LIMITED BROADCAST IPv4 ADDRESSES VS DIRECTED BROADCAST IPv4 ADDRESSES

Limited Broadcast Example: Using the topology above, if R1 sent out an ARP request on his Fa0/0 interface, that would be a limited broadcast. At L3 it would be sent to 255.255.255.255, and at L2 it would be would be sent to ff:ff:ff:ff:ff:ff This would stay local (and be limited there )on the VLAN between R1 and R2. Directed Broadcast Example: If R1 sent a packet packet to 23.0.0.255, this would be a directed broadcast, that if the network supported, would be routed (directed) to the network segment between R2 and R3, and then be converted to the L2 destination address of ff:ff:ff:ff:ff:ff for all devices on that VLAN between R2 and R3. The original packet was sent to the broadcast address of the 23.0.0.0/24 subnet.

--------FCS and CRC Frame Check Sequence The Frame Check Sequence (FCS) eld is used to determine if errors occurred in the transmission and reception of the frame. Error detection is added at the Data Link layer because this is where data is transferred across the media. The media is a potentially unsafe environment for data. The signals on the media could be subject to interference, distortion, or loss that would substantially change the bit values that those signals represent. The error detection mechanism provided by the use of the FCS eld discovers most errors caused on the media. To ensure that the content of the received frame at the destination matches that of the frame that left the source node, a transmitting node creates a logical summary of the contents of the frame. This is known as the cyclic redundancy check (CRC) value. This value is placed in the Frame Check Sequence (FCS) eld of the frame to represent the contents of the frame. When the frame arrives at the destination node, the receiving node calculates its own logical summary, or CRC, of the frame. The receiving node compares the two CRC values. If the two values are the same, the frame is considered to have arrived as transmitted. If the CRC value in the FCS differs from the CRC calculated at the receiving node, the frame is discarded. --------CIRCUIT SWITCHED NETWORK

--------PACKET SWITCHED NETWORK

--------TCP WINDOWING MECHANISM It grants the 'Flow Control'

TCP also provides mechanisms for ow control. Flow control assists the reliability of TCP transmission by adjusting the effective rate of data ow between the two services in the session. When the source is informed that the specied amount of data in the segments is received, it can continue sending more data for this session. This Window Size eld in the TCP header species the amount of data that can be transmitted before an acknowledgement must be received. The initial window size is determined during the session startup via the three-way handshake. TCP feedback mechanism adjusts the effective rate of data transmission to the maximum ow that the network and destination device can support without loss. TCP attempts to manage the rate of transmission so that all data will be received and retransmissions will be minimized.

Reducing Window Size Another way to control the data ow is to use dynamic window sizes. When network resources are constrained, TCP can reduce the window size to require that received segments be acknowledged more frequently. This effectively slows down the rate of transmission because the source waits for data to be acknowledged more frequently. The TCP receiving host sends the window size value to the sending TCP to indicate the number of bytes that it is prepared to receive as a part of this session. If the destination needs to slow down the rate of communication because of limited buffer memory, it can send a smaller window size value to the source as part of an acknowledgement. As shown in the gure, if a receiving host has congestion, it may respond to the sending host with a segment with a reduced window size. In this graphic, there was a loss of one of the segments. The receiver changed the window eld in the TCP header of the returning segments in this conversation from 3000 down to 1500. This caused the sender to reduce the window size to 1500. After periods of transmission with no data losses or constrained resources, the receiver will begin to increase the window eld. This reduces the overhead on the network because fewer acknowledgments need to be sent. Window size will continue to increase until there is data loss, which will cause the window size to be decreased. This dynamic increasing and decreasing of window size is a continuous process in TCP, which determines the optimum window size for each TCP session. In highly efcient networks, window sizes may become very large because data is not bein

--------TTL: Time-To-Live The Time-to-Live (TTL) is an 8-bit binary value that indicates the remaining "life" of the packet. The TTL value is decreased by at least one each time the packet is processed by a router (that is, each hop). When the value becomes zero, the router discards or drops the packet and it is removed from the network data ow. This mechanism prevents packets that cannot reach their destination from being forwarded indenitely between routers in a routing loop. If routing loops were permitted to continue, the network would become congested with data packets that will never reach their destination. Decrementing the TTL value at each hop ensures that it eventually becomes zero and that the packet with the expired TTL eld will be dropped. --------Three-Way Handshake

--------Physical connection to the console port of a Cisco network device (Router / Switch): DB9 vs DB25

--------CSMA CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection) =====> TALK and then LISTEN (Used in 802.3 networks) This multiple access method is used in wired networks since it is possible to detect collision and then proceed with so used in LANs and WANs. This is used by IEEE 802.3 standard Ethernet networks in which each node monitors the traffic in the line and if no traffic is available then a particular node can transmit. But at the same time if two are trying to transmit then it is known as a collision. This situation is sensed by all the nodes in the given network. After that the stations which had the collision will try to send data again after some random time interval which are vary for each node. If again a collision takes place the random time taken is increased and waits again. This is the procedure used in CSMA CD networks and the method does not have any deterministic capability. CSMA CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance) =====> LISTEN before TALKING (Used in 802.11 networks) This is the multiple access scheme used in layer 2 access method in which the following method is used when nodes are trying to transmit simultaneously in a shared network. Here the node which wishes to transmit first has to listen to the medium for a pre determined period to assess the channel state. If the channel is idle then the node is capable of transmitting. Else the channel is said to be busy and node has to wait until the channel comes to idle mode. This is implemented in IEEE 802.11 wireless LANs and other wireless networks and this is preferred since the wireless networks cannot detect collision while transmitting like wired networks. So the implementation of CSMA CA will improve the packet dropping in wireless networks. ---------