Mechanical Design of Overhead Lines Conductors:

Electric power can be transmitted or distributed either by means of underground cables or by overhead lines. The underground cables are rarely used for power transmission due to two main reasons. Firstly, power is generally transmitted over long distances to load centres. Obviously, the installation costs for underground transmission will be very heavy. Secondly, electric power has to be transmitted at high voltages for economic reasons. It is very difficult to provide proper insulation to the cables to withstand such higher pressures. Therefore, as a rule, power transmission over long distances is carried out by using overhead lines. With the growth in power demand and consequent rise in voltage levels, power transmission by overhead lines has assumed considerable importance. An overhead line is subjected to uncertain weather conditions and other external interferences. This calls for the use of proper mechanical factors of safety in order to ensure the continuity of operation in the line. In general, the strength of the line should be such so as to provide against the worst probable weather conditions. In this chapter, we shall focus our attention on the various aspects of mechanical design of overhead lines.

Main Components of Overhead Lines:

An overhead line may be used to transmit or distribute electric power. The successful operation of an overhead line depends to a great extent upon the mechanical design of the line. While constructing an overhead line, it should be ensured that mechanical strength of the line is such so as to provide against the most probable weather conditions. In general, the main components of an overhead line are: (i) Conductors which carry electric power from the sending end station to the receiving end station. (ii) Supports which may be poles or towers and keep the conductors at a suitable level above the ground.

(iii)

Insulators which are attached to supports and insulate the conductors from the ground.

(iv) (v)

Cross arms which provide support to the insulators. Miscellaneous items such as phase plates, danger plates, lightning arrestors, anti-climbing wires etc.

The continuity of operation in the overhead line depends upon the judicious choice of above components. Therefore, it is profitable to have detailed discussion on them.

Conductor Materials:
The conductor is one of the important items as most of the capital outlay is invested for it. Therefore, proper choice of material and size of the conductor is of considerable importance. The conductor material used for transmission and distribution of electric power should have the following properties: (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) High electrical conductivity. High tensile strength in order to withstand mechanical stresses. Low cost so that it can be used for long distances. Low specific gravity so that weight per unit volume is small.

All above requirements are not found in a single material. Therefore, while selecting a conductor material for a particular case, a compromise is made between the cost and the required electrical and mechanical properties.

Stranded Conductors:
Solid wires are only used when area of X-section is small. If solid wires are used for larger X-section and longer spans, continuous vibrations and swinging would produce mechanical fatigue and they would fracture at the points of support. All conductors used for overhead lines are preferably stranded in order to increase the flexibility.

In stranded conductors, there is generally one central wire and round this, successive layers of wires containing 6, 12, 18, 24 ...... wires. Thus, if there are n layers, the total number of individual wires is 3n(n + 1) + 1. In the manufacture of stranded conductors, the consecutive layers of wires are twisted or spiraled in opposite directions so that layers are bound together.

Advantage of using stranded conductors:

Stranded conductors are used to increase the amount of current that may be carried in a line. Due to the skin effect, capacity of conductors is not proportional to their cross section, for the larger sizes. Therefore, stranded conductors may carry more current for a given weight. A stranded conductor also has lower reactance, compared to a single conductor. It reduces corona discharge loss at extra high voltage (EHV) and interference with communication systems. It also reduces voltage gradient in that range of voltage. As a disadvantage, the stranded conductors have higher wind loading.

Commonly used conductor materials:

The most commonly used conductor materials for overhead lines are copper, aluminium, steel-cored aluminium and cadmium copper. The choice of a particular material will depend upon the cost, the required electrical and mechanical properties and the local conditions. All conductors used for overhead lines are preferably stranded in order to increase the flexibility. In stranded conductors, there is generally one central wire and round this, successive layers of wires containing 6, 12, 18, 24 ...... wires. Thus, if there are n layers, the total number of individual wires is 3n(n + 1) + 1. In the manufacture of stranded conductors, the consecutive layers of wires are twisted or spiralled in opposite directions so that layers are bound together.

1. Hard Drawn Copper:

Copper is an ideal material for overhead lines owing to its high electrical conductivity and greater tensile strength. It is always used in the hard drawn form as stranded conductor. Although hard drawing decreases the electrical conductivity slightly yet it increases the tensile strength considerably. Copper has high current density i.e., the current carrying capacity of copper per unit of X-sectional area is quite large. This leads to two advantages. Firstly, smaller Xsectional area of conductor is required and secondly, the area offered by the conductor to wind loads is reduced. Moreover, this metal is quite homogeneous, durable and has high scrap value. There is hardly any doubt that copper is an ideal material for transmission and distribution of electric power. However, due to its higher cost and non-availability, it is rarely used for these purposes. Now-a-days the trend is to use aluminium in place of copper.

The table 1 below show the nominal size of conductors used in industry and their ratings.

Table 1

2. Hard Drawn Aluminium:

Aluminium is cheap and light as compared to copper but it has much smaller conductivity and tensile strength. The relative comparison of the two materials is briefed below : (i) The conductivity of aluminium is 60% that of copper. The smaller conductivity of aluminium means that for any particular transmission efficiency, the X-sectional area of conductor must be larger in aluminium than in copper. For the same resistance, the diameter of aluminium conductor is about 126 times the diameter of copper conductor. The increased X-section of aluminium exposes a greater surface to wind pressure and, therefore, supporting towers must be designed for greater transverse strength. This often requires the use of higher towers with consequence of greater sag. (ii) The specific gravity of aluminium (271 gm/cc) is lower than that of copper (89 gm/cc). Therefore, an aluminium conductor has almost one-half the weight of equivalent copper conductor. For this reason, the supporting structures for aluminium need not be made so strong as that of copper conductor.

(iii) Aluminium conductor being light, is liable to greater swings and hence larger cross-arms are required. (iv) Due to lower tensile strength and higher co-efficient of linear expansion of aluminium, the sag is greater in aluminium conductors. Considering the combined properties of cost, conductivity, tensile strength, weight etc., aluminium has an edge over copper. Therefore, it is being widely used as a conductor material. It is particularly profitable to use aluminium for heavy-current transmission where the conductor size is large and its cost forms a major proportion of the total cost of complete installation. The table 2 below show the nominal size of conductors used in industry and their ratings.

Table 2

3. Aluminium Conductor Steel Reinforced (ACSR):

Due to low tensile strength, aluminium conductors produce greater sag. This prohibits their use for larger spans and makes them unsuitable for long distance transmission. In

order to increase the tensile strength, the aluminium conductor is reinforced with a core of galvanised steel wires. The composite conductor thus obtained is known as steel cored aluminium and is abbreviated as A.C.S.R. (aluminium conductor steel reinforced). Steel-cored aluminium conductor consists of central core of galvanised steel wires surrounded by a number of aluminium strands. Usually, diameter of both steel and aluminium wires is the same. The X-section of the two metals are generally in the ratio of 1 : 6 but can be modified to 1 : 4 in order to get more tensile strength for the conductor. Fig. 8.1 shows steel cored aluminium conductor having one steel wire surrounded by six wires of aluminium. The result of this composite conductor is that steel core takes greater percentage of mechanical strength while aluminium strands carry the bulk of current. The steel cored aluminium conductors have the following advantages: (i) The reinforcement with steel increases the tensile strength but at the same time keeps the composite conductor light. Therefore, steel cored aluminium conductors will produce smaller sag and hence longer spans can be used. (ii) Due to smaller sag with steel cored aluminium conductors, towers of smaller heights can be used.

The table 3 below show the nominal size of conductors used in industry and their ratings.

Table 3

4. Cadmium Copper:
The conductor material now being employed in certain cases is copper alloyed with cadmium. An addition of 1% or 2% cadmium to copper increases the tensile strength by about 50% and the conductivity is only reduced by 15% below that of pure copper. Therefore, cadmium copper conductor can be useful for exceptionally long spans. However, due to high cost of cadmium, such conductors will be economical only for lines of small X-section i.e., where the cost of conductor material is comparatively small compared with the cost of supports.

Nominal Size For Economic Transmission:

While larger conductors may lose less energy due to lower electrical resistance, they are more costly than smaller conductors.

An optimization rule called Kelvin's Law It states that the optimum size of conductor for a line is found when the cost of the energy wasted in the conductor is equal to the annual interest paid on that portion of the line construction cost due to the size of the conductors. The optimization problem is made more complex by additional factors such as varying annual load, varying cost of installation, and the discrete sizes of cable that are commonly made.

Bibliography:
1. V.K Mehta, Principles of Power Systems, Ch No: 08 Overhead Transmission Lines 2. Stevenson & Grainger, Power System Analysis, McGraw Hill Series 3. Steven W. Blume, Electrical Power System Basics, Chapter no: 03, Wiley Interscience 4. Turan Gonen, Electrical Power Transmission System Engineering; Anaylysis and Design, John Wiley & Sons 5. Westinghouse Electric & Manufacturing Company, Electrical Transmission and Distribution Reference Book, Westinghouse Company 6. Jerry C. Whitaker, AC Power Systems Handbook, 3rd Edition CRC Press 7. Grigsby, Basics of Electric Energy System Theory, CRC Press LLC 2000