HNC Material Science Steve Goddard

Assignment 3 – Select Materials and processing for a

specified product

For the first section of my assignment I am going to concentrate on car road wheels.
I will look at the function and material property characteristics of the product and also the
design from which I will suggest the most appropriate processing method and most
suitable material.
I will then identify any possible limitations on the product imposed by the processing.

Function:

The wheel is a device that enables efficient movement of an object across a surface where
there is a force pressing the object to the surface. Common examples are a cart drawn by
a horse, and the rollers on an aircraft flap mechanism.

Alloy wheels are automobile (car, motorcycle and truck) wheels which are made from an
alloy of aluminum or magnesium metals (or sometimes a mixture of both). Alloy wheels
differ from normal steel wheels because of their lighter weight, which improves the
steering and the speed of the car, however some alloy wheels are heavier than the
equivalent size steel wheel. Alloy wheels are also better heat conductors than steel
wheels, improving heat dissipation from the brakes, which reduces the chance of brake
failure in more demanding driving conditions. Alloy wheels are also considered more
visually attractive than hubcaps.

Materials

Steel

Most genuine wheels are made of steel. A stamped inner part is junctioned to a rolled
outer rim and welded together. Many manufacturers use the same production method but
take stronger and/or thicker materials to increase load capacity and they also make them
in sizes better suited to aftermarket tires. The biggest disadvantage of steel is it's weight
or better it's lack of performance. An alloy wheel will accelerate faster and stop quicker as
well as reducing load on shocks and steering linkages.
A steel wheel will also bend much earlier than an alloy wheel. But you can hammer a steel
wheel back in shape while an alloy wheel will usually break. Also it's not uncommon for
steel to rust to a point where structural integrity is affected.

Aluminium Alloys

Alloys can't be knocked back into shape as easily as steel wheels, and if they are knocked
back into shape the structure could be seriously weakened.

In theory Alloy wheels as opposed to weight steel ones improve the handling and ride of
your car by reducing the unsprung weight. This gives the springs an easier time in
controlling the bouncing wheel and reduces its gyroscopic effect making it easier to turn.
As Alloys are generally accompanied by wider bigger tyres (heavier) of lower profile (stiffer
side walls) you probably would not notice these benefits.

Carbon fibre

These wheels are very rarely seen, they are extremely light, less than half that of a steel
rim of the same capacity. However they are prone to breakage if not constructed for off
road use- and I know of none produced in greater quantities. They are also extremely
expensive due to initial cost of raw material and the lot of manual work involved. Cost
about 10 times the price of a forged alloy wheel.
HNC Material Science Steve Goddard

Material Property Characteristics

Specific material property characteristics for a car road wheel would be:

o Colour – Car wheels make up a major part of the cars overall appearance and
aesthetics. Although it is worth mentioning that metals can be coloured by
chemical means.

o Density – A wheel is preferably light and a low density is essential to keeping this
weight down, keeping the density down will decrease the cars unsprung weight
resulting in better steering feel and increased brake response.

o Strength and toughness – A wheel would require this to make sure that it doesn't
deform or buckle with the weight and forces of the car acting upon it.

o Hardness – This will stop the material from denting, such as when it is fit with
debris from the road.

o Specific Strength (strength to weight ratio)

o Cost – For standard wheels this could be more important, although for customized
alloy wheels normally price isn't considered as much and more quality.

o Feasibility of mass production

o Thermal Heat Dissipation – To dissipate heat from the brake pads

Material selection

There are two main materials in use for the production of wheels, other more exotic materials could
include magnesium alloys and composite materials but these would either be extremely expensive or
rare to come across. So In general, alloy wheels are lighter, more attractive, and better at dissipating
brake heat that their steel counterparts. They tend to be available in standardised sizes which mean
competition amongst tyre vendors giving low prices and good availability!

Alloy metals provide superior strength and dramatic weight reductions over ferrous metals such as
steel, and as such they represent the ideal material from which to create a high performance wheel. In
fact, today it is hard to imagine a world class racing car or high performance road vehicle that doesn't
utilize the benefits of alloy wheels.
The alloy used in the finest road wheels today is a blend of aluminum and other elements. The term
"mag wheel" is sometimes incorrectly used to describe alloy wheels. Magnesium is generally
considered to be an unsuitable alloy for road usage due to its brittle nature and susceptibility to
corrosion. (Flammability doesn't help either!)

Most genuine wheels are made of steel. A stamped inner part is junctioned to a rolled outer rim and
nowadays welded together. The setup is strong, easy to repair but most important, cheap to fabricate.
They can be painted over and over again if years of off roading take their toll. Many manufacturers use
the same production method but take stronger and/or thicker materials to increase load capacity and
they also make them in sizes better suited to aftermarket tires. The biggest disadvantage of steel is its
weight or better its lack of performance. An alloy wheel will accelerate faster and stop quicker as well as
reducing load on shocks and steering linkages.
A steel wheel will also bend much earlier than an alloy wheel. But you can hammer a steel wheel back
in shape while an alloy wheel will usually break. So if you intend to do many miles far away from
civilization keep the steel.
HNC Material Science Steve Goddard
Aluminum
Material Property: Priority: Alloy Steel Carbon Fiber Magnesium
Tensile Strength 5 5 2 3 4
Weight 6 4 2 5 4
Cost 4 3 5 1 1
Wear Resistance 3 3 4 1 4
Ease of Manufacture 2 4 5 2 2
Thermal Dissipation 1 4 3 3 4
82 67 59 68

Alloy Wheels

· Enhance the look of your vehicle

· Are manufactured to precise standards to meet exact fitment and performance needs
· Weigh less than steel wheels and have superior strength
· May be the preferred option for your vehicle based on fitment requirements
· Will allow for better brake clearance (depending on wheel style and brake components installed)

Steel Wheels

· Meet the basic needs of drivers who want the convenience tire package without the additional cost
of an alloy wheel
· Typically available in black or silver finish depending on the application
· Basic styling can often be updated with wheel covers
· Cost less than alloy wheels due to ease of manufacturing and lower material costs

Overall it really depends upon the major factor of: Cost or Performance.
Buying an alloy wheel will give you better handling, more responsive braking and a nicer look. Btu will
cost you more then the steel wheel, a steel wheel offers you the basics for an largely reduced price. I
think that an alloy wheel will last longer, and with the extra added performance benefit to the car it is
used on, in the long run the cost will even itself out.

Suggesting the most appropriate processing method

Forging

Forging is a non-machined manufacturing technique carried out while the material is

heated but still solid. The so-called blanks are aluminium cylinders about 30 cm in
diameter and 60 cm in height. Great pressure and high temperatures are applied to the
blank, which is pressed into the shape of the mould. This takes place over three production
steps using moulds with various degrees of contouring. The moulds are clamped into the
forging press and pressed together under 5000-8000t of locking pressure.
Compressing the material during forging boosts the density of the material, but also
disproportionately increases the maximum load capacity. A silicon aluminium alloy is used
in the forging process, enabling the surface to be polished to an extremely high shine. This
shine is maintained even when the wheel surface is sealed using an acrylic finish and is
protected from the elements and scratching. The acrylic coating makes it impossible, and
unnecessary, to repolish the wheel.
The materials are heated to approximately 400°C before every step.
Finally, the wheel is polished on the front and on the interior, and the surface is sealed
using a liquid acrylic finish.
Forging allows to give the wheel high-performance properties, and achieve sportier
handling and improved braking ability, while keeping wheel mass to a minimum. The only
bad point to this method is forged wheels entail much higher manufacturing costs than
cast wheels.
HNC Material Science Steve Goddard

Casting

Aluminium Ingot, one of the raw materials of alloy wheels will

be subjected to "Spectrometer Analysing" on a sampling
method. This is to ensure the composition of the raw material
conforms to specifications.

Once confirmed to specifications, the aluminium ingot is then

taken to the foundry melting area for the melting process. The
liquid aluminium would then undergo the flux treatment to take
out the unwanted particles or dross and undergo the degazing
process. A sample of aluminium would be taken out again for
"Spectrometer Analyzing" to analyze the Molten Composition
and then go through a "Vacuum Test" to ensure the degazing
process has been properly done.

After all the testing in ensuring the quality of the aluminium, the molten alloy is ready to
be formed through Six Axis Robotic Gravity Casting, Tuting Casting or Low Pressure
Casting. Once the wheel has been casted, each wheel will be inspected through x-ray
machine which delivers precise and reliable results of quality standards and safety at all
times.

The next process is the Riser Cutting where the point edge & the center core of the wheels
would be cut off by way of riser & sprue cutting. Then, all wheels will undergo the Solid
Solution Process or in short the T4 heat treatment. Wheels are placed in a heat treatment
furnace with very high temperature for four hours, after which they are soaked in water.
This process is to reinforce the microstructure of the wheel and
with the sudden change in temperature while soaking into the
water, it hardens the metal.
Continuing with that is the T6 Aging Process where the wheels
would go through six hours of heat treatment at a lower
temperature. Besides the hardness, the heat treatment also
ensures the fundamental elasticity and strent of the wheels.

Upon completion of the heat treatment

process, the new wheels are the passed onto the next stage which
is the CNC stage. It is in this stage that the Center holes, Bolt/Nut
holes and valve holes are bore turned and drilled in order to
remove the roughness from the wheel as well as to drill the holes to
conform with the necessary specifications according to the vehicles
they are meant to be fitted on.
HNC Material Science Steve Goddard

After the machining process, the wheels will be checked to ensure that the PCD holes and
other dimensions comply with specifications. After which the wheels would be tested for
balance and checked for leaks.

In addition to the normal wheel finishes of full silver and

silver machine polish, there is also a method recently
introduced into production called the "Mirror" finished
alloy wheels through the introduction of the latest Vacuum
Sputtering Coating (VSC) technology. This technology
enables wheels to have a chrome like finish while
eliminating the issues of pollution and high costs
associated with conventional chrome electro-plating
methods thus making VSC technology environmentally
friendly.
In order to impart a VSC finish to the wheels, the wheels would be loaded into a VSC
painting chamber. The chamber would then be sealed and the air inside would be pumped
out thus generating a vacuum in the chamber. Electrical voltage would then be passed
onto the target (usually aluminium) and the charged paint particles would then sputter out
and stick to the surface of the wheels which will have an opposing charge. Upon
completion of this process, the wheels would then be sprayed with a top coat to protect
the finish and baked.

From the CNC, wheels are moved to the painting area. Before the wheels
is on the conveyer for onwards cleaning as well as applying the process
of electrostatic, deburring of the wheels take place.(The deburring is to
ensure smooth finishing).
A base coat is applied using electrostatic powder coating and then the
wheels undergo the polishing process to ensure the good absorption of
paint. The colour coat paint is then applied and finally, a clear coat of
lacquer to the front face.

In producing cast aluminum alloy products, such as vehicle wheels, it is generally

necessary, after the initial casting operation, to subject the casting to a series of metal
treatment steps in order to produce a casting having the desired tensile strength, yield
strength, elongation, and fatigue strength properties. These steps include: (1) a "solution
heat treatment" (SHT) process and (2) an "aging" (i.e. , precipitation hardening) process.
In the SHT process, an aluminum alloy casting is first heated to a "solution" temperature of
about 1000° F. for a predetermined time such that certain soluble constituents contained
in the alloy (such as age hardening constituent magnesium silicide Mg2 Si) are dissolved
into "solid solution". The casting is then immediately and rapidly cooled (such as by
quenching in a water bath) to retain the constituents in solid solution. This prevents rapid
precipitation of the associated constituents which would otherwise occur if the casting
were allowed to slowly cool through a certain temperature range. Next, during the "aging"
process, the hardening constituents are precipitated out of the solution in a controlled
manner to produce a casting having the desired mechanical properties. The aging is
effected either "naturally" at room temperature over a period of at least 10-12 hours, or it
can be "accelerated" by heating the casting to an elevated temperature for a shorter
period of time (e.g. 450° F. for 30 minutes).

The conventional method of producing gravity-cast aluminum wheels includes initially

pouring a suitable molten aluminum alloy, such as A356 aluminum, into a mold through its
gate channel until the molten alloy flows upwardly through one or more mold risers. After
the molten alloy has completely solidified, the casting is removed from the mold, at which
time it can be degated (i.e., the portion of the casting which solidified in the gate channel
is cut off) and quenched in water to cool the casting to room temperature. The casting is
then derisered (i.e., the riser portions of the casting are removed) and subjected to
fluoroscope inspection to locate any obvious casting defects.

Next, a group of wheels (typically between about 70 and 350), are loaded onto racks and
subjected to a "batch" solution heat treatment process. The batch solution heat treatment
process is effected by placing the racks in a large gas-fired or electrical-resistance forced
air convection oven. In the convection oven, the castings are heated to a desired
"solution" temperature (approximately 1000° F.) and are maintained at this temperature
HNC Material Science Steve Goddard
for approximately 2 to 8 hours. Following heating, the batches of wheels are immediately
quenched in water to rapidly cool the wheels. Following cooling, the wheels are machined
and painted and/or clear coated, during which time they are naturally aged at room
temperature.
One of the problems associated with the above method for producing cast aluminum
wheels relates to the amount of "work-in-process" which occurs as a result of the long
process times. It is known that if a casting is heated to the correct "solution" temperature,
proper solution heat treatment will occur within about 5 minutes. However, since a large
number of wheels are heated during the batch solution heat treatment process, it is
difficult to maintain even and uniform temperatures in all the wheels. Thus, to ensure that
all the wheels are properly heat treated, the time to solution heat treat the wheels are
usually at least two hours.

Limitations on the product imposed by processing

Melting and Metal Treatment

Aluminium and aluminium alloys can be melted in a variety of ways. Coreless and channel
induction furnaces, crucible and open-hearth reverberatory furnaces fired by natural gas
or fuel oil, and electric resistance and electric radiation furnaces are all in routine use. The
nature of the furnace charge is as varied and important as the choice of furnace type for
metal casting operations. The furnace charge may range from prealloyed ingot of high
quality to charges made up exclusively from low-grade scrap.

Even under optimum melting and melt-holding conditions, molten aluminium is susceptible
to three types of degradation:

• With time at temperature, adsorption of hydrogen results in increased dissolved

hydrogen content up to an equilibrium value for the specific composition and
temperature
• With time at temperature, oxidation of the melt occurs; in alloys containing
magnesium, oxidation losses and the formation of complex oxides may not be self-
limiting
• Transient elements characterized by low vapour pressure and high reactivity are
reduced as a function of time at temperature; magnesium, sodium, calcium, and
strontium, upon which mechanical properties directly or indirectly rely, are
examples of elements that display transient characteristics.

Hydrogen Influence on Aluminium

During the cooling and solidification of molten aluminium, dissolved hydrogen in excess of
the extremely low solid solubility may precipitate in molecular form, resulting in the
formation of primary and/or secondary voids.

Oxidization

Aluminium and its alloys oxidize readily in both the solid and molten states to provide a
continuous self-limiting film. The rate of oxidation increases with temperature and is
substantially greater in molten than in solid aluminium. The reactive elements contained in
alloys such as magnesium, strontium, sodium, calcium, beryllium, and titanium are also
factors in oxide formation. In both the molten and solid states, oxide formed at the surface
offers benefits in self-limitation and as a barrier to hydrogen diffusion and solution.
Induced turbulence, however, results in the entrainment of oxide particles, which resist
gravity separation because their density is similar to that of molten aluminium.

Oxides are formed by direct oxidation in air, by reaction with water vapour, or by
aluminothermic reaction with oxides of other metals, such as iron or silicon, contained in
tools and refractories. Aluminium oxide is polymorphic, but at molten metal temperature
the common forms of oxide encountered are crystalline and of a variety of types
depending on exposure, temperature, and time. Some crystallographic oxide forms affect
the appearance and coloration of castings, without other significant effects.
HNC Material Science Steve Goddard

For the second section of my assignment I have been asked to choose a critical/ important
component which my company is involved in. For this component I have chosen the
Intermediate gearbox housing of the A129 Helicopter.

Function

The function of the IGB (Intermediate gear box) housing is to hold and protect the gears
which transfer power from the main drive shafts to the tail drive shafts which is
subsequently transfer to the TRGB (Tail rotor gearbox). Weight on this part are particularly
important so this is one of the driving factors on the methods and materials used to
produce this component.

Material Property Characteristics Required

• Density – The IGB has a specific weight allowance that it must comply to.

• Strength – The SHP (Shaft horse power) going through these gearboxes require the
housing to be able to withstand a lot of stress.

• Hardness – The material used to make the IGB must be hard enough so that for
example if It was hit by a bullet the bullet would not pierce the interior workings of
the IGB. If it did this would cause the IGB to function incorrectly and potentially
disable the tail rotor causing the helicopter to spin out of control.

• Toughness – The IGB will be under constant loading from the rest of the helicopter,
it is important that the material used can withstand this.

• Machineability – This is important from a cost and manufacturing point of view, with
a good machineable material, manufacture will be easier and cheaper.

• Thermal Conductivity – This is a useful property to disperse the heat generated

inside the housing.

Selecting the most appropriate processing method

Sand Casting

Sand casting is used to make large parts (typically Iron, but also Bronze, Brass,
Aluminium). Molten metal is poured into a mold cavity formed out of sand (natural or
synthetic).

The cavity in the sand is formed by using a pattern (an approximate duplicate of the real
part), which are typically made out of wood, sometimes metal. The cavity is contained in
an aggregate housed in a box called the flask. Core is a sand shape inserted into the mold
HNC Material Science Steve Goddard
to produce the internal features of the part such as holes or internal passages. Cores are
placed in the cavity to form holes of the desired shapes. Core print is the region added to
the pattern, core, or mold that is used to locate and support the core within the mold. A
riser is an extra void created in the mold to contain excessive molten material. The
purpose of this is feed the molten metal to the mold cavity as the molten metal solidifies
and shrinks, and thereby prevents voids in the main casting.

Typical Components of a Two-part Sand Casting Mold.

In a two-part mold, which is typical of sand castings, the upper half, including the top half
of the pattern, flask, and core is called cope and the lower half is called drag. The parting
line or the parting surface is line or surface that separates the cope and drag. The drag is
first filled partially with sand, and the core print, the cores, and the gating system are
placed near the parting line. The cope is then assembled to the drag, and the sand is
poured on the cope half, covering the pattern, core and the gating system. The sand is
compacted by vibration and mechanical means. Next, the cope is removed from the drag,
and the pattern is carefully removed. The object is to remove the pattern without breaking
the mold cavity. This is facilitated by designing a draft, a slight angular offset from the
vertical to the vertical surfaces of the pattern. This is usually a minimum of 1° or 1.5 mm
(0.060 in), whichever is greater. The rougher the surface of the pattern, the more the draft
to be provided.

Investment casting

This is also known as the lost wax process. Intricate shapes can be made with high
accuracy. In addition, metals that are hard to machine or fabricate are good candidates for
this process. It can be used to make parts that cannot be produced by normal
manufacturing techniques, such as turbine blades that have complex shapes, or airplane
parts that have to withstand high temperatures.

The mold is made by making a pattern using wax or some other material that can be
melted away. This wax pattern is dipped in refractory slurry, which coats the wax pattern
and forms a skin. This is dried and the process of dipping in the slurry and drying is
repeated until a robust thickness is achieved. After this, the entire pattern is placed in an
oven and the wax is melted away. This leads to a mold that can be filled with the molten
metal. Because the mold is formed around a one-piece pattern, (which does not have to be
pulled out from the mold as in a traditional sand casting process), very intricate parts and
undercuts can be made. The wax pattern itself is made by duplicating using a stereo
lithography or similar model-which has been fabricated using a computer solid model
master.

The materials used for the slurry are a mixture of plaster of Paris, a binder and powdered
silica, a refractory, for low temperature melts. For higher temperature melts, sillimanite an
alumina-silicate is used as a refractory, and silica is used as a binder. Depending on the
fineness of the finish desired additional coatings of sillimanite and ethyl silicate may be
applied. The mold thus produced can be used directly for light castings, or be reinforced
by placing it in a larger container and reinforcing it more slurry.
HNC Material Science Steve Goddard
Just before the pour, the mold is pre-heated to about 1000 ºC (1832 ºF) to remove any
residues of wax, harden the binder. The pour in the pre-heated mold also ensures that the
mold will fill completely. Pouring can be done using gravity, pressure or vacuum
conditions. Attention must be paid to mold permeability when using pressure, to allow the
air to escape as the pour is done.

Tolerances of 0.5 % of length are routinely possible, and as low as 0.15 % is possible for
small dimensions. Castings can weigh from a few grams to 35 kg (0.1 oz to 80 lb),
although the normal size ranges from 200 g to about 8 kg (7 oz to 15 lb). Normal minimum
wall thicknesses are about 1 mm to about 0.5 mm (0.040-0.020 in) for alloys that can be
cast easily.

The types of materials that can be cast are Aluminium alloys, Bronzes, tool steels,
stainless steels, Stellite, Hastelloys, and precious metals. Parts made with investment
castings often do not require any further machining, because of the close tolerances that
can be achieved.

For this particular gearbox housing, cost was a deciding factor on the decision, the housing
is manufactured an Agusta owned plant in Italy and they specialise in sand casting, this
means that the housing will have thicker walls resulting in it weighing more but cost will be
reduced because the process is done in house and not by an external manufacturer.

Materials

I have researched into possible material that could be used for the manufacture of the
gearbox housing

Material Description
Aluminium Alloy Aluminum alloys, alloys of aluminum, often with copper, zinc,
manganese, silicon, or magnesium. They are much lighter and more
corrosion resistant than plain carbon steel, but not quite as corrosion
resistant as pure aluminum.
Steel Steel is an alloy consisting mostly of iron, with a carbon content
between 0.2 and 1.7 depending on grade. Carbon is the most cost-
effective alloying material for iron, but various other alloying elements
are used such as manganese, chromium, vanadium, and tungsten.
Carbon and other elements act as a hardening agent, preventing
dislocations in the iron atom crystal lattice from sliding past one
another. Varying the amount of alloying elements and form of their
presence in the steel controls qualities such as the hardness, ductility
and tensile strength of the resulting steel.

Titanium Alloy Titanium alloys are metallic materials which contain a mixture of
titanium and other chemical elements. Such alloys have very high
tensile strength and toughness (even at extreme temperatures), light
weight, extraordinary corrosion resistance, and ability to withstand
extreme temperatures. However, the high cost of both raw materials
and processing limit their use to military applications, aircraft,
spacecraft, medical devices, and some premium sports equipment and
consumer electronics.

Magnesium Magnesium alloy developments have traditionally been driven by

Alloy aerospace industry requirements for lightweight materials to operate
under increasingly demanding conditions. Magnesium alloys have
always been attractive to designers due to their low density, only two
thirds that of aluminium. This has been a major factor in the widespread
use of magnesium alloy castings and wrought products.
Improvements in mechanical properties and corrosion resistance have
led to greater interest in magnesium alloys for aerospace applications.
HNC Material Science Steve Goddard

The material used to produce the gearbox housing is a

magnesium alloy this is due to the fact that it is
significantly lighter than any other material that could
be used for this. The cost is quite different but from the
designer's point of view "We'd spend double on the
component if we could make the weight less!"
The composition, mechanical and thermal properties
are shown below.

Element Weight %

Zn 4.20

Zr 0.70

Re 1.2

Conditions
Properties
T (°C) Treatment

Density (×1000 kg/m3) 1.82 25

Poisson's Ratio 0.35 25

Elastic Modulus (GPa) 44.8 25

Tensile Strength (Mpa) 205.0

Yield Strength (Mpa) 140.0

25 T5 (sand casting, permanent mold casting)
Elongation (%) 3.5

Reduction in Area (%)

Hardness (HB500) 62 25 T5 (sand casting, permanent mold casting)

Shear Strength (MPa) 160 25 T5 (sand casting, permanent mold casting)

Conditions
Properties
T (°C) Treatment

Thermal Conductivity (W/m-K) 112.97 0 T5

HNC Material Science Steve Goddard

Possible Limitations on the product, imposed by processing

DISADVANTAGES OF SAND CASTING

1) Poor surface finish requires extensive further treatment to produce acceptable

finish.

2) Some shapes of keys could very difficult or impossible to cast. Necessitating the
splitting of keys down into separate pieces to make casting possible then assemble
them and solder them together.

3) Due to long narrow shape of most keys, very high risk of inclusions and cold shuts.

4) Nickel silver material used for most keys is not very fluid when molten and this
process only uses gravity to fill the mould making thin sections difficult.

5) Final quality of castings depends on the skill of the caster. (Nothing to do with
wheels)

6) Sand casting is cheaper but you pay the price by having to increase wall thickness
compared to an investment casting.
HNC Material Science Steve Goddard

Bibliography

Pete Watson's class notes

Evaluation of fatigue life of aluminium alloy wheels under radial loads – P. Ramamurty Raju

www.Wikipedia.org

www.sciencedirect.com

Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys Casting Problems – Key-to-Metas.com

www.alcar.co.uk

www.bsa.com.ny

www.difflock.com

www.ukcar.com

www.channel4.com

http://www.carbibles.com/tyre_bible.html
www.efunda.com