Lectures 5, 6: The verb phrase 3.1.

The structure of the verb phrase The typical structure of the verb phrase consists of a main verb preceded optionally by a maximum of four auxiliary verbs. The four belong to different subclasses of auxiliaries. auxiliary 1 auxiliary 2 auxiliary auxiliary ! main verb

"t is very unusual for all four auxiliaries to appear in one verb phrase, but if t#o or more auxiliaries co$occur they must appear in the se%uence indicated in the diagram, e.g. 1& , 1&2&!, 2& . 3.1.1. The sequence of auxiliaries "f #e choose to use auxiliaries, they must appear in the follo#ing se%uence: '1( modal auxiliary, such as can, may, will '2( perfect auxiliary have ' ( progressive auxiliary be '!( passive auxiliary be These four uses of the auxiliaries specify the form of the verb that follo#s: '1( modal, follo#ed by base form: may phone '2( perfect have, follo#ed by -ed participle: have phoned ' ( progressive be, follo#ed by -ing participle: was phoning '!( passive be, follo#ed by -ed participle: was phoned )aps in the se%uence are of course normal: '1( *+' (: #ill be phoning ,modal *+progressive'2( *+'!(: has been phoned ,perfect *+passive'2( *+' (: has been phoning ,perfect *+progressive'1( *+'!(: can be phoned ,modal *+passiveThe se%uence does not ta.e account of the dummy operator do, #hich is introduced #hen there #ould other#ise not be an auxiliary in the verb phrase. "n this function, do is therefore the only auxiliary present. "t is follo#ed by the base form: " did phone. Did you phone/ " did not phone. 0artha phoned, and " did too. There are also phrasal auxiliaries, #hich are intermediate bet#een auxiliaries and main verbs. 1ere are some examples: 2andra is going to apply for the 3ob. " had better eat no#. 0y parents are about to leave. 4e have got to spea. to her. 1e may be able to help us. 5ennifer is supposed to phone us today. 6nly the first #ord in a phrasal auxiliary is a true auxiliary, since only that #ord functions as an operator, for example in forming %uestions: Is 2andra going to apply for the 3ob/ 1

Had " better eat no#/ Is 5ennifer supposed to phone us today/ The phrasal auxiliaries may come together to ma.e a long string of verbs: 4e seem to be going to have to keep on paying the full fee. They are likely to be about to manage to start #or.ing on our pro3ect. 3.1.2. Main verbs 7egular main verbs have four forms that are constructed in this #ay: 1. base form: The base form is #hat #e find in dictionary entries: laugh, mention, play. 2. -s form: The -s form adds to the base form an ending in -s: laughs, mentions, plays. . -ing participle: The -ing participle adds to the base form an ending in -ing: laughing, mentioning, playing. !. -ed form ,past or -ed participle-: The -ed form adds to the base form an ending in -ed: laughed, mentioned, played. The addition of the endings involves some rules of pronunciation and spelling that depend on ho# the base form ends. 8or example, the -ed ending is pronounced as a separate syllable in loaded but not in laughed9 the final consonant of the base form is doubled in the spelling of plotted but not in the spelling of revolted. 2imilarly, the -s ending is pronounced as a separate syllable and spelled -es in passes. The -ed form represents t#o distinct functions that are differentiated in the forms of some irregular verbs. :ontrast the one form for laugh in the follo#ing sets of sentences #ith the t#o forms of give and speak: past 2he laughed at us. 2he gave us a smile. 2he spoke to us. -ed participle 2he has laughed at us. 2he has given us a smile. 2he has spoken to us. "rregular main verbs have either fe#er or more forms than regular main verbs. 8or example, put has only three forms: put, puts, putting. Put serves as the base form and also as the -ed form in the functions of the past and of the -ed participle: base form They al#ays put the cat out at night. -ed form: past They put the cat out last night. -ed form: -ed participle They have put the cat out. The irregular verb be has the most forms, eight in all: base form be present am, is, are past was, were -ing participle being -ed participle been 3.2. Tense, person, and number The first or only verb in the verb phrase is mar.ed for tense, person, and number. Time is a basic concept that exists independently of human language. Tense, on the other hand, is the linguistic expression of time relations reali;ed by verb forms. "t is a #ay of expressing events as occurring at 2

points situated along the linear flo# of time. The normal point of reference is the moment of spea.ing or the speech time. The moment of spea.ing is the point versus #hich some events are anterior, i.e. they ta.e place before the moment of speech, they are recollected, posterior to the moment of speech, i.e. they are anticipated and therefore #ill ta.e place after the moment of spea.ing, #hile other events are simply simultaneous #ith the moment of speech, i.e. they happen at the same time. Tense distinctions are largely dependent on #hether the verb is stative or dynamic. 2tative verbs refer to a state of affairs, #hile dynamic verbs refer to a se%uence of separate events, as in: I know nothing about him. (stative verb) I wrote two letters yesterday. (dynamic) 0any verbs ho#ever lend themselves to both interpretations: The children have nice clothes. (stative) They have dinner at the restaurant. (dynamic) 2tative verbs fall into several semantic groups: stative verbs examples verbs of relation be belong contain depend have own resemble seem sound verbs of cognition believe know reali!e think understand verbs of attitude disagrees dislike like want wish verbs of involuntary perception "eel hear see smell taste verbs of bodily sensation ache "eel hurt itch tickle <nglish verbs are inflected only for t#o tenses: present simple and past simple. :onse%uently, in <nglish there are t#o tense forms: present and past. 3.2.1. xpressing future time "f verbs have only t#o tenses $ present and past $ ho# then do #e refer to future time/ There are only t#o tenses in the sense that these are the t#o distinctions that #e ma.e through the forms of the verbs. 1o#ever, there are various #ays of expressing future time. 6ne #ay is through the simple present tense: 0y sister arrives tomorro#. The most common #ay is by combining will ,or the contraction =ll - #ith the base form: 0y sister will arrive tomorro#. "=ll talk to you next #ee.. 0any spea.ers in <ngland also use shall instead of will #hen the sub3ect is I or we: " shall make a note of your re%uest. T#o other common #ays are the use of be going to and the present progressive: "#m going to study during the vacation. $e#re playing your team next #ee.. There are three persons: first person ,the person or persons spea.ing or #riting-, second person ,the person or persons addressed-, and third person ,others-. There are t#o numbers: singular and plural. 8or all verbs except be, there are t#o forms for the present: the -s form and the base form. The -s form is used for the third person singular, that is #ith he, she, it, and singular noun phrases as sub3ect: 1e plays football every day. The road seems narro#er.

The base form is used for all other sub3ects: I, you, we, they, and plural noun phrases as sub3ect: " play football every day. The roads seem narro#er. %e has three forms for the present tense, #hich are distinct from the base form be: am > first person singular is > third person singular are > others 8or all verbs except be, there is only one past form: 1e ,or They- played football yesterday. The road ,or roads- seemed narro#er. %e has t#o forms for the past: was > first and third person singular were > others The t#o tenses are related to distinctions in time, but they do not correspond precisely to the difference bet#een present and past in the real #orld. The present tense generally refers to a time that includes the time of spea.ing, but usually extends bac.#ard and for#ard in time: Three and five make eight. 4e live in 2ydney. " work in the steel industry. They are my neighbours. 2ometimes, the present refers to an event that is simultaneous #ith the time of spea.ing: 1ere comes your sister. " nominate 7obert. 3.3. !spect 4hile the category of tense mar.s the order of events in time, the category of aspect mar.s the temporal contour of events, i.e. their duration and their being accomplished or not. Thus, aspect is a grammatical category referring to the #ay that the time of a situation is vie#ed by the spea.er or #riter. 8ormally, the aspect is indicated by a combination of auxiliary and verb form. Three aspectual distinctions are traditionally identified in <nglish: simple, progressive and perfective. ?spect al#ays combines #ith tense. 3.3.1. The simple aspect The simple aspect in <nglish is the one #e choose #henever #e ma.e an ob3ective, straightfor#ard presentation of a situation. 6f the three aspectual contrasts of <nglish, the simple aspect is the unmar.ed one ,in contrast, the perfect is mar.ed by the auxiliary have & past participle, #hile the progressive aspect is mar.ed by some form of be & ing$participle of the lexical verb-. @y combining #ith tense, the simple aspect generates such forms as the present tense and the past tense 3.3.2. The progressive aspect <nglish has a progressive aspect reali;ed by means of the auxiliary be and the $ing participle. The progressive aspect combines #ith both present and past tenses and also #ith the perfect, #ith modals, and modal e%uivalents and #ith the passive: progressive forms example present & progressive They are building a house. past & progressive They were building a cottage. perfect & progressive The bird has been building a nest. modal & progressive He may be building a shelter. present & progressive & passive ' shelter is being built now. past & progressive & passive ' "actory was being built then. !

The fundamental function of the progressive aspect is to indicate a dynamic action in the process of happening, i.e. in progress: Don#t knock ( he may be sleeping. )ast night at * p.m. I was eating dinner. This time tomorrow Ill be flying to +ew ,ork. Ive been looking "or my glasses everywhere but I haven#t "ound them. "n addition, it may imply that the situation has limited duration and is not necessarily complete ,simple tenses are generally used to tal. about permanent situations or completed actions-: -ohn is working in the a"ternoon this month. ,temporary situation-ohn (usually) works in the morning. ,permanent situation@ecause of its dynamic character, the progressive aspect is compatible #ith dynamic verbs either durative ,blo#, #or., ripen- or punctual ,.noc.-: ' gale o" wind "rom the west is blowing gently. .he was writing articles "or a women#s maga!ine at the time. 'pples are ripening in the sun. 8or the same reason, the progressive is incompatible #ith the so$called Astative verbs=. 2tative verbs are typically used in the simple aspect. 6ne can say I like your co""ee, but not BI am liking your co""ee. 4hen stative verbs are used in the progressive aspect, their meaning is altered. Cerbs of cognition and relation ta.e on dynamic meanings, indicate temporary behavior or an attitude on the part of the spea.er. Cerbs of perception combine #ith the progressive to refer to deliberate actions rather than involuntary perception. :ompare the progressive and the non$progressive uses of certain verbs: simple aspect progressive aspect -ane is at school.(.he is a pupil) -ane is being rude today. ,temporary attitudeHow much does/did this book cost0 1ggs are costing more these days. ,temporary situationI expect she#ll come later. (I believe) Im expecting a letter "orm her. ,"=m #aiting to receiveI think he is a kind man. (It is my opinion) I#m thinking o" my grandmother. I didnt consider it wise to inter"ere. (my opinion) I was considering buying a new house at the time. ," #as
thin.ing of-

He likes "resh milk. ---I see a bird2 ,involuntary use of sensesI heard music. ,involuntary use of sensesI smell gas. It smells bad. ,involuntary use of senses-

I am seeing the boss tomorrow. ,meet,ou will be hearing "rom him. ,get ne#s.he is smelling a rose. ,voluntary, deliberate action-

3.3.3. The perfective aspect The basic meaning of the perfect aspect is anteriority of the event in relation to another moment ,the speech time or a past time-. The perfect aspect is al#ays signaled by the auxiliary verb have follo#ed by the past participle of the lexical verb. @y combining #ith tense, perfective aspect results in t#o simple tenses: Dresent Derfect and Dast Derfect. The auxiliary has t#o present tense forms ,has, have- and one past form ,had-. 8or example, the present perfect of close is has closed or have closed and the past perfect is had closed: " have closed the shop for the day. The shop has closed for the day. The police had closed the shop months ago. 5

The present perfect refers to a situation set in some indefinite period that leads to the present. The situation may be a state of affairs that extends to the present: They have been unhappy for a long time. " have lived here since last summer. 4e have al#ays liked them. 6r it may be an event or set of events that is vie#ed as possibly recurring: 4e have discussed your problems. " have phoned him every day since he fell ill. 1e has read only ne#spapers until no#. The past perfect refers to a situation earlier than another situation set in the past: 4e had heard a lot about her before #e ever met her. "n many contexts, the present perfect and the past perfect can be replaced by the past. The progressive combines a form of the auxiliary be #ith the -ing participle. The present progressive and the past progressive are illustrated belo#: Eou are neglecting your #or.. " am resting 3ust no#. The children were "ighting all morning. 4e were waiting for you in the lobby. The progressive indicates that the situation is in progress. "t may therefore also imply that it lasts for only a limited period and that it is not ended. :ontrast I read a novel last night ,#hich implies that " finished it#ith I was reading a novel last night. 3.". #oice Cerbs have t#o voices: active and passive. The active is the voice that is used most commonly. The active and passive have different verb phrases in that the passive has an additional auxiliary: a form of the auxiliary be follo#ed by an -ed participle. 1ere are examples of corresponding active and passive verb phrases: !ctive $assive loves is loved sold #as sold is fighting is being fought has reconstructed has been reconstructed #ill proclaim #ill be proclaimed may have asserted may have been asserted should be purifying should be being purified The passive is a #ay of phrasing the sentence so that the sub3ect does not refer to the person or thing responsible ,directly or indirectly- for the action. The passive therefore differs from the corresponding active not only in the forms of the verb phrases but also in the positions of certain noun phrases. The direct ob3ect ,d6- or the indirect ob3ect ,i6- of the active sentence becomes the sub3ect ,2- of the corresponding passive sentence, and the sub3ect ,if retained- appears after the verb in a by$phrase: 6

!ctive: ' team o" detectives ,2- is investigating the crime ,d6$assive: The crime ,2- is being investigated by a team o" detectives. !ctive: The new management ,2- has offered employees ,i6- a better deal. $assive: 1mployees ,2- have been offered a better deal by the new management. !ctive: Three bullets ,2- penetrated his heart ,d6-. $assive: His heart ,2- #as penetrated by three bullets. !ctive: .cientists ,2- predicted the location, e3tent, and strength o" the earth4uake ,d6- #ith unprecedented accuracy. $assive: The location, e3tent, and strength o" the earth4uake ,2- #ere predicted by scientists #ith unprecedented accuracy. )enerally, the passive sentence does not contain the by$phrase: @ritain=s reservations on these points #ere duly noted. 0ost of the buildings #ere destroyed. The decision has already been ta.en. The most common reason for using the passive is to avoid referring to the person performing the action. That may be because the identity of the person is not .no#n or because it is felt to be unnecessary to identify the person ,perhaps because it is irrelevant or obvious- or it is felt to be tactless to do so: 1e was immediately admitted to the hospital. The refrigerator door has not been properly closed. 2ome -ed participle forms may be used as ad3ectives. "n the follo#ing sentences the -ed forms are ad3ectives, not passive participles: 2he #as annoyed #ith them. " am worried about <d#ard. 0y teachers are pleased #ith my progress. These sentences loo. li.e passive sentences, but the -ed #ords are ad3ectives if one or more of these possibilities apply: 1. if they can be modified by very ,for example, very annoyed-9 2. if they can occur #ith a lin.ing verb other than be ,for example, became worried-9 . if they can be lin.ed #ith another ad3ective ,for example, angry and worried-. The -ed participle form is obviously an ad3ective in 5any seats were unsold when I rang the ticket o""ice because there is no verb unsell. 3.%. &inite and non'finite verb phrases Cerb phrases are either finite or non'finite. ? finite verb is a verb that carries a contrast in tense bet#een present and past, and may also be mar.ed for person and number. "n a finite verb phrase the first or only verb is finite, and the other verbs ,if any- are non$finite. "n a non$finite verb phrase all the verbs are non$finite. Play and played are finite verbs in these sentences: '1( 4e play football every day. '2( 4e played in a football match last #ee.. Play is in the present tense in '1( and played is in the past tense in '2(. "n ' ( plays is the third person singular form of the present: ' ( 2he plays hoc.ey. 6n the other hand, in '!( will is the finite verb ,the past of will is would-, #hereas play is non$finite: F

'!( 4e will play football later today. 2imilarly, in '5( have is the finite verb and played is non$finite: '5( 4e have played football every day this #ee.. ?ll the verb phrases in '1(>'5( are finite verb phrases because they begin #ith a finite verb. The follo#ing are the non$finite verb forms: 1. the infinitive, often introduced by to: (to) phone 2. the -ing participle: phoning . the -ed participle: phoned "f one of these forms is the first or only verb in the verb phrase, the phrase is a non$finite verb phrase: 1e #as afraid to predict the next day=s #eather. Having stayed in their house, " can remember ho# fre%uently they %uarrelled. The ne# system, described in a recent report, provides criteria for evaluating scientific priorities. The infinitive has the base form. "t is the infinitive that is used after modals and after the dummy operator do: " may see you later. " may be there later. " did tell them. Gon$finite verb phrases normally do not occur as the verb phrase of an independent sentence. :ontrast: '6( 1is 3ob #as to predict the next day=s #eather. 'F( 1e predicted the next day=s #eather. The verb of the sentence in '6( is was, not the infinitive to predict ,cf. To predict the ne3t day#s weather was his 6ob-. 3.(. Mood 0ood is a grammatical category that signals the relationship of the verb #ith reality and intent. "n traditional terms, finite verb phrases have four moods: 1. indicative 2. imperative . conditional !. sub)unctive 3.(.1. *ndicative The indicative is the most common one and is used in factual, ob3ective statements. The spea.er asserts the sentence as being true ,factual-. ? verb in the indicative varies for tense and aspect: +ick picks up the bo3es. The shepherd fetched the stick. Helen has closed the window. 7ows were grazing beside the river. The indicative is the usual mood in declarative, interrogative, and exclamative sentences: 7oger has known me for a long time. 1o# #ell does 7osalind play/ 4hat a heavy coat you are wearingH 3.(.2. *mperative I

The imperative has the base form. "t is used chiefly as a directive to re%uest action: Go away2 -ohn give me the book please2 Please don't move until you8ve "inished2 ?n imperative sentence typically contains no grammatical sub3ect, but the implied sub3ect is Ayou=. 2ometimes a sub3ect may be included, particularly in negative imperatives #hich are formed #ith the auxiliary verb do: Don't you dare touch that switch. Don8t you eat it. Don8t you touch that butter.

+p to here , the corresponding exercises at the end of the lecture

3.(.3. -onditional The conditional mood is manifested in independent clauses by means of the modal auxiliary would added to the bare infinitive of the main verb: -ohn would drink. I would eat but I8m not hungry. 9$hat would you like to do now0# I#d like to go swimming.# The conditional mood is more fre%uently used to express uncertainty, particularly in conditional sentences. The verb in the main clause is in the present conditional ,would , verb-, #hile the verb in the subordinate clause ,introduced by i" unless in case- is in the sub3unctive mood: I would buy a huge house i" I had a lot o" money.
present conditional sub3unctive

I would talk to her i" I were you.

The perfect conditional ,would + have + -en- sho#s ho# the past could have been different but #as not: I would have come i" you had rung me. (:I did not come;)
perfect conditional past sub3unctive

3.(.". .ub)unctive The sub3unctive is rare in main clauses in present$day <nglish, and survives in some set formulas #hose sub3unctive meaning is either concession or a #ish: "ar be it "rom me so be it suffice it to say: <ar be it "rom me to inter"ere with your arrangements. ome what may I#ll help you. !e that as it may we#ll stick to our plan. )ong live the =ueen2 >od forgive you2 urse this dog2 The sub3unctive is mostly used in subordinate clauses to express contrary$to$fact actions. The sub3unctive mood has synthetic and analytical forms. The .ynthetic .ub)unctive is identical in form #ith the past simple and the past perfect: It#s time you got down to business. present sub3unctive He behaves as i" he owned the place. I wish you had brought your sister with you. I" only you had asked someone#s advice2
past sub3unctive

%e is the only verb #hich has a special present sub3unctive form ,were-: I wish I were younger. I" he were to leave he wouldn#t hesitate to tell us. The present sub3unctive expresses #ishes, possibility, uncertainty present unreality, i.e. actions contrary to present fact: after It#s time It#s time we went home. after the verb wish I wish I had a brother. in conditional clauses I" I had time I would go on a trip. I" I had had time I would have gone on a trip. 1K

in concessive clauses in comparative clauses

1ven though he were present I would not change my mind. He treats her as i" she were a child. He treated her as i" she had been a child.

The analytical ,or periphrastic- sub)unctive expresses unreality by means of a variety of modal auxiliaries & infinitive: shall " should , infinitive They decided that nobody shall be admitted without a ticket. It is not necessary that every girl should be an actress. may" might , infinitive #ay you be happy in the li"e you have chosen2 $e put the milk on the shel" "or "ear the cat might get at it. would , infinitive I wish you would forget it. .he wishes her husband would stop smoking The analytical sub3unctive should , infinitive is used after ad3ectives, verbs, and nouns that express a #ish, a suggestion, a desire, etc.: after It is/was & ad3ective ,crucial necessary essential natural surprising odd absurd strange urgent) It is essential that they should know the truth. It is ama!ing that they should win the race. after the verbs: ask command insist order propose recommend re4uire suggest He proposed that we should postpone our meeting. after the nouns: suggestion proposal idea wish recommendation desire 5y desire is / was that he should leave o"" his work and go on a holiday. purpose clauses I spoke slowly so that everybody should understand the rules. negative purpose clauses, after lest in expressions of fear The road was icy and the old woman was terri"ied lest she should slip and "all. conditional clauses ,the action is unli.ely to occurI" the phone should ring please say that I#ll be back at noon. The analytical sub3unctive may " might , infinitive is used in the follo#ing contexts: after the verbs: order re4uest desire He desired that the boy might be le"t behind under his care. after expressions of fear I#m a"raid they may misunderstand my intentions. I was a"raid that they might misunderstand my intentions. clauses of purpose .he gave me the key so that I might open the door. 11

clauses of concession However hard he may try he will never win the tournament. 3./. Modality 0odality is a category of the verb by #hich spea.ers express their evaluation or 3udgment of the situations to #hich they refer in their statements. 0odality typically involves such notions as possibility probability necessity volition obligation and permission. The forms #hich reali;e these concepts are the modal auxiliaries: can may must should would ought to, etc. 2ome modals have pairs ,can-could may-might will-would shall-should- others are single ,must dare need-. 3./.1. Ma)or syntactic properties of the modal verbs a. 0odals do not have non$finite forms ,infinitive or participles-: ?to can ?canning ? to must ?musting b. 0odals have no agreement #ith the sub3ect in the rd person singular. I can speak 1nglish. vs. I speak 1nglish. He can speak 1nglish. vs. He speaks 1nglish. c. 0odal verbs are inverted #ith the sub3ect to form %uestions , yes-no %uestion, wh$%uestion, tag %uestion-: ould you tell me the truth0 $hat could you tell me0 ,ou could tell me the truth couldnt you0 They ought not to be here ought they0 d. The modal paraphrases form the interrogative by means of inversion #ith the sub3ect: He is able to "ly a plane. $s he able to "ly a plane0 He was allowed to go to the party. %as he allowed to go to the party0 e. 0odals cannot co$occur #ith each other but the periphrastic e%uivalents, such as be able to, be permitted, be li.ely, be necessary, etc., can: ?I will can go. I might be able to get there in time. f. 0odal verbs are not mar.ed for tense and aspect. It may / might rain tomorrow. g. "nstead, modal verbs combine #ith a lexical verb in: the simple infinitive to express a modali;ed event at present: I can"could drive a car ride a motorbike and sail a boat. He should visit his parents more o"ten. the progressive infinitive ,be + verb -ing- to sho# an action in progress at present: .he must be reading a book. the perfect infinitive ,have + verb -en- to indicate reference to the past: .he could have phoned her "riend but she didn#t. the perfect progressive infinitive ,have + been + verb -ing- to suggest an activity in progress in the past: .he may have been reading a book when you phoned her. "n passive sentences modal verbs combine #ith the simple passive infinitive , be + verb -en- to refer to an event in the present and #ith the perfect passive infinitive , have + been + verb -en- to indicate an event in the past: 12

active passive

They could paint the house be"ore they sell it. The house could be painted be"ore they sell it. (modal & be & verb (en) active They could have painted the house be"ore they sold it. passive The house could have been painted be"ore they sold it. (modal & have & been & verb (en) "n reported speech, could would might should replace the corresponding can will may and shall: 9I can come# she said. direct speech .he said she could come. reported speech h. The main modal verbs have corresponding modal paraphrases #hich can be used in all tenses: can ( be able to may - be permitted to be allowed to must ( have to: can I am/ was/ will be able to ski. may 'm/ was/ will I be permitted to come in0 must. ,ou have to/ had to/will have to study. Have to is the only modal paraphrase that forms the interrogative and the negative #ith the auxiliary do: Do $ have to "inish the book by ne3t month0 I dont have to "inish the book by ne3t month. Did I have to be in time "or school0 I didnt have to be in time "or school. an & could physical or mental ability in the present in the past ob3ective possibility permission as. for permission negative deduction ,impossibility of a present event a past event-

He can ride a wild horse. ,physical abilityHe could read when he was "ive. ,mental abilityDon#t light a match in this chemical "actory. It can cause an e3plosion. ,ou can borrow my bike. an" ould I use your phone0 ,collo%uial instead of may,ou#ve 6ust had your dinner. ,ou cant be hungry. .he cant be typing a letter now. .he can#t type. He couldnt have heard the news on the radio because he was sleeping then.

a. Cerbs of physical perception are not used in the progressive form. They are usually combined #ith the modal verb can to indicate a state at present: He is walking along the shore now. $hat can he see hear "eel now0 He lives in a small village on the shore. $hat does he see hear "eel every day0 b. 4hen an individual event #as successfully performed in the past, be able to is used instead of could: Though the mountaineer was very tired he was able to get to the top. ,Ahe managed to get to the top=He could swim so he was able to reach the shore. ,Ahe succeeded in reaching the shore=c. To stress that a past ability no longer exists, #e use the construction used to be able to: 97an you play chess %etty0# 9I used to be able to play it but now I#ve "orgotten how to.# I used to be able to make clay pots on a wheel. 1

$here artists used to be able to put on per"ormances in their lo"t spaces now high-end restaurants want to move in. #ay & might The pair may & might is mainly used to express possibility and permission: $ossibility in the present He may be on the ne3t bus. ,& present infinitiveHe might not know that we are waiting "or him. ,a more remote possibilityin the past ,& past infinitivegrant or refuse formal permission re%uest permission politely The dog isn#t here. He may have taken it with him. His letter might have given him the idea. 7andidates may (not) bring te3tbooks into the e3amination room. #ay I borrow your pen please0 #ight I borrow your pen please0 ,greater uncertainty about the ans#er-

5ay expressing permission can be replaced by the modal paraphrases: be allowed to or be permitted

to: ,ou may not touch the e3hibits in a museum. ,ou are not allowed to touch the e3hibits. The negative may not ,collo%uially can#t- expresses a refusal of permission and is therefore less strong than must not #hich expresses prohibition: ,ou may not park here. ,refusal of permission,ou must not park here. ,prohibition,ou must not smoke here. #ust #ust is chiefly used to express obligation and logical necessity: obligation imposed by the spea.er ,ou must be back by @A o#clock. obligation deriving from rulesLregulations logical necessity (deduction) Passengers must "asten their seat belts. He le"t two hours ago. He must be at home now.

?bsence of obligation at present is expressed by needn#t and in the past by didn#t need to: 9,ou neednt wait "or me.# .he didnt need to call an ambulance. Her uncle is a doctor. 4hen using need in %uestions the spea.er hopes for a negative ans#er: 9'eed he climb the apple tree0# 9'o he neednt. There are a lot o" apples in the basket.# +eedn#t & perfect infinitive ,have & verb -en- is used exclusively to refer to an action #hich too. place in the past but #as unnecessary: I translated the message not knowing that everybody here understood 1nglish. I neednt have translated the message. The modal must can be used #ith reference to an action in the present or possibly in the future. 4hen specific reference has to be made to other times or aspects, the modal paraphrase have to is used. "t expresses habitual obligation or obligation imposed by others ,external obligation-: I will have to "inish the book by ne3t month. The children were in a summer camp. They had to chop "irewood "etch water and cook meals themselves. 1!

 The negative and interrogative of have to are formed #ith do: $hy did he have to leave home so early0 The pupils didnt have to go to school on .aturday. %ill & would The pair will ( would has t#o ma3or functions: to express predictability and volition: meaning will would $redictability concerning a future event regarding habitual, typical behavior volition #ea. volition ,#illingnessstrong volition ,insistence, obstinacyIt will rain during the night. %oys will be boys. ' dog will obey his master. I will marry her tomorrow i" she will have me. He will go swimming in dangerous waters. They said it would rain during the night. In spring birds would return to their nests. ,typical behavior in the pastHe said he would marry her right away i" she would have him. .he wouldn't change it even though she knew it was wrong.

(hall & should The modal verb shall expresses volition #hile should indicates obligation and logical necessity: meaning shall the spea.er=s volition ,imposed
on 2nd,
rd

pers. sub3ects-

0ea1 volition ,#illingnessstrong volition ,insistence-

,ou shall stay with us as long as you like. ,A" am #illing to have you here.=,ou shall obey my orders. ,A" insist that you obey my orders.=-

"n its sense of obligation and logical necessity, should is #ea.er than must. Bught to can be used as an alternative to should in both senses: Modality expressed should" ought to #ust 2bligation imposed by the He should/ ought to pay "or the He must pay "or the broken spea.er broken window. window. logical necessity Bur guests should / ought to be home Bur guests must be at home now. by now. ," am not sure, they might ," am sure. They have a fast car.have had a brea.do#n0odal verbs fulfill various speech acts in conversation: speech acts examples commands mild command: ,ou can turn the TC o"" now Danny. strong command: requests ,polite,ou might post these letters "or me. ,ou will stay here until I come back. an / ould / %ill / $ould you lend me your pen please/ 15

,irritated*nvitations ,polite,casual, friendlysuggestions, advice ,giving advice,emphatic advice,expecting adviceoffers desire reproach be#ilderment

,ou might tell me what she said. ould / %ill you have dinner with us on .unday0 ,ou must come and see me some time. ant / ouldnt you talk with your wi"e "irst0 ,ou must see that "ilm. It#s very good. (hall we see a "ilm tonight0 #ay I o""er you some cake0 (hall I help you0 I could cry "or 6oy2 ,ou might have warned us that the bull was dangerous. How could my daughter have been involved in all this0

3.3. Multi'0ord verbs Multi'0ord verbs are combinations of a verb and one or more other #ords. They are called multi$#ord verbs because in certain respects they behave as a single verb. The most fre%uent types of multi$#ord verbs consist of a verb follo#ed by one or more particles ,#ords that do not change their form- such as at, away, by, and "or. The four ma3or types of these combinations are: 1. phrasal verbs, e.g. give in, blow up 2. prepositional verbs, e.g. look a"ter, approve o" . phrasal'prepositional verbs, e.g. look down on, catch up with !. idiom verb & GD & preposition take a look at verb & GD & DD take into account verb & verb make do There are sometimes one$#ord verbs that are similar in meaning to the multi#ord verbs. The one$#ord verbs are more formal: phrasal verb give in D surrender prepositional verb look a"ter M tend phrasal prepositional verb put up with M tolerate $hrasal verbs and prepositional verbs are a combination of a verb and one particle, #hereas phrasal' prepositional verbs have t#o particles. ? prepositional verb re%uires an ob3ect to complete the sentence: '1( Deter is looking a"ter his elderly parents. ? transitive phrasal verb also re%uires an ob3ect: '2( ?ll the students have handed in their essays. ?n intransitive phrasal verb does not re%uire an ob3ect: ' ( " give up.

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4e can distinguish transitive phrasal verbs from prepositional verbs by testing #hether the particle can come before the ob3ect as #ell as after the ob3ect. The particle of a phrasal verb can ta.e either position because it is an adverb and li.e most adverbs it is not confined to one position. '1a( ?ll the students have handed in their essays. '2b( ?ll the students have handed their essays in. "f the ob3ect is a personal pronoun, ho#ever, the particle in a phrasal verb normally must come after the ob3ect: '2c( ?ll the students have handed them in. 6n the other hand, the particle of a prepositional verb is a preposition and must al#ays come before the ob3ect, as in '1( above and in '1a(: '1a( Deter is looking a"ter them. 8urther examples of intransitive phrasal verbs are in '!(>'6( and transitive phrasal verbs in 'F(>'J(: '!( The discussions went on for a long time. '5( They stood up #hen she entered the room. '6( The excitement has died down. 'F( " can=t make out your hand#riting. 'Fa( " can=t make your hand#riting out. 'I( 4e should put o"" the decision until the next meeting. 'Ia( 4e should put the decision o"" until the next meeting. 'J( :ornelia has finally brought out her ne# boo.. 'Ja( :ornelia has finally brought her ne# boo. out. There are three types of prepositional verbs. 1. The first type is follo#ed by a prepositional ob)ect, #hich differs from direct and indirect ob3ects in that a preposition introduces it: '1K( 0y aunt is looking a"ter my brothers. '11( The principal called "or references. '12( 1eavy smo.ing leads to cancer. Li.e other ob3ects, prepositional ob3ects can be %uestioned by who or what: '1Ka( $ho is your aunt loo.ing after/ > 5y brothers. '12a( $hat does heavy smo.ing lead to/ > 7ancer. ?nd they can often be made the sub3ect of a corresponding passive sentence: '11a( Ee"erences #ere called for. 2. The second type of prepositional verb has t#o ob3ects: a direct ob3ect and a prepositional ob3ect. The direct ob3ect comes before the particle, and the prepositional ob3ect follo#s the particle: '1 ( 1e blamed the accident on the #eather. '1!( Eou may order a drin. "or me. '15( " have e3plained the procedure to the children. '16( They #ere making fun o" you. '1F( " have 3ust caught sight o" them. "n some cases the direct ob3ect is part of an idiomatic unit, as in make "un o" '16( and catch sight o" '1F(. . The third type of prepositional verb also has t#o ob3ects, but the first is an indirect ob3ect: They told us about your success. 2he "orgave me "or my rude remar.. " congratulated her on her promotion. 1F

The indirect ob3ect refers to a person #ho typically has the recipient role. The preposition in all three types of prepositional verbs ordinarily cannot be moved from its position. @ut if the style is formal, in certain structures such as %uestions and relative clauses it may move #ith the ob3ect to the front. 8or example, the prepositional ob3ect in '1 ( is normally %uestioned li.e this: '1 a( 4hat did he blame the accident on/ @ut #e could also place on in front, in a more formal style: '1 b( Bn #hat did he blame the accident/ 8inally, there are t#o types of phrasal$prepositional verbs, #hich have t#o particles ,an adverb follo#ed by a preposition-. 1. The first type has 3ust the prepositional ob3ect: " have been catching up on my reading. They look down on their neighbours. 2. The second type has a direct ob3ect and a prepositional ob3ect: " have put his problem down to inexperience. 4e put him up for election. "n short, prepositional verbs are different from phrasal verbs in that: a- a preposition cannot be usually placed after the 6b3ect, #hereas the adverbial particle of phrasal verbs can generally precede or follo# the 6b3ect: I rely on 5ary. ?I rely 5ary on. prepositional verb He put on his hat. He put his hat on. phrasal verb b- a pronoun follo#s a preposition but precedes the adverbial particle of a phrasal verbs: I rely on her. prepositional verb He put it on. phrasal verb c- the preposition can be fronted in wh$%uestions, #hile the particle cannot: $hom do you rely on0 )n whom do you rely0 $hat did he put on0 ?)n what did he put0 d- an adverb can be placed bet#een the verb and the follo#ing preposition but not bet#een a verb and its particle: I rely entirely on her. ?He put *uickly on his hat. *dioms 8ixed combinations of verb plus prepositional phrase occasionally form idiomatic units, or idioms. 2ome of them can be replaced by simple lexical verbs: bear in mind - Aremember= give sb.the cold shoulder - Are3ect= give sb. the creeps - Afrighten= have second thoughts - Achange one=s opinion= have green "ingers - Abe good at gardening=, keep/lose one#s head $ Aact calmly=, etc.F It8s important to bear in mind two things. That house gives me the creeps. ,ou8re not having second thoughts are you0 This idiomatic category may include combinations of t#o verbs such as make do (with) - Amanage# let sb go/be - Aallo# sb. to leaveLdo sth.=F $e must make do with the evidence we have. +et him be on the tractor beside me. ? fe# verbs, such as do have make and take combine #ith noun phrases and prepositional phrases to form set verbal expressions: 1I

,ou must take time into account. This isn8t very important. I don8t want to make an issue of it.

1J

5-*.

xercise ".6 Main verbs "dentify #hether the underlined verb in each sentence is the base form, -s form, past form, -ing participle, or -ed participle. 1. :ats #ere held in high esteem among the ancient <gyptians. 2. <gyptian la# protected cats from in3ury and death. . The <gyptians used to embalm the corpses of their cats. !. They put them in mummy cases made of precious materials. 5. <ntire cat cemeteries have been unearthed by archaeologists. 6. The <gyptians #ere impressed by the #ay a cat could survive numerous high falls. F. They originated the belief that the cat possesses nine lives. xercise ".17 Main verbs 2pecify the tense ,present or past- of the underlined verbs in the sentences belo#. 4here necessary, distinguish also the person and number of the verbs. 1. The price of oil has dropped considerably in the past fe# years. 2. Drices dropped a fe# years ago because there #as an oil glut. . Drices continue to drop because oil$producing nations are refining too much crude oil. !. 6D<: #ants prices to rise. xercise ".11 !spect "dentify the italici;ed verbs as present perfect, past perfect, present progressive, past progressive, present perfect progressive, or past perfect progressive. 1. Deople are reali!ing that trying to .eep fit can be dangerous. 2. Ted was celebrating his !Kth birthday last #ee.. . 2he implied that he had become stale. !. 2he believes that she has been en6oying good health by ta.ing large daily doses of Citamin :. 5. They had been making regular visits to an osteopath. 8 xercise ".12 !spect 0a.e up a sentence using each verb belo# in the specified tense and aspect ,or aspects-. 1. en6oy > present perfect 2. "ind > past perfect . re"use > present progressive !. convince > past progressive 5. go > present perfect progressive 6. win > past perfect progressive xercise ".13 #oice "dentify #hether the sentences belo# are active or passive. 1. 2otheby=s is auctioning a highly important collection of anti%uities. 2. "n the late 1JFKs a huge copper cauldron #as discovered in a cellar. . "nside the cauldron #ere hidden a number of very beautiful ob3ects. !. They included silver plates t#o feet across. 5. The plates #ere decorated #ith scenes from hunting and mythology. 6. ?pparently the treasure #as made for 2euso, perhaps a high$ran.ing officer in the 7oman empire. F. Dossibly the family #as based in 1ungary. xercise ".1" #oice 2K

"dentify #hether the underlined #ords are passive participles or ad3ectives. 1. 1er boo. has 3ust been published in Ge# Eor.. 2. " #as ama;ed at Datric.=s indifference. . Their arrival #as certainly unexpected. !. 1is face #as distorted #ith rage. 5. 0any of these pro3ects should not have been built at all. xercise ".1/ The sequence of auxiliaries "dentify #hether the underlined auxiliary is a modal, perfect have, progressive be, or passive be. 1. The employment agency should be contacting you soon about the 3ob. 2. 0y insurance company has been informed about the damage to my roof. . 5eremy has been researching into the optical industry. !. " can be reached at my office number. 8 xercise ".13 The sequence of auxiliaries :onstruct sentences containing the combinations of auxiliaries specified belo#. 1. modal *+progressive be 2. dummy operator do . phrasal auxiliary !. modal *+passive be 8 xercise ".16 The sequence of auxiliaries :onstruct verb phrases as specified belo#. 1. present perfect passive of eat 2. present modal passive of capture . past perfect progressive of destroy !. past progressive passive of see xercise ".27 &inite and non'finite verb phrases 2pecify #hether the underlined verbs are finite or non$finite. 1. The C$2 #as a big step to#ards a spaceliner. 2. "t could reach space. . @ut there #as still a ma3or brea.through to be made: reaching orbit. !. The main obstacle to this #as the amount of fuel re%uired. 5. 0ost of the #or. from the engine #as used to accelerate the C$2 to high speed. 6. To reach orbit an ob3ect must accelerate to a speed of about 1F,5KK miles per hour ,called satellite speed or orbital velocity- in a hori;ontal direction. xercise ".21 Mood 2pecify #hether the underlined verb is indicative, imperative, or sub3unctive. 1. "f " #ere you, " #ould say nothing. 2. ?fter that there #ere no more disturbances. . 1eaven forbid that #e should interfere in the dispute. !. "f it=s not raining, ta.e the dog for a #al.. xercise ".22 Mood <ach sentence contains an expression of re%uesting or recommending follo#ed by a subordinate clause. 8ill the blan. in each subordinate clause #ith an appropriate verb in the present sub3unctive ,the base form of the verb-. 1. " demand that he NNNNNNNNNN at once. 2. 2he is insistent that they NNNNNNNNNN dismissed. . "t is essential that she NNNNNNNNNN every day. 21

!. 4e suggested that your brother NNNNNNNNNN our home this evening. xercise ".23 Multi'0ord verbs 2pecify #hether the verbs in each sentence are phrasal verbs, prepositional verbs, or phrasal$prepositional verbs. 1. " #ill not put up with your insolence any longer. 2. 0ichael opened up the shop before his employees arrived. . Eou must concentrate on your studies if you #ant a good result. !. 0ary came down with the flu last #ee.. 5. 0y la#yer has drawn up the contract. xercise ".3% The structures of phrases "dentify each underlined phrase by #riting the appropriate abbreviation in the brac.ets after it: 9$ ,noun phrase- !d)$ ,ad3ective phrase- #$ ,verb phrase- !dv$ ,adverb phrase- $$ ,prepositional phrase1. The arrest of 0r 0ilosevic , - #as an event of vast political significance , -. 2. The 2avoy theatre #as opened , - in 1II1 by 7ichard O=6yly :arte , - for the purpose of sho#ing )ilbert and 2ullivan operas , -. . The top pri;e at :ruft=s Oog 2ho# , - #ent to a little 4est 1ighland , - terrier. !. 4e stopped , - in front of the sentry box beside a barrier over the road , -. 8 xercise ".3( The structures of phrases :onstruct sentences containing the se%uences of phrases given belo#. 1. prepositional phrase *&+noun phrase &verb phrase &*+adverb phrase 2. adverb phrase& *+noun phrase & *+ verb phrase &*+ad3ective phrase . noun phrase &*+verb phrase& *+noun phrase& *+prepositional phrase & *+ prepositional phrase

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