INTRODUCTION TO WRITING

TYPES OF WRITING

When you write a composition you need to understand the type of writing required. Your piece of writing can be in the form of a letter/e-mail, an article for a magazine/newspaper or a report, for example. Your piece of writing can also come in one of three registers: informal, formal or semi-formal. Articles can be found in the following forms: descriptions of people, places, objects, etc narratives about real or imaginary situations news reports about current/recent events written in impersonal style reviews discussing a film, TV programmes, book, and recommending it or not to the reader discursive essays concerning particular subjects. They include: for and against essay opinion essays providing solutions to problems letters to the editor Reports are formal pieces of writing and have a specific format and features. They include: assessment reports proposal reports survey reports informative reports

THE LAYOUT OF YOUR COMPOSITION

The layout of most types of writing follow the standard pattern you may be familiar with, which is: introduction, main body and conclusion.

STAGES OF THE WRITING PROCESS

Prewriting Writing is not easy. It takes study and practice to develop this skill. For both native speakers and new learners of English, it is important to note that writing is a process, not a product. There are four main stages in the writing process: prewriting, planning, writing and revising drafts, and writing the final copy. When you are faced with a writing assignment, you may sometimes suffer from writers block; that is, ideas will not easily come into your head, and you sit staring at your blank paper. Fortunately, there are some techniques that can help you overcome it: 1) If you are given a free choice of subjects, then you must narrow the subject to a particular aspect of that general subject. 2) After you have chosen a topic and narrowed it to a specific focus, the next prewriting step is to generate ideas. And thats when we talk about the famous technique known as brainstorming! Although these activities may seem unnecessary at first, after doing them a few times, you will realize their usefulness. Three useful brainstorming techniques are listing, freewriting, and clustering. Listing: write down any ideas, words and phrases that you can think of which relate to the specific topics of your composition. Freewriting: write freely about a topic until you find an aspect of it you could write about. While you are writing, one idea will spark another idea. Clustering: write your topic and draw a balloon around it. This is your center or core balloon. Then write whatever ideas come to you in balloons around the corner.

Planning When you are finished with the prewriting strategies, it is time to start planning your writing process. After your have written down all that has come to your mind, you can group the related ideas in smaller groups. After that, you are able to choose the best aspect of your subject, and it is time to start thinking about your topic sentence.

Topic sentences and supporting sentences Main body paragraphs should always have topic sentences. The topic sentence controls the content of the rest of the paragraph, briefly indicating what the paragraph is going to discuss. For this reason, the topic sentence is a helpful guide to both the writer and the reader. The writer can see what information to include (and what information to exclude). The reader can see what the paragraph is going to be about and is therefore better prepared to understand it. The position of the topic sentence can vary, depending on the style preferences of the writer: it can be the first, the last, or even both, in what is called a sandwich-style paragraph. A topic sentence is a complete sentence, containing a subject, verb, and usually a complement It contains both a topic sentence and a controlling idea. It names the topic and then limits the topic to a specific are to be discussed in the space of a single paragraph A topic sentence is the most general statement in the paragraph because it gives only the main idea. It does not give any specific details. The topic sentence should be followed by supporting sentences which provide examples, details, reasons, justifications and/or evidence to support the topic sentence.

Example: There are many disadvantages to air travel. (topic sentence) Firstly, plane fares are extremely high. For example, if you choose to travel from London to Manchester by train, you will definitely pay less than you would if you travelled by plane. Moreover, being on a plane for hours can be tiring. (supporting sentences)

Writing and revising drafts Revision includes: check content and organization, unity, coherence, and logic. You can change, rearrange, add, or delete. Check over each sentence for correctness and completeness. Check over each sentence for a subject and a verb, subject-verb agreement, correct verb tenses, etc.

Indent the paragraphs (i.e. begin the first line of each paragraph further in from the margin). Check the mechanics: punctuation, spelling, capitalization, typing errors, etc. Change vocabulary as necessary. You do not repeat the same words, phrases, expressions, etc Now you are ready to write the final copy to hand in!

UNDERSTANDING WRITING STYLE

The writing style you should use depends on the type of composition you are writing, the situation and the intended reader. The two main types of writing are formal and informal. However, not all styles of writing fall under these categories. For example, in a letter/e-mail to somebody you do not know very well the style used is neither formal nor informal, but a blend of the two, known as semi-formal.

Formal style is characterized by: Formal expressions, advanced vocabulary, longer sentences Formal linking words/phrases (i.e. however, nevertheless, in addition, consequently, etc) No use of short forms Impersonal tone, i.e. use of the passive, no description of feelings Factual presentation of the information Informal style is characterized by: Everyday/colloquial expressions, vocabulary and idioms Frequent use of short forms Informal phrasal verbs Simple linking words/phrases (i.e. but, so, because, and, etc) Shorter sentences Personal tone, i.e. use of first person (I/we) Descriptive tone, i.e. use of adjectives/adverbs etc for vivid description Semi-formal style is characterized by: Less formal language Less frequent use of short forms, formal linking words/phrases or the passive

Respectful, polite tone

Compare: Formal: I would be grateful if you could reply at your earliest convenience. Semi-formal: I look forward to receiving your reply as soon as possible. Informal: I cant wait to hear from you.

LETTER WRITING

Types of letters There are various types of letters, such as: Letters of application Letters of complaint Letters to the editor, etc

The type of letter/e-mail you should write depends on the reason for writing (i.e. to give your news, to invite somebody to a party, to make a complaint, to apply for a job, etc). In this hand-out, we are going to focus only on the formal style.

Characteristics of:

A) informal letters Address and date (i.e. your address in the top, right-hand corner, followed by the date) Greeting (e.g. Dear John, Dear Mum, etc) Informal language Ending (Yours/Love/Best wishes/Regards/etc + your first name)

B) formal letters Address and date (i.e. your address as well as the recipients address. Your address in the top, right-hand corner, followed by the date. The recipients position, the name and address of the company, organization, etc, on the lefthand side)

Greeting (e.g. Dear Mrs. Davis when you know the persons name Dear Sir/Madam when you do not know the persons name) Formal language Ending (e.g. Yours sincerely/faithfully + your full name)

NOTE: when you begin with Dear Mr./Mrs./Ms. Marcus, you should end with Yours sincerely + your full name. When you begin with Dear Sir/Madam, you should end with Yours faithfully + your full name.

Letters of application When you write a letter applying for a job or a course, you should include the following information: a) In the opening remarks/reason(s) for writing: The name of the job/course, where and when you saw it advertised. b) In the main body paragraphs (paras 2-3-4) Age, present job and/or studies Qualifications Experience Skills and personal qualities that are suitable for the job/course c) In the closing remarks Any other important information (i.e. when you are available for interview, where and when you can be contacted, references you can send, a remark that you hope your application will be considered, etc)

You usually use: the present simple to describe skills/personal qualities the past simple to talk about past experiences the present perfect to talk about recent work/studies

Letters of complaint In a formal letter making a complaint, you may use a mild tone, for complaints about minor problems, or a strong tone, for complaints about more serious matters, especially when you are extremely upset or annoyed.

In the opening remarks, you should state your complaint, including details of what has happened and where/when the incident took place. e.g. (Mild) I am writing in connection with / to complain about the

terrible behavior/attitude/rudeness of e.g. (Strong) I am writing to express my dissatisfaction/unhappiness with the product/treatment I received from on In the main body paragraphs, you present each of the specific points you are complaining about. You start a new paragraph for each point and justify these points by giving examples/reasons. In the closing remarks, you should explain what you expect to happen (e.g. to be given a refund/replacement/apology/etc)

Requesting information To request information you can use direct or indirect questions. Direct questions are quite common in informal letters and often begin with a question word such as what, who, when, how, etc. most indirect questions are formed with modals such as could, would, etc and are normally used in semi-formal or formal letters you use if/whether in an indirect question e.g. Direct question: Do we need to bring our own food? Indirect question: I would like to know if/whether we need to bring our own food.

Letters to the editor Letters to the editor of a newspaper or magazine are written when you want to express your opinion about a topic that is of interest of the general public, to show your agreement or disagreement or to discuss a problem and suggest solutions. Its structure follows the same pattern we have seen so far.

Useful expressions and linking words/phrases To begin your letter: I am writing to express my approval/disapproval of/support for; I am writing about; I am writing with regard to; I am writing about; I have just read a in your about; etc.

To state your opinion: In my opinion; I (do not) feel/believe/think; I am (totally) opposed to/in favor of; I strongly agree/disagree with; etc. To express consequences/results: This will/would mean; Then;

Therefore; Consequently; As a result; If we do/did this; Obviously; Clearly; etc. To list your points: Firstly; First of all; Secondly; Furthermore; What is more; Lastly; Finally; etc. To end your letter: I hope my comments/suggestions will be taken into consideration/account; I hope the government/local council will; I hope something will be done about this urgently, etc.

C) semi-formal letters Address and date (i.e. your address in the top right-hand corner, followed by the date) Greeting (e.g. Dear Mr./Mrs./Ms. + persons surname) Semi-formal language Ending (e.g. Regards/Best wishes/etc + your first name or full name)

DESCRIBING PEOPLE

A descriptive essay about a person should consist of: a) an introduction in which you give general information about the person, saying when, where and how you first met them; b) a main body in which you describe their physical appearance, personal qualities and hobbies/interests. You start a new paragraph for each topic; c) a conclusion in which you write your comments and/or feelings about the person. When you describe someones physical appearance you start with the general features (i.e. height, build, age) and move on to the more specific ones, such as hair, eyes, nose, etc. you can also add a description of the clothes the person likes to wear. e.g. Laura is a tall, slim woman in her early twenties. She has got red hair, green eyes and freckles. She usually wears smart suits. When you describe someones personal qualities you should support your description with examples and/or justifications.

e.g. Wayne is very shy. For example, he finds it difficult to make friends. You can also describe someones personality through their mannerisms by: referring to the way they speak e.g. He speaks in a soft voice as if he were whispering. describing the gestures they use e.g. She constantly uses her hands when she speaks. mentioning a particular habit they have e.g. Jason always bites his nails when he is nervous.

Note: when you mention someones negative qualities you should use mild language (seems to, can be rather, etc). For example, instead of saying Paul is lazy, it is better to say Paul can be rather lazy sometime.

DESCRIBING PLACES/BUILDINGS

The structure of a description of places/building is the same as the preceding: introduction, main body and conclusion. To describe the location of a place/building, you can use the following phrases: is situated/is located in (the) south/east/west/south-east/north-east/act (of) on the north/south/etc coast of in the centre/heart/middle of

Using the senses

To give the reader a more vivid picture of the place/building you are describing, you can refer to the senses (i.e. sight, hearing, smell, taste and touch). Visitors can dine watching the moon rise over the mountains. (________) You can hear the sound of church bells ringing. (____________) I remember the Far East with its aromas of exotic herbs and spices. (________) Enjoy a cup of freshly-ground Italian coffee. (________) Relax in the soothing warm waters of the Roman Baths. (_________)

DESCRIBING OBJECTS

When you describe and object you should give an accurate picture of it. Your description should include information about size, weight, shape, pattern or decoration, colour, origin, material, as well as many information concerning special features. To describe objects you should use a variety of adjectives. Always list opinion adjectives first, followed by fact adjectives. These are normally listed in the following order: size/weight, age, shape, pattern, colour, origin or material.

NARRATIVES

First-person narratives are written in the first person (I/we) about a series of events, real or imaginary, which happened to us. Third-person narratives are narratives written in the third person (he/she/they) and are real or imaginary stories about other people. Their structure follows the one seen above: introduction, main body and conclusion. You should normally use past tenses in such pieces of writing, as well as a variety of adjectives or adverbs to make your story more attractive to the reader. past simple, to describe actions which started and ended in the past, or actions which happened one after another in the past past continuous, to set the scene or to describe events/actions in progress at a certain time in the past past perfect, for actions which happened before other past actions, or to give the background of the story To catch the readers attention, give interesting and catchy titles to your stories. Before you start writing your story you should decide on the plot line, i.e. the main events which make up the story. You should make sure that you write these events in the order they happened. To show the sequence you can use linking words.

Techniques to begin and end your story An interesting beginning is as important as an interesting ending. An interesting beginning will catch the readers attention and make him/her want to continue reading.

Writing techniques To make your narrative more interesting to the reader, you should: use a variety of adjectives or adverbs such imaginative, wonderful, cautiously, etc instead of simplistic ones such as nice, good, well, etc. use a variety of verbs such as wondered, screamed, whispered, etc to avoid using said all the time use similes, i.e. expressions which describe people or things by comparing them to someone or something else. e.g. She ran like the wind. He was as quite as a mouse. use present or past participle to join two simple sentences into one longer, more sophisticated sentence. e.g. He turned on the light. He saw someone in the room. light, he saw someone in the room. Turning on the

You can start your story by: a) using your senses to set the scene and describe the weather, atmosphere, surroundings or peoples actions to create mystery or suspense b) using direct speech c) asking rhetorical questions d) addressing the reader directly e) referring to your feelings or moods

You can end your story by: a) using direct speech b) referring to your feelings or moods c) asking rhetorical questions d) describing peoples reactions to/feelings about the events developed in the main body

NEWS REPORTS

News reports are short pieces of writing about current events which are of interest to the public. They are formal and impersonal in style and they present facts accurately, objectively and unemotionally. Therefore, they do not include feelings or

chatty descriptions unless these are part of someones comments quoted in direct speech. A news report should consist of: a) a short, eye-catching headline b) an introduction which summarizes the event, giving information about the time, place and people involved c) a main body consisting of two or more paragraphs in which the event is described in detail, including information about incidents and the people involved; and d) a conclusion which includes peoples comments on the event, action(s) to be taken and/or future developments You normally use past tenses, the passive and appropriate verbs in this type of writing. A headline is a short summary of what the report is about. To write a headline: Use the present simple for recent events Use to-infinitive to describe a future event (e.g. Local football team to fly to Italy for Champions league = is going to fly) Use to be + past participle when using the passive voice to describe a future event (e.g. Teachers annual meeting to be held in August = is going to be held) Use abbreviations Omit full stops or commas, articles, pronouns, auxiliary verbs and words easily understood from context (e.g. Seven injured in train crash = seven people were injured in a train crash) Omit the verb to be when using the passive to describe a past event (e.g. Young girl saved by rescue workers = was saved) News reports, like narratives, describe events that happened in the past. However, the style is different. When writing a report you should: Begin with a summary of the event Include accurate facts Use formal and impersonal style Use the passive Use direct speech to quote what people have said and reported speech to rephrase peoples comments

REVIEWS

Reviews are short descriptions of books, films, plays, TV programmes, etc. They are written to inform readers and viewers and to give them your

opinion/recommendation about whether (or not) they should read a book or see a film/play/etc. A review consists of an introduction, main body and conclusion.

Useful vocabulary: Background The film/book tells the story The film/story is set The book/novel was written by The film is directed by It is a comedy/horror film/love story.

Main points of the plot The story concerns/is about/begins The plot is (rather) boring/thrilling. The plot has an unexpected twist.

General comments It is rather long/boring/confusing/slow. The cast is excellent/awful/unconvincing. The script is dull/exciting. It is beautifully/poorly/badly written. It has a tragic/dramatic end.

Recommendations Dont miss it. It is well worth seeing. I wouldnt recommend it because I highly/thoroughly recommend it. Its bound to be a box-office hit. Wait until it comes out on video.

It is highly entertaining read. Its a bore to read.

FOR AND AGAINST ESSAY

For and against essays are one type of discursive writing in which you discuss the advantages and disadvantages of a specific topic. Its structure follows the pattern seen so far: introduction, a main body in which you present the points for and the points against, in separate paragraphs, and a conclusion. You must not include opinion words (I believe/think) in the introduction or the main body. Opinion words can only be used in the final paragraph, where you may state your opinion to the topic. For and against essays are normally written in a formal style.

OPINION ESSAYS

Opinion essays are discursive essays in which you present your personal opinion on a particular topic. Your opinion must be stated clearly and supported by justifications. You should also present the opposing viewpoint(s) in a separate paragraph. The structure of an opinion essay follows the common pattern.

PROVIDING SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEMS

Essays providing solutions to problems are pieces of writing in which you discuss a problem and its causes as well as the expected results or consequences of your suggestions.

Useful vocabulary

To make suggestions: A useful suggestion would be to Another solution could be solved by Steps/Measures should be taken in order to solve/deal with

Another way to is/would be to The situation could be improved if/by It would be a good idea if/to It would help if you/we

To present results and consequences: This would Then By doing this, you/we would If the result would be The effect/consequence/result of would be In this way

REPORTS

Reports are normally written for someone in authority and contain factual information. They are written in a formal, impersonal style. You should use factual language, passive voice and full verb forms. You should also write fairly short sentences to help your reader pick out the information easily. Present tenses are normally used for assessment reports. Past tenses can be used for reports related to past events. Modals, conditionals or would are normally used for proposal reports. You should always begin your report by stating who the report is addressed to and what their position is, the writers name and position, what the report is about and the date. e.g. To: Thomas Prescot, Chairman of Council From: Mary Scott, Senior Manager Subject: Big Screen Cinema Complex Date: 3rd June, 20

Useful expressions

You can start a report with the following phrases: The purpose/aim of this report is to assess This report was carried out to assess

As requested, this report is to assure..

To end your report you can use the following phrases: On the whole, /To sum up, /All in all, /In conclusion, In spite of the (dis)advantages, /I would (not) recommend / is (not) recommended/ is (not) suitable for

Reports should consist of: a) an introduction in which you state the purpose and content of the report; b) a main body in which you present each topic in detail under suitable subheadings (these headings introduce the topic of the paragraphs, so you do not need to start each paragraph with a topic sentence); c) a conclusion which summarizes the information from the main body and states your general assessment and/or recommendation.

The following rules and guidelines relate to the conventional structure of a report, although they can change according to the house style a) Title page Title, sub-title, date, author's name, and position. It may also carry a reference number or other classification (e.g. confidential) b) Summary Its highly advisable to write a summary if it is a long report. c) Contents list The contents of short reports may be shown on the title page. More extensive reports should always have a separate page. d) Introduction The introduction briefly states the objective of the report, who called for it, and the scope and treatment. e) Body of the report The body of the report contains your detailed facts and findings. f) Conclusions Summarize the main points of your report and present a considered judgment on them. g) Recommendations Set down any recommendations, relating them clearly to what has gone before.

h) Appendices j) Bibliography and/or References k) Glossary or Nomenclature

ASSESSMENT AND PROPOSAL REPORTS

Assessment reports present and evaluate the positive and negative qualities of a person (i.e. an employee) or a building/place (i.e. a hotel, a restaurant, a shop, etc) in order to make a judgment or recommendation about them. Proposal reports present suggestions, plans or decisions about future actions.

INFORMATIVE REPORTS

An informative report is a formal piece of writing, usually to ones superiors, colleagues or members of a committee. It presents information concerning the progress which has been made on a project, a meeting that has taken place or decisions which have been made concerning future action.

Useful language

To begin reports: The purpose/aim/intention of this report is to outline/present/discuss the meeting held on /the progress of /the decision of the committee As requested, this is a report concerning/regarding the matter/subject of This report contains the (relevant) information/details of/concerning which you requested/asked for This report outlines recent investments in/changes made to club rules and procedures/the companys achievements in/concerning The information below summarizes the events which took place

To end reports: To conclude/To sum up/In conclusion, the current state of affairs is that On the whole, it would be fair to conclude that

I am pleased, etc to announce/inform members (that) arrangements are progressing smoothly/according to schedule/faster than anticipated/ahead of schedule Unfortunately, progress has not been as fast as expected/a number of difficulties have been encountered/the issue has not been resolved

SURVEY REPORTS

A survey report is a formal piece of writing presenting and analyzing the result/findings of research concerning reactions to a product, plan, etc, including general assessment, conclusion and/or recommendation(s).

Take into consideration: The information may be presented in the form of facts (numbers, percentage and proportions), or generalizations (This indicates/suggests/implies that) Use expressions such as: one in ten, two out of five, twenty per cent of the people questioned, a large proportion, etc, as well as verbs such as: agree, claim, state Present tenses are normally used to present generalizations. Useful language To begin reports: The purpose/aim/intention of this report is to examine/assess/evaluate the results of a survey in which people/residents/viewers were asked about/whether/what This report outlines the results of a survey conducted/carried out to determine/discover the reaction/popularity/attitudes/opinion of As requested, this survey report contains information compiled from The data included in this report was gathered/obtained by means of a questionnaire/a telephone survey/door-to-door interview The information below summarizes statistics compiled by

To end reports: To conclude/To sum up/In conclusion, the survey clearly shows, On the basis of these findings, it would seem that, The results of this survey

suggest/indicate/demonstrate/reveal that etc.

To express facts and proportions: Of the 460 people/students/workers, etc, who were questioned/interviewed/asked Ten/fifty-six, etc, per cent The majority/minority A significant percentage A large/small proportion Over one third/half of people/consumers, etc of viewers/etc of those who responded of people surveyed of those interviewed were of the opinion felt/believed that expressed (dis)approval of replied/reported that chose/preferred

To express generalizations: On the whole/Mainly/In general terms/Generally speaking Most consumers prefer, It is generally felt that, Few people approve of, which is shown/illustrated as proved/demonstrated as confirmed/emphasized by the fact

This fact suggests/implies/indicates that the average person chooses

Depending on their position, facts and generalizations can be linked by using verbs either in their active or passive forms as in the examples:

e.g. Only fifteen per cent of those surveyed said that they would purchase a fur coat, which shows/indicates/illustrates/implies that most people are against the practice of killing animals for their skin. Or: Most people are against the practice of killing animals for their skins, which is shown/indicated/illustrated/implied by the fact that only fifteen per cent of those surveyed said that they would purchase a fur coat.

PROPOSAL REPORT

A proposal report is a formal, informative piece of writing which outlines plans and/or suggestions for a future course of action, and is submitted for approval.

Useful language To begin a proposal report: The purpose/aim/intention of this report is to outline/present/discuss the future plans/the intended course of action The report is submitted in support of our request for approval of/for permission to/for a loan to allow us to This report contains the (relevant) information/details of/concerning which you requested/asked for This report contains details of/outlines our plans/intentions concerning

To end a proposal report: To conclude/To sum up/In conclusion, our intention is to The advantage(s) of the approach proposed would be that I feel certain/believe that the course of action proposed above will achieve/meet with success/answer the needs of the company. I hope/trust that the plan/scheme outline/presented in this report meets with your approval/will receive your serious consideration.