Chapter 6

Analysis and Design of Control

Systems in Time Domain
Dr. Franjo Cecelja
1
Faculty of Engineering and Physical Sciences
University of Surrey
6.1 Introduction
The discussion in this Lecture is limited to time-domain analysis and design based on the
transient-response analysis and partially on the analysis related to the pole position. As we will
be focusing on the feedback control, or closed loop control, all the denitions that we introduced
so far fully apply. Still, here are some of them just presented as a reminder.
6.1.1 Closed Loop versus Open Loop Systems
An advantage of the closed loop system is the fact that the use of feedback makes the system
response relatively insensitive to the external disturbances and internal variation in system
parameters. This makes it possible to develop relatively inaccurate mathematical model, but
also to use inaccurate and inexpensive components to still obtain suciently accurate control.
From the point of view of stability, it is much more dicult to obtain a stable system with a
closed loop system as the closed loop system sometimes tend to overcorrect errors and hence to
cause the oscillations and even a full instability of the system.
6.1.2 General Requirements of Control Systems
Any control system must be stable and this is the primary requirement. In addition to absolute
stability, the control system must have a relative stability; that is the response must be fast
enough to respond to the disturbances, but should show no or very limited oscillations - there
will always be a trade-o between these two requirements. In the case of the second-order system,
1
These lecture notes have been compiled from the literature stated in the Bibliography Section
97
98 CHAPTER 6. ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF CONTROL SYSTEMS IN TIME DOMAIN
in many practical applications the compromise is found by taking the damping ratio = 0.707,
for which the poles are located on the line at an angle of 0.65 [rad]. Then, the response is
fast enough with and acceptable overshot to the step response, but without oscillation, as shown
in Figure 6.1. In Figure 6.1, the left side shows the response of a second-order system to the
unity step input function with the following parameters; = 0.707, = 1 [rad], K = 1. The
right side of the gure shows the concomitant pole location in the s-plane.
Figure 6.1: Response of an ideal second order system
In the case of the rst-order system, which is always considered to be an underdamped
system as it never has any overshoot in its response to the input step function, the poles are
normally expected to be as far from the imaginary j axis as possible as this guaranties that
the response will be as fast as possible. In turn, this means that the time constant is expected
to be as small as possible. Additionally, placing the poles far from the j axis ensures a higher
stability of the system. Figure 6.2 shows the response of a rst order system for two dierent
values of the time constant; = 0.1 [s] and = 1 [s] for which the poles are placed at s = 10
and s = 1, respectively.
Also, along with the stability, the system must be able to reduce the errors, particularly
the steady state error as we saw with the rst-order system responding to the ramp input
function, to a small, tolerable value.
6.2 Automatic Controllers
6.2.1 Concept
An automatic controller compares the actual value Y (s) of the process or plant output with
the desired values

Y (s), determines deviation and produces a control signal U(s) to reduce the
deviation or error E(s) to zero or to a small and tolerable value. The way the controller produces
the control signal is called control action, as shown in Figure 6.3 where the transfer function
D(s) denotes the controller.
6.2. AUTOMATIC CONTROLLERS 99
Figure 6.2: The response of the rst-order system
Figure 6.3: Feedback control action
The automatic controllers, in literature sometimes called industrial automatic controllers,
can be classied according to their control action as:
1. Proportional controllers;
2. Integral controllers;
3. Proportional-plus-integral controllers;
4. Proportional-plus-derivative controllers;
5. Proportional-plus-integral-plus-derivative controllers.
These are also called the control strategies. A full schematic of a control system
is shown in Figure 6.4. Here, sensors are used to measure controllable or output variable of
the process, and sometimes the actuators are placed between the process and the controller to
manipulated controllable variable (sensors and actuators will be explained in more details in the
next Chapter of these notes). For the simplicity reasons, we will assume that these variables
are directly accessible and comparable. Hence, the sensor that measure the variable using the
transducer, controller that provides the control action and the actuators will all be presented in
a single block called the controller.
100CHAPTER 6. ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF CONTROL SYSTEMS IN TIME DOMAIN
Figure 6.4: Block diagram of an automatic control system
6.2.2 Practical Issues
In reality, the controller is of the form given in Figure 6.5. It contains the sensor that measures
the output variable Y (s) with the measurement constant K
m
(Y

(s) = Y (s)K
m
) of the process
and converts its values into the signal, often into an electrical, pneumatic or hydraulic signals
which are comparable with the desired output

Y (s) signal. It is only then, that the error signal
E(s) (=

Y (s) Y

(s)) is created, on which the control strategy D(s) is applied. Also, the
output signal U

(s) of the control strategy D(s) is very often incompatible with the input or
manipulated variable U(s) of the process. Actuators are used to provide this compatibility.
Consequently, the sensors are devices that convert physical quantities of the output variable
into a usable signal proportional to it. On the other side, actuators are devices that convert a
signal into the physical quantities of the input variable into the process or plant.
Figure 6.5: Practical realisation of an automatic controller
Lets take a car cruising controller the task of which is to keep the speed of the car
constant and stable whatever the conditions. The desired output

Y (s) is usually an electric
signal proportional to the required speed of the car. The actual speed of the car is measured
by a sensor called tachometer that converts the angular speed of the wheels, hence the linear
speed of the car, into an electric signal Y

(s) that is proportional to it, but also comparable to

desired output

Y (s). The dierence of these signals, E(s), is then processed by an appropriate
controller D(s), which provides the electrical signal U

(s). More precisely, the controller D(s) is

either an analogue or a digital computer processing one electrical signal into another. Finally,
the actuator uses the electric signal U

(s) and converts it into the valve opening that changes

the ow of the air-fuel mixture into the engine.
Since the sensors and actuators will both be dealt with in more details in one of the
follow-on lectures, here we will assume that the process output Y (s) is directly comparable to
the desired output

Y (s), and also to the process input U(s), so the whole scheme simplies to
6.2. AUTOMATIC CONTROLLERS 101
that given in gure Figure 6.3.
6.2.3 Proportional Controllers
The proportional controller produces the output signal u(t) (pressure in the case of pneumatic
controller, current or voltage in the case of electronic controller) that is proportional to the error
e(t) (= y(t) y(t)), which gives
u(t) = K
c
e(t) +k (6.1)
where
u(t) is the output of the controller, hence the input to the process;
K
c
is the controller gain or sensitivity;
e(t) is the error signal;
k is a constant.
In practice, the gain K
c
is adjustable so that the response of the system can be tuned. Also, the
constant k is the value of the output of the controller when the error e(t) = 0 and in practical
situations it is adjusted so that the output of the process is at required value for e(t) = 0. For
instance, this may be required to remove the steady state error from the system. Since, this
is better done by introducing integral controller, here we will assume that the constant k = 0
unless specied otherwise. Consequently, applying the Laplace transform on the equation (6.1),
the transfer function of the proportional controller is
D(s) =
U(s)
E(s)
= K
c
(6.2)
The term proportional is commonly used among the control population instead of gain, although
the proportional controller is obviously a simple amplier with a gain K
c
.
The First-order System with Proportional Controller
Applying the proportional controller to a rst-order system (Figure 6.6), the overall transfer
function is
G(s) =
D(s)H(s)
1 +D(s)H(s)
=
K
c

s +
1+K
c

(6.3)
It is evident from equation (6.3) that the overall amplication of the system is K
c
, but also the
pole of the system is shifted from original position s
1
= 1/ to new position s
1
= (1+K
c
)/.
As a consequence, if K
c
> 0, the pole is placed further from the imaginary j axis in s-plane,
hence reducing the time constant of the system, and improving the overall response (faster
system). For K
c
< 0, the response is slower as the pole is closer to the imaginary j axis and
the system may even become unstable for K
c
< 1 as the pole would be in the right-hand side
of the s-plane.
Figure 6.7 shows the time domain impulse response of the rst order system H(s) =
1
s+1
without the controller (K
c
= 0) and the system with proportional controller and gain K
c
= 4.
102CHAPTER 6. ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF CONTROL SYSTEMS IN TIME DOMAIN
Figure 6.6: Proportional controller with the rst-order system
Figure 6.7: Response of the rst order system for two dierent gains Kc of the proportional
controller
The response of the closed-loop system with proportional controller to the unity step
input function ( y(t) = 1

Y (s) = 1/s), can be obtained in the following way. Applying the
partial-fraction expansion to the equation (6.3) we get:
Y (s) =

Y (s)
D(s)H(s)
1 +D(s)H(s)
=
K
c

s
_
s +
K
c
+1

_ =
K
1
s
+
K
2
s +
K
c
+1

(6.4)
Using the partial-fraction expansion it is not dicult to obtain the coecients as K
1
=
K
c
K
c
+1
and K
1
=
K
c
K
c
+1
, hence the equation (6.4) becomes:
Y (s) =
K
c
K
c
+1
s

K
c
K
c
+1
s +
K
c
+1

(6.5)
So, the time-domain response is from the Laplace transform table:
y(t) =
K
c
K
c
+ 1
_
1 e
t(K
c
+1)

_
(6.6)
6.2. AUTOMATIC CONTROLLERS 103
For t , the system output with proportional controller will never reach the expected output
y(t) = 1. Instead, it will reach the level that follows from equation (6.6) and which is:
y() =
K
c
K
c
+ 1
(6.7)
hence the steady state error is
e(t) = y(t) y(t)|
t
=
K
c
K
c
+ 1
(6.8)
So, the proportional controller introduces a steady state error which is proportional to the gain
K
c
. For K
c
= 1, the steady-state error is as high as 50%, as shown in Figure 6.8, and it decreases
as K
c
increases: higher the proportional controller gain K
c
, lover the steady-state error. This is
the main disadvantage of introducing a proportional controller.
Figure 6.8: Steady-state error with the proportional controller
Similarly, for the proportional controller applied to a second-order system (Figure 6.9),
the overall transfer function is
G(s) =
D(s)H(s)
1 +D(s)H(s)
=
K
c

2
n
s
2
+ 2
n
s +
2
n
(K
c
+ 1)
(6.9)
Figure 6.9: The second-order system with proportional controller
Eectively, the proportional controller changes the natural frequency of the second-order
system from
n
to

n
=
n

K
c
+ 1, while maintaining the same damping ratio. Consequently,
104CHAPTER 6. ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF CONTROL SYSTEMS IN TIME DOMAIN
the increase in K
c
, improves the response (faster system) and, similarly to the rst-order system,
reduces the steady state error as long as K
c
> 0.
6.2.4 Proportional-Integral Controller
The integral controller (Figure 6.10) produces the output signal u(t) (pressure in the case of
pneumatic controller, current or voltage in the case of electronic controller) that is proportional
to the integral of the error e(t) (= y(t) y(t)) as
u(t) =
K
c
T
i
_
e(t)dt D(s) =
U(s)
E(s)
=
K
c
T
i
s
(6.10)
where u(t) is the output of the controller (input to the process or plant), K
c
is the gain or
sensitivity, e(t) is the error signal, T
i
is the integral time, and 1/T
i
is a measure of the speed
of response and is referred to as the reset time. The primary virtue of this controller is that it
Figure 6.10: The integral-proportional controller
can provide a nite value of control signal u(t) with no error signal e(t). This is because, as an
integrator, this controller does not take into account only the current value of the error e(t), but
also the past history of the e(t) values. To support this theory, lets look into the response of
this controller u(t) to the step function of error signal e(t). For e(t) =
_
1 t0
0 t<0
, in the s-domain
it becomes E(s) =
1
s
, then from equation (6.8) the controller output signal is
U(s) = E(s)
K
c
T
i
s
=
K
c
T
i
s
2
(6.11)
and concomitant time response is
u(t) =
K
c
T
i
t (6.12)
So, even if the error signal e(t) seizes to exist (e(t) = 0), the output of the controller u(t) will
not be zero but the value achieved in previous time which depends on the previous history of
values. Consequently, this controller tends to remove a steady state error e(t) by forcing the
process to rectify it.
Example 6.1 Lets take the rst-order process as shown in Figure 6.11. The overall transfer
function is easily found to be
G(s) =
D(s)H(s)
1 +D(s)H(s)
=
K
c
T
i
s
2
+
1

s +
K
c
Y
i
(6.13)
6.2. AUTOMATIC CONTROLLERS 105
which, according to the equation of general format for a second order transfer function
(Chapter 4) gives the damping ratio =
1
2

T
i
K
c
and natural frequency
n
=
_
K
c
T
i
. Also,
overall transfer function (6.13) is the second-order transfer function with the time response
to unity step input function given as
g(t) = 1
1
_
1
2
e

n
t
sin
_
t
n
_
1
2
arctg
_
_
1
2

__
(6.14)
If the time approaches innity (t ), the steady state error in the system response is zero
since e() = y() y() = 0. Note that the steady state error for the rst order system
with proportional controller and unity step input function, according to the equation (6.8),
was 50%. So, the introduction of the integral controller removes the steady state error and
this is the main usage of the proportional-integral controller.
Figure 6.11: Proportional-Integral controller in action
Figure 6.12 shows the response of the rst-order system (H(s) =
1
s+1
) with the proportional-
integral controller (D(s) =
8
2s
) to the unity step input function (blue curve) in comparison
with the response of the rst-order system without controller (red curve). It is apparent
that the introduction of the integral controller changes the response similar to that of the
second-order system, but more importantly removes the steady state error (e() = 0).
6.2.5 Proportional-Derivative Controller
Derivative controller has the time domain form
u(t) = T
D
de(t)
dt
(6.15)
Therefore, the s-domain transfer function of this controller becomes
D(s) =
U(s)
E(s)
= T
D
s (6.16)
where T
D
is called derivative time.
The derivative controller is always used in conjunction with proportional and/or integral
controller to increase the damping and generally improves the stability of the system. In practice,
pure derivative controller is not practical to implement for the reason that if the error e(t)
remains constant, the output of the derivative controller u(t) would be zero (derivative of a
constant function is zero), so the control action would not take place. Proportional or integral
106CHAPTER 6. ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF CONTROL SYSTEMS IN TIME DOMAIN
Figure 6.12: Response of the rst-order system with the proportional-integral controller and
unity step input function
term is therefore needed to provide a control signal at this time. Consequently, the practical
proportional-derivative controller has the form
D(s) = K
c
+K
c
T
D
s = K
c
(1 +T
D
s) (6.17)
where K
c
is the proportional gain. With the derivative controller the corrections depend on
the rate of change of the error signal e(t). As a result, the derivative controller performs an
anticipatory response.
Example 6.2 Lets take the example of an electrical circuitry as given in Figure 6.13 with
the capacitor voltage being the output variable (y(t) = u
C
(t)) and source voltage being the
input variable (u(t)). The transfer function has the form
U
C
(s)
U(s)
=
1
CL
s
2
+
R
L
s +
1
CL
(6.18)
which for C = 100 [F], L = 1000 [H] and R = 6 [k] gives the transfer function of the form
U
C
(s)
U(s)
=
10
s
2
+ 6s + 10
(6.19)
with natural frequency
n
=

10 = 3.16 [
rad
s
], the damping ratio =
6
2

10
= 0.95, and
pole location s
1,2
= 3 j, as shown in Figure 6.15. Applying the proportional-derivative
controller with this plant, as shown in Figure 6.14, the overall transfer function is obtained
as
G(s) =
Y (s)

Y (s)
=
D(s)H(s)
1 +D(s)H(s)
=
10K
c
(1 +T
D
s)
s
2
+s (6 + 10K
c
T
D
) + 10 (1 +K
c
)
(6.20)
which for K
c
= T
D
= 1 becomes
G(s) =
10 (s + 1)
s
2
+ 16s + 20
(6.21)
6.2. AUTOMATIC CONTROLLERS 107
Figure 6.13: An electronic circuit
with two real poles s
1,2
= 8 6.6, the damping ratio = 1.79 and natural frequency

n
= 4.47. The increase in the damping ratio from original = 0.95 to = 1.79 indicates
that the stability of the system has improved. This is supported by the pole positions, which
for the closed-loop system have moved further from the imaginary j axis, hence improved
the stability of the system, as indicated in Figure 6.15. Also the introduced zero in equation
Figure 6.14: Proportional-derivative controller in action
(6.21) contributes to better system performance, but this will be the topic of further and
advanced control in the follow-on module.
The system response to the unity step input function is shown in Figure 6.16, where the
red curve is response of the system without controller (open-loop system), the blue graph is
response of the system with derivative-proportional controller with K
c
= 1 and T
i
= 1, and
the green graph is the response of the system with derivative-proportional controller with
K
c
= 10 and T
i
= 1. It is evident that proportional-derivative controller also introduces the
steady state error, which decreases as the proportional gain K
c
increases. The reason for
the existence of the steady state error is similar as to that of proportional only controller;
it does not have the integral part that would take into account previous values of the error
e(t).
Also, it is evident from Figure 6.16 that derivative action improves the system response
by making it much faster, still maintaining the system stability. This is the main advantage
of introducing the derivative action.
6.2.6 Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) Controller
For control over steady-state and transient errors we can combine all three control strategies
we have discussed in this Chapter to get proportional-integral-derivative (PID) control as a
linear combination of proportional, integral and derivative action. Normally, all three gain
constants are adjustable. The PID combination is often able to provide an acceptable degree
of error (steady state error) together with acceptable stability and damping. More precisely,
PID controllers are so eective that PID control is a standard in processing and some other
108CHAPTER 6. ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF CONTROL SYSTEMS IN TIME DOMAIN
Figure 6.15: Pole location of the second-order system
industries.
The time response of the PID controller is
u(t) = K
c
_
e(t) +
1
T
i
_
e(t)dt +T
D
de(t)
dt
_
(6.22)
or in s-domain
U(s) = E(s)K
c
_
1 +
1
T
i
s
+T
D
s
_
(6.23)
which gives the controller transfer function as
D(s) =
U(s)
E(s)
= K
c
_
1 +
1
T
i
s
+T
D
s
_
(6.24)
The complete control system is shown in Figure 6.17.
Example 6.3 Taking the rst order system of the form
H(s) =
1
s + 1
(6.25)
the response of the system with PID controller is shown in Figure 6.18 where the red curve
is response of the system without controller (open-loop system), the blue graph is response
of the system with PID controller with K
c
= 5, T
D
= 0.1 and T
i
= 0.5, and the green graph
is the response of the system with derivative-proportional controller with K
c
= 1, T
D
= 0.1
and T
i
= 0.5. It is evident that PID controller removes the steady state error and that the
system is faster than the open-loop system without controller.
6.2. AUTOMATIC CONTROLLERS 109
Figure 6.16: Response of the system with derivative-proportional controller
Figure 6.17: PID control strategy
6.2.7 Tuning PID Controllers
To design a particular control loop, the engineer has to adjust the constants K
c
, T
i
and T
D
to provide an acceptable performance of the closed loop system. This process is called tuning
the controller. The criteria for tuning is based on the ideas presented earlier in this Chapter;
increasing K
c
and
1
T
i
tends to reduce system errors but may aect the system stability, while
increasing T
D
improves stability. To develop a controller that will meet steady-state and tran-
sient specications, together with appropriate stability of the system, is a daunting task as it
requires a complete knowledge of the system and its mathematical model. This is mainly based
on the system analysis in the frequency (s) domain, as you will see during the follow-on module.
Sophisticated methods are available to develop and in particular to tune the gain con-
stants K
c
, T
i
and T
D
of a PID controller for a particular process. One of the most popular
methods today is Ziegler-Nichols method, which recognises that the step response of a process
contains sucient information about the system for most practical cases. The step response of
any system has a general form as shown in Figure 6.19, and is called the process reaction curve.
This curve can be generated by experimental data from the step input function applied on the
110CHAPTER 6. ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF CONTROL SYSTEMS IN TIME DOMAIN
Figure 6.18: Response of a rst-order system with PID controller
process or plant, but in many cases it can be recorded from a normal operation of the process
as the step input is a very often occurred type of inputs. The S-shape of the process reaction
Figure 6.19: Process reaction curve
curve is characteristic of many high-order systems, but it may be approximated by a rst-order
transfer function and associated delay as
H(s) =
Y (s)
U(s)
=
Ke
s
s + 1
(6.26)
where the all constants can be determined from the system response as shown in Figure 6.19. If
the tangent is drawn at the inection point of the reaction curve, then the slope of the line is
R =
K

(6.27)
6.2. AUTOMATIC CONTROLLERS 111
and the intersection of the tangent line with the time axis denes the time delay L = . Ziegler
and Nichols approached the tuning problem in such a way that the decay ratio is to be approx-
imately 0.25 which means that the exponential decay to the impulse input achieves a quarter
value after one period of oscillation, as shown in Figure 6.20. This roughly corresponds to
= 0.21 for a second-order system which was fount to be a good compromise between quick
response and appropriate stability margins (how far the poles are from the imaginary j axis)
for a system with delays.
Figure 6.20: Quarter decay ratio
Simulation of the above requirements provided the PID parameters as shown in Table
6.1.
Type of Controller Optimum Gain
Proportional K
c
=
1
RL
Proportional-integral K
c
=
0.9
RL
T
i
=
L
0.3
Proportional-integral-derivative K
c
=
1.2
RL
T
i
= 2L
T
D
= 0.5L
Table 6.1: Ziegler-Nichols tuning for the PID controller and decay ratio of 0.25
112CHAPTER 6. ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF CONTROL SYSTEMS IN TIME DOMAIN
Example 18
Lets take a rst-order system with delay = 2 [s] of the form
H(s) =
e
2s
5s + 1
(6.28)
The system time response to the unity step input function is shown in Figure 21. From the
Figure 6.21: Response of the rst order system with delay to the unity step input function
response we can nd that L = 3, = 5, K = 1 and consequently R =
K

= 0.2. The parameters

of the PID controller, from the Table 6.1 are; K
c
=
1.2
RL
, T
i
= 2L = 6 and T
D
= 0.5L = 1.5, so
the transfer function of the controller is
D(s) =
4.32s + 0.72
6s
(6.29)
The time-domain response to the unity step input function is given in Figure 6.22 where the
blue curve is the response of the open-loop system without controller and the green curve is the
response of the closed-loop system with the PID controller as given by equation 6.29.
6.3 Skill-Assessment Exercise
6.3.1 Review Questions
1. Specify advantages, disadvantages and other specics related to close-loop control systems;
2. Specify and explain major requirements that a control system has to satisfy and which are
important guidelines for control system design;
6.3. SKILL-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 113
Figure 6.22: Response of the system with PID controller
3. With the help of a diagram or otherwise explain the concept of automatic controllers.
What are known control strategies?
4. Explain the roles of sensors and actuators in a control system;
5. With the help of a diagram or otherwise explain the concept of proportional controller.
What parameters of the rst orders system are aected by introduction of a proportional
controller and how?
6. How does the proportional controller aect the second order system?
7. With the help of a diagram or otherwise explain the concept of proportional-integral
controller. What parameters of the rst orders system are aected by introduction of a
proportional-integral controller and how?
8. Explain the terms integral time and reset time.
9. Explain how a proportional-integral controller eliminates the steady state error of a control
system.
10. With the help of a diagram or otherwise explain the concept of proportional-derivative
controller. What parameters of the rst orders system are aected by introduction of a
proportional-derivative controller and how?
11. Briey explain the term derivative time.
12. Explain why derivative controllers are not used on their own.
114CHAPTER 6. ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF CONTROL SYSTEMS IN TIME DOMAIN
13. With the help of a diagram or otherwise explain the concept of proportional-integral-
derivative controller.
6.3.2 Solving Problems
Task 5.1
Given the rst-order transfer function of a control system as H(s) =
Y (s)
U(s)
=
2
s+1
. Calculate
and plot the position of the system pole(s) in the s-plane. Sketch the time-domain response
to the unity step input function and calculate the steady state error. Close the loop with the
proportional controller D(s) = K
c
. For two values of the gain K
c
= 1 and K
c
= 10, calculate
the pole positions of the overall system G(s) and plot them in s-plane. For both values of K
c
calculate the steady state error of the response to the unity step input function.
Task 5.2
For the DC motor described by the transfer function H(s) =
(s)
U
a
(s)
=
5
s(s+10)
nd the value of
the proportional controller gain K
c
that would provide the best time domain response of the
closed-loop system. Sketch the position of the pole(s) is s-domain, as well as the time domain
response to the unity step input function y(t).
Task 5.3
Given the response to the unity step input function of the system H(s) =
Y (s)
U(s)
as in the Figure
6.23, derive the transfer function that would provide the best t. Determine the parameters of
the PID controller that would provide a suitable closed-loop system. Sketch the block diagram
of the overall system.
Task 5.4
Given the control system H(s) =
Y (s)
U(s)
=
1
s+1
. Determine the steady state error of its response
to the input function u(t) =
_
t t0
0 t<0
6.3. SKILL-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 115
Figure 6.23: The system response
116CHAPTER 6. ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF CONTROL SYSTEMS IN TIME DOMAIN
Bibliography
[1] Ogata K; Sysatem Dynamics - third edition, Prentice-Hall International (1998) - Chapter 6
[2] Fraklin GF, Powell JD, Emami-Naeini A; Feedback Control of Dynamic Systems - fourth
edition, Prentince Hall 2002
[3] Coughanowr DR; Process Systems Analysis and Control - secod edition, McGraw-Hill inc,
(1991)
117
118 BIBLIOGRAPHY