the rate oI growth was hardly one
percent and there was no internal and global capital available to Iinance Indian economy.
Besides, Nehru passed away in 1964 and what did his successorsdo Ior the next 36 years
to alter the direction oI the policy? It was only in 2000that Indian economy started picking
up its momentum and the people`s perception changed drastically. Now there are 220million
mobile phones in use and 200 million people have TV cable network andInternet
connections. Basically, it is the InIormation Technology (IT) which haschanged the Iace
oI Indian economy and this sector enhanced perIormance inits export, which passed the
magic Iigure oI $ 25 billion in 2006. On thewhole, this chapter is written purely in a journalistic
style which Luce has paddedwith his personal interviews and it lacks a scholarly
presentation.
He has adopted the same technique in the second chapter where he discussesIndian
bureaucracy and its long tentacles in the Indian state. II on the one side thebureaucracy
works as a glue to keep the subcontinent a unit, on the other ithas become almost a total
corrupt organisation where without bribery nothingworks Irom the low to the high level.
Abig part oI the blame should be puton the poor quality oI Indian politicians who have
promoted corruption at eachand every step in the system. The eIIiciency oI the bureaucracy
is a laughingstock and the joke is they pretend to work and they are doinghandsomely.
The bureaucracy and their political masters are eating up the eightypercent oI the budget
through pay, allowances, and pensions.
The third chapter deals with the rise oI the Indian lower classes. This ancientcivilisation
is a victim oI its own caste system which has been bordering on theancient slave system.
It was Mahtama Gandhi who Iirst tried to do the socialengineering with his non-violent
means and he partially succeeded. AIter theindependence the lower caste leader Ambedkar,
who incidentally wrote andguided the constitution oI the Indian Republic in 1950, brought
this issue as oneoI the main agendas Ior social equality. It was only in the 1990s that the
truedimensions oI the lower classes became visible when they started cashing theirvalue
oI the vote in political elections and gradually started acquiring politicalpower. The truth
is no single major party at the national or state level can ignoretheir strength. Today
Ambedkar`s statues are visible in all corners oI India and they are no less numerous than
those oI Gandhi. The only big problem has emergedthat there is now a big competition
between the lower castes and otherbackward classes which oIten turn into bloody clashes.
At the same time thesilent Muslim community (oI 160 million people) has also joined
thebandwagon with these groups as they got disillusioned with two main nationalparties,
the Indian National Congress and the Bhartiya Janata Party (BJP). As SirVidya S. Naipaul
noted, 'India has become a land oI a million mutinies;some are mutinies oI lower orders
BOOK REVIEWS 147
against the upper orders, but there are alsomutinies oI upper orders against Muslims, and
mutinies oI lower orders againsteach other and upper orders against each other (p. 115).
In his Iourth chapter, which is probably the best one in the book, Luce describes the
continuing threat oI Hindu nationalism. The Hindus have got poweraIter one thousand
years at the national level, as Iirst the Muslim invaders wereruling Ior eight hundred years
and then the British imperialists ruled one India Iortwo centuries. In 1947, though India
was divided into two countries by theBritishers who had prompted the Muslims to ask Ior
their state on religiousbasis, still millions oI Muslims preIerred to live in a secular India as
they did notaccept the two-nation theory along with the Congress Party led by Gandhi
andNehru. Initially, a small section oI the Hindu society was opposed to thepresence oI
Muslims in India as they had wished to see a Hindu India ratherthan a secular and democratic
India where everyone will have the Ireedom topractice his or her own religion. But over the
past two decades, like the MuslimIundamentalism in other parts oI the world, Hindu
nationalists have become veryaggressive and they are trying to mobilise their co-religionists
to see Muslimsas second rate citizens. Now their voices have become more and more shrill
and they areharping on the basis oI their old civilisation. As one Hindu ideologue put
it,'Civilisation was born in India at least ten thousand years ago and Irom India itspread
to the rest oI the world. Hindustan is a microcosm oI the universe. Itcontains every
contradiction and tendency. Now history has turned Iull circle. Once again India is in
aposition to help the world (p. 146). With the support oIvarious Hindu Iundamentalist
groups, the BJP under the leadership oI Atal BihariVajpayee could rule India Ior six
years Irom 1998 to 2004 and it tried its best tosabotage India`s secular agenda but it
Iailed to repeat its perIormance. Duringthis period a Muslim carnage took place in BJP-
ruled Gujarat state. Nonetheless,Luce`s contention that 'the era oI Brahmin-dominated
politics in India is dead isvery debatable. He is oI the opinion that 'the upper-castes
cult oI materialsacriIice and selI-denial is losing relevance in a country where consumer
valuesare spreading among all castes in the urban cities. People no longerautomatically
associate Hinduism with poverty and celibacy (p. 181). The Iact oIthe matter is one can
be a Iundamentalist and still enjoy the Iruit oI scienceand technology in a materialistic
way.
In the very interesting IiIth chapter Luce describes the Congress Party`s continuinglove
aIIair with the Nehru-Gandhi dynasty. This Iamily, starting Irom Nehru to hisdaughter
Indira Gandhi and then to her son Rajiv Gandhi and now Rajiv`s widow,Italian born Sonia
Gandhi, has been ruling the largest democracy Ior 42 out oI 60 years oI modern Indian
history. Cynically, Luce entitles thischapter 'Long live the sycophants. All these leaders
in their liIetime and evenaIter death have met with much adulation and hatred in
equalmeasures. This is a curious phenomenon oI the Congress Party that itsworkers tend
to seek shelter under the charismatic leaders. The bankruptcy oIthe Congress politicians
and workers is a true reIlection oI Indian society whichloves to adhere to its modern day
gods. This is partly related to theIndian habit oI making myths. Much oI the space is
devoted to dissectSonia`s phenomenon: how this Ioreign lady has been accepted as
unchallengedleader oI the oldest party. Luce makes a very perceptive remark about
Soniawhen he writes, 'she oIten appears to be a prisoner oI the Congress Partynetwork
oI advisers, courtiers and carpet-baggers whose eIIorts have helped todestroy her party`s
creditability in large tracts oI India over the last generation(p. 198). He also sees the
148 BOOK REVIEWS
prospects oI Sonia`s son Rahul to maintain the rule oIthe dynasty in the near Iuture, Ior he
is now in the limelight and still oIIersIairy-tale glory and adulation. 'He has to Iend oII
sycophants wherever hegoes. He must also try to ignore the possibility oI that assassin`s
bullet (p. 220),adds Luce in a paternalistic way. AIter all, Rahul`s Iather and his
grandmotherwere assassinated and the dynasty paid a heavy price to remain in the glory.
Butdynasty is not conIined to the Congress Party and gradually most oI the politicians oI
other parties, barring the two Communist ones, have started behaving in the similar Iashion.
Every retiring or dying politician wants to be succeeded by his oII-springs or by his
widow. A new Ieudal system has arrivedin Indian politics and much blame should be put
on the Nehru-Gandhidynasty. The only redeeming Ieature is that this dynasty at least
producedoutstanding leaders, like Nehru and Indira Gandhi, whereas other Iamilies have
not done anything worthwhile. India is certainly a plural country, butpluralism is not the
same thing as liberalism. This message has to get to the eliteoI the country which is not
playing its political knowledge well enough; ithas got busy in money making in this
globalised world instead. The result is that the bestminds are not going to politics and
thus Indian politics is in the hands oI cheapand corrupt people.
In the sixth chapter Luce very sensibly highlights the plight oI a section oI theMuslims
in the Indian sub-continent. Being a Muslim is just one oI the attributes inthe complex
menu oI identities available to most oI Indians. Nehru oncedescribed India as a palimpsest.
It was his way oI illustrating the largeaccumulation oI histories and cultures that had leIt
their mark on the country,none oI which had been Iully erased (p. 250). One oI the worst
tragedies oIIndian partition has been the Iate oI both the Muslims in India and the
migrantswho went to Pakistan oI their own will. Muslims went to Pakistan in thehope that
they would have a better share oI opportunities to rule the newlycreated state as they had
sacriIiced so much Ior the creation oI an Islamicstate. The irony is that even aIter sixty
years these migrants are still regarded asMohajarin (reIugees) and have been relegated to
the status oI second ratecitizens by the dominant Punjabi and Sindhi communities in
Pakistan. AndMuslims who remained in secular India are living under the cloud oI
suspicionwhich has never entirely liIted. Today their number is bigger than that oI the
Muslims oI Pakistan and Bangladesh taken together. In his masterly display oI analysis,
Luce shows how this Muslim minority oI 160 million people, a populationsecond to
Indonesia, has been leIt behind in the educational and Iinancialsectors. The Muslim leaders
in both India and Pakistan played deliberately apolicy oI artiIicially induced hatred and
this selI-perpetuating enmity has costgenerations to suIIer. Consequently, both India and
Pakistan instead spendingmore money on human resources development, opted Ior an
unproductive armsrace which has now become a nuclear race as well. The two countries
have Ioughtthree Iutile wars and many small battles in their history oI sixty years oI
hatredand enmity. At the same time Pakistan is posing an existential threat to India`ssecular
identity. Luce is right in noting: 'No matter how stablerelations are between the two
countries, in the Indian mind the existence oIPakistan will always have the potential to
divide the loyalties oI India`s Muslimminority (p. 240). India`s Muslims are
a'disappointment both to Pakistan,where hawkish types look Ior signs oI oppression oI
Muslims as something thatwould reaIIirm the logic oI their own existence, and to the
Hindu communalists,whose ideology tells them that it is impossible to be both a true
Indian and adevout Muslim. About the Pakistani mindset Luce observes: 'In contrast,
BOOK REVIEWS 149
IorPakistan`s military-bureaucratic establishment, India is a migraine thatoverweighs all
its other headaches put together. This perceived threat IromIndia and the need to secure
Kashmir provided the principal justiIication Iormilitary rule in Pakistan Ior more than halI
oI the country`s history (p. 242). Inpassing he touches on the thorny issue oI Kashmir
between India and Pakistanbut suggests no solution oI this problem. The Kashmir tragedy
which isbleeding both India and Pakistan along with the local population oI Kashmir,
isbecoming more acute with the passing years. It seems it has become a domestic issue Ior
the ruling Pakistan military establishment which is keen toperpetuate its rule in Pakistan.
In the seventh chapter the author discusses the relationship among the threeimportant
countries, the USA, China and India, and how this triangular dance isgoing to shape the
Iirst quarter oI the 21st century. The two emerging economicgiants in Asia, China and
India, have made the USA take them veryseriously. This engagement has the Iar-reaching
consequences Ior the rest oI theworld. The topic is very contemporary and very relevant
Ior the decision makersin these three countries as well as in other countries, such as the
Russian Federation, Japan and Pakistan (which has been the closestally oI China Ior the
past 45 years and a member oI the US-led alliance systemduring the Cold War era), and also
in European Union. Kissinger once said, in a polite phase oI his career, that 'India lives in
adangerous neighbourhood. India, being itselI a democracy, borders with twodictatorships.
Luckily, China seeking a normality to become an economic power has made a perceptible
change in itspolicy towards India. Now India and China have annual trade oI more than
$8billion in 2006 as compared to $ 2 billion in 2001. Does this mean China andIndia have re-
entered a genuine era oI Iriendship? No. 'No mountain canaccommodate two tigers. This
aphorism has some validity but in the changinginternational climate things can improve oI
their own because oI economicreasons. One thing is clear: Ior the Iirst time the United
States has genuinelystarted wooing India as a counterbalance to China. The nuclear
agreement with India is a clear indication oI US interests to prop up India in a big way.
Thestrategic decision made by George Bush during his visit to India in March 2006has
reversed the anti-Indian policy oI the successive US administrations duringthe Cold War
years. Now the Cold War has been replaced by a new Energy War,searching Ior energy
sources Irom the diIIerent parts oI the world, particularly inthe Middle East, Russian
Federation along with erstwhile Central AsianRepublics which have become Iree and
sovereign states in 1991.How India isgoing to play a role oI a junior partner to the United
State and with whatsophistication, remains to be seen. To what extent the USA will allow
to playIndia its own independent role with other big powers, particularly with Iran and
Pakistan, is also an interesting problem.
In the eighth chapter Luce describes the many-layer character oI Indianmodernity. It is
written Irom a purely journalistic point oI view and the comparison oI the new India with
theold India is unconvincing. Luce is oI the opinion that Bollywood Iilms help tounderstand
the society`s attitudes towards women`s sexuality. For him, 'Thetypically Bollywood Iilm
is a blend oI brilliantly choreographed titillation, whichgoes down with much oI the male
audience, and a resolutely conservativeending, which meets with the approval oI their
mothers and wives (p. 319). Thenhe quotes a Bollywood`s megastar, a larger than liIe
Iigure, AmitabhBachchan, who dutiIully says Indian cinema is an escapist cinema. 'Why
should somebody pay to see Iilm with poverty in it when they see poverty in
theirneighbourhood everyday! People don`t want to be reminded where theylive (p.323).
150 BOOK REVIEWS
AIter reaching a conclusion that 'The rest oI the worldshould learn a lot Irom India,
among which tolerance, the management oIdiversity and the rooting oI democracy in
atraditional society loom large (p. 332),in his next breath Luce adds: 'But in practice
India Ialls short oI the claims itmakes (p. 333). The Iact oI the matter is India was and is
not making big claims asportrayed by Luce. It is only Luce himselI who is making claims
on behalI oI Indiaand he himselI is negating them. Most oI Indians know pretty well about
theshortcomings oI India and they are not romantics like Luce.
In the concluding chapter Luce writes about India`s huge opportunities andchallenges
in the 21st century. To him, India appears to be highlyunpredictable. He makes a balance-
sheet oI the chances that India will make upor will break-up. II intentions can be ascribed
to nation states, you could sayIndia has given a higher priority to stability than it has to
eIIiciency. MyronWeiner, a great political scientist, once said India moved slowly because
it wasdiverse. He wrote: 'India is like a lorry with twelve wheels. II one or two punctures,it
does not go into ditch (p. 337). The division in India, and elsewhere, is toooIten between
those who believe the state should dominate all aspects oI liIeand those who believe it
should play virtually no role beyond deIence and lawand order. It is in the interest oI all
people, rich or poor, right wing or leIt wing,Ior India to develop a more responsive and
modern state. Like all good wishers IorIndia Luce too has made his own catalogue oI
things which India should dourgently in order to overcome its massive shortcomings,
such as reIorm itslabour law; prevent environmental degradation, deIeat the HIV/
AIDSepidemic and protect and strengthen its liberal democracy. According to him,the
most coherent threat to India`s liberal democracy is Hindu nationalism(p. 353). Though
Hindu nationalist Iorces suIIered a setback when the BJP lost thepower at the centre in the
2004 elections, this party still remains one oI the twomain parties which could not be
wished away. Luce is also worried about anIndian tendency to shoot itselI in the Ioot. As
the joke goes, 'India never missesan opportunity to miss an opportunity (p. 359). In
anutshell, the book does not actually say things that are new or unknown, but itdeserves
to be read thoroughly, because every now and then Indian elite shouldbe told that it has
Iailed their people and brethren despite the Iact these 350millions have done very well to
shine themselves at the cost oI 350 millionpeople who are almost leIt out in this race. Luce
asks a very pertinent question:OI what use is India`s democracy iI so many millions still
lead impoverishedlives, remain illiterate and have very little chance oI ever improving their
plight in a country whose social system still Irowns at social mobility oI the worst oII?
Asking the question is very easy but there is no ready-made answer to satisIy the bulging
demands oI the teeming millions. There is a population explosion and Luce has not even
touched upon this crunching problem.It is either a journalistic overlook or a deliberate
error. How come that India which had 330million people in 1947 has crossed the magic
number oI one billion in 2005 andstill there is no roadblock to stop this mad race oI
producing unwanted children?Had this population bomb diIIused at the right time, the
bulk oI Indian problemswould not have surIaced and Luce would not have written a bleak
history. It must be said, however, that he managed to understand and analyze quite a lot
about India during the years he spent there.
Surender Bhutani
BOOK REVIEWS 151
1agat S. Mehta, Aegotiating for India: Resolving Problems through Diplomacy
(Delhi, 2000) 296 pp.
This is a very important book Ior those who want to understand the Iew critical issues
which India Iaced in the Iirst thirty years oI its existence. The author is a proIessional
diplomat who had spent thirty three years in Indian Ioreign service and had retired as the
Ioreign secretary oI India. Later on he was a visiting proIessor to some American universities
and thus became well versed in writing academic works. The book helps the students and
scholars concerned with South Asia in general, and India in particular to grasp the recent
history behind the scenes. Mr Mehta to his unknown admirers and critics and Jagat to his
patrons and Iriends, is a Iorce to reckon with when speaking about Indian diplomacy. One oI
his patrons in the initial years was India`s Iirst Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru who made
him take interest in China, which then was emerging as a big power in Asia. At that time China
was also a principal adversary to the United States and a close Iriend oI India. Nehru wanted
India and China to occupy an important place on the global map and he wished to re-
establish the importance oI Asian civilizations in a proper perspective to Iace the onslaught
oI the technologically advanced West. Jagat Mehta tried to understand the nuances oI
Nehru`s vibrating mind and to put Iorward Indian interests in a complicated world.
The book is pegged around seven cases where the author had the responsibility to negotiate
on behalI oI India. In his introduction Mehta maintains that diplomacy is always plurality oI
sovereignties and compromise in conIlict resolution. To him 'India`s civilizational personality
with its old salad bowl oI Iaiths and tradition oI toleration, and its more recent pioneering role
in decolonization should have given the country a natural advantage in diplomacy in
contemporary world (p. 15). In this context the role oI Mahatama Gandhi and Nehru had been
a moral Iorce in the community oI nations. But unIortunately the partition oI the country into
India and Pakistan by the departing British colonialists leIt a painIul legacy which till this day
is a bleeding wound. The beginning oI the Cold War in the late 1940s coincided with India`s
Ireedom. Thus South Asia and India in particular became mired in superpowers` rivalry and the
US obsession to contain Communism led to the pacts and alliances. Obviously in that kind oI
scheme there was no mention oI India`s democratic adherence Ior the myopic US policy makers
who Iound virtue in allying with the military despotism. In a way India and the United States
Iound themselves on the diIIerent poles. Thus, Nehru`s quest Ior peaceIul co-existence met
with unnecessary hostility Irom the Western world dominated by the Unite States. Second,
Nehru`s early Iascination with Communist China came under a minute scrutiny by the Western
powers who had then changed their World War II mindset. Nehru had a long-term vision oI
global politics and China could not have been ignored . But unIortunately Chinese Communists
by 1959 started viewing Nehru as their potential rival and later they made him their enemy. This
blunder oI the then Chinese leaders, Mao Zedong and Zhou Enlai, proved too costly Ior global
politics in the long run. Had India and China remained steadIast in their Iriendship the world
would have seen less bloodshed in Asia and AIrica. Their Iriendship could have been a model
Ior the other Third World countries. India was allowed to live by its principled internationalism
by its erstwhile Iriends and adversaries.
In the Iirst chapter, Mehta highlights the importance oI Nehru`s visit to Bhutan in 1958, when
there was hardly any road there. Nehru made a journey on horseback and occasionally using
ayak to win the support oI a landlocked country which was in India`s protection. The account
152 BOOK REVIEWS
suggests how Nehru was sensitive to a small neighbour which was and still is very strategic to
India`s deIences vis--vis China. Unlike China, which had annexed Tibet by Iorce, Nehru saw
the virtue in keeping Bhutan independent. Earlier he had turned down a request oI the king oI
Nepal, who was keen to join the Indian Iederation. Later on, when there was a border war
between India and China, there was a move to install US missiles in Bhutan, but Nehru torpedoed
that move in order not to escalate tension Ior a small state. He was keen to preserve the
innocence oI Bhutan and thus did not allow it to become a centre Ior the Cold War.
In his most illuminating second chapter Mehta outlines the history oI Sino-Indian border
question and eventual border war between the two Asiatic giants in 1962. Right at the outset
he gives his verdict when he writes: 'The India-China war oI 1962 should never have taken
place; nor Ior the matter should have been nationwide hypnotic euphoria oI Hindi-Chini bhai
bhai (Indians and Chinese are brothers) (p.54). Initially, both Nehru and Zhou had created
this euphoria oI Asian understanding and it was Nehru who became a principal promoter oI
China in international Iorums when a majority oI nations had not yet recognized the People`s
Republic oI China and Taiwan still had a seat in the UN Security Council. When there was
time to be legal both Nehru and Zhou became emotional and when there was a chance to
negotiate with a spirit oI give and take they became more political and legal. The result was
obvious: a large part oI the humankind which inhabited two big states in Asia suIIered
enormously Ior decades to come Ior the misperceptions oI their leaders. The bulk oI the
blame should be put on Mao who had a great ideological ambition to change the course oI
human history and to develop China boisterously. He seldom valued human rights both
nationally and internationally. Even sincerity oI Nehru was doubted and eventually Mao
made India his enemy without much remorse. Mehta neatly sums up the issue when he
writes: 'One can be certain that when making the pledge oI non-aggression and mutual
respect, neither the Indian nor the Chinese Prime Minister had any inkling that the diIIerences
in their respective notions oI the common Irontier carried explosive potential and would make
a mockery oI their commitments to Iriendship (p. 57).When Dalai Lama was Iorced to Ilee
Irom Tibet to India, the Chinese regime became Iurious with India Ior giving him non-political
asylum along with other twenty thousand reIugees. The Indian humanitarian act was seen
by China as an act oI inIringement in its domestic aIIairs. The Iact oI the matter was that the
ruling Communists in China were not prepared to give even a little religious autonomy to the
Buddhist leader, who had been perIorming his religious duties in the autonomous region.
The British empire had respected Dalai Lama`s stature Ior more than a century and respected
Tibet`s autonomy. It was only the Chinese Communists who were not prepared to give
religious Ireedom to anyone in the broad length oI Red China. They Iorcibly suppressed the
Tibet revolt in 1959 and killed thousands oI Tibetans in their homeland. Mehta discusses
Nehru-Zhou talks in New Delhi in April 1960 in a very comprehensive manner and gives the
reader almost an inside view. That was a great opportunity Ior Nehru and Zhou to sort out the
border problem amicably, but both became prisoners oI their old rhetoric. Nehru was no
longer in a position to deliver the agreement as the Indian parliament, media and people at
large had become too agitated to make any compromise. A golden opportunity was lost and
that led Mao and Zhou to harden their view on India as they were unable to comprehend the
trappings oI a vibrating democracy. It seems that the leadership in democratic polity should
not encourage masses to become so highly emotional as to lose the very sight oI reality.
That`s exactly what happened in October/November 1962 when Chinese Iorces dealt a serious
BOOK REVIEWS 153
blow and humiliated Indian army into retreat and the area oI IiIty thousand square miles in
Aksai Chin remained in Chinese hands as they had quietly grabbed them in the early 1950s
when they were talking sweetly to the Indian leadership. As regards China, Mehta concludes:
'China remains politically ambitious but militarily prudent (p.108). In other words, China
is able to wait out strategically and improvise tactically. No doubt China`s historical selI-
conIidence is unique and how it will master the consequences oI science, technology, and
political awareness, remains to be seen. Today, political awareness in the modern world
empowers people beyond normal control; the Tiananmen Square protest oI 1989 is a case
in point. On the whole, this chapter is a masterpiece which should be read by all serious
China watchers, because a search Ior a new axis with China (and/or Russia) against the
United States is again harking back to wield the capacity oI international blackmail. China
now outmatches Japan, Russia and European Union and the policy-makers in India have to
be more astute and sagacious than ever beIore.
In the third chapter Mehta gives a Iull account oI how in 1975 he was Iorced to deal with
the Ugandan dictator, General Idi Amin, to get compensation Ior the Indians whose
properties were conIiscated and who were expelled Irom the AIrican state. The story is
quite hilarious and in the 1970s Idi Amin was known as a monster and a buIIoon in the
newly liberated AIrica. Indians were the only people who got some compensation Irom Idi
Amin and Mehta was the person who did this job IaithIully.
In the Iourth chapter, Mehta gives a valuable insight to the process oI normalization oI
India-Pakistan relations in 1976 aIter the bloody war between the two states during the
creation in 1971 oI the state oI Bangladesh, which was earlier known as East Pakistan. The
consequences oI creating an artiIicial state by the departing British colonialists cast a dark
shadow over the last six decades. But none was so bloody aIIair as the liberation war in
Bangladesh as the Pakistani Iorces had committed a genocide by killing two million Bangalis
who had opted Ior an independent state oI their own. India had to intervene as ten million
Bangali reIugees had taken shelter in India in order to save themselves Irom the brutal
Pakistani armed Iorces. The Shimla agreement between India and Pakistan was to normalize
the relations, but the pace was awIully slow as Pakistan under ZulIiqar Ali Bhutto was
dragging its Ieet. It was not easy Ior a humiliated country to get prepared to shake hands
with its tormentor. At the same time, Bhutto had not IulIilled his promise to prepare the
Pakistani public opinion to accept the status oI Kashmir. So there were many reservations
Irom the both sides. For decades the leadership oI both countries surrendered their
independent discretion too readily and got hypnotized by superpower strategies and rival
intellectual concepts. Mehta writes, 'Both countries became psychologically dependent
on external help and beneIicence. |...| In the globalized interdependence, beggaring your
immediate neighbour invites risks, even more than ever beIore, oI your own house being
torched (p. 193).
In the IiIth chapter Mehta dwells on Iresh water diplomacy Ior resource optimization
and tells the readers how he succeeded in negotiating the Salal Hydel Project with his
Pakistani counterparts. As long as the Indian sub-continent was one unit, there was hardly
any problem oI water sharing. Once there were Iive countries the problems became more
acute with the rising population and consumption. The British colonialists were the least
careIul on this sensitive issue. They just drew the lines on the map and leIt millions oI
people with inadequate leadership to Iind their own solution. The Iundamental weakness
154 BOOK REVIEWS
oI Partition was painIully exposed: while a homeland Ior the Muslim majority had been
carved out oI a land with historically enmeshed religions and cultures, the geographical
interdependence with India could not be undone. Most oI the rivers which went to Pakistan
have their origins in the Himalayas which lay in India. India could have used water as
aweapon against East and West Pakistan by diverting water, but it took an humanitarian
stand and graceIully gave enough water to its neighbours. The Indus treaty oI 1960 speaks
volumes oI Indian generosity. Mehta rightly observes, 'There is thus no parallel to the
Indus accord (p. 204). The Indus treaty is based on the simple solution oI three rivers to
each country: it has worked satisIactorily Ior Iorty seven years, but it meant India only got
21 per cent oI the total waters oI the Indus system, even though it has a larger population
in the basin. To maintain a benevolent attitude towards neighbours was the basic core oI
Nehru`s philosophy and he always took a long view in history.
The same spirit was shown by India towards a newly created state, Bangladesh, when
the two states agreed to share the Ganga Waters at Farakka, in 19761977. In the sixth
chapter Mehta gives a vivid account oI this accord. To him, 'Bangladesh cannot be treated
as a residuary water taker; its right to a legitimate share oI common rivers will have to be
recognized. Bangladesh on the other hand cannot lay claim to the historic Ilows as a matter
oI unqualiIied right; it will have to accept the needs oI the large upstream population oI
India.|...| Power and coercion must be subordinated to the beneIicial advantages oI near
and distant neighbour not only now but also in the Iuture (p. 247248).
In the seventh chapter, Mehta writes about diplomacy between landlocked and unequal
countries and he discusses at length the problems related to transit and trade between
Nepal and India. He outlines the proIile oI Nepal which had started the Iirst phase oI total
trust in India Irom 1951 to 1959, only to suddenly change its tune oI playing a China card
vis--vis India, which angered the Indian policy-makers. The rise in anti-Indian Ieelings
was instigated by none other but the Nepalese monarchs themselves, King Mohendra and
King Birendra Irom 1960 to 1989. At the same time the Nepalese elite was involved in a large
scale smuggling oI Ioreign goods to India. The role oI the monarchy in the last 47 years has
been rather shameIul as it could not oIIer a good governance and Iinally the Maoists in
Nepal almost captured power in 20062007. Mehta hits the nail in the coIIin when he
writes, 'Future generations will never believe that India could have made such a mess oI
the era oI emancipation in a country which could not be closer or have greater economic
potential by steady trust (p. 273). In other words, the potentiality oI Nepal in hydro-
electric power is immense and had India taken the advantage the history oI development oI
Nepal and India would have been much Iaster and would have reduced the width oI
poverty by miles in these two close neighbours.
The last chapter, which deals with Mehta`s contemporaries in various countries, is
absolutely superIluous. II Mehta`s Iriends had been great diplomats, he should have written
a separate book. These Iriends do not Iit in this book. Otherwise the author comes out as
a thinking diplomat and he oIIers some material to Indian policy-makers and scholars
which should help them to reIlect on the recent history in a cool manner and not to repeat
the old mistakes when dealing with the neighbours.
Surender Bhutani
Notes on Contributors
SURENDER BHUTANI, Polish Academy oI Sciences
LUKASZ GACE K, Jagiellonian University
PIOTR K O WN A C KI, Polish Academy oI Sciences
IZABELLA LABJDZKA, Adam Mickiewicz University, Poznan
QUANG THUAN NGUYE N, Vietnamese Academy oI Social Sciences
ROMAN S LAWI NS KI, Polish Academy oI Sciences, Krakow University
College
STANISLAW T OKARS K I, Polish Academy oI Sciences
KARIN T OMAL A, Polish Academy oI Sciences
BOGDAN Z E MANEK, Jagiellonian University
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VietnamPoland Relations in the New International Context 73

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