The Psychedelic Review, Vol. 1, No. 7 (1966)

PSYCHEDELIC
REV I
Alain Danhilou
John Blofeld
Gerald Oster
Timothy Leary
Abram Hoffer
& Humphry Osmond
Psychedelic Pna1rrl!
NUMBER 7
1966 / $2.00
from the Tao Te Chi1rlg<;i
Influence of Sound
on Consciousness
Yogic Experience
with Mescaline
Moire Patterns
and Hallucinations
Experiential Typewriter
How to live
with Schizophrenia
PSYCHEDEliC REVIEW. Published quarterly at 1615 Hillside Ave., New
Hyde Parle, N. Y. 11041. Phone: 212 Fl 31130. Single copy, $2.00. Yeor
ly subscription, $7.50. Foreign, $8.50. Send all remittances and corre-
spondence about subscriptions, undelivered copies and changes of ad
dress to: Subscription Department, Psychedelic Review, Box 171, New
Hyde Porte, N. Y. 11041. 0 1965 Psychedelic Review
BOARD 0# I O I T O ~ :
Timothy Leory, Rolph Metzner, Felix Morrow, Gunther M. Well
CONSULTING EDITORS:
Allen Atwell, Cornell University
Joe K. Adams, Ph.D., Palo Alto, California
Joseph Berke, M.D., Langham Clinic, london
Joseph J. Downlnc, M.D., San Mateo, Californi a
Lawrence Ferlfnghetti, San Francisco
Gary M. Fisher, Ph.D., Los Angeles

Stanley Krippner, Ph.D., Maimonldes Hospital, Brooklyn, N. Y.
William H. McGlothlin, Ph.D .. RAND Corporation
Huoton Smith, Ph.D .. Massachusetts Institute of Technoloey
S.nford M. Unger, Ph.D., National Institute of Mental Health
Alan Watts, Sausalito, califomla
Send all edl toriol correspondence to: Box 175, Millbrook, N. Y. 12545
Advertising Representative and Businen Management':
UnlvenltY Books
New Hyde Parle, N. Y. 11041
PSYCHEDELIC
REV I
NUMBER 7 I 1966
CONT ENTS
EDITORIAl 2
TWO NEW lAWS RELATING TO PSYCHEDELICS 3
FIVE PSYCHEDELIC PRAYERS ADAPTED FROM
THE TAO TE CHING Timothy leary 11
THE INFLUENCE OF SOUND PHENOMENA ON
HUMAN CONSCIOUSNESS Alain Daniolou 20
A HIGH YOGIC EXPERIENCE ACHIEVED WITH
MESCALINE John Blofeld 27
MOIU PATTERNS AND
VISUAl HALLUCINATIONS
MECHANISMS OF HALLUCINATIONS
THE EXPERIENTIAl TYPEWRITER
WHAT IS SCHIZOPHRENIA?
BOOK REVIEWS
BOOKS RECEIVED
CORRESPONDENCE
Gerald Oster
Heinrich KIGvor
Timothy Leary
Abram Ho"or and
Humphry Osmond
33
41
70
86
117
126
127
EDITORIAL
TH usE o( LSD and other psychedelics is increasing among a
variety of people, mostly laymen. Sidney Cohen estimates that
about 40 doctors use it and about 40,000 laymen. Newspaper
writers sens.ationalite the "teenage drug scene" and give lurid
reports o( LSD "parties." However. the best available datit indicate
that teen-agers are not a major group of LSDmcrs. Rebelliousness
may be one motive for i nvolvement whh psychedelics blll it docs
not seem to be the major one. As the well-known sociologist
Howard Becker points out in a recent article in The Nation (IOOth
Anniversary Jssue) on "Deviance and Deviate.s.''- "the LSD rr\ove
ment differs from other organizations ... in being composed of
people who were not, prior to their involvement with LSD, de\iant
in any sense .... They exemplify the increasing militancy, organi
zation and self<onsciousnc.ss of deviant worlds and 1hcir growing
unwillingness to let respectable society have its own '"''ay \\'ith them
unchallenged.'" In Charloue, N. C., a newspaper published an
extensive series or articles about a group of businessmen and pro
(essionals who meet regularly 10 have psychedelic sessions and
make no secret of it. In other words, we may speak of a white
collar black market, composed of groups of serious men ancl
\\.'Omen, who have in general made satisfactory "adjusunents" to
society, but sense that something has been left n(tt. The two m;!in
goals pursued by these psycl>eclelic "cells are ( I) sell-development
in the sense of greater awareness, consciousness expamiO!" and (2)
improved marital relations. T he latter is an extremely important
potential application, in view of the growing body of evidence
that LSD and other psychedelics arc extraordinarily potent aphro-
disiacs (actually heightening all forms of sensory awareness, includ
ing the sexual), when taken in the appropriate set and setting. ln
ill-prepared subjects who are given LSD in "'cold" surroundings
the release of sexual energies will o course only cause confusion,
rear and paranoia.
Some of the many varied applications of psychedelics which
are interesting professional people are illunrated by the articles
in this issue: Hoffer and Osmond, two pioneers in psychiatric re
search with LSD, advocate i u "'idespre-ad use in psychiatric lrain-
ing; Cer31ll O"ter, a professor or chemistry. r p o r t ~ on its use in
Ediloti ol
3
11udying the structure anti functioning of the rctin:o: John lllofcld
finds mescaline confirming the teachings of Vajra)n lludclhism:
T imothy Lear) repons on a new dc,iee co record empirical!) the
Row o f con5ciousness in LSD and ESI' researd1.
Meanwhi le, Senator Thomas J. OOtid, in a tatemenc regard
ing consideration of the Drug .\bwe Control Amendments of 1965
before the United States Senate, refers to " psemlo-intellectuals who
ad,ocate the use of drugs in the search for .ome imaginal')' free-
doms of the mind and in the search for higher ps)chic experiences."
The outcome of the federol lawmaken' deliberations is IJUOted
below, along with another sec of restrictiom imposed h) the State
of New Yorlr..
Thus the creative tension increases between those who wish to
realize the pocenciols of their nervous systems more fully and chose
who regard such activities os dangerous. The American S)stem, for
all its faults, is an odmirable field for chis kind of constructi,e
conftict since, :as Howard Becker point.s out: "Our in.nitutions can,
when the) are spurred into action by determined men, protect
minorities of whatever kind from the restrainiS of cultural tradi
tion and local prejudice."
R.M.
TWO NEW LAWS RELATING TO PSYCHEDEliCS
I . FEDERAL LAW
President Johnson signed into law on July 15, 1965, a bill known
as the "Drug Auuse Control Amendments o[ 1965," originally
sponsored by Senator Thomas J. Dodd. This law is effective from
February I, 1966. Relevant sections are quoted verbatim from the
law below:
fiKDINCJ A:O.D DtGLAIUTION
Sr.c. 2. The Congr<ss hereby 6nds and doclues that thue is a wideo-
sprn.d illicit tnffic in dtprnsant and uimulant drugs mo\ing in or other
wa.Jot affunl amt-ntlte commerce: that the u.tt of iuch when not
undtf' cht bion of a lictniotd pnctitioner, ohen cncbfl.Rcn uftty
on the hRhWl)"l (wathout diuincuon of intt.nt.Jte and intr.uLltt traffic
l.hcnon) and othtn.1.w haJ bon\e a thrc1t to the public health and
urtt). makln adduionJI rtguln1on of 1uch drugt
of the inU<UUtt' or lnttntJtc on,Ran of tu<h th11 an ordu to makt
rqui1U0n rtd protUon ol intrnu:tr tommercc an tuch dNJ
of .ntr.Ut.ltt uwnmf'rCe " ;abo nnury bn:.itu.K .;,mong other
lhHI:l\. tuth " htn htld for 1lllcu ult, ohtn dn not llif'n labttinJ::
t.h,....n thru plu ol mJen .wet I*<'OUK' 1n thr fonn 111 "hlth the) arc
t O htkl Of Ill "huh thf'\ .-J(' -fUl\Unltd .t tlftttUIIIMIIHU nf thf'll f)(,t(f' nf
4 THE PSYCHEDELIC REVIEW
Origiu is Ohtn l'XIrCtnCJ)' difficuh or impossible; :md llwt regula tion 0
intcrtt:ttc couuncrcc without the regubtion or incr::ut:tlc ronuncrce in
drugs, :13 providt'(l in this Act. \\' otaltl cliM":r imin.t<' and ad
' '<'N.Ciy :tflcu C(unmcrce in such dmg1.
(21
SEc. (a) Section 201 o the Ft"<leral Food. Drug, ;md Cosmetic Act
U.S.C. 321) i.s amended by :tddinQ :u the e nd thereof t.he following:
"(v) The term 'depressam or sumulant drug' mcans-
"(1) any drug which contains :any qu:uuity of (A) bar
bituric :1cid or any or the s:1IL\ of barbituric ::tcid: or (B) :my
dc ri, :ttivc or barbituric acid which has been d t"Sign:ttcd by the
Secretary unde r sc.."Q,ion 502(d) :lS habi t fom1i ng:
"{2) a ny dnag wh!ch contaim :my qu:111tity o (A) .am
phccammc or any o f its o ptic:t l isomers; {8 ) :tny salt of am-
phcuuninc or a ny s . .-11t of a n optical isomer of ::nnphetamine;
o r (C) a ny subst;mce which chc: Secrct:ry. ah er irwenigalion.
hn.s found tO he, a nd by regula tion d t'Sig uau:d ns, habit fonn
ing bccau.w of its tffcn on ch<' <'Cutr.t l nen;ous Sys-
tem: or
"(5) any drug which :my CJU:liHit)' or a substance
which the Secrecary, aher has found to ha\'C,
and by rcgui;Hjon dc.signa tcs ;.,$ h:,ing, : potential for al.mse
beca use or its de pressant o r stimulant effect on the central
nervo us ,system or its hallucinogenic c:ffccc: except tha t the
Sccrcwry sh;all no t d esignate ur1iler this puagr.ph. o r under
clause (C) of subparagraph (2), :my suhst:utce chat is now
included. or is hereaft er included, within the dassific;ujons
SL1C.ed in section 4751. a nd ma rihu:111a :1s defined in section
4761. of chc lntrrna l Re, enue ( .Alcl ( (f 19M (26 tJ.S .. C.
4761 ).
OE:Pil.F.SSAST A ND DkUG$

Sec. 511. (:1) No penon shall m:mufacturc, comppund, o r process
:any deprcwnt or stimula nt drug, th:u this prohibition shall not
apply to the following pcnon.s whose acti,itics in connection wilh ;an y
such drug :u e solely as specified in this .subscc1ion: .
"(I) (A) Manuf:octurcl'l, compounders. and processol'l
registered under section 510 who :ne rcgu l:lrly c ng;ged. and
are otherwise qualified, in conform:mcc with local laws, in
prcp:tring phann:ceutical chemicals or prescription drugs for
distributio n through branch oUIIets:, through wholesale dru_g
gisu, o r by direct shipment. (i) to phannaciC$ o r to hospit.1ls,
clinia, public hcahl1 agencies, or phrsici:ms. for dispensing
by pham1adsu lii>On prcscrip1ions, or for use by o r
under 1hc o f pr.tctilioners licensed by b w 10 ad-
minister n ach dngs in the counc of their professional practice.
or (ii) tO bbor:atories or research or educational inslitution.s
for their use in rcscardt, ttadting. or chemical analysis.
"(1.\) Snpplien (othcno.i.se Clu:'l liried in confonnance with
loc:d or man ufacturers. :tnd processors
refcrn"<l en in (A).
\ Vhok'i.t c .. lcrc.'t l uuclcr 510
Editorial
who mairn:in cst:tblishmcnu in cunfonnancc wi th loca l l:th"$
and arc rtgul:arly in supplying prescription drugs
(A) to phum:ecit:S. or 10 hO)f>itall, dinio. public hc.-hh
cies. or phy.&ida ns. for dispttl\ing by rq;;st<'rt'd ph:.nn:ichiS
upon pr(';KI'iptions, or for u'C! hy or under the !IUJW:n<i,ion of
p r.tClitionc:n lic<"nS('(l by law 10 admini.nc:r sud drugs in 1hc
course of thtir profo)ional JU':tcliCC. or (11) to lahonuorit"S or
research or t'(tuc:Lion:,l in.suwtions for 1heir uM: in
tt:.tching. o r d iuic;.l :111:alysis..
Ph:mnacics. hospitals, clinics. :md puhlic::
agenci<:s. whid l m:irtt:1in cswhli.shmcnts in c.:onfonmwcc with
any applicable loot Jaws 1he pr..ctict or phann:.1C)'
:md medicine :u1d which :trc regul:uly in dispcnsinJ;;
prescription drugs ul)()" prescriptions of practitioners licensed
to :admini-5-ter such c. rugs for jl:tticnu undtr the c ue of such
pnctitioners in the roursc o their profession:!! pr:.r tict .
.. (4) Prnctilioncn licen.s(tl by law to prauibc or admi n
" tcr deprt:S13nt or uimul:mt drugs. while aoinJ,: in the rourse
or their profmional pranicc.
"(5) Penons who usc or stimul:uu drugs in
resc;arc.h. teaching. or <'htmio a nd not for c.
"(6) Offittn ond rrnplo)'ce< nl the Unite(! St>tcs. " St>te
or a. polidc:d sul)(li\ision o f a while
m the course of their officia l duties.
(7) An employ or ag<: nt or any ck""Scrihcd in
pa.ragraph ( I) . through pnragr:aph (5}, and a nurse or other
nuxlicoal tcdwidan under the .supcnision or :a p r:acti tion('r
licensed by law to :u lmini.stcr dcprc.s:s:tnt o r nimukun drugs,
while s uch employee. nunc, or medical technicia n i.s actin)t
in the couhe of hi.s emplo)ntcnt or occup:uion :.nd not on
his own ::.ccourlt.
.. (b) No penon. other than-
.. ( 1) a penon c1(1(T]OO:l in substion (a). whilt such
pe:non i.s :.cling in the ordin:tt)' and :tuthorit(."(l course of his
businc:u. profcuion. occur.:uion. or cmplo)mcm. or
"(2) :. common o r contr.an carrier or warclwusnn:m, or
an thereor. whose JX>SSeSsion of any dcpra.s:uH or
s.cimulaut dng i.s in the U5lml colrse of his bmincss or em
ploymcnt as such, shall stll. dtli,cr. or otherwise clispost o
:my depress.ull or stimul:arll tlntg to any other person.
5
"(c) No penon. Other than :a tlCI"$011 described in subsection (:1) or
(b) (2). s.fm11 possc.s anr deprt-SS.1nl or stimukmt drug other
than ( I) for the t>crsonal usc or hin1.$tl{ or of :1 member of his
hou1ehold, or (2) for :1dminbtr.uio n to owned hy him or a
of hi.J hou1ehold. In .ill)' crimin.al J>rosccution for of
a dc-prn.\oiiH or stinwl.uu drug in \' iobtion of this 'uhscclion (which
it m:.dc .. t)rohibitnl .. rt hy w.-ction :\01 (I) (3)). the United St:tt(J $hall
haH lht' burc.IC'n of proof chat lh<' ll()S.\C."1.Si on imuh("CI clot" not cume
wllhrn chc C'XCt'pti ulh (tJIH.unl"<l in d.tU.M. "S (I) .uuJ fl) of the llrl'CIing
M'llt('U(t'.
"(d) ( J) J- \CI) ltti.._..Jil C.HJ; .I).tnl Ill III_..IIUI.uiUIHIJ;_. JHUC
l tltto .. t .. t _..1111 ,., \Ioiii lt.UC" h t hr uhtm,.tC" h tl,uthnl It) lhr
( VUI U
selling. deli\' ering, or otherwise disposing o( ::my dcprcss;mt or
drug Sh <I JJ, upon the CfiC.."Clhc d 4HC of tJ1is SC(:LiOn, prc p:tTC :1
curnplctc :md accur .. tc record of :&II stocks of each such drug on hand
a nd sh:ell keep such record fo r three yean. On :md a her the eft ecti,c cb te
o r this M.-ct ion. t'\' cry ' pcrson m:mubcturing, compounding. or procu)i ng
:nl)' dcpres.s.am o r stimulant d nrg sh:ll prepa re :md keep, lor not leu
th:m three yean. ;1 complete and :c<ur-dtC re<:ord ol tJ1e kind ;md tau:uuity
o C:te; h drug lllallU3ClUTCd, COil1(>0UIU1C..'d, OT procaset_l :md the
date ol such manuCacwrc, comJ)()unding. or processing: and c\'CT)' per
scm )tiling, d elivering, o r otherwise d.iSJHing o :my dcpress;utt or stiuw
J: un tlrug .shall prcp. 1rc or obtain, .and keep for not less than t hree ye.ars.
a complete and ::u;cur.ne record o the kind :md <tu:uttity of c:tch such
drug rcc::civctl, .sold, delivered, o r o therwise <li.sposed ()f, the n:uue :tthl
:tddre.u of the person. :md the rc.:gistr::ttion numbe r. if :Ill y, :ts.."iKncd tn
suclt pt.:no by the Sec::retal)' pursuant to secllon SIO(e), f rom . whom it
w:ts rc<..'Ci\'ed to whom 1t w:u sold. de livered , or otherwise dist>ost'tl
of. and the date of such tran s;;lctio n. No sep:trate records, nor 1ct form or
fonns or a ny O( the fo regoing TC.."('Ords, sha ll be n quircd :15 :t"i
records lont:tiniug the rC(tuirt'tl informatiot'a -.rc :w:tilahlc.
"(2) (A) t:vcry person required paragraph ( I) of this suleetion
to prep are or obuin, ;md keel> rccord.s, ;md :my carrier maint.1ining
records with respect to any shipmcut conta ining any dcpress:mt o r n iinu
l:un drug, :md every person in ch:ugc, or having c;uSlotly. of such records.
slwll. upo n request o f :m officer or t.>anployee design:ucd by the Sccrcwry
t)(:rmit such ofl"icer or employee :1t rCil50n<lblc times to h:He to :lnd
oopy s uch rc:conls. Fo r the pur1X>M:s or vcrific n ion o f such n:cnn.ls :lfld
of enrorccmcnt ol this sect ion, oRiccn or cmployet-s clesign:Hccl lly the
Secr etary authorited, upo n presenting appropri:uc: crcclcnti:tls :111cl
a wrincn no tice to the owner, o pcr:tor, or in to enter, :1t
TCOISOIIOt hlc times, :uty ractor y, warehouse. establishn' Cnt, nr ve hicle in
which any dcprcss.;lllt or s timulant drug is hcltl. manufacturl'CI. com
pounded. pron .'5St-d, .soltl, clelivcrcd , en u therwise dispost'tl nf :tntl to in
spcct. within rcasuna l>le limi ts :md in a rcsonahlc Ju:mner. sueh f:tctory.
warehouse, establishment, or vehicle. :nul :til pen int nt t-q uil)mcnt, fin
ishc<1 :md unfinished m:ucri:,l. :md therean, :u1d :til
things 1herein (includ ing records. fil es. cmu roh, :mel
facilities) lx:1ring on ' iol:uion of this Kction or t.ec::1io"n ;u1d to
in\'cntor) :t ny stock o ( any such d nK therein and oiHain s:-unplt$ of :my
.sud 1 d rug. If :1 J.;t mple is thus oiJra ined . the officer or etnplc)yte m:kins:
the in.spcctirm sh:tll. u pon com t>lction or the inspec:t ion :mel before tr:w
ing 1he premises, gi"c to the owner, op<:r:uor. o r :gent in : receip t
descri bing the s:unple ohtained .
"(8 ) No inspection authorl1ccl h y suhpar.tgr:1ph (A) cx1c nd
10 (i) finand:l cl ara. (ii) s:tles cl:ua other than shipment da t:1. (iii) pricing
data, (iv) dat:, o r (v) rcsc:trch cktta. which :lTC cxempt<.'<l from
inspec1iu n under the third SCillt' nCC o section 704(;t) o( this Act.
pm\' isio ns of p:aragnphs ( I) :1nd (2) of this subsection sh:.ll
no1 :tpply to a liccns(. 'fl practitioner described in suhsec1ion (:1) (4) with
rl"SJ>CCl 10 :my clcpressa m o r s1imul:mt dru).t rcceiv('(), prepared . processed.
:ulministcrcd. or cliSJ)Cnsecl hy him in the course of his proh."Ssiou:tl prac
ticc. unlt.'!oS such pr.lCtit iontr rq.:ul:rly in clisJ:,euing :tny such
tlrug or d rug'S w his patients for which thty :.re dargcd. ei ther
r with fnr nll1n pmrt ..... o;;ion::..l
"(t) Not l.don or dtt' tffc.-c tiH d.ttc of
tlti .. wtlinll) fr '") tltpr.-.. .... 111 ur .. limul .llll IM r.llnl nr tdillt"CI
fdlloria/ 7
more tb;m six months the dau: on whid $Udl pre5<::ription was
issued :and no $uch prescription which is :uuhoritl'tl to he re611<:d be
rffilled more than fhe times. except th<t :111y prescription for such a
drug after six months aher the date of issue or a her refilled fiq
times may be renewed by the practitioner issuing it either in writing. or
orlly (if promptly reduced to writing :t!'d filed by the phannadst it) .
.. (f) ( I) The Secrc:tary may by regula1ion exempt ;my depressant or
uimul:mt drug {rom the applicatio n o all or p:art or 1has section when
he fi nds that rc.tulatiOil of its m:tnu(aCt UT(' , COUlJ)()Uilding, J>WCCSJi ng.
J)()SSession, and dasposition, as pro"ided in this stction or in surh p:an
thc:n:of, b not nccess.:ary for the protection or the public: hc;alth.
''(2) The Secretary shall by rcgu latiOI\ exempt any deprC$5.o1nt or
nimulant dnag from the application of this section, if-
"(A) such drug may. under the provisions of this Act, be
sold O\'Cr the coumer \\' ithout a prescription: or
"(B) finds that such drug includa o ne Or more 1ub
stances not lmving :a depre:HH or stimul:ln t effect on the
C('mn l nervous system or a hallucinogenic effect :and sud t
substance or substances are present therein in sud1 combina.
tion, proportion, or concentration :1s to prevent the
subst3nce or sultanccs therein which tlo have such a n cff:t
from heing ingo;ted or :.hsorhcd in .sufficient a moums or COil
ccntrations as, within the mc;aning of section 201(v), to-
"(i) be habit fonning because of their stimulant effect on
th<' C<'ntn l nenous system, or
"(ii) have a potential or abuse because of their d epressant
or stimulant effect on the central nenous system or then hallu
cinogenic cfftct.
PJ.0HTBITD ACT$
St:e. 5. Section 301 of the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act
(21 U.S.C. b amended by adding at the end thcrcol the following
new
"(q) (I) The manufacture, compounding. o r processing o
a drug Ill violatiOn o M."Ct ion 5 ll (a); (2) the sale, delivery, or
other disposition o( a drug in \iola tion o( section 5 ll (b): (3)
th<' possesion of it drug in viol:uion of section 5ll(c); (4) the
failure to prepare or obtain, or the failure to keep. a complete
and accur.ue record with respect to any d n1g as rJuired by
teetion 511(d): (5) the rcfu.sal to pcnnit access tO or copying
of any record M required by st"Ction Sl l (d): (6) the refu,.tl to
pcrmn (' lllry or in.spcc:tion as :. uthori1ed by section 5ll(d): or
(7) the filling or refilling or pre.scripuon in viol;nion of
section 511 (c)."
C" OUNDJ ANil JUIU.SI)Ic:'fi()N JUDICIAl . AND COI"DOINATION
Sr..c. 6. (:) Sultion (a) of section !UH o ( the Federal Food, Ong.
and Coltntuc Act (21 U.S.C. 334) is :nncmled by in5<'ning "(I)'' :ther
' ' ()" 1md r('d.c,i,; n:ttiu,K ( I) :111d (2) uf the pmviso 1hcrcto as
"(Aj" "(U)," r ctpc. "<li,t l y: a nc.l by :u the cud or 5uch .s ub
wet on tht folfm,iuK new l'u-.tgr.tph:
"(2) ' I hC" fullowing , h. II ht li:d,lc I n II( proccc_clt-.1 :l)l.tin1t
:u :an y lime un lihrl uf infnnn.uinn .uul tnmkmllt'tl iu :my
tlhttiu 'HI" n( llw l11111nl \l .tn "illuu lht juti\4linimt n (
8
THE PSYCHEDELIC REVIEW
which they arc found: (A) Any depressant or stimulant drug
with respect to which :t prohibitc.xl :1ct within the meaning of
st'Ction (p) or (q) by any person has occurred, (B) Any
drug th;n is :1 counterfeit dng. (C) Any container of such de-
press:mt or . stimul:uu drug or or a rounterfcit drug, (D) Any
<.:quipment used in m;:uuf;acwring, compounding, or proc-
t'SSing a depressant or stimulant drug with respect to whid1
drug :1 prohibited act within the meaning of section 501 (p)
or (q), by the manufacwrer. conpounder, or proe<.'$50r thcrt'Of,
has occ.urrcd, ;md (E) Any punch, die, pl:ne. stone. labeling.
container, or other thing used or dt-signt.'(l for usc in making :1
counterfeit drug or drugs.''
(b) (I) The fi rst sentence of subsection {b) ol such section '04 is
amendt:d by inserting, or other thing proceedec.l :tg;linn"
ah er "artic.le."
(2) Subsection (d) or sudl section 304 is :tmended by inserting "(I)"
a h er "(d)" and redesignating clauses (I) and (2) of the second semence
of such subseCLion as "(A)" and "{B).' ' respectively; :tnd by :td<l ing :1t
the end o( such subsection the following n ew paragraphs:
"(2) The provisions of par:.gr:tph ( I) or this subsection
shall, to the extent deemed appropriate by the court., apply
to any e<Juipment or other thing which is not otherwise within
the scope o[ such paragraph and which is referred to in para
g-raph (2) of subsection (;1).
"(3) Whene\'er in any proceeding under this section, in
volving par:lgr.tph (2) or sulcction (a), the condemnation or
any eqUJpment or tl1ing (other than a drug) is decreed, the
court sha ll allow the daim o any ciOtim:tnt, to the extent of
such claimant's interest, for renussion or of such
forfeiture i .such cl:timant proves to the o f the
court (i) that he has not committed or caused to he oommilted
any prohibitt-d act referred to in such par;graph (2) ;md h;s
no interest in any drug referred to therein, (ii) that he has an
intc r<.'Sl in such equipment or other thin'f owner or Jicno
or otherwise, ;1c<pired by him in gOO<l f:Hth, :ulCJ (iii) that he
at no time had any knowledge or reasun 10 ht::+ic, ,c th:n ! uc:h
equipment or other thing w:ts being or woul(rhc used in, or
to facilitate, the viol::uion of l:tws of the United States rei:Hirlg
to depress;mt or stimul:mt drugs or counterfeit drugs.''
Stc. 7. (a) Se<tiou SOS(a) of the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic
Act (21 lJ.S.C. 333(;)) is ;tmendcd by inscning 01her the fi nal word "fine"
and before the period the following: .. Providt!d, howt!Vt!r, That any
person who. h:1vmg attained his eightt't!nth birtllday, ' ' iolates section
(2) hy selling, delivering, or otherwise disposing of :my depressa nt
or sumulam drug to a person who ha.s not att.'lined his twentyfirst birth
day shall , i f there be no previous conviction o such person uudcr this
.section which h:1s hecome final. he .subject to imprisonment for not more
than two yc.ars, or a fine of not more th;w $5,000. or both such imprison
mcn1 :tnd fine, arHI for the second ur :my Mthscqucm com inion ror such
a viola1ion sh:-.11 he suhjcct to imprisonmcm ror not murc than six years,
ur :t fint or II(H lll(lf(' tlt:m Sl5,000, u .. hnch SUI h impri'i0111lH'IIt :lml fine."
Editorial 9
(b) Section 303(b) ol such Act (21 U.S.C. 35' (b)) is amended hy
inserting after the word "shall" the rollowing: "(except in the case or
an offense which is subject to the pro,i.sioru of the prO\' i.SO to subsection
(a) relating to second or offens<."S)."
POWDlS AND PI\O"ff:.CTION OF t!N'FOJI.CM ENT Pf'ASOS!IIt:L
Sec. 8. () Section 702 ol the Fcder>l Food. Drug. and Cosmetic Act
(21 U.S.C. 372) is mended by ndding nt the end thcreol the lollowing
ne-w subsection:
"(e) Any officer or emplo)'e<: or the Dep;lruucnt designa u:d
by the Secretary to conduct ex:uninations. irwestig:ations, or
inspec,tions under this Act relating 10 or
drugs or to counterfeit druf,_'l may, when so :ullhOri1cd by the
Secretory-
"( I ) carry firC>nns;
"(2) execute and serve search w:unntS and :rrt'Sl
"(5) execute se.h,ure by proc<.'SS iYued pursuant w libel
under section 504;
"(4) make arresu witllOUl warrant for offenses under this
Act With to sudt drug$ if the offtn.se is coounitted in
his presence or, in the case o a felony. i he ha$ prob."lble
CIU$C to belie,,e th:tt the penon so arrt:ned h as commiued,
or is committing .. $UCh offense; and
"(5) make, prior to tlte institution of libel prooeroings
under section (2). sei1ures or drugs or conta iners or of
equipment, punches, dia, plates, stones. labeling. or other
things, if they are, or he has n:asonable J..'TO\Iflds to belic"e
th:u they arc, subject to sci:mrc and condemnation under such
aection SO<I(a) (2). In dtc C\' t iH of .seizure pursuant to this
por.ognph (5). lil>cl proceedings under section 5Q.I(a) (2) shall
be iruutme<( promptly :md the property scitec-1 be pbccd
under the jurisdiction of the coun."
(b). Slion lll'i of title 18 of the United States Code i.s amcudcd
by unking out "or :my security officer or the Dep;lrtment o f State or
the foreign Stnicc" 3nd by inKrting in lieu thereof the roiiO\\'inJ,t: :my
tllrily offir of DeJXInment of State or the Foreign Sci'\ ice. ()f a ny
offictr or emplo). of the Oep<trtmtnt of .Eduction. :md \ Velrarc
by the Secretary or tl ealth, f.duGttion. :wd \Vclbrc tO con
rluu ln,cst_ig;uions or iruptioru under the Feder.1l f OC"WI.
C'.oometlc Aet."
II , NEW YORK STATE LAW
' I he New York Sla te scna1e and assembl y approved a new law
s:o lc :md possession of psychedel ic dru!($ on .June 7,
1005. rffcc1ivc July I. 1965. foll owi nK quotation i> lrom l.nws
uf Nrw Yo h. 19M, Chapter 332:
177 tl or fH'JJI"Umn of lwllm iiiOJ!t'tlir dn1XJ m The
INlo\.M umn, .tl. (''4 h.utJ,t4' 1 r ul h.tlluc tlntj:::\ nr
pt f' p.te ,uiom h[' mlu 1 1h.11t H'J.;"tch l m.utul .t( 1111'(' 1'- ot licttt\t'tl ph\'\\i
t l HI\ WfiH h nl4 ,, Ju ttn 1\\111 t l tlu t Ullllllj,\jOIIC't or 1114' tll,tf h\).:H' IU
ru ff"(t(''" \Hfh .. h .tll 11\ ttluh- ,, '"''Hn I ''''' \4.'t ltnu
10
THE PSYCHEDELI C REVIEW
The provisions o( this secLion n.>stricting the distribution and possessiorl
of hallucinogenic drugs or preparations shall not apply to common
carriers or to wuehousemen wh1le engaged in law(ully tr.msporting or
storing such <lrugs or prel)<traLions, or to :tny employee or the same
;tcting within the scope o tis employment; or to public officers or their
employees in the pe rfonnance o( their officia l ducies requiring J>OSSC$5iOn
or control o hallucinogenic drugs or preparations: or to tempor:lry in
cidcntal J.>OSSCS.\ion by employees or :1gents o persons lawfully entitled
lO posseSSlOll, Of \ 0 J>CTSOOS whose J>OSSCSSiOO is for the purpose Of :licling
public officc. n in pcronning their offici:.! duties.
for the purposes of this st.'Ction, the tenn "haJJucinogenic drugs" sha ll
mea n :mtl include stramonium, mescaline or peyote, lysergic acid diethyl-
amide <tnd psilocybin, or any salts or derivatives or compounds o( any
prepoarations or mixtures theroor. except such prepoarnions ;1s the com-
missioner of mental hygiene has. hy reguhuiorl. cxc:lndNI from 1hc rr
nrictions of this p<mtgraph.
Any person wh<.l viobtcs any o( the provisions of this section shall be
0'1ilty o{ a misdemeanor and 5hall. on c;onviction thereof. he subject
to impri5(mmcnt for not more than one year, or a fine of not more than
fi ve hundred dollars, or both sud1 imprisonment and fine; hut if the
vjolation is committed after a conviction o( such person under this 'sec
uon has become final such ptrson shall be subject to impriwnment or
not more.: than two years or a fine or nnt more t Htn one thnu.sa nct doll an
or both such impriM)nmcnt and fine.
3. Subdivision three or senion sixty-eight hundred four or the education
law is hereby amended by thereto a new paragraph, to be pari
gr;ph r, to read as follows: r. Any person to sell or dispense any hallu
cinogenic drug; provided, howe\er. that a registered manufacwrer of
nmy supply to licensed physicians who_ hold a
hcense u.sued by the connntsslone.r of mental hyg1ene to recea\'e surh
drugs and a holder or such a license may sell or dispense such drugs in
accordance with the regulations or the commissioner of ment.itl hygiene.
For the purpose or this section, the u:nn "hallucinogenic dnags" shall
me<tn :tnd include stramonium. mescaline or peyote. lyscn;:ic :tc:id cJic.thyl
amide and psilocybin, or any salt.' or dcrivativt.'$ or CQ111pounds of any
prepu::u-ions or mixtures thereof. The commiuioner of mental hygiene
may. by regulation, exclude any such as lw m:w c1rtf'nninC'
to be desirable from the rcstrkliom: o th.s p:uagraph. .
229. Hnllucinogenir dntgl
No person, except a registered manufacturer as penniucd by sulxlivision
r of subdivision three of section sixty-eight hundred four or the educa-
tion law, may receive, sell or dispense a hallucinogenic dng without
first olnaining a license thereore from the Surh license. if
issued, may be issued only to licensed physicians. may be is.mcd for a
definite period :llld shall be issued only for such sc:-icn1ific :mc.l medical
reasons and under such conditions regarding receipt. possession, sale or
:lS the commissioner rnay, by regulation. prescribe. For the
purpose of this section. the tcnn "hallucmogenir <lngs shall mean and
tnclude stramonium, mescaline or peyote. lysergic ;add cliethybmicle and
psilocybirt. or any 1.1lu or derivatives or compounds o( cmy preparations
or mixtures thereof. The connni'isioncr may. hy regulation, exclude art)'
such prepar.uion as he may determine w he dcsin1hle from the restrictions
of paragra ph.
FIVE PSYCHEDELIC PRAYERS
ADAPTED FROM THE TAO TE
CHING
TIMOTHY LEARY
Tug PSYCHEDELIC or vasaonary experience releases an c nom1o us
amount or awareness-of-energy and tunes us in to pauerns of
neurological signals which :ore usually censored from memal life.
Understanding, description, and intelligent use of these re
ka.ed energies have puzzled scholars for thousands of years. Today,
LSD sessions puzzle. enrapture, awe, and conCusc.
Mainly they confuse.
During the last five years, 1960-65, we have witnessed a
psychedelic revolution. It is estimated that well over a hundred
thousand Americans have taken the timeless voyage through their
nervous systems- have had the veil of symbolic illusion lifted for
a few hours.
And what is the net effect?
A chaos or potentiality.
A confusion of promise.
Most of these psychedelic voyagers are now aware or the limit
loJ rtalities stored in tl1e nervous systems, but there is no concep
tlon ol the meaning and usc o[ these potemials.
There are o course no 1>at solutions. no easy answers provided
by LSD. On the contrary, every paradox, every ambiguity, every
problem of static-symbolic life is intensified, raised to exponential
l)l)" ers. Where there once w>s a blind robot symbolic uncertainty
Uohruon or Coldwater?), there is now an uncertainty compounded
and multiplied by the knowledge ol the illu.ory nauue ol routine
t('alhy r.nd lhc existence or rcalilics .
.. om the lx-ginni ng o lhc llav.ud-IFIFCa)lalia exploration
hun cunw_iothtlt'" 1\\'U f.tch ,,.,.,,. app.ue ut. Fi hl, that there were
fH) f )(I ,UH 111.1 )" ltlotl tl\, IU)flh, dwmi('\, l .t ll J.:II.t,(.:('' In tlt''\(l iiJt lhl'
r'ptitJtc.t 'c.'t tuul, lh.tl the ltutpl.ttieu iutt"'..C' e1ld
ttHHirh, Jll<'lll.tlutc IIU'HI in 11111\1 l w l t, j,lttl
II
12
No current philosophic or scientific theory was broad enough
to handle the potential of the 15 billion-cell computer.
Our decision then was to maintain an open posture, to collect
data o n psychcdcl;c sessions from a wide variety of subjects, in a
wide variety of settings, and to continue to look for better models
and theories to explain the psydedelic experience.
It became apparent that, in order to run exploratory sessions,
manuals and programs were ncc(,;sary to guide subjects through
transcendental experiences with a minimum or rear and confusion.
Rather than s1art de novo using our own minds and limited ex
periences to map out tbe voyage, we turned to the only available
psychological texts which dealt with consciousness and its altera
tions-the anciem books of the East. .
The T ibetan Book of the Dead is a psychedelic manual-in
credibly specific about the sequence ;mtl nature o experiences
encountered in the exstatic state. A revision of this text published
under the title The Psychedelic Exf>CJiCIICC was our first u ~ m p t
at session programming.
For the last two years we have been working with another
old, timetested psychedelic manu;,l- thc Chinese text, Trw T c
Ching, sometimt,; translated as The Way of Life.
Written some 2600 yeats ago by one or several philosophers
known to us now as ""the old fellow"' (Lao T se), this text is still
timelessly modern and will remain so for thousands or years to
come-as long as man has the s..une son o nervous system anc.l c.lcal.s
with the range of energies he now encoUnters.
The Tao T c Chi11g deals with energy. Tao is best translated
as "energy," as energy process. Energy in its pure unstructured
state (the E of Einstein"s equation) and energy. tn its countless,
temporary Slates or structure (the M or Einstein"s C<JUation).
The Tao is an ode to nuclear physics, to Jie, to the genetic
code, to that form or transiem energy structure we call "'man; to
those most static, lifeless forms or energy we call man's artifacL<
and symbols.
The message o the Tao T e Chi11g is that all is energy, all
energy Rows, all things are continually transforming.
The Tao T e Ching is a series o 81 verses which celebrate the
flow of energy, its manifestation and, on tbe practical side, the
implications o this philosophy lor man"s endeavors. Most of the
pragmatic sutras o f the Tao were directed towards the ruler of a
state. How can the King and his ministers use this knowledge of
the energy powers to govern harmoniously?
Like all great biblical texts, the Tao has been rewritten and
re-interpreted in every century and this is as it should be. T he
1crrns for Tno change in each ccnwry. In our 1i n1cs Ei nstein rc
Five Psychedelic Prayers 13
phrases it, quantum theory revises it, Lhc gcncticisiS 1ranslate it in
terms of DNA and RNA, but the message is the s;une.
The practical aspts of the tao must also be rewritten and
adapted to the everyday situation. The advice given by the smi ling
philosophers of China to their emperor can be applie<l to how to
run your home, your office, and how to conduct a psychedelic
session.
The five sutras or prayers presented in the following pages are
selected from a psychedelic translation of the Tno Tc Chi11g to be
published by University Books.
The forty-nine sutras in this volume arc divided into five
groups:
I. Preparatory Prayers to be read before the session.
II. Prayers Conceming Pure Energy Flow which are to be
read, slow I)' and ethereally during the early "high" points
of the session.
Ill. Prayers Conceming Biological Flow and seed energy.
IV. Prayers Relating to Experience of Bodily J>rocesses, aware
ness of caltras or nerve centers of the body.
V. Re-imprinthrg Prayers which concern the later parts of a
psychedelic session (from eight 10 twenty-four hours after
the session begins), when the subject is re-entering the
routine world and selecting a poSl-session personality.
Each of the five prayers which follow has been selected from
one of these five sections- preparation, pure energy flow, seerl
energy, cakra energy, and rc-imprinting.
The Tao manual, like all other psychedelic texu, must be
studied intensively, the detailed theory of energy tr.msfonnations
thoroughly learned, and the commentary notes for those sutras
selected for the session re-read se, cral times.
Psychedelic poetry, like all psychedelic art, is crucially con
cerned with flow. Each psychedelic poem is carefully tailored for
a cenain time in the sequence o( the session. Simplicity nnd dia-
mond purity arc important. Intellectual flourishes and verbal pyro
technics are painully ob,,ious to the "turned on" nen'OU) :):ttcm.
Psychedelic poetry should be read aloud (or taped) at a slow
tempo, in a low natural voice. The pra)Crs arc best read or taped
by one who is "high" :u the lime. Any tension, artificial ity, or
game-phlying on the pan or the reader stancls out in embanassing
relief.
Rcotd by the static intellect, jmpri111cd to symbols, :m(l imm
daacc.l b)' the vcrbosi1y o our cuhu1c lltc'-C )tlttas arc simply
anothtt )('<rucnn_ u( lifch:'' wmtk Btll to the lHihci(HI\IlCSS I C
Jc.a:d rom implilllt'(l \Lit it' thc<iiC' pt.t)t-'1'\ c.,tll lx<nlllt' j)l\'4 i<iit'
bltt\U of ncmhling c-uc'l).t\ .uul hu.uhk'' uH . nilt)(.
14
You will wonder, perhaps, at the use or the temt "prayer" to
label these smras.
Prayer is ecstatic poetry. Psyc.hcdclic communication.
Ordinary, stat.ic communication in terms of prose symbols,
game. Mind addressing mind.
You cannot describe the ecstatic moment in static tenns.
You cannot (without regret) communicate during the ecstatic
moment in static prose.
You cannot produce ecstasy with static symbol sequences.
When you are in a psychedelic state-out beyond symbols-
game communication seems pointless. Irrelevant. Inappropriate.
Inadequate.
There is no need to communicate-because everything is al-
ready in communication. You are plugged into the multiplex
network of energy exchanges.
But there are those transition JllOlilCULS or terror. o jsolation,
of reverence, of gratitude ... when there comes that need to
cotnmunicate.
That need to communicate with the non-game energy
that you sense in yourseH and around you.
And there is the need, at exact! y that moment, for a language
which is not mental, A slrot igfu, pure, "right"
language.
This is prayer.
Mantra.
Ejaculation.
There are moments in every psychedelic session when there
comes that need to communicate- at the highest an<l best level yon
are capable o. '
This need has been known and sensed for thousands o[ years.
All prayers are originally psychedelic communications with higher
freer energies-tuning yourself into the billionyear-old energy
dance.
Conventional prayers, for the most part, have degenerated into
game rituals. Slogans. Meaningless verbali1.ations. Appeals [or
game help.
But that crucial nongame terror-reverence awefull moment
comes ....
There comes that time when the ecstatic cry is called or.
At that time, you must be ready to pray.
To go beyond yourself. To contact energy beyond your game.
At that time you must be ready to pray.
When you have lost the to pray ...
You are dead.
Five Psychedelic l'rayers
1-1*
The Session Gulde
In the greatest sessions
One does not know that
there is a guide
In the next best $CSSions
One praises the guide
In the good session
One admires the guide
It is worse when
One rears the guide
The worst is that
One pays him
If the guide lacks trust
in the people
Then
The trust or the people
will be lacking
The wise guide guards his words
The wise guide sits
When the greatest session over
The people will $3y-
" It all happened naturally"
Or
"It "''as so simple. we did it
:oil oursehes"
(AhiJJit"ll fru111 ) ,, .. 17)
15
I hi -'tilt A \hnullt hr u,., l luul hdnu 1h.- ""-'"uu '1,(1 111.11 hutl1 tlw
1ru \II)A){t'l 'l oil I I '-llf lf l lh oltolo .UI' Il l 1111' )tllllll llj.t llillll,h I
11-1
That Which Is Called the Tao
Is Not the Tao
The Dow of energy . . ...... .
Here ..... .. ..
It . . . ... .
Is .... .. . . .
Nameless . . .. . . . .
Timeless .. .. . . . . .
Speed of light ... ... . . .
Float beyond fear
Float beyond desire ..... .. . .
Into this Mystery of Mysteries
Through thi< C.a1e of i\11 Wonder
(t\cla ptL'<I Crom 'l 'ao Sutra 1)
This stllr.l c':eu IM,; l'l':ill, : I t \ 'C' ry !' lnw. IIIC";I 'l ll n-.1. hu .. hc-.1 umpn. in llw ri . .. l lmur
nr 1lw hn ldi1
five Psychedelic Prayers
111- s
Laa Tse's Mind Becomes Preoccupied
With a Very Ditllcult Subject-To
Describe the Production of
Material forms by the Tao
Is it a dream?
Shadowy
Invisible
All thing.,
All images
Move slowly
Within
Shimmering nets
Here
Essence endures
From here
Ail lorms eme.rgc
All lorms
Emerge
From this second
Baclr. to the ancient beginning
(Abltlfl hnm I .... Su cu ::I)
17
I ht' 11111,. t.otll Iff" .ul ltt'lkt"ll ch .. fu,t ,11101 IIi'' hl th h1 0i ll '\ ul tlw I ~ ,,.,,jun.
11 THE PSYCHEDELIC IEVIEW
IV-2*
The Water Calera
Can you fl oat through the universe of your hocly
and not lose your way?
Can you lie quietly
engulfed
in the slippery union
of male and female?
Warm wet dance o generation?
Endless ecstncies of couples?
Can you offer your stamen trembling in the me.adow
for the electric penetration nf pollen
While birds sing?
Twist sinuously on the river hank
While birds sing?
Wait soft-feathered, quivering. in thicket
While birds sing?
Can you coil serpent writ hing
While birds sing?
Become two cells merging
Slide together in molecule embrace?
Can you, murmuring
Lose
All
Fusing

(BiU<d on T ao Sutra # 1!1)
This sucra seeks co '"break through" co the I cnltrn and i5 10 he u5ecl in
programmed seMiont which auempc to explore the sequence of
ra.\rn.t Or somatic n(t\'C: ..
Fi ve Pychedelic Prayers
V-9
How to Recognize the TAO Imprint
He who returns in the fl ow ol tao
Brings back a mysterious penetration
So subtle
T hat it is misunderstood
Here is his appearance
Hesitant Hke one who wades in
a stream at winter
Wary as a man in ambush
Considerate as a welcome guest
Fluid like a mountain stream
Natural as uncarved wood
Floating high like a gull
Unlatl1omable like muddy water
How can we lathom his muddiness?
Water becomes clear through stillness
How can we become still?
By moving with the stream
(fta.,.d un Tau Snt111 # 15)
19
I IIi mll..a \huul.l I.e 1r..a1l thuintc thr b \1 tltiul f Cht" P-')Cht'tiC"Ik ' ~ i n n 10
ttu..,. whtt h.n r- '-'' lrtlf"ol thr l m llhooltl I llto\Oo' I tltrh t f" 1111ptinl .
THE INFLUENCE
OF SOUND PHENOMENA
ON HUMAN CONSCIOUSNESS.
ALAIN DANIUOU
OuR KNOWLEDGE Ot' THE EXTERNAL world is conditioned by our
possibilities of perception. T he phenofllenal aspect of t hings, which
we tend to take for their reality, is an effect of t he limits o( our
sense perceptions. Senses more refine.-'(( than ours woultl show us
worlds o atoms, of light, of e nergy, where now we think we see
tables, buildings, individuals. Subtle beings, whose substance es
capes our perception, can exist around us, penetrate us, play "tith
us, act on our t houghts and our senses, withou t our having the
least awareness o f it. The number of senses which are thoorctically
possible cannot be determined. We probably have within us latent
senses o which the organs arc unde\reloped, and which we cannot
consciously use, although sometimes a vague and uncontrolled
perception may result in paniot l mhrrwisc
inexplicable "inwition."
f or man, the spheres or sensory perception arc limi ted to five
- this is not necessaril y true for other spcdes. Thereore, we knov.
five aspecu o the worltl, which do not nerc5saril y coincide
exactly.
Hindu phi losophers c:o ll these spheres "forms of existence"
(blruta). a term translated approximately by the term "clements."
This is inexact unless we understand it not in the sense or elementary
mauers, or substances or states of mauer of which the universe is
formed, bnt rather take it I n mc;m t he subjec1ivc elements by
means of which we construct, for want of better infonnation, the
idea which we have of t he external worl d.
the Hindus think that if we can orient the per
ceptual cen1ers, to whid1 our sense organs are connected, towards
the internal, we can escape the limitations o f these sense organs
and percei ve aspects or the sensible worhl which are deeper and
larger and more profound.
The spheres or the five senses are symbolically represented
by five aspects or the perceptible world, but these aspects should
only be understood ;as lmagcs which help us to understand their
hierarchy. These images are earth, wa ter, fire. a ir, and ether. Earth
The orlgin:al of chis article fint in Notwe4U ( # 111, Nov. 1961).
20
I II.UOII<O of Sound 011 C011sclous11011
21
or the state of ''cohesion" of things, which corresponds In 1hc sphere
of smell., is also perceietl br 1he other sen><.'1. We can taste it,
touch it, see it. and it. \Vater. or the state of "formation" of
1hings. represents 1hc spheo c of taste. We can hear i1, sec i1, touch
il, taste it, but never smell iL Fire, or the s1:a1 e of "tmnsrormation"
of 1hings, represenu 1he sphcc of vision. We can hear i1. touch
il. see il, bu1 neer 1as1e it or smell it. Air, or 1he of "con
ception" o f 1hings, rcpresenu the sphere of 1ouch. We can hear
i1, touch it, but we cannm :. i1. taste i1 or smtll it. Finallr. e1her,
or the "vibra<ory" s1a1e of 1hings, represems 1he sphere of hear
ing. <he most subtle since il <>eapes all 01her sense>.
It goes withoul saying 1ha1 we neer perceie 1he spheres of
pure ekmenu, and thai all our perceptions apply 10 the nates
o( .. mauer" in which one without the othe.n
being comple1ely absem. The fact 1ha1 in prac<ice we clo not per
ceive ex1ernal sounds excc1Jt 1hrough vibra1ions of o1her elemenu,
is merely a deficiency of our cx1ernal organs ami doesn't change
the fact that, een 1hus limited. hearinv; remains the only direct
percep1ion we hae of a pure vibratory stale. The 01her senses
produce perce;>tions of vibrAiory Slales whido are more and more
comple.x and thertfore more difficult to unders1and and <o an>lyze.
The ibrations of sound are the forms of pereep1ion close.t to the
primary n ate of cosmic manifestation. The vibraiOI) Slalcs which
give birth to the world cannot be dilferen1ia1etl from 1hought.
Crea1ion is conceived as a menial vibra1ion, which is the 1houg,ht
of 1he universal beinl( :ond which composes a world which is
nothing bu1 a manifes1:11ion of menial cne<l(y; a 1hougln which
appears as a reali1y precisely or the limiiS of sensor)' pcr-
ceplion o f lhe indivitlu:ol consciousness or livinjt beinv;s. Sound,
even in iu grosses. most limilcd fom1, is no1 only the vehicle of
1hought but the image of iu in1rinsic nature. For 1his reason
1hrough 1he .inlenne<li>r)' of sound, 1hroujth the Word, 1he uuer-
ance, knodedge is exprc:..e.l. reveluions are made manifes1. And
b)' sound also, all is conditioned, fonned, anti faJhioned.
Sound is the ins1rumcn1 of all deelopmenl. The effect of sound
upon human consciousnw is therefore fundamen1al.
Pure vibration, organized exprwion and vehicle or thought,
is percched by us in 1wo fornu; <he musical languav;e and the
spoken language. These 1wo forms of langu:ge, c.losely linked wilh
each other. are not arbitrary. Ceruin sound rela1ions, cenain
syllabic uniu, are 1he ibr-tory expressions of certain eoncepls.
The more music anti langu:.ge approach these forms of the true
lngua.gc, the more imrnediale and profound is <heir ellec1. When
lhe .ound or words or or chords deviates from the form or the
l:uogu:.ge, &heir eflect becomes weaker and is 1hen perceived
only by a menial mechanism which reconstrucu, occonling to
22
thc:M: )) lllbuls which have now become oubitrary, the genuine n:
huion.s which con.nitute the idea.
H in certain rile) we usc rormulas articulated to correspond
to certain <..'OSrnit C: nlilics, we immC1.1iatcly enter into contact with
them. T his is why uuwtrns or magiral rnnnulas are an essential
dement or all rites.
Simil:1rly. ir we set up in music hannonia which
with sufficienr exactness )Cntiment.s or emotions. we are
immediately with tha.c M!IHimcms ur emotions. T his
is the first role or IIUI'ii C. The U.;c or inexact or arbitrary sound
formulas is mere ply. which is perh:tps hannless, but whidt may
be penetrttting us with intluenccs which we cannot master, and
\'thich may be injurious to our intern31 l'tluilihrium, ancl to the
harmonious tlevclnpmem ur our thinki ng.
The true lnnguage. the original language, is syllabic, formed
in man or mon<>Syllables cmresponding to the different pos.ibilities
or articulation. These :tre: relative pitdt (five steps of sou!'d, re
duce<l to three in nt(>St l:tnguagcs in w1c today); the sourul shapes
of vowels determined by the five plac<'S o( vocal emissions above
and in combination; :uul the interruptions o[ sound or consonants,
which permit us to :uac:k ur to lca\'C the vowels in the five steps
or articulation. Ccrt:ain consonants may combine, the syllables may
be naoali>.ed or aspir:ttccl. T he number of monosyllables Conning
the vocabulary or the lnnguagc is almost indefinite.
One 111antra like STRI NG, l"or ex:unplc, representing the feminine
principle, is COmposed of lK! VCn clements o( articul<ttion.
The effect or thew syllables upon our inner being is COO
siderable H they arc frequently repeated. They let penetrate into
us, little by little, the princi ple that 1hey rcpoesen1, and conse-
quently rctr:ansforrn our personal ity. The practitc of mmrtm rcpeti
tion is one or the major exercises in yog:t.
The music.1l language presents divisions parallel comple
mentary to those or spoken language. It represents a more abstract
fonn of language, in which we perceive the sound manifestation
or numerical relationships, conesponcling to ideas or sentiments.
Music, therefore. plays an imponant role in the knowledge and
perception we can have or the mechanisms of thought and of
seruation, since it permiu us to realize clirectly that thought and
sensation are probably mathematical operations. In fact we only
perceive rela1ioru between luminous frequendeJ, auditory or other,
but we percehe them as if there were distinct clements whidt we
call colors, substances, forms or chords. It is through music !hat
we rctti\'C the most tJircc1 -rhe.)(! relarions e,oke
sem.imems in us, but we r.w , w :. ccr1ain cxlern,
their Uf IIICIH3J t::UCU, :mtJ WC t.an t:Hflsidcr lhCI'll
tht'llht hn iu tilt ,d,,ll,u t
lnlfvence of Sound on Consdovsnen
23
There cxiSL, therefore, two types o( musical theories and analy-
oc. Those which start from the psychologica l effect of intervals
and of rhythms, according to the sentiment which it provokes in
w ; and those which start from their purely physical relation, their
numerical relation, anti their harmony phenomena. In the first
case, we would speak or sad or gay chords, exalting, depressing.
lender or cruel, harmonies; in the other case, of consonance or
diuonance, harmony, equilibrium, of form, etc. These two ap-
l>roaches lead to different musical systtms. The first makes of music
an instrument or psychological action, capable of modifying our
Internal equilibrium. The other tends to make an abstract art,
an architecw.re o sound, which may have high aestheric or evoc
ltive value, but in which the psychol<lj(ical :action is weak and
without lasting va lue.
The principal system conceived as a means of psychological
letion capable or bringing important modifications in our intemal
equilibrium, our sentiments, our ideas, is constituted by music
which we may ca.ll modal, in the scrue we give to this word when
we tali'. about Greek, Pcn;ian, or Hindu music. T his system is
b.ued upon the fact, easi ly verifiable, that certai n very definite
aound relations arc perceived by us as having a certain emotional
color. At fin;t, this perception may be very vague, especially if
our musical habits iruervene with all sorts of purel y mental artistic
conventions. But it is undeniable that this perception exists. Jn.
tervals we classify at first roughly, into gay or sad. active or
pat.Sive, soft or hard, calm or restless, etc. It is onl y through re-
peated and systematic use of very precise intervals that we will
begin to distinguish the psychological effect of intervals, which
may be very close to each other, but which have in the long run
1 definite and tli.stinct act ion upon our sensibili1y, crcaring in us
the most diverse "states or the soul."
In modal music one establishes fi rst a base, a point or reference
absolutely fixed, represented by a continuing or a frequentl y re-
peated sound, which is called the Tonic. All the intervals of a
mode are <-stablishcd with reference to this Tonic. After this one
looks in the scale of sound frequencies for certain perceptible
points which form with the Tonic easily anal)'lable relationships.
These points will be the notes or the mode. We will see that these
pC!'rceptible points are quite numerous and have very distinct effects
upon uur perception. Ucpcn<.ling on th\= tlesirctl clfect. the relative
f'lllh ul tlu: nol c) of the 1n<xlc:, :thould therdore be :at.ljus1ed.
:ulju)tmcms may be C)tahli:,lu.>tl litdc hy liule ahrough ex-
JH! Iicucc.:. but they 111ay alw Uc :tnalytcd in MICh :1 way that they
c.w 1"'-" ddlllnl.uitlllllclicall) .. uulrcptt)4hH .. l'tl :tl will.
I u .1 IIIU\it .tl 1"-'dUIIH.IIIH'. mtl.,.dit u1 h.tt nwn it In I HI\ :1 1 c
It) lllu\ hom u 1u pui111 to .t l utllu r un llw '' .dt
24
chosen for the mode. Since the Tonic is fixed, the same note will
always correspond to the same sound, the same sound frequencies
will evoke the same relations, and hence, the same senriment. This
consistency is very important ror the action to be effecti,c. It is
then that the )>S)'Chological aclion begins. No mauer wh:u music
it is, we can recognize, more or less vaguely, the emotional color
of an inrerval. but in mo<lal music this i ntCI'Val. repl't'Scnted
by the same frequency, the same sound, is constantly repeated.
\ Ve rhus becon1c more ;md more sensitive to il. Like the drop of
water of the Chinese torture, this sound always hiu the same point
of our auditory system. We become conS<: ious of its precision, of its
color, of i ts meaning. i n an extraordinary way, and aher a certain
time, we are emotionally conditioned by the sound complex which
the differem notes of the mode represent. The idea, generally ac-
cepted in the Oricm, but also supported by Plato :ond AriSIOtle,
that ccnain modes i ncite vinuc others debauchery. is not at
oall imaginctry. To convince on(:sclf or chis it is suffiCient to sec
even coday the audience o an lndi;m ur Persian concen being
shaped by the pcrfom1c1, assuming murc :mc.l more the s.:unc ex
pression, the s;nne a<..-c, mo\ing as if hypnotized by the
musician, who canies them away in the direction in which he
throws himself. toward a veq intense CIHf)tional state, in which
he himself is completely immersed.
We can sec that slight between imenals. which i n
other systems may appear negligible, play a considerable role in
those musical ronns whose aim it is to act systematically on the
J>s)chc, and nor to construcc vague struct ures whid1, follo\\ing
convcncion
1
we rcg;trd as aesthetic, btu which complecely lack any
marked psychological effect. One can, moreover, determi ne certai n
laws of frequency relationships which act strongl y on our
sensibility, :nul classify them accordi ng to categories i n which
The rc.-l:uions between musical sounds are detenniried by ratios
bct"ccn aheir rrtquencies. Thus. an octa\'C represents :. double (requenq,
a fifth corresponds to a ratio o( 2 to 3, etc. These ratios between 10und
lrequencies arc percehcd directly. juu as we percti\' e :1 square or a tri
angle, providtd the numbers imohed in the ratios do not go beyond the
6 (limit ol non\'t f bal couming) and the 1impte o(
the fint four prime numben.
According to the prime numbers used in the structure ol intervals,
different basic u:alc:1 can be built which have distinct psycho-semantic
contents. i.e . crt-ate differenc emotional reactions.
A t)pical example of thac difftrt-nces apJ>ean in the ma,ior third.
The major third can be "Pythgorean," i.e., built on muhiplt'S or 5/2.
It is chen a p;art of the cycle o( 6hhs used in tuning instruments
(C C I) A E). Rut the m:ajor third c;.n abo be "harmonic," that is. huih
on the r.uio Sj 2. '11e intcn31 lxtween 1hoc t"' O m:.jor thinls is c:tll(.d
" c.) UIHII.I tfit)is." It COI'ft'SpmuJs In or :!1.5 ({'Ill" ( 10() LCII h maJ.a :t
lnlluonco of Sound on Consclousnou
25
certain prime numb(,n sttm to play a major role. b(,comes
then a very powerful psychothe ra pclllic method. :uul we will ob-
senc COn\'CC'SCI)' that musical systems in which the interval is
imprecise, badly defined or on erroneous basc:s, may
create strange nervous disorders, :uul in an)' case atrophy our
sensithily to sound stimuli, wi1h c:tsil y obsevablc physical, psy-
chological, a nd re.uh<. On the other hand. musical
rmlucation using the repetition of precise intcrnls has an effect
with appreciable medical applications. Moreover, this effect is
not peculiar to man. Experimerus which have h<. -en made \\'ith
plants and animal have appa rentl y yielded very interesting resuhs.
The precision of the interval is essential for its efficacy. This
can !>(, recogni>.cd today through technical means which greatly
facilitate experimcntouion. It is unly when the lx-comes
ClOtnplctely iowohed and taken by the sentiment of the mode, that
he can de\tlop ,:uffie:ient prcchion :u the end o{ a certain amount
of playing. Thi explai ns the i ntcnninable preludes of the Indo-
Iranian music. The mu>ician plays at the outset with a very ap
proximate precision. h is only little by little when he is seized
by the sentiment of the mode that his play !>(,comes precise, in a
way that seemo incoediblc if one '"" not yet hd the experience.
The audience, whid1, until now, only listened ' 'ague!). was agitated,
talked, appears all of a >Uddcn to !>(, ubjugatt'tl, magnetited, by
a aort of magic abilil)' or .souncls. According to mtasurc-rncnu which
1 was able to make, the intervals :ore exact to a hundredth of a
comma. Measures made i n monthly intervals gave absolutely
identical results. We will understand the importance of this pre
c:ision if we consi<ler. for example, that the so-callt,J l'ythagorean
third, obtained by the C)'cle of fifths, and corresponding. there
fore. to a frequenc)' ration of 3'/ 2" or 81/ 64 is an :octi\-e intcnal,
brilliant , enterprising, glorious, intrepid, cxahing; whereas the
The :artificial "tcmpc:red" m:a jor third of the piano 1e2le is
about halfway between the two "n:uurnl" thirds.
There is :another comma spoken of in cechnical litcratur<' . It is the
tytJtagore-.m cnmm:t" which rcprCKnts the difference bct"'cen an octave
and the 12ah of tch-c w cca si\'t: fihhs . .. n1i1 comma rorrOJ>Onds to
S"/2' or 2S .. S rtnU.. The Pythagornn c-omma. h0'4' C\"t T, i1 lJIC)ond the
limits of our of analyt ir:.l :md lun no r(:ality
In mwic, th(' comma din l.s h :.u 1 r1 o( tht mt nt.:al
1hrough which we a n:lyte. cla.uify ::. nd intc:rprt' C mta.."ica l
a nd i.s therefore the only Jo,:;ic::t l h:..5is fo r the t-st:. hlislunc:nt of
mut.ic.:l sc:lcs :wd of a musica l nw<:buluy. The tC':mJK' rtcl sca le
i.t. h)' the (2/ 1) inw 1wtlw t'(JU.d
or c.ult h.11f COIW is i ll IC' I.Hin n tu Cit(' pn, iuu\ t'UU' , \\Tc
h .lhC' lit' IIU' III.! I II tC't l ld ll hHI Ill i t ltuti l y \ tu h .1 II UIIIC' I i(.t ) l ' lll i l\ \\
1
(' tltr l r
l 111 r i lltf' lftl t I rlu h tll)"' t n l lt.t ll li!ll t ' ' . t 11111 .. l t u n r fun tt
ul tl u l lt".t lt '' t u ltu.tl 111 h 1\..t l
SQ-cdlcd harmonic major third corrt'$()()1lc.ling to a frc(tucncy ratio
of 5/ 2
2
or 5/ 4 i5 a tender interva l, affcclionatc, peaceful. c;1lming.
pas.she, relaxing. T he difference between these two intervals is
only one conuno. a cliff,rrr1C"'t' \,hir h may .st('m a lmos1
to us. If we then li.SC the theoretical interval or the so-called l CID
pcrcd major third, corresponding to a lr<'<lue nC)' ratio ol 4./.;2.
which is irucrmcdiatc between the other two, it can only have a
very vague cf'lcct. Ol' cvcu create a sort of fluctu:uion, a ncnous
dhnarbanee, as we try unconsciously to identify it with one or the
other o the two real interval.; which surround ic. The tempered
intCr\'als will moreo\er always remain very approximate because
we aPintrcmly tin not ha\'C an audiomcmal :app;aratus which
would pcn11it us to anal)'lC multiples of \12. To make the in
cxactitutlc a nti the painful effect ur the M.><allctl tempered intcnai!O
hc:trablc one has to mask llacm with the :1id uf )(ntnd clouds, ob
t:tined by adding to the wwut, thc fund:unent :al muhiplcs ,cry
dose one w :mother: (the three s1rings nf the piano, the double
reed stopi of the hannnnium, etc.) Ot' b) the means or string
,ibr.uos. ThtM" weaken 1hc emotional color o the
intcna ls 10 surh :1 that o ne cncoun1ers today musici:ms and
musicologists who deny that musical imcrvals have by 1hem.selves
any other than ;1 purely con\'cntion:tl meaning. Thus, we attribute
10 the Minor mode a more mclandmly ch;aracter than to the Major
modc- a.s limited a:. thi) char.u_tcr may be- because we hear the
fonncr used more in runcr.il and the Iauer more for
maniages. It gvcs without saying that it is sufficient for any one
In hear an instrument onlr once '",. hich giv('S precise 10
realize the expressive rc:dit )' u[ the intervals :ucnnling-
t o certain very defi nite ari1hmc1iral relations . Moreover, we find
ag;ain t he same i nterv:als in :dl of music in the instrumentalist
as '''ell as in the singer. when the performer feels emotion.
\ Ve can 10ee. thcrcrorc, that the of auditory per
rcp1ion an<l r th( anal y1ir mcttl :tl JH' rccrui,n wlt id, t' nt rf''J:wtul,
to it, permits snurHis to act throuJ(h rcpcr ition upon our incernal
personality. to transform our scnsibil it )'. nur w:\y of thinkin)t, the
stat e or our soul, :t tatl even our mora l rh:trartcr. is ttue of
music, where arithmetic (or rather, h armonic) Crequcncy r:nios,
b:uctl on the cnmbinatiurh nf ccn:tin spedfi r numbers, which our
ncmal mechanism permits lb tu rcco$tnitc and w an:tl)te. produce
considerable effects o n our psycho-physiolcl-Rical condition. This is
also true, although less directly, lor language, where the repetition
of certain S) llablcs corresponding 10 specific idea'\, produces a
lliCntal uti)iJCcl :1S o ne o the (undantCIII:tl met hod"
or yoga.
Tran'\ btt,( b) P:w l ll uclmt'r :uhl R:dph
A HIGH YOGIC EXPERIENCE
ACHIEVED WITH MESCALINE
JOHN BLOFELD
PRIOR TO THE XPRIMNT described here, 1 had entertained some
doubts as to the claims of Aldous Huxley and others, which imply
that mescaline can induce yogic experiences of a high order. The
experiment took place on 25 May, 1964 (Visaka Puja) at my
Bangkok house under the supenision of Mr. Jonathan Stoker,
who had had previous experience (direct and as an observer) of
the cllccu of mescaline.
At 9.50 a.m., I took a half-dose (0.25 gr.). For some time there
were no remarkable ellects- nothing but a slightly heightened
sense of color and fonn, as exemplified by the vividness of the
patterns seen upon my eyelids when I closed my eyes after gazing
through the open slats of a Venetian blind. At 10.40, an unpleasant
ll:Hc of mental tension supervened. I found myself involved in a
nruggle to preserve a hold on my "1," which seemed to be in
process or disintegration. This schizophrenic effect was accom-
panied by a sensation of cold (although the temperature in the
room must have been about 90 F.) and by an increasing lethargy
which discouraged the smallest action. After awhile. these un
pleasant symp10ms abated anti I was able to enjoy attending to
what was happening to me.
At 11.10 a.m., I took the second half-dose (0.25 gr.). Shifting
colors and forms danced upon my closed eyelids. Some of these
were patterns of great intricacy, such as those which embellish
certain partS o f sacred buildings- mosques, temples, etc.-or sacred
objects of various kinds. These elaborate patterns were abstract,
lloral, ClC.; figures of deities, humans or animals formed no part
of them. I recognized each one for wh:u it was- Islamic, Tibetan,
Indian, Siamese; but now, for the fi rst time, I s..w.: them not 3J
~ r b i t r r y decorations but as profoundly mea ningful. I felt that,
in spi te of belonging to widely varied traditions, they were all
equally "valid" and all derived from a single source.
Presently, I tried to visualize the Tibetan Mandala o the
l'eaceful Deities, but succeeded only in conjuring up some ratl>e.r
metallic-looking demons; although they were far from frightening
and not even very life-like or realistic (being something of a cross
l>ctwtt n mcral srawcs and living bei ngs), they did convey to me
(as thouJ.!:h nHKkingly) th:u to expect a profound religious ex
pC'rkmc: :1ti a rc,ull of t.tking nw)>ral inc w::.s too presumptuous.
27
28
Soon after that, the sensation of a rapidly fragmenting per
sonality returned to me with frightening force. I grew alarmed
for my sanity and should ha,e hastened to take an antidote for
the mescaline had one been available. T hough J. S. persuaded me
to eat some lunch, I was in no condition to enjoy it. By then,
things seen and heard presemcd themselves as independent visual
and aural experiences with no seer and hearer to link them into
one of those single compositions which, at any given moment, form
the content of normal consciousness. The food went down my
throat as usual, but it seemed to be disappearing into a receptacle
connected with me only to the extent that it was too near to
visible. The mental stress grew agonizing. My fear ol permanent
madness increased and I suffered especially from the feeling of
having no inner self or center u consciousness into which to
retreat lrom the tension and take rest. An additional discomlort
was the sensation of bright ligfus shining now and then from
behind me, as though someone were standing there fticldng a
Hashlight off ami on. The movements of my man-scr\ant, who
came in several limes with dishes of food, sweets and coffee, oc
casioned great uneasiness. Whenever he was out of sight, I felt
he might be standing behind me for some vaguely sinister purpose;
and, since he knew nothing of the experiment, I was alraid he
would suppose that I w;os mad. Doubtless anyone else's uninvited
presence would have made me e<1ually distntstlul and uneasy-
though I was not bothered at all by the company of J. S., because
he was "in the know" and I felt the need of a nurse or guard.
No words can describe the appalling mental torment that
continued for well over an hour. All my organs and sensory. ex
periences seemed to be separate uni ts. Theile was nothing left of
me at all. except a sort of disembodied sufferer, conscious of being
mad and racked by unprecedented tension. There seemed no hope
of being able to escape this tormre-certainly for many hours. per-
haps forever. Hell itself could hardly be more terrifying.
At about I p.m .. I dragged myself to my bedroom, shut myself
away from everyone like a sick animal ami fell on my bed.
In my extremity, I suddenly made a total surrender and called
upon my ldam.
1
Come madness or death Ol' anything whatever, I
would accept it without resef\ation il onl y I could be freed from
the tension. For the first time in my life I ceased to cling- to cling
to self, loved ones. sanity, madness, li fe or death. My renunciation
lin the Vajrayana it is taught that nil "deities," and therefore a man's own
!dam (in-dwelling deity). arc products of his and that when
tonsciousness i :s, unimpcdcrl hy the karmic: incnnt<at ious ldt by a he SC"nsory
t'Xpt"ricnces t"nrount<"rt'tl during a long succcs.-.ion o f l ives. it is S('('n to
he not the pmpcrl)' of the irulhi(holl hut ('c,unmuu to :dl IK the sole
ff':t licy in all uni\crsc. (Cf. C. C: .. \\' i lliam .J:IIH('l'l :111d o-1tiH'r.;. wh05<'
md usions S("' IU HJ 14'ntl in rhi:\ tl in'f'liun .) lh'utt' 'i, l lv:uiun
:uul "ollln 1uwn (t ;,"I. kit its. , .,,.. ) : ,. in l :u 1 ikn1 j, .,I Tl " " :1 tutal
Yoslc Experie nce W/1/t MescaliM 29
,., myM:If ;mtl its components w:e) \.41 cumplete as w conslitulc :an
aa ul unaii'))'Cd t rust i n Ill)' ltltuu.
\Vi 1hin a llash, my state was uucrl)' tr;msfonnet.l. From hellish
torment, I pl ung.:'l i nto l'ut:")- :W corasy infi nitely exceeding
anything \lcM.-ribablc ur :anytlling I h;.H.l imagiuc...-d from "'hat the
World' OJC<VIllplishcd lll)Sti<> ha\'C struggled lO describe. Su1ld<nly
lh<:r< full awarcm.- of three great truths which I had
Ions acc:epted intellectually but ne,er, unt il that moment, ex
a being fully >"If-evident. 1'nw they had burst upon
not ju)t a.s imellectual COn\ictions, but as cxprricncn no less
vlitl and t:ongiblc than OJ rc hc:H :o ml light to a man clo.cly sur-
roundl11 by :o forest fire.
I. There was awarenl'$S of urulilfcremiatetl uni ty, embracing the
prrlec:l identi ty ol subject anti nbjcct, of singleness and plurality,
ol the One an<l the M:my. T hus I found myself (il indeed the
wont. " I" and "my>"lf" h:I\'C :ott)' meaning i n such a context) at
once the audience, the actors :m<l the play! Logic:olly the One can
1lve birth tu the :lhny :nul the M:ony c:nt merge into the One or
be furt<lamcntalfy bUl not appao'eutf) identical with it; they cannot
be itt all rcsf>et:IJ one anti n>;nly simultaneously. But now logic
w .. lran>eended. I beheld (ancl m)sel was) a whi rling maS$ of
llrllllam colors and lomu which. being ..,,cral colors ami SC!\'Cnl
forml, were dilfercnt from uuc another- and yet altngethcr the
M"' e at the ' 'ery moment ul dilftrcm! I tluubt if t his state
Matt can be made 10 seem meani ngful a t the nrdin:rr lc\'cl or
No wmulcr the o all aiths teach that
COill(."S only when lugic an' I imellcc1 ;uc uansc:cmlcd l
I any case, this t ruth, e\'t'n i at ;111 ordinary Je,cl of cnnsdousncss
k cannot be unde-rstood, can, in a higher state o cora.scinusncss.
dlr""tly cxp.oicncnl as sclkviolem. Logic also boggles at trying
10 n plain how I could at once pnuii!C and yet be those colors
alkl t hose lonns, how the the Jeeing and the seen, the feeler,
tile fulittg and the felt couhl a ll be one; but, to me, all this was
oo dearl y >"If-evident as to >uggc>t the words "childishly simple!''
2. Simuh:o neously, there w:u awareness of unuuerablc bliss,
coupled "'ith the conviction that this was the ouly real ;uul eternal
11a1e of being. all othcos (including nur entite experience i n
1he claytc>chy worlcl) being no more than p:ossing clrcams. This
bUn , I ;un cun,inct'tl. aw;tits all beings \\'hen the last \'(!)tigts of
thrir 'l'ltlu"Ml ha\'c lxl'll tk .. trn)l"<l -ur. <t) in this case, l l'I'II] Xtrarily
...-rnwlf't of f'U'I-, ,-nriltt' of tht" 'ir1f f'"An t:lt" tht" of to ""hal
.. "' ln.J.k-'' 111 /n1, fur '':ttutl.-). u1 111 h a l - Q'Iu,H:k'' ( a' 111 \ tnidiMn
..,. ) I hf' ld'"" 111 " iuhff'lhuK '"''"; i' "nnu\lnuu" with tl1r Udaiu:al
fli hur ul / rtl f ,mol "-'llh thr llnh C:huol o f ( ,llli\HJIIII\\, 1\ J Hltl
t"l" hil h I tn\ uuml _ .tolmu.tl oh 111\ij k .u 11l ttlll 'llt .. , 1t1r> "'' If
...,,.,ltf 1hr ..,It 11 l!#'\ullol ,til Inti , \ir\<lt'ot llw 1r.1 l
.. ,.,._ I ll lllf ,' 11 1\ 11"11 ''"' \If' \<! I ol , 1\ 11111\l' l'.tl," I I 1\ I ll ,. ""' ll'lf'
IIUi ololl' Ill IOOol!\ tt lu,ll
30
THE I'SYCHEDELIC IEVIEW
diJcarded. It was so intense as to make it seem likely that body
and mind would be burnt up ir1 a nash. (Yet, though the state of
bliss continued for what I later knew to be three or four houn,
I emerged. from it unscathed.)
8. At the same time came awareness of all that is implied by
the Buddhist docuine ol' ''tlhanuas; namely, that all things,
whether objects of mental or of sensory perception, arc alike devoid
of own-being, mere l.ransitory oombinations of an infinite number
of impulses. T his was as fully apparent as are the individual
bricks to someone staring at an unpla5tered wall. I actually ex-
perienced the momemary rising of each impulse ami the thrill of
culmination with which it immediately ceased to be.
I shall now attempt to describe the emire experience in terms
of sensory perception, though not without fear that this will cloud
rather than illumine what has been said; for the content of my
experience, being suprasensory and can hardly
be made understandable in terms originally coined to describe
the mental and physical content of ordinary perception.
Reality, it stems to me in retrospect, can be \'ieweU as a
"plasma" of no intrinsic color or form that is ne,ertheless the
"substance" of all colors and all forms. Highly charged with ' hid
consciousness, energy and bliss, it is engaged in eternal play. Or
it can be viewed not as plasma but as an endless succession of
myriads of simultaneou impulses, each of which ari""" like a
wave, mounts and t.lissolves in bliss within an instant. The whirling
colors and shapes which result produce certain effects that recall
fl ashes of rare beauty seen in pictures, dreams, or in the world of
normal everyday consciousness; it can be dcclucc<l 1 hat the latter
are in fact faint reflections of this eterni l beauty. (I remember
recognizing a well-loved smile, a wellremembere<l gesture of un-
common beauty, etc., though I percehed no lips to smile, no arm
to mo\'e. It wa as though I bebeld and recognized the e\'erlasting
abstract quality to which such tr.lllsient smiles and gestures had
owed their charm.) Again, Reality can be viewed as a god dancing
with marvelous vigor, playfull y, his every movement producing
waves of bliss. From time to time he makes stabbing movements
with a curved knife. At every stroke, the bliss becomes intense. (I
remember that the plunging knife made me cry aloud: "That's
itt That's rightl Yes, yes, YESIII"). Or else Reality can be viewed
as a whirling mass of light, brilliant color, movement and gaiety
coupled with unuuerdble bliss; those who experience it cannot
refrain from laughing cries of "Yes. yes, YES! Ji a ha hal That's
how it is! Of course, of course!'' (1 !eh as though, after many
years of anxious search for the answer to some momentous prob-
lem, I "'as suddenly confronted with a solution so wholl y satisf)'
t Analogou.s lO eleclrical chargct.
:I" Ondti
Yo11ic Experience Wi th Mescaline 31
"C anti so entirely simple that I h a.t to burst o ut laughing. I
WAJ consci ous of imrncnsc joy ami of i ncredulous amazement at my
uwn stupidit y in having taken so long to discover the simple truth.)
\ Yithin 1his ''play o the there is endless ghring ancl
receivi ng- though giver, gift and receiver arc o coul'se the same.
It lo '" though two deities (who are ')et o ne) are locke.t in ecstatic
t:mbrucc. giving: and recei ving with the bandon or adoration. (The
Tibetan YabYum representations of d eities hint at this. The artists
who pa int them must be forgi ven for their inability to indicate
thlt gi,.er ami receiver arc not onl y one but lom1less; though,
lo,1ec."tl , some artists manage w suggest the oneness by blending
the figures so well that the Yum is not seen unless the picture is
prolonged ami careful scrutiny.) Durin!( the experience, I
Wh identical with 1he giver, the r ecei ver and the incl'ed iblc
1&vcn and received. There is no1hing sexual about this union:
It lo formless, the bliss is all per,.;u.ling, ami p:i ver and receiver,
a lvlng :mt l receiving arc nm two but one. It is Hnly in attempting
IH tottuey the experience that the imagery of sexual joy suggests
rn perhaps coming a little closer tha n other imagery to Lhc
Mta or an ccstouic union in whirh two :trc one.
Some of the concl usions I tlrcu frnm the whnlc experience
1e follows:
u. Feur and anxiet y as to our ultimate destiny are setr
I11Hictecl tonncnt>. By energetic:ally brcakinp: <lown the karmic
which give rise to the illusion o f an ego ami of in
lllwldual sep:arateness, we shall hast en the time when Reality is
ami all hindrances to ecst a tic bliss remo,ed - unl<:$5 Bod
... tva\tt'isc, we compassionatel y prolong our wanderings in Sam
110 to lead other beings to that goal.
b. The world around us- so often gray-is the product of our
11 d istorted vision, of our t'gOconsciousncss and egoclinging.
y OJt lng :away our selves t ogethe r with all longings. desires,
ll"llhln a nd properties that pen ai n to them, we c;m utterly de
uoy the illusory egos which alone bar us from the ecstatic bliss
ol u niversal consciousness. The key is total renunciation; but this,
,I cannot oft en be achie,cd by a single effort of will because
ch of us is hemmed in by a hard shell or karmic propensities. the
lruh of rn:tn y, ma ny misspe nt li ves. T he three fires o desire,
Pl"lon and ignor.mce are hard to quench-and yet they would
be qutnchcd in ::Ill inst am could we bu t make and sust ain an act
of totnl rt nu ncia tion. Such an act eannot result from effort or
because t hese ,,ould i nvoh e our egos and t hus ot cwally
\tiC!IIgt htn them. Thus, in the ultimate st age. C\' Cil effort and
for Nin:-1na rnu!ii t l>t: alxmlonltl together \\' ith e,cr) t hiriK
f'IW' Thit ;, ;1 ll u t h h;ud 10 umlehl ;nHI.
r Thr Htuld h:, CX(lC'I ituc c indic .th''l 11.:.1 , wlwu EnlighH.' II
ment (i.e., full awarCil(,.,; or that blissful Re;olity whose attributes
include inconceivable wisdom, compassion, light. beaut)' energy
and gaiety) is obtained in this lire, it is possible to continue carry-
ing out human responsibilities, as required, responding
to circumstances as they arise and yet be lrcc of them all . So it
is wilh a tcdcntcd actor who, in the pan of Romeo, weeps real
tears; when his grief for Juliet threatens to O\'erwhelm him, he
can withdraw inwardly from his role long enough to recollect the
unreality of Juliet and her death, and yet continue to give the
same fine performance as before.
d. A single glimpse of what I s;ow should be enough to call
fort h unbounded affection for all living beings: for, however ugly,
smelly or tiresome they may seem, all that is real about them is
that gloriously blissful shining consciousne-.s which formed the
center of ffi)' experiencr. Hatretl , dislike, disdain, aversion for
any being sharing that C.onscwusness (i.e., any being at all) muot
amount to blasphemy in one who has seen 1\c ing itself.
It may be objected th;ot my description of the txperience is
too closely reminiscent of Vajrayana imagery and that wh;ot I
perceived was not Reality ;11 all, but a mere subjecti,e illusion
based on the content of my previous studie-s ;oml practices. The
answer tO this objection is that, as .-\lclous Huxley broughi oui so
well in his "Perennial Philosophy," in all ages and all countries
everyone who has undergone a profound mystical experience-
even though in essence it\ content is apparently the same in every
case-has been compelled to fall back on the imagery of his co-
religionists or nf those for whom he writes: the experience itself
is so unlike anything known to us in ordinary states of conscious
ness there arc no words to describe it. while my own
exp<!rience full y confim1ed what my Vajmyana teachers had taught
me, it was much too foreign to my previous understanding of those
teacltings to have been a subjective illusion based on them.
As to how it happens that a dose of mescaline can make such
an experience possible to someone who has nnt yet attained it by
the profound anti prolonged practice of yogic meditation-! just
do not know. The way I explain it to my own satisfaction is that
the effect of mescaline is to free the consciousness temporarily
from the obstacles to true l'ealization of unhcrsal unity nonnally
imposed by that karmic structure which each of us takes to be
his "individual self. " I helic,-e that psychologists of C. G . .Jungs
school would have no difficulty in expressins-: this idea in terms
more scientifically acceptable. Indeed, if one of them chances to
read this article, I shall be grateful if he will elucidate my mesca-
line experience in scientific terms fo1 the sake o f 1hose not pre
parecl 10 accept m)' nl) 'Hic:-tl :111cl qua<i reliJtious explana
tion Of iiS f Onltlll.
MOIRE PATTERNS AND
VISUAL HALLUCINATIONS
GERALD OSTEI
IWi ti'IO nt PAST FEW YEARS I have been concerned with the
Kltnt l6c well as the aesthetic' aspectS of moire patterns. Moire
poutrnt arc the figu res produced by the overlapping of two or
-e famili es of lines; the locus or points of intersection form
the pattern. My interest in visual hallucina tions as evoked
poychedelic drugs was stimulated by the writings of Aldous
tfulcy. I was particularl y struck by his reference to the fact that
-.ltr the i nOuence of mescaline, patterned structures (i.t ., repeti
" atructures) such as a garden trellis, a striped beach chair, and
pin a ppeared to be p:micularl y exciting. It is as if mescaline
"'' to the fore some screen in the eye whidt, when superposed
11\e vlaual scene, produces a moire pattern. On the basis of this
1llve h)'J>Othesis I proettdcd "' devise experiments, the
which a re reported herei n.
My plan was to view in detail si11gl highl ystructured figures
under the infiuence of LSD. I a lso wished to a.sccrtain the
blc optical origin of reports that under the inRuencc of
llldltldellc drugs objects appear "alive," that space appears full,
that colors are enhanced.
I wa. cognizant of the fact (as reported by Henri Michaux,
others) that the psyched elic experience can be achieved
th the eyes dosed . In order to proceed in an orderly manner, I
lded tha t throughout my experiments I would be concerned
l nly with visua l impressions (i.e., eyes opened) but a few ex
rhncntt were dcvolt"<l 10 impressions with my eyes closed.
In aucndancc during the session was a trained clinical psy
thol0f1ist whv ;ulrninist crc<l 1hc <lrug (75 microgr:nns of LSD25
hlthiVCI.Oluly) ;md Ill )' wi fe, a }Jhysicist who is knowl<: dgcabJc
1bouc nwlrC phenomena, T fiC)' rcporc tha t the session
(ol ' ' " hou r; d,m.ttinn) I ''' :tS ;uul i n Ill)'
fl .. tf(' lll\ , I l l't .tll .HI c xu .mrcl in.rl")' .unuum uf d LI:Iil h ( 1h,1t \(''li,iuu
whit h I t r hrc kcl wi th "" ,,i h. :'\l tt\t u f the " ' ''iuu ...,.,,, clc,utccl
J)
34 THE PSYCHEDEliC REVIEW
to repeuuve viewing of the projection o the figures (transparen
d es) from my moire kit on to a smooth white wall. The pro
jector used was. of the overhead type (Bessler Vu-Graph) which
allows one to move the transparencies about in a horizontal plane.
A complication ar05c because o the choice of this projector in that
it contains a Fresnel lens which intrO<luced a further pauerned
structure. The projected image was about three feet square and
was viewed at a distance of about seven feet. The viewing took
place in a small country cottage free from external noises and all
extraneous objecu were removed from the room and the windows
were curtained with plain paper. During the session I also exam
ined under strong illumination (a 150-wan GE SJ)j)tlamp) the
illustrations in my moire article, and various household objects as
well as eH'ects (for a short period) with my eyes dosed. The session
took place in the afternoon (between the hours of one and seven,
preceded, by the way, by a very light l unch) in which the first four
hours were de\oted to the viewing of the projected images. ,
During the fi rst few hours after the administration of the drug
and especial!)' between the fi rst and second hour there was super
posed on my vision a pleasant undulatory movement which I
timed to be about 0.5 cycles per second (that is, one wave of two
seconds' duration) which could conceivably be associated with the
delta rhythm in electroencephalography.' During the waning
hour (between the fi ft h and sixth hour) of the session I found I
could command myself, so to speak, to revert from the normal state
to the drugged state.
The feeble concentric ring stmcture of the projected image o
the Fresnel lens of the projector, although barely perceptible to
others, (i.e., the psychologist and my wife) wal clearly visible to
me and seemed to be movi ng in and out or thC projection screen.
In addition I was acutely aware o specks on the image (arising
from dust motes ami scrtchcs on the lens of the projector) which
seemed to acquire a three-dimensional character. Those specks
which were defocused appeared further away than the ones which
were sharply in focus. With a little effort I was able to disregard
these background images and to concentrate on the high contrast
transparencies of the moire kit. The figures were examined in no
particular sequence. In fact, throughout the first four hours o the
session all the Lransparencies were re-examined several times.
There was no indica.tion that the apJ>earance of a figure was in
nuenced by being preceded by another figure. In this article the
number designation for a figure is that given in Ill)' book.
The coarse grating (No. I) with straight lines (equispaced
parallel black white bars) vertic;o l showed nothing particularly
unu,)ual e xcept 1h:u 1hc l ines \\'obblcd the.: wnhbling being
Moire l'otrerns ond Holluclnolions 35
:of the usual two-second period. The faintl y-coloted blue and yel-

t.li:amonds which <tre seen under onlimtry conditions (sec ref.
p. 24) arc not cnhanc(-d by LSD. In co111rast, the variable spaced
tlng (logarithmic spaced grating No. ;!) appeaR-.1 rich in de-
l, especially in the yon ions of the figure. The vertical lines
ppured buckled (agam 111 two-second waves) ami were colored,
purple being particularly prominent. Of considerable interest were
the atep markings of this figure. These markings (as individual
llnb) undergo slow successive riS('S :uJ<I falls. The intensity of the
elect (i.e., the amplitude of the displacement in the vertical tlirec-
was measured at various Onc-anc.la-h:dr hours after

he drug was administered, the intensity was the gre.:ucs1; was a
l nimum one hour l ater, rose slight ly again after still amnher
hour. :nul then tr.tilcc.l off. Jn other words. the intensity or the
tltct follow(..'(] the same time<oursc as those obtained for
M'lJC numbers ol persons under LSD who were asked, "Do you
ltcl d i:ay?." Hence by the viewer actually measuring the displace-
Ment of the markings one has a convenicm aml reasonably ,lmulli
l.clve measure o( describing the extent of effect of ouc nr another
fl' )dtedelic drug. It should further follow that the counter-dfects
of tr-anquilizers couhl be evalu;uec.l in this manner.
The figure consisting of <Xl'ispaced concentric ci.-cles (No.
) ahowe<.l rapid movement in the center rings which :1ppearc<l t o
lllrl 01 about ten C)'clcs pet S(-cooHI. Further from the ccnrc.- the
In appeared stationary. The wnc pl:llc (No. 6) which consists
conntric circles of equal areas between the circles (ami hence
-""e closer together as one goes out from the center) cxllibitcc.l
activity in the center portion. In particular, the coarse
aer circle exhibited a siO\\' eccentric gyration ''"hich imparted a
...... .., gelatinous (or highly ' 'iscous) quality to the figure.
The radial figure ( No. 1) consisting or radiating lines ol equal
.... a lt normally a very exciting figure. Staring at it reveals a
rUng pattern produced by the figure with i ts superposed
laced atcr-imagc, the movemcms being due to the sacc:adic
--woluntary) movements of the eyeball. Under LSD this figure
no more features than are s-cn under nonnal conditions.
Tllb lack of feature with LSD provides " cl ue as to the nature ol
lllc ICI'een whicl1 seems to be brought to the fore under the in-
l &ttncc or the drug. The moire phenomenon is ll'IOSt pronounced
when the lines of the two superposed figures make a small :mglc.
when 1he lines are :u right angles no moirC pattern is
Si nce t he r:adia l figure produn:d no .special cnect under
1."1) J CCJIIduclc 1ha1 lhC Sli'Ct:ll or the C)'e is :1 rircular figu re (and
o rllru)tu n:"t l In llu. l ouli :el fiAUH'). ll i,tulngica l slmli(.; of the
htillllUI (o vc a u (tht pni ut ol l". tliuu o t1 1lu rc1i11:t) rc.vt:el.; t hai it
CMONO KtfNHOC CO
tAUt NGJON. N J M()tU PAllft"' N() J
SCH"tft,t( CO
N J
f DMUNI) $CI(NWI( CO
SA.UINOJON, N J
M()lff I'AH UN NO '
X t).:.tltH or tltt (IICIII.If figurf" 11"4
" ,t ll,t l l'\ll, ttctH' 111 'llltlll.ttt' I .SJ) cfft
Moire Pollerns ond Holluclnolions 37
Ia ClltircJy uf COilC) (the illumin:llinn light rccCp
) o.ch of which is connected by indi"idual ner,es which le:HI
the optic ucn c \i:t the " blintl ul ahc C)Cba ll. The
In front uf rhc cones, i.e .. the light rccci\'Ctl is imcrccpt{:d by a
)tr of ncn e filx:rs (N. H. this region of the retina is lrce uf
t,,llaria). ncnc wuultl be CXJM:Ctec.l 10 CUt\ ' C out and
ueml 1he ruvc:a to produce a Mll'l'll of Ctlr\'Ctl line:.
hlth can be approxim;Hctl :ts a figure cmbisting ol concentric
I h:nc mac.lc :a .scrl'Cil (a phuwgraphic transparcnC)) con
l ntJ ol Ct.Jui.s paccd conccutric cirdt.) of ,)paciug 10 lim."'S per inch
hh IJI.1ck regions twice ah:H of the ar:msp;trcnt lint.s. Under uor-
1 comlitiuns this sen-en prOtluro a view which many
ehe ctlecu of LSD. For a hi) purpolte the is held :u a dis-
t\t e tj( :tbutll thr<:C inches from lhc :mtl iU Ccttlcr is s)owl)'
t\ C. I abou1 while \'icwing a the uahcr eye bc.:in$: closed.
""' unrocuscxl, and hence nearly imperceptible im;ogc or the
f. ft , h SU)X.'t pos<."tl on the im;tgc of the ubjcCl in <l liCSliun. I have
the JHujcx"t ions of I he lt"';Hhp;ttcJH. ic, rilxd abu\'C while
Unt.Jer I he influence of 1_'\l} ;ole..) obM.' I \ '('tl c lltt' b IO
... M obuinc..ll while under the iultucncc ul' chc tlrug. Among the
L.SI>li kc impression) one sees wilh ahc mo\'ing screen :trc
t Otalt ug lltn\'ing of Jcucrs o n :t print ed p:tgc ancl lhC Ol'dering
&.tUttring) Of Othtn\isc r:tndom Sti'UClUI'('$ (e.g., in the viewing
ITiil'-' ere.). \\' hen a Hower h;n ing sharp poiruccl
1, ur is vicwctl 1hroup.h the nlO\' i ng screen the fl ower
un the :tppc..:tr:ui<.C uf uncle w:nct h)dra-like nuwemcrus.
or wrlllil objcc:ts take on :t liHIy :q>J>C;tr:mce. Apropos o(
I aperu :t t'Onsidcrablc d 111e utuler the influence of l..Sll
eo uut why ubjecb looked ":din." A t.lt:fined
.. , n p:tllcn by \'irwc nl the moire patlcrn pt' <XIuccd
the tupel' pusilion uf the di tfracliou iuwge uf thc CtiRC :.nc.l its
hn.1gc.
11
LSI> lu .. cllc<.l. t.luc to cnh:tnccd
lnu.f(c pro..lurt iou (lwt the tlur-:llicm of the after-images is
I) , Tile wuhbli ug uf edges also has the appearance or cmana
tuhhtf( llunt tlte nbjcc. t. Thi) may han:. in the case nf smell.
tfte.t ul m:king (cHKI uwrc cxlorifc:rous.
Oevth due' uc\} ale p:u licularl) dl'cct i\'C under the inHu-
ut . ... ,n (,.' \(.' 11 wiH: II the die" or the dtUJ,: :trc w:mi ng. Thus,
.. t tlw iullm11n ul l..\D I ht c o\'t' l ol cite 1\1:1\ l !)()j llllnthc r uf
h Hii/u . f ,,,um wlticlt cntt .. i .. h of utl :ttul ... un a white
I "1'1"-.tl\ lllll't.' clitut. u .. iou. l. cite IC:tl lim, :tppt.. ful\\':ud ;uul
h. hhH IIIII\ ttudt ttl lltt 1 ht hl .u L. .uul
h lltu p .tllllth ,, .. 1lu 11f'fK' I h.ntll ' ''l lh'l ,,f p jj f of lh.t t
lllllltht t ul \ ,t,ult/h f,,.,,,n IJ 'I "-It ,,., il tl w ll.uL. ( lit h'
H ltu\ ('C Ill ,t l tooH llu '11111' l lu .lqolh lit''" 01! ll w
THE PSYCHEDEUC REVIEW
on the projector lens mentiooe.J abo\'e are also due to
this general phenomenon. Studies of the visual anomalies of per
sons iutlged to he suffering from schiwphrenia show quite an op-
podte effect in this regard. TI1ese depth clues are not utilized in
the normal manner" am! the wmltl appear. '" the:ure backdrops
(the "cardboartl" world).u
Anotl1er tlemonnration of heightened perception of LSO was
the fact that under the influence ol the drug the circles of
figure on the lower right hand corner of p. 61 of the May 1965
number ol Scitrllific America" actually winked at me. That is,
the circlt-, (multiple zone plates produced by went in ami
nut of phase. Closer examination of the figure alter the LSD ses-
sion revealed that tl1c effect arose from subtle differences in projec
tion effects or in reflectivity of the two inks used (black and
orauge) and the winldng effect could he simulated, but to a much
we:tker degree, by varying the angle or observ:uion of light from
the pc.ge.
Another feature of the LSD experience iJ a heightening ol
colon.. Thu effect can he duplicated by placing a ocnen o-er a
muhlcoloretl pallcrned object (see rd. 2 pp. 2425). The black por
Lions or the screen isolate the colors [rom the white (and hence
color-diluting background) to give an enricl1ment of the colon.
Thi.s technique was used in my piece "Quadruple Colored
Radial" which some viewen reported to simulate the color effects
seen under the inRuence of LSO. Jl, as I have contended, LSD
brings to the fore a screen in the eye one would expect tO observe
this color enricl1ment.
The space-filling aspects of LSD are very reminit<:ent of the
effects one acl1ieves with produced by a scree.n
plced certain distance from another IO'ffn. This Roating qual
ity of has been discussed in my book anti many ol my
constructions ha\'C tllis quality. EMentially, it ariJeS from the
hifting of points ol intersection u one views the object from
lightly different angles.
What I have tried to do in this essay is to attempt some rat.ion
aliution of tbe remarkable vuual effects one obtains with LSD.
My experiments demonstrate that the primary effects of LSD are a
tremendously heightened awareness of optical phenomena which
are present but which are only vaguely (if nt all) seen under nor
mal conditions. I lunher condude that all vision has a circular
pauen1 superposed on it and LSD reveals the presence of this
screen via the effecL. It may he a misnomer to regard visual
hallucinntions with LSD as being hallucinations (i.e., percep-
tions with no external c:>use). In f:oct. LSD ha., it seems to me,
Cfuite the opposite effect in that it makes '" more aware of the
Moit' ,.,., ,., 011<1 Holluc.i11ofio11a
39
fl"U41 "orftl without tht! UJU:rJ rejectiOn Of " use)O)'' i nfonnation.
f ollowing olong a liule further, a few rcnmrks arc
an unler :tbout the tigures seen under LSO when the :trc
do.al. It is well known (e.g .. l'aul Valery's Mm1.1iru r T r.<tr) tha t
ua .a restful mood prim to ) kep anti when the C)'eJt :rc closet!,
''biUJl.) uf gt"<nnerric patterns are seen. Chihll'cu secu ru
..,..., clearly. T he liter:uure on these "visions" (phc.,.phcnes, :c>
..... re ailed) is <jUitc cxtetl\he." Under LSD I (nnntl that phns
(notably a cheekerbo:onl figure) coultl be cmkc:d l'"'r-
e .)ily. apJ>."l rcnlly ag:. in m:mifes1:uion n(
due to the tlrug, anti was even more >triking if I :cpplictl
pr<>>UI'C o n the tempor-1 sitiC Of bot h while cJO>(!(J.
can "lso be protluced b) oppl ying elc.'Ctric:tl cnrrem to
temples, especially j( thc VOltage is in the form O( a MjUaTC
'e pul><: of ;cbmct 20 crck-s per second. The t ype of fogc.uc. .,; nh
I depends on the fretticttty." It is nut uncxpcctc.l. thcrelnrc,
t elcctrically producctl phosphenes are enhanced by LSD.
agai n, LSD ma y prove lO be an important ;tid in
.u-ucrute allC.I orderlinc.s, judging from the highly l(t.'<nnet.ric:
re of the phosphenes, or the nen ow system.
REFERENCES
l. li:bt\1 on my lecture shcn a t chc Rete:ardl Center for Mcnual Dr
panmcnc of PJ)'chOIOSf. New YUI'k Unh'erJhy (Washl nJCIOit Square: <:OIIq;c),
Du. 18, 1964.
1. C. Osaer. of MoirJ PtfllemJ, Edmund Sdt"llllfi(
&&ning10n, N.J . T hiJ book b by a th with whit:h the re;ulcr'
&IJ' perform the C!l!perhnenta de!itrlbcd in the book,
S. \1 C'x-nnpiHkd by ttle oncmom how .. Oster's Magic ... HtW.,.t'll WLc
4aUtry. 50 W. 57ah Street. New Yort:. Cit)' F& 5!7, 196S. Acooun lt of the
.,_. gh"m in, for- enrnpk . the Voice {f eb. 18. 19t0. p. 9).
,..,. Yort Times (Sund y. Fob. 14. 1965, p. X17). >cl<l the l'cw Yorker
aaguine (feb. 25, 1965. pp. 2426). Two more of my yia app<-u in 1he
\fUKum ol Modem An Show, Rtspoeuhe E)T, Sprin3.. 196:;.
l. Aldout l-luxky a) Tl'e Doon of l )uceptio" and b) nd lltll, printnl
u a p;ipnbuk hook by lhrpcr and Row, Sew Yotl. autl
ton. 1963. See :d:M> c) l slnnd, rcprlmcd bv Rant-am Book.._, New Yurk,
l. Sof'ne or the: newn projccdon Krl-' co.lJ i,u or a fi ne Jh'ltCr11C'tl structur('.
J or the praent expcrhncms It It prdcrahlc cu unttructuretl projt.oc:
1kw1 K rft'n such 21 "hhe: ardboutl or. in my case. 1hc wall of 1he roou
-.hk:h "'llJ o( '-' hilc P.ahued compo!itlon ho31nl.
6. C. Oster andY. Nilhaj inua, .. Pattenu: Amc,ittm, May
' See. for example. Chaplcr S or W. C. W2hu. T it ,. I IMl,, \Y. W.
SOTton and Co.. Sew Vorl: 195S.
Dudtt hu pointN WI to me t hai 11-ae t:tq, u\:ari:luk' :ul.' 1-e111l
nbttn1 of t.ht rig:una moUr in Hindu a.n.
t l, (or exampk. f . Banon. )f. . J an"kt, and S. Bunntll, Jr., -rhc
ludnogmic Orvp, .. Anruicn, April 1964 .
.. S. L POI)'llk. The Rl'ti Univ. ut Preu. Chinan. 1''-11. f .,IJillll)'

40
II. This intCTCllling optiC21 phenomenon, wh idl may be the origi n or one or
Cezanne's techniques. ha! becu ron5idtm:l in detail, C . Oster, " Optical Art."
Optia 4, IM9, 1!165.
12. Sec, for example, pp. 98100 of C. L.antliJ (edited by F. A. Pnri,.lit's
of ExperitttiN:, Hoh . Rinehart and Wi nuon. Ntw York
1964.
U. P. Hadeu. Tlte Cardf,oard Cinnts, Putnam, New York 1952.
14. R. R. Holt. " lmagr r y: T he Relllrn or the A mf'rirnn Psyt'holo.
19, p. 254, 1964.
15. M. Knoll and J. Kugler, "Subjecthc Light Paucrn Spectroscopy in the
Electn:M!ncephalographic f'rcquency Range; Nature, 184, p. 182,, 1959.
16. M. Knoll, J. Kugler and 0 . Hofer, and S. D. Lawder, " E.ITccu o[ Chemical
Stimulation of Electrically lnduC"ttl on thd r Bandwidth.
Numher. and lmendl y," Ctmfi " uellrol., 2J* p. 201, 1963.
PSYCHEDELIC LIGHT MACHINES
STROBELITE
A stroboscope stope motion, breaks light up into discontinu-
ous quanta. Many uses in perceptual research studies in hallu-
cinations, peychedelic sessions. These models are housed in
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Model X 1-20 FPS (flashes per sec.}
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A device which projects a constantly changing play of colors
and evolving abstract patterns on walls and ceiling. Excellent
lor meditation, peychedelic sessions, listening to music, perties,
decorat.ion, etc. The projector measures 14 x 6 x 6 inches and
oosts $85.00. Larger, more complex, psychedelic light projectors
are also available for light shows, theatrical or dance productions.
Send orders, prepaid, 1<>: PSYCKEDELIC ENTERPRISES
c/o Psychedelic Review, Box 171
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S ILK S CREEN MANDALAS
The mandala Is a circular pattern used in E11tern systems 11 an
aid to concentration and meditation. These modern mandalas, 19 x 25
inch in iie, 111 obilrtct rodianl forms printed by bond on "doyglo"
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"'ECHANISMS OF
HALLUCINATIONS'
HEINRICH KLOVEI
ML that have been e1olvcd for an undemanding of
luJiucinatory phenomen:t have frequentl y stre.sctl one SCI of
.,. to the exclusion of others. They have strL'Ssetl either p>)tho-
lltpgl or factors, or ''central"' factors,
- ) or motor factors, or subcortical medtani>ms. In
_.....t )Cars, however, it hos been generally recogni1C.I that :til
*"t factors arc of importance. Since all of them arc invulled in
' complex behavior>! reaction, it is to be expected th:ot they "re
ohed in hallucinations. An in\'C.stigator m:t)' insist, fnr inst:mc.c.
t pathological changes in the lens of the eye in conj unct ion with
ain psychological factors arc prinmrily responsible fur the :op
nee of a given hallucinatory phenomenon or that the oombincd
of vestibular dysfunction and a lesion of the occipi t:ol oortcx
another hallucinatory picture. The fact that certain
,pu can be found whidt banish or proolte hallucinations docs
- that the mechanisms invohed in bringing obout uch a
-.uh ;uc kno"''n. \Ve kno"'
1
at vroent that h;tlludnatiun.) ;tre in
by a large number of widely different factors and that they
tbi t :t wide diversity of phenomenal Omfronted
-.th these etiological and phenomenal tliffcrencc., we may ask
...twdocr it is possible at all to identify something like :o gcner:ol
'tU'UllUrc" i n hallucinations or whether such :t structul'c is dis
, ... , by the operation of heacn.gcncous J'acwrs. In uthcr wonls,
.-r altere hnl/uci"atot)' cumtn11tsl This quesaion will be bricOy
,._u,.,.l by utilizing cercin finding. in the liaeraaurc :t> wcJI as
6c .. uthor'5 0 " '0 SlUtlie:s: in the field o cidclic phenomrna :tntl hi.s
.-ltn of the effects produced by tnCSCIIine.
a.tpr1nlN, by pcnnlJaion, lrom In ftl. T C'fRIJ.It k Mc:nill.
:M<Graw Hill. N.Y 1!)-42. J)p. l7S207.
41
42 THE PSYCHEDEliC REVIEW
HALLUCINATORY CONSTANTS
Mescal ine (3. 1. ha> bn of
unusual imcrcst bcc:ou.e of il! remarkable ps)choiOf(ical and
physiological clfccu (1, 7, 22, !2, 11, 12, 52, 5G, 75. 87). Par
ticularly the vbual cllccl> h:wc bn the subject of many studies.
Veit and Vogt (81, 82) injcctctl variou alkaloius, incluuing mcs
aline. into animal>. whieh were then killctl to uctcrminc the
concentration of the poiwn in different p;uu of the central nerv
ous l}stnD anti in othtr tiuuc:s. The amount of rtCO\tred
from the occipital concx of monlte)S anti <log> <lid not tliHer sig
ni6caut1y from that fount! in the (romal cortex. A> rrgards the
cReel! on tloe optical ;enwrium, Maloney (16) claimed that injcc
dons or mescaline 5Uirace leU to an enonnous cnl:.argcmcnt of visual
hcltls in "blitul or nearly blind" tabctics anti to an improvement
in visual acuity, as mcasurctl by Snellen's test types. Some of the
paLienu were enabled to who, previous 10 the injection,
could not; one of them went to a motionpicturc how. Recently
(88) reponcu that mncaline resored perception of move-
ment in Lbe hcmianopic field of one of his patients (caJC 6). In this
connection, the pJxarncc of the "rtdtlishblue arcs" of the reti na
in Lbe mC$0lini<cd state is of interest. h is generally greed tlut
these elliptical redtli>hbluc arcs, uiscovcrctl by l'urltinje (61),
correspond to fibers of the optic ntrvc, which bomc entoptically
vbiblc (10, 40). Normally, these arcs arc cry distinct for only a
but ahcr :1 0 injection or meSC"tl ine suU:-uc the author
noticed that they could be M:Cn for a long time.
It is chancacri,tic or action or many tlrugs that visual
effect.s predomin:1tC. Dominance of vi.sual phcnnmcn:t, a lrmlu:ione
viJiva (Sante tic Sanctu), >ms to be also t)pic.ol ol <kliriums.
<lrcms. ami eidetic imgcry. A> rrgards the hallucitutory phcnom
cna producetl by mC')(.tlinc. aheir chief charactt:r, Jcc.:ording to
ll:oveloclt t:llis, is their "imlt"Kribablcne." Mmc than a decade
:ago. the au1hor raisc-t the tUC\tion whc1hcr it " '') IJ!rn3iblc to find
;my const;lllts in the llow or '"incJC\Cril:)able'' cxpcricntts a_nd
analyzc<l the av>ilahlc <lata with reference to the fmm of the hal
ludnatory material ln,-c>tigmors, >Uch >< (!>). empha
iting chc impon:mcc ol mowr, kin{'')thetic, or "m)upsychic"
romponents in h:wc c:tllctl attention to the fact
th:.t most visual hallud n:uinns a1c- fonnrtl. There i:. no tloubt that
mou repons un hallucinations refer to fonn.s of wme l iocl ::and
noc to the ::tppc:u;tnu: of vi)u.tl .. du)t"' nr similar m:ucri2l.
The authut') :m.l )&i-' uf hallucinatul") phcnumcn;a =-ppe-..t_r
t hiCfl ) dUI iiiJ( thC fil &t \(,II({' uf OU,.'''"-.Jin<: iutt,'<i( .ltinn )iCided
the rollowing '''"" rtlllflfl lltJ: (n) xr.uinJ(. I.Htitc,
.Mocluonllll'll ' Holluclnotions 43
hone)comb, or chessboard; (b) cobweb; (c) tunnel, funnel, alley,
cone, or vessel; (d) spir.tl. Many phenomena are, on dose ex:unina
aion, nothing but modifications and tro.n.srormations or these basic
lol'nu. T he tendency wwncls "geUinetrizat ion," :.s in
lhCSC fom1 COOSt4mts, is :tiSH in the (uiJowing tWO ways:
(a) the forms are fre<1ucnlly rcpeatetl, combined, or claboratetl intu
omnmemal designs and mosaics of various kinds: (b) the clements
conuituling these forms, such as the "-luares in a d te>sbo.lnl tic
.ign, often ha,e boundaries comisti ng of geometric Cornu. At time<.
t he boundaries are represented by lines so thin that it '""Y be im
possible to say whetlter they arc black or white. Many ob.cners
h>ve the fincna> of the>e lines, especially Cc:roni (6) and
.\Hlller (!>4). As Moller has poimetl out. the ":ob..olutc nne .. limcn
,ional" appears to ha>e become reality.
For the sake of anal y.is in terms of .. Conn," we h:ovc ignored
I>CCts of color, brightness; ami movement, but it is ju<t theM!
'" l>ecu which often tlccply imprc.s the subject :mel whir h he C:lll
not adt'<jUatel y characteri>c when dcscribin): the kalcidost'Opic
play of fonns and patterns. He ma)' for instance. claim that colors
unknown in his previous experience appear; he may even be more
tmprC$SC<I by the texwres of cofors-"fibrous. woven, polished,
glowing, dull, ,eined, sentitraruJ>arent" ( II); he may in>i<t th>t
the hallucinatory objects romist uf materials that are necr >eon
in nature and yet may strangely resemble ccrt:oin kincl< of wood.
straw, hair, jewels, wool, silk, or marble. H we ignore the
Jntl movements s well :u the "meaning" with which the phcnom
ena are i nvested by the ubjcct, the geometric-ornamental struc-
ture of the hall ucinaaiueh lx."CCm(!) apparent. This appcats C\'CU
in the d r.twings made b y artists during or after mcsc:cline intoxica
tion. Such clr.twin):S have been publi,hecl hy S111m:cn (77).
esco and Maday and Cuumann (44).
The fact that certain gt-ometric forms ami design> con>tanlly
recur has letl us to a.ssume ce.nain hallucinator)' fom1 consaanu.
\hhough further tna) rc\'Ctll :tclditional fonn cmbtnnts. it
certain that the number uf forms is At certain
>tages or the poisoning, the geometric fcll'llh :cncl may be
><'ell with open as well as wit h clusccl e)cs. e.g., con the f:tc-e nf a
or on the soup the is :1bmu w cat. II b
d1at chc tendency tow::trtl these Conn.s 1nay be strung :t) w dmnin
IC the perception of ext ernal objects. One to[ llcringcr' ' "l >j ccts
looked :u the small br.cnch of :c tree :oml I'Cf>Urtccl: .. The lcacs ...
aJ>pe-.red in :an onl:.mcntal 1)31tCrn a' ir joinecl i11 :t ri-
w lar design having the furnc of approxim:ctcfy a cohwch. I lnoke<l
.at ocher bratnchcs, :.nd, looking :et thl'111, :ell k ':t\l' a''UHtt'CI the
... unc lauicc-likc ammgemcnt"' (1).
THE I'SYCHEDELIC IEVIfW
Some or all of the form constants found in mc:.caline hallucin
ations are :t l)o round in ccnain hypnagogic hullucinations, in
cmoptic phenomena. in lhc visual phenomena or insulin h)
1
po
gi) CCmia, ami in phenomena induced by simply at disk<
with black, white, or colored sectors rotating at certain speeds
(!1, 25, 49, 64, 1!4). Occa;ionally they sm een to occur in fever
deliriums. One of the l><ltient> ol Wolff and Curran (86), who hap-
pene<J to be a traine<J ob.ener and physician, reported that he
ob.c:ne<J the same hallucinotor) phenomenon during four illnesses
precipitale<l by four dille.rent agents (measles, malaria, tonsilitis,
inlluen<a) at the oges of 8, 12, 30, and 41 : he saw a cloud "with a
1>iral motion shape itself intO a brilliant whorl." In two o[ these
illnesses he saw that "brilliantly illuminated grren, yellow and red
angular crystalline masses shaped thcnuelves i nto ever-changing
p:uterns like those formt>tl by bits of glaM in a revolving kaleido-
scope." lt can be easily seen from the description :md drawings
fumishe<J by l'urkinjc (64) tl>:ot all the geometric forms and de-
igns charaaeritic of me.caline-induee<J phenomena can, under
proper conditions. be entoptically
Let us consider, lor inst:tnce, the form connant for which
"funnel, " "tunnel," "cone," or similar descriptive ternu are used.
This form occurs again and again in hallucinations; it
also appean in hypnagogic hallucinations, in entoptic phenomena,
and in the phenomena arising when llickering Acids are viewed
under cerrain comlitions. Or let us the "honeycomb
design consisti ng of hcx:ogons. Purkinje and a number ol other
obscners saw hexagonal pauerns entoptically. After awakeni ng in
the morning, Konig (5R) frequently noticed, with eyes closed, that
his whole visual field was filled up witl1 hengons (a in a honey
comb). T he author saw awakcning, on two occasions,
a pattern almost identical with Konig's but saw it on the ceiliog
and not with C)CS. One of Klien's (51) patients frequentJy
..,w, with eyes open, a hexagonal network migraine attacks.
Weil (84) reported 1hat he saw Konig's design when observing
viual phenomena in the hypoglycemic state. The subjects o(
Haack (25) saw hexagonal paucrns when viewi ng fli ckering fields;
It is clear. therefore, that 1he honeycomb design, with its hexagonal
elements, not only in the hallucinatory phenomena proo
duccd by mescaline but also under m"'')' other conditions. The
same is true with rtspect to the other fomt connantJ.
ln an "enquir) into the cawes or mescal vi.sioru," lllanh:tll
(50) has trie<J to show that the fom1 constants propooe<J by the
author can arise only from some peripheral st.imulation that u com
mon to different persons. He accounts lor the different form con
,t.anu by reference 10 varinu.J strucwres "'ithin rhe C)C. It is of
Mechanisms o# Hallucinations 4S
l't'< t.al imerest that among these he includes retrorctinal struc
"" .on<l 1hc chorioc;opillary circulalion. He conclu<ics from
u.umnical. physioiORical, and obsen:uional doua of kinds
ol "ohc ro<is anti foveal cones can look backwards" and 1hat the
tlnul pigment and the choriocapillary circulation can, there-
" , be :o.een under certain cnnc.litiorb. Similarly. ph)siologists
t uempted to account for emoplic phenomemo in general by
unc:tting them with M!crctions on the cornea, mo,,ing panicles
thr 'itreous humor, the network or re1in:tl vessels, the properties
o the cornea, lens, or other inlraocuhtr :--tructurcs
i9).
lloppe (26). one of 1he chief exponenls of a peripheral 1heory
l.u.ol hallucinaliOt)s, maintained as early as 1887 1hat "central
1, immediate, Jliychic) hallucinations" somewhere in
hr.un tlo not exist antl that .. the entoptic content of the eye"
> furnishes 1he "hallucinatory ma1erial." Morgemhaler (55)
I mhers have emphasi1.ed peripheral hctors even in the hal
,,.lions of dementia praecox patients. Zucker (90) injec1ed
4lene into whu had hallucinations. A:i a result of
the tapes1ry design and modifications ol the dless-
ool appeared, among other hallucinatory phenomena, in
of his schizophrenic patients. :U.dor's patients with tract
a.utupia (amaurosis of one blindness in temporal region
Hltft C)t) under the inlluence of mescaline, kaleidoscopic
IWM'I'" "'" squares, ;end other geometric figures in the whole
htl(l before bo1h eyes (88). A 101ally blind palictH (amaurosi<
b.,s). frc'lucnliy reponed seeing a bemuiful chessboarcl
1 w the nu:scalinilCtl state,- but he 01lso saw a blue pattern
ffiUI.trl) cli,uibutcd white poinh when he was nnt under the
tMit of the drug. Mescaline did not iruluce any phc
n in a 23-)ear.old patient who"' C)C' had been
.ccond year of life.
J H\Uit be said 1hat the experianenu on patients with some
u the visu:l system leave so many points unseuletl that
ul conclusions arc wan-antcc.l. The visual effects, :" well as
lltlons under which they ha,e lx:en obtained, :rc ohen so
lo lrly described even tl:lla cannot be inler-
\1 Cuumann (21) has pointed ou1, the crucial experimem
'"' nhally blind persons s1ill remains 10 be clone. II is a
, 11 lct thai blind persons ohcn repon subjeclivc visual
..,<:Jf'" n, audl as scintillation or photopsiae like "flames" or
hut tomttimes they also report definite forms and figures.
lhne figures ever show the pauerning lndicaled in the
I tnl tonnants tiC1cribed has not yet been sys1ematically
""''"lie"" I Clear-ctH results as to the form constants present in
46
the visual experiences of persons with loss of both eyes or tOtally
blind for other reasons, examined at different intervals after the
onset of blindness, are not available.
One of the author"s blind subjects (enucleation of left eye,
glaucoma of right eye) saw '"balls with oval shape," either still or
moving. appearing before him at a distance of about 5 feet. The
balls were about as large as a tHroe and were only occasionally
colored, chietly red or violet. He also reported seeing "silver bars,"
"arabesques," "rings into which )'OU can put your finger," and
"shiny test tubes." He claimed that the phenomena were more
prominent before his left eye, which hatl been removed I Yt years
ago, anti that they tlitl not appear at all on certain days. It was
impossible to elicit more definite information. Alternating current
did not influence or banish these phenomena. The Ricker phe.
nomena that are seen by notmal subjects under certain contl itions
of stimulation with a lternating current (65) could not be electric-
ally protluced in this subject.
It should be memioned that the form cotutants that we have;
discussed are apparently not typical for the visual phenomena pr01
dueed by electrical stimulation of tlte occipital lobe in man.
(78) found that tlte photopsiae consisted mostly of glowing anj
colored "roundish forms, disks, or rings" when laradic current was
used and of stars and ragged Cornu such as "pointed spark$" whe
galvanic current was used.
It shouJd be obviow that tlte factors detem>iniog tlte appear
ance ol certain lorm constants are so numerous that all theori
stressing either ''peripherl" or "central" factors are tOO
That there is :m interaction or tltese !actors may be true, but thi
remains in tlte present state or our ltnowletlge a vague assertion
We wish 10 stress merely one point, namely, that under dive
OOntJitiOIIS the visual system responds in terms or 3 limited IIUIU
or fom:t constants. Any general theory, however, will have to
beyond a consideration of visual mechanisms per se. The mesca
line-protluced phenomena tlemonstrdtC this point in a nriltin
.manner. Mescaline induces changes not only in the visual fie!
but also in other SCII$0ry spheres, particularly in the somatosenso
sphere. " Haptic hallucinations' ant! otl1er somatosensory ph
nomena may dominate the symptomatology to the exclusion o
phenomena in the visual sphere.
We shall not enter into a description of tl1e somatosenso
changes, but merely mention that Professor Forster (16), for ex
ample, felt a net similar to a "cobweb" on his tongue: "When
opened my mouth, a cold wind passed through and tl1e net moved.'
Serk.o (72) frequently had the sensation that hi5 legs or his fee
con.sisted o "spirals.'' In his case, sometimes the haptic spiral or
Mchonlsms of Hollucinolions 47
lrg blended with a luminous spiral that had been rotating in the
lual field. "One has tltc sens;otion o( somatic and optic unity."
ro dismiss :.uch phcnornena as synesthetic experienct.'S merely
tmphasize the present lad. ol knowledge concerning the processes
Involved in synesLheshts :and intersenwry in general. A
ph)sician, a subject o! &ringer (4), "saw and "rch" the Sl>untt. or
" concertina played bf the experimenter, and the produced
by it coagulated as luminous cur-ves in the spiral tums or his body,
the lower part or bis body being a green v:omished cone with spiral
windings. Sudo experiences would prob;obly be clas.<ified a< in
'lances of complex synesthesias. However, a form const;un may
Involve o many spheres that even a syncsthctir b"sis would be too
narrow. In one o( Betinger's subjects (also a physician), the "lat
tlce" or "rretworlr." C<Onstant became"' clominant that it
111 penelrate the whr1lc pcrMnality.
The s;uhjcct stated that he S.1"' frttwork bcJore his C)'C:S,
that his anns. hands, and fingen tunlec:l into fretwork. ;nul
tlt:t he became identicnl with d1e fretwork. There.: was no
difference between the fretwork ;and himself. l)(!twecn inside
and ouuidc. All objecu in the room ;and the walls dtangecl
into fretwork nnd thu.s became identic.1l with hitn. While
writing, the words turned into fretwork and there there.-.
fort, an identity of fretwork :md ... The fretwork
is 1." All ide.:u turned into gla.ss fre,twork. which he
thought, and fcJt. He :'lbo feh, s."lw, L1Jt.td. :and smelled ton<'!'
th:u he-came fretwork. He himself wa" the tone. On the day
following the experiment, there wa.' Nis.sl (whom he had
known in 1914) a.itting somewftere in the :.ir. and Nis.d
fret work. "1 ...-w him, l felt him; Ni$.<1 1."
l t seems to assume some ba.sic process operative in
oiiiTcrent sense modalities to cope with all varieties of synesthetic
periences . .Even the (act that a sensory impression or a hallu-
' Illation in one o( the aense fields is followed by manirestation.s in
nthcr sense fields does not give us the right to 5j>ealr. o( "primary"
nd "secondary" sen1ations (or hallucinations) except in the sense
"' a temporal succession. One event may be primary and another
le secondary in tltis sense, and yet tbe intersensory relation may
ouvolve only one ba.sic process. Similarly, we may doubt whether
he preceding example o! a "mescal psychosis" with "fretwork" or
lattice" a.s the central theme can be understood by considering
hallucinatory occurrence of tlle !retworlr. in the visual field as
t t ... "primary" event that determines "secondary" and "tertiary,"
it , such as dtanges in other sense fields and in the mccha
toums or thought and emotion.

In a further search for hallucinatory constants, we shall again
start with a consideration of the form factor. We note that a single
form (figure, object) may be duplicated or multiplied, that its size
may change or that its shape may be altered or distorted; i.e.,
we may have monocular or binocular diplopia or polyopia; dys
megalopsia (micropsia or macropsia); metamorphopsia or dysmor
phopsia.
I we analyze the visual phenomena produoed by mescaline,
we find diplopia, polyopia, <lysmegalopsia, and dysmorphopsia not
only of hallucinatory objects but also of real or imaginal objects.
That is to say, the same mechanisms may be operative, no matter
whether an object is perceived, imagined, or hallucinated. The
mescaline experiments demonstrate, therefore, that we must go
beyond the level of visual hallucinations to determine hallucin
atory constants. In fact, we must even go beyond the visual mech
anisms that cut across distinctions between perception, imagery,
and hallucination and raise the question whether similar mecha
nisms are operative in nonvisual spheres. There is no doubt that
polyopia, dysmegalopsia, and dysmorphopsia find their parallel
in experiences in the somatosensory sphere. Subjects in tire mes
cali nized state feel that their limbs shrink or grow, that they are
shortened or elongated, or that they are distorted in many ways.
The experience of changes in size and the sensation or distortions
ant! alte,rations may involve the whole body. As regards polyopia,
its counterpart is found, for example, in a "polymelia" of the
fingers or of the arms. The subject may feel several anns growing
out of his shoulder until he feels "like the Buddhas." At times,
the alterations in the somatosensory sphere may be so profound
that parts of the body feel separated from the rest. As Serko in
sisted, there may be, not a "sensation" but a "somatopsychic
hallucination" of two bodily forms, e.g., o an amputated leg and
o a loot entirely separate lying beside it.
The tendency toward reduplication appears not only in poly
opia and "polymelia" but also in hallucinatory experiences in
volving the presence of one or many persons in the room. Although
these persons are not seen, their reality is in .orne way experienced
or "felt." In this connection, it is ol interest that "splitting" ol
personality and various degrees of "depersonalization" have been
frequently reported. It may be said, therefore, that polyopia, dys-
megalopsia, and dysmorphopsia involve mechanisms that are char
acteristic or mescaline-induced phenomena not only in the visual
sphere (hallucination, imagery, perception) but also in the romato-
sensory sphere.
Further analysis reveals the act that mescaline is only one
or many agents bringing about polyopia, dysmegalopsia, and dys
Mechanisms af Hallucinalions
49
morphopsia. T hus, under certain condition!, the same effects cut
IM: observed in and "nonpsychogenic" hallucina-
tions, even in the halluciflations in the perception
of real objects, in visual imagery, in dreams, in eidetic imagery, in
hypnagogic hallucinations, in the phenomena that arise when
flickering fields are viewed (4, 12, 14, 15, 2325, 29, 51 , 55, 58,
G6, 69, 85, 84). In other words, reduplication or changes in size
or shape of a given visual form may occur, no matter the
object in question is real or has appeared as the result of looking
lor a considerable time at a flickering field; whether it is hallu
clnated, visually imagined, or seen as an eidetic or hypnagogic
im,.ge. In fact, some spontaneous drawings seem to exhibit similar
tendencies, so that Maclay, Guttmann, and Mayer-Gross speak
or a mescaline <type" of drawing (45). By way of summary, it
m"y be aid that polyopia, dysmegalopsill, :md dymorphopsia
occur not only in visual halluci nations but also in many other
flhenomena of the visual sphere (visual perception, eidetic. imagery,
tlreams, etc.).
The fact that diverse visual phenomena commonly assigned to
IIHfcrcnt functional levels of the visual system may show the same
typical behavior becomes of still greater interest if we consider the
conditions and clinical states in which such typical be
havior occurs. The "symptoms" of polyopia, dysmegalopsia, and
tlyamorphopsia have been obsorved in different psychoses, especially
In toxic psychoses or at the beginning of certain psychoses, in de
ltrlums, in insulin hypoglycc.mi:1, in hySLcri:. , in patients with
ttrebral lesions, particularly with paricto-occipital or occipit:ol lc
IOnJ, in the basedoid consti tution, in eidetic individuals, and in
I
IOisoni ngs produced by certain drugs (hashish, cocaine, etc., chron-
used). Beringer (4) has called :ottention to the existence of
thc>e symptoms in the acute phases nf schizophrenia. The symp
toms were especially striking in one of his hebephrenic patients.
(.urcwitsch (18, 19) has described an "interparietal in
which polyopia, dysmegalopsia, ami <l ysmnrphnpsia are combined
with alterations in the pustur:ol mndcl nf the b<Kiy nr in the bodi ly
"hcma (Head). According to him, this syndrome is found in noso
l .. lcall y different diseases, such as lue. et:ebri, epilepsy. schizo-
hystcrh1, and cerebral trauma. Thus, the nptico l sytnptoms
tf! paralleled in the somatopsychic. sphere in cUJ1er rondirions as
rll aJ in mescaline intoxication.
In trying to account for polyopia, dysmcgalopsi:o. ami dys
lltrphopsia, ophthalmologists have stressed the importance of
lut)Jtrle and retinal conditions. Such conditions, however, are not
1krl y 10 explain the occurrence of similar visual clmngc..lS in
il objecll or the fact chat the alterations selectively affect only
50
specific objects in a room or only parts of certain objects. Since the
optical symptoms occur under many different conditions and in
diseases with different etiology, the relative importance of the
various factors inftuencing the visual mechanisms may be expected
to vary in different conditions or from one disease to the other.
However, we should not necessarily expect entirely different factors
to become operative il polyopia and related symptoms appear in a
schizophrenic, a mescalinized or eidetic individual or in a patient
with a parieto-occipital lesion. The search for some basic factor
underlying lhe optical symptoms in etiologically different con
ditions is undoubtedly surrounded by the same difficulties as the
search for so-called neurological syndromes in psychoses. The "in
terparietal syndrome" of Gurcwitsch is present, for instance, not
only in patients with cerebral lesions but also in schi1.ophrenic
patients in whom such lesions are absent. It would be rash to con
elude that the same syndrome is produced by two different agents.
Unfortunately, we are far from knowing the pathophysiological
mechanisms that become operative as the result of a parieto-oc
cipital lesion. Once the nature of these mechanisms is known, we
shall perhaps understand why the same symptoms may appear,
(or instance, in schizophrenic patients.
The diversity of conditions in which polyopia, dysmegalopsia,.
and dysmorphopsia occur has not deterred investigators from look
ing for some fundamental mechanism. That such a mechanism
must be assumed is strongly suggested by the fact that polyopia
and related symptoms are characteristic not only of different fLmc
tiona! levels in the visual sphere (perception, hallucina-
tion, etc.) but also of the somatosensory sphere. In recent years,
the analysis of these symptoms has led most investigarors to :u.sign
a fundamental role to vestibular factors. It is thoul(ht that re
duplication of objects, micropsia, macropsia, and dysmorphopsia
in hallucinations are indicative of a vestibular influence. The s.amc
conclusion is reached, for example, by McnningcrLerchenthal (53)
in his analysis of amoscopic hallucimllions.
view is that autoscopy is a hallucin;nion nf the schema
which has a visual and a tactile-kinesthetic component. He believes
tbat it does not make any difference whether the study of auto-
scopic hallucinations is :'I)J>rn:u-hctl rrum the phcnnnlcnologic:tl
angle or [rom facts of brain physiology. since the analysis <t lways
leads to vestibular factors. Skwur1of (74) has presented simi lar
views. Other investigators have cmph:sitcd tonk. JX.Stural. and
oculomotor factors. In this connection, it is of interest that POt7J
and Urban (63) have stressed the iml><>rtance of the supravcstibular
system (in the sense of Muskens).
The experimental data on the influence of the vc<tibular a1>-
Nlcltonisms of Hollud norions
51
p;1ratus o n the visual sphere :1r e rather meager. Most or tht
pcriments have been concerned with detennining the effectS or
various romts o( labyrinthine stimulation (rotation. nr
caloric stimulalion) on different visual phenomena. There i.s oo
doubt however, that the available anatomical, clinical. and ex
pcrimental data are sufficient ror supporting the view a.
11
Y
Juture reseotrch directed toward eJuddating the role ol the ,csub
ular system is bound to yield extremely significant results not o11ly
ror the .study of hallucinations but lso, as some neurologists
psychiatl'ists insist, for " deeper umlcnumding or neurotic
psychotic behavior. Jt has even been maintained, particui:Jrly by
French neurologists, that great su-ides will be m;u.lc in
h) obta ining dttt:l on dwonaxy. .
At this pq.int, is not possible 10 outline the various
mental problems that urgently re4uire a solution. \Ve shall be
cuntent with calling attention to 01 new tcchnitpee that may be
tmployec.l in ;t nalyz.ing different factors influcncinK
or other subjective vistml Hy :t pplyinA"

turrenl of low i ntensity and rrequency, it is lO
tUcker that is visibJe with open or dosetl eyes under condiuons
uf light as well as dark adaptation. During recent ye.ars., the ;urthOI'
tun obtained some data on the behavior or ;:ertcr-images,
tldct ic images, and hallucinations i n the presence of clectric:aii.Y
produced rlickcr. For evaluating the flicke phenomenon itself, It
w.1.s necessary to examine p:nient.s with some pathology o 1hc
system (hemianopia, enudc.ation or one eye, etc.). In gcnelill,
nrg;uiv<. aher-imagcs di.s.appcar :t lmost entirely (II' ratliolly
In :appe;uancc the moment the stimuhuing CUITCill il'l tui'IH.'tl on.
(;essation of clecLric'll stimulation immediately leads to a reap-
or the afterimage ami to a restnrottinn c)f its nuJtn:tl
JUopcrtiC.s. Eidetic images and CCI' t:tin types or h;dluc.inatinns J11:;\ Y
\o;Utish, change, or re.main unalterec.l upon appearance of the clec
u lcnlly produced flicker.
To illustrate: one subject, a student, saw an eidetic im:tge of
tht r:tce or a person looking at him. When the current was
un, he suddenly saw the profiles u[ five laces looking to the nght.
fhcse laces rapidly cha nged into other laces; they were ,een
lhtough the " muslin curtain" of the fli cker, as the subject ex
it. !\lore than three decades ago, Urb;muchitsch (79, 80)
g: lvanic current for influencing eidetic images. He
, I tha t one of his subjects saw an eidetic image o[ a hepauca.
\pplic:ttion of the galvanic current immediately led to the ap-
of a large number of hepaticas. It should be realized, of
l't\llle, tl-at rotation of the subject or electrical and other
u( ui mul. ion may merely :\e:ccntuate tendencies inherent in eidtllc
so
specific objects in a room or only parts of certain objects. Since the
optical symptoms occur under many different conditions and in
diseases with different etiology, the relative importance of the
v::arious (:actors inRuencing the vitu::tl mechanis:m.s may be expected
to vary in different conditions or from one disease to the other.
However, we should not necessarily expect entirely different factors
to become operative if polyopia and related symptoms appear in a
schitophrenic, a mescalinized or eidetic individual or in a patient
with a parieto-occipital lesion. The search for some basic factor
underlying the optical symptoms in different con-
ditions is undoubtedly surrounded by the same difficulties as the
search for so-called neurological syndromes in psychoses. The "in
terparietal syndrome" of Gurewitsch is present, for instance, not
only in patients with cerebral lesions but also in schiwphrenic
patienLS in whom such lesions are absent. h would be rash to con
elude that the same syndrome is produced by two different agents.
Unfortunately, we are far from knowing the pathophysiological
mechanisms that become operative as the result of a parieto-oc-
cipital lesion. Once the nature of these mechanisms is known, we
shall perhaps understand why the same symptoms may appear,
for intance, in schizophrenic patients.
The diversity of condition in which polyopia, dysmegalopsia,.
and dysmorphopsia occur has not deterred invc.tigators lrom look
ing for some fundamental mechanism. That sudt a mcdlanism
must be assumed is strongly suggested by the fact that polyopia
and related symptoms are characteristic not only nl diffcrem lunc
tiona! levels in the visual sphere (pcrrcption, imagery. hallucina-
tion, etc.) but also of the somatosensory sphere. In recent years,
the analysis of these S)'IDptoms has lee) most invcstiprors 10 assign
a fundamental role to vestibular !actors. II is lhOuRhl 1hat re-
duplicalion of objects, micropsia, macropsia, and tlysmorphopsia
in h:tllucinations arc indicative of a vestibular influence. The s.amc
conclusion is reached, for example, by MenninRCr-Lerchenthal (53)
in his thoroughgoing analysis o( autoscopic h:lllucimttions.
view is that autoscopy is a hallucin:nion or the )}()(lily schema
which has a visual and a tilctilckinc5thclic component. He bel ieves
that it does not make any <liffcrcncc whether the >tmly of :nolo.
scopic hallucinations i.s :t J'prntKhcd from the l,hcnomcnolot:tiC<ll
angle or from raclS or hrain 1\iflrc the analysis always
leads to vestibular bctors. Sk.wurloff (N) has preM!rlletl similar
views. Other investigators have cmph01,itcc1 touir. J)nstur:tl. and
oculomotor factors. In this connection, it is ol interest 1hat Potzl
and Urban (63) have stressed 1he inoporl:ooorc col the >upr...-eslibular
system (in the sense of Muskcns).
The cxperimeutal olata "" the influence nl 1he ,.c,libul:or ap-
Meclloni11111 ol Holl01cl11ollono
Sl
1ntus o n the visual sphere are rather Most uf th< tx
l,.,rimenll hne been ooncernal with detennining the effectS or
\':trious fonru: or labyrinthine stimulation (rocntion, g:.lv:mic, or
nlorir on visual phenomt"na. There is no
doubt however. that the available anatomical, clinical, and ' " "
data are sufficient for supporting the vi<W that ?Y
lutuoc resc:ord1 llirccted toward elucidating the rule ol the <eslll;,.
ul.or S)5lem is bound to yield extremely signifoc:uu resulu not 011ly
(or the uf hallucinations but ulw, as :.t)mc ncurolugisu and
fi>)Chiallills iouist, for a deeper untlci"$Utnding of ncurutic anti
I)Chotic behavior. It has even been m:1im:oinctl, p:onicnl:orly by
F1ench ncurologisll, that great strides will he m:nlc in
h) nlu . iuing d;na on duou:axy. .
At thb PQ.int, it is not possible to nutJin< the various exp<
11
"
mental problcnu that urgently rettuire a l>f>lution. We '""" be
Ctullcnc "'itlt oiling 3:ttention tn ;a new U."Chni(fUe that nlO&f. be
rmpiO)etl in analyzing tlifterem facto" inlluencinp: hallucin>t";""
'" o1her subjccthe isual phenomena. liy ppl)inp:
turrent or low intemity ;tll<l frequency, it i, l'"'"ible to
ftlcker that it visible with open or clo>cd c)C> under oomliti01
15
nf as weU as dark Ourinp: rcnt ye:ors, the autltor
.... obrained some data on the behavior or ncguthe aftcr-im.,se'
chletic images, ami hallucinatioou in the pr<sencc nf electrically
llrtMluced llicker. For evaluating the fli ckc phennmeo11m iuelf. ''
w neccosary to examine patients with >'lllte l>:tthuhlj(y ul the
bhal syotem (hemianopia, enucleation of one eye, etc.). In
llt"ft.llhc alter-images di.sappear :olmc;st entirely ur rachcally
in "JJpcatancc the moment the stimul:uing curi'Cru i' tmnt.d nn.
c.c-.... tion or clearical stimulation immediately lc:od 10 " ... .,.
fllf411.Uice or the 3fte.rimage :uul 10 ;, restnr:ttiun ur il.s nut1fl:ll
l'opcrties. Eidetic images ;md cenain t)llCi nf 111ay
\lnish, change, or remain unalteral upon oppear.nttt of the etcc-
ulc:all) produced Oicker.
To illuJtrate: one subject, a stmlent, ._,w an eidetic imap:< of
lloe face of penon looking at him. When the current waJ
'"' he suddenly oaw the profiles of lhe f:occ:s looking to the
I heoc foces rapidly changed into faces; they were seen
through Ule "muJiin curtain" of the nicker, as the subject eX
Jrestal it. More than three decades ago, Urb;ontsehitseh (i9. 80)
ll('CI l!" lvanic cmrent for influencing eidetic imllges. He rcpo:ts.
I lhat one of his subjects saw an eideri c image o a hepauca.
\IIJliiCa tio n Of the galvanic current immediately led tO the
.... uance or a l:trge number or hepatic.'l. It should be realized,
0
otoow, tht rot.,tion of the subject or electrical and other
01lmul ion may merely octtntuote tendencies inherent in eidetic
In an attempt to define hallucinatory constants. we have pur
poscly taken visual lomlS and their interrelations as point or
departure. It is obvious that we have ignored many at><CU or
hallucinatory phenomena in order to arrive at these eonstnnts.
The hallucimttory ccmstants that we have formd rnay be terrill
lively assigned to three levels: (a) the level of "form CUII Siarrtt';
(b) the level of alterations in n11rnber, size, arrd shape ( polyopia,
dysmegalopsia, dysmorplrt>psia); (c) the level of cha11ges irr spatia-
temporal rtlatioru. We ha,e shown that the same eonstanu ppear
in ot.her visual, and e,en in nonvisual, phenomena. These eon
nanu are, therefore, not specific lor hallucinations but represent
general characteriSLics. The "llructure" or hallucinations is a
general structure that is typical of numerous phennmen:t in the
visual sphere.
T HE CONTENT OF HALLUCINATIONS
Since we have been interested in an a.nalysis in terms or formal
criteria, we have paid no attention tO the content or the hallucina
Lion. I{ a childless woman hallucinates many babies, it is readily
assumed tl1at tle hallucination represenu a "projection" or all'ec
Live needs. But i it should be found that the same woman, when
looking at a pencil or a chair, suddenly sees a row of pencils or a
row of chairs. it appears unliltely t.hat emotional factors are re-
sponsible lor the multiple seeing of objects. 0 course, any object,
no matter whether it is eideticaJl y seen, hallucinatetl, imagined,
or perceivetl as a real object, may be or emotionaJ Jt
is one thing to admit that objects in multiple viion may have
emotional ignificance; it is an entirely different t<> nssert
that polyo')>ia itsel is created by emotional !actors. One of Schil
der's (67) )>atients, an officer with :0 crippled :onn, s;ow in " rever
delirium a ll persons around him with cripple<l or missing arms
and legs. A blind patient hal lucinated heads with empty eye
socltets. Following an ophthalmologic:ol examinatinn, :o schizo-
phrenic woman stated that one of her eyes was red and inflamed;
subsequently she saw all persons in the room with one retl eye (S5).
1t may be said that in sud cases or transitivi>m. to Q<C Wer
niclte's expression, affecthe factors dctemine the cnntent or the
halluci.nation. HOWC\'Cr, 10 say that the "projection" or disturb-
ances in tl'c motor, vasomotor, and cenenhetic spheres, or of other
disturbances, OC<lurs on a n affective basis is an empty statement
and adds nothing lO our knowledge or the workings nr affective
mechan_ism.s. \\'e want to know the exact nawre o these mecha
nisms in a given ca5e. Th'n a particular object should appear in
S4
THE PSYCHEDELIC UVIEW
In an attempt to define hallucinatory coruranu, we h;ue pur
pos.tly taken visual fomu and thei r inaerrela1ions :u ;, IX>int of
departure. It is obvious that we have ignored many a.pecu of
hallucinatory phenomena in order to arrive at these constants.
The hallucinatory e<mslanls that we have fuun<l may be
lively IUSigned to tllree /"""Is: (a) tlte level of "form
(b) the level of i11 number, siu:, atrd shape ( polyopia,
dysrnegalopsia, dysrnorplropsia); (c) the /"""/ of i" spatio-
lemporal relations. We have shown that the same constants appear
in other visual, and even in nonvisual, phenomena. These con
scants are, therefore, not specific lor hallucinations but represent
general characteristics. The scructure of hallucinations i5 a
general structure that is of numerous phenomena in the
viual phere.
THE CONTENT OF HALLUCI NATIONS
Since we have been interested in an analyois in terms of formal
criteria, we have paid no anention to the content of the hallucina
tion. 11 a childless woman hallucinates many babies, it is readily
asoumed that the hallucination represents a projection of alfec
tive needs. But if it should be found that the same woman, when
looking at a pencil or a chair, suddenly sees a row of pencib or a
row of chairs, it appears unlikely that emotional factors are re-
spomible for the multiple seeing of objecu. Of course, any object,
no mauer whether it is eideticall y seen, hallucinated, imagined,
or perceived u a real object. may be of emotional Jt
is one thing to admit that objt-cts in multiple ' 'ision lllll)' have
emotional significance; it is an entirely different thing tn assert
that polyopia itself is creatl'l by emotional factors. One of Schil
tier's (67) patients, an officer with a crippled arm. "'w in a lever
delirium all persons around him with crii>J>Il'l or missing arms
and leg.. A blind patient hallucinated heads with empty eye
lOCkets. Following an ophthalmological examination, :t schizo-
phrenic woman stated that one of her eyes w"s red and inH:omcd ;
ubsequently she saw all persons in the room with one red eye (55).
It may be .. id that in such c:ues of trnnsitivism, to "'\C Wu
nicke's expression. affccthe :actors determine the content of the
hallucination. However, to say that the "projection" of disturb-
ances in the motor, v.-,somotor. :uul cencsthctic spheres, or of other
disturbances, occurs on an :affective basis is an empty statement
and adds nothing to our knowledge of the of "IJective
mechanisms. We wnt to know the exact nature of tht-se mecha
nisms in a given c;ose. Tht a particular object should appear in
Medtotthms ol Holluc;ttorions
t ... lluclfl;ttion umtrr chc \trC\\ o( :l[crchc U('Ct l j, IHU murc
MtlfHiliUJt chan lht" r . t:t tluu lhc petttpcion I uhjec " l'\ell Hf a
t.l-.c \. line. m:) be "nuMiiflctl" br affeccivc f:tctors.
l')cholngically, objecu per se ha"e no cxi>1cnre: they exist
uttl)' loll n()(lal points in a IICtwork of perccptu:el, alfectiVC, ur Josr;ical
lflitlons. It is the determination of these relations that j, the cask
nf ps)chnlogy. A live bull ot boa cotutrictor in a mntion
and a w;1vy black line of certain tlimcn.5iun' may le:ad to
uuumJ of .. fe:.r" in a certain monkey. a live ganer snake
and a bo..'l constrictor in ;1 film running at :1 may not.
h h not :1 certain si1e, color, 'h.ape:, or :.peed nf mrwemcnt that
latla 10 the manifestation or rear" in the monkey but a 'I>CCi fi c
h>f"m or "togetherness" n! these properties th"t comtitutc:< the
tJrh .. vioraiiY effective stimulus. ;.1ml this c;en be clctCnllined nnly
npcrimentally. We cannot specify the psycholtlt(ical naiUI C or the
(car existing in the nnim: l \\'ithnut spcciryinK the clfcccivc stim-
ulu properties elti.sti ng outside: the :Hlimal. Cerl:li n objcns or
t\t nl.s emotionally c..-q uivalent bec:HI"C they sh:uc ct.'nain
prupenies. By studying the properties of anti non
situations, m;,ay be to leanl something about
the nature of the affecti"e mechanism. Under the inOuence of
tlfferent affccthe facton. objects and evenu become imbued with
d1Utrtnt properties, jwt as under one set of condition< : circle
becomes perceptually "similar" to and, under another set o! con
dluons. "different" from :m ellipse. The affective mechanism in a
uippled patient who halluci nates tle absence o! " leg not mlly
In other persons but also In their photographs :oml mirror images.
well a. in dogs and chain, is undoubtedly not the s.1me as the
atfect ive mechanism in Schildefs patient, whn J:IW hiJ tldet"t unly
In other persoru.
As far as dreams are concerned, a widely held theory explain<
their content by rcle.rence to affective !acton. It is a>Sumetl that
all dreams ""' wish !ul61hnenu. According to this theory, the
appear:mce of ceruin objec:u anti events in a dream is detennined
b) wme egocentric wbh. Certain considerntions arc peninent hetf.
Objects and events. no matter whether they exist in the ex
tnnal world, in ot hallucination, or in a dream, may be 5imilar
.and dissimilar in many rcspecu. To understand particular ronns
ur -.imilarity, we have recourse to mechanisms or sensory organiza-
wm. to affective !acton, to logk l relations. etc. The author pre
pointed out (57) tl1at it is by ' 'irtue o! certain similari ties
tlut heterogencow object> anti evenu lie in the "'"'e "dimeruion"
or belong to the same "series" and that the problem o! tletenni n
1ng b:uic mechanisms in animal and human behaior often rc
tluce, therdore. to <letermining ami loc:lling properties or
56
THE rSYCHEDELIC REVIEW
facton in tenns of which <.livcrsc objects and eems ma)' bc<. 'Ome
similar.
It may be said that the behavioral reaction of :animals as
well as the perceptual an<.l affective reactions or processes ol "ab-
straction" in man proceed by constantly shifting "dimension,"
i.e., by constantly destroying similaritieo an<.l constandy creatinK
new ones. The existence of similarities pre$ents, therefore, no
problem; the only problem consists in determining just why par
ticular similarities exiiL The occurrence of similarities. i.e., the
fact that there exist certain characteristics, !acton, or processes that
bind objects together an<.l relate them in many specific ways, seems
to be of such fundamental nature that the physiologist, Krics.
considered it simply an exprcuion of some basic property in the
functioning of the central nervous system. Freud, for instance, was
forced to the conclusion that the factor ol similarity is of para
mount importance in the mechanism of dream formation. Since
the fundamental role o( similarity il apparent in any other group
of psychological phenomena, it il not surprising that any super
licial analysis of dreams leads to the same result.
However, we must demand that the analysis of the phenomena
provides w with the fJ4rlicular factors that account lor the spe
cilic ways in which objects and events are related. To account lor
particubr similarities, factors ranging from physical GeJinllen to
castration complexes have been advanced. It is not the large range
of such factors that presents a serious problem; the chief difficulty
lies in determining which particular factor accounts :adequately
for certain relations between objects and events, whether it is. for
instance, "visual asymmetry" or "fear of bodily injury."
We recall that in eidetic images and certain other phenomena
we find translocation of objects or transfer or certain characteristics
or the$e objects, fusions and composite formations, substitutions,
the appearance of parts instead of wholes, the nonappearance or
the belated appearance of objects or parts of objects. reversals of
right and left, up and down, or of other directions. In other words,
we find condensation, displacement, :anti uther m<-ch:anisms that
have been considered typical of dream formation. In eidetic in
dividuals, similar cl1anges may uccasion:ally :appear in the percel>-
tion of real object and thus beoome more easily :uncn:able to an
experimental approach. From various studies, it is evident that
phenomenal properties ol objecu, visucHp:otial factors, and motor
facton play a great role in effecting condensations, tlisplacements,
and similar changes in eidetic imagery. Tltis s u ~ s u 1/tr. f>"ssibilily
that t h ~ chatJges ;, dreams, such as comlciUIItious mul di.fplncc
mrnts, frequently t'csult from n11 lJj:u: rntinu of tlw .fmnt: (tJi:lutt
spatial, mulur, <lc.) factors.
Mechonhms ol Holl..,clnoflons
57
In eic. lr tic images, some u( t hCS4.' changes C:l n be experimentally
tlttuuth tr:u ccl by setti ng up certa in co mli1ions. The f:t ct tha t c..."' iors.
't'"P<.'' movements, etc .. , occur at all in citlc1 ic images. c.lrcams ami
frl .. tcd phenomena can be undcrslc.K)(I o nly by reference to some
hantl:.mcnc al properties ;nul proct-sses in the system; it
that the occurrence or certain comlen.s.ations anc.l tlisplacc-
mcms can be accounted for only on a similar basis. It should also
reca lled that G. E. Miiller went so far as to consider the be
Ut vior of the eidetic images sllldicc.l by Urbantschitsch as an ex
mplc o f the inOuence of "aJychonomic (anatomico-physiological
If onct:obolic) faelors. Urbantschiuch was able to produce a v;oricty
ch:anges in eidetic images by a compression of blood vessels or
y t he application of visual, au<li tory, thcmaa l, and other Slimuli.
I rt uy rate, i .. "ltial fact ors lc01d, (or instance) tO the fusion
.C\'Cr:.tl houses or persons into one. the corulens=ttion itscU
)\inusly not creartt.t by sumc affecli\'C reac1ion towotrc.l nudit y o r
0n1c sin1ilar factdr, once f t'Cttlt'11. it may s1ill strvc as a
t hirlc for affective nce<t..
T o understand the occurrence of certain spati<rtemporal
hanges in visual phenomena, we must have recourse not only tO
welt factors as brightness, color, shape, and spatial organit.ation
b 111 also to factors by virtue of which colors ami geometric figures,
rolon a nd sounds ami lines may become simi hu and
tu the same "dimension." Recently. it hots C\'Cil become
ncssary to resort to "physiognomic characters" tn otccount, for
l tt \ C.tfl CC, for the similarity between :t handwriting. a p:tinting, anc.l
lh< !(:tit of a penon. We merely wish to cmphash.e that the
Opc:r;Hion o( visual factors alone moty lead to dbplacc
ttK' nh, condensations, etc. This dcJCS nnt mean that numerous other
f<tors m:ay not play a role. l.n an experimem;tl study, Piitd (62)
that the c.le\elopment o dreams v.as tlctcrminetl by visual,
mmur. :ami "symbolical" factors and that the firS! two factors were
rclnli\' ely independent of psychoanalytical factors." He believes
lhnt psychic material ," being itself (;e>tnltless, may act
li ke :a calal y>.er for optical and motor processes. Whether the
l
i>') hi e material is " repres.sed" ur not dues not concern us her e.
it i' nbvious that an)' color, shape, dis
l)l"u'mltH. condensation. etc., once .supplie<.l by visual or motor
ma y with and tha t mean

HJt. nl 1urn, may gmdc v1sual a nc.l mowr rc:tcttons.
T here is no question that all these racwrs arc also opcralivc
n the visu;aJ perception O( the outer wor)d, but thcspatiOlCillJJOr,ll
abili t y or external objects is such that rusions. displacements,
utd t he like do not occur in gcncr.ll. Dreams, i1 has lx."Cn said. :t rc
tuil . l l to "ciclt.:lic images or the basc.:doid LYJK:." Thc.y S('l' l11 at
least similar in that the visual "sLUrt"'' they are made of is more
open to a n invasion of psychic factors than the "stufr' of other
visual phenomemo. The visual "suofr' provided by cllloptic phc
nomena, llickering fields, ink blots, dreams, eidetic images of the
basedoid t ype. pseudohallucinations, :mel cenain t ypes of hallu
cinations is apparent ly more easily invaded by psychic factors than
the "stufl" furnished by the perception of real objects, after-image.,
eidetic images of the tetanoid type, mescaline hallucinations, :tnll
cert:tin other types ol hallucinations. It is for this reason that phe
nomena of the first type h;ove frequently bt.>en utilized 1<> learn
something a bout the deeper layers of "personality." If, fnr physio-
logical reasons, sleop should suddenly provide us with phenomena
of Simoengediichtnis or belatecl after-images of clretmos, euon
''rcp,essed" wishes would tJOt .wrrt-etl in chnn[!)ng tmd
tho visual material.
At this point, attention should be called to certain facts tloat
may prove to be of interest in connection with physiological or
psychological studies of dream. Since, in most dreams, visual ele-
ments are dominant and since striking aheratioou in the visual
sphere are characteri5tic of mtscaline effects, it seems
tO expect an of dream phenomena inOu-
ence o( mescaline. An analysis or available data, however, indicates
that most subjects report an absence of dreams for the night follow
ing the intoxicMion, and others refer onl y to "ordinary tlre.ams."
Even though the night may have been dreamless, the next day
often provides evidence 1 the visual system has not yet retumetl
to its normal state. ln the litcr:tture, the author found nnly one
reference tO "UillbUally plastiC, colorful clre:uns," the nature Of
which was not described (4). It st.>ems, therefme, that, contrary 10
our expectations, mescaline dues not leoul to :m enhancement ol
dreams :nul that it m:ty C\ 'Cil :.uppros dream :tct ivity. This c:tn be
only :t tentathc conclusion, since the whnlc problem h:ts not been
systematically investigated. We knuw nothing :thmn the clk-cts in
chronic mcsc:linism.
Ludlow (45), who has given the must detai lL-d accunlll uf the
cll'ect$ of chronic hashi.sh intoxication, points out th;u his rest w:1s
ab..olutcly clrc:unlcs. tin ring the whole u his hashish life,
whce:ts "he HC\ ' l'r slept without .some dream, more en vhtid'
lx:furc otC.."1(Uil'ing the hal>it. "i 'hc visions ur the dnag CIHii'CI}' MIP''
pla ntc<l those of natm-c." Further rcscach should explnrc the
JUCChalli)IUS o( dl'ltgs which, UIHicl certain pi'UdUC'C
)triking visual efftcts in the waking ami at a he time tlu
nul inci'C..IM.: u1 c\'CU )ttppn:: i.r .. plu.:numcua th:tt ;uc
I" im:uily vhu:al in n;uurc. In u1utr.nt 1n uu .. :eml ha,hi,h.
'h 11ft> 3UCh ;,, :dt.Hhul 111:1) ltllll 'll"'P into :t Mmlmri l TiJt,ilt th.u j,
Mechanisms of Hallucinations 59
mll:mtly interruptetl and haunted b y extremel y vivid dreams
'200 dreams in a night' '). According to Epstein (13), such effecu
re lrticularly characteristic of the prepsychotic phases of a lc:o-
lllc 1>sychoses. This author even speaks o a "h ypnagogic fom1
,of alcoholic insanity," since the longlasting a nd colorful h ypna
r ic images in such alcoholic. become frequentl y the starting point
loof various delusions.
The scl-obscrvations of the writer coulim1 the impression
lnetl from the literature that the night following the mescaline
toxication . is e.ither dreamless or practically devoid or vi.sual
ttam elements. Jn one or the author's experimen ts, he $aw, on
'"'kcning in the morning after a dreamless night, that the ltalci
ooeopic play or mescaline patterns was niH present. The pauerns
re predominant!)' violet and could be seen witl1 open or closcct
He fell asleep again. During this period of sleep he ha<l a
tim that may be properl y called a "mesc:oline" rlream.
1 ::un lying in bed in a l:nl{t hall. h aeenu to me that
d'ere are many similar beds in diJ hall which are :1l.so occu
pied. I turn over to my right side and see a large window
which I subject to dose inspection. I see clearly the following
black letters R E S T A U R. l t me that I cnn even
disting uish letten. To the right of tbc R is a venic;t1
p i p<:. and J am aware o( the fuct th:at it coven udditio no. l
letters. In the window is a l;lfge bottle coawtining n.'(_l liquid.
Thtrc :.rc three words on thi$ btHLle. These words nre coni
)Jictc :md meaningful; yet J 01m cli$S.1tidlcd with the thinl
wort!. bCc.wse I (eel that it is somehow coo short. T he
llre urrouuded by a rcticultttetl p:utcrn in dcliatc JO.'TC.."CIIish
colors giving the effect o( :1 decor.ath' t L1hcl. The scene sucl
dcnly shi(u, ;md 1 6nd myself looking :It the gr:ty wall of :
hou"- Vt:ry delicate and fnxile ohjccu ra...'1nhling unshCII(...t
(>nnuu :nc rcgular'iy di.stributOO onr the whole surf:ct. thus
formi ng a Jauice.likc pattern. Ead husk :uomd.s on fonu-
lnK n or ar>proxim:ltdy 45 clexret.'S "' ida the surbcc of the
w.tll. Violet clouds pass cross the surfncc. 'l'hi.s malta me won-
tiff whether the whole phenomenon i"' mere ly a lmllucination,
I'll dctcnninc whethe r such is Lht C:tSC I close my eyes; but I
tHIIK.'C violet douds. J conclude th:et the house :uul the peanut
lo4UicC lmvc o bjective CXi.stCUf'.C :nul 11mt the viuJct rloud!! nrc n[
IMUuclmuory origin.
\t this point, we cannot undertake an anal ysis or this dream
odcrence to mescaline ()hcnomcna in gcncr:ol ;nul the phc
114 on tile preceding d;oy or it in the
cor other Jychological factors. We merely wi>h to st:otc th:ot
Ill <aline or thi) clrc:uu is (airly ob\ious aO(I lhal
its mescaline-detemlined elements range from presque 1m experi
ences (55) 10 mescaline pauern.s on objeclS.
I n studying hallucinatory and related phenomena in 1he visual
field, we find that they are interrelated in many ways, not only in
terms or certain "constants" but also in the sense that the snmr
content is experienced on ctiffercnt le\els or that a trans(ormation
in contem is accompa nied by ; lransition (rom one level w an-
other. It is, of course, well known that the s;.mc corucnt rn:y ag-.tin
and again appear on the same visual le'"cl, in an ci<letic image,
in a hallucination, or in a dream, etc. Au eidetic subjcCl may al
ways see the sa rne red cap or the s...1mc house when he closes his.
eyes. One or Ewald's patiems (14) saw in three different del iriums
the &ame three huge brown <logs with blue eyes entering his room,
except that the third time they suddenly opened their mouths anti
said, "But this time it's really we." Jn contrasl, we have the a
pearance or the same coment on different isual levels, e.[(., when
a visual scene experienced in a feer delirium in childhood re
appean several later in a mesc:oline h:ollucination. Guu
mann (20) descrioo :o mCKaline hallucination that reappeared as
a hypnagogic image 2 yean later, when one evening he fell aslce
aC!er an exhausting day during the Fint World War. He recog
nixed the identity of the comem only when he studied old prot
cots 5 yean aC!enard. h has also been reported that the content o
a hypnagogic image may reappc<or in a dream. A mescaline hallu
cination may be the reproduction or a previously percei<ed visua
object, such as a geographical map. In the experience of the indi
vidual, ; visual memor)'image may rransronn itself imo :tn eideti
image; a positive or negative aC!erimage. into a mescaline hallu
cioatjon; nncl a pseudoha11ucin:uion, ituo a ha llucination.
"HALLUCI NATIONS" VS. "SYNDROMES WITH
HALLUCINATORY ELEMENTS"
Although it may be true that the complexity or isul
cination.s and related phenomena is somewhat reduced by an ana
ysi.s which shows that the same constants or even the smne con ten
appear on differelll i.sual Jevelo, it does not ah er the fact tha
there still remain many phenomenal characterinia and lonns
behn\ior in hallucinations, eidetic images., dreams, etc., whic
are refractory to sud1 an analysis. For example, if we consitl
the phenomenology or mescaline-induced hallucinations, we li
primitive .. as \\'ell as .. scenic'' or ''panoramic .. hallucinations 01
expressetl differently, "mesc:oli nc-specir.c" and "mesc1line-nonsl
cific" hallucinations (91). II should be oem:nkcd that ouo ana l)
hAt been lao gel)' confinecl tn "po imili,c" cor '
Mecltonisms of Holluclnofions
61
I ir iJ dear that total of
JHamul\e and ""scenic"" i.s related to
in and can be understood
onh b) abo eoruitlering olteration aff<eting the total personality.
\ h .uc unoloubtedl) .. re in anuming that the hallucinatory phe-
...... uun.t in a person dictating a tlescription of his
i\tt.tl cxpe1 ienccs to an assi_stant are in some way noL the same :as
lor.e of a person in a ''mescal psychosis: Kinnier Wilson (85),
I I in.tance, refers to an individual who, under the influence o[
c .culi nc, \\'31 .-crawl ing abouL lhe ftool' wi1h extreme care,
I It uvcu cd he was a fly walking on the upside down and
It if he moved quicUy he would fall and be injured."'
In .opplying the tenn halluci11atio" w phenomenologically
ll(<nroically phenomena, most imcstig;uors hac tacitly
""'"I tht they ore dealing with the same )mptom and th>t
,.._. t mplo)etl in stUd)ing. for irutance, hallucinations
aho to hallucinatiom in other field. Ho.,-.,ver, an
111-Atiun" :tlW:t)"S M an cfentCIH in ,1 t.olllpltx or
r '""PtOmi. SchrOder (71) doubu, that i< such
" .t "halluci nation," i.e., something whid1,
Nllllllttm, <>n be detached I rom other S)lnptOtm anti intlepentlcntly
b) (OlllJl3ring it, for wit h "h,tlludnations in
I "'""' fields. lie insisli that only the whole complex of symp
1, tu which the hallucinations appear, c on be profitably stutlied
1lt\C 1 iiJC) rmar sud complexes with clements":
oltlh ium': (b) verbal hallucinosis; (r) sellll'y tk'Ctptiun< a<
tthl wi th affective stAtes (anxiety, <lelusiotU ol tcrcrcncc): (t/)
'inni phantatica (paraphrenia). He truc,tiun< the "''"""')'
>I m.ony \0-Ctlletl sensory decel>tions.
It ll pp.ncnt from a study o[ liler3ture that e\'er-renewe<l
hc been made to evohe criteria uitable for tlncribing
of)tng the range or halludnawr) phenomena. The
h grown to sud proponjonJ that Mourgue (S7). for
fuund it nCCCSS.11) to eonsult th:on 7000 titles. In
"I" w cope with the wealth or subj<ethe aris-
1 1 mnml nd pathological comlitioru, have
rttl \UCh actON aJ Je\-els of realit), 113ICS Of
nf ctouding"). phenomenal Al>peanlllce, the rebtion to
nd "outer" space, and the relation to "intc.'ntiOtu" or
I the aubj<et. The emplo)mcnt ol such criteria hs led to
t lo11 ol the phenomena into halludnations.
illusions, eidetic images, eidetic images with
r h)l>nagogic images, reperttptions, Sirme,gedliclttnu,
olllt Images, pseudo-memor)im:oges, :ttlll phant:utic visual
I his docs not exhaust the numbe1 or distinetiom
un tloiiJ gmunds. for example, hllndnations h-e
62
THE r5YCHEDELIC REVIEW
divided into "psychogenic" and "nonpsychogenic," eigentliclte a nd
uneigentliche, positive and negative hallucinations.
ln view of the large number of distinction< available, we
should expect that an investigator would have no difficulty in
assigning 1.he various sensory deceptions in his subjectJ or other
fonru of subjective experiences their proper place in a classifica-
tion of halluci natory and related phenomena. Ho,.-ever, this is far
from being the case. The fint difficulty arises from the fact that i
actual experience there are many transitions and transfonnatio
so that. for example, an illusion or a h)nagogic image may tu
into an hallucination. A S<<Ond difficulty is more serious. I t [r
quently happens tl>at the hallucinatory experience of the subj
is such that it cannot be adequately described and classi fied i
terms of available concept<. Klein (50), for inst:rnce, found tha
current de[mitions were of rl'O use in characteri>Jng the hemiannpi
hallucinations of his paticnu ami that these could be descri
only as "special fonns of pathological experience: Many o
phenomena arising under normal and pathological conditions d'
play Lbe same rc:Wtance 10 being labeled and do not fit into a n
dassilicatory scheme. In the case of eidetic imagery, for insta
Lbe question has been raised whether the experience of the su
jcct should be classified u a projeaed memoryimage, a pseu
hallucination, or a hallucination (28, 60). A similar queuinn ari
with regard 10 "mescaline halluci natiom."
We have used the term "mescaline hallucinations," onl y
dtaracterize the phenomena in :r prelirnimrry w:oy. Even the sel
observations of qualified obSCT,ers have not .culed the pqi
whether the phenomena :cri>i ng a t ccruin stages of the poisoni
hould be designated :u hallucinations or Jeutlohallucinati
Some observers hold thai the) arc psc:udohallucination; in
sense ol Kandinsky; otllCI'> believe that the phennmena can
described only by reference tn a new concept of "pseuclohalluci
tion" differe nt from that of K:rnclinsky. lnstearl nf classifying
phenomena, some invtJtigoaturs ha,c been content with rdcrcn
10 the nate ol consciOtm1C nf the subject nr the level of rc:11i
on which the phcnomcn:1 :appear. Claude :rnd Ey (7) st:rte than
"hallucinogenic substance ucJr as mescaline produces a n <>Sm
du r ~ t el de l'imaginaire. J:: wald (14) thinks that we are deali
with hallucinatory-<lreamlikc experiences occurring in "a kind
dclirium without clorrtling or consciousness" and reporu that
.i.milarly "ridt optically delirious picture" without clouding
consciousness is sometimes found in cases of chronic encephali
and in patients with h)poph)'Si:tl tumors.
The fact thot present concepts in the field of hallucinali
cannot d.o junice to the wealth nf normal and p.1thological
ol 63
fN:"ticnccs can be remedied in unl)' two ways. h must be recognite<l,
hm, tha t most categories in describing psychic phe
nomcna in general are neither clearly clcfinecl nor generally agreed
upon. It follows that any improvement in the conccplllal "'''" o(
fHychology will benefit the st udy uf halluci nations. In the sccontl
many normal and patlutlclRical experiences have either no t

:111alylC<I so far by using techniques already available or ooultl
owll be anal yled because or the tliflicuhics of an experimental ap-
.. h. It (OJIOW5 that llCW and lllUI'C thorough ;um) ySC)II
will help to defi ne more d<"orly the varieties of hall uri natory CX
M:"ricncc::s.
Psychialrins have rccogui1.Cd that many hallud nalions or
kmenaia praecox patients nol really halluci n:.uions but, to u.sc
he German expre1Sion, rmei[!.r.ntlirloe Hnll11zinntiunon. Although
he p:uicnt.s rerer to sensory experiences of aiJ kinds, i1 renmins
obscure in what sense fi clcl the clCCur.
In lact , it is questionable whcthc the hallucinations really reprc-
nt visual , auditory, or cencslhetic experiences m have ;my sensory
ntena. It is of interest that an investigation o( synesthesias in
' "'"'"' ' individuals leads into simil ar difficulties (27). It is true
h.-t an :;mditory stimulus may give rise to a sensation of color in
one n objects, but in others the color, e.g., purple, is not actuall y
'" Instead, the subject cxpc.riences a "feeling like purple" or a
" ling .. ,, if purple." In these subjects it is a similarity in allective
th:et is apparentl y responsible for the quasi-visual .. as ir'
huaClcr nf the synesthetic experience. In st ill another group of
hjects, the amlitory stimulus _r:oll< fonh merel y the viual image
I color.
1here are also "complex syncsthesias" that are cbaracterir.cd
... the fact that the thinki ng or :til abstr:tct concept (infinity, peace .
.. .,.. ncg:uion, etc.) invadably leads to set:ing or imagining cert4tin
lurt, figures, or lines or to some ":.s ir" experience o[ such colors,
rhe subject, for example, may have the experience or a
sharp. thin, square plate or white metal" when think
about " negation." We may say, therefore, that there are not
ly tigentlitlu: and hallucinations but also eigtlll
and omeigentliclre forms of synesthesia. The results o( a
mlcal approach to these problem. however, should warn us
c:annol entirely dismiss the possibility lhat certain or eve n
I 'crnesthetic hallucinations" or dementia praecox patienu may
" 10me sensory basis. The poofountl effects o[ mescaline on the
olum arc known, and yet, as Mayer-Cross (51) correctly ob-
'' the descriptions or abnormal somatosensory experiences by
llniled persons are or ten '" fantastic and unintelligible as
or $Chi7ophrenics.
64
THE I'SYCHEDELIC ltEVllW
third difficulty in arriving at concepts in field o
hallucinatioru arixs from and inconnancy ol "hal
lucination" as a symptom in a group ol other symptoms. II is char-
acteristic ol drugs, doose and
factors and conditions that they produce more than one o(
sensory deception. I n fact, in some psychoses, there are apparently
hallucinations of different types and of different senoory origin,
"rellex haiJucinations," pseudohallud nations, illusions, and al
most every kind ol sensory deception ever described. Bleuler ha
presented a truly impressive picture of the varieties of sensory
deceptions in schizophrenia. Even in mescaline poironing, we fin
different kind& of iiJusions, pseudohaiiudnations, and haiJucina
lions. Furlhennore. aU these phenomena may be very inconstant
in the sense that aU or some of them may be present or absen
under certain conditions or at certain stages ol the disease or
poisoning. "Voioes'' not heard for many months may suddenly
heard again. At one time, the hallucinating may be interrupt
by weak forms of external stimulation; at times e,en srron
stimuli are i neffective.
The fact that the same dose of mescaline may produce a
di fferent times different types of hallucinatiOJU in the subj
has loo Franke (17) to suggest serial poisonings, with intervals
days instead of months. He believes that long intervals may imr
duce differences in the "actual condition" of the indi
vidual, a condition that is undoubtedly influenced by factors sue
as age, hunger, thirst, fatigue, weather, nutrition, emotional stat
etc. The question may be raised, however, r11 to why certain psychi
functions remain fairl y cmut:Jnt anll are onl y little affectro b
marlr.oo changes in tlte "actual biological condition," whereas hal
lud natory phenomena and the hallucinatory process unde
marlr.oo Ouctuations. It is of interest in thb connection that si
ilar Ouctuations sean to be characterinic of the performances
patients with visual agnosia. t'or the patient may be ab
to certain det:tils or general relations on one day but
on the next, or only under certain conditions; he may be able t
do it spontaneously but not at will, or vi versa. At any rate,
factors responsible for these Huctuatioru in hallucinatory sympt
be clearly defined at present.
Mourgue (57) has advanced the view that they are due to
dysregulation of the normal relations between the vegetative s
tem (in dte sense ol Kraus) and the cortex. The hall ucination
according to hi.s view, represents an invasion of the world o
11
in
stincts'' into the "sphere or orientation rmd C..'l usalhy': it is n
a "morphological" but a "sretory" diJOrder (in the
Mourgue and \'On Monakow) of in th
Mechonismt of Holludnotions 65
nnal relations between the "vegetative" or "instinctive" sphere
ul the cortex. Mourgue is not surprised that fiuctuations and
, illations in hallucinatory symptoms represent the normal state
allairst since the hallucination is cs!lentially not a static phe-
menon but a dynamic process, the instability o! which merely
lkcts an instability in the conditions o! its origin. Although the
lue o! such concepts as "sphere o! orientation and causality" and
phere of instincts" for actual research may be questioned, there
no doubt about the importance of vegetative mechanisms f<;>r
nger, thirst, sex, sleep, and affective states. Furthermore, it ap-
rs that !ur.ther information on factors influencing the excit
lllity of the vegetative system (electrolytes and lipoids, hormones,
lloidal balance, etc.) will be of far-reaching significance for the
ooblem of hallucinations.
Research in the ' field of hallucinations has been dominated
1wo chief interests. Either the investigators have been interested
rhe structure of the various phenomena commonly classified
'hallucinations" or they have studied the hallucination as a
)oRptom" in an aggregate of other symptoms. For investigative
ok, it matters little whether we start from the phenomenology
lo11lucinatory experiences or [rom "syndromes with hallucinatory
ntents," since any thorough analysis will lead to a study of many
olt-d !actors.
The hallucinatory constants that we have described are charac
tic not only o certain aspects of hallucinations but also o( a
1r'ty o other phenomena. T he existence of these constants sug-
\Ome in the underlying conditions. Other aspects
h.ollucinations and the hall ucinatory process itsel are often
tteriLed by instability and fluctuations, and it is the task o
ue research to deduce the occurrence of these fluctuations
the natul'e o the underlying mechanisms. No one would
thought a short time ago, Mourgue points out, that there ever
I be any connection between tetany and the subject of hallu
inns. And, we may add, t\O one would have thought of elec
and hormones in connection with hallucinations. Uhi-
ly we are not interestetl in hallucinatory constants per se
the conditions producing them. There is no doubt that the
ur these conditions will be significant for the analysis or
" disease processes and the exploration or fun.damental re-
11 in nonnal individuals.
I hr phenomenological approach finally leads to the study of
'" oyndromes and general reaction systems in the organism;
m .. ty of "syndromes with hallucinatory elements" finally leads
n o! the hallucinatory phenomena. Only by studying
wholr c.mnplex or symptoms in mescaline intoxication, includ-
66 THE PSYCHEDELI C REVIEW
ing the hallucinatory symptoms, has it become possible to recogni
mesc:tline as an agent for the production of "experimenlal psy
chases; ami only in sudt a way have psychiatdsts recognized L1
symptomatological similarity between mescaline intoxication an
I he acute phaS(:$ of 5chizophrenia 4, 7, 8, 22, 47, 76). No mane
what the symptomatological relations may be, the "mescal psych
sis" is produced by a well-defined chemical subs1ance and not b
hypolhetically assumed toxins, "metatoxic intermediariC$," an
the like. It seems that psychotic symptonu resembling those o
mescaline intoxication appear not only in the course o the schiz
phrenic di.sease process but also under other conditions. Serk
(75), for instance, described Lite "unusually intercsling psychosis'
or a patient whose symptoms were stri!Ungly similar to those pr
duced by mescaline. In view of these findings. it is unfortunate tha
at present so little is known about the biochemical prOCC$SCs i
volved in mescaline action.
To complete the picture or the total effects produced by m
caline, we should mention some facts that have a more particul
bearing on the study of normal and abnormal personality. It w
found, for example, that posLltypnotic suggC$tions may influen
mesc:Liineproduced hallucinations and thai, in turn, posthypnoti
sensory deceptions may become ahered under 1he influence o t
drug (59). A patient with spontaneous hemianopic hallucinalio
declared herself {or the duration or the mescalinized stat
(1). A patiem who had not heard "voicC$" for half a year hea
them again while under the influence of mescaline (89). Oth
investigators have used mescaline [or more frontal auacks on pro
lems o personality. They have been inlcrested, (or example, i
the reactions of different personality types. different races, an
mentally individuals and in the possibility of obtaini
"confessions" during the intoxication (2, 4, 89, 47, 48, 59). T
results suggest that mescaline investigatiom cannot be considc
the royal road to "1he hinterland of charac1cr" and I hal 1he chi
value of this drug lies in its effectiveness as a eseardt 1001 in t
solution or some fundamental problems of biologiC'.tl psycho!
and psycbiatry.
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THE EXPERIENTIAL
TYPEWRITER
TIMOTHY LEAIY
IN EAilLIER PAPERS, (1, 2, 5), we l),ave stressed the importance of the
astonishing statistics about the nervous system and the potentiali
ties of consciousness. For us these neurological numbers take on the
meaning of mantras.
THE RUMAN MAJN
RJ!C&IVU
ONE ntOUSAND MILLION
"
I&COND
OR
Wlt I'OSSltSS
llltTWltltN
TltN AND TRIRTltltN
BILUON
IIBAIN CltLLS
OR
ltACH IIBA1N CltLL
IS CONNECTU>
(ON THE AVERAGE)
Wl'lll TWENTY-FIVE THOUSAND
O'IHR CltLLS
During an ecstatic experience triggered by psychedelic foods
and drugs we are tuned in to some of this astonishing neural activ
ity. Billions ol signals are being registered, decoded a minute.
T housands ol energy languages are operating each minute. Each
level of energy defines a level of consciousness.
70
The f xperlenfial Typewriter
71
Almost all ol this awareness is blocked !rom the level of sym
hnlic consciousness whidt comprises routine awareness.
We can' t de.cribe it for many reasons.
First ol all we don't have the words or symbols lor it.
Secondly, it all happens too fast to describe verbally. even il
"'e did have the words.
We can think or speak at the rate ol three words a second .
. l.hat means that onethousand-million-minusthree registrations
rannot be communicated.
When you ask a psychedelic subject what is happening, he
can't tell you. He looks at you blankly or he gasps: "Wowl"
The communication problem is like this. Suppose we put a
subject in the front seat ol a roller coaster and we sit next to him
during the dizzy ride. As the car plummets down the first gasping
descent we ask him, "What do you see and feel?" By the time we
have said the second word. the car has Rashed down into the black
descent and is .creeching. around a turn. As the car starts to pull
up the next incline he says. "What did you say?" When we repeat
the question he looks at us blankly. "Well, it happened too fast.
I just can't put it into words." So the next time we prepare the
subject. We tell him that in the middle of the hurtling ride down
ward we are going to ask him about what he sees and feels. It still
won't work with words. As he rackets down the descent the most
he can stutter is, "Ooooh. Lights , .. and ... " By this time he is
around the dark bend and heading up. "It's just too fast for words,"
is about the best you are going to get.
Now the action ol the cortex is perhaps a million times faster
and more complex than reactions to a roller coaster ride. Ami
that's why you should never ask a subject during an LSD session
what he is experiencing.
Now suppose we install a recOrding gadget on the roller
coaster. Lets imagine twenty buttons which the subject will push
to record his reactions. One button is for "fear" and another for
"thrill" anti anoth.er for "lights" and another is for "sick" anti
another is for "dizzy." Then we train the subject for hours in the
code system until he gets to that point of automatic proficiency
of the touch typist who can rattle off copy without thinking of
what she is doing, banging out seventy words a minute while
thinking about the dress she is going to wear tonight. Then we
strap the subject's hands to the dials of the twenty-button recorder
and send him down the roller-coaster ride. He can now give us
perhaps twenty to a hundred codes a second which we p ~ k up on
a polygraph (i.e., a multipen recorder attached to the sending
keys).
T hat's the expcricnti 3l typewri ter :uul that's how it's usccl and
why such a device is necessary to record psychedelic e periences dur-
ing the session.
THE EXPERIENTI AL TYPEWRITER
The communicating device known as the Experiential T ype
writer was by Dr. Ogden Lin<bley or the Harvard Medi-
cal School and William Gettinger, electronic engineer with MIT's
Lincoln Laboratory.
Certain requirements had to be met: the device should allow
[or touch typing or messages by subjects l ying or siuing in dark
ened rooms. The keyboards had to be separate and the keys had
to be engineered to fit the structure or the hand a nd fingers.
The recording had to be set up so that a separate finger-move
ment had to be made to register an experience. It was anticipated
that during high points o r sessions subjects would lose contact with
the instrument and might hold down a key [or long periods. To
avoid this eventuality, each time the key is depressed a m:TTic. is
made on the polygraph, but i the key is held down no further
impression is recorded until the key is released.
Mr. Cet:tinger's <l escription of the four major parts of the
typewriter is as follows:
I. Twcnl'l"fM" flccord<r
a. The rtgistr-.t tion o reactions i.s ucomplishcd by :m F..stt l"'
line-Angus Opc:'ration Rccordtr with the internal wiring
modi6ed so th.:at opcr.:uion with pulsed D.C. is pouib1t .
This reoordc.r c;m only be U)C(l with the Experiential
writer, unless h has been rewirtd internally.
(or restoring the internal wiring to its pmiou.s sta l.t arc:
inside the recorder).
b. An accessory kit contains a boule or red ink. a
an inkwell fill er, and spare tips ror t.he gh tipJM.'<I pens.
c. Utcrline
4
Ar1gus Event Recorder Ch;tn 1720.X i.s sui t;tble
ror most situations. because il has no spteial time mark.
ings, but docs have a grid for t.hc r<rder.
d. A multi-wire c ble auachcd to the recorder i.s terminated
in a plug whidt fiLS the smaller o the t\\'0 :U the
rea_r of the COOJOIC. The bl:.ck and "'hitc pair of \\'ires in
thi cable c:arry 115 V.A.C. when th< recorder line-cord
u plugged into wall socket >upplying 115 V.A.C. Do
not attempt to oper.nc this device on :. nything hut tI S
V.A.C.
Tho hporlontlal Typowrlror
2. Til t Cmuole
:.. The console h:u a sloping from panel. The purpose of
the console is to provide a convenient location for a
t.ransfonner lO supply low voltage for the keyboard and
signaling lamps, to provide a conuol center for handling
any devices or circuits that ma.y be added later,
and lO pro,ide a loation for a signaling lamp and push
button, a lamp intensity adjustment. and a phone rcccpt.
b. The toggle switch powers the transformer that pro,ides
28 V.A.C. for the lamp. When operating properly, the
jeweled red lamp indicates power is available for the
kcyhoard Iampo. The 115 V.A.C. input to the trnru!ormer
is fused at the rear of the comole.
c. The poirner knob at the center of the console provides
5 oteppc:d voltagco to adj uot the lamp brilliance. T he
brighter the Iampo, the ohorter their life. At brighteot,
Jamp-life expectanCy is about 500 houn. At next brightest,
about SOOO and longer {or dimmer positions.
d. The phone recept connects with a similar recept on the
lefthand keyboard to allow poken communication be
tween keyboard loation and oonsole location. Sound
powered phoneo could be uoed, but they are not upplied.
Another poaible usc would have a microphone at the
keyboard end and a tape-recorder at the tonsole end.
e. The round button on the sloping panel energizes a lamp
in a sim.iJar button on the leh-hand keyboard, and vice
versa, thus allowing 1imple visual signaling hetween key
board :md console locations.
3. Connecring Cnbl.s
a. The 20-pen recorder h:u an ;ttached cable that plugo in
the 110aller rea:pt at the rear of the cowolc. DO NOT
plug into keyboard!
b. The dual cable with branches about six (eet long connecu
the two keyboards to a single plug. The oonnecton (or
the two keyboards are diferent and so they ca.nnot be in
correctly connected. Tbe single large plug can be con
nected to the large recept at the re:u of the console i( it
is desired to use the keyboards in close proximity to the
con.oole and recorder. Otherwioc, the large plug of the
duaJ cable connects to the recept of either of the two ex
tension cables.
c. The two long extension cables provide a means of sep
arating the keyboardo from the con.oolc and recorder. One
o( these cables is about ft'et JC)ng and the other about
73
74
1
5
THE I'SYCHEDEUC IEVIEW
45 lt long. Either or both ol these cabl.s my be used
betwn the console and the dual cable to the keyboards.
4. The Keyboords
The sketch below rebtes the keys on the keyboards to doe
numbered pens ol the recorder.
FJC<JU I
Keyboord of lh< &f><ri<nli/ Ty[><Writer
2
5

II 12 13
6
7
8
us 16
17
I
9
I 10 I I 19 I 20 I
Ldt Hand Right Hand
a. There is a ..ruall opening at one nanow end o each key
to allow inacnion of symbol or
b. Two lamps are within each key assembly. Access 10 lamps
ia obtained by putting the end of a finger under tlte edge
of the key and pulling hard awy from the keyboard.
Tum lamps oD before attempting to remove or replace
tampa. A standard #527 lamp, available at moat electrical
supply ;, used. Each key auembly baa lour lomp
lOCkets. but only the two containing lamps are wired.
Lampt ahould be removed or "'placed with the tonglilr.e
tool provided, with power olf.
c. Each keyboard hal a tCf!3le switch to operote the tampa.
The rightband keyboard alao hal an unused toggle witch,
which can be used eventually lor turning moat any device
(ouch a the recorder or a record player) olf and on.
1.
18
The fxperl.,.llol Typewriter
75
The Keyboard of the Experic11tinl Typewriter
The usefulness of the Experiential Typewdter depend upon
the meaningfulness of the experiential language to be coded. The
familiar office typewriter is coded in tenns of the alphabet and can
hammer out any word in the language. But such a device has little
use in experiential studies. An uperiential language must desig
nate large areas of experience for whid1 tl1cre are no words and
then must provide more detailed categories within each broad
area.
The experiential language should be able to cover gencmll y
all the terms now used in our denotational "external" language
as well as experiences beyond the present vocabulary. In addition,
the experienlial laciguage should be based as closely as possible
upon biological and physical processes. The language should also
be capable of coding the broad range of experiences which jumble
together physical sensa1ions and mental constructions- whidt we
call hallucinations.
There are, at present, no linguistic systems set up to dis-
linguish between internal and external, or to cli5tinguish various
level of consciousness.
Jt is obvious, too, that at this primitive stage of our under
s1anding of tlte levels of consciouness it is premature 10 design
such a linguistic system.
At,this point, ad /toe languages should be set up for each area
of consciousness 1o be explored, for each SC5sion; for each raid into
1 he uncharted.
AJ an illustration we shall now consider one such ad hoc
li nguistic keyboard for the Experien1ial Twewriter. The reader
is urged to remember that this system is one of many possible
codings of the typewdter keyboard.
We divided the two tenunit boards of the typewdter into:
Game-concepts from conventional language: lefthand keys.
Hallucinatory, revelatory, and transcendental experiences:
righthand keys.
Experiential Modes Based on Self Games
The four upper keys of the left hand n u m b e ~ I, 2, 5, 4 on
Figure I) are used to code the four basic modes of perception
which concern lhe self:
I. Bodily sensations (e.g., pain, itch., lickle)
2. Moods and emotional states (safe-dangerous, pleasantun
pleasant, relaxedactive)
76
THE PSYCHEDEUC IMEW
5. Interpersonal feeli11g1 towards others
4. Cognitive modes of perception
Each of these lour broad areas of experiences can be sub
divided into numerous categories. Bodily sensations can be re-
ferred to each sensory organ or zone of the body and game
designat.ions can be made-.. stomach ache,.. ..dizziness,.. ..erotic
feelings,.. etc.
Each of the four .. self' Jr.eys can be expanded and when more
elaborate forms of the Experiential Typewriter are feasible, other
rows above the upper Jr.eys can be added for specific self categories.
Experiential Modes Based on Cultural Games
The four lower Jr.eys of the left hand, (numbered 5, 6, 7, 8 on
Figure I) are used to code four broad categories of cultural games:
5. Awareness in terms of bodymaintenance games. including
lex
6. Awareness in terms of social-cultural games, including
family
7. Awareness in terms of aesthetic-recreational games
8. Awareness in terms of intellectual-scientific game..
There are, in addition, two thumb Jr.eys. set below the two
rows of finger Jr.eys. The Jell thumb Jr.ey (of the Jell hand) is used
tn code experiences of a religious-philosophic nature:
9. Awareness in tenns of religious-philosophic
The Negative Experience Key
The right thumb Jr.ey (of the Jell hand) is a master Jr. ey which
can modify any other Jr.ey on the board to indicate a negative
experience.
10. Negative modification or interpretation of experience
The negative Jr.ey is usually used in conjunction with a
specific awareness Jr.ey which it modifies. If the subjt is experienc
ing in .. body-game .. modes and if the physical reaction is un
pleasant than Jr.eys I and 10 are hit.
Transcendental and Modes
The right-hand Jr.eyboard is devoted to transcendemal and
transitional states of awareness. Whereas the lcll hand simply
attempts to summarize the major modes of conventional awareness
for which the.rc now exists a vocabulary, the right hand attempts
Tlte bperieOIIIol Ty,.wrflet
77
to a langwtge for ecstatic experien=, that is to say,
for expe.rien= which tand modes.
Following the model of the Tibelnn If,.,,. of lhr nrntl we
define two types of "tran.,.langwtge":
TrdiiStelldelllnl: This is pure proc:eu-awareness of biological
and physical with no imposition of any form or
interpretat.ions. Ebewhere these were defined as "OPI's," internal
ami external tlirut process images (2). In the terminology of mys
tical or phenomenological ptychologies these modes ol perception
are called :pure being," "the mindless or ego-less state," "white
light of the void," etc.
Western poychology does not provide a term for this direct
state of direct biological awareness. The psychoanalytic notion of
"pure primary comes dotest to dac:ribing the swirling
llow of direct proceta images (DPI's).
TroruilioMI: We hue eloewhere made the point (2) that per
ccption, normai<Onsensual or abnormalidiosyncratic, is the process
of imposing an arbitrary game structure on the endlessly changing
Rorschach inkblot of sensed energy transformations. When conven-
tional concepts (for which we have terms) arc imposed on awareness
- then we ai"C' pcrccivins: in terms o( xl( or cuhural games. The
lefthand key-board is designed to summarize these modes of aware-
ness. have 01lled these "LFI's"- lenrned /Or'nt images. you
are :aware of chair, a tree, of your child's face, of the printed word,
your consciousness is being structured by con.cnsual LFI's. Educa-
tion is the process of teaching tltc LFI's, of training the person to
impose the tribally-designatedLFJ.
Our,ing states of altered consciousness the subject becomes
aware of of OPt's, internal and external. He has been
catapulted through the LFI cunain. Neurolosically, we suggest
that the imprinted feedback loops of symbolic associations are dl...
I by the awareness or previously screened-out OPI's..
At theMe moments when the subject attempts to impose LFl's,
game structures. on to t.he tumuhuou llow or process images, he is
in transitional state of consciousness. Tranlitional between fixed
conventional LFI's and pure process images.. The Tibdon Boo._ of
tire Dead calls these Second Bardo apparitions. Our western cul-
ture has variety of names for Lhesc states: vision!, hallucinations,
revelations, delusions, hypnotictranccs etc.
In t11is version of the Experiential T ypewriter keyboard we
hve designated four transitional states and two tronscenclental
1t;ucs.
71 THI PSYCHEDEUC IEVIEW
Tire Two Bosic States
Our strategy is to base the new experiential language as closely
as possible on physical and biological evenu. T hus a.s these energy
sciences increase in prec4ion anc.l complexity the experiential
language can expand with them. The two basic claSSC> of tran
scenc.lental images ue coc.led in the upper board of the right hand:
20. Awareness of ph)'lical energy processes, phenomenolog-
ically labeled "void," "white light," "pure energy," "vi-
brations," etc.
19. Biological processes. Phenomenologically the subject ex-
periences life energy directly and without imposition of
any conceptual LFI.
We ha-e deliberately kept tltese: two categories broad and
vague. At thu time we just don't ltae the data to spell out more
detailed c:oncepu, and premature imposition ol LFI's is the classic
mistake in this area of understanding. J'hysical energy processes
directly experienced {coc.le 20) can be subdivided into endless
categories whidt must be tied to scientific operations or measure-
menu. Titus we cannot yet allow terms such as "dhine illumina-
tion" or the "circulation of the light" 11uoted in Tlie
of tire Golden Flower. We expect that such experiences can be
correlated witlt measurable sp:.cetime phenomena so that we can
eventually talk (with consensual validation) about perceiving
measurable energy traii.Connatiolls- plasmic, atomic, molecular,
electrical. etc.
We are surrou11ded by e11ergy fields which we cannot perceive
and one st.ep in the direction ol expanding our perceptions is to
develop " semantically alid l:rnguage.
The experiencing ol phyic:ol energy transformatiom sounds,
at this time, like wild science-fiction or pseudosdentific occult.ism.
While such conceptions can be abu:.c<l by the r:nniliar tactic or ex-
pressing subjective "truth" in temtS ol objective "!act," the bmiliar
checks on such abuse must be preserved. By keeping the external-
inte.rnal differentiation clearly i n mind we can up:ond the Jan
guages or both and continue the process of attempting to correlate
them, which is the goal of science and scientific semantics.
The Four B4Sic TranJitional States
Transitional states ol consciousness have been defined as tbe
imposition or external game images upon the suddenly speededup
Oow of direct process. "Norrnol" perception is the labeling of still
Jlte b,..tfeflllal Jypewrller
79
photographs. T ransitional awareness is hurriw, Static or
chaotic attempt to tack on static, illfitting labels to the kaleido-
..:opic dash of a sptttledup motion picture.
There :ue thousands of metaphorical classifications u.W to
describe thae Every of human nature has its
diagnostic We settlw on lour catt-ROries or
traru.itional awareness; within broad categories can be in
eluded most of the tra nsitional states by other theories:
12. Immediate sensory awareness (without contact)
This category represents thote states of direct awareness where
the stimulus is 10 powerful, or is 10 compelling
that subject loses .elf-<lOnsciousness, forgets who and where and
is, forgets tlte pme is playing and becomes com
pletely absorbed in the The sense of immliacy can come
in response to a stimulus-the pure sound, the candle light, the
sensual or erotic <JUiver, the sunset, the repetitious cannonading
or the surf. Consciousness is stripped or all itleas, all desire, all
qualification. The sense of immliacy c.1n also come as the ecstatic
endpoint or the game. The game-ecstasy. The complete ego-less
absorption in the sequence. The athlete straining for the ball, the
artilt merged witlt his brush, the mother wept up in the move
ment of child-care. T he Zen moment of the Haiku.
The lowerright thumb key of the riglu. hand i med to com
these atatea of awarcneSA.
13. Revelation
Another transitional state !lwolves a sudden intuitive insight
into relationships previously never grasped. This category includes
the crelltive the intuitive flash w frequently described
by scientists, mathematidans, :ortists ami phil.,.,pher. and now
being studied by psychologiSt&.
The revelation seems to involve a dramatic combination of
elements (rom pmes previously separatw. Old concepts and
dichb suddenly come to life anti "exiot" in vivid relationship to
the and to other concepts. The new meaning is felt; one
becomes the new meaning.
The indo 6ngc.r key of the lower bank of the right hand is
u.W to code revelatory experiences.
17. Eaw7 unilyliberation
Thousands of terms aowd in upon us from hundreds of
dialects attempting to recapture the exultant moment of ego-loa.
Runnin through terms is notion of sudden ecstatic free.
dom from the weisht of striving, the heavy mind, the enslaVCJMnt
80
to identity and social role. There is also the sense of unit y. \\'hen
the menta.! differentiations are transcended the processes of life arc
seen to fit together, each in its place, all part of the unfolding pat
tern. ''It all fits together." The ten-billion cell cerebral computer,
for t.be first time since birth, is humming harmoniously, omd more
deliciously so, because added to the dance are all the memories,
concepts, words, experiences of a lifetime. Neurological unity.
Such experiences are coded by the subject with the index finger
of the right-hand upper bank.
These ecstatic moments are differentiated from the pure tran
sccndental because in the Iauer there is complete submergence,
loss of all social arti!actual cognition, including that of sel f. The
experiencer is lost in the process either internal or external. In the
ecstatic-unity state there is a delighted awareness of sci without
desires, duties, ambit ions. The sci is seen as part of the complex
unity. Similarly there is awareness of all other man-made as well
as natural events. Similarly there is a unified awareness of concepts
and artifacts. The awareness has not been broken down into swirl
ing mosaics of ceJiuJar and wave visions wbkh are characteristic
of transcendental modes.
18. Hall11tina1ions
As the grip of the imprinted, symbolic mind becomes weaker
and tlte pulse of physical and biological processes resonates in con
sciousness, the sharp edges of learned fonn perceptiom begin to
merge with the process Dow and hallucinations are registered.
As described above, nco-symbolic patterns develop. Familiar
discrete sense modalitie. become scr:unbled together. Synesthesia.
Sounds are seen; colors a.rc heard. These sensory impulses nrc not
so differenliated in the o r t i ~ l network-it is lhc Jcarnccl mind
which separates the sensory modes.
Familiar forms dissolve into moving, dancing structures.
Thousands of images swirl through consciousness each second. Ob-
jects which our learned perception.< had persuaded us were solid
and fixed begin to vibrate and oscillate. Faces of friends become
changed into godlike masks, heroic, futuristic, demonic, saintly
countenances. Loolting at yourself in the mirror your own face
Dicks through a hundred changes, infant, child, adult, aged man
with beard.
LFI's merge with DPI's. Old remembered forms and concepts
imposed on the new cellular dance.
When these new cons1ructions appear in consciousness, key
number 18 is depressed- middle finger, upper bank, right-hand key
board.
Tfte bperlenllol Typewriter
81
The Recording of lrltemal (Eyes closed) Experiences
One of the most important descriptive C:<Legories for any ex-
perience, but particularly for visionary experiences is the distinc
Lion between internal and external. Eyes closed versus eyes opened
defines one of the most basic determinants of experience. In work
ing up a system description of a psychedelic session it is of
central importance to have a record of wben eyes were open and
when closed. All of the right-hand keyboard modes-transitional
and transcendental-can be experienced with eyes open or with
eyes closed. -Direct awareness can be of things around or processes
inside. Revelations, unity-vision, hallucimtions, biological and
physical processet can be registered with eyes open or closed-and
the quality ol the lwareness is much intluenccd by the simple lac
tor: Arc your lids shut or open?
This factor thus becomes an overall mO<lifier of any specific
experience. Just as the negative key (number 10) can be used to
modify any mode of awareness, so with the eyes-open-eye.<-close<l
I actor.
I I. Internal modifie. of awareness
The left-hand key in the thumb row of the right-hand board
is employed to signify an internal (cyc.dose<l) awarcnes..
'
THE USES OF THE EXPERIEN TIAL TYPEWRITER
After a trained subject has over-learned the keybo:ml ami has
practiced sending experiences it is JlOll"ihle tn use the typewri ter
in a "'ide range o[ empirical
I. Basic R ecording of the Flow of Expe.ience
The subject can tap out the second-by-second sequence ol
experiences-ranging from the most banal thoughts to the most
"(ar-out" visions and hallucinations. At same time, if the
observer keeps a running record of behavior and setting events it
is possible to go back over the tape with the subject ami reconstruct
in great detail the experiential history ol the session. At 5:17
when the Mozart record began to play, you murmured "Cairo,
Cairo"; the typewriter tape shows you were punchmg out "revela
Lion," "ecstacy," "eyes-dosed." With these cues at hand the subject
can then remember and even relive the sensations which flooded
awareness at 17 of the session.
For the first time we have high-speed, non-verbal methods of
converting experiences into language.
2. Sasio11 Programmi11g
The typewriter conwle and keyboards have telephone sockets
which make it possible for a person in another room to communi-
cate with the subject. lf the observer reads the typewriter and sees
that the subject is not experiencing what he had planned he can
immediately communicate with the subject and get instant feed
back as to whether his intervention has changed the subject"s con
sciousness in the direction of the plan.
For example, let us suppose that the subject wishes to ex-
perience reelations about Iranian poetry. The typewriter indicates
that he has been hallucinating and has then moved to "negative
mood." The session guide C"dll then pick up the phone and remind
the subject, "Hello, Frank, we are here with )'OU. You've been hav-
ing a rough moment. I'm going to read a Su6 verse to help you get
back to Persia." The next readings from the polygraph indicatr
whether the subject has moved the needle of consciousness in t
hoped-for direction.
~ Extrasensory Perception Research
The two keyboards are separated and extension wires make it
possible to have one keyboard in one room and the second in
:lnother part o the building. We have u ~ l the device to t r a ~
pauems of telepathic communication. T he simplest study involves
having one person "sending" messages and the other receiving.
The typewriter tape then picks up the Row of awareness from each
person simultaneously and statistically significant correlations
between the two can demonstrate the effect of communication. In
using the present twenty-key recorder it is. of course, necessary
to work with a ten-item vocabulary-since tl>e keyboards must be
the same and both subjects usc the same experiential code.
4. Pilysiological Stutlies of Consciousness
The most exciting research prospect opened up by the Ex-
periential Typewriter involves correlating experience patterns with
neurological recordings. A second polygraph is used to record
brain waves, circulatory changes, breathing alterations, etc. The
two Row-patterns of data-one experiential and one objecLive-
physiological are then collated. For the first time we have an ex-
periential language which can Row along automatically ancl
provide data directly comparable with physiological readings.
5. Detailed La11guages of Consciotuness
The keyboard o( the typewriter presented in the preceding
discussion is by no means fixed or standard. Resc;nchcn will, of
course, alter the keyboord codes to meet the nce<b or dil!erent ex-
Tho fxporlonllol Typowrlror
83
periments. Whatever the variables to otudi"<l-pcnonal nr intd
ltttual- the keyboartl can revised. The ccntr:ol methodologiCII
iuue in rcscorch on roouciousnm iJ that it must collaborative.
You have to rely on the subject"s ability and willingness to tell )OO
what he is experiencing. n.., subject must alt'"ee to leam the ke)
board and in moot studit5 it would be e pea"<l that the categories
or awareness would be within the n nge or the subject's interests.
T he day or pt)chologist impcing hi< his roles, rules,
rituals anti abO\'C all his language on the subject is about 0\'er.
Example of .>iperimtttt Using the .xpeoimtin/ T ypewriter
for demonstration pttrllOSCS one subject. a 24-year-old-volnn
teer, "'as non on the E.T. (or two one-hour sessions, on two separate
days. fi rst the code-s)nem was memoriT"<I. A simplified ..-heme.
ming only ten ancl len kep. was used.
rn<
2
8

10
L.ch Hanel
li1tlc finger
ring Ruger
middle finger
index finger
1 humb
l{ight Hanel
inclcx f.ngc
mitlclle linger
ring linger
liule
thumh
CA T1l()()lt y
SelfCnrne Cnte1.nries
cognilive
interpersonal
emotional (moods)
body
ncga1ive modifier
TrnnCntegorie.<
hallucinn1ions
in1ernal prOCCSSC$
external waves
void, white light
'lirect awareness
In tltis scheme. leh haml is used to code self and social-game
ategories, the right hand tramitional and transcendental cate-
gories. The forst scuion was run aJ a control period, without drugs.
The set was to meditate in silence. The second recording was made
three hours a her ingestion or 250 gamm3 or LSD. Both sessions
were run in a ' ' try small room; oubjcct lay on a mattress on
the Boor, hantls resting easily on the two kC)boards or the E. T .
Tioe console nd recorder ..-ere in an adjacent room. The room was
lit b) oelC condle; aettoally the .ubjcct ke1 his C)es closed through
oot both tession ..
84
Table (I) shows the results in summary form, with each period
divided into thirds. It can be seen that although the total number
of responses for the two sessions is equal, they differ in two
respects:
I. the percentage of righthand responses-6.4 o/o vs. 66%
2. the percentage of negative responses- 9.1 % vs. zero
Although no statistical evaluation of results from one subject is
possible, the figures do suggest that the E.T. can signifi cantly dis
criminate drug from control conditions.
TABU: (1): Summary of Data from E.T. (one subject)
(a) Control Period
Number of
responses
r. right hand
responses
% negative
respome3
Number of
responses
r. right hand
responses
o/o negative
responses
020 mins. 20-40 mins.
42 ss
7
8
0 15
(b) LSD Period
0-20 mins. 20-40 mim.
48 44
62 71
0
0
4().6() mins. Total
S4
109
8
6.4
15
9.1
40-60 mi ns. T otal
16 108
81 66
0
0
In the control session, a few negative experiences were re-
corded; the subject reported that these were primarily unpleasant
body sensations such as itches or cramps. No negative responses
were registered in the drug session. The Iauer shows a marked
drop-off of response in the last third or the hour. The subject re-
ported drifting off into areas of reduced awareness during this time.
The Experie ntial Type writer 85
He was apparently no longer aware of the room, the E.T. and the
task. Most of the right-hand responses occurred i n the "direct aware-
nt--ss" category. The subject here repont-"<1 being in a state or acute
or the tactile sens.ations coming from his finger tips.
These results, although crude and preliminary, i ndicate that
the Experiential Typewriter can be used to distinguish sensitively
between different states of consciousness and to record the flow of
experience as it occurs.
Summary
A communication device-the Experiential Typewriter-is de-
scribed, consisti ng of a twenty-key manual keyboard linked to a
moving pen-recordet. Subjects are pretrained in a code of experien-
tial categories. The recording paper then gives a moment-to-mo-
ment record of the flow of experience. The uses of such a device
are outlined in I) recording the How of experience, 2) session pro-
gramming, 3) ESP research, 4) correlation of experiential with
physiological recordings, 5) developing languages of consciousness.
Different codes should be developed for different kin!!s of experi-
ential research. A code based on the "The Prychcdelic
and an illustrative experiment using a single subject arc prescntf'cl.
REFERENCES
I. Le-.uJ.. T . '' The experience-its production and i nttrprc:tation."
Psyc 1cdelic RttJit:w, #3. Winter 1964. (also in Tlu: P.rycht>dtdic Rt:nder)
2. Leary, T . .. Language-Energy Systems Sent and Received." ETC., Fall 1965.
3. Uary T . " l ncroduction .. 10 LSD-The Drug, cdhed
by Solomon, D. New York: Putnarn, 1964.
4, l.eary, T .. Mttrnt:r. R. &: R. 1'/te Psyrlu:delir F..-.:J,t!tif'urtt A Mamml
Based on the 1'ibcran Rook or 1he Dead. New Hyde Park. N.Y.: University
Boob, 1964.
!' 1. Wtil, G .. Meuner, R. &: Leary. T . (ttb.) Tlit' P,\ytlt nll'lir Rnuln. Ntw Hy1lc
Park, N.Y.: Unhenity Books, 1965.
The abcm: paper is a chapter from a Forthcoming book- TraniJJ't - Cntn
munication Of the Jo:.Cstatic F:xpuiePrce, ro be shortly.
WHAT IS
SCHIZOPHRENIA?
ABRAM HOFFElt and HUMPHRY OSMOND
MANY OF THE CURRENT IOf...AS about schi tophrenia are wrong. Even
the name is wt'Oil$(. ThC" tenn implies 1hat
is or split. Rtll tiH' p< rsonalit y is nul "Jllil hun twu nr 1hrcc
separate pet'SOnalities as in the Three vf Eve. There is, in
lac1, no split whatsoever.
The originator ol the term, Eugene Bleuler, relerred to. a lack
ol connection between the thinking and the reeling ol the patient.
Many patients who have been sick lor a long time appear to
others to have a lccling. tone or mood which is not appropriate to
what they are talking about. For example, a patient ma y be crying
while relating a humorous incidcm. Even this splitting. however, is
quile rare, and will become r.rcr s1ill ;1<\ earl y treatment bccnmcs
generally available.
The meaning or schiw phrenia as popularly used by journalisL\
and writers is a lso wrong. The adjective .. schilophrenic" is becom-
ing a parr of our languotgc 10 mean separateness. as in "M:hizo-
phrcnic nation,'' attitudes," ' 'schiz.ophrcnic pnli
tics." As used in this way iL may impan some vague meaning to
the reader. but it actually has no mea ning in relation to the disease
rrom which it comes.
An older tenn, clcmcntin praecox, the precocious or parboiled
madness, meant that patients early in life became mentall y incap.ac
it:ued. This concept, usdul sixt y rears ago. is no lonJtcr correct or
uselul.
T he word "schizophrenia," therelore, serves no uselul purpose
either in rderring accurately t O a symptom or ;a disease. and will
some day be replaced by more sui table diagnostic terms. just as
"fever" was replaced as a diagnosis by definite dise<tses.
Schizophrenia docs not, as some claim, have a special :tflinity
for the poor. It is a disease which is prcv:1lcnt iu :dl cultures and
societies and is, as far as we can tell, rairly evenly distributed
:unong all races o men, no matter where they arc. h is rmuul :as
..
Wllal Is S<lllzopllrenia ? 17
uhcn ;unnng Afrirans ancl Europeans :as among :.ml
1\ sia ns.
Even the most cnthu.si:tstic support ers nf chc thtory that.
'c.;hitophrcnia is rehuetl to poverty have been able 10 prmlurc onl)'
one sttuly to support the ir claim, where it was louml that there
were twice a.s many schizophrenics among the JXMll'. nut since
about nne percent or a population will have schilophrcnia in their
lifetirnc, this is not a particuhorly remarkable finoling ami prubably
wa' due to many fac1on whidt "'ere not 5tutlicc.l.
Other investigators have not found any C\idenC'c: 10 that
poverty brtttls schizophrenia. The C\idence instead i rairly dear
that patients who do not recover lrorn schi >ophre nia tenol to tlrilt
downward to a stand;orcl of l iving below that of their lathers who
lin not have the The reason lor this is simply that the
p:ttient" are un:lble co continue in their work or unc1inn dferti\'ely
in thrir .society. In stri ki ng rmu:ut. neurotic m:ty remain
the same, urilt below or climb above their parents' social station.
SCHIZOPHRENIA AND STRESS
Schizophrenia, in spite o f popular belief, seem 10 have hardly
a nything to do with tress. Just '" it occurs unilnnnly among all
classes o men, 50 has it remained unchanged throughout t he years,
35 unconcerned about man's v:rying a., ahout the color o r
hi< skin and his religion.
Other diseases show remarkable fluctuations tlunuRh hi!!tory.
llclore sanitation was widely pr:octised, epidemics o v:or iou<
discase5 would sweep the Jx.>pulation :uul dcrim:ue man.
Malnutrition followccl the Ouring rhe w:r ' ' :n :uion a nd
tli'IC.::esc were ramp.- l nl .
Di.se:ascs iluc t o bacrcri:e, nutritional etc.. h:l\'c
,hown major swings in prev;lencc and incidence. and once thi'
w>s understood simple measure. were employed to them
t lrostically.
Chlorinating water destroyed typhoid and other diseases. lm
munization eratlic.Hetl smallpox diphtheria, and polio v:accinc
pomises to do the sa me lor polio. Adding nicotinic :ocitl to Rour
in North America has practicall y eradicated pcllagm.
It can be said, i n fact, that the first largescale o[ pre
ventive psychiatry was begun, not by psychiatrisu nor b y psycholo
gists, but by nutritionists. At one time nearly te n pcr.,.,nt or the
J.otients to some mental hospitals in the southun states
ul America had a disease c lled pellagra, caused by :o lad o r a
'' itamin. The psychological symptoms o this disease resemble
\Chitophrenia so closely th>t it is likel y that many more patien ts
88
admitted as schitophrenics actu>ll y had pellagra. When nntrotoon-
ist$ persuaded the United States go,crnmcnt to add nicotinic acid
to the Oour consumed by its citizens. there was a major clccrease
in this d iseasc.
But schi zophrenia has rcnmincd remarkably unchanged. Our
ing war or peace, in periods of poverty or prosperity, it h:os con
tinued to take its toll in a steady relentless manner.
Its constancy through good times or bad strongly suAAests that
stress ha.s no rchuion to sc.hitophrcnia. But even this is not con
elusive, for no one seems to know for sure what stress rc;.tlly is.
Many articles in popular journals picture modern societ)' as being
particularly stressful due to its complexities. There is ocmarkably
little evidence, however, chat communities today are suffering more
stress than those of 100 or even 1.000 years ago.
Primitive man. fondly believed to have been healthy. con-
tented. and wise. was acwally, according to medical history, dis
eased, discontemcd and ignoram. Perhaps that is why he had to
seek refuge in religion :md philosophy.
One needs onl) to read the novels of the mid-19th cenwry to
learn that our ancestors lived constantly with death, filth, priva-
tion, fear and pain. A large proportion of women died miserably
in childbirth and a large proportion of men, worn out by struggle,
died by the time they were fihy. No famil y was free of death. In
fac1, if pain and t1iscomort are some actors which cause s1ress,
then our cemury by all standar<b must enjoy less stress than any
other. Few can deny that lnodern societies arc charactcri'lcd by
less pain, less illness anti greater comfort than ever before.
All we ca.n say for sure, then, is that if stress, whatever it is,
docs play a role in causing schizophrenia, il is not an important
one.
STRESS AND THE SEX FACTOR
Stress also fails to explain the sex fac1or in 1his disease. It is
estimated that its incidence among boys below the age of 15 is
three to seven times higher than among girls the same age. If the
stress theory is correct, one would have to assume that liule bo)'1
are given three to se\en times as much stress as little girls. Or. f.
Kallman has challenged psychodynamic psychiatrists to lower the
incidence of schiwphrenia in children by persuading parents to be
as kind to their sons '" they are to their daughters.
Belween puberty and the mid-thirties, the inciclcncc is bout
the same for both boys and girls. Strt'M theori.sts would now hve
to assume 1hat stress on emales had incrcasc.:d rcm:.ukably :1her
the age of puberty to rai:.c their incidence 10 equ l that of boys.
90
Onesixth o( the children who have a sch i,ophrcnic mother ()r
father will have enough genes 10 make then1 schi1ophren ic. Th::u
is, out of 100 children who each have one parent, 25
will get i t. H bmh schilnphrcnic t he prt)):Klfl inn
increased to 6() out ol 100.
H a brother or sisrer is schi 7.ophrenic, another brother or sister
has a 15 percent cha nce of having iL also.
This docs not mean that p;uiems with schi tophrenia should
not have chi ldren. h is obvious. LOu. tha t steri lit: ing all schizo.
phrenics would have very liulc effect in reduci ng the nmnber o
patients and should not be considel'ed. The dise;ts<: has shown a
highsurviva l va lue through the centuries in spite or 1.he fact
that many schizophre nics have no interest in .sex and many others
were. uruil t en years ago, kept isolated inside mental hospitals.
Today, thanks to nc.:w drugs, more schizophrenics :1re able t o Ji\'C
in rhe community than ever berorc and we predict that the disease
will, over a period or ma ny years, afl'ect man )' more people.
The New l'ork Times, M(lt'Ch J, 19(t4, (';lrried the (ollowinR
story:
BIRTHS WIDENING TYPE OF I NSANITY
RISE IN SCHIZOPHRENIC RATE
CALLED ALARMING IN STATE
Professor Franz Kallman reponed:
A large-sca le stud)' in New York State mental hospitals has shown
that within two the reproductive rates of schizophrenic
women incre:tM:d 86 percent. compared willl an increase of 25 per
cent by the g<.:ncral population.
Dr. K:allm;tn w;trncd that this rise, reRccting the dilfcrcncc lxtwccn
early h;tnd ling of schizophrenic patients and modern treatment
methods, might result in : stc:td)' increase oC the serious mental
disorder. He predicted that the among schizophrenics
might c'entually that or the genera l populat ion.
We do not know whether the prevalence of schi zophrenia
should be suppressed, even il it could be. It is possible it is one of
the evoJutionary experiments not yet untlcr comrot and there is
not enough evidence today to interfere with that great Ioree in lile.
There is, a lot of evidence to indicate that i n m:my ways
people with schizophreni a. who have been cured , are healthier
physically and mcnLal ly than their non-schizophrenic brerhren.
Schizophrenics a ppc:1 r more ymnhrul , their skin not c-rinkle
as quickl y, thei r hair reta ins its pigment longer ot nd t he r:u under
Whol Is Schizophrenia?
91
thei r skin to last bcuer. They have rcwcr ('an Slancl
p::.in much hc u cr, and do not get ntt'(lic:d shock as easily.
It ma y IK. then, that ir the C\'Oiutionary experiment works
well, cvcrym1c will w mc c.lay ha\'C ur the: schit:.o-
phrcnic tu make them more fit.
P;erents "' ho have schizophrenia, however. should learn what
they can :about it, ami it should occur iu nne ur their children,
eek immediate appropriate help. We hope that they will be able
w du t his rnwc dicctivcly after h:wing rc:ul this book. Families
whi ch seem to have more than the cxpcc1cd uumber uf schizo-
phrenics seck help early whenever mw ur I hem any
sign ,f illn('-'" or nf rx:culiar Ln:havior.
PH\'SICM. CHANGt:S- U:>/Dt:SI RABLE
\ Vhat, then. is schi tophrcnia? Hm .. can we lell when i1 is pre
scm?
There are physical as well as p<ychnlngical changes in schi lO
phrcnia, some of which a1e undesirable :uul some of which arc
desirable. In general, the earlier the dise:sc strikes the more
severely it aiTccts the body. If children become ill before their
s.cn$0r)' organs reach full funclional maturi ty. they may never
develop normally. T he organs themsch,cs may be phyically
heahhy, hUI their hmcaion and cuordimtion he distort ed .
It is possi ble for skilled child psychiatrists 10 diagnose schiw
phrcnia at . the ;gc of one month by the cmnplclc lack ur muscle
tone. Mothers who have had normal babies uoti('C the queer feel
ing that. when pickcc.t up, 1hcil'"' s.rhiJclphrcnif inranls like
limp dolls.
\Vhcn sc:hill>phrenia occurs before pubcrt)' t he p:t ticnt.s may be
smaller in stature th<t n :1nt.l nhcn narrow
in the chest from front to back. When the left sicle is compared
with the side, there is found 10 be <t cJcfonnity in shape.
When the disease strikes adults, many thin!{ c:on happen. !loth
men ;md women arc 1hen more sus.t:Cpliblc 10 tuberculosis and arc
more likely w develop an infectinn if ex1>nscd tu this d isease. It is
quite clear th:u tubercular lesions alsu mnn; slowl y in schizo
phrenics. This was an important cause of in mental hospicals
before they i.uroduct."<l modern methocb of tubcrcul\)Sis control.
However, when modern comrol :md proper tre:urncnts
:re used, the incidence of tuberculosis amnng schi zophrenics is
reduced, b ut not to normal levels.
It is not true that tuberculosis patients arc more susceptible to
s.chi z.ophrenia. This pro\'CS that the sCfjUCncc of events is very
importanl. :mel it will he discussed later.
92
Another change is the pronounced fatigue and list
lessness which descends upon the paticnl. 'T his occurs in all phys
ical illnesses and is not peculiar to schitophrcnia. The patient
usually feel s less tirctl on the morning :ther sleep. but l>c<:omcs
progressively more and more tired as the day Kocs o 11. Tn\'/:trc.l
evening he is ohcu much more psychotic.
Schizophrenic men may become impmem and :,how :trophy
of the male gonads. \\'omen may suffer th;tllgcs in 1hc mens1rual
C)'Cie but this returns to norm:d if the disease vanishes. Both men
and women tend to suffer a decrease in sex interest. Schi1.ophrcnic
men occasionally bcom1c conrusccl in their sex identit)' possibly
due to bizarre feelings. Thi:o; led Freud w the erroneous belid that
repressed homosexuality is at the roo1 of all paranoid i(fcas. The
vast majority of researches de.sign<d 1n 1es1 this pC)int hav<' shown
that Freud's h)pothc.sis is wrunJ.!.
PHYSICAL CHANGES- DESIRABLE
There arc a number of tests which show that schizophrenic
body fluids differ lron1 those of normal people and those with
other psychiatric illnesses. Schizophrenics as a result have tlt"Sirable
physical auribures which non-schizophrenics may well envy.
Schi zophrenics arc lrc<jUCntly \'cry auractive physicall y. They
tend to age and lose their hai r color 1nore slowly, and genemlly
appear more youthful than their chronological
They arc, furthermore, much freer of many o the physic:tl
complaints of man, and 10 be able tn survive
which would kill other people.
Dr. John Lucy found that can take cnonnous
(luantities of histamines. tlu: chcmictl substance which is respon-
sible for allergies in some people. This r<.sistance tu hist;uninc ex-
plains ,,,. hy ''llergics are rare among them. A. J. Lc:1, i n a careful
study, found one condition in 500 schitophreoics. Other
investigators h;Jve m:u.le similar limliugs. This is a dJ:u;cteristic
of the dise;asc itsel not the pa1icru, for patients c 111 ami do
develop allergies when they :tre free n s.chiznphrenia. U. H.
Funkenstein reponetl in 1960 on a S"roup of l)syrhcuic p:uicn u
who h;1d asthma when they '''ere nnt sufl'ering nun schitophrenia,
but ne,er had the two wget hcr. Rh<umatoid ;trthritis is a lso \'Cry
rare in schizophrenia . Thus Dr. n. Gregg rcpnrrecl in Ameri-
catJ journal of Psychiah)' in 1939 th<H, out uf 3000 a utopsies on
patients with psychosis. who tlit:d or other reasons, nor one p:ttient
had any evidence of arthriris in rhcir jnino; or bones. Dncturs
Nissen and Spencer round no cases o arthritis ;tnwng- 2200 psy
c.:hotic subjects :mtl Donors T n: vcthcn :mel T :uum in exam
Whal Is Schi zophrenia?
93
ined 9000 admissions to a general hospital: MO had anhri1is Lnu not
one had schizophrenia.
It has also been noted in mental hospitals that d ifliHtr.t mrl
htru is an unusual occurrc::ncc. Both ment al hospita ls in Sask:ll
dlewan, with a LOtal population of over 3000, have lc:-s:; tllan fi ve
d iabetics. Dynamic psychiatrists have expla ined this by s;1ying th:tt
patients , .... ho have one ''defense mechanism," .schi.mphreni a, have
no need for anOlher, diabetes. They ha\'C not yc:: r expl;tinc:c.l in what
,.__.ay diabetes is a defense mechanism any more than t hey
explained schizophreni<t as having a suess basis. It is ime l'eslinR
to note, however, that doctors cont inue LO treat diahct l'S with
i nsulin and not with psychotherapy.
Schhophrenic::s ca n suffer ext ensive: burns, seven; in.iurics.
fractures and heart attacks, acute appendicitis :nul even self-muti
lation with ;1hnormal stoicism and d et,chmcnl. \ Vhi lc .stme pe ople
l<tint when blood is d rawn, one patient n il throat
a nd bled so much that he rc<1uircd fi\'(: pint s uf blond, with little
sign o l shock. Some have cut off fingers and hands without collaps
ing or appe;ning t o be affected in :tray other way. They ha\' C been
known to escape the shock ... ymptoms usuall y .oil uffcn!<l at the begin
ning ol a pcrlorated ulcer.
Some, of course, do go into (kcp shO<:k a mi die. but others
seem to benefit from shock when it docs occur. One patient, a
chronic schizophrenic wirll bi za rre ideas and behavior, suffered
very severe burns nvcr a large portion n f her body in a kitchen ac-
cident. She went. into <l cep t raumaric shock, and aflcr a leng'lhy
periOtl f)[ reco very. <.'mCrRed comple tely c::lc:. r and ahlc to
re turn to her faniily.
This resistance to pain can be cl:mgcrous. for acute illnesses
aae ohen ignu1 ccl wuil leN) lal<' . P.sychotic patient s <lie more oflcn
(rom ruptured t ft;m uorma)s, wilhHUI of pain
nr mlwr or tliffinllr y.
I'SYCHOI.Ol.IC.\1. CHANGES
It is impossiiJic to Gttalogue ami dcscr ibc the psychological
r h:mgcs which can uccur in schii.o phrcnia. [\'en if one could . it
\\'ould be of little value, for the diagnosis o f schitophrenia doc.s not
lk pcud U))(lll tiH' co unting o t hese symptoms.
There is nc pcrsonali1y which is peculia r to schiZophrenia.
Tlu:rc is 110 particular 1ype of prt,cc.ling it and it does
uot imp():'.C a uniform t ype of personalit y on all patients. Schizo
4
phn: nics rcprcsc: rH all pel'sonality t ypes. or biological
1 ht urics of .schit.ophn:nia h:l\'c used this as an al'gument. on the
,1:)\UIIIpt ifHI thai ;Ill)' d iS(':!S( \\'ouJd ha ve t he d (Cct 0
94
making all patients act the same way. This is a novel idea, since;
it is not true of any disease so far discovered. Diabetes mellitus dod
not produce uniform personalities any more than schizophreni
does, but no one argues that it is not a physical disease.
Only one personality is believed to precede the disease, and i
has found its way into the literature as the schizoid personality.
A schizoid personality is supposed to resemble schizophrenia and
is usually applied to a person who is ingoing, introverted, quiet,
and enjoys seclusion. It was believed that children who were
and quiet by nature were pre-schizophrenic and parents of sucbl
children were advised by physicians to be concerned about themi
So strong was this assumption that much research money was
spent trying to establish that schizophrenics would come
from that group known as schizoid personalities. One such

was completed in T oronto, where an examination was made of
large number of school children from an section o
society.
Using certain criteria, a small number of schizoid
were selected. Over the next few years it was found that cbildh
schizophrenia occurred more frequently in children who had no
been selected as schizoid. A similar study in the University 3
T exas, Dallas, yielded simila.r results. A large group of children
seen in a mental health clinic were classed into extraverted, intr
verted and ambiverted groups. or these, the introverted on
would moot closely resemble the schizoid people. Over '' long fol
low-up period it was found that the introverted group produce
less than the expected share of schizophrenic patients. In fact, ou
of ten ubjects found to have been diagnosed schizophrenic, onl
one was introverted. Three were extraverted and six a
biverted. It thus appears that many introverted and retiring peopl
have been needlessly annoyed by this error.
Since it h:u not been shown that schizoid subjects product]
more schizophrenics than any other personality types, where
this idea originate?
It seems likely the idea came from the necessity of taking h3'
tories and the habit of mistaking the first signs of the disease f
a special personality preceding it. T his is another example of put
ting symptoms before causes, leading to wrong conclusions. It is as
scientific as the procedures adopted by the wise men called upon
by the king to determine why the wind blows. The wise me
studied the problem (or a long time without coming up with :m
satisfactory answers. It was observed, however, that whenever the
wind blew the trees waved. It was, therefore, concluded that thc:j
trees' waving produced the wind.
T he basic f>tl'sonality is altcrctl by the tliscasc. T his is no
Wll ot Is Sclllzopllrenla? 95
unique for schi1.0phrenia, since it has bn known for centuries that
any illness alters personality. A subject with a ll<oinful
may have at the time an irritable, withdrawn, seclouive
which bomes relaxed, friendly, toleront ancl outgoing again when
rhe headache dis.,ppeus.
The confusion on this point may be due to the char:octeristic
way in which the disease befi:ins. Most clise.oscs give definite ancl
unmistakable warning of their presence f:oirly e:orly in their history.
They h:ove obvious physic.,! whirh make it rel:otively
simple for others to accept the fact that the patient has now be
come sick. H tbere is a personality ch:ongc with "'111cer. for instance.
it is understood that this is the result of pain '"''I suffering and
allowan= are made.
But schi7.ophreniri is orten It may come on so
slowly and insidiousfy that, like watching the hourly hand of a
clock, one sea no beginning or end of the movement. There is
nothing definable that one can see, like the suclclcn lm of weight
or unusual pallor, or feel, like a sharp pain in the abdomen. It
makes its changes gradually where they are leaJt noticeable, in a
slowlyincreasing personality deformation without :ony obvious
explanation.
If one examines the clinic.,) history nr many patients. it be
comes obvious that there were personality ch:onges which included
withdrawal, shyneu, etc., long before schimphreni:o w"' full y de
veloped, or recngni1.ed. Perhaps this is why personality theorisu
have fallen into the trap of bclievinfi: there i a pcrS<)na lity whiclt
is predisposed tow:ml it. In these r:oS(.'<. huwevcr. the so-c:olled
schizoid pcrs<tio:olity was the first.sifi:n that ochi1.nphrenia wa. pres-
ent, and was :o symptom ancl nnt :o prcclisJ>OSing l:ortnr. The term
"schizc)id;' then. ha!l nn rlinit-:11 \'ahw and Wt'll hr clrnppNI
rrnm
WARNING SIGN
Since the personality of p.1tients with schi>.nphrenin differs as
widely as the personality ol subjecu who do not have this disease,
the psrchulogic:ol tests used to me:o.surc person:olity in diagnosis ol
..:hilllphrenia have no value.
litany dinic:J I psychologists famr Rorschodt and other pro-
jective tests clesifi:netl Ill detennine whether we are (UillOving
party-gucrs or inistcr types harboring malice ancl illwill toward
our lathers. These tests have been u.ele.s in either diagnosing or
helping tc> trc:ot schiwphrenin.
The Rorschach test wa> tlevelopccl by Herman Rorschach
about forty years ;ofi:O. It cousiu o( a set of ten c:ml. with a sym
96 THE PSYCHEDEUC REVIEW
metrical ink blot on each card. The blot is usually black, but is
sometimes red. The subject is supposed to look at it and tell the
tester of what it reminds him.
What the patient says is interpreted by psychologists who have
spent many months memorizing the sign.ificance o( these comments
and who have their own individual ways o( analyzing the results.
The theory of this kind of t<St is that the blots act as a ki nd of
magnet pulling duos to his basic problems from the subject's sub-
conscious. These are supposed to provide the key to personality
and diagnosis. Attempts to show that the Rorschach has some value
have been singularly unsuccessful, but its use goes on a.nd on.
There is one important unchanging characteristic of the
disease to look for, and that is alteration in personality. Whenever
there is a change in character, without an accompanying clear
change in the e.nvironmenr and in the absence of physical illn<SS,
one may suspect schizophrenia.
Thls change is marked by a turning into oneself and an in
temification or exaggeration of abnormal and asocial traits. For
example, if a normal outgoing adolescent over a period of years
becomes shy, seclusive, lonely and irritable, this is a serious per
sonality change and parents should look for the cause. In a propor-
tion of cases, they will find schizophrenia.
Change in personality, then, is the hallmark of schitophrenia1
In order to evaluate the change we must know what the personalityj
changed from, and must consider the age at which the change oc-
curred. The easiest patients to diagnose on the basis of change are
those who have reached the end of the developing years :mel have
achieved stable personalities.
Schizophrenia is very difficult to diagnose in the first ten years
of life. In fact, several decades ago it was believed that schizoo
phrenia did not occur at all under the age o( ten. or course it doe
but its diagnosis requires skill. Trained and skillful psychiatrists
can even diagnose it at the age of one month, but these experts
are extremely rare.
Several years ago a professor from Michigan, R. Rabinovitcli,
who was in Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, (or a conference, remarked
on the extremely low incidence of childhood schizophrenia in this
province. It occurred, he noted, only one-twentieth as often as in
Michigan, an interesting phenomenon in view of the fact that the
disease in adulthood occurred so uniformly across all regions. He
concluded that its low incidence in Saskatchewan children was due
to the fact that there were too few psychiatrists there able to diag
nose it. Undoubtedly the majority of schlzophrenic children in
his province were called behavioral problems or considered to be
mentally retarded.
What Is Schizophrenia?
97
One reason for confusing schizophrenia with retardation in
the young is again due to our habit of diagnosing symptonu in-
stead of the disease. Human beings, animals and birds all have
critical learning periods in their <levelopment. The song-learning
period in bir<ls, lor example, is about a year. If a young male
chaffinch is isolate<l from others or his kin<l at the age of three or
four <lays, he doesn't learn the complete chaffinch song. But if he
hears an a<lult bird singing before he learns to sing himsell, he will
in a year produce the song of his species, whether he is isolated ot
not. Similarly, _there i.s a ten-day period just after weaning when
mice learn to fight. If mice are kept by themselves at twenty days of
age, they do not fight as readily in a<lulthood as those brought up
in groupt. .
There is a critical period in human beings when they learn to
speak, and in other ways prepare themselves for the learning which
lies ahead. II, for some reason, they are unable to learn during this
period, they may not learn at all.
If schizophrenia occurs under the age of ten, it will interfere
with the learning process and the child's learning may be perman-
ently impaired. Since we cannot distinguish a clear personality
change, therefore, we ta.ke note of his failing school grades or his
inability to keep up with others of his age. The inevitable diag
nosis then is retardation, and the child is forced into the special
place reserve<l in our society for that group of people, from which
there seems to be no escape.
Personality in the next ten years of life is better established,
but still unsettle<l. Therefore, becomes easier to <liag
nose, but the danger is great that the adolescent's illness will take
a form which many will confuse with simply "adolescent behavior."
A large proportion or adolescent schizophrenics are called
anxiety neuroses, adolescent turmoil or other such ternu. When
the disease first strikes during the second ten years of life, however,
the patient has a better chance of recovery. The main difficulty here
is that e<lucation is interrupte<l for several years as the disease
develops, and during treatment ami convalescence.
It is during maturity that schizophrenia is most readily diag
nosed, for at this period of life, personality has more or less stabil-
ized and change in personality can be determined more readily.
The only period during maturity when the diagnosis is easily
missed is during the period after women have bad their babies,
when the illness is frequently mistaken for depression, and during
the menopause when most illnesses are calle<l involutional depres-
sions. The final period of life when diagnosis is difficult is when
old age or senility develops, for then many mental illnesses are
confuse<l with senile ptychoois.
91
THE PSYCHEDELI C REVIEW
HOW THE CHANGES COME ABOUT
Since this book is not a textbook of psychiatry we will describe
how these changes in personality come about. These are the psy
chological changes which occur so frequently in schizophrenics.
They will be described under four main headings: (a) perception;
(b) thought; (c) mood; (d) activity.
PERCEPTION- THE WAY THINGS APPEAR TO US
Inside e'ery human being is a finely woven network of nerves
which take messages from ear, eye, nose, skin and taste buds to the
brain. Here they are worked upon by a vastly complicated
of chemicals, each with certain duties to perform, and various dej
partments charged with the heavy job of advising different parts
the body what to do. There is an instant interpretation, which is
telegraphed back to the parts directly concerned, whereupon trnj
individual gets angry, excited, frightened, pleased, or in other
acts appropriately in response, depending a great deal on his own
personality.
T his is perception. The five senses provide us with intorm3
tion we must have about our own bodies and the world around
if we are to survive. They pick up cues from other people; the ton
of voice, the facial expre .. ion, the gestures, and these play an im
portant part in bow we get along with them.
In addition to the five senses there are other important senses;
and one of these is the passing of time. Another is knowing where
your hand is, or relying on your feet to perform certain jobs with
out any special prodding from you. In other words, in normal in
dividuals perception is spontaneous, automatic and
coordinated.
Suppose, however, something interferes with the way
are taken to the brain and the individual receives a distorted pi
ture. Still acting appropriate!)' to the information received by the
brain, he is now acting inappropriately to his situation. His judg
ment may then be impaired and he cannot think clearly.
Or suppose because of imerference with messages in the brain
one has to stop and t.hink what one's feet are doing. Suppose when
you are reading the words jump up and down, and you are so in-
terested in what the word is doing, you forget to think about wha
it means.
Suppose you can no longer remember what your mother
like unless you piece an image of her together, piece by piece, and
then have to concentrate to hang on to it. Suppose you hear a voice
telling you 10 go hang yourself. Suppose, because sounds are too
Wltat Is Scltlzopltrenlo? 99
loud, you are distracted and can no longer concentrate on the
simplest things, like watching TV.
All these things can and do happen in people, ancl they hap-
pen when the person has schizophrenia.
In schizophrenia the world and people in it have changed. Dr.
Andrew McGhie and Dr. James Chapman in England have col
lected descriptions lrom various schizophrenic patienu on how the
disease has affected them, and find that disturbance in areas of
perception and attention is primary in this disease. Normal con
versation is disrupted. "When people are talking.'' said one patient,
"I just get scrapS of iL If it is just one person who is speaking that's
not so bad, but i others join in, then I can't pick it up at all. I just
can't get into tune with that conversation. It makes me feel open.
as if things are dosing in on me and I have lost control. Movements
become slower because each one must be thought out." "People go
about completely unthinlling; said another. "They do things auto-
matically. A man can walk down the street and not bother. If he
stops to think about it, he might look at his legs and just wonder
where he is going to get the energy to move his legs. His legs will
start to wobble. How does he know that his legs are going to move
when he wants them to?"
Or as another patient put it, "If I do something, like going
for a drink o water, I have to go over each detail. Find eup. walk
over, rum tap, fill cup, turn tap off, drink it. I keep building up a
picture. I to change the picture each time. I have to make the
old picture move. I can't concentrate. I ca.n't hold things. Some
thing else comes in. Various things. It's easier if I stay st.ill."
&hizopbrenia can change one'or all of our sensory modes, and
this produces the biza.rre thinking and behavior which is charac
teristic o the
I. Visual Changes
The sense o vision is one o the primary senses and is trusted
more than most o the others. The statement "seeing is believing"
expresses a profound truth. Many changes in perception can occur
as follows:
(i) Changes in Color. Colors may become very brilliant or,
more frequently, lose their brilliance. Sometimes the 111hole world
becomes a uniform monotonous grey. When this happens it is
not dear whether the patient sees all colors, but has lost his normal
emotional reaction to them, or whether he sees all colors the same.
The patient during this period may be unaware the world is dif
lerent. One patient realized her world bad been dull and grey only
after she suddenly regained normal color vision.
100
"Colors seem to be brighter now, almost as if they are lumi-
nous," one patient told Dr. Chapman and Dr. McGhie. "When I
look around me it's like a luminous painting. I'm not sure if things
are solid until I touch them:
Another patient said: "I am noticing colors more t.han before,
although I am not artistically minded. The colors of things seem
much more clear and yet, at the same time, there is something
missing. The things I look at seem to be flauer a.s il I were looking
just at a surface. Maybe it"s because I notice so much more about
things and find myself looking at them for a longer time. Not only
the color of things fascinates me but all sorts of little things, like
markings in the surface, pick up my attention, too."
(ii) Cha11ges it1 Form. Objects remain recognilable but look
different. This may lead patients to believe the objects are unreal,
that is, that they have a new, unexpc;.cted and, therefore, unreal
quality. Sometimes pictures are seen as having real threc-dimen
sional quality. A house in a picture may appear co have the depth
and perspective of a bouse on the street. On c,he ocher hand, three
dimensional objects may appear fiat.
Angles may become distorted. Instead of lines going up and
down or straight across, tl>ey may seem to be leaning o,er. Some
limes obj ects de,elop life-like qualities and puls:He, as though
they were breathing. Words on paper may move up and down or
sideways, and lines may appear to crowd together. Pilrallel lines or
patterns o n wooden objects or in floors may ftO\\' in and out as if
alive.
(iii) Misidclli{icatio71. The ability co distinguish one face from
anot.hcr depends upon being able to see properly. T he sligluesc
change in a [ace is enough to make it scent strange tor different.
One male patient said people's shapes did strahge things. Some
times their races were triangular or square. Sometimes their heads
got larger or smaller. Sometimes one shoulder went up and the
other went down. For this reason, he couldn't look at people for
very long, but had to look :oway.
"But you're looking at me now," said the social worker.
"Yes, but you don't bother me," he said. ' 'I'm used to you. In
fact, you look rather funny."
If visual perception is tlisturbetl the subject may lose his abil-
ity co recognize people. The Nt:tu l' ork Ht:rnld Ttibrmc February
12, 1964, carried the following story un<ler the heading. " Killer
Says Voices Told Me To Shoot":
When he came down the stain he h:\d unn:uural irides<:cm
eyt$ and his f:wgs were showing. My \'Oict'S told me to .shoot him.
Po lice s:id A suffc:rc.'tl :1 nervous after his bcher)
de:nh.
Wltat Ia Scltlzapltrenia?
101
Clearly what hoppcned was that A was very I>$YChotic and suf
fcring lrom auditory hallucinations. When poor young Mr. Burke
came clown rhc st:liY) .\ .s:u'' him coming down. Looking up at him
could .strongl) cnh:mcc any failures in consranC)' since it seems our
perceptions ;trc more sral>lc along 1hc horitOillotl plane.
Another patient had a similar misitlemification with serious
conJCqucnCC$. During a period ol tlcep deprC$sion :md anxiet y he
looked up :uul saw a young girl coming down the stairs. She smed
to be surrounded by a halo an<l looked like an :mgel. This psychotic
man immedi:atcly lell in love with her. This e''cntually led to his
Uivorcc ancl tu a prolonged period uf cxarcme tension :mel unhap
pi ness.
An elderly schi1ophrenic who had been sick lor ten years knew
she was marrietl to llfr. Jones. But when :osketl il i\.fr. Jones was
silting besitlc her, she was unable t o recognize him and denied i l.
A male p:aticnt lost his ability to tell one lace from :another. All
faces S(.'Cmctl the s:.me to him, lc;uling him to believe he \\'as being
followed.
Some patients notice d1angcs in 1hemselves when they look
in the mirror ami find these disturbing. One patient's chid symJ>-
tom was that she saw bags ami lines under her eyes. None of these
was preM!nt but she could see them ;;n,J this a profoulltl effect
upon her. She became CIUiet a ml S<'Ciusi\'C :oml refused to go out.
Some p:1tients may :olso sec themsehcs as being much younger
or ohlcr I han they really ami 1his leatls tn problems.
( i") ChniiJ!rS ;, Fnr Jlisio11 l'crspcctirH". ,\ common compl3int
or schi:mphrcnic p:uients tiCals with lhC :tbi lity to ol"icnt them
schts. who J"idc in c:us become insecure and feel either
that cars :uc coming toward 1hcm ton closely when they are
not. or th:tt they arc too to the dit ch. Because or
this. SC\' C1':1l patie nts stopped driving cars as their illness developed.
T hese dt:HIJ:c" also m:1kc it diffic-ult (or paticnls to estimate
correct ly the site of people :nul objccu br from t hem. Some see
other people muc-lt sm:t11er th:w they really arc.
ThC$C .send to oculi"itS nr
from whom they tlcm:lml Mrnt nftcn the new gl :u.scs c1o
nnt the prnhlcm. :mel a fn:cluCtll of schi1ophrcnia,
th<'lt.' foiC, i-. a h C(JUCnt ch:ms:,c nf with no relief.
A romnwu prnblem amunJ.t fl'nm the cnnttrns
the :ohiliry rn jutlgc whe1her people :.re directly 01 them
or no1. The abilil)' 10 dccitlc nne i, beinl( lnoketl ot de
J>eml" upnn a ptlJ)CI' hinncular ,i-.inn ;uul a ' Try csart coonl ina
tiou ur a \':uic: l ) of ('11(' -. , H th(' ;!1(';! or the hr:.in whirh jtH1$:CS COtl
\'C.'I$: C' I1C t' i-. not .... uhj<'ch wnuld ht. i ncline<l
lU 't'\' fWnph ,,,. . tl 1hc.1n \\lh' l1 tht' \ :IIC' IIOC.
In a study involving schizophrenic and non-schiwphrenic pa
tients, we found that twenty-five schizophrenic patients were Jess
able to decide whether an investigator was looking into their eyes
than a group of thirty non-schiwphrenic patients.
The schizophrenic is liable to feel that he is being looked at
long and more often than usual, when this is not so. The earliest
symptom ol schizophrenia may be the inability to Jose the feeling
ol being watched. Recently a professor ol biology sought a psychi
atric consultation because he was continually and painfully aware
that his students were watching him as he lectured to them. He was
disturbed that, after many years ol lecturing, this feeling was sti.ll
present and much stronger than it had been. The urine test showed
he was very ill with malvaria.
Whether people are looking at us or not, and how they look at
us, produces an emotional reaction in most people and would,
therefore, have a profound effect on the schizophrenic.
In a letter to Dr. Osmond, Edward T . Hall, Department o
Political and Social Science, Illinois Institute of Technology in
Chicago, wrote, "I think that the point about the schizophrenic
not being able to tell when people are looking at him is very im-
portant. Its importance, as a matter of fact, has undoubtedly been
overlooked. Recently, I have had my students doing experimenu
on eye behavior .... One of the first things I discovered was tha
my own feelings, about being looked at in certain ways that often
caused me to be quite anxious, were actually shared by a grea
many people. I had thought that my own discomfort was due to a
failure on my part in working through some old dynamism tha
laid buried in my past experience. This may also be so, but th
data indicate that the reacrion is a normal one and r.an be exce
ingly painful."
He went on to point out that "dominant baboons can cause
younger baboon to scream with a pain at a distance of around
thirty feet simply by looking at him." He concluded that if t
schizophrenic's capacity to tell when people are looking at him i
seriously disturbed, he could be in deep difficulties. He also h
observed that "they use their eyes in a very improper way," creat
ing hostility or anxiety in those around them.
In ordinary life there is a kind of visual exchange between one
person and the other and the eyes are normally used to facilitat
social relations. When people talk, they look at each other an
look away again. They may look at a person's mouth, shoulder,
top of his head. They rarely look directly into each other's eyes ex
cept for short intervals, for being stared at makes many peopl
uncomfortable. In fact, small children are often told not to stare,
Many animals :ore disturbed when they are >tared at. A bo
What Is Schlzophrula? 103
can be temporarily halted or completely silenced by gazing straight
into his eyes. Freud placed his patients on a couch because he dis
li ked being looked at for hours on end.
The feeling of being watched or stared at, then, would be
reason enough for a person to remain in seclusion.
(v) Illusions and Ha/luc;,.ations. Schizophrenics do not, as we
are told, "imagine" they hear or see things wh.ich are not there.
They actually hear and see them. They have illusions because
something has gone wrong with the way they perceive things and,
therefore, they misinterpret what they are looking at. The coat
hanging in a cu)>boanl may momentarily look li ke a man or a bear.
Hallucinations are things, scenes, people, etc., which patients
see but which other people do not see. Visuallmllucinations can be
anything famili:'r to eer)'One in C\'eryday life, or may be fantastic
visions of the kind seen <luring transcendental states or during
experiences induced by psychotomimetic <lrugs li ke meocaline anti
LSD-25.
(vi) Gtmeml Comrne11ts. Visual changes may range in intensity
from very slight to very severe, and may endure from a hallucina-
tion of a single moment to hallucinations lasting many <lecades.
The response or reaction of the subject to his visual changes de-
pends upon many things. This will be discussed further on in this
book when the comprehensive theory of schizophrenia is con-
sidered in Chapter IV.
Some psychiatrists try to distinguish between s<><:alled true
and pseudO- (not true) hallucinations. T hey accept hallucinations
to be true when the patient sees any physical familiar object which
no one else can see, and believes it' to be real. PseU<lo-hallucin:otions
are said to be the same visions, but when the patient realizes them
to be or visions.
If this were the only matter at issue, there would be no quarrel
with these definitions. But psychiatrists have used these
distinctions to make diagnOSC$ even more unclear and difficult,
ror it is now said that schiwphrenics have true hallucinaLions and
h)'Sterics have pseudo-hallucinations. If the psyd>iatrist wishes to
give the patient psycl>otherapy he will be tempted to call them
pseudo-ll31lucinations.
Actually. tliagnosis depends not upon the patient and his
hallucinations. but upon the psychiatrist. If the latter thinks the
patlent has hysteria, he terms the hallucinations "pseudo": if he
believes the patient to have schi>.ophrenia, his hallucinations are
said to be true. The definition, thererore, is tied to the idea of the
diagnosis. It would be scientifically better to drop these terms
"true" and "pseudo" :oml merely '"Y instead that the p:otient has
hallucinations.
2. II uditory Changu
There can be fewer changes in hearing than in seeing. Sounds
1m1y be or not as loud.
"It's as if someone had turned up the volume," one patien
said. "I notice it most with background noises-you know what I
mean, noises that arc always around but you don't usually notice
them. Now they seem to be just as loud and sometimes loudet
than the main noises that are going on .... It's a bit alarming at
times because it makes it difficult to keep your mind on something
when there's so much going on that you can't help listening to."
Sounds may become less intelligible and harder to locate. One
patient, for instance, said that though he knew the sounds were
coming from the wireless in front of him, they seemed to be com
ing from behind his back.
Very few schi1.0phrenic patients are free from auauory
changes. As a result, textbooks of psychiatry regard auditory hal
lucinations as a sign of a more serious disease process, while visual
are taken more lightly. However, the evidence to
support these views is not strong. since psychiatrists fail to make
ca.reul studies of the visual changes which occur in schizophrenia.
They don't see the importance of changes in perception. Perhaps;
too, their preoccupation with patients' life histories leaves thetll!
little time for these studies.
One schizophrenic tried to get admitted to a psychiatric wa
because he thought others were talking about him, yet knew thia
was not so. At the same time he had visual disturbances and h
decided he must be getting sick again. He was refused admittance,
however, ami told to go home "because you arc normal."
There are two excellent ways for psychiatrists to become cs.n
scious of perceptual changes in patients. The first is long and
arduous. It involves many yean of experience with psychiatri
patients, during which each is carefully examined for these chan
The second method, a faster and more effective one, is to take one
of the hallucinogenic drugs such as L.'iD-25, mescaline and psi!
cybin, and study these changes at first hand. We think most psy
chiatrisu would profit from the experience, and their understand
ing of their patirnts would improve.
Auditory hallucinations occur after schizophrenia is well
established. The changes appear to occur in order as follows:
a. Patients become aware of their own thoughts.
b. They hear them in their head.
c. They hear them as if outside their head.
d. They hear voices.
Wloot Ia Sclolzoplorenlo? 105
The hallucinations can be anything from voices giving orders
and convenat.ions with God, to music, unearthly sounds and
buzzing noises. There is no way of prwicting in advance what the
patient will hear. This will probably depend upon his personality,
the pan of the brain that is alfectoo by the body chemical produc.
ing these changes, an:l other factors. The voices may belong to
people known to the patient, alive or dead. They may teach the
subject, or hold convenations with him. They may malr.e fun of
him or give him orders such as, "Do not eat any more." Religious
communications have been very common, but in recent years
sexual comments seem to have become more frequent.
The nature of the communication is not as important as the
ability of the patient to act, or refrain from acting, on the advice
given him. The onll' exception is the case of the patient who came
to the hospital in response to a voice which told her to.
A person may have the moot vivid haUucinations, yet appear
normal as long as he can refrain from doing what the voices tell
him to, and telling others about them. One patient, a physically
and mentally ruggW individual, heard voices telling him as he
shavw every morning, "Cut your throat, CUI your throat." But he
~ n t U I this was nonsense and carrioo on as if t.hese voices did not
exist.
This man had loot both legs in action in 1917 during the First
World War and had made a splendid adjustment to this disaster.
His schizophrenia did not develop until 1947, thirty years later.
One of the stages in treatment, therefore, is to convince pa
ticnts not tn .tell otheN a boll! their hallucinations.
S. Chnngc.< in, Sr.n.rc of Smell
Patients may become either more or less senSitive to odors.
Since smell is an important factor in taste, any change in the
former may lead to a change in the latter. The patient may become
acutely aware of odors he normally did not notice before. Body
odors may become exaggerated and unpleasant. Other people may
smell strange. Consequently, patients may wah themselves exces
sively or iruist that others do so.
Of course, hallucinations of the sense of smeU tan occur and
in this case, patients will be aware of odors which are really not
present. These hallucinatioru seem rare in schizophrenia but as
questions about smell are not commonly aslr.ed, we really do not
know. Patients will complain about them only when the changes
are pronounced.
4. Cha11ges ;, Serrse of Touch
change$ seem to occur less frequentl y than in any ol the
senses described above. Patienu may ))c,come more or less sensitive
to touch. Usually they ))c,come le$S sensitive to pain. Decrease in
touch sensitivity is generally not troubles<>me unless the patient's
job depends upon :o keenness ol touch.
But an increased sensitivity can be very troublesome. The feel
of a fabric can be exaggerated until it loels like animal fur. There
might ))c, bizarre sensations, like the loeling that worms are crawl
ing under one's skin. Unusual touch sensations may be interpreted
as having electricity applied to one's person, ))c,ing stud with
noedles and so on.
There may ))c, increased or decrca.e<l sensitivity in the genital
organs, re$ulting in sexual delusions.
Normal subjecu commonly experience the feeling ol being out
ol the body when they take LSD25. This usually occurs when
subject is so relaxed he is unaware ol his own body. The media
explanation lor this may ))c, that me$Sage$ from the outside ol th
body to the brain are temporarily suspended, and the patient'
"perceived body" is distorted.
"Perceived body" is awareness or the limits of one's own body
This is undeveloped in babies, but well defined in adults. It
likely schirophrenic children have defective perceived body
and so easily run into solid objects. Also, il the body image it
diffuse, patients can invade other people's "personal" space:
In their research in Weyburn Hospital, Dr. Osmond and Dr
R. Sommer, psychologist, found that there is a space sur
rounding each person which, if invaded by another, makes hilllj
very anxious. You h:ove seen some people talking lace to
while others are at lea.st a yard away. The extent of personal
;ornund each imlivitlual is determined psychologically and by t
rustmns or the society in which he lives.
If :o young fcm:tle schizophrenic loses the ability to judge bod
image, she may unwillingly get too close to men and so appear to
them to be forward or seductive, with many undesirable resulllj
Staring at another is a violation ol personal space and makes o
feel :onxious. One ma y foci threatened or "dominated" if an indl
vidual we disli ke gci.S toe) close to us in conversation.
Sometimes, in another disturbance or "perceived body,"
subject who has laken LSD25 sees his own body from the outside,
as !hough he were on the ceiling looking down on himself,
is rare. This also occurs with some schi1.ophrenic patients.
patient was placed in a jail cell ber.>use o his asocial ))c,havior
Wltol Is Scltlzopltrenio?
107
During this incarceration he woke up one day ami, hearing foot-
steps in the corridor, went to his cell door to look out. In the
corridor he s ~ w himself pacing restlessly up and down. He exam-
ined himself, said. " I must be crazy." and retired to his cot to
finish his nap.
5. Ttute Changes
In schizophrenia the proper balance of ftavors is altered. Pa-
tients may become less sensitive to taste so that foods taste unusual.
New tastes niay occur.
The only dangerous changes are those which lead the patient
to believe someone ;has tampered with the food. In our culture
bitter things are of"'n associated with medicines or poisons, and it
is very likely that the common delusion of schizophrenics that they
are being poisoned stems from the hallucinations that the food
tastes bitter.
Dr. J ohn Connolly in 1849 believed that many of his patients'
delusions arose from disorders in taste perception. He reported
many patients would not eat because foods had a coppery taste.
6. Time Changes
We will include time as one of the important senses even
though there seems to be no definite organ which deals with it. It
is likely time perception is a function of the entire brain which
acts as a computer integrating ;JII sources of information from the
senses to estimate the passing of time; for example, the eye sees day
and night, sun, stars and shadows. The ear bears different noises
at different times of the day, while the body feels hunger and other
sensations from bladder, bowel, fatigued muscles and he.artbeats.
All these impulses, taken together, help us to tell whether it is
morning, noon or night.
This skill bas to be learned, and time- or clock-conscious
societies force their members to learn it more thoroughly thau
others, although no human is ever free ol the need to know that
time is passing.
Few people realize how important the sense of time passing is
to them until they are deprived of external aids such as wrist-
watches, or unless they find themselves in a world where time has
lost its normal qualities, such as in the world of LSD-25. Today,
when so many new demands are being made on our ability to
perceive the passing of time, we can imagine the havoc which
would result in our daily lives if we suddenly found ourselves un
101
THE PSYCHEDEUC I M IW
to judge, or awau of, p;wing normally. Yet schizo.
phreoia are continually living with a distorted time acnse.
Patients in mental hospitals frequently disorientated for
time, posibly due to the tacit of external aids which other
depend upon. The sense of days and passing is normally
diminished when one is removed (rom one's daily oocupation.
People on vacation and patients in hospitals a.re more disoriented
than they are at home. In general, calendars, daily newspapers and
daily vialton help maintain orientation. But mental hospitals are
not so well blessed.
One of our chronic patients was completely dis-
oriented for time until the nurses were instructed to show her the
calendar and daily newspaper and to ask her frequently the day of
the and the date. With these aids she soon norma11y
oriented.
In achizophreoia there can few changes in the sense of
time passing, but their dfecu au very profound. In our
we have found that achizophrenla are more confused and muddled
about time than any other patients except those in confusional
states, for example, in senility or toxic states of other illnesses.
They seem to in long slow delirium, resembling the state nor-
mab 6nd themselves in when they take LSD-25.
Time may appear to pass very slowly, as in the hour spent
listening to a dull T ime may pass very quickly, as in the
hours apent in an interesting chess game or in hours of love
which fty by in minutes. T ime may stop altogether when there is
no sensation of time passing at all.
Some catatonic patients seem to auapended in time. When
they recover from their catatonia (the atate sukred by some
achizophrenica when they do not move or apeak) they can remem-
thinga that happened around them, but not the order in which
they happened. Time is normally sequential. T hat is. "today" fol
lows "yesterday" and is "tomorrow." It would very dis-
turbing if this normal How of time were reversed. T his happened
to one of our subjects who, whe.n given LSD. found himself drink-
ing hia the cup was lifted to his lipol We have not yet
seen this in patients but we have not made a particular point of
inquiring about it. We do not doubt it does occur, but it is rare.
The order ol events in schizophrenia, however, can be confused.
The changes may be of short or long duration and one may
follow the other. A patient may sit down for a few moments, stay
there several hours :ami "come to" thinking only moments have
p:.ssed. Schimplnenics alternate between tJC:riods or time p;assing
alowly, and time passing quickly. When it i paning slowly, they
m:ay oleprCUCtl. When it is p;a.ssing quicltly, they m:ay be excited
Wllot Ia Sclllzopllrenlo?
109
and e.lated. II is usually believed the mood sets the time sense, but
there is no reason why the time sense cannot set the mood.
In fact, in hypnotic experiments which we will describe later,
the mood was exactly correlated with the change in time passing.
The slowing down of time movement produced depressed emo
lions. The speeding up of time produced euphoria, cheerfulness
and even mania. When time WaJ stopped, catatonia was produced.
It is surprising that so little attention has been paid to time
perception in schizophrenia and its relationship to mood, even
though this bas long been a matter of general knowledge. It is also
surprising that so little use has been made of this knowledge to
develop diagnostic tests for schizophrenia.
Additional Notes on Perceptual Changes
It is impossible to describe all the changes which can occur in
the whole range of perceptions, nor would it be desirable to do so.
For one's attention should not be directed to the details ol d1e
changes, but rather to the fact that the changes are present.
For anyone to function normally, each sense has to be linked
smoothly and easily to all the others. We make judgmenu on the
basis or what our senses tell us. H anything goes wrong wilh any
one of our senses, our lives at home, at work and in the com-
munity can be seriously disrupted.
Some people experience a phenomenon called "synesthesia"
which may be normal for them, but surprioing and frightening for
others. In synesthesia some pco}>le see a flash of light at the same
time they hear a musical note.
This commonly happens when one has taken LSD-25 or its
related compound, mescaline. It also occurs in schizophrenia. One
may feel a pain in the chest at the same time one sees a Rash of
light. This can be very disturbing to patients and can easily lead
them to believe they are being controlled by magic, or by the
inftuence of others. One patient kept getting messages from the
planets. Some patienu have a feeling of omnipotence and power.
The lint responsibility, when changes do occur, is to diagnose
the presence o( schizophrenia. In order to do this accurately, the
simple fact that perceptual changes are absent or ~ t is most
'mportant, and when they are present, a diligent inquiry must be
made belore schizophrenia is ruled out.
It is important to know the kind ol perceptual changes which
are present in order to treat the subject intelligently. Very often
a proper explanation to the patient will weaken the emotional
effects of the perceptual change and make tile simpler for him.
T HOUGHT
\ Ve will not auempt to lin all the var1eUI!$ of change in
thought which occur in schizophrenia. They may all ~ classified
into two main categories: change in thought procC$5 and change
in thought contem.
I. Changes in Thought Process
By process of thinking we refer to the act of pulling thoughts
imo words in a logical manner. Ideas follow one another simply
and logically. and are appropriate to the time and situation.
Random and stray thoughu do occur, but they are under control
and do not interfere with the normal Oow of thinking. Memory
for recent and remote events is adequate and the timing of one's
thoughts are in tune with, and appropriate to, the group engaged
in t.he convenation.
Any major change in brain function may disturb or disrupt
this normal ftow of thinking. The following changes in thinki ng
have ~ e n found in schizophrenia:
(i) There are no ideas whatever: the mind is blank. This hap-
pens momencarily now and then to all of us. Repeated momentary
bloclr.s of this kind are called blocking. But when there are minutes
or hours of blankness. it is highly pathological. One patienc was
mute. After many hours of trying to get him to talk, he blurted out
that he could not tal k, for his mind was blank. When he was given
a book to read, he was able to read it aloud perfectly correctly.
The words on the page were properly registered on his brain and
properly reproduced as words, but he had no thoughts of his own
to put into words.
(ii) The process of thinking may be slowed down. This is found
more frequently in patients who are severely depressed, whether or
not schizophrenia is present, and may ~ related to a slowing
down of the sense of time passi ng. One schizophrenic patient spoke
extremely slowly. :md answered questions only alter prolonged
pauses. When her sense of time passing was speeded up by hyp-
notic suggestion, she was able to respond mud more quiclr.ly and
speak more rapidly for several weeks.
The oposite of this, a marked acceleration of thought and
speech, is also found in schi>.ophrenia although it is more typical
of manic state$. This may accoum for the increased brilliance of
many young sc.hiwphrenic patients when their schimphrenia is
just ~ g i n n i n g
(iii) Tll ougllt prllusses may be so disturbed tlrat 011c thought
Whol Is Sclt/rophre"/o?
111
is followed by another which 114S no direct cormection with it.
Thoughts may jump a.bout at random. Biarre thoughts may in-
<rutle arHl interfere with nomul thought.
(iv) Memory and recall may bect>me so clisturb"l tllat clear
tllinAing becomes imp0$Sible.
Patients have described some ol these change. tn Or. Andrew
M<C.hic and Dr. James Chapman as follows:
Sometimes I can't conttnt.r.ue l>ecause my brain il going too (au and
at other times it is either going too slow or haa 11opped altogether.
l don't mean that my mind becomes a blank, it jun geu atuck in a
rut whe.n J am thinking over and over af{ain ahout one thing. It's
juu aa il there '.waa a aack in the record.
I may be thinl ing qui1c cleuly and tdlins oomeone oomething and
uddc:nly I get nuck. What is that I 1uddenly tick on a
word or an idea in my head and 1 jwt c:an' t move: patt it. It seems
to 611 my mit><! and then"s no room lor anythif\lt cbc:. This might
go on for a while and suddenly ifa over. Aherw:nd:J l get feeling
that I have hccn thinking cry dcc:ply about whatever it w.u, but
oft en 1 can't what il w:u that hu &lied rny mind 10
complc:tely.
My trouble is that rve got too many thoughu. You might think
about somethi"3, let's say ashtray and juot think, ohl yes, that's
for puuing my cigarette in. but J would think t)f it and then J
woultl tJtink ol :t dm:en different 1hing' cnnnted wi1h it at the
a.ame time.
My mind's :1way. J have IO$t control. There too many things
Mming imn my hro.cl at nn .. cc ;uHI J r<m't them ouL
These some ol the changes that c:an occur in thought proc-
ess. They are frequently found in They are invari-
ably present in well.atablished ca>es but they may not be present
very early in the illness.
Because the patient c:annot control ideas or thoughts, or per-
ceive normally, his speech is disturbed, leading some professionals
to believe there is a "scltixophrcnic language: There are some
writers in the psychiatric literature who even give the impression
that they know and can even hold conversation in a ..:hizophrenic
language. This is another myth.
Dr. Osmond and Or. Sommer tested patient$ n-t the Weybum
Mental Hospital, Saskatchewan, with the Word T est
which was originally used by Sir Fnncis Calton in 1879. The test is
completely objc:ctive and can be given and scored by an untrained
technician.
Dr. Omtond and Dr. Sommer became inte.rested in thi1 ques-
tion while autobiographies ol mental patients. When
112
THE PSYCHEDELIC IEVIEW
they compared these to boob by former prisoners, they found that
they could hardly read some prison books without a glossary be-
cause of the special language of prisoners. But there was no special
language among mental patients. They felt this could explain the
lack of organized social activity among schizophrenics, and the fact
that s.:hiwphrenic patienu did not organize mutinies, riots or
protests.
In their studies with patients they found that schitophrenics
not only had less in common in word associations than nonschixo-
phrenic patients and normals, but that they did not understand
one another's speech beuer than anyone else did. In fact, they
found that patients were intolerant of the delusional and inco-
herent speech of other patients, and only paid auention when their
fellow patients talked more or less normally. Patients sometimes
complained about "crazy talk" by other patients and even walked
out of meetings and group therapy sessions if there was too mudt
of iL
They found that though the speech of schizophrenics may
appear bizarre to us, they were actually responding to information
received through thei.r senses. Thus, rather than having a language
of their own, they associate with their own associations to the words
given them. Furthermore, as additional proof, a schizophrenic's
associations to the same word may vary.
This leads us to believe there is no s.:hizophren.ic language,
but t.hat the schizophrenic's disjointed, rambling and often inco-
herent speech is another symptom of the schizophrenic process
which has broken every line of contact with the world.
These are some of the changes that can occur in thought
process. They are very frequently found in schizophrenia. They
are invariably present in well-established cases, but they may not
be present early in the illness.
2. Changts in Thcrught Content
Everyone has wrong ideas. Superstitions, belieb in certain
"miracle" foods, prejudices against groups, extraordinary belief
in one's own abil.ities are examples of commonly held wrong ideas.
We may go along quite contentedly with these ideas for most
of our lives, particularly if most people in our society share them
with us. When our wrong ideas conform to ideas generally ac-
cepted in the community, we are not sick even though other societies
beli"e they are abnormal. For example, enormous numbers of
men beli"e in racial supe.riority, while enormous numbers of
Wltot ls Scltlzopltrenlo? 113
other men believe this is a delusion. Yet the individuals who share
this widely held belief are normal in their own society.
But at some time or another we may have to ask ourselves, is
this idea true? Does it make sense? Is it normal to think that way?
We can decide lor ourselves whether our ideas are true or nor-
mal by testing them. We can search for supporting evidence. We
can compare them with the consensus of ideas in the community.
We may then find our ideas are indeed wrong or different, but that
we cannot help believing them. In that case we have to decide
whether we want. to keep our ideas even though they are wrong.
or whether we want to change them.
II our ideas interfere with our jobs, with our relationships with
relatives and friends and with our general effectiveness in our
community, then we mu\t examine them closely and decide either
to take the consequences or to reject the ideas.
Many schizophrenics at one time or another in the course of
their illness also have wrong ideas, but these are more extreme and
may Ructuate. They may believe that someone has poisoned them
or that they are victims of some communi ty plot. This of course is
not so, yet they may develop a long line of logical reasoning to
explain why they believe this is so.
When he is well, the schizophrenic is able to judge whether his
observations are true or not. But when he is sick his judgment is
impaired. This, together with the changes in perception which
characterize his illness, can lead to an infinite number of bizarre
and unusual changes in thought. Again we must remind the reader
that thought can be considered abnormal only if it differs markedly
from the culture one is in.
We do not mean the kind of culture which refers to art or
literature, nor do we mean a "cultured" person who is well versed
in these matters. By culture we mean the total number of factors
which have molded or ohaped the person in which he has grown
and lived. Westerners grow up in a western culture of competition
and judging status and prestige by wealth and accomplishment.
North American Indians had varying cultures, where status meant
different things in different tribes. Thus, a paranoid whose thoughts
may be bizarre in our culture, is normal in a community where
everyone else's ideas are also more or less paranoid.
li is relatively unimportant to know all the kinds of content
changes which can occur in schizophrenia. There is hardly any
idea which cannot be imagined and undoubtedly these have been
found among schizophrenics. But if the ideas become extreme and
unwually different from the thinking of people around them,
they may be a symptom of schizophrenia.
114
THE PSYCHEDELIC IEVIEW
MOOD
Again few changes are possible, but these may vary. One may
be depressed, normal in mood, too happy or completely lacking
in feeling, that is, Oat or uninterested. The mood may not be con
sistent with the thought content expressed by the subject in his
speech, and in this case may seem inappropriate to the observer.
Depression is the most common change in mood.
Everyone at times is depressed, especially when one is sick, or
frustrated, or has failed in some endeavor. In fact, it is so common
that most people are ""'winced every depression must be the result
of some failure, some reverse or some clear physical disease like
infectious hepatitis (jaundice).
It is very difficult to convince many patients that the depres
sion i primary and may occur in the absence of a precipitating
event. Nearly all patients and most psychiatrists search ceaselessly
for a reason and this search, which is so often fruitless and degrad-
ing, is aided and abetted by careless professional probing.
Depression is often the earliest symptom of schizophrenia, ju.st
as it is the ftnt symptom of many other illnesses. Whenever de
pression occun in a young penon where there is no physica.l illness
or other clear reason for it, schizophrenia should be suspected.
The depression (sadness) may come on slowly, endure for
several days or weeks, and t.hen vanish until the next epiw<Je. The
subjects are then hounded by inexplicable moods of despair and
irritability. When this occurs, together with clear perceptual
changes, the diagnosis can be made early.
But when depre!..<ion occurs alone as the first symptom, the pa
tient is not so fortunate. It is likely he will then be diagnosed as a
depression or an anxiety neurosis for many years. The unfortunate
schizophrenic will then fall into the group of depressions who
within ten yean are clearly schizophrenic, or in the group who
respond to ECT (electric shock treatment) or to antidepressant
drugs with a gratifying change of mood but, to the horror of their
doctors, now appear schizophrenic.
Meanwhile, many valuable yean have been lost during which
the patient could have been given specific treatment and spared
useless therapies.
The period of depression may be followed by a feeling of
euphoria, when the patient feel much too happy when all circum-
5tances are taken into account. But these pe.riods of elation are
few. The usual story is to have periods of depression followed by
periods of normality. If the mood5 are too short and follow each
other rapidly, especially in young people, schizophrenia is very
likely the reason.
115
During the early stages of the illness the depression is
appropriate to the patient's circumstances. 1' his, too,
diagnosis difficult since many psychiatrists wait for the
to become inappropriate before they will emenain the diognosiJ nf
schizophrenia. But this delay is ve.ry dangerous, for the disease IJe.
comes well entrenched and chronic before the mood becomes inall-
propriate enough to the psychiatri". No research has come
to our attention which shows how long it takes for a schizophrenic's
depression to become inappropriate, but it must be several yers.
The most common inappropriateness is flatness, in which the
patient feels neither depression nor happiness. He feels no emotion
at all and is completely apathetic. This can be a disturbing symp
tom for subjects who once did feel appropriately, but if it occurs
very early in life, and has been present many years, they get used
to it and eventually find tt quite tolerable. It is prob;obly easier to
endure than the severe tension and depression which precede it.
Upon recovering, however, the ability to feel emotion often
returns, and thio too can be di"urbing to patients. Dr. Hoffer
a.nd Dr. Osmond have often seen this happen in patients who were
receiving adequate treatment with nicotinic acid. It io a mi"ake in
thi.s case to :usume that the occurrence of anxiety and tenoion
indicates the disease has recurred. It is on the contrary a heartening
sign. The patient's tenoion can be easily controlled with antitension
compounds or barbiturates, which can be slowly withdrawn usually
after a month or so.
The Oau>ess of moods is puzzling. It is very characteristic of
schitnphrenia but .there are no adequate explanations for it. It is
possible it is responsible for the inappropriateness of mood for, if
a person can feel no mood, in time he will lose the ability to judge
what his mood should be. Many schi>.ophrenics compensate intel
lectually for their inability to feel emotiono by observing others in
a social and group situation, and role-playing the appropriate
mood. If the others are sad or gay, they feel they must also be sad
or gay and ct aocordingly. This is very hard on them and may
lead them to avoid group situations.
One bene6cial effect of this Oatness of mood is that it probably
keeps many schizophrenics from killing themselves. It is well known
that many severely depressed people do kill themselves but it is
not generally known that schitnphrenics also have a very high
suicide rate and it might even be higher if they did not hllve some
flatness of mood.
Research in Saskatchewan and elsewhere shows that out of any
group of schizophrenics, about 0.2 percent wiU kill themselves
each year. lf one started with one thousand fresh cases of schizo.
phren.ia, one would expect t.hat two will die each year from suicide,
116 THE PSYCHIDIUC IMIW
whether they have or have not received psychiatric LreatmenL The
only exception we llnow of i.s the treatment program which in
dudes nicotinic add. Out of over three hundred schizophrenic
patients treated adequately with nicotinic add, who have been
followed up in Saskatchewan for nearly ten years, there have been
no sulddea.
With the llatness of mood, therefore, it appears as if the disease
itself acts as a poor tranquilizer. This will be discussed in a sub-
sequent chapter. The only hallucinogens (drugt capable of pro-
ducing hallucinations as in schizophrenia) which reproduce this
peculiar mood llatness are adrenochrome and adrenolutin. Theae
are two compounds formed from the hormone adrenalin which
are probably present in the body, and which we thinlr. are some.
how responsible for the disease pi'OCC$$ called schizophrenia. T his
hypothesis will also be diJCUsaed in the next chapter.
ACTI VITY
It &hould not be aurpridng that change in perception, thought
and mood ahould lead to change in behavior. We will not describe
theae for they lead directly from the other changes. , f a penon
feeb he it being tpied upon, it seems only natural he should talr.e
some action, eithe.r defensive or offensive.
We wi&h only to discuu briefly the common belief that schito-
phrenica are dangerous. They are, indeed, somewhat more danger
ow to themselvet than they would be if they were not schizo.
phrenic, but they are not more dangerous to other people.
The rislr. of homicide among schizophrenia is no greate.r than
it is for nonschizophrenica. Nevertheless, this belief is so well
engrained it has until recently been an article of faith for mental
batpital architects, society and even for nursing staff. This is one
reason mental hatpitab have been built like fortresses and jails.
The best evidence that this is false is the fact that one or two
rather small female nurses can herd as many as forty to sixty or
more chronic schizophrenics.
There are, of course, isolated incidents ol homicide. These
result from certain delusions. especially when the bOipital staff
does not U'eat the patient appropriately. It is a general rule that a
violent agressive patient is a aign of poor psychiatric LreatmenL
Matt modern mental bOipitab have done away with physical
restraints. euffs, guarda, etc., with great success.
The behavior of schirophrenic patients is predictable when
one talles the trouble to find out not only what they thinlr., but
what they perceive.
"What It It In book to be pOlbliabed Ill the Spri"C of
1 ... by Unl....lty llooU Inc. ,.;..., Hyde Part, N..., Yort 11041.
BOOK REVIEWS
SHAMANISM:
ARCHAJC TECHNIQUES
OF ECSTASY.
By Mirc:ea Eliade. Translated by
Willard R. T ... st-. Bollingen Foun
dation. diuributed by Pantheon
Books, 1961, 610 PJI ..
" What a magntticent.book. re-
mairu tO be written on da.e catatic
'sourc .. of epic and lyric poeuy,
on the prehistory ol dramatic spec
<ades, and, in general, on the fabu
lous worlds discovered. aplored
and deocribed by the ancient
m>.ns : So ends the ol
thb book. Meanwbile: what ma&
nilieent book Prol. Mircea Eliade
htu wriuen! h iJ add..rated not only
to the speciali11 but to the general
reader:
"We have sought to present it
[ahamaniam] in its various histori
cal and cultural aspecu and we
have evtn nitd to outline a brief
hi11ory of the development of sba
maniun in Central and North Asia.
But what we consider of greater im-
portance U presenting the &b.amanjc
phenomenon itsell, analyzing its
adeology. discusalng iu techniques.
its symbolism, its mythologies. We
believe that such a 11udy can be of
interat not only ro lhe specia.lit:t
but abo to the cultivated man, and
it is to the Iauer that this book is
prinurily addreosed Wben it
boma a m.-uer of enttting so
va" and varied a mental univene as
that or ahamanism ... we are deal-
in.g with ;a whole spiritual wodd,
whi!Ch. ti10UKh different from our
nwn, is neither leu consistent nor
leu interesting. \Vt make bold to
hclicvc tlmt ;a knowledge of it is a
nt."Cc."SSity f(r every true humanist;
Cor it h:1s ht.'Cn some time since
hunmufJm hus ce:t.lt.'tl 10 be idcnti
fkd whh the piritual traclition ol
the w .. great and lertile though
that Ia" (pp. xixn).
And yet, lulving read thb
monumental work, I am not (uJJy
penuaded that the shaminbtic =
dition iJ to totally alien to "the
spiritual tradition of the West."
Certainly Prol. Eliade ia very ear.,.
(uJ to halt the dilcuuion in certain
places, and 10 JUUCSt that here we
enter quite a dillmnt realm rom
shamanbm, perhapo shat ol reon
in the ol&da_l aenae in which u ia
suppoK<I to be Wldentood in the
WeaL But the brealt seans u fo.--
maJ. conventional and per(undOrJ
as the ocx:asional uae ol the word
"tricks" or the prefix "poeuclo" in
oonntion with shamanistic feats
that miaht be ealled "paranormal."
On the whole, Prof. Eliade aid.,.
tracks any dilcuAion ol this topic,
saying he il not concerned with the
"reality" of tuch occurrtnca, only
belief In them nd the role they
'Ply. He UICI something of the tech
nique of the more sophisticatll!d
.Jungians, himsell only
with "mental" or "pyc:hic'" reality
and leavinx the coomological
lions to othen.
Prol. Ellade also bypaues the
question of the nature of the 1pirits.
"All throucb the primitive aDd
modern worlds we 6nd individuals
who profc. to maintoain rebdon
fhips will 'apirits,' whether they
an: 'poueased by them or control
them. Several volum .. would be
needed for on odeqlt.lte study of
the problem that ariac in connec
tion with the mere idea of 'spirits'
. . But the study of ahamnnism
tlocs not require goang int() all thi1:
we uc.'C:tl onlr, rlcfine the .ahaman's
rel:.tion to h 1 helping l>jriu .. :
(p. 6). Perh:op: [>Crhapt not: per
hapt ''ll"Vtr.l volumes" would
117
118 THE PSYCHEDELIC IIEVIEW
hardly meet the case. But it is cer-
tainly a possible approach to write
a.s if shamans were in touch with
spirits, while disclaiming all onto-
logical pretension.s.
However, there are two central
and crucial related point.s on which
Prof. Eliade mak.es a definitive and
unambiguous stand: he regards the
dlaman a.s the recipient of some
valid, and valuable, cosmic revela
tion; and he does not consider him
as being, in his capacity a.s shaman,
a suffere-r from some form of men-
tal disease. "Psychopaths or not, the
future shamans are ex_Pected to pass
through certain inittatory ordeals
and to rc."Ceive an education that is
sometimes highly com\'lex. It is
onlr this two-lold imtiation-
stauc and didactic-that transforms
the candidate from a possible neu
rotic into a shaman recognited by
a particular society' ' (p. 14). There
can be "no question o[ anarchical
hallucinations and a purely il\di-
vidu.al plot and dramati.s persona;,;
the haUucinatioru and the mis-en
follow traditional models that
are perfectly consistent and pcmm
an amazingly rich theoretical con-
tent" (p. 14).
Prof. Eliade argues at length
that, wherea..s the mental patient is
an .. unsuccessful mystic" (p. 27).
the .shaman is a highly succcs"(ul
and efficient member of his com
munity: he is one who is not con-
trolled by his illness but can con
trol it; generally his preseur.e is
imposing, his health and versatility
his intelligence hiRher
than that of his milieu.
T he problem of di.stini,ruishing
between the phenomena or mysti-
cim and those of psychopathology
is one that faces any serious writer
on the topic; and the author pri
marily concerned with the mystic
is apt to dwell on the crucial drffer
enccs between the shaman or the
mystic on the one hand. and the
insane or neurotic patient on the
other. Thus, Or. R. M. Bude, who
" ' :as :a psychi:urist in hit
day, Medical Superintendant of an
asylum for the insane, Professor of
Mental and . Nervous Diseases,
President of the Psychological Sec
tion o( the British Medical Associ
ation, and President of the Amer-
ican Medico-Psychological Associa
tion, emphasized in his Cosmic
Consciousness (1901) how great was
the gulf dividing a mental patient
from a recipient of a great mystical
experience. Again, Dr. Gerda Wal-
ther in the Preface to the second
(1955) edition of her important
der Mystik de-
5Cribes how she took. special pains
to make acwal observations on
mental patients, so as to get fint
hand experie1lCC enabling her to
test the conventional assumption
that the mynical i clooely linked,
if not identical, with the insane:
and she. too. stresses that the
cnces are more important th:an the
resemblances..
It may well tum out that when
one is concerned with psychopa
thology, the similarities and the
points of contact arc d\e most im
porumt; after aH, if Prof. Eliade il
right, and the insane person is a
mystic manque, then ;a study of
mysticism i.s highly gennane to an
undentanding of ment.'ll illneu:
but when concerned with sh;aman
i.sm and mysticism the differences
between the mystic and the psydto-
path have to be stressed, if <l totally
falM: picture is not to emerge.
Another very important point
in a study of this field w:1s m:dc by
the l:uc Dr. R. R. M:trreu.
()f Exeter College :md Rctder in
Anthropology :n Oxr()rcl, in his
Pref:lce to Dr. \V. Y. Ev;ms\ Venu's
"Tibet:an Yoga and Secret Doc
t.rines": "Now 1hcrc is cert:in
1>oint at which most or us. hnwcver:
di.spassion;Hcly 5Cicntili<: in inten
lion, arc oapt to reusc to t:1ke: th
other man scriomly when he t:llkt
wlm t seems to us to be
ThuJ di.sp;uotging tcntu. .!luch a
' primiti ve credulity.' ' f onrusion o
Gllt-gories.' 'pr<:IOA,icnl me nwlity'
:end I() on, to accounts
o( onsophisliC".IlCCl mind that
hJ a con esponding exttnt :.re Ialii
fit."<l: hc.-c:-us.e Kitnce h:1s no bu.si
nc.'U to say 'wrong' when h merell
means 'different.' Likewise, in dea
inK with the belieb of our own
we may hardly be aw:.re
or the implication or rel:uhe
wonhlmneu to our we
ol wd a won! u survinr;
its latin equivalent JvtHntitto
millht w-m w ol the clo"fer .. (p.
""" 1958 edition). Thi plll>ll "
on the: whole, avoided by Pro.
Ellade--although he does make the
c:utornary propiti:.tory Ufftringt tO
1he otlici:tl lnrl 1 nnd pen
Rut the ()ulk o( tlu: writing
tntifits not only to hi.s care and
cruditiou, but abo to hb
:.nd seDJitive symp:nhy lor tltc "lien
cuhurea he is presenung. He writes
with tlte AIDe finu.c l'..ar
oente) .. did tlte late Hemridt Zim
mer. and u j .-pb Campbell does.
with !loth ol wbooc: wrhina there
could be a certain affinity.
\\'h:u distingui.sl1t1 tl1c aJuam:m
rom other .. tecbnici:.nt or the
>liCI"ed .. (p. 297) sudt as pri .. LS ond
aorcerers, and from other mort:ls
who ohcn believed to hold high
p01lt.lons in tht world of r.iriu,
1uch :itS heroes and kings, J hit
inilbtion into the of cauacy:
.. A fint d<finition . . will be:
a.h.uuanUm = of
(p. 4). In general, sh:tmam bne
nothing to do with nor
with regular worship, their prin
dp;l unction bdng that of ''psy
word never defined.
They :are ex1>cru and in tht:
rc.alm of cosmic dre:mu.
They t>erfom' the fu_nct.ions of
-'Virilu:.l hc:tlen, e-xorcUu., inter
tnt.-cli.ries between the livi_ng
the tlt.-ad. often :bo summoning
tt\fO: tuul:s of the living. They Ruide
the of the: departed to the
here they belonl{. and
;1h0\ t' :all. the is:.
I)("'W<'('U K"gions." '1"he
,h.Hti,HI knO"' "fi the ln)'Ml"f)' of the
119
breakthrough in plne.. (p. 259),
this communicadon bt'ing pouible
and essential in the cotmology ac
ccptetl by peopl.. wlth thamanic
cultJ.
"The univene in general is
concehed at having three levels-
sky. earth, underworld-<onnected
by a ce:nc.:nl axil . . This axis
(coomic pole. uee. pu1e1
tluo"l!h an opening or a 'hoi<;
it it through this hole that th< gods
d<snd to earth and th< dead to
the subterranean rq:ion.s; it is
through the hole that the
soul of the thaman in c:at.asy om
tty up or dow-n in the course of his
celestial ()r infernal journey.
. . The symbolism ol the
'Center" is not ntte1Nrily a cosmo-
logical idea. I n the cen
tcr' or site of a pouiblc break
through in plane. w .. applied to
any aacred sp;tc:e, that is, any space
tht bad the scene o1 a hiero-
phany and 10 manifetttd realities
(or forces. figure&. ehat were
not ol our world, that came: from
el>CWhere and primarily lrom tlte
sky ... Later it wat suppot<d that
mani(estation ot the itself
implied a hreakthrough in plane"
(pp. 25900). Prol. Ellades use or
the words "not ncceuJrily a cos
mologiol ideot." in this connection
is
The tree symllolitm it ol gre21.
vinu:a.Uy importance ;u
connttc..ing the sham"" with tht
.. bigher" and .. lowe,... worlds, med
bting his ;uccruions "nd rlHCents.
The idea or an originQI paradiaal
lt.'Uc also is almost univcn:tl: once:
upon a time all men were ablt- to
commun_icate with the world or
gods and spiriu; but tome calamit
ous c' ent. perhap& a sln or fall,
deU.rred Lhe bulk ol mankind lrom
these rc-;alms.. But dft an
lie in both worldt. llnkins hi fel-
low mortrls with the a;\Cfcd CONDie
dre;,ms or tht:ir tOCiety.
Other widapred COAilic dream
f$'rcs >re t11e bird. ymbol ol the
th,,inc moscngc.r and o{ the libc!r
ated soul, the hone, often eight
legged, who carries the subtle body
of the shaman to ito celestial tryst
ing place, and the dog who defends
the nether regions against intru
sion.
Prof. Eliade lays gre;ot stnsi
on the vocational element of sha-
manism. Even where lhamanism is
hereditary, a call !rom the spirit
world is also necessary. There are
isolated cases of shamans who be-
came such becaute of a personal
decision, but these are generally
considered less powerful. The call
from the spirit world is frequently
highly unwelcome: the calling of a
shaman, though a spiritually priv-
ileged person, is arduow, dedicated
and often lonely; and the initiation
ordeal, whether inflicted by the
spiriu or the tribe, is invariably
painful in the extreme: it effU a
sort of supernatural selection. Mad
neu and even death may be the
result if the shaman cannot endure
hi& initiatory tribulations; but mad-
ness followed by death may also be
the result of the refusal of a sba-
manic vocation ...... in primitive
man a.s in aU human beings the
desire to enter into contact with the
sacred is counteracted by the fear
of being obliged to renounce the
sim.ple human condition and be-
come more or less pliant instru-
ments for some manifettation of
the sacred (gods, spirito, ancestors
etc.)" (p. 2!).
FrequentJy there is a ''hysteri-
cal cria.is" at the onset of a shama
nistic career, often followed by a
period of roamin' the wilds, and
animallike vocalu:ation and be
havior generally. This would ap-
pear to serve the function of divest-
n.g the future shaman of the social
conventions of his tribe, though
other elements enter. such as the
symboliJm of the sacred animal an-
cestor. Often also the future sba
man .. becomes absent-minded and
dreamy, loves solitude, and has pro-
phetic vilions and sometimes se.i
1ures that male him unconscious"
(p. 19). Thus, morbid phenomena
accompany the on.set of the sba
manic vocation, but these have to
be mastered and controlled, and 3
period of training, usually by other
shamans, precedes fuJI initiation.
The symbolism and the experience
of mystical death and rebirth, of
ascent into higher. an<l d ~ e n t
into lower, worlds as parts of es--
sential shamanic experience are
univenal.
There is a particularly interest
iog brief section on "Contemplat
ing One's Own Skeleton" (p. 62),
an exercise which seems widespread
among shamaru. It ends: "Every-
where, we find the will to transcend
the profane, individual condition
and to attain a transtemporal per
spective . . . a certain recovery of
the very source of spiritual exist
encc, which is at once 'truth' and
'life'" (p. 64).
The idea that the magician
can leave his body at will is "a
strictly sbamanic notion" (p. 415).
One or the features of the shaman
istic on which Prof. Eliade Jays con-
siderable stress U the achievement
of '"inner beat.. which "fomu an
integral part of the technique of
' primitive' magicianJ and shamans:
everywhere in the world acquisition
of 'mner heat' is expressed by a
'ma.stery over fire' and, in the last
analysis, by the abrogation of phys
ical lawJ-which is as much as to
say that the duly 'heated" magician
can perform ' miracles,' can create
new conditions of existe.nce in the
cosmos. in some measure repe.ats
the cosmogony" (p. 412). Numerous
examples of lire-walk.ing, fire-han-
dling and fire-swallowing are $_iven.
"A similar rite consists in walkinr
on a 'bridge of swords.' It is be-
lieved that the spiritual prepara-
tion before the ttremony makes it
possible to walk on swords and
fire unharmed. Jn this case, aJ in
innumenble examples of medium
ship. spiritism or other oracular
techniques, we encounter an en
demic phenomenon of spontaneow
pseud<HhmniiiTI, which i difli
cult to cla.ssiry but whmc mMt
important characteristic Is ea.n' neSJ
(p.
Another power uuivcnaUy at
tributtd to shamana iJ tluu of bting
able 10 lly (p. 477). and Prol. 1iade
oaNOd:atts tlie bird symboli1m, that
10 olten rutu.res on the abaman'
cottu.mc, with the ubiquhow rc-
voru of IC\itations in connection
with t.lumaru. m)'ltia., mcdiu.nu.
yos:inJ., bk.in, alchemisLI and uinu.
''Magical Hight is the
or the iOUl'l 01Ul0110my :t.nd Of
"""'"Y ... This myth ol .Ute toul
conu.ans in : whplc mcUt
pbysia ol m;tn'a 'l?irilu:.l auton
omy and rreec:tom: It is here
we mwt t.ee.k the point o( d c--
panure for the c:nliat speculations
concunirlJt ,oluntary ::.lMndonmcnt
ol the body. the omnipotence or in
ttlli.-:cnce. the immorulhy o( 1hc
hwmn >OUl The point or pri
mary importance hue is due the
mytholotn' and the riles ol magical
Right peculiar to abamans and tor
c:cren oonfinn and proclaim their
tnuuccndencc in respect .-.r tht
human condition" (p. 180).
There nre scvtrJI imporuuu
rdercntta in conn.tcrion with levi
uuion. in particular Olivier Leroy"
LA LiviUIIion, Paris. 1928. whose
ouutandilll( exomple is St. Jooq>h
ol Cupcnino. A J... weU.\nown
u .ample i that of Sister Mary ol
J .. u. Cruci6ed. an Arabian C.r
melite nun. who I'CIIC hi.,h into
the air, to the tops ol the trees ...
the bqr.on by rai>i"A he....,ll
with the help ol tome br:mdto ond
never fto:ued lree in >pace .. (p.
482). In this respt her experience
poralleb th>l or y.,_i rhoto-
by an inlormant o oun
an ront or his own howe in
t.he yogi put a doth-tvtred >ddt
on the vound. puc hiJ h;and nn h.
and wu K-tn t.o rbc incn thf"
air. his leet the JtTOUnd
until he was Hootin in the hnri
1:onul petition in whirh he
phocosraph<d. He .. pllned th
121
he required the otidt to 11eady him
so u not 1.0 Root away. (The
photogr.oph and detail> w<re pub-
lished in "P>ydtlc NeW1 ... Augu><
1957.,. 1).
I dairvorance and prophecy
are addtd 1.0 this catal<>ue ol aha
manistic activicia.. it will be amp.ly
dear how very dole is the parallel
between Jtumam and medium>.
though bl and larJe the role ol the
a.h..aman u more active: he aeata
poetry, dances, mu
sic, mythology, daims which could
be mode by but lew mediums.
Prol. 1iade bypo.,.. the It"'
aimihuily with mediumiltlc And oc-
cultittic activitiea by repeAted atter
tiom thatlhamam, unlike mediums.
convene with the spiriu but are
genenlly not by them. I
dedine to be:he'\-e thac a writu at
phenomcmlly wellrod u !liade
does not know that mediu.mbtic n; ..
pcricntt. just like wmanlstlc .,..
pcrimoe, ra"'U from convene with
">piriu" to poll<llion by nd idmti
fication with them. In any cate, he
<1uoces Findeisen as an authority
(12 entries) ond he a.l>O relen to
r. K. Oesterreich's book, POJ.reuion,
though the rderencn co the Iauer
are very inadequate, not co uy
otippery.
Again, there it a statement that
"Reccm raeaKhes have brou&bl
out the shamanic element in the
religion oE the paleolithic
Hon1 Kirchner [in 1952) hu in
cerpreted the celebrated reliel
l..:ucaux as a reprnt:ntation of a
hamanic trantt ..... (p. 50S). aDd
then there lollow impor10n1 and
interating suppordnA" referencn.
among them one to Flndeittn'a
Stllnmnnenlum. And thtre i.J noc
one word in this connection about
Or. Margant Murray, d>e onii refer
ence 10 whooe "God ol the Wotthes"
(19!-4) is in a note, poJMJt. in
connection witb "helpins >pirics in
European med.ieval torcery' (P 92).
This is the only rdcrenee 1n the
book 1.0 MJPret Murray: there is
not even, and this iJ unJrdon:able.
a refumce co ber The lVikh-Cult
i" JYutt'rn in
1921. It wu, ol ClOUne, Dr. Murray's
and antral contention Wt
lhc whd aalt fo t:urope: was the
contlnu:u.Ion o( the religion of the
paleolithic hunten, a ubiqujtous
cult driven underground by Christi
anity, and l>enccuttd nearly, if not
quhe, to extinction.
As lOOn '" ah:un..tnisrn gets too
ncar home, in time or space,
whether in tht tonn or mediums or
witchca, diKrt:tion btcomea the bet
ter form of va_lor: there ue special
inq_uiUton, witch
6nden and their modem O>Wlta
puts, pririlqed 10 deal with Sllch
mallcn. and woe betide the tres-
pasocr who crouc:s the SOiacd bar
ricrl There arc two refcrenca to Sir
Wallis Bud&c (p. 487, 488) in COD
ntion with ucc:nding to heaven
by laddcn, but no mention ol
Budge" crucld contention that the
complex, highly tOpbisticated an-
cient iyptlan rcbgion bad iu
origin In the thamanism of the local
tribes, clooely resembling modern
Sudanese beHcls: the iyptian
pricou of Ra achieved the stm
blan ol theological unity by the
suppooltlon that all the local deities
were only faceu or UJ><Cl! ol Ra
(1 OJiriJ, the Religion
of R<Jwrnction, 1911), much as the
mtdleval Church used to convert
local gods into .. lnu (or dovib).
Prof. Eliade (p. 4S5) draws at
tendon co the great oimilari<y be-
tween ce.rtai n charaacri.nics of
Ct-nu-al tnd North Asian slwnan-
iJm and Tibetan La_nuistic prac-
tices, and a study of some
ol the relt\'ant woriu r<ainly
uggesu that the l.amaistic
Buddhanic reli3ion, too, was de-
rived from local tbaman
istic behcls and practiS. This
seems particularly dear from a
otudy of EvanJoWentt's Tibeton
Yoga ond Stttll Doctrines; aee for
example "The doctrine ol the
"'l'<hic hct'" (pp. 2nd
td tlou, 19M!).
h lftiD.i quite pou.i.ble now to
>uggeot the thesis that quite gen
enlly the great rdiJious S)"Stems
tu\t loal lh:a.mani.Juf; roots.. and
that one cult gradually supptanos
and swOtiiOW1 the rttt on becoming
Lhc: st;ate religion or some much
unit than the tribe, sud\ as
an empire or a kingdom. So long-
:md only 10 long-as a religion can
keep alive an elcmcru o( the genu-
inely atuununinic. JO long a.s it can
put its members in touch with the
world of cOirn ic dre:.ms and pro-
duoe enoush (l()t.mic dreamen. the
religion lhn. II :.nd when it ceues
to be: able to pro\ ide:, or allow,
what Prof. Eliade calb ""the break
throtogb in plane""-it cosifits.
The laat SOO ,-eon bae (aced
nunkind with oomething quite new:
with a >ecular COOO>OIOKJ which pre-
dudes any txprcsaion ol religlout
r xpericncc. all cOJmic dre2ming. in
t<mu of the oftlclally accepted l'ic-
turc ol the univtnc. at ltast wrth-
out duplicity or This ia
a vtry unnable a very danger-
ous suue or ;aflain, and .so long at
it prevolla "bre>ktl>rough in plone"
is and rcm:.int either ._ hollow fie..
Lion or an unmtntion:ablc ;md per
haps ev<Jt untltinuble opcri<n.
J>rof. !lode has wrlllen a au
pe:rb, inonnativc and important
book which (in lull acordance witlt
the discreet promise ol the lirst
word ol the subtitle) ., no point
oll'mdJ api Rll the u nwrittcn but
ironhard rules ol anthropological
convcnl.ion. ThiJ inevir.abiJ entails
certain limitations. cuum unre-
sohcd hall-contradictions, and the
use ol some words and phrases that
deftect. The "cultivated
readtr" to whom the book is .,..
ttnsibly addressed will be kept on
his toes trying not to looc the thread
betw<en anthropological technical
hies and connnt.ional nicedes. A
key porograph occun ot the end ol
Chapter 15, "Parallel myths, sym
boll, rhc:t.'' in whidl he discuua
::.LH:rr .. ut ahanumic pr-oiedco/' a.
1upic JuuOllucccl .orncwhat abrupt
ly and ambiguously: ... we rt:ler
especially co and mc-
d:ulical meoms of obtaining U"' dlltt
(n:ucoda. tbnclng to tltt: point of
cxluunion. 'pouasion.' cu.)' (p.
49J). This po.ngnph. the l>st one
before the last chapter, Condu
,.iont," ends ;u follows:-
.. Wc may Mk, for cxampl. il
the :upect of the ab:amanic
tr.UI iJ not due to the bet that
the haman aeeU to aperiencc in
concreto a symbolism and mytbol
ogy that.. by their very nature. are
not susceptible o( being 're:.1 lizcd'
on the 'concrete' plane: if, in shr.rt.
the des:ire to obtam, at i ny COlt and
by any mearu, an a.scrnt in
creto, a mynical and at lhe
lime teal journey into hewtn, did
not result in the abunnt tnnas
that we have seen [but these ha>oe,
in point or fact. not bren described
at all, ond the rcodcr is bound to
infer th.at he means all trances]; ir,
finlly, th .. c types ol behavior arc
not the inevitable of
:an intensive desire tO 'live/ that is.
to 'cxpcTien' on the pbne of the
body, what in the present condition
or humanity it no longer accessible
cxccpt on tlae phmc of 'spirit.' But
we prclr 10 fc'< this problem
ope-n: in any cue, it is one that
rc>chcs beyond the bounds of the
hi110ry or roligions, and cnten the
domain or pfaiiO.Ophy and thcol
"10' .. (p. 494).
Nothing. altor all, mwt be
chaf18cd. In tbe last rcaon. by
mea.ru: of a few axnmu
and Italics, an ambiguity and> final
hi"cus, he relegates shamanic ex peri
cmccs to the realm of the unreal
and dlivcn h. perhaps 10 its doom.
into the competence of the philooo-
P.her and the theologian. or counc.
a! Pro!. Eliade did not do thi he
would not be an accrtdittd author
hy. Jintt one cannot break the eon
vtntions ond be :an authority.

(Reprinted from Cosmm)
123
I'HANTASTICA. NARCOTIC
AND STIMULATING DRUCS
By Louis Lewin. New York:
l)uuon and Co. Jnc.. 1964. Pp. xvn
+ ,S. $5.95. Thl Engltoh edition
w:u fint publisbed in 19SI u a
tr-.arul::atioo o( the S<nd German
(.'tlilion. The fint German edition
w published in 1924. The book
wu writtt.n (or the gcocnl reader.
It b an iouodua.ion to the k>re ol
mood>lfccting drugs. It docs not
dc.&l with d\emlatry
ur psyd10logy, and doco not de
.crlbc m.Wcal appliations or labo-
r.atory experimentation.
' Jl1c author, a pbysician. wu a
phormocology proTcuor >t tlac Uol
vcnity or Berlin during tlac decades
:.round tht t..urn o[ tlte century.
l'rof. Lewin made P.rolilic: contribu
lions to the oc:ienulic: liter>turo ol
tbc pbannacolosr or oatunl prod
ucts. He publislacd monographs on
peyotyl. bvak.ava. and Batai.tttrio
caapi. His iJ oudincd in
a prcfacc b:r. Pro!. Bo HolmstcdL
Thi1 book ocs not quote sourccs,
but re!erenca to the material de
ICfibed may be found in c.hc author's
textbook Gi/1< und Vergiftungtn.
Historial and anthropologie>l at
counts. and oomc personal oboc:rv>
tiou. make up mOJt of the boot..
Here and there the author
predictionJ or atates atthudts that
01and "I? well in the light ol present
knowl<il He susgcstcd the usc ol
drugs that induce tcmponry mental
dcnngcmcnt lor the study or limi
In dcrangemenu arising (rom in
sanity. He believed thnt the di ..
covcry ol such drugs by primitive
pcoplcs marked tbc brllinning ol
tdenti6c oblen>ation. He saw the
resemblance oloom" dru3 cccta 10
influences reported (rom the spil'-
itual Iii. With regard to psyche-
delics, he messed the primary role
ol pcno.W prcdispootion toward
tbc experience. He obt<Tvcd that
moot phumacologically active sub-
atllnces have some effect on the
124 THE PSYCHEDELIC IEVlEW
nervous system, what we would call
behavioral toxicity.
The author divided mood .. !
feeling into five dusa accord
in& to thear grou mental effe<:u:
euphoria, inebrientia, hypnotica,
exatantia, and pbantanica. !ly pban
wtica, the author meant drugs
giving rise to sensory iiJUJ.ion, not
necessarily baUucinauons. The tenn
includes poycbeddia.
About one-sixth of the book is
about pbantastico. Lewin held the
view that internal viJions were true
subjective happenings, and experi
ences of inward perception. He
quotes from the prophet Ezell.id,
and mentions several m)'ltia.. He
deacribtd phantastia as thauma-
turgic subuanets, and re:poru the
usc of many different
plants by variow isolated or primi-
tive cultures for eliciting religious
experiences.
The t:imilari ty of some drug
hallucinations to those produced in
fever was and the author
conjeaurtd that even without ex-
ternal inftuences. the body might
produce toxins that give rise to
physical or menta.l disoider, or what
we call psychosomatic effecu.
The author did considerable
pharmaeologic:al reseucb on peyo-
tyl alkaloids. Anht21onium lewinii
was named in hit honor. Jn discu.J.
ing peyotyl, he quotes Sahall\ln. a
eomemporary of Cortez. regarding
the nanacatl mushroom. and ololi
uhqui, but he did not investigate
them.
Sensory illusions and hnllucina
tions are descrilH:d in detail. There
is extensive quotation fron' Ber
inger, a physician, who reported the
sub,iective effKts or mmaline in
1922. Lewin emphasired the unique
relation or the dJUg to
the individuality or the subject. He
predicted that peyotl alkaloids
would used in research on brain
physiology, psydtology, and poydai
atry, and that cbemillry would play
a leading role in this 6eld. He pr ..
dieted a rich hanat of re
suJu from human experimentation,
but warned that subjecu would biu
their reports by suggestion or by
the desire to sound interesting.
He remrded the history of
ConncbU usage in the Ncar East,
Africa, and India. He described in
detail the mild symptoms of hemp
Jmok.ing, as weU u some or the
temporary poycboses and apparent
addtctions that occur among some
usen. He does not point out the
obvious fact that the social environ
ment o the hashish consumer gives
the fonn to experiem:es.
The we o( A man ita muscnrin
by Siberian nativca is described.
Superfid>lly resembling mescaline,
h diflen in that violent excitation
occurs, frequently leading to a tern
porary raving madnea. He un
kindly attributes mental inferiority
and low intellectual sundards to
these ad,emurous tribesmen.
A number of planu of the lam
ily Solanaceae arc described, includ
ing henbane, belladopna, and
v.ariow Datura species. He assigned
an important role to these drugs in
demonology :a.nd witchaalt, suggest
ing that the tenifying and dist...,..
ing hallucinations induced by these
drugs may have been used often lor
criminal or politial activities.
Among primitive tribes. chest" drugs
were used for ordeals and for work
ing up excitement before battle.
The use of Bonilteria caapi
among the natives or the upper
Amazon region is related. A ltrong
resemblance to mCIC".t.line is noted,
except for the: vertigo and vomit
ing. Lewin reporu one case o a
man who experitnced hallucina
tions from tincture or Celsemium
sempervirens, lt3ding to addiction,
in.sanity and death. Various plana
are mentioned which a_re addicting
to range animals. ailed
)()(() weub. He gives no evidence of
hallucinations other than the in
toxicated beh:wior o( the ;animall.
The fact that they :.re addicting is
evidence thc.ir
:u pham:utica. The European
look ltevlews
125
broom, Saromo.nlllw scopariw, is
reported to be addicting to sheep.
Perhaps this relates to the rumor
that Scotch broom, a common deco-
rative shrub in the United States,
may contain "' moodaltering .suh
ita nee.
The few scientific observations
md generalizations presented in the
book are not conuadicted by pres-
ent knowledge, and it is a pleasure
to read <t book of this sort where
the author it not trying to justify a
pet theory. On the one hand, be
items to agree that Vital Energy
existed as :a diJtinct ph)'licaJ force,
but on the other hatd in explain
ing drug action he neatly .summar-
ized the idea o{ en:ryme mhibition.
To the present day reader, much of
the book is obsolete. Many old
drugs are no longer used, and very
many new mood-affecting drug.s are
now known. Most of the substances
mentioned by Lewin as crude plant
preparations have now been iso
lnted, identified, and synthesb:ed.
For the present day reader to form
fair judgment about psychedelic
drug uiage", a minimum amount o(
pharmacology, cheminry and psy
thoi?SY must be known, and none
of this IJ tO be found in Lewin's
book. The absence of any rderence
to the contemporary psychological
literature available when the book
was written is a serious omi.ssion.
No mention, (or instance. is made
or the introduction and withdrawal
of cocaine from psychotherapy by
Sigmund Freud. Not even the work
or Lewin's contemporary researchen
in phannacology are mentioned.
The technical obsolescence of thu
book would be more apoarent if it
considered a less esoteric topic-for
example. if it were on nutrition.
The boolr. was probably re
printed because of the present
notoriety of mood<t.ltering drug>,
particularly LSD, as presented in
the public press. Lewin himself
atated that many penon bad been
led to addiction by reading popular
accounts of drug research. The per
son with a vague wish to " turn on"
would find very little encourage-
ment in this book. The general im
pression implitd is that drug
experiences are dangeroua and un
pleasant, and indulged by savages
and the mentally deranged.
Moot knowledge of the mental
dimensioru of e:fecu wu re-
poned long after thu book was writ
ten. Also, the social context of drug
experience and addiction has
changed Jignificantly. Far better
introductions exist for the modern
reader. many in less
paperback editions. There 1s very
little in Lewin's book to prepare
the reader for the .. higher relig1on ..
of psychedelic experience th1t has
bunt upon UJ in the lau decade.
ROaU:T J. DUMM:ZL
T HE STRUCTURE OF
SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTIONS
By Thomas S. Kuhn. Chicago:
Phoenix Boob. Univenity of Chi
cago Press, 1965. Pp. 172. $1.50.
An apparently arbitrary element
compounded of penonal and his
torical accident i.s always a form
ative ingredient or the beliefs
espoused by a given scientific com
ruunity at a given time. Normal
science, the activity in which most
scientists inevitably spend almost
all their time. is predicated on the
assumption that the scienti&c com
munity knows what the world is
like. Much of the success ol the
enterprise derives from the com
munity's willingness to defend that
assumption. Normal science, for ex
ample, often suppreues fundamen
tal novelties. Neverthelca, 10 long
as those commitments reflect an
element of the ubitrary, the very
nature of normal rese-arch eruures
that novelty th1JI not be suppressed
for very long .... When the profes-
sion can no longer evade anomalies
that subvert the existing tradition
of ldentific practice-then begin the
extnordinary investigations that
lead l.he profeuion at last lO a new
set of commitmtnts, a new basis for
the practice of K.ience. Their assim
ilation requires the reconstruction
of prior theory and the re-evalua
tion of prior fact, an imriiUic:ally
revolution3ry prooes.s that is seldom
completed by a single man and
never overnight.
However, in the ea_rly stages of
a science (e.g.. psychology?) there
are no such foundations ...
and different men confronting the
same range of phenomcmt, but not
wually all the ume particular phe-
nomena, dCKTibc and
thm. in different ways.
The characteriuia of all dis-
coveries from " 'hich new soru o(
phenomena emerge include: the
previous a"";,reness of anomaly, the:
gradual and simultaneous emer
gence or both oblervational and
conceptual recognition, and the
coruequent changes of
and procedures often accompanied
by resiJtance. Here (P. 6S) a per
ceptual experiment i.s cited in which
Bruner and Postman askM subjecu
to identify on Jhort and controlled
exposure a or pl:aying cards.
Many of tl1e cards were nonn31, but
some made anomalous. e.g., a
red six of spades and a black four
o hearu. The rttulu showed th;u
in ctnain subjects: there was an in
tense resistance to the perception
o( the unconventional, accompanied
sometimes by acute penonaJ di.nrm..
Jn science, as in the playing
c:ard experiment, nove.hy emerges
only -.hh difficulty, manifested by
resi.nancc, against a background
provided by expectation. Initially.
only the antjcipated and usual are
e:xperiencW. c:vc:n under circum
stances where anomaly is later to be
observed. The author then goes on
to show why "normal science." a
punuil not directed to novelties
and tending at fint to suppress
them, should nevertheless be so ef.
feclive in causing lhem to arise.
Drawing his data from history.
philosophy, and psychology, Kuhn
argues th:u "nonnal science" pre-
supposes : oonceptual and instru
mental framework or pandigm
accepted by an entire scientific com-
munity; th:n the' resuJting mode o(
scientific practice inevitably evokes
"crises" which cannot be resolved
within this fr.1mework; and that
science returns to normal only when
the community nccepts a new con
ceptual structure which can again
govern its search for no,el facts anct
for more theories.
Thomas S. Kuhn, formerly on
the f:tnahy of the Uni'' of Calif ..
i.s now profC$SOr of 1he history of
sdrnct ;11 Princeton.
, JOHN - ft. WHrTT1.F.<Y
BOOKS RECEIVED
Coate, Morag: Beyond All Reason.
(A Personal Namuive of the De
scent into Madneu and 3 return
to the " Real" World).-lntroduc
tion by R. D. Laing. Phila. 8:
N.Y.: J. B. Lippincott Co., 1965.
Pp 227. $4.95
Barberow. Nonn:m 1... td. Taboo
Topics. Foreword by Gordon W.
Allport. N.Y.: Atherton Prcos.
1965. l'p
Wienpahl, Paul: The Matter of
Zen. A brief account of Zazen.
N.Y. Univer>ity Press. 1964. Pp.
162. $3.95
Roys, Ralph L., Transl. 8: Ed. Ritual
of the Bncabs. Unive.nity of Okla
honta Press. 1965. Pp 193. $5.95
Abrohnms, George R.: IVe Come
Amongst You. London 8: N.Y.:
Regency Prcu. 196S. Pp
$4.00
NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS
JoliN BLOrW> is one o the world's leading :nnhorilies on BuddMsm,
especially and :author of numt'rous including
IVIal of ife, People of t/1< Su11, City of Splndour, t i C.,
tnnJiator of The Zen oJ 1/ugng Po. T he z., Trnrloing <>/ H11i
Ht i, The BooA of Cha11ge. lie curr<ntly resides in B ngkok.
AW\lN D.urata..ou i.s the lead ing authority on o. nd oomparatl\t
mutic. author o( No,.thenl l ttdum Mu$ic (Z l'olJ.). l ntwduclion to lhe
Stud) O/ Af w iCdl Scales, Yoga: Met /wei oJ llr-f nlegrntion, Hindu Polythe-
itm; also editor o the of Oriem:1l music: now
Director of the Bc;rlin Institute for Compar.tun
AlaAM H OPWER, M.D., Ph.O .. ;, a pychiatrisl a1 t he Univc11i1y Hoopital,
Satk"tchcw;,n, Cnnada, co-;mthor of 'l'hc l:lremit:nl " "';,. of c:t.'nlc" l P.sy
chiatry.
H,llNRICII Ph. D . is Proh.::\.WT or Pt)Ch OIOf{y at the Uuhersily o(
Chica,xo. His classic mouograph o\letul, publilhcd in 1928. wa...' che first
book oo mac:ali.ne in Engli.sh.
T oconcv Ltr.<aY, Ph.D .. ;. co-.mthor ol .,-,,. I '>J<hcclelic t.xpcricllcc:
&ucd on the T ibetan JJooA of Dead, curr<ru ly writ ing and
lecturing i.n Millbrook, N.Y.
Huwrttav Os.woNu, M.D. is Dirt'<tor o( ReRard1 at t he l': cw J cncy Ncuro-
Paych.iarric Institute. J>rinceton, N.J .
G.f1Alo OSTHa is Pro((-ssor o( Clu:tnistry ; I( the Polytechnic ltudtutc of
Brooklyn, N.Y., author of numerous papers in the fi eld of mulec.::ular oplics.
Juro.ineacc:ncc and photOchcnM.stry, C<H.'tlitor o the IIIUitivolumc wo rk
" Phyolc:ol T echniques in Biol0f1ie:tl Science<"; his corutrucd oru havt
been ahown in the exhihi t .... The: Ro t>On.shc F.ye" :u t ht Mu.sc:um or
Modern Art. N.Y.
NOTES ON REVIEWERS
J. Ph.D., is a chemist in the Dcp;uunent of l)harma
cology 21 the Univtnity of California, Berkeley ... .
ANITA Koust:N iJ fonner co-<ilor of the journal Cos!nos . ..
! OIIl< R. B. \Vttrrn.at;Y, Ph.D .. is o poychologin rn idinR in
"rexu.
Houtton.
Dona.kl S.: Exisunlll
ut 1--l.utys. N.\ '.: Philmophial u.
IJwy. 19!>1. Pp. 60. $3.50
tk Umberto. <I ol . : U
I' JilOji S/Hrimtnta/i. Prd. b)
O nilo C..J)tnollo. Mibno: Fohri
noll Edhoro. 1962. Pp 250.
M.tireno.. J\n:a : Majttltua$lmouAeia.
St.miih tt xt and E.nghsh Tr:uu..
I::. lion hy Elinor RandalL
Edleione> El Corno Emplum>do.
1961. l'p 178.
t' rnkl. Vtctor E.: 'rlu: Doctor an(l
lite .Soul. t"rom I)J)'dlotherapy to
Tnn>l. by R. S: C.
\\' imcon. 2nd Edilion. Nn. York;
Knopf. 1%5. Pp 289. $5.95.
Smini. Jean: SecretJ de {G DroRue.
l'orh: H.chcttc. 1964. Pp 12
I':F
Worth. J<Mplt td.: Rurnt Al
tlfl n tt'l '" Psychiat?
Vol VII. N.Y.: Plenum
1965. l' p. 299.
''i.lJCioli. Robc'rto: PsychOJynlltr.si.J.
A j'lnual of Princil'ltJ dnd Ttch
niqt1t.1. N.Y.: Hobb". Dorman ._
C.n. 1965. Pp 32!. $7.50
127
n.u ia. Maud 0.: Wintt'r CIOseJ to
d trutu N.Y.:
J>rns. 1965. $1.00
V.a-"ihc, , l...tOnid L.: My1teriow
Phrnomtnlt of the 1/uman Psyche.
f'"nnJI. S. VolodlO'" l ntroduc--
lion by New Hyde
P>rk: Unhor>ity lloou. 1965.
l' p 220 $6.00 .
P.u"cb, L.ouh &: Rcrgicr. Jacq ua.:
The of the tHagicinns.
Tr u. Rollo I".Y.: Stoin
&: Ooy. 196<1. Po ,00. $5.95.
Btrnc.-, Eric: CIWl tJ People Play.
T he Prcholog) or Human Ro-
l . .uionshaJ. N.Y.: CrO\'C Prus.
J%4. r>p 192. $5.00
K:w .. lcr. Lucy: Altuftroonu, Molds
.,ttl Mirntl. N.Y.: John Oay.
1965.
Carri'On. Omar: Tnntrtt : Tltt
of Stx. N.Y.: Julin Preu. 1965
Sdtwon. lknhold Eric: Psychit
N.Y.: Paxcant Prw.
1965. Pp 161. $3.95
Ho>JOn. H. W.: Bcyo"d Re/Dt iuity.
London &: N.Y.: Press.
196S. $S.SO .
CORRESPONDENCE
Setomb<r SO. 1965
DEAR SIR:
In Pt.)chrdclic Rtview, Num
beT G. 1965. l.,.a_j ng " 'OU ld retnO\ e
from the KhitOJ)Iuenic the comfon
""hich nlO&t no nn;el people M.,e in
the thouglu 1h:u thtir psychedelic
i' tlru)Cincluttd and "''ill
ccnniu.uc in .e m .. ucr of hours.
pt'Oplr- "-' ho h:n c tither
the l'')chmomimclic or the ps)che-
<lcHc perhaps
t....ing) nn ton'lncingl)' dtlude
thCin\('hn th.tt thoc- reactions an
be rt .uhed :u ::u euil y )lld
prcdict.lbly hy contempl:uiOI'l nr
hy inhibition or ctnain
tnOiffUit'\,
thoh b neither
nor good. In the K llK th:u Pa nt:r
son has dtfint"tl a;oodncss as an :U
tan1n to bcutr hat is rigbL
u iog"s thni i .... Jy right ir
to th>t lowly diminishi"':.
hut ;uciculi*IC who in lhc
of t'\idencc ding
1.0 tht frrodi;m belid th.at schizo-
phrtnia it not a \The
,chirophrcnic m .. y. indM:I. mad.
lie.- i m.1d. li e h not ill."), that no
"of'R,.-nic lro.ion h::u )() br
rountl ," and th:u ' 'm.adn(j;!o of our
J),ttirms h: :an .ucir"tl or the dcstmC*
tion "' rCJkcd on 1hcm by m a. nd by
thtm on
J .. ,ing h:u mrrtly rest:.tcd the
128
current obsessional thinking of the
North American psyd1i:uric estab-
lishment which has led to a remark
able series or follies of which family
therapy is a recem example.
Laing use. the models popu-
larly known to scientists of the mid
19th century but which ha\'C been
improved within our lifetime. Thus
he uses the term "org:mic basis" as
it was used then. An organic lesion
is usually a tumor. a break in the
circulation, or something like that,
and in this sense there is liuJe evi
dcnce that schizophrenia is an or
ganic disease .. But there :arc a large
number of molecular diseases where
there are no "organic" lesions. No
changes are seen in the microscope
or on gross examination of the
body's organs. The current model
of molecular diseases cannot prop
erly be lumped with organic models
of illnesses unless one takes ad-
vantage of the " 'onderful Aexibility
of the English language and uses
the word in the sense
chemists use it when they discuss
organic chemicals, i.e. chemic.1ls
containing bound carbon.
In any event Laing seems re
4
markably r.ai\c ;md ignorant or
molecul3r :'lnd genetic advance-
ments or the past two decades. Re
cemly in Oslo, Norway. at a meeting
on the molecular basis o some men.
tal diseases (schizophrenia, primar
ily) sponsored by NATO, there w>S
a remarkable consensus that the
molecular basis of schizophrenia
was finnll established. The specific
detaib o the biochemic::.l pathol-
"!1>' still must be spelled out but no
soemist prepared to listen to e'i-
d cnce com continue to insist schizo
phrenia is not a molecular disease.
This is not incompatible with our
view; it iJ also psychological, socio
logical and e'cn For
like the psychedelic reaction the
molecular <lbnormality in
phrcnia merely sets off the train o
events which are perceived and rc
acted to by a penon in tcnn.s or his
own life's programming. This con-
cept cannot be strange to readen o
this Review. who have themselves
st.-en their own inner and outer
world altered by a reaction trig-
gered by a chemical. The same fac
tors which lead to a psychotomi-
metic reaction in normal people
probably lead 10 the psychosis fea-
tures or schizophrenia, while the
Jame variables which direct tbc
psychedelic reaction may occasion-
all y lead to the psychedelic reac-
tions which were the b;uis of Chris
tianity, of Alcoholics Anonymous,
or Synanon, ;md o Schitophrcnics
Anonymous.
Society will not pennit L1ing
to act the way he writes. For i the
schizophrenic is not sick, he is in-
deed mad, and madness may take
only two forms, (a) the madness o
the devil and (b) the madness of the
saint. The devils in our society are
bareJy tolerated most of the time.
Even our s.aints are often difficult
tO live with. If schizophrenia is mad
ness, then Laing is incompetent to
dc:al with it for he is not qu:alificd
b)' experience and training to I
with madnt.':SS. Neither, as ::.
trist, ;un I. 1 Khizophrcnia is mad
ness, society will with it it
did during the days of the Jnquisi
lion when de\ils were driven from
the mad in order to save their souls
by methods which were generally
approved of for many years. If
schizophrenia is m:-tdntss. Laing
must give up his medic::. l degrees
since they are no longer o any
value to him. and society h:1s given
him no speciaJ right (or responsibil-
i ty) for dealing with madnw and it
had better be Jdt with counsellon
or the mad. ministers, rabbis anti
sud like, who are much more con
ve.rsant with saints or <lt\ils than
:1rc psycho;w:d ysts.
Laing woulct take from the
schizophrenic his right to l>e sick
and remove from him all the good
ness in society which is mobilized
to help the sick become weJI.
A. Hoffer, l' h.D .. M.D.
Books Available From
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was measured at various Onc-anc.la-h:dr hours after

ma y with and tha t mean

many normal and patlutlclRical experiences have either no t

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