JAZZ THEORY

CHORD PROGRESSIONS
Apart from blues and early jazz progressions, the traditional I-IV-V sequence is not common in jazz. One of the most basic chord progressions is I-VI-II-V (e !a".

e !a (Ima#-Vim#-Iim#-V#" As in classical harmony there are $ main areas% tonic, subdominant and dominant. It can be useful to thin& of tonic as 'home', subdominant as 'a(ay from home' and dominant as 'returning home'.
1) Tonic area

)he tonic area ob*iously includes chord I, but also includes chord III and sometimes chord VI. )he chords are similar because their roots are a diatonic third a(ay from chord I (three out of the four notes of these chords are the same as those in chord I". +iatonic root mo*ement of a $rd is therefore seen as a weak progression. ,hord III is often used as a substitute for chord I.
2) Subdominan area

)raditionally this is chord IV but also includes chord II and sometimes chord VI. ,hord VI is a diatonic $rd a(ay from chord I and chord IV hence it can be seen either as tonic or subdominant, depending on conte t. In jazz the II chord is more common than the IV chord as a subdominant, but it also functions *ery commonly as a 'lead in' to the dominat V chord. IV is *ery common as a subdominant in blues.
!) Dominan area

,hord V and chord VII. )he dominant quality of a chord is usually defined by thetritone (flattened -th" inter*al (hich creates (hat is traditionally thought of as a dissonance or a need to resol*e to a chord that sounds more at rest (e !b". )he VII is rarely used as a dominant.

e !b% .esolution of tritone.

SECONDARY DO"INANTS
,on*entionally a secondary dominant is a V# of V# chord% in the &ey of ,, instead of preceding /# by +m#, the /# is preceded by +# - the dominant chord in the &ey of /. An actual modulation does not occur because the / is not a tonic, it is a /# and therefore functioning in the &ey of , (e !c". In this case it is created by chromatically altering the $rd of the +m# chord from minor to major.

e !c% 0econdary dominant% chord II# (V# of V" In practice any chord that is not a tonic chord can be preceded by a secondary dominant. 1hen analysing this progression (e call it II#-V#-I. 2rom this it is ob*ious that the II chord is a dominant #th rather than a minor #th, (hich (ould ha*e been called 'IIm#'. If (e loo& again at a I-VI-II-V sequence (e could instead create a secondary dominant of the IIm# by chromatically altering the VIm# to VI#. It is e tremely common to alter the VI chord in this (ay% one ad*antage of changing m# chords to secondary dominants is that there are more interesting sounding e tensions and alterations a*ailable on dominant #th chords. (0ee (ee&3"

e !d% 0econdary dominant of II It is also *ery common in jazz to use chord III as a substitute for chord I. (0ee tonic area"

e !e% 0ubstitution of chord III for chord I Although they ne*er actually resol*e, the 4m# and A# could be also *ie(ed as IIm# V# in the &ey of +. In this case the $rd scale degree of the tonic is not present in either chord so the &ey centre could actually be either + major or + minor. 2or no( (e shall consider thisalternative &ey centre to be + major. 5oo&ing at it li&e this, there are t(o (ays to describe the progression in e !e using .6 analysis% (a" C# IIIm#-VI#-IIm#-V#-Ima# etc. (b" D# IIm#-V# C# IIm#-V#-Ima# etc. 7ethod (a" defines all the chords in their relationship to the &ey of the tune. 7ethod (b" defines the chords in their relationship to the &ey centres (+ and ," for each II-V progression. Although in theory method (a" is the correct analysis - A# is a secondary dominant% it precedes +m# (hich is functioning in the &ey of , so the progression does not actually modulate -in practice method (b" can often be more useful to the impro*iser (0ee (ee& -". A secondary dominant can ha*e its o(n secondary dominant. 1e could ta&e a diatonic IIIm#VI#-IIm#-V# sequence and ma&e all the minor # chords secondary dominants.

e !f% (8" +iatonic III-VI-II-V sequence (!" 7inor # chords replaced by secondary dominants9 6.:. )hese chords are '*oiced' to allo( the 'top' and 'inside' parts to mo*e smoothly. (,ompare the root position *oicing in e . !c, d and e". )his type of *oicing is typical of horn

parts or right hand piano *oicing. A bass part or left hand (ould normally supply the roots.

"ODES
1hen musicians tal& about modes in jazz, they usually mean the se*en modes based on the major scale. 7odes are used in Modal ;azz, (hich is not co*ered in this course, but &no(ledge of modescan also sometimes be useful for learning to impro*ise o*er chord changes. It is important to realise that this approach should only be used as a preliminary to learning to impro*ise melodically. 1e shall loo& at modes in t(o (ays, relative and parallel 1) Re$a i%e )he simplest (ay to understand relati*e modes is to start (ith the major scale of ,, but instead of beginning and ending on the note ,, begin on each degree of the scale in turn to create a different mode%

e -a% .elati*e modes. 2) Para$$e$ Although the abo*e modes are based on the same notes as the , major scale, they eachfunction as a different &ey in their o(n right and the starting note of the mode, not therelative major scale, is the root note. 4g the +orian mode starting on + (using all the same notes as , major" is a + +orian not a , +orian. 0imilarly the +orian mode starting on , ((hich (ould use the same notes as :b major" is a , +orian, not a :b +orian. If (e ta&e one &ey centre (ie one note" and base different modes on it using that note as the root (e get parallel modes. In other (ords the +orian mode starting on the note , is parallel to the , major (Ionian mode" and all the other modes starting on ,.

e -b% .elati*e modes It is important to learn both approaches. Intially it may be easier to thin& of the # modes relati*ely, e.g in relation to a major scale, but a more 'musical' approach is to learn the actual sequence of inter*als that ma&e up each mode. A good e ercise is to (rite out and learn all the modes in all &eys as relati*e and parallel. 5earn the inter*als bet(een each step of the different modes% ( )<)one, 0<0emitone" Ionian < ))0)))0 (in semitone inter*als !!8!!!8" +orian < )0)))0) (!8!!!8!" etc. and learn to sing them using (mo*eable doh" solfege Ionian< +O .4 7I 2A 0O5 5A )I +O +orian< +O .4 7A1 2A 0O5 5A )A1 +O

"ODES &OR I"PRO'ISATION

Impro*isers today are often taught a system based entirely on modes and scales, but it is important to realise that although it is necessary for the learning impro*iser to learn them, scales should ultimately be used to construct musically meaningful melodic lines. )he commonest chord progression is the IIm#-V#-I. )he most basic implied scale is the major scale of the I chord, but it may be also useful to thin& in terms of modes of the major scale in order to *isualise the root progression. )a&e the sequence +m - /# - , maj# )here are t(o (ays of approaching this sequence.
1) T(e )e* Cen re "e (od#

Analysis tells us that these chords are diatonic to the &ey of ,, i.e. they all ha*e a &ey centre of , (C# IIm#-V#-Ima#". A , major scale can be used to impro*ise o*er all three chords. )his can be useful for the beginner, especially (ith fast mo*ing chord changes. HO+E'ER it is often useful for chord notes to fall on strong beats. If you use the , major scale but start the scale on a chord note for each chord you (ill probably ha*e more success than if you merely use a , major scale indiscriminately o*er the sequence. )his is not easy until you ha*e a thorough grasp of all notes in all chords, hence the alternati*e approach%
2) T(e "oda$ me (od#

4ach chord can be associated (ith the mode based on its root note.

4 -c% modes implied by IIm#-V#-I 6ote that chord notes fall on the beat. )his method also has some dra(bac&s.

=ou (ould not al(ays (ant to start a scale on the root note of a chord. 1ith descending scales the chord notes do not fall on the beat. 1ith fast mo*ing changes it is difficult to thin& of the modes in time.

In practice it is often useful to cut out one mode in this process% as most V# chords in mainstream jazz ha*e a preceding IIm# it can be useful to use the +orian mode to co*er the V# chord as (ell. )he key centre method is useful for fast mo*ing chord changes, the modalmethod for slo( mo*ing changes (hen there is more time to thin& of the modes. A$ erna i%e ,e* cen reIn the progression (e loo&ed at in e !e (e found an alternati*e (ay of analysing the progression, (ith a possible &ey centre of +. If (e ta&e a similar progression (e can use either the modal or &ey centre method to choose (hich scales on (hich to base an impro*isation.

e -d% .6 analysis sho(ing alternati*e &ey centre. 1ith the simplified modal method (ignoring 7i olydian" (e (ould thin&% 4 +orian, + +orian, , major, + +orian (e -e-8" 1ith the &ey centre method (e (ould use the alternati*e &ey centre and only need to thin&% + major, , major. (e -e-!"

e -e% 7odal method and &ey centre method. )he modal method becomes easier if you treat all minor chords (in a major &ey" as IIm# (+orian". )his ma&es some sense because VIm# chords are often changed to become secondary dominants (as abo*e -e -d", so in man* ca-e- minor # chords (ill either be an actual IIm#, or a IIm# in the ne( &ey centre implied by the secondary dominant as (ith the 4m# abo*e". :oth of these methods can be useful for beginners, as they can ma&e the process of playing o*er chord changes less daunting, but it is *ery important to realise that this is only a small step on the (ay to understanding harmony. In the abo*e e ample (e are thin&ing of the 4m#-

A# as being in + major (&ey centre method" or 4 +orian. )he problem is that in this case, although the A# does not resol*e to a tonic, it does not necessarily imply + major, in fact + minor often sounds better for jazz. =ou (ill find that a + harmonic minor scale sounds more interesting. =ou could thin& in terms of modes of minor scales, ho(e*er it is far more important to learn the notes of the chords and begin to thin& about the scale using those notes on the strong beats. )his leads to a more musical and melodic approach than the more technical process of thin&ing in modes for chord changes. 1hene*er a cycle of dominant #ths appears (ithout a preceding IIm# chord, (e.g. middle > of 'I /ot .hythm' sequences", it is either necessary to thin& of 7i olydian modes (e -g" or major scales (ith a flattened #th (same thing but easier to learn "%

e -g% partial cycle of fifths (7i olydian modes".

"INOR HAR"ONY
It is possible to build diatonic chords on each degree of any of the modes, as (ith the major scale%

e ?a% +orian mode diatonic harmony =ou (ill remember from e -a last (ee& that the +orian, @hrygian and Aeolian modes are minor, i.e. the inter*al bet(een the root and $rd degree is a minor third, hence the chord based on the 8st degree of the scale is a minor chord. )he Aeolian mode (sometimes called the 'natural minor'" can be equated (ith the harmonic minor scale. 6ote that in this mode the chords on I, IV and V are all minor. (4 % ?c"

e ?c% Aeolian )he difference bet(een the Aeolian and harmonic minor is that the #th degree of the harmonic minor is raised a semitone to pro*ide a leading note, i.e. a semitone leading from the #th to >th degree of the scale, (hich supplies a satisfying perfect cadence%

e ?d% Aeolian and harmonic minor cadences sho(ing the raised leading note. It is *ery important to play this on a &eyboard to listen for the differences bet(een the 'modal' and leading note cadence 1e can see in e ?d ho( the raised #th in the harmonic minor allo(s for a 'con*entional' V-I cadence, (here the V chord is a dominant #th rather than a minor #th. If the harmonic minor scale is used melodically the augmented second inter*al bet(een the ?th and #th creates an e otic 'middle eastern' fla*our. )his is not the case (ith the melodic minor as it also has a raised ?th (hich ma&es it a closer relation to the +orian mode. (e ?e". In jazz this form of the melodic minor is used both ascending and descending.

e ?e% +orian and melodic minor cadences. )o understand 'con*entional' (non modal" minor harmony (e need to build chords on the harmonic andAor melodic minor scales as (e did (ith the major scale in e 8b. 6ote that there are t(o possibilities for the root of the VI chord, depending on (hether the harmonic or melodic scale is used.

4 ?f% Variations in minor harmony Apart from the fact that this is rather comple , (e ha*e an unsatisfactory situation here. )he alterations to the ?th and #th degrees of the scales (ere made for melodic not harmonic considerations. Bsing these scales to create chords is unsatisfactory in some cases, so in practice alternati*es are 'borro(ed' from modal minor harmony, usually the +orian or Aeolian% 8. ,hord I. )he major #th is fine in some cases but the leading note is harmonically unnecessary and can sound slightly dissonant or too sophisticated for certain styles. It also clashes unpleasantly if there is a tonic in the melody. Other chords that can be used for chord I in a minor &ey are Im (triad", Im? (from +orian or melodic minor" or Im# (from +orian" - see e ?h. !. ,hord II. )he harmonic minor *ersion (half diminished" is usually more satisfactory. $. ,hord III. )he leading note (: natural" is ungainly and unnecessary as the chord is rarely if e*er used as a cadential chord. A :b (+orian or Aeolian" is usually better. 3. ,hord IV. 4ither chord is suitable. )he minor #th gi*es more of a 'minor' fla*our, but the 'dominant' #th on the IV is common, especially in latin jazz or jazz roc& sequences (ith ! chords repeated, e.g. ,min#A2#A. -. ,hord V. .aised #th is good as it allo(s for the con*entional V#-I cadence. ?. ,hord VI. 4ither chord can be used, depending on the preceding or follo(ing chords. )he harmonic minor chord sounds more modal. #. ,hord VII. ,ould be either but the harmonic minor *ersion (diminished" is more common. )he VII chord is sometimes used as an alternati*e to a V chord and the diminished #th ma&es a more satisfactory cadence in a minor &ey. Although this appears more comple than major harmony it allo(s for a great deal of *ariety. )o simplify (e could use a combination of chords based on harmonic minor harmony (ith some 'borro(ed' modal chords.

e ?g% 7inor harmony (ith some'borro(ed' modal chords. As mentioned abo*e there are se*eral possibilties for tonic chords in a minor &ey (e ?h".

e ?h% )onic minor chords. (6ote that in a m? chord the added ?th is al(ays a major?th". In jazz earlier than the ?Cs a minor # is rarely used as a tonic minor and should be not be used (to a*oid confusion (ith IIm#". 7elodic and stylistic considerations need to be ta&en into account (hen choosing (hich type of tonic minor chord to use. (4g. m maj# and m? may sound too sophisticated or too old fashioned in some styles". +(en u-in. RN ana$*-i- a minor riad/ m0 or m ma12o3 en indica e a minor onic/ - useful for locating ne( &ey centres. (m? or minor triad could be chord IV, of a minor &ey, but if so this (ill be ob*ious by the presence of a minor tonic nearby" It is important to sho( (hich root the VI and VII chords are based on (hen doing an .6 analysis in a minor &ey%

Chord VI chord (hose root is a minor si th abo*e the tonic VI chord (hose root is a major si th abo*e the tonic

RN bVI VI

VII chord (hose root is a minor se*enth abo*e the tonic bVII VII chord (hose root is a major se*enth abo*e the tonic VII

A4TERED CHORDS
,hromatically altered chords are chords that are not diatonic, i.e. they contain notes that are not in the &ey signature or key centre. 1e ha*e already discussed one type of chromatic chord - secondary dominants - (hich are often used in jazz to create chromatic interest. 1e ha*e

also seen ho( upper e tensions can be altered (e 3h". ;azz musicians often reharmonise standard tunes not only by altering chords but by using substitute chords. 1hen an established melody is being played the choice of these ne( chords is restricted by the melody note, ho(e*er during impro*ised solos there is far more freedom. "oda$ In erc(an.e As mentioned abo*e (see '7inor Darmony'" chords can be borro(ed from other modes. )his is sometimes called modal interchange and is common bet(een a major &ey and itsparallel minor. (not the relative minor (hich has the same &ey signature, but the minor &ey (hich has the same tonic". ,hords can be borro(ed from the harmonic minor, melodic minor or any minor mode. Dere are some of the more common e amples%
1) Sub- i u ion- 3or '25

bVII# can be substituted for V#. )his is borro(ed from the Aeolian mode of , (based on major scale of 4b - ,m#, +E#, 4bma#, 2m#, /m#, Abma#, Bb7, ,m#", but used in a major &ey.

e #a% 7odal interchange using bVII (chord V of 4b hence chord VII of the Aeolian mode". IVm# (or IVm?" can also be substituted for V#. Also borro(ed from the Aeolian mode (,m#, +E#, 4bma#, Fm7, /m#, Abma#, :b#, ,m#"

e #b% IVm# from Aeolian mode ,ombine these t(o and (e ha*e a II-V progression borro(ed from the Aeolian mode

e #c% IVm# - bVII# borro(ed from Aeolian mode. 6ote the alternati*e .6 Analysis 2rom the abo*e (e can see that a IIm#-V# in an apparently unrelated &ey (i.e. IIm#-V# in 4b can be used in the dominant area of the &ey of , (see '7isty' bar 3". bVII maj# (from the +orian" can also be used in modal interchange but does not lend itself to the IIm#-V# progression in e #c, and is not such a good substitute (here a perfect cadence is implied.
2) Sub- i u e- 3or I'ma12

:y borro(ing from the Aeolian mode again, IV maj# (or ?" can be altered to IV m maj# (or ?" or IV m#. In popular music of the $CFs, 3CFs and -CFs IVm (as often used follo(ing a IV and preceding a I, adding passing notes to a plagal (IV-I" cadence.

e #d% 7odal interchange supplying passing notes on I*m - (8" + and Ab (!" 4b and Ab.

&4AT 6 S78STIT7TES 9 ri one -ub- i u e-)

A dominant #th chord is characterised by the tension set up in the tritone inter*al bet(een the $rd and the #th, (hich has a tendency to resol*e to the root and $rd of the tonic (e #g".

e #g% )ritone resolution A b- substitute is deri*ed by chromatically altering the fifth (4 #h-8". If this chord is used in its second in*ersion the flattened fifth becomes the bass note (4 #h-!", the inter*al bet(een the bass note and the $rd is an augmented ?th (hence the classical term 'augmented ?th chord'". Do(e*er in jazz the notes are enharmonically changed to create another V# chord in root position (4 #h-$".

e #h% +eri*ation of b- substitute. In jazz this has become &no(n as the b- (or tritone" substitute and in practical use the dominant chord (hose root is a b- a(ay from a dominant can be used as a substitute,whether or not its 5th is flattened5 )he important consideration is not its classical deri*ation but the fact that it shares the all important tritone (,A2G in the case of +#AAb#" (ith its substitute. 6ote that in this case it is allo(able to change enharmonic spellings. :ecause of the tritone the t(o most important notes of any dominant chord are the $rd and #th, (Apart from the root (hich ob*iously defines the root of the chord". 6ote that the same tritone is present in e*ery pair of V# chords (hose roots are a b-th apart. (e #i"

e #i% 7atching tritones in b- substitutes. One should be a(are that a b- substitute may be unsatisfactory if the melody is on the -th or Hth of a V# chord due to the altered tendency of the ne(ly created chord. 2or e ample the -th of a dominant # chord may ha*e a tendency to resol*e do(n a (hole tone to the tonic (e #j8, but the natural tendency of a bH ((here the melody (ill be if a b- substitute is created - e #j-!" is to resol*e do(n or sometimes up by a semitone

PRACTICA4 ANA4YSIS
In addition to IIm#-V#-Is created through secondary dominants, many tunes are made up of IIm#-V#-Is (ith different &ey centres that may appear to be entirely random or may be related logically%

7isty% &ey centres in bridge mo*e do(n a semitone then a major $rd Autumn 5ea*es% &ey centres :b - /m (major to relati*e minor" /iant 0teps% (tonal centres mo*e up in major $rds"

O%er$a::in. ,e* cen reAs (ell as the 'alternati*e' &ey centres discussed earlier (see chapter ! and e -d", it is possible for &ey centres to 'o*erlap'. )his happens (here one or more consecuti*e chords could be in one of t(o &ey centres. In bar - of Autumn 5ea*es the 4b ma# could either be chord IV of :b major or chord (b"VI of the ne t &ey centre, / minor (based on the harmonic minor or the Aeolian mode". )here are t(o possible (ays to analyse the first eight bars (e >a and >b"

e >a% )he /m &ey centre is sho(n at bar fi*e.

e >b% )he /m &ey centre is sho(n on bar si . )he 4bmaj# is diatonic to both &ey centres. Although the analysis in e >a could be seen as correct, there are *arious reasons (hy >b is better%

1e ha*e not yet established the / minor *ia a cadence (eg. +# /m", so our ears tell us that the 4b is still in the &ey centre of :b. ,hord II(E#" is an integral part of a IIm#- V#- I cadence. )he &ey centres ma&e up t(o four bar phrases if the / minor &ey centre starts at bar -.

847ES
T(e 12 bar b$ue- -e;uence :lues brea&s the rules of con*entional 'jazz' harmony and impro*isation. )he distincti*e sound of the blues is often created by the flattening of *arious notes (mainly the $rd, -th and #th". )he harmony often becomes ambiguous as the flattened $rd (ill often be used in a melody at the same time as the major $rd in the accompanying harmony. (6ot the other (ay round% in a minor blues all $rds are flattened". )here is a 'blues scale' (hich contains these notes, ho(e*er in a major &ey most players combine the flattened notes (ith the natural notes. (0ee belo( 'blues scales' ". 1hen using the blues scale or phrases deri*ed from it the same (tonic" scale is used o*er all three areas, i.e. in the &ey of , you use a , blues scale and do not usually change to an 2 blues scale at bar IV. )he resulting dissonances are effecti*e depending on the players taste and feel for the blues

1hen loo&ing at the more basic 8! bar blues chord sequences (i.e. those in blues music rather than some of the more sophisticated jazzAblues" it does not usually ma&e sense to use the .6 analysis in the same (ay that (e ha*e been used to (here &ey centres are defined by dominant chords. )he flattened #th is often used on tonic and subdominant chords purely as colour and need not imply a V#-I cadence or a secondary dominant.
E<am:$e#

In the &ey of , the ,# chord in bar 3 of a typical 8! bar blues (see belo( 4 % Ha" appears to be a secondary dominant chord (V# of IV", but it is more idiomatic to thin& of the -th and ?th bars as the subdominant rather than a ne( &ey centre. )he IV chord of a blues is in*ariably a IV#, but the 2# at bar ? is chord IV# of ,, not chord V# of :b. Although theoretically you could thin& in terms of the .6 analysis (e ha*e been using, and play a scale of 2 7i olydian (mode starting on 2 using notes of the :b major scale" this is unli&ely to sound li&e good blues.

I'2

I2

I'2

I'2

'2

9I'2) I

'2

e Ha% A *ery basic 8! bar blues sequence )his sequence (as often slightly modified in s(ing, . I : and boogie-(oogie of the thirties%

I e Hb

I'2

I2

I'2

I'2

IIm2 '2

IIm2='2

Often the secondary dominant is used in bar >%

I 4 Hc

I'2

I2

I'2

I'2

'I 2 IIm2 '2

IIm2='2

)here are also 8! bar blues sequences in a minor &ey%

Im

I'm2 Im2

I2

I'm2 I'm2 Im2

Im2

b'I 2 '2

IIm2='2

e Hd% A typical minor blues 6.:. In all of these sequences chord I is a triad (e cept on bar 3". In 'jazz' blues sequences the tonic chord can be a major #, ho(e*er this is rare in real blues (here chord I is either a triad, a dominant #th chord or a ?th chord (the added note is used for colour rather than harmonic function as mentioned abo*e", e cept on bar 3 (here it is nearly al(ays a dominat #th leading to the IV chord on bar -.

&orm o3 (e 12 bar b$ue)here are al(ays three 3 bar phrases (e He"% 8. )onic (sometimes (ith a subdominant on bar t(o" !. 0ubdominant and bac& to tonic (often (ith repeat of first melody and lyric" $. +ominant (sometimes *ia subdominant" bac& to tonic (often (ith different melody and lyric"

e He% phrases in8! bar blues. As you can see, the second phrase is altered slightly to fit the different chords. )his is e tremely typical of blues.
A %er* u-e3u$ ru$e o remember#

)his alteration of the $rd note of the tonic scale from major on the I chord to minor as it becomes the #th of the IV chord is e tremely useful (hen composing or impro*ising any type of blues. In jazz, blues sequences can become quite comple but still retain these $ areas )here are other blues sequences, usually adaptations or e tensions of the typical 8! bar. 1hen a jazz musician says% 'letFs play a blues', they often mean a 8! bar (ith a II-V in bar H, usually (ith the secondary dominant or more sophisticated changes (e Hc".Blues players usually indicate to the band (hether they (ant a 'V-IV' or 'II-V' type sequence. 8$ue- -ca$e:lues musicians use more than one 'blues' scale, (and rarely use the 'blues scale' in its entirety" ho(e*er the scale that has come to be called 'the blues scale' is similar to a minor

pentatonic scale but (ith a G3th (or b-th" added. (e Hg". I shall refer to this as the minor blues scale but bear in mind it can be used in major and minor blues sequences.

e Hg% 7inor blues scale )his scale can be used o*er all the chords of a basic 8! bar blues sequence, so in the &ey of , a , blues scale can be used o*er the 2# and /# as (ell as the tonic chord. (Apparent (rong notes are acceptable in the conte t of blues, but their 'correct' placement is usually dictated by e perience and a feel for the style rather than academic rules". )he secret of con*incing use of the blues scale is to add a major $rd (e Hh" or combine it (ith a scale (hich is commonly used in rhythm and blues, s(ing or jump music. I shall call this the major blues scale (e Hi".

e Hh% ;u taposition of minor and major

4 Hi% 7ajor blues scale

4 Hj% 7ajor blues scale combined (ith minor blues scale )hese scales need not be restricted to blues music, they can also (or& (ell o*er other sequences (hich do not ha*e more than one &ey centre (e.g. 'I /ot .hythm' A section" depending on stylistic conte t. 8oo.ie 8a-7any roc& and roll tunes are based on a 8! bar sequence, often (ith a typical bass line deri*ed from a 'boogie-(oogie' piano left hand (4 H&". A good (ay to become familiar (ith blues changes is to practise this in all &eys.

e H&% 6ote the IIm#-V# progression instead of V# in the second chorus. Im:ro%i-in. b$ue- ri331ith a basic blues sequence it is relati*ely easy for an ensemble to impro*ise a riff or 'head' arrangement. )his (as quite common among s(ing bands of the $CFs. 7any early ,ount :asie arrangements (ere impro*ised. )he easiest (ay is to imagine piano *oicings (here chords are in*erted to &eep the top *oice around the same pitch (e Hl". Add ?ths or #ths (here necessary to create 3 note chords.

e Hl% )ypical blues horn riff.

6ote the melodic alternation bet(een major and minor $rd. )he major $rd of the tonic drops to the minor $rd (#th of the IV chord" and bac& again. It does not ta&e long for each member of an impro*ising section to remember hisAher notes on a riff such as this, at (hich point it is easy for the leader to suggest another riff (rhythmic pattern" (hich e*eryone can play using the same harmony notes. )his principle applies (hether creating 'head' arrangements for horns, *oices, strings or (hate*er.

PASSING CHORDS/ T7RNARO7NDS

1e ha*e already seen ho( a IV chord can be altered to IVminor to accommodate a descending passing note (e #d" @assing notes are non chord notes that lead from one chord note to another. )hey can be diatonic (e 8Ca-8" or chromatic (4 8Ca-!"J they can be in a melody or in a harmony part.

e 8Ca% @assing notes. 6ote the bebop scale on the /#. 1hen one or more passing notes is used in a chord, a passing chord is created, (hich is *ery often a diminished chord. 4 8Cb is typical of the chord progression that (ould appear in bars ?-# of a jazz tune based on 'I /ot .hythm' (see belo( 'I /ot .hythm' ". :y altering the root note of the 4b# to create a chromatic passing note, (e get a passing 4 diminished chord (GIVo#". (6.:. )he IV chord in the ?th bar of a 8! bar blues is often altered in this (ay - see '6o(Fs the )ime'".

e 8Cb% @assing chord% GIVo# )his chord has a tendency to resol*e to a second in*ersion of the tonic (continuing the chromatic mo*ement in the bass", but in practice the tonic is often in root position. @assing diminished chords are also common bet(een chords III and II, (e 8Cc"

e 8Cc% @assing chord% bIIIo# In e ample 8Cc a bIIIo# is created as a passing chord bet(een IIIm# and IIm#. )he 4 in the +b o# passes bet(een 2 and 4b, the +b passes bet(een + and ,. 6.:. As the IIIm# can be *ie(ed as a substitute for I maj# (see chapter !", the passing bIII o# (ould also be *iable bet(een I maj# (or I ?" and IIm#, i.e. :bmaj# - +b o# - ,m# - 2# Another *ery common passing diminished is a GI used bet(een chords I and II. )he GI diminished could be seen either as a passing chord (e 8Cd-8", or a deri*ation of the altered (bH" secondary dominant (e 8Cd-!"

e 8Cd% @assing chord% GIo# 6ote the chromatic contrary motion% :b - : - , in the bass and A - Ab - / in the !nd part. If a / is added to the : o# chord in the bass a /# bH chord is created (e 8Cd-!". 4ither ascending or descending, diatonic or chromatic progressions are often used to add mo*ement to an other(ise static tonic area (4 8Ce"

e 8Ce% ')ea 2or )(o' ,aesarA=eomans

Turnaround7ost $! bar AA:A tunes ha*e a 'static' melodic area at the last t(o bars (bet(een the end of the melody and the start of a repeat of the melody". )hese areas are referred to as turnarounds. A chord progression is used (hich co*ers these t(o bars, starting on a tonic and ending on a dominant (in effect adding another cadence". In its simplest form this (ould be I - V# (common in blues" but is usually more sophisticated in jazz and is usually a progression based on I-VI-II-V. )here is frequently a turnaround at the end of the first A section, (here the melody sometimes cadences to the the $rd or -th note of the scale. In this case a III chord is often substituted for the tonic, see e 8Cf '2lintstones'.

e 8Cf% 2lintstones. 6ote the +m# substituted for :b in the first turnaround.

At the final turnaround the melody usually ends on a tonic so the IIIm# does not (or& *ery (ell (the resulting melody note (ould be a b? on a minor # (hich does not sound good". A major #th in a tonic chord (ould also clash (ith the melody, so a ?th is often added to chord I to create a four note chord (see chapter 8". )urnarounds are a *ery good place to use substitute chords as there is less li&ely to be a melody to restrict alternati*e harmony. In the first turnaround of the abo*e e ample either of the sequences in 8Cc or 8Cd could be used. 7inor # chords can be changed to secondary dominants to create a cycle of dominant fifths. (0ee turnaround bar # of '7isty'"

e 8Cg% 7isty )unes that do not start on the tonic require a turnaround that introduces the first chord, eg 'All )he )hings =ou Are

I GOT RHYTH"
0tandards that are used for jazz often ha*e a $! bar sequence (ith an AA:A form. It is usual (but not compulsory" for a band to play the melody ('head'" at the beginning and end of the piece, (ith impro*ised solos bet(een o*er the repeated chord sequence of the melody. One *ery common chord sequence is that of /eorge /ersh(inFs 'I /ot .hythm', though usually (ith an original 'head' and (ithout the final ! bar tag. ;azz musicians sometimes refer to this sequence as '.hythm changes'. Along (ith the 8! bar blues sequence, this sequence (as almost the 'anthem' of bebop. )he chord changes are of course subject to regionalAstylistic *ariations. 4 8Ch sho(s a typical sequence based on 'I /ot .hythm'.

e 8Ch 'I /ot .hythm' )his sequence sho(s t(o important *ariations% (a" bars --?. (4 8Ci-8" )his *ariation uses chord IV minor (hich is altered to accommodate the 'passing note' descending melody (or bass" line. (0ee chapter # - modal interchange". (b" bars 8$-8-. (4 8Ci-!" GIV diminished is used to accommodate the 'passing note' ascending melody (or bass" line. :oth are common in .hythm changes but (ould not usually appear in the same tune or at least not in the same chorus. I ha*e sho(n them here together for con*enience.

4 % 8Ci 'I /ot .hythm' *ariations at bars -A? of each 'A' section. 0ome of the many *ariations used on this sequence%

)he middle > can be more comple - V#s could be con*erted into IIm#-V#s (see e 8Cj" b- substitutes could be used. )he cycle of fifths could becomes a cycle of semitones if alternate chords are b- substitutes (see abo*e e #m" )he melodic resolution to tonic at the end of each A section could fall either on bar # ('5ester 5eaps In'" or on bar > as in the original 'I /ot .hythm' melody.

e 8Cj% Addition of IIm# chord to each V# chord in a cycle. )his can ha*e the same melodic effect as a suspended 3th on each chord - the / of the Am# resol*es to the 2G of the +#.

I"PRO'ISATION
>+ron. no e- or ri.( no e-?> 1hat constitutes a (rong note in jazz impro*isation is often subjecti*e. As jazz has e*ol*ed the harmony has in some cases become more comple or abstract. 1hen bebop musicians started to use G88ths (or b-ths" in the 3Cs, the more traditional players and critics considered these to be '(rong' notes. 0imilarly a*ant garde ('freeform'" players of the -Cs and ?Cs shoc&ed the jazz establishment (ith their use of atonality. It is almost impossible to pro*ide a complete set of rules regarding (hat sounds 'good' or 'bad'. )he follo(ing are con*entionally considered to be (rong notes (sometimes called 'a*oid' notes", unless used as passing notes.

A 3th o*er any major chord (unless it is an 88th or sus 3 see e . 3e" A major $rd on a minor chord A minor $rd (GHth" or minor #th on a major #th chord A root note as a sustained note o*er a major #th chord A bHth on a major # or minor chord A b?th on a major # or minor chord A major #th on a minor #th or (dominant" #th chord

)hese rules may not apply to certain ornaments (e 88a",

e 88a% )here are cases (here unresol*ed dissonance is useful for dramatic or emotional effect. )here are no rules in this case, only subjecti*e (good or bad" taste. )he most ob*ious (ay of ensuring that you donFt play any (rong notes is to play only the chord notes, i.e. a series of arpeggios. 1hile this is a *ery good e ercise it can become boring and 'unmusical'. Bnless you are immediately inspired by great spontaneous melodic phrases, the second most ob*ious (ay is to play scales that fit the chords. )his can also become tedious if your solos end up being a constant string of scales. Bltimately one could aim to combine arpeggios, scales, passing notes, melodic phrases and riffs into a coherent impro*ised composition complete (ith tension, release, surprise, humour, clima , menace, pathos, irony or (hate*er musical de*ices are appropriate to the style. &ur (er a::$ica ion o3 -ca$e- o im:ro%i-a ion o%er c(ord c(an.eIn chapter - (e discussed ho( modal scales can be applied to a II-V-I progression. )his is a *ery good starting point% basic major, minor and modal scales can be used to supply the diatonic notes implied by the chords on (hich (e are basing our impro*isation. )o begin (ith it is *ery important to become fluent in the use of these basic scales and modes, but there are many comple and interesting scales used by jazz musicians to add chromatic notes. )his section of this chapter (ill deal (ith some of these scales and analyse their effects.
8ebo: -ca$e-

A bebop scale is created by adding either%

a major #th to a 7i olydian mode a major $rd to a +orian mode a G-th or b?th to a tonic scale

:ecause bebop scales are made up of eight notes it is li&ely that if you start a typical >th note run on a do(nbeat (ith a chord note (root, $rd, -th or #th" the other chord notes (ill also fall

on strong beats. )his ob*iously means that notes to be a*oided such as the 3th (see abo*e% (rong notes" become passing notes. (4 88b". :ebop scales should only be used as scales, not to construct melodic phrases other(ise the added chromatic notes (ill no longer be passing notes and (ill not fit the chord.

e 88b% :ebop scale As the 7i olydian and +orian bebop scales contain identical notes, the same scale can be used across a IIm#-V#-I sequence, as (ith the modal method (chapter -". )he bebop scale leads nicely to the $rd of the repeated IIm# to end up (ith a *ery satisfying jazz (bebop" style. (4 88c"

e 88c% :ebop scale co*ering a repeated IIm#-V# progression.

Pen a onic -ca$e-5

)hese are - note scales, of (hich there are many, ho(e*er only t(o are common in jazz and I (ill refer to them as the major and minor pentatonic. )he major pentatonic is the same as the major scale but (ithout the 3th or #th (e 88d-8". It is common in (estern fol& music and is often used by composers to impart a traditional fla*our ('Amazing /race', 'Auld 5ang 0yne'" )he minor pentatonic is the same as the Aeolian or +orian scale but (ithout the !nd or ?th (4 88d-!". )his scale is sometimes used by composers to gi*e an oriental feel.

e 88d% @entatonic scale

)hese scales can be *ery easy to use as they can be fitted o*er many chords (ithout '(rong' notes, but they can become monotonous. Bsed *ery effecti*ely by 0onny .ollins and ;ohn ,oltrane.
C(roma ic -ca$e

)he chromatic scale consists of all t(el*e notes a*ailable in con*entional (estern music, i.e. all the (hite notes and blac& notes of the &eyboard

e 88e% ,hromatic scale 1e sa( that (ith the bebop scale that chromatic notes can be inserted into a scale so that chord notes fall on strong beats. 1e can ta&e this one stage further and insert part of the chromatic scale to achie*e the same end (e 88f".

e 88f% A typical bebop phrase using the chromatic scale

Dimini-(ed -ca$e

)his scale consists of alternating inter*als of a tone and a semitone (e 88g-8". Another (ay of loo&ing at it is to imagine t(o diminished chords, one a (hole tone higher than the other one superimposed on top of it (e 88g-!"

e 88g% +iminished scale )his is a *ery useful scale to apply to a dominant #th chord. If the diminished scale based on the bHth of a chord is used it (ill not only include the chord notes (root, $rd, -th and #th" but also supply some interesting altered notes and e tensions (bHth, b8Cth, G88th and 8$th - e

88h".I i- u-e3u$ (ere3ore o a$@a*- (in, o3 (e dimini-(ed -ca$e ba-ed on (e no e a -emi one abo%e (e roo no e o3 (e 9dominan 2 () c(ord. )his may appear comple but has the ad*antage that there are only three different scales to learn. +iminished scales built on the roots ,, 4b, 2G and A are identical (e 88j", as are the scales built on +b, 4, / and :b and +, 2, Ab and :. )he scale in e 88g fits chords :#, +#, 2# and Ab#. )his scale (as commonly used by jazz impro*isers of the late bebop era, e.g. ;ohn ,oltrane. (0ee ';azz @atterns' chapter #"

e 88h% +iminished scale built on root +b (bH of ,#"

e 88j% diminished scales ,, 4b, 2G, A. 6ote that the notes are identical.
+(o$e one -ca$e

As the name implies this scale consists of (hole tones (e 88&". It is useful o*er a dominant #th, especially a dominant #th (ith an augmented -th. (same note as b8$th". )he fact that the scale contains the augmented -th or b8$th does not stop it from being used (hen there is a perfect -th in the chord, although a sustained note may sound too dissonant.

e 88&% (hole tone scale

>Arabic -ca$e>

)here are many Arabic scales but one in particular is used by (estern composers to imply a middle eastern fla*our. )his scale can be thought of as a 'relati*e mode' of the harmonic minor, ie it is the same but starting on the fifth degree of the scale. It is *ery useful o*er a dominant #th chord as it adds t(o colourful chromatic notes - the b8$th and bHth (e 88m, 88n"

e 88m% 'Arabic scale' - harmonic minor starting on -th degree of scale.

e 88n % 'Arabic scale' used o*er a II-V-I sequence (or simply V-I" Another (ay to thin& of this is to use the harmonic minor scale (ith the same root as the tonic chord that the V# is leading to, so /# uses a , harmonic minor but be careful not to emphasise the note ',' inapropriately. Bsed o*er a major V# -I cadence the scale implies the modal interchange of the minor tonic for the major tonic, e*en though the minor tonic ne*er materialises.)he resolution to the major $rd of the tonic is *ery satisfying after the 'bluesy' minor feel of the scale. )his scale is ob*iously also *ery useful o*er a minor II-V-I.
4*dian Dominan 9"e$odic minor - ar in. on A ( de.ree o3 (e -ca$e)

On a dominant #th chord the sharpened 88th is supplied by using the melodic minor scale (hose root is the -th of the chord (e 88q". )his scale is also clled the 5ydian dominant as it is the same as a 5ydian scale but (ith the #th flattened.

e 88q% 5ydian dominant (+ melodic minor" to supply a G88th to a /#

Dimini-(ed +(o$e Tone 9>A$ ered Sca$e>)

Bsing the notes of the + melodic minor scale, ma&e ,G the root and *ie( the scale as an altered 7i olydian.

)his scale is often called the altered scale as it supplies many of the notes that are possible to alter on a dominant # chord. In addition to the basic diatonic notes of ,G# this scale adds + (bH", 4 (b8C", / (G88 or b-" and A (b8$ or K-". Another (ay of loo&ing at this (ould be to use the melodic minor scale based on the bHth degree of the dominant # chord, in the same (ay (e (ould use a diminished scale. 6ote that the first half of this scale is identical to the (ay a + diminished scale fits the chord, the second half is a (hole tone scale. )his is a *ery popular scale in modern jazz due to the interestingly high degree of chromaticism.

CHORD SY"8O4S
:elo( is a list of the most common chord types (ith alternati*e symbols%

, major # , minor # , minor major #

Cma12 Cm2

Cma2 Cmin2

,L ,-#

,7#

Cm ma12 Cmin ma2 , - L# Cm2 b6 C dim 92) Cmin2 b6

,-

, half diminished CB2 , diminished (#" Co 92) ,# ,H ,88 C2 CC C11

/m#A,

,# suspended 3th C2 -u-A ,8$ ,# augmented ,# flat -th ,# G88 ,# flat Hth C1! C2 D C2 b6 C2 E11 C2 bC ,# aug ,# -,# K88 ,# -H ,# KH ,#K-

,# sharpened Hth C2 EC

,# flat 8Cth ,# flat Hth flat 8$th ,# flat 8Cth flat 8$th

C2 b1F

,# -8C

C2 bC b1! ,# alt

C2 b1F b1!

,# alt

,8$ sharp 88th C1! E11 ,8$ K88 )he symbols in bold typeface are recommended as some of the others can be confusing (especially '-' for minor and 'alt' for altered forms of H and 8$. )he triangle symbol can be useful for major# (hen in a hurry, but be careful as it can sometimes loo& li&e a badly dra(n 'o'" )he capital '7' for major # can also be confused for lo(er case 'm'.

84OC) 'OICING 'Voicing' means harmonising a melody (or lead" (ith one or more instruments or voices, either (ith a similar instrument from the same section or (ith a combination. :loc& *oicing is (here the inside or harmony parts al(ays mo*e in the same direction as the lead. )his type of harmony (or&s (ell for the typical jazz orchestra (four trumpets, fi*e sa ophones, four trombones and rhythm section" but can also be used in many styles of pop and roc&, e.g. for horn sections or bac&ing *ocals. Voicing can be used either on the actual melody or for a chordal accompaniment (bac&ing".
GENERA4 R74ES

1hen (riting for sections (eg all sa es or all trumpets" the melody part is usually the highest part but this is not al(ays the case. 1hen harmony parts are abo*e the lead,

care must be ta&en (ith the dynamics to allo( the lead to be heard as a distinct melodic line. In mi ed ensembles the lead line is not necessarily the top line but should be on the loudest instrument. A syncopated note anticipating a beat by a qua*er (>th note" or less is usually harmonised (ith the chord of the beat follo(ing the anticipation. +o not combine an anticipation in one instrument or section (ith an on beat note in another section. In most cases the melody note should not be lo(er than middle , (,$" or harmonised parts (ill sound muddy. Bsually a bass line is played in the rhythm section so only the melody (lead" and inside parts need to be (ritten for a section. Any bass parts in the harmonisation must be consistent (ith the bass in the rhythm section. As the *oices are mo*ing in parallel motion, strict *oice-leading rules of classical harmony do not apply, though there are situations (here attention to *oice-leading is desirable.

2our- and fi*e-part *oicings are more straightfor(ard than t(o- and three-part. )his is because all four chord tones are used. 1ith fe(er than four *oices decisions need to be made about (hich notes to omit.
&O7R PART C4OSE 'OICING

)a&e a melody and add the three other notes of the chord beneath (ithout omitting any.

As the melody of the :b chord on beat one of bar ! is the root, it has to be :b? not a :bma# to a*oid a semitone inter*al at the top of the chord. 0emitone inter*als are no problem in inside parts. Bnless a ?th chord lasts for more than one beat it is unnecessary to include it as a chord symbol for the rhythm section. (An e ception (ould be if a rhythm section instrument (as *oicing chords (ith horns instead of comping" Extensions )hese are either defined by the melody or added to inside parts for colour. )he rhythm section parts should include any e tensions or alterations that last longer than one beat. 4 tensions are usually treated as (unprepared" suspensions, 8$th replaces -th, 88th replaces $rd, Hth replaces root. Allowable extensions and altered extensions:

C(ord *:e#

"a1 2 H G88 8$ (rare"

"a1 0 H G88

"in 2 or min2b6 H 88

Dominan 2 H, 88, 8$ bH, b8C (GH" G88 (b-" b8$ (K-"

se with ! part block voicing

E< en-ion 8$ b8$ 88 G88 8$ or b8$ (ith G88 H or bH

Omi $ - and root .oot Bnusual in inside parts Often treated as augmented -th Bse sparingly in inside parts Often treated as b-th 1ith only four parts the Hth (ould also be omitted as the $rd and #th are necessary Bse freely in inside parts Often a 'suspension' of bH. 2aster passages can omit $rd instead of root for smoother *oice leading, but does not sound as dissonant.

b8C (GH"

.oot

"ths Hths and altered Hths are treated as suspensions of the root and al(ays replace it, so the ne t chord note do(n is a #th. In addition to Hths in the lead, they can be freely used in inside parts

for added interest. As (ith ?ths, unaltered Hths do not need to be included in the rhythm section chord symbols unless they are used for the entire duration of a chord.

4 $% Hths and altered Hths. ##ths 88ths on a dominant # usually omit the $rd, so can be *ie(ed as 'slash' chords, eg a ,88 (/m#A," (ould be *oiced as a /m#. (=ou can ignore the , as it is co*ered by the bass". 88ths on a minor # do not need to omit the $rd, but for close *oicing it is best to treat them the same as abo*e. #$ths 8$ths can be treated as suspensions of the -th so the ne t note do(n is the $rd.

4 3% 88ths and 8$ths %##ths Bsually a G88th can be treated as a b-, so the ne t note do(n is the $rd.

4 -% G88ths (b-ths"
NON CHORD NOTES

&assing notes @assing notes are notes that occur in a step bet(een t(o chord notes. In some cases they can be harmonised as if they are substituted for a note of the gi*en chord (eg. a suspension or upper e tension", or they can be harmonised (ith other passing notes to create a ne( passing chord (*ery often a passing diminished".

4 ?% @assing notes In e ?A the 4b is harmonised as if it is an 88th or a suspended 3th. )he 2G is harmonised (ith a diminished chord. )here is no mo*ement bet(een the first t(o notes of *oices t(o, three and four. At slo( tempos this is not a problem, but at medium and fast tempos there may be articulation problems, especially if the lead instrument is playing legato. )he passing diminished chord in e ?: is preferable as t(o of the three harmony *oices are no( mo*ing. )he harmonic impact of the passing chords become less important at faster tempos, but the need to minimise repeated notes in inside parts (here the lead is mo*ing becomes greater and it is usually possible to create mo*ement in all *oices.

4 #% .e*oicing to gi*e more mo*ement in inside parts at fast tempos

)he first note is harmonised (ith a :b? instead of major # to allo( *oice three to mo*e from / to A. )he 2G in the second chord has been changed to / to gi*e a smoother melodic line. )he fourth *oice of the final chord has been changed to a Hth to allo( mo*ement A:b-, instead of the repeated A on the second and third chords. Darmonically this is not as good as the passing diminished but (ill allo( for a smoother performance at fast tempos.

)I@% It is a good idea to harmonise the chord notes before harmonising the passing notes. A passing diminished should not usually be used (ith a dominant chord, instead use a minor#.

4 >% @assing note on a dominant harmonised as an e tension In e > the passing note at beat three is harmonised as a Hth, replacing the root of the pre*ious beat resulting in static inside parts. 1here a passing chord is required for dominant chords you can usually use the minor #th chord (hose root is a fifth higher, in this case a ,min#%

4 H% @assing note harmonised (ith a minor #. Dere the lo(er part is mo*ing nicely but the second and third parts are still static. )he 4b is necessary to the 2# chord, especially at slo(er tempos, so (ill need to stay but a ,mH can be used to gi*e more mo*ement%

4 8C% @assing note harmonised (ith minor H. (6: no root as Hth acts as suspension" )he ,mH at beat $ allo(s t(o of the three inside parts to mo*e. 'hromatic (eighbour notes and auxiliaries )hese can be harmonised (ith a chord of the same type mo*ing in parallel or diminished chords%

4 88% )he first non-chord note is a neighbour note harmonised in parallel, the second is a lo(er au iliary harmonised (ith a diminished. :oth of these harmonisations (here chosen to allo( mo*ement in the inside parts. )iatonic neighbour notes and auxiliaries )hese are usually treated as suspensions or e tensions. )he follo(ing e ample sho(s ho( lo(er au iliaries can be reharmonised on a IIm#-V#-I

4 8! (A"% )he 2 in the ,m# is harmonised (ith an 2#, the / in the 2# is harmonised (ith a ,m#. In 8! (:" the ,mH is used to gi*e more mo*ement to the third part. A typical harmonisation of this passage could also ha*e used sustained inside parts%

4 8$% sustained inside parts beneath au iliary notes. 'hanging tones *enclosure+

4 83% )he first note is harmonised as a suspension, the second note as a lo(er chromatic neighbour note (ith a chord of the same type mo*ing in parallel.
OPEN 'OICING

2or open *oicing the simplest method is to drop the second *oice do(n an octa*e. 4ntire passages can be either open or close, or can use a combination.

4 8-% ,lose and open *oicing Dere the *oicing is open on the :b ma# chord. )his (or&s (ell as the melody is mo*ing by a larger inter*al and a b- on the last beat of the V# gi*es some strong *oice leading at the cadence.
&I'E PART

8. 0ame as for four-part close *oicing but (ith melody doubled an octa*e lo(er. !. 0ame as for four-part open *oicing but (ith the fifth part on roots $. ,lusters% add the ? and H to triadsJ add the H to # chords. ,lose or open. )he lead can be doubled in octa*es to create a si th *oice. ,lusters (or& (ell (here a more dissonant sound is required or to add some tension to more traditionally *oiced chords.
T+O PART

)he con*entions of t(o-part (riting specify%

)he inter*al bet(een melody and harmony line is a third or a si th. )he note chosen for the harmony should be a chord note if the melody is a chord note. If the melody is a passing note the harmony part is often a passing note. All thirds or all si ths can sound bland. 1hen choosing bet(een third or si th *oice leading and good melodic mo*ement in the harmony part should be ta&en into account.

In mainstream jazz arranging other inter*als can be used occasionally either to create tension through dissonance or (hen a more melodic harmony line results%

In er%a$ be @een $ead and (armon* +issonant - should be used only (hen stylistically appropriate. A*oid if in doubt. Very dissonant - useful for special effects ,an be used (here the gi*en chord requires 0ound (ea& (hen combined (ith $rds and ?ths, but can be used (here stylistically appropriate (eg modal jazz"

major !nds and minor #ths

minor !nds, major #ths flattenedAaugmented -ths (G3ths"

perfect -ths, 3ths

1here the melody note is a chord tone, the harmony note should be a chord tone. 1here the melody is a passing note or e tension the harmony is often also a passing note or e tension. )he (ea&er inter*als can be used on (ea& beats to a*oid leaps in the lo(er part. :e careful of thin&ing of the ?th in a chord as a proper harmony note, its main function is to add thic&ness or colouration in four-part harmony and its use in t(o-part may imply a different chord. 5ong passages containing all $rds or all ?ths should be a*oided, but constant alternating bet(een $rds and ?ths should only be used (hen a better melodic harmony line results.
THREE PART

Darmonise the melody in the same (ay as for four part but only add t(o other chord notes from the lead do(n(ards. One of the four chord notes (ill ha*e to be omitted% 8. In all chords there must be a $rd and #th (e cept (hen the root of a major # is in the lead, in (hich case the $rd and ?th ". !. @erfect -ths can be omitted from chords, and so can roots pro*ided there is a bass instrument some(here playing them. 1here there is a choice of note use the one that gi*es the best melodic mo*ement in the harmony parts. $. If the chord requires an altered -th then that note should be used and the root should be omitted.
&744 ENSE"84E 9Tu i)

)here are many methods of (riting full ensemble for the jazz orchestra. Dere are t(o *ery basic methods% 'ombining sections, 1rite close *oicing for trumpets, close or open *oicing for trombones immediately belo( them, add the sa es (ritten (ith open *oicing (ith the lead alto doubling the !nd or $rd trumpet. -Big 'hordsAdd chord tones do(n(ards from the lead as (ith four-part. 1hen (riting 'big chords' spread across the entire ensemble use smaller inter*als high up, larger inter*als lo( do(n. .oots and -ths can be doubled, ta&e care doubling $rds. A*oid upper e tensions lo( do(n. (0ee .usso -'omposing .or /he 0azz 1rchestra"
8AC)INGS

#+ A chordal accompaniment or -pad-, In this case a solo instrument or unison line is accompanied by instruments of the same or different section playing sustained chords. )he lead line of the chordal accompaniment should mo*e smoothly paying attention to *oice leading (here possible. )his lead line can be harmonised (ith close or open bloc& *oicing, or traditional choral type *oicing. )he melody need not be higher than the bac&ing but this is by no means essential, especially if the melody is on a stronger instrument. =ou can s(ap bet(een bloc& *oicing and chordal accompaniment freely (ithin the same passage. ,are must be ta&en (ith range and dynamics to a*oid s(amping the melody, especially if the accompanying instruments are of the same section as the solo instrument. 1ith a different section you also need to ta&e tonal dynamic considerations into account, especially (hen the accompanying instruments are stronger, e.g. great care (ould ha*e to be ta&en if a flute (ere ta&ing the melody and brass instruments (ere sustaining a chordal bac&ing. )his &ind of 'imbalance' can (or& in a studio (ith close mi&ing but not in an acoustic situation. In this case it (ould be good to use mutes on the trumpets. 2, 3tabs or short rhythmic phrases,

)hese nearly al(ays 'fill the gaps' in the melody, usually (ith a different section of instruments (a common big band clichM". It (as often necessary on *ocal arrangements in the days before po(erful @A systems (hen a sustained bac&ing (ould often dro(n out a singer in a club. Ob*iously great care should be ta&en if the stabs are not in the gaps of the tune, as they (ill confuse the melody. It can be *ery effecti*e if the stab phrases ha*e some &ind of unity, e.g. a repeated riff. )he riff may ha*e to adapt to the harmonic changes (especially good if they mo*e logically in scale steps". )his often gi*es a feeling of shape that may not happen if the phrases are more arbitrary. 4ither (ay the phrases should complement the melody. $, 'ounterpoint, )his is (here a second (subordinate" melody is played at the same time as the main melody. )his can be a completely independent melody or an imitation (fugue". 0ome good rules to obser*e are% 8. )he counterpoint should sustain (hile the melody is mo*ing and *ice *ersa !. ,ontrary motion (or&s *ery (ell $. If the melody is in unison or octa*es it can be a good idea to ha*e the counterpoint in bloc& harmony and *ice *ersa. 3. )he parts can cross, but preferably if the counterpoint is played on a different instrument or section.

GENERA4 TIPS AND HINTS

)ranscription of e isting arrangements is one of the best (ays to learn, not just the rules but ho( different arrangers ha*e created their indi*idual styles, by bending or brea&ing the rules, or creating their o(n. 1rite legibly. +o not (rite transposed scores. Do(e*er large the ensemble, unisons and octa*es should not be ignored. )hey can be *ery po(erful, or supply a contrast to thic& harmony. 1hen using bac&ing figures or counterpoint it often (or&s (ell to ha*e the lead in harmony and the bac&ing in unison, or *ice *ersa. It can be *ery effecti*e to use unison on an anacrusis (pic&up" or faster melodic passages, follo(ed by open or closed harmony on slo(er mo*ing lines.

8AC)INGS
C(orda$ accom:animen or >:ad>

In this case a solo instrument or unison line is accompanied by instruments of the same or different section playing sustained chords. )he lead line of the chordal accompaniment should mo*e smoothly paying attention to *oice leading (here possible. )his lead line can be harmonised (ith close or open bloc& *oicing, or traditional choral type *oicing. )he melody need not be higher than the bac&ing but this is by no means essential, especially if the melody is on a stronger instrument. =ou can s(ap bet(een bloc& *oicing and chordal accompaniment freely (ithin the same passage.

,are must be ta&en (ith range and dynamics to a*oid s(amping the melody, especially if the accompanying instruments are of the same section as the solo instrument. 1ith a different section you also need to ta&e tonal dynamic considerations into account, especially (hen the accompanying instruments are stronger, e.g. great care (ould ha*e to be ta&en if a flute (ere ta&ing the melody and brass instruments (ere sustaining a chordal bac&ing. )his &ind of 'imbalance' can (or& in a studio (ith close mi&ing but not in an acoustic situation. In this case it (ould be good to use mutes on the trumpets.
S ab- or -(or r(* (mic :(ra-e-

)hese nearly al(ays 'fill the gaps' in the melody, usually (ith a different section of instruments (a common big band clichM". It (as often necessary on *ocal arrangements in the days before po(erful @A systems (hen a sustained bac&ing (ould often dro(n out a singer in a club. Ob*iously great care should be ta&en if the stabs are not in the gaps of the tune, as they (ill confuse the melody. It can be *ery effecti*e if the stab phrases ha*e some &ind of unity, e.g. a repeated riff. )he riff may ha*e to adapt to the harmonic changes (especially good if they mo*e logically in scale steps". )his often gi*es a feeling of shape that may not happen if the phrases are more arbitrary. 4ither (ay the phrases should complement the melody.
Coun er:oin

)his is (here a second (subordinate" melody is played at the same time as the main melody. )his can be a completely independent melody or an imitation (fugue". 0ome good rules to obser*e are% 8. )he counterpoint should sustain (hile the melody is mo*ing and *ice *ersa !. ,ontrary motion (or&s *ery (ell $. If the melody is in unison or octa*es it can be a good idea to ha*e the counterpoint in bloc& harmony and *ice *ersa. 3. )he parts can cross, but preferably if the counterpoint is played on a different instrument or section. DR7"S
NOTATION

In mainstream jazz arrangements, drummers are nearly al(ays gi*en a *ery basic 'guide' part. )he part should be constructed to gi*e the ma imum information (ithout becoming at all cluttered or a(&(ard to read. )his is not because drummers are not good readers, but so that they can concentrate on listening and impro*ising a creati*e and sensiti*e performance. 2ills are usually left up to the performer. 7ost parts can be (ritten (ith just bass drum, cymbal (hi hat or ride", snare and in some cases tom toms, though the latter should be used for specific rhythms rather than (ritten solos.

4 8% :asic drum notation. 6ote that many drum &its (ill only ha*e t(o tom toms.

If a basic s(ing ride rhythm is required, it is common to (rite just bass drum and cymbal pattern for one bar follo(ed by repeat bars. )he bass drum part should follo( the bass part, eg if the bass player has a (al&ing bass, you should (rite four bass drum beats and if the bass player is playing t(o beats to a bar you should (rite t(o bass drum beats for the drummer. ()he drummer does not necessarily play the bass drum N this is just so the drummer &no(s (hat the bass player is doing". )he cymbal part should specify (hich cymbal (hi hat or ride" is to be played and (hether any type of stic&s other than normal should be used (eg brushes or mallets". 4 !% 0imple drum part

)he abo*e is sometimes (ritten li&e this%

4 $

4 ! is better as it is easier to follo( and you (ill be able to hear the drum part in 5ogic ()he repeats signs hide the actual 7I+I notes". Once a basic rhythm has been established it is allo(able to use slashes. )his is especially useful after a departure from the basic rhythm.

4 3% 0lashes used to denote return to basic rhythm

)his e ample uses t(o score styles in 5ogic. :ars 8 N 3 are the basic 'G+rums' style, bars - N > use the '+rums-slash' style. )his allo(s you to hear the 7I+I part but the notes are hidden.
PHRASING AND ACCENTS

1hen a drummer is required to accentuate rhythmic passages or accents in the brass or sa ophones, they can either be gi*en these as an e act part to play (see abo*e e . 3" or as cues. If a drummer is gi*en cues, they ha*e more freedom to interpret the part. 4 -% +rum part (ith cues

In this e ample bars 8-! and --# use the score style '+rums-slash', bars $-3 use the style 'G+rums-combi'. In this case a drummer (ould choose (hich drums to play and probably precede the phrase (ith a short fill.
STY4ISTIC CONSIDERATIONS

Backbeat )he bac&beat (ie beats ! and 3 in 3A3" can be accented (ith%

0nare drum - typically roc& and roll, loud clima es in jazz and 'dance' jazz styles such as s(ing, jump and rb. Di hat foot pedal andAor sidestic& on snare - subtler and quieter jazz styles

Bass drum )he bass drum is often (ritten purely as a gudie to indicate (hat the bas player is doing. If a bass player has a '(al&ing line' it is usual to (rite for bass drum beats in a bar of 3A3. (a drummer (ill rarely actually play this e cept in certain styles such as 'jump'. If the bass player is playing ! beats to the bar, it is usual to (rite t(o beats for the bass drum.

PIANOGG7ITAR

@iano and guitar parts are often *ery basic in big band (riting and are just to supply a rhythmic bac&ing (comping". 7uch of the interpretation is left up to the performer. In this case the parts may just consist of chord symbols (hich the player (ill interpret to fit the style. 4 8% :asic chord symbol part for guitar or piano.

0ymbols can be (ritten abo*e or belo( the staff, as long it is ob*ious (hich staff they belong to. If specific melody lines are required on a piano or guitar part, they can be combined (ith the chord symbol part. Any parts that are unison (ith other instruments should ha*e the same accent mar&ings. 4 !% ,ombination of chord symbol and melody part.

1ith big band arranging it (ould be more common to gi*e piano or guitar a melody part if they (ere featured in a small combo section of the arrangement, rather than playing a unison (ith a brass section. It is not usually required to (rite out e act chord *oicings for piano or guitar, but in some cases it may be (orth (riting the top note of a chord, especially if specific guide tones are useful to the part. In this case it is a good idea to use a different note head style% 4 $% +iamond note heads sho( the top note of the chord.

If a specific rhythm is required, slash type note heads can be used

4 3% 0lash type note heads sho( rhythm of chords.

If an arrangement includes a (ritten bass line, the piano part should include this, not so that the pianist can play the line in unison but so that they can see (hat the bass player (ill be playing so that they can *oice their chords accordingly. 5i&e(ise any other instrument or section part can be gi*en as a cue, so that the pianist can construct an accompanying part. 4 -% :ass part and sa cues.

+A4)ING 8ASS )he (al&ing bass line is usually made up of arpeggios and scale passages. )he main object is to state e*ery beat, so the line is predominantly crotchets, but can include qua*ers and triplets. )his table sho(s some basic rules of the 3A3 (al&ing bass. (,hord tones < .oot, $rd, -th, ?th or #th"

8ea

One c(ord :er bar

T@o c(ord- :er bar

8 ! $ 3

.oot (chord tone if chord is repeated" ,hord tone or passing note ,hord tone or passing note ,hord tone, passing note, (often leading note to ne t chord"

.oot ,hord tone or passing note .oot ,hord tone or passing note

@assing notes can be used bet(een chord tones either on the same chord or bet(een chord changes, often as leading notes or approach tones (chromatically from abo*e"

.epeated notes are sometimes used, but are not recommended o*er a chord change

,hords are nearly al(ays in root position, although in*ersions are required in certain sequences, eg 'I /ot .hythm'. 1here chords are changing e*ery beat use roots.

Oua*er and triplet notes can be used at times for *ariety. 5arge inter*al leaps are useful occasionally and are usually follo(ed by a scale passage mo*ing in the opposite direction.

CO"POSITION/ ORCHESTRATION H ARRANGING

@4)4 )DO7A0

In *ocal music either the (ords (lyric" or :ass drum patterns 4*ol*ed from Often synchronised early forms of (ith bass dance music instruments and jazz (here bass (andAor bass drum" plays on beats 8 and $. 4*ol*ed from Often synchronised early forms of (ith guitar or jazz (here &eyboard snare (andAor ..D of piano" plays on beats ! and 3 (bac&beat" 0ubdi*isions of beat, eg > or 8? Often synchronised (ith guitar or &eyboard

0nare drum patterns

,ymbal patterns

E4E"ENTS O& "7SIC

7usic is the organisation of sound into melody (pitch" and rhythm (time". )his is the basic structure on (hich a composer (or orchestrator" (ill add further elements including harmony, timbre and dynamics. ,omposition (on its most basic le*el of '(riting a good tune'" (ill often in*ol*e only the rhythm and melody, ho(e*er in '(estern tonal music' the melody usually implies the harmony. 4 ceptions to this include a lot of popAdance or rap music of the last t(o decades. )raditionally a composer or composerAlyricist team (rote the basic tune (melody and rhythm" and (ords along (ith any further orchestrational de*elopment, or else (ould get a dedicated orchestrator to do the latter.

the music could be (ritten first, or both at the same time. 7ost forms of pop and jazz music combine all the abo*e elements. )he basic melody usually consists of notes of different pitches (e*en rapping often *aries the pitch and intonation" (hich are organised in time (rhythm". )his is usually arranged against a bac&ing pro*ided by a rhythm section (hich can consists either of musicians or a programmed trac& (typically drumsApercussion N bass N pianoAguitar". )his bac&ing often contains a comple rhythmic and melodic counterpoint to the main melody, (hich can be di*ided into three main areas%

In addition the harmonic changes can form a rhythm, ie the position and duration of harmonic changes can imply a strong rhythm, especially if a recurring pattern is implied.

Very often a large part of composition in*ol*es e panding a *ery short simple idea into an entire (or&. A motif may be just a fe( notes, but careful de*elopment can ma&e a little go a long (ay. +e*elopment may be achie*ed by thin&ing about unity and *ariety. If the motif is dimensions mentioned earlier (melody, rhythm, harmony, timbre and dynamics" there are many possibilities of creating logi Examples:

DE'E4OP"ENT O& "OTI&S

repeated that is unity. If a contrasting motif follo(s (An 'ans(er'" that is *ariety. )here are se*eral stages in bet(een if a motif is repeated but (ith *arying degrees of changes. Bsing the different musical

cal de*elopment. =ou can use e act or appro imate repetition of different dimensions. In composition (as opposed to arranging and orchestration" it ma&es more sense to start (ith just the three main elements (melody, rhythm and harmony"

Repeat Melody

Vary Rhythm and or harmony Melody and or harmony Melody and or rhythm

In addition one can use approximate repetition, especially of melody. )his is often necessary if the harmony is changing and can be done by% 8. .epetition of the main contour of melody (shape" !. .epetition of selected notes of the melody (essential pitches" $. .epetition of melody at different pitch (e act transposition" 3. .epetition of melody using same inter*als on different scale degree (tonal transposition or sequence".

Rhythm

!armony

In '5a ,ucaracha' the opening motif is firstly repeated then follo(ed by an ans(er (motif !". 7otif 8 then appears again slightly altered to fit the harmony (motif 8a", but the main contour of the melody is retained. )his is then repeated (unity N it follo(s the same method as the opening statement" and is then follo(ed by the another ans(er (motif !a" (hich combines unity and *ariety. Bnity is achie*ed by using the same rhythm as motif ! but (ith different notes and inter*als. )here is already tension at this point due to the V# chord. As the opening 3 bar phrase has a cadence from I to V# on bar 3, (e e pect (and recei*e" the second 3 bar phrase to cadence at the same point. )his is unity that is totally appropriate to a fol& dance tune.

In Autumn 5ea*es the opening 3 note motif is repeated in sequence (ith almost e actly the same rhythm, one step lo(er each time. )his is not an exact transposition, it is atonal transposition. )he first three notes of the opening motif are the first, second and third degrees of / minor, so the third degree is minor. )he first three notes of the sequenced repeat of this motif are the first, second and third degrees of 2 mi olydian (the scale that corresponds to 2#" so the third is major. )his > bar 'A' section is repeated, so that the rhythmic repetition of the motif builds tension (hich is release at the first bar of the ':' section

Exercise: a. Bsing the > bar 5a ,ucaracha e tract, add more tension at the final cadence by e tending the second phrase (e.g. delay the perfect cadence by one bar". b. Add e*en more tension by adding a bar at this point (ith a different time signature. c. Add more tension by using more sophisticated harmony.

b. and (c" destroy the 'fol&' feel, and though still *alid as an art composition, remo*e it from the realms of commercial composition.

Exercise: a. )a&e an e isting (ell &no(n piece of music and de*elop the opening motif in different (ays. b. )a&e a (ell &no(n e isting piece of music and de*elop the opening motif (ith an ans(ering motif. .eplace the opening motif of (b" (ith an original motif so that the ans(er still ma&es senseP.

4ou will probably find that: a. ma&es the tune more interesting. )he sort of thing you might use if arranging or composing a jazz piece but (ith fol& influences, but that

7NITY AND 'ARIETY = TENSION AND RE4EASE

)(o *ery important factors in music, as (ell as most other artforms, are the creation of tension and release. In this chapter (e (ill loo& at ho( tension and release can be created by combining unity and variety,

5imited range of pitch .hythmic continuity

1ide range of pitch .hythmic *ariety

N585 7ni * doe- no nece--ari$* im:$* mono on* and %arie * doe- no nece--ari$* im:$* in ere- 5 :y combining unity and *ariety tension andrelease can be created. )he good

7ni * .epetition 0tatic harmony 0mooth dynamics Bnchanging orchestration

'arie * 5ac& of repetition ,hanging harmony .adical dynamics ,hanging orchestration

composer &no(s (hen to introduce contrasting material at the right time to release that tension. (2or e ample by repeating an idea until the point (here the listener is about to get bored". )ension can also be created by the lac& of repetition, by the use of many contrasting and changing

musical ideas and then released by the sudden appearance of repeated or static material. On the other hand (e donFt ha*e to assume that itQs (rong to &eep repeating a melodic phrase beyond the stage (here it may be considered boring. )here are many instances (here you may (ish to create a 'hypnotic' or soothing effect. In this case be(are that there may be a tension created by constant repetition that you donFt (ant, so it may be (orth introducing some *ery subtle and gradual change either in the replaced (ith predictability. )hereFs a *ery fine balance required in the use of such de*ices, (hich is often purely subjecti*e, and in most cases subconscious on the part of the composer. =ou may decide to use a '(rong' note. 2or instance most people (ould consider a +b on a , major chord to be an unpleasant dissonance (as opposed to a pleasant or useful dissonance". Do(e*er if it is 'set up' or 'prepared' (for e ample by a repeated phrase (here that note does fit the harmony and the , major is then introduced" then the dissonance can ma&e sense and become useful. One may also (ant to loo& at (here the melody had come from and (here it (as leading. In pre*ious centuries harmonies (hich (e accept as pleasing used to thought of as unpleasant dissonances, for e ample a suspended fourth on a chord had to be 'prepared' by stating the note prior to the chord. )his rule though it does ha*e some

harmony, tone colour, rhythm or melodic content. Imagine the calming effect of listening to the gentle rhythm of (a*es on a seashore. )his rhythm is not e actly constant metronomically, neither is each (a*e identical. )here may be changes in the bac&ground sounds (seagulls or children playing". 0ometimes *ariety can be created by using une pected inter*als. )his can create interest but if it is o*erdone the interest ceases to e ist as the surprise element is use is largely irrele*ant in the music (ritten today. It is perhaps better to thin& of dissonance not as an unpleasant sound but as a harmony that possesses some tension or need to go some(here, (hether to another dissonance or a consonance (a harmony that sounds 'at rest'".

"ODES
7odes can be used freely in pop music, either in a traditional form, as a one or t(o chord riff (eg modal jazz or riff based pop, fun& etc" or as a (ay of finding interesting chord substitutions (modal interchange" Tradi iona$ 9me$odic) u-e o3 mode)ypical e amples can be found in fol& music. As (ith con*entional tonal harmony a chord can be built up in $rds from a root note, (hich can be any note of the scale%

/enerally the harmony is &ept simple (ith triads rather than #ths. )he diminished or

half diminished on VI (ould rarely be used.

6ote that in this +orian e ample the VII chord (," is used for the final cadence.

"oda$ JaII H Ri33If only one chord is used for a tune, it can imply more than one mode, either for composing a melody or for impro*ising. )his ambiguity can be used *ery effecti*ely to allo( the music to shift bet(een different modes (and moods"%

One of the main features of modal music is the lac& of a traditional V# -I perfect cadence (4 cept, of course, the Ionian mode (hich is the major scale". In this e ample the Am could also ha*e been continued through bar # to gi*e a Vm-I cadence.

If t(o chords are used as a riff, then they (ill usually imply a particular mode%

In the follo(ing e ample of a typical 5atin riff, the ,G is a passing note, so a +orian mode is still implied, though in impro*isation or composition a ,G could

be used either to coincide (ith the ,G in the riff, or as a neighbour (or 'leading'" note.

"oda$ In erc(an.e )his is (here con*entional tonal harmony is used but chord substitutions are used .

(hicf 'borro(' chords from a mode. In the follo(ing e ample a bVII chord is used to substitute for a more con*entional V#. In this case you imagine that you s(itch temporarily from , major to , Aeolian

CO"POSING TO PICT7RE
)hese notes can be applied to most types of film from $C second commercial to drama feature. )here are no hard and fast rules as to the ans(ers, but the composer (ill stand a better chance of creating an appropriate score if heAshe spends time thin&ing about the questions. 0ometimes the ans(ers are ob*iousJ sometimes they only come through a process of trial and error, e*en for the most e perienced composers. Very often the issues are subjecti*e, one of the composerQs chief s&ills is the ability to understand the brief and almost get inside the mind of the director. 7usic is sometimes considered by the director from the outset, but is often added right at the end after the final edit. It has an enormous bearing on the apparent pace of a film. It can ma&e fast editing seem slo(er and slo( editing fast.

)here are different approaches for diferent film genres, e.g. it is common for musical accents and strong beats to coincide (ith action in traditional animation, (here it can almost act as a sound effect trac&, but this approach (ith modern drama (ill often appear to be *ery 'corny'.

1hat is the o*erall emotional *alue (fear, lo*e, hate, liberation, ecstasy etc" 1hat (emotions" can music add that is not already present in the filmR Is it actually necessary to add anythingR Are there places (here pauses or silence (ould be more tellingR Is it necessary to tell a story or just con*ey a moodR Is there a clima or turning pointR Are there secondary 'pea&' momentsR 0hould the music follo( or contrast (ith the *isual rhythmR 0hould music cues synchronise e actly (ith action, or come earlier or laterR Do( does the music affect the rhythm of the film (eg the pace of the editing". 1hose point of *ie( needs to predominateR Do( does the music interact (ith dialogue, *oice o*er, sound effectsR +oes it clash or complementR Do( does the genre of the music relate to the characters or the audienceR

COPYRIGHT
Bsually it comes do(n to a judge, and is therefore *ery unscientific. )herefore, judgements can be *ery tenuous and inconsistent. 5uidelines: ,opyright is a )hree 5egged 0tool. If all $ legs are in position, the case for an infringement of copyright e ists. If any, or all, the legs are missing, the case is (ea&ened, and the stool falls o*er. )he $ legs are% #, Access

Is (hat you ha*e allegedly copied original in the first placeR

,lassic blues lic&s and riffs are often used. )hey are not your original composition, and you ha*e copied them, but you are not infringing, unless someone can pro*e that their (or& (as original in the first place. (4.g. most 8! bar blues chord progressions". An e ample of (hen this (ould be an infringement (ould be the introduction to ;ohnny : /ood. )his copyright belongs to ,huc& :erry. 0oundali&es, style-ali&es, tributes, pastiche, parody, copy. )hey are all much the same and things are e*en (orse if a parody is *ie(ed as defamation of the artistS )hen there are damages as (ell. $, 3ubstance

Das one composer had any (ay of hearing another (or& to allo( one to be a copyR )(o (riters could by co-incidence ha*e (ritten identical pieces, and if one (riter had no access, or (ay of hearing the other (riters (or&, that (ould not be a copy.

Is (hat you ha*e FcopiedF a substantial part of the original (or&R 1hat is substantialR Very *ague, and open to interpretation, but can be defined in ! (ays%

2, 1riginality

(A" Oualitati*e A distincti*e hoo&, albeit *ery small, can be a qualitati*e copy. 4.g. the opening notes of the :eatles F=esterdayF. (:" Ouantitati*e

If (hole chun&s of an original (or& also occur in your (or&, that is a copy. 0o, if any one of the $ legs doesnQt hold up, the case for an infringement is lessened. Do(e*er, e perience sho(s that in most court cases, only one of the FlegsF gets referred to in any detail. )he others might be referred to in passing, but their emphasis is less.

4*en one leg being present can gi*e someone the opportunity to put a case, often a bogus case. 4*en *ery tenuous access can be grounds for a nuisance case, (hich because of legal aid might go to court and costs a fortune in legal fees, (hich (ill ne*er be claimed bac& from the indi*idual pursuing the claim.

4.g. 'I lost this tape on the bus and the artist must ha*e found it and copied it'. Or, a tape gets thro(n on to a stage during a li*e performance and the artist is photographed catching it. 0o, access can be pro*en. :oth of the abo*e ha*e happened, and that alone has lead to an out of court settlement, rather than ha*ing the e pense of going to court. If you are doing a sound-ali&e (or (hat you should start to call a style-ali&e", you to a greater or lesser e tent in*ol*ed in copying. :e careful. =ou must as& (hether

there is access, copying of the original and substantiality. If there is, then there is a real problem. Do( far can you goR )ry not to go close. 4*en something in the style of is dangerous. If you are intent on doing a copy, muddy the edgesJ introduce conflicting styles, so it cannot be compared (ith one indi*idual artist, trac& or group. +onFt refer to a single (or&, that is lethal. :ear in mind the qualitati*e factor. +onFt string together a chain of classic riffs. ,hange the &ey. ,hange the time signature. +onFt gi*e it a title that implies a lin& to the original. =ou must also consider (hether the setting (*isual imagery or *oiceo*er" may suggest a closer lin& to the original than you intend. As (ell as copyright theft there is a 'passing off as' la(, by (hich the conte t may ha*e much more bearing on the *ase

than any off the abo*e considerations. )his can be completely outside the control of the composer if such elements are added after(ards, but the composer may still be the defendant in a legal battle.

4AYING O7T A SCORE

)he title should be at the top centre of page one and the name of the composer and arranger on the right. It is a good idea to indicate (hether the score is transposed or not (on the left". Indi*idual groups of instruments or sections (e.g. :rass, strings, sa ophones, choir" are brac&eted together do(n the left hand side of the sta*es, on e*ery page. )he names of the instruments are (ritten to the left of each sta*e on the first page.

)here are con*entions as to the order in (hich the instruments appear from the top of the score, e.g.% ORCHESTRA

Woodwind Brass Percussion (Timpani, non-pitched, pitched Keyboards etc Strings

JAZZ ORCHESTRA 98IG 8AND)

Saxes (Woodwind) Trumpets Trombones Rhythm section

4ach 'family' of instruments is gi*en its o(n staff. 1here there are more than t(o parts to a staff, t(o or more sta*es may be used. ,larity is *ery important at this stage especially if your score is to be copied into indi*idual parts by a copyist, (ho must be able to understand your intentions. )hree or four instruments playing 'bloc&' chords may be (ritten on one staff, but (here comple polyphony (ould ma&e this difficult for the copyist to decipher use another staff. A good rule is to imagine that you didnFt (rite the score, then imagine yourself ha*ing to copy the score onto indi*idual parts. 1hen (riting for an uncon*entional line up it (ill probably help you to put the highest instrument at the top of the score

and (or& do(n the page to the lo(est, (hile &eeping the rhythm section at the bottom. 6otes and rests should be (ritten so that each beat is *ertically aligned on different parts. P4ANNING THE SCORE Bseful tips%

a!e a rough s!etch o" the arrangement# $#g# intro, statement o" theme, bac!ings, counterpoint, so%os, ensemb%e passes, modu%ations, restatement o" theme, c%imax, coda# &ecide on instrumentation "or 'arious sections and choose !eys appropriate to the instruments# (se the ideas we mentioned "or composition regarding unity and 'ariety# )a'ing p%anned the entire arrangement don*t be "rightened to change as you go a%ong i" you "ee% inspired# +i%% in the me%odic %ines and ma!e a note o" the harmony in chord symbo%s throughout# With 'oca% scores "i%% in the 'oca% %ine and %yric# (The %atter is more important than it "irst appears as you may wish to ma!e a musica% comment on certain words) The same ideas regarding 'ariety and unity that app%y to composition can a%so app%y to your arrangement whether it,s an entire symphony or an impro'ised -a.. arrangement# /ust as we thin! o" the me%ody creating and re%easing tension the shape o" the entire arrangement can do this as we%%# +or instance we can thin! o" repeated 'erses bui%ding tension and a chorus bringing re%ease# 0n the case o" -a.. arrangements the composer wi%% o"ten re%y on an impro'iser to de'e%op the materia%# )ere the impro'isation is -ust an extension o" composition, the good impro'iser thin!s (either conscious%y or subconscious%y) about bui%ding and re%easing tension, repetition and de'e%opment o" ideas#