Synthetic Inorganic Chemistry Blanchard 5thed1937

S Y N T H E T I C
I N O R G A N I C C H E M I S T R Y
A COURSE OF LABORATORY A N D CLASSROOM

STUDY FOR FIRST YEAR COLLEGE STUDENTS
BY
ARTHUR A. B L A N C H A R D , P h . D .
Professor of Inorganic Chemistry
AND
J O S E P H W . P H E L A N , S.B.
Late Professor of Inorganic Chemistry
AND
A R T H U R R. DAVIS, P h . D .
Assistant Professor of Chemistry
at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology
FIFTH EDITION
NEW YORK
JOHN WILEY & SONS, I N C .
LONDON: CHAPMAN & HALL, LIMITED
1936
COPYRIGHT, 1908, 1910, 1916,
BY ARTHUR A. BLANCHARD
1908 Copyright renewed 1935
1910 Copyright renewed 1937
COPYRIGHT, 1922, 1930,
BY A. A. BLANCHARD AND J. W. PHELAN
COPYBIQHT, 1936,
BY ARTHUR A. BLANCHARD, ARTHUR R. DAVIS
AND ROBERT K. PHELAN
All Rights Reserved

This book or any part thereof must not
be reproduced in any form without
the written permission of the publisher.
Printed in U. S. A. 4-39
Printing Composition Binding
F. H. GIXSON CO. TECHNICAL COMPOSITION CO. STANHOPE BINDEBY
BOSTON BOSTON BOSTON
PREFACE TO F I F T H EDITION
Six years have elapsed since the appearance of the Fourth
Edition of this book. The general plan and purposes of the course
therein outlined have continued to meet satisfactorily the problem
of first-year college students in chemistry, yet the number of
improvements and supplementary preparations and exercises that
the present authors have accumulated and in part used hi piano-
graph form has so increased that a new edition seems to be in order.
A very considerable portion of the text has been wholly rewritten,
and the entire text has been subjected to a revision and rearrange-
ment. Specific new exercises and discussions which have been
introduced include such topics as the determinations of vapor
density and molecular weight, the standardization of acids and
the titration of acids and bases, Faraday's law, and the use of the
pH scale of hydrogen-ion concentration. Several new prepara-
tions have been introduced, and a few of the old ones have been
discontinued. A complete list of apparatus and chemicals re-
quired in the course has been added to the Appendix.
The purpose of this, as well as of the former editions, may be
indicated by a brief statement of the manner in which it is used
with the large freshman class at the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology. The entire year's work for both laboratory and
class room is outlined in this book. Each year a list of experi-
ments and preparations is made out and posted. All students
are supposed to perform these exercises (thirty laboratory periods
of three hours each in the course), and the class room exercises
(sixty hours) are built around the methods and principles of this
work. The lectures in chemistry (sixty hours) follow approxi-
mately the order in which the elements are taken up in the book,
but no attempt is made to keep in exact step. The historical, in-
dustrial, and economic aspects of chemistry are left largely to the
lectures, whereas the discussion of problems, both numerical and
manipulative, is left for class room and laboratory.
The students of barely passing grade may not complete more
than the posted exercises, but to the enthusiastic student is open
a free choice of the other preparations, subject of course to the
IV PREFACE TO FIFTH EDITION
laboratory facilities. Indeed, except that he must not forget that
class room quizzes and examinations are based on the posted
preparations, the better student may be allowed to substitute
others for posted ones.
All students entering the Massachusetts Institute of Tech-
nology should have met an entrance requirement in chemistry.
It is very discouraging to such students to be set at once to re-
viewing what they have already had, however much they may
need the review. The nature, and the considerable freedom in
the choice, of laboratory work solves this situation in a very
satisfactory manner. A review of preparatory school work is of
course necessary, but by bringing this in incidentally the sting
of it is removed.
The chapters of the book are divided into two parts, part
one containing the directions for laboratory work, and part two
the discussion of principles, review of previous work, and problems.
Except for Chapters I and III the first part contains the directions
for preparations involving the elements with which the chapter is
concerned. Part two of these chapters contains directions for
short experiments, many of which will be familiar from secondary
school work or will have been shown in the lecture; the facts ob-
served in the experiments, however, are stated, and the significance
of the facts is discussed in the text. The student is privileged
to perform as many of these experiments as he elects, but he is not
required to perform any. He is required, however, to study and
understand the experiments. In this way the necessary review is
achieved while at the same time adding considerably to the
student's previous knowledge and comprehension. These chapters
end "with a set of general questions which require a good deal of
thinking and looking up of data. Written discussions of these
questions are to be handed in by all students.
Chapter I is devoted to the quantitative measurements of
chemistry — combining ratios, densities, and so forth. Part one
may be actually performed in the laboratory or it may be handled
with part two entirely in the class room; the laboratory work
may start with the preparations of Chapters II and IV. Chapter
III deals with the ionic theory. The preparation work is inter-
rupted after about the fifth week and the short experiments in
ionization are performed in the laboratory. Part two of Chapter
III is simultaneously handled in the class room.
PEEFACE TO FIFTH EDITION V
Students are required to prepare a preliminary report on each

preparation before they are given an order card for the raw ma-
terials at the stock room. When the preparation is completed,
the final report, which includes answers to questions and inci-
dental experiments, is to be written. The preparation of these
reports should be done as far as possible outside of laboratory
time. The final report and the preparation are to be submitted
together during laboratory time to the instructor. When both
are satisfactory the preparation is accepted and taken to the
recording office.
The preparations are attacked by the students with the same
enthusiasm that research workers feel. For all that, the directions
have been made very explicit, for the reason that if the inex-
perienced student were asked to devise his own directions his
successes would not be frequent enough to maintain his courage.
Difficulties enough are sure to arise, even with good directions, to
develop originality and resourcefulness. The laboratory work
develops a valuable technique, but the comprehension of chemistry
comes from the effort put into preparing the reports. Note
writing is very easy to neglect in the enthusiasm for getting ahead
in the laboratory work. The preparation of reports might come
to be regarded as irksome if a system were not firmly maintained
from the start. With such a system the reports are prepared
cheerfully and the desired progress in gaining a comprehension of
chemistry is made.
A. A. BLANCHAKD
A. R. DAVIS
CAMBRIDGE, MASS.
May, 1936
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
DIRECTIONS FOB WORK 1
NOTES ON LABORATORY MANIPULATION.
I. Precipitation; Crystallization. 2. Pouring. 3. Transferring

precipitates or crystals. 4. Filtering; Collecting precipitates.
5. Washing precipitates. 6. Evaporation. 7. Dissolving solid
substances. 8. Crystallization. 9. Drying. 10. Pulverizing.
II. Neutralizing. 12. Dry reactions; Furnaces. 13. Gas gener-
ators. 14. Weighing.
CHAPTER I. THE QUANTITATIVE ASPECTS OP CHEMISTRY
Experiments 23
Exp. 1. The combining Ratio of Zinc and Oxygen 24
Exp. 2. Weight of a Liter of Oxygen 25
Exp. 3. Volume of Hydrogen displaced by Zinc 28
Exp. 4. The Combining Ratio of Hydrogen and Oxygen in Water. 30
Exp. 5. Approximate Molecular Weight of a Volatile Liquid by
Dumas' Method 33
Notes and Problems 36
The law of definite proportions. The law of multiple proportions.
The law of combining weights. The atomic theory. Atomic
weights. Standard of atomic weights, 0 = 16. Measurement of
gases. Boyle's law. Charles' law. Dalton's law. Saturated water
vapor. Gay-Lussac's law of combining volumes. Avogadro's
principle. Molecular weights; Moles. Molal volume. Avogadro's
number. Atomic weights. Derivation of a formula.
CHAPTER II. WATER AND SOLUTION
Preparations 52
1. Potassium Nitrate 52
2. Crystallized Sodium Carbonate 58
3. Ammonium-Copper Sulphate 61
4. Potassium-Copper Sulphate 62
Experiments 63
Hydrates. Water of hydration. Composition of a crystal hydrate.
Efflorescence. Deliquescence. Elements and Water. Sodium.
vii
Vlll TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
Calcium. Magnesium. Iron. Removal of protective coating by
chemical action. Chlorine and water. Oxides and Water. Sodium
oxide. Calcium oxide. Magnesium oxide. Non-metal oxides.
Water contains two separately replacable portions of hydrogen.
Water as a solvent: concentration of solutions. Mole. Molal solu-
tion. Formula weight. Formal solution. Equivalent weight.
Normal solution 74
Experiment 6. Standardization of Solutions 76
Specific gravity 79
Formula weight method in chemical Arithmetic 79
Problems 80
General Questions II 81
CHAPTER III. THE THEORY OF IONIZATION

Experiments 82
Osmotic pressure. Electrical onnductivity of solutions. Acids.
Strong and weak acids. Bases. Strong and weak bases. Neu-
tralization of a strong acid and a strong base. Neutralization of a
weak acid and a weak base. High ionization of all salt solutions.
Displacement of a weak acid. Displacement of a weak base.
Characteristic reactions of certain ions. Ionic displacements. Elec-
tromotive series. Hydrolysis. Solubility product. Hydrogen ion
concentration. Effect of its neutral salt on strength of a weak acid.
Notes and Problems 94
Measurement of Ionization. Molal lowering of the freezing point.
Osmotic pressure 94
Ionization Data 100
Ionic Reactions. Ionization a reversible reaction. Equilibrium.
Equations for ionic reactions. Rules for writing equations in ionic
form. Types of reactions 101
Metathesis. Precipitation. Neutralization. Neutralization of a
weak acid and a weak base. Displacement of a weak acid. Dis-
placement of a weak base. Precipitation of metal hydroxides.
Formation of volatile products 105
Hydrolysis 115
Ionization of Polybasic Acids 116
Complex Ions. Ammoniates. Complex negative ions 118
Reactions of Oxidation and Reduction. Electromotive series 121
Faraday's Law 123
Law of Molecular Concentration 126
Solubility and Solubility Product 131
HydrogevAon Concentration; the pH Scale. Control of pH. Buffers. . 132
Indicators 135
TABLE OF CONTENTS IX
CHAPTER IV. THE NON-METALLIC ELEMENTS IN BINARY COMPOUNDS
PAGE
ations . . . .. 137
Copper Oxide 137
Hydrogen Peroxide and Barium Peroxide Hydrate 139
Hydrochloric Acid .. 142
Hydrobromic Acid 144
9 Barium Chloride 147
10 Aluminum Sulphide 149
11 Calcium Sulphide 150
12. Mercuric Sulphide 151
13. Aluminum Nitride 153
14 Magnesium Nitride and Ammonium Chloride 154
Experiments . . 157
Valence Oxides Behavior of oxides and peroxides The halo-
gens Formation and properties of the hydrogen hahdes Charac-
teristic reaction of the hahde ions Relative activity of the halogens,
oxygen and sulphur Sulphur Nitrogen.
General Questions IV . 177
CHAPTER V. ALKALI AND ALKALINE EARTH METALS
Preparations . . . 179
15. Sodium Carbonate by the Ammonia Process .. 179
16 Caustic Alkali from Alkali Carbonate 183
17 Sodium Hydroxide by the Electrolysis of Sodium Chloride
Solution Faraday's Law 185
18 Chemically Pure Sodium Chloride from Rock Salt 189
19 Ammonium Bromide 192
20 Strontium Hydroxide from Strontium Sulphate 194
21 Strontium Chloride from Strontium Sulphate 196
22 Barium Oxide and Barium Hydroxide from Barium Carbonate 199
Experiments 202
Stability of catbonates Oxides and water. Solubility and basic
strength of hydroxides Ammonium compounds
General Questions V . 205
CHAPTER VI ELEMENTS OP GROUP III
Preparations ... 208

23 Boric Acid . . . 208
24. Sodium Perborate 210
: TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
25. Hydrated Aluminum Chloride 212
26. Anhydrous Aluminum Bromide 213
Experiments 216
Acid strength of boric acid. Amphoteric substances. Acid and
basic strength of aluminum hydroxide. Hydrolysis of aluminum
carbonate.
General Questions VI 219
CHAPTER VII. HEAVY METALS OP GROUPS I AND II
Preparations 220
27. Crystallized Copper Sulphate from Copper Turnings 220
28. Cuprous Chloride 222
29. Cuprous Oxide 225
30. Ammonio-Copper Sulphate 227
31. Zinc Oxide 229
32. Mercurous Nitrate 232
33. Mercuric Nitrate 233
34. Mercuric Sulphocyanate 234
Experiments 236
Stability of carbonates. Hydrolysis of salts. Hydroxides. Basic
strength of silver oxide. Ammoniates. Complex negative ions.
Sulphides. Electromotive series.
General Questions VII 240
CHAPTER VIII. THE OXY-ACIDS AND SALTS OF THE NON-METALS
Preparations 242
35. Potassium Bromate and Potassium Bromide 243
36. Potassium Chlorate 246
37. Potassium Iodate 248
38. Iodic Acid; Iodine Pentoxide 249
39. Potassium Perchlorate 251
40. Sodium Thiosulphate 252
Experiments 255
Hypochlorites. Hypobromites. Chlorates and bromates. Bromic
and iodic acids. Properties of potassium chlorate. Reduction of
iodic acid. Sulphur dioxide. Sulphurous acid. Reducing action
of sulphurous acid. Oxidizing action of sulphur dioxide and sul-
phurous acid. Dehydrating action of sulphuric acid. Oxidizing
action of sulphuric acid. Nitric acid as an oxidizing agent. Nitrous
acid. Reducing action of nitrous acid.
TABLE OF CONTENTS XI
PAGE
General Questions VHI 264
CHAPTER IX. ELEMENTS OP GROUP IV
Preparations 266
41. Precipitated Silica 266
42. Stannous Chloride 268
43. Stannic Sulphide (Mosaic Gold) 271
44. Anhydrous Stannic Chloride 273
45. Anhydrous Stannic Bromide 275
46. Lead Nitrate 278
47. Lead Dioxide 279
48. Red Lead 281
49. Ceric Oxide from Cerous Oxalate 283
50. Cerous Oxalate 284
51. Cerous Chloride 286
Experiments 287
Carbon dioxide. Combustibility of carbon compounds. Carbon
monoxide. Carbides. Silicon dioxide and silicic acid. Hydrolysis
of stannous salts. Reducing action of stannous salts. Lead salts.
Amphoteric character of hydroxides of tin and lead. Stannic acid.
Thio-salts of tin. Lead dioxide. Lead tetrachloride. Stability of
lead carbonate.
General Questions IX 297
CHAPTER X. ELEMENTS OP GROUP V
Preparations 298
52. Ortho Phosphoric Acid 298
53. Disodium Phosphate 301
54. Phosphorus Tribromide. , 303
55. Arsenic Acid 305
56. Antimony Trichloride 308
57. Sodium Sulphantimonate 310
58. Antimony Pentasulphide 312
59. Metallic Antimony 313
60. Bismuth Basic Nitrate 314
Experiments 315
Oxidation products of the elements of Group V. Sulphides and thio-
salts. Reducing action of phosphorous acid. Non-oxidizing prop-
erty of phosphoric acid. Arsenious and arsenic acids. Reduction
of bismuth salts. Bismuth in a higher state of oxidation.
General Questions X 318
xii TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER XI. HEAVY METALS OP GROUPS VI, VII, AND VIII
PAGE
Preparations . . 320
61. Potassium Chromate and Dichromate 321
62 Chromic Anhydride . 324
63 Ammonium Chromate and Dichromate . 326
64 Chromic Alum 328
65. Basic Lead Chromate .. 330
66 Chromium Metal . . 332
67 Calcium Molybdate . 333
68. Ammonium Tungstate . . . . 334
69 Selemous Acid . 335
70 Manganous Chloride . 336
71 Potassium Permanganate 338
72 Manganese Metal 341
73. Ferrous Ammonium Sulphate and Feme Ammonium Alum 342
Experiments . 345
Stability of carbonates of metals in divalent state. Non-existence
of carbonates of tnvalent metals. Oxidation of a divalent oxide.
Properties of the hydroxides. Action of alkaline oxidizing agents
Oxidation in alkaline fusion. Permanganate Chromate and di-
chromate.
General Questions XI 350
APPENDIX
Concentration of Reagents . . . ... 352
Tension of Saturated Aqueous Vapor . . 353
Electromotive Series . . . 353
Periodic Classification of the Elements According to their Atomic
Numbers and the Arrangement of their Electrons 354
Chart The Periodic Arrangement according to Electron Groupings 355
Solubility Tables 364
Specific Gravity of Aqueous Hydrochloric Acid Solutions . 371
Specific Gravity of Aqueous Hydrobromic Acid Solutions . . . 371
LIST OP APPARATUS . 373
LIST OP RAW MATERIALS AND REAGENTS . . . . . 375

TABLE OP ATOMIC WEIGHTS . . Inside front cover
PERIODIC ARRANGEMENT OP THE ELEMENTS Inside back cover
S Y N T H E T I C
I N O R G A N I C C H E M I S T R Y
DIRECTIONS FOR WORK

The course outlined in this book is an experimental study of
chemistry. Chapters I and III deal with general principles.
The first part of each of these two chapters gives directions for
experiments which are to be performed by the student. Records
of these experiments are to be kept in the laboratory note book as
follows: the experimental facts and measurements are to be re-
corded on the left-hand page as the note book lies open; opposite
these statements, on the right-hand page, calculations are to be
made, equations for the chemical reactions are to be written,
and final conclusions are to be drawn. The second part of each
of these chapters is devoted to notes discussing the principles that
the experiments illustrate, and problems for home work.
The other nine chapters are devoted to preparations and ex-
periments which reveal the properties of the various classes of the
chemical elements and their compounds.
Preliminary Reports on the Preparations. Before beginning
work on a preparation the student should have a clear knowledge
of the whole procedure and should understand the reactions as well
as the application of chemical principles to these reactions.
To that end study carefully the general discussion of the prep-
aration as well as the procedure. On the left-hand page of the note
book (1) write a brief discussion of the fundamental principles
involved in the preparation; (2) write equations for all reactions;
and (3) starting with the given amount of the principal raw
material, calculate what amounts of the other substances are nec-
essary to satisfy the equations. When the amount specified in
the directions is different from that calculated, state the reason for
the difference. Calculate also on the basis of the equations the
amount of the main product as well as of any important inter-
mediate products or by-products.
1
2 DIKECTIONS FOR WORK
Present this preliminary report to an instructor and obtain

his approval before beginning operations.
Manipulation. All references from the procedure to the
general notes on laboratory manipulation (pp. 4-22) should have
been studied before making the preliminary report. Indeed the
instructor will probably make sure by a quiz that this has been
done before he accepts the preliminary report.
Laboratory Record. The working directions, in the section
entitled procedure, are to be kept at hand while carrying out the
manipulations. These directions do not need to be copied in the
laboratory note book; but it is essential, nevertheless, to keep a
laboratory record in which are entered all important observations
and data, such, for example, as appearance of solutions (color,
turbidity); appearance of precipitates or crystals (color, size of
grains, crystalline form); results of all weighings or measure-
ments; number of recrystallizations; results of test for purity
of materials and products, etc.
Questions on the Preparations. The sections under this title give
suggestions for study, which involves laboratory experiments, con-
sultation of reference books, and reasoning.
The answers to the questions should be written in the labora-
tory note book following the entries for the exercise, and this
book should be submitted at the same time as the preparation for
the approval of an instructor.
Use of Time in Laboratory. In preparation work it is fre-
quently necessary to wait for considerable periods of time for
evaporations, crystallizations, etc., to take place. This time may
be utilized for work upon the study questions and experiments,
but even then it is advisable to have usually more than a single
preparation under way. Thus no time need be wasted by the
energetic student who plans his work well. A program of work
should be made out in advance of the laboratory exercise.
Yield of Product. Where possible the methods employed in
these preparations resemble those actually used on an industrial
scale; where this is impossible on the limited scale of the laboratory,
mention is made of the fact, with reasons therefor. On account
of the limitations connected with work on a laboratory scale,
it is of course impossible to get as high percentage yields as could
be obtained on a commercial scale. The weight of each prepara-
tion is to be determined and recorded, but the chief stress is to be
DIKECTIONS FOR WORK 3
laid upon the excellence of the product rather than upon its
quantity.
Experiments. The second part of each of the nine chapters,
of which the preparations comprise the first part, is devoted to
short experiments. Not only are the directions for these experi-
ments given, but the results to be observed are stated, and the
meaning of the results is discussed. Thus this experimental part
may be studied, and the experiments may or may not be actually
performed, according to the discretion of the student, or the ad-
vice of the instructor. The study of this part should be made by
every student as a preparation for the Report which he is expected
to write on the chemistry of the elements dealt with in the chap-
ter.
General Questions. These questions which appear at the end
of each of the nine chapters are to serve as the basis of the written
report referred to in the preceding paragraph.
Number of Preparations. A certain number of the prepara-
tions will be designated each term as " required," which means
that they will be discussed in detail in the class room and that
detailed knowledge of them will be assumed when examination
questions are made out. Besides the required preparations,
students will be able to make a number of others of their own
selection — this selection of course being subject to the instruc-
tor's approval.
N O T E S O N LABORATORY MANIPULATION
These notes are intended to help the student in foreseeing

and in overcoming some of the difficulties that arise in experi-
mental work. They by no means make it unnecessary for him
to exercise ingenuity and originality in planning and carrying out
the details of laboratory work. At the outset these notes should
be read through carefully; then, when in the later work references
to specific notes are made, their general bearing will be better
appreciated.
1. PRECIPITATION; CRYSTALLIZATION
In the majority of chemical processes which are carried out
in the wet way, separations are accomplished by taking advantage
of differences in solubility. If a certain product is extremely
insoluble and is formed almost instantaneously when solutions
containing the requisite components are mixed, the process is called
precipitation and the insoluble substance is called the precipitate.
If the product to be formed is less insoluble, so that it separates
more slowly, or only after evaporating away a part of the solvent,
the process is called crystallization.
In some cases the precipitate, or the crystals, constitute the
desired product; in others, a product which it is necessary to
remove from the solution before the desired product can be ob-
tained pure. In either case it is necessary to make as complete
a separation as possible of the solid from the liquid. This in-
volves the manipulations described under Notes 2, 3 and 4.
2. POURING
In pouring a liquid from a vessel, either into a filter or into
another vessel, care must be taken not to slop the liquid or to
allow it to run down the outside of the vessel from which it is
poured. To this end touch a stirring rod to the lip of the dish
or beaker (Fig. 1) and allow the liquid to run down the rod.
4
FILTERING; COLLECTING PRECIPITATES 5
3. TRANSFERRING PRECIPITATES OR CRYSTALS

If large crystals have separated from a liquid they may be picked
out, or the liquid may be poured off.
If a precipitate or a crystalline meal has formed it must be
drained in a filter funnel. First pour off the liquid (see Note 2) —
through the filter if necessary, so as to save any floating particles
of the solid — then pour the main part of the damp solid into the
filter. A considerable part, of the solid will adhere to the dish;
FIG. l FIG. 2
most of this may be scraped out by means of a spatula, but the

last of it is most easily rinsed into the filter. For rinsing, a jet of
water from the wash bottle (Fig. 2) may be used if the solid is very
insoluble. If the solid is soluble in water, some of the saturated
solution may be poured back into the dish from out of the filter
bottle, and by means of this the last of the solid may be removed
to the filter.
4. FILTERING; COLLECTING PRECIPITATES

(a) A coarse-grained crystal meal can best be collected in a filter
funnel in which a perforated porcelain plate is placed, and the
mother liquor clinging to the crystals can best be removed with
the aid of suction (see next paragraph).
NOTES ON LABORATORY MANIPULATION
(6) Filtering with Suction. With a fine-grained crystal meal,

or a precipitate which is not of such a slimy character as to clog
the pores of the filter paper, a suction filter is most advantageously
used. A 5-inch filter funnel should be fitted tightly by means of
a rubber stopper into the neck of a 500-cc. filter bottle (Fig. 3).
Place a 1^-inch perforated filter plate in the funnel and on this a
disk of filter paper cut so that its edges will turn up about 3 mm.
on the side of the funnel all the way around. Hold the disk of
dry paper in the right posi-
tion, wet it with a jet from
the wash bottle, draw it
firmly down against the filter
plate by applying the suc-
tion, and press the edges
firmly against the side of the
funnel, so that no free chan-
nel shall remain. In pouring
the liquid, direct it with a
stirring rod (Note 2) on to
the middle of the filter; do
not allow it to run down the
side of the funnel, as this
might turn up the edge of
the paper and allow some of
FIG. 3 the precipitate to pass by.
After all the solid has been
brought upon the filter it may be freed from a large part of the
adhering liquid by means of the suction, and it may then be purified
by washing with a suitable liquid (see Note 5).
The suction filter is very generally useful for the purpose of
separating a solid product from a liquid. If the liquid runs slowly,
the rate of filtration can be increased by using a larger filter plate
or still better a Btichner funnel and thereby increasing the filtering
area. The student should, however, avoid using the suction
indiscriminately, for in many cases, as explained in paragraph
(c), it is a positive disadvantage.
Suction. The most convenient source of suction is the Rich-
ards water pump, which can be attached directly to the water tap.
If the water is supplied at a pressure of somewhat over one at-
mosphere (34 feet of water), a vacuum of very nearly an atmos-
FILTERING; COLLECTING PRECIPITATES 7
phere can be obtained. If the pressure is insufficient, an equally-

good vacuum can be obtained by means of the suction of the escap-
ing water. To this end the escape pipe must be prolonged by a
tube sufficiently constricted to prevent the sections of the descend-
ing water column from breaking and thus allowing air to enter
from the bottom.
To keep the suction pump working continuously, however, is
extravagant of water as well as being a nuisance in the laboratory
on account of the unnecessary noise. Consequently this rule is
made and must be observed:
The suction pump must never be kept in operation more than two
minutes at one time.
If suction must be applied for more than that length of time,
the vacuum which is produced inside of the two minutes may be
maintained in the suction bottle by closing the screw cock. (See
Fig. 3.) Thus, if all the joints of the bottle are tight, a slimy
precipitate may be left filtering under suction over night, or even
longer.
Trap. The use of the trap shown in the diagram is always
necessary, as otherwise dirty water may be sucked back acciden-
tally and contaminate the solution in the filter bottle.
(c) Filtering without Suction. A slimy or gelatinous precipitate
can be collected much better without suction. Suction drags the
solid matter so completely into the pores of the filter that in most
cases the liquid nearly ceases to run. A filter funnel and filter
should be chosen large enough to hold the entire precipitate. The
filter paper should be folded twice and then opened out in the form
of a cone and fitted into the funnel. The upper edge of the filter
should come about £ inch below the rim of the funnel. It is best
to fit the paper carefully into the funnel, to wet it and press it
up against the glass all around, so that there will be no air
channels.
For slow-running liquids, if a large filter is used, it may be filled
at intervals and left to take care of itself while other work is being
done.
If a considerable weight of liquid is to come on the point of
the filter, this may be reenforced by means of a piece of linen
cloth, which should be placed under the middle of the filter paper
before it is folded, and should then be folded in with it so as to
strengthen the point.
8 NOTES ON LABORATORY MANIPULATION
After the precipitate is collected in the filter and drained, it

should if necessary be washed (see Note 5).
Both nitration and washing take place much more rapidly if the
liquid is hot. Time can also usually be saved if the precipitate is
allowed to settle as completely as possible before commencing to
filter. The clear liquid can then be decanted off, or if necessary
poured rapidly through the filter before the latter becomes clogged
with the main part of the precipitate.
(d) Filtering Corrosive Liquids. Solutions of very strong
oxidizing agents, concentrated solutions of the strong acids and
bases, and concentrated solutions of a few salts of the heavy
metals — notably zinc chloride and stannous chloride — attack
filter paper. Ordinary paper is thus unserviceable for nitration,
but a felt made of asbestos fibers is frequently very useful.
Shredded asbestos, which has been purified by boiling with hydro-
chloric acid and subsequent washing, is suspended in water;
the suspension is poured onto a perforated plate placed in a filter
funnel; and suction is applied whereby the water is removed and
the fibers are drawn together to form a compact felt over the filter
plate. Enough asbestos should be used to make a felt 1 to 3 mm.
thick, and care must be taken to see that it is of uniform thickness
and that no free channels are left through which solid matter
may be drawn. Before it is ready for use a considerable amount
of water should be drawn through the filter, and the loose fibers
should be rinsed out of the filter bottle. Before pouring the liquid
onto the filter the suction should be started gently, and the liquid
should be directed by means of a stirring rod (Note 2) onto the
middle of the filter. If these precautions are not observed the
felt may become turned up in places, so that the precipitate will
pass through.
A wad of glass wool in the bottom of a glass funnel may some-
times be used to filter corrosive liquids. Another method which
can be used in separating crystals from a corrosive liquid consists
in putting a glass marble into a funnel. The crystals form a mat in
the small space between the marble and the sides of the funnel and
the liquid can be removed by suction.
(e) Cloudy Filtrates. When a nitrate at first comes through
cloudy, it is usually sufficient to pour the first portion through the
filter a second time. The pores of the filter soon become partially
closed with the precipitate, so that even the finest particles are
WASHING PRECIPITATES 9
retained. With some very fine-grained precipitates, repeatedly-
pouring the filtrate through the same filter will finally give a clear
filtrate.
Special kinds of filter paper are made to retain very fine precipi-
tates, but they allow the liquid to pass much more slowly than
ordinary niters, and their use is not essential in any of the following
preparations.
Particles of colloidal size may be removed by boiling the liquid
with a little bone charcoal and subsequent nitration.
(/) To Keep Liquids Hot during Filtration. When liquids
must be kept hot during a slow nitration, as, for example, when
cooling would cause a separation of crystals that would clog the
filter, it sometimes becomes necessary to surround the funnel with
a jacket which is heated with steam or boiling water. In the
following preparations the use of such a device will not be neces-
sary, although there are several instances where it is necessary to
work quickly to avoid clogging the filter. It helps to keep the
funnel covered with a watch glass.
(g) Cloth Filters. In preparations made on a small scale, paper
niters placed in ordinary filter funnels are invariably used if the
liquid is not too corrosive. On a larger scale or in commercial
practice, cloth is much used for filters, and it can be made in the
shape of bags or it can be stretched over wooden frames. The
cloth or other filtering medium (asbestos, paper pulp, sand, etc.)
has to be chosen in each case with reference to the nature of the
precipitate and the corrosiveness of the liquid.
Many of the preparations in this book, if carried out on a larger
scale than given in the directions, would require the use of such
cloth niters. It is often advantageous to tack one piece of cloth
permanently across a wooden support and on top of this to lay a
second cloth. The precipitate can then be easily removed together
with the unfastened cloth.
For devices for rapid nitration and nitration in general on a large
scale, a work on industrial chemistry should be consulted.
5. WASHING PRECIPITATES
(a) Washing on the Filter. Precipitates and crystals are washed
to remove the impurities contained in the mother liquor which
clings to them. Pure water is used for washing provided the solid
is not too soluble or is not decomposed (hydrolyzed) by it. Special
directions will be given when it is necessary to use wash liquids

other than pure water.
First, the solid is allowed to drain as completely as possible,
then the wash liquid is applied, preferably from the jet of a wash
bottle, so as to wet the whole mass and to rinse down the sides of the
filter. If suction is used, suck the solid as dry as possible, then stop
the suction while applying the washing liquid; after the solid is
thoroughly wet, suck out the liquid and repeat the washing.
A little thought will make it clear that the washing is much
more effective if the liquid is removed as completely as possible
each time before applying fresh wash liquid, and that a number of
washings with a small amount of liquid each time is more effective
than fewer washings with much greater quantities of wash liquid.
It is, of course, evident that with each washing the liquid should
penetrate to all parts of the solid material.
(b) Washing by Decantation. A very insoluble precipitate can
be washed most thoroughly and quickly by decantation. The
solid is allowed to settle in a deep vessel and then the clear liquid is
poured (decanted) or siphoned off. Following this the precipitate
is stirred up with fresh water and allowed to settle, and the liquid
is again decanted off. By a sufficient number of repetitions of this
process, the precipitate may be washed en-
tirely free from any soluble impurity, after
which it may be transferred to a filter,
drained, and then dried.
Most precipitates, even after they have
settled as completely as possible in the liquid
from which they were thrown down, are very
bulky, and their apparent volume is very
large as compared with the actual volume
of the solid matter itself. For example, a
precipitate of basic zinc carbonate (Prep. 31),
after it has settled as completely as possible
in a deep jar (Fig. 4), may still occupy a
volume of 400 cc. When this bulky precipi-
tate is dried, however, it shrivels up into a
few small lumps whose total volume is not
more than 4 or 5 cc.
If a precipitate, which is at first uniformly suspended in a liquid,
is allowed to settle in a tall jar until it occupies but one-fifth of the
EVAPORATION 11
original volume of the mixture (Fig. 4), any soluble substances will
still remain uniformly distributed throughout the whole volume.
If now the upper four-fifths, consisting of the clear solution, is
drawn away, it follows that practically one-fifth of the solution,
containing one-fifth of the soluble impurities, remains with the
precipitate. By stirring up the solid again with pure water, the
soluble impurities become uniformly distributed through the larger
volume, and on letting the precipitate settle and drawing off
four-fifths of the liquid, as before, there will remain with the wet
precipitate only £ X i = •£% of the original soluble matter. After
the third decantation the remaining suspension will contain
i X ^ = j^s of the original impurities, and so on.
6. EVAPORATION
(a) When it is necessary to remove a part of the solvent from a
solution, as when a dissolved substance is to be crystallized from it,
the solution is evaporated. In some cases, where the dissolved
substance is volatile or is decomposed by heat, the evaporation
must take place at room temperature, but ordinarily the liquid
may be boiled. The concentration of a solution should always be
carried out in a porcelain dish of such size that at the outset it is
well filled with the liquid. The flame should be applied directly
under the middle of the dish where the liquid is deepest; the part
of the dish against which the flame plays directly should be pro-
tected with wire gauze. Under no circumstances should the flame
be allowed to play up over the sides of the dish: first, because, by
heating the dish where it is only partly cooled by liquid, there is
great danger of breakage; second, because, by heating the sides, the
film of liquid which creeps up is evaporated and the solid deposited
becomes baked hard and in some cases is decomposed. To prevent
the formation of a solid crust around the edges, which even at best
will take place to some extent, the dish should occasionally be tilted
back and forth a little, so that the crust may be dissolved, or
loosened, and washed back into the middle of the dish.
While evaporating a solution over a flame it should be carefully
watched, for if it should be allowed to evaporate to dryness the
dish would probably break and the product be spoiled. If a pre-
cipitate or crystals separate from the liquid and collect in a layer
at the bottom, the dish may break, because where the solid pre-
vents a free circulation of the liquid the dish becomes superheated,
and then when in any one place the liquid does penetrate, the
sudden cooling causes the porcelain to crack. Usually when a
solid begins to separate from a boiling liquid the evaporation should
be stopped and the liquid left to crystallize. After that the
mother liquor may be evaporated further in a smaller dish.
(6) Evaporating to Dryness. The only circumstances under
which a direct flame may be used to evaporate to dryness are
that the dish shall be held in the hand all the time and the contents
rotated to keep the sides of the dish wet.
Steam Bath. Laboratories are sometimes
equipped with general steam baths, which
are copper or soapstone chests kept filled
with steam, and provided with round open-
ings in the top into which evaporating
dishes may be set.
Each student, however, may set up a
steam bath, as shown in Fig. 5, at his own
desk. After the water in the beaker
reaches the boiling point a very small
flame is all that should be used, because
the steam that escapes around the sides of
the dish is wasted; only as much as will
condense on the bottom of the dish is
effective. With such a steam bath there
is no danger of spattering or of decom-
FIG. 5. Steam Bath for posing the solid product while evaporating
Evaporating to Dry- a solution to dryness.
ness. Note 6 (6)
Hot Plate. A large, thick iron plate
kept hot with a burner or with steam coils is useful for drying
certain damp preparations.
7. DISSOLVING SOLID SUBSTANCES

The process of dissolving solid substances is hastened, first
by powdering the substance as finely as possible, and second by
raising the temperature. The solid and solvent should be heated
together in a porcelain dish (not in a beaker), and care should be
taken to keep the mixture well stirred, for if the solid should settle
in a layer on the bottom, that part of the dish would become
superheated and would be likely to break (see last paragraph in
Note 6 (a)).
CRYSTALLIZATION 13
The finer particles of the solid dissolve first; as the solution

becomes more concentrated the rate of solution grows slower, and
it takes a very long time to dissolve the remaining coarser par-
ticles. Hence when a limited amount of solvent or reagent
is used, as for example when copper is to be dissolved in a minimum
amount of nitric acid, it is best to hold in reserve perhaps one-tenth
of the reagent; when the nine-tenths are almost exhausted and the
reaction with the coarser particles has almost stopped, pour off the
solution already obtained, and treat the small residue with the
fresh acid held in reserve.
8. CRYSTALLIZATION
(a) A great number of pure substances are capable of assuming
the crystalline condition when in the solid form. Crystals are
bounded by plane surfaces, which make definite and characteristic
angles with each other and with the so-called axes of the crystals.
The external form of a crystal reflects in some manner the shape
or structure of the individual molecules of the substance, for the
crystal must be regarded as being built up by the deposition of
layer on layer of molecules, all of which are placed in the same
definite spatial relation to the neighboring molecules.
When a substance takes on the solid form very rapidly (as when
melted glass or wax cools) its molecules do not have an opportunity
to arrange themselves in a regular order, and consequently the
solid body is amorphous. The axes of the individual molecules
point in every direction without regularity, and consequently the
solid body possesses no crystalline axes or planes.
It is evident from the above that the essential condition favor-
ing the formation of perfect crystals is that the solid shall be built
up very slowly. This is the only general rule which can be given
in regard to the formation of perfect crystals.
The excellence of a chemical preparation is judged largely
from its appearance. The more uniform and perfect the crystals,
the better appearance the preparation presents.
In the following preparations sometimes a pure melted sub-
stance is allowed to crystallize by simply cooling; the cooling
should then take place slowly. More often crystals are formed
by the separation of a dissolved substance from a saturated solu-
tion. Perfect crystals can best be obtained in this case by keep-
ing the solution at a constant temperature and allowing it to
evaporate very slowly. This is easily accomplished in industrial

works where large vats of solution can be kept at a uniform tem-
perature with steam coils and allowed to evaporate day and night.
On the laboratory scale it is almost impossible, first on account
of variations in temperature, and next on account of dust which
inevitably falls into an uncovered dish.
The majority of substances are more soluble at higher temper-
atures than at lower. If a solution just saturated at a high
temperature is allowed to cool very slowly, it is possible for the
solid to separate so slowly as to build up perfect crystals. This is
an expedient that can be adopted to advantage in several of the
preparations. In many cases, however, when a saturated solution
cools it becomes supersaturated, sometimes to a high degree. Then
when crystallization is once induced it occurs with such rapidity
that a mass of minute crystals, instead of a few large, perfect ones,
is produced. To avoid this supersaturation a few seed crystals
(i.e., very small crystals of the kind desired) may be placed in the
solution before it has cooled quite to the saturation point. These
form nuclei on which large crystals can be built up, and when they
are present it is impossible for the solution to remain super-
saturated.
In carrying out the following preparations the principles just
stated should be kept carefully in mind; but in many instances
specific suggestions will be given as to the easiest method for ob-
taining good crystals of any particular substance.
Large crystals, it is true, present a pleasing appearance, but
oftentimes they contain a considerable quantity of the mother
liquor inclosed between their crystal layers. Hence if purity of
product is the sole requisite, it is often more desirable to obtain
a meal of very fine crystals. Such a meal is obtained by crystal-
lizing rapidly and stirring while crystallizing. Some substances
are so difficult to obtain in large crystals that it is more satisfactory
to try only to obtain a uniform crystal meal.
(b) Purification by Recrystallization. When a given substance
crystallizes from a solution, it generally separates in a pure con-
dition irrespective of any other dissolved substances the solution
may contain. Thus a substance can be obtained in an approxi-
mate state of purity by a single crystallization. Portions of the
mother liquor (containing dissolved impurities) are, however,
usually entrapped between the layers of the single crystals, not to
DRYING 15
mention the liquid which adheres to the crystal surfaces. By

dissolving the crystals, the small amount of impurity likewise
passes into the solution, but only a small fraction of this impurity
is later entrapped by the crystals when they separate from this
mother liquor. By several recrystallizations, then, a substance
can be obtained in a very high state of purity.
9. DRYING
(a) A preparation that is not affected by the atmosphere can
be dried by being spread in a thin layer, allowing the liquid adher-
ing to the grains or crystals to evaporate. Paper towels are
extremely useful in drying preparations because a great deal of the
moisture is absorbed into the pores. When a corrosive liquid, for
example nitric acid, clings to the product, the latter is best spread
on an unglazed earthenware dish, which absorbs the liquid without
being attacked by it. During the drying the material should
occasionally be turned over with a spatula.
If the material is not decomposed by heat it can be dried much
more rapidly in a warm place, as on a steam-heated iron plate
(steam table); but a product containing water of crystallization
should never be dried at an elevated temperature. During the drying
the preparation must, of course, be carefully protected from
dust.
(b) Efflorescent crystals and crystals which absorb carbon di-
oxide should be quickly pressed between paper towels until as
much as possible of the liquid is soaked up, and then they should
be wrapped in a tight package in several layers of fresh paper
towels and left in the cupboard for not more than 24 hours. The
liquid is drawn by capillarity into the paper and evaporates from
the outer surface, but the paper so impedes the circulation of air
that water vapor does not escape, and the crystals will not effloresce
unless left for more than a day. With preparations that react
with carbon dioxide (such as barium hydroxide) the solution which
soaks into the paper retains all the carbon dioxide which might
otherwise contaminate the product.
(c) Substances which decompose on standing exposed to the air
may be quickly dried if they are first rinsed with alcohol, or with
alcohol and then ether. Rinsing with alcohol removes nearly all
the adhering water, and a further rinsing with ether removes
the alcohol. Alcohol evaporates more rapidly than water, but
ether evaporates so rapidly that a preparation wet with it may be

dried by a very few minutes' exposure to the air.
Alcohol and ether are both expensive and should be used spar-
ingly. They can be used most effectively as follows: After all
the water possible has been drained from the preparation, transfer
the latter to an evaporating dish and pour over it enough alcohol
to moisten it thoroughly; stir it with a spatula until the alcohol
has penetrated to every space between the crystal grains, then
pour off, or drain off, the alcohol and treat the preparation in like
manner with another portion of fresh alcohol. After that wash
it once or twice with ether in exactly the same way. If the
preparation is washed on the filter, drain off the water as thor-
oughly as possible, stop the suction, add just enough alcohol to
moisten the whole mass, and after letting it stand a few moments
drain off the liquid completely. Apply a second portion of alcohol
and portions of ether in the same manner.
10. PULVERIZING
In chemical reactions in which solid substances are involved the
action is limited to the surface of the solid, and for this reason it is
evident that it must be much slower than reactions which take
place between dissolved substances; it is also evident that, the
more finely powdered a solid substance, the greater is its surface,
and therefore the more rapidly it will react.
For grinding any quantity of a substance a large porcelain
mortar (say 8 inches in diameter) with a heavy pestle is preferable
to the small mortars usually supplied in the desks. One or more
such mortars is placed in the laboratory for general use.
If a hard substance can be obtained only in large pieces, it should
first be broken with a hammer, then crushed into small particles
in an iron or steel mortar, after which it should be ground in the
porcelain mortar. In the final grinding it is often advisable to sift
the fairly fine from the coarser particles, then to finish grinding
the former by itself and to crush and grind the coarser particles
apart.
11. NEUTRALIZING
Various indicators are used to determine whether a solution is
acidic or basic. For example, litmus is red in the presence of acid,
blue in the presence of a base, and of an intermediate purple tint
DRY REACTIONS; FURNACES 17
in pure water or a neutral salt solution. When a solution which

is acid must be rendered exactly neutral, base is added until the
solution gives the neutral tint to litmus. If the contamination
will do no harm, a drop or two of the litmus solution is added
directly to the liquid; otherwise, a drop of the liquid must be with-
drawn on a stirring rod and touched to a piece of litmus paper.
It is a tedious operation exactly to neutralize a solution in this
way, but the process is greatly facilitated if a fraction of the liquid
to be neutralized is held in reserve in another vessel. The reagent
may be added rather freely to the main portion until the neutral
point, is not only reached but overstepped. Then a part of the
reserve, may be added and the reagent again added, but more
cautiously this time, and so on until the whole solution is exactly
neutralized.
The procedure outlined in the last paragraph is a general one
to follow whenever adding a reagent which must be used in exactly
the right amount and not in excess: always hold a fraction of the
original material in reserve before adding the reagent to the main
portion.
12. DRY REACTIONS; FURNACES

Dry solid substances do not react appreciably with each other
at ordinary temperature. Reactions are made possible in two
ways: first, the wet way, in which the substances are dissolved and
thus brought into most intimate contact. In many cases solution
also produces ionization, which, as is known, greatly increases
chemical activity.
Reactions in the dry way are rendered possible by heat. Heat
alone increases the rapidity of a chemical reaction, it being a gen-
eral law that the speed is increased from two to three times for
every increase of 10°C. in temperature. If one or more of the
reacting substances are melted by the heat, the same sort of inti-
mate contact is brought about as in solutions. Fusion is like-
wise a means of producing electrolytic dissociation, and on this
account also it increases chemical activity.
In some of the furnace reactions in which none of the substances
are melted, as, for example, in the reduction of strontium sul-
phate to strontium sulphide by means of charcoal (see Prepa-
ration 20), the process probably takes place by virtue of a cer-
tain amount of gas which is continuously regenerated. A little
of the hot charcoal is oxidized to carbon monoxide, which then

reduces some of the strontium sulphate, it being itself changed
to carbon dioxide thereby; the latter gas comes in contact with
incandescent charcoal, and carbon monoxide is again produced.
Reactions in the dry way are usually carried out in crucibles
of iron, clay, or graphite, according to which one is least attacked
by the reagents. For rather moderate temperatures the crucible
may be heated over a flame; otherwise the requisite temperature
can be obtained in a furnace.
(l\ The form of furnace to be rec-
^" ~ 1 ~ ^ ommended for this work is repre-
d IUu-^ Z> sented in Fig. 6. It consists of a
cylinder of fire clay, 7 inches high
and 7 | inches in external diameter,
which is surrounded by a sheet-
iron casing. It is heated, as
shown, by a blast lamp intro-
duced through an opening in the
P IG g lower part of one side. If a suit-
able air blast is not available, a
gasoline blow torch (such as is commonly used by plumbers) is
serviceable.
When such a furnace as that described is heated as hot as possible
with a well-regulated mixture of gas and air, a temperature of
about l,450°C. can be obtained. For carrying out ordinary chem-
ical preparation work an accurate enough measure of the tem-
perature is given by the color of the glowing interior of the furnace,
and the approximate centigrade values corresponding to different
colors are as follows:
Incipient red heat. . . 550°
Dull red heat. 650°
Red heat . . . . . 800°
Bright red heat 1,000°
Yellow heat. 1,200°
White heat . . 1,350°
13 GAS GENERATORS
(a) Carbon Dioxide, Hydrogen, and Hydrogen Sulphide. The
simplest form of generator for these gases in shown in Fig. 7.
The solid material, cracked marble for carbon dioxide, feathered
GAS GENERATORS 19
zinc for hydrogen, and ferrous sulphide for hydrogen sulphide, is

placed in the 300-cc. thick-walled genera-
tor bottle. The tubes are fitted as shown,
and in the drying tube is placed a plug
of cotton wool to strain the acid spray
out of the gas, or if the gas is to be dried,
granulated calcium chloride held in place
with a plug of cotton wool on either side.
Enough water is poured in through the
thistle tube to cover its lower end and
then about 5 cc. of 6iV HC1. The gas
begins to generate rather slowly, but if
one is impatient and adds more acid at
once the action will soon become so vio-
lent as to drive foam out through the
delivery tube. After a few minutes add
more acid, 1 cc. at a time, in order to keep
FIG.
up the evolution of gas at the desired rate.
(b) Oxygen and Acetylene. The apparatus shown in Fig. 8 is
more suited for generating these
gases, which are produced by allow-
ing water to drip respectively on
sodium peroxide and calcium car-
bide. Remove the fittings from the
flask and place in it the required
amount of dry material. The sodi-
um peroxide to be used comes under
the trade name of " Oxone "; it has
been fused and then cracked into
good-sized lumps which are so hard
that they do not react with too
much violence with water. With
the fittings still removed from the
flask, fill the thistle tube with water,
open the pinch cock and allow the
vertical tube to become completely
Wooden Ring- filled, then close the pinch cock.
Replace the fittings in the flask.
FIG. 8 Open the pinch cock cautiously to
let a single drop of water fall on the material. Note the effect,
and thereafter let the water in, a single drop at a time, to obtain
the desired flow of gas.
(c) Automatic Gas Generator for Carbon Dioxide, Hydrogen and
Hydrogen Sulphide. The apparatus shown in Fig. 9 is based on
the principle of the familiar Kipp generator, and it is especially
applicable if a solution is to be saturated with the gas in question,
as, for example, when an ammoniacal solution of common salt
is to be saturated with carbon dioxide in the preparation of
sodium bicarbonate by the Solvay process.
FIG. 9
Assemble the apparatus as shown in the diagram. The stem
of the generator tube E should reach flush with the bottom of the
stopper but not below. The delivery tube C should reach nearly
to the bottom of the generator bottle D. Place the requisite
amount of calcium carbonate (or zinc, or ferrous sulphide) in the
generator tube. Then insert a loose plug of glass wool F about
1| inches long so that it will stand about midway between the
top of the solid material and the stopper in the mouth of the tube,
and act as a gas filter (to remove acid spray). Pour the requisite
amount of acid into the reservoir A; clamp the reservoir at just
the same height as the generator tube, and pour in water cautiously
WEIGHING 21
until the acid rises and barely touches the solid in the generator
tube. The generation of gas will now begin and proceed auto-
matically as fast as the gas is allowed to flow from the delivery
tube H.
Place the solution to be saturated with the gas in the flask G,
insert the stopper and delivery tube, but let the stopper remain
loose until the air is entirely expelled. Then make the stopper
tight; the gas will pass in as rapidly as it can be absorbed by the
solution. Shaking the receiving flask will greatly increase the
rapidity of absorption, but this should be done with a good deal
of caution at first, because if the undiluted acid is drawn too sud-
denly up in the tube E, the violence of the reaction may either blow
out the stoppers or drive foam through the glass wool filter F and
into the delivery tube H. After the solution is partly saturated
the flask may be shaken continuously and the reservoir A raised
to a higher level.
14. WEIGHING
Two types of balances are available for weighing:
1. Rough Balances or Platform Scales. These are to be used
for weighing out materials approximately for preparations and
qualitative experiments and for weighing heavy objects of more
than 100 grams.
2. Analytical balances, which will weigh accurately to a centi-
gram. These balances are enclosed in glass cases. They are not
as sensitive as the best analytical balances, which weigh to one-
tenth of a milligram, but they are sufficiently accurate to do some
kinds of work extremely well and are so sensitive that they require
careful and intelligent handling. Hence before using one of these
balances apply to an instructor for individual instruction as to its
manipulation. The balances must not be used until permission
is obtained. The following general rules must always be ob-
served :
1. No load of more than 100 grams should be put on the sensitive
balances. No object heavier than this will need to be weighed
with a greater precision than can be obtained on the platform
scales.
2. The material to be weighed, unless it is in a single, clean,
dry piece, should never be placed directly on the scale pan.
Usually powdered solids are weighed in a small vial or on a piece

of paper. The object to be weighed should be placed on the left-
hand pan, the weights on the right.
3. To be accurate the weights must be kept clean. Never
touch them with the hands, but use the forceps.
4. When altering the load or weights, the scale pans must rest on
the floor of the balance case. Never leave the lever raised ex-
cept in taking the final swing after the weights are adjusted.
During the swing the balance door must be closed, and before it
is opened the pans must again be lowered.
5. The same balance and set of weights must be used through-
out any one experiment in order that possible errors in the weights
or balances may cancel in the successive weighings.
CHAPTER I
THE QUANTITATIVE ASPECTS OF CHEMISTRY
So many things happen when substances undergo a chemical

change that it is no wonder the student is astonished and even
bewildered by his observations. He soon learns that there is an
entire change in physical properties of the reacting substances and
finds that this phenomenon is usually the easiest to observe.
Also he is able to discover the transformations of energy which
always accompany a chemical change, although this is usually
confined to observations of the evolution of heat.
He learns, usually from the text book, that no mass is lost or
gained during a chemical change and that the total weight of the
substances before and after is the same. This rule is known
as the law of the conservation of matter, and it is more difficult
for the student to convince himself of the truth of this character-
istic of chemical change by direct observation because the ex-
periments must be quantitative and require apparatus for meas-
uring and weighing.
When hydrogen combines with oxygen to form water it is easily
observed that a great deal of heat is given off, also that a liquid
substance is formed and that the gases taken decrease in volume
and in fact entirely disappear when exactly the right mixture is
used. When measuring tubes are used it is observed that, when
2 volumes of hydrogen and 1 volume of oxygen are mixed, the
gases entirely disappear after the reaction has taken place.
When more than 2 volumes of hydrogen are taken to 1 of oxygen,
the excess of hydrogen over the 2 volumes is found to remain
unaffected; and likewise when more than 1 volume of oxygen is
taken to 2 volumes of hydrogen, the excess of oxygen over the
1 volume is found to remain unchanged after the reaction. How-
ever, to determine that 1.008 parts by weight of hydrogen com-
bine with exactly 8.00 parts by weight of oxygen requires elabo-
rate apparatus and very painstaking measurements. This pro-
portion, 1.008 :8.00, is known as the combining ratio. Similar
exact ratios exist in all chemical changes. When oxygen and zinc
23
24 QUANTITATIVE ASPECTS OF CHEMISTRY
combine to form zinc oxide the ratio is found to be 1.00 of oxygen

to 4.09 of zinc. No matter how much zinc or oxygen is used, the
amount of the one or the other in excess of this ratio will be left
over after combination has taken place.
Some substances do not combine with each other but each may
combine with a third. Under such conditions a ratio may be
calculated between the two substances that did not combine.
Fluorine will not combine directly with oxygen, but each of these
elements will combine with hydrogen. In hydrofluoric acid the
ratio by weight is 1.008 of hydrogen to 19.00 of fluorine. In
water the ratio by weight is 1.008 of hydrogen to 8.00 of oxygen.
The "combining ratio of oxygen to fluorine might be expected to be
8 :19 or 1 : 2.375.
1. DETERMINATION OF THE COMBINING RATIO OF ZINC

AND OXYGEN
Zinc and zinc oxide are both substances the weights of which
can be determined accurately, so that the quantity of oxygen which
is combined in the oxide can be found by difference. To convert
quantitatively a definite amount of zinc into the oxide by means
of direct combination with oxygen would be a difficult operation;
but the same result is accomplished indirectly by first treating
the metal with nitric acid to obtain the nitrate and then decom-
posing the zinc nitrate by heat, which leaves a residue of zinc
oxide.
Materials: zinc, chemically pure, about 20 mesh,
nitric acid, 6iV.
Apparatus: 4-inch porcelain dish.
5-inch watch glass. •
600-cc. beaker.
Bunsen burner,
triangle, nichrome wire,
iron ring and ring stand.
Copy the following form on the left-hand page of your'note
book for recording data :
Weight of evaporating dish + zinc grams
Weight of empty evaporating dish grams
Weight of zinc grams
WEIGHT OF A LITER OF OXYGEN 25
Weight of evaporating dish + zinc oxide

after first heating grams
second heating grams
third heating grams
final weight grams
Weight of evaporating dish + zinc grams
Weight of oxygen grams
Procedure: Weigh accurately a 4-inch porcelain evaporating
dish. Place in it about 1 gram of pure zinc, and again weigh ac-
curately. Add 5 cc. of water, and cover the dish with a 5-inch
watch glass. Add 5 cc. of dilute nitric acid (6iV). Note the
nature of the reaction which takes place and the color of the gas
which is evolved. If the reaction stops completely before the
zinc has entirely dissolved add 3 cc. more of dilute acid. When
solution is complete remove the watch glass and, with a jet of
water from the wash bottle, rinse the drops of liquid clinging from
the under side into the dish. Place the solution on a water bath
(beaker of boiling water), and leave it to evaporate (with the
watch glass removed) as much as possible. When only a small
amount of sirupy liquid (melted zinc nitrate) is left, take the dish
to the hood, support it on a wire triangle, and heat carefully with
a very small flame, holding the burner in the hand. If the liquid
starts to boil, remove the flame at once, because every tiny drop
that spatters out of the dish means a loss of material. Heat until
the mass thickens and red fumes escape, and finally, after the mass
becomes perfectly dry, heat quite strongly for a few minutes.
Cool and weigh. Again heat quite strongly and weigh. The
weight ought not to have decreased, but if it has, the heating must
be continued until the weight becomes constant.
Calculation. From the weight of the zinc and the zinc oxide
find the combining ratio of oxygen and zinc.
2. WEIGHT OF A LITER OF OXYGEN
Oxygen is generated by heating potassium chlorate, and its

weight is determined by the loss in weight of that material.
Since the gas is collected over water, under the conditions of
temperature and pressure prevailing in the laboratory, the volume
must be corrected to standard conditions by means of the formula
on page 44.
Materials: potassium chlorate, dry, powdered.

Apparatus: wash bottle (see p. 5).
6-inch Pyrex test tube with 1-hole rubber stopper.
600-cc. beaker.
pinch cock.
2.5-inch funnel.
Bunsen burner.
burette clamp.
2 feet of rubber tubing.
Data Form:
(a) Weight of test tube + potassium chlorate. . grams
(6) Weight of empty test tube grams
(c) Weight of potassium chlorate grams
(d) Weight of test tube and contents after heat-
ing grams
(e) Weight of oxygen grams
(/) Weight of beaker + water grams
(g) Weight of beaker empty grams
(h) Weight of water grams
(i) Temperature °
(j) Barometric pressure mm.
(k) Vapor pressure (p. 353) mm.
Procedure: Set up the apparatus as shown in Fig. 10. Clamp
the wash bottle in an inverted position. Attach a 2-foot piece of
rubber tube to the mouth piece of the wash bottle. Slip a pinch
cock over the tube, and insert a small funnel in the open end.
Raise the funnel to the position shown by the dotted lines in
Fig. 10. Pour water through the funnel, and fill the wash bottle
nearly to the top of the vertical tube. Close the pinch cock,
and replace the funnel with the capillary tip from the wash bottle.
Connect the other tube of the wash bottle to the Pyrex test tube
by means of an elbow tube and rubber connection. Open the
pinch cock and allow water to run out of the wash bottle into
the beaker. If the apparatus is tight the flow of water will stop
completely after a moment. Close the pinch cock, remove the
Pyrex test tube, dry it, and weigh it accurately. Place in it
WEIGHT OF A LITER OF OXYGEN 27
about 2 grams of dry powdered potassium chlorate and again
weigh it accurately. (The potassium chlorate must be finely powd-
ered and thoroughly dried. Use the material which has been
especially prepared for this experiment. It will be found in the
balance room.) Connect the tube to the apparatus. Dip the
capillary jet in a beaker of water, and raise the beaker until the
surface of the water is at the same level in the beaker and in
the flask. Open the cock until water has run in or out to equalize
the pressure. Then close the cock. In this way the air in the
apparatus at the start is at atmospheric pressure. At the end it
I!
or
Ring M I
7 J
I
1 'l
Elbow Tube^
r 1
Pyrex T&bey^r^H
K
Burette
Clamp
Potassium
Chlorate
Ring Stand Large
Beaker*
10
FIG.
must be brought to the same pressure, so that the two volumes
are directly comparable. Note: It is important that the flexible
rubber tube be filled completely with water; otherwise, when the
levels are equalized, there will be a column of air in one part and
a column of water in another part of the tube and the pressure on
the gas in the flask will not be the same as that of the atmosphere
on the water in the beaker. Empty the beaker and weigh it on
the platform balance (do not use the analytical balance) without
drying it. Hold the jet pointing into the beaker so that the
water may be seen dripping into it, and thus the rate of the pro-
duction of gas regulated. Open the pinch cock and commence
heating the potassium chlorate, so that a steady, but not a rapid,
stream of water runs from the jet. Heat slowly to avoid exces-
sive pressure and to prevent the entrainment of finely divided
solid salt in the gas stream issuing from the tube. If for any
reason the heating is interrupted during the process, submerge
the jet beneath the liquid, so that water, not air, will be sucked
back into the tube and flask. When about 400 cc. of water have
been forced over, submerge the jet and allow the ignition tube to
cool to room temperature. Raise the beaker to equalize the water
levels, and close the cock. Record the temperature of the lab-
oratory and the barometer reading. Weigh the water in the
beaker on the platform balance, which gives the actual volume of
the oxygen evolved. Calculate its volume under standard con-
ditions. Weigh the tube again, and the loss gives the weight of
oxygen.
Calculation. From your data calculate the weight of 1 liter of
oxygen under standard conditions.
3. DETERMINATION OF THE VOLUME OF HYDROGEN DISPLACED

BY ZINC
When hydrochloric acid reacts with zinc a definite volume of

hydrogen is displaced by a given weight of metal. The weight
of zinc dissolved can be accurately determined, and when the
volume of hydrogen liberated is corrected to standard conditions
the ratio between the two is obtained.
Materials: zinc metal, rod 2.5 cm. by 0.6 cm.
hydrochloric acid, 6iV.
Apparatus: 4-inch drying tube and 1-hole rubber stopper.
300-cc. flask.
2.5-inch funnel,
water trough,
iron ring and ring stand,
burette clamp,
wire triangle,
pinch cock.
two 18-inch pieces of rubber tubing,
copper wire.
Data Form:
Weight of zinc before reaction grams
Weight of zinc after reaction grains
Weight of zinc consumed in the reaction grams
VOLUME OF HYDROGEN DISPLACED BY ZINC 29
Weight of flask and water grams

Weight of empty flask grams
Weight of water grams
Barometric pressure mm.
Temperature °
Vapor pressure (p. 353) mm.
Arrange the apparatus as shown in Fig. 11. Clamp a drying
tube in a vertical position with its larger end down. Fit this end
with a stopper through which passes a short glass tube. Connect
the latter by means of 18 inches of rubber tube, provided with a
pinch cock, with a funnel supported upright in a considerably
higher position than the drying tube. From the other end of the
DrytagTube
Burette Clamp
Rubber Tube
Small Flask
Large Fan
Glass .Elbow
FlG. 11
drying tube lead an 18-inch rubber tube to a trough. This tube
should have a right angle, 3-inch glass tube, attached to its end.
Inside the drying tube is to be placed the zinc. Obtain a rod of it
about 2.5 cm. long and 0.6 cm. in diameter. Clean and dry it, and
weigh it accurately. A short piece of twisted copper wire supports
the zinc in the tube. Pour water into the funnel until the whole ap-
paratus is filled, and close the pinch cock. When everything is
ready invert a 300-cc. flask completely filled with water, over the
end of the glass tube in the trough. Pour dilute hydrochloric acid
(6iV) into the funnel and allow it to pass the pinch cock until
hydrogen is evolved from the metal. The cone of the funnel

should always be kept well filled with liquid, and care must be
taken that no bubble of air is sucked into the stem. Collect the
hydrogen in the flask, and when the gas has forced the level of
the liquid nearly into the neck begin to wash the acid out of the
apparatus by pouring water into the funnel. Have the acid com-
pletely removed, and thus the evolution of hydrogen stopped by
the time the water level stands at about the middle of the neck.
Equalize the level inside and outside the neck of the flask, and
while in this position mark the level by means of a rubber band.
Record temperature and barometric pressure. Determine on the
platform scales the weight of water required to fill the volume
occupied by the hydrogen. Dry the zinc carefully on a piece of
filter paper, and weigh it accurately on the sensitive balances.
Calculation. (1) Calculate the volume of hydrogen under stand-
ard conditions equivalent to 1 gram of zinc. (2) From the com-
bining ratio of zinc and oxygen (Experiment 1), find the volume
of hydrogen equivalent to 1 gram of oxygen. (3) From the weight
of 1 liter of oxygen (Experiment 2), find the volume of hydrogen
equivalent to 1 liter of oxygen. Note that the calculation of the
ratios (2) and (3) is based on an assumption, namely, that the
quantity of hydrogen displaced by a given weight of zinc would
combine with the same weight of oxygen that would combine with
the given weight of zinc.
4. T H E COMBINING RATIO OF HYDROGEN AND

OXYGEN IN WATER
It is only with great care and refined apparatus that volumes of

gases can be successfully weighed. It not being feasible to weigh
hydrogen and oxygen as such in this experiment, the oxygen will
be obtained from solid copper oxide, the loss of weight of which can
be determined. If an excess of dry hydrogen is led over the copper
oxide, the excess that does not combine with the oxygen to form
water will pass on unchanged. By collecting all the water in
some material which absorbs it, its weight may be found. The
amount of the hydrogen combined is then given by the differ-
ence between the weight of the water and that of the oxygen.
Hydrogen gas generated from zinc and hydrochloric acid is
passed through a tube containing calcium chloride to remove any
water vapor, then over heated copper oxide, with the oxygen of
RATIO OF HYDROGEN AND OXYGEN IN WATER 31
which it combines, and then through another calcium chloride

tube to absorb the water vapor formed.
Materials: copper oxide, fine wire form,
feathered zinc,
anhydrous calcium chloride.
6 N hydrochloric acid.
Apparatus: Pyrex combustion tube, 10 inch,
two 4-inch side arm U-tubes.
porcelain boat.
8-ounce common bottle,
thistle tube,
rubber stoppers.
Bunsen burner,
two 4-inch iron rings.
2 ring stands,
cotton.
Data Form:
Weight of boat + copper oxide before reaction. grams
Weight of boat + copper after reaction grams
Weight of oxygen grams
Weight of U-tube after reaction grams
Weight of U-tube before reaction grams
Weight of water formed grams
Procedure: While setting up the apparatus as shown in Fig. 12
heat 5 or 6 grams of copper oxide to redness in a porcelain boat
so as to drive off any water it may contain. Place about 30 grams
of feathered zinc in an 8-ounce bottle. Through a tight-fitting,
two-hole rubber stopper pass a thistle tube reaching to the bottom
and an elbow tube just entering the top of the bottle. Fill each
of the U-tubes with granular calcium chloride to within 2 cm. of
the side arms, and insert a loose plug of cotton on top of the
calcium chloride on each side. Attach one of the U-tubes to the
generator tube on one side and the combustion tube on the other.
The latter should slope downward at an angle of 5° to 10°.
The other end of the combustion tube is attached to the second
drying tube. The two ends of the glass tubes should touch under
the short rubber connector. The second calcium chloride tube
should be prepared with especial care and be weighed accurately-
just before starting the operation. Prolong its open arm with an
elbow tube whose one end, drawn out to a capillary, is turned
upward. Test the tightness of the apparatus: This may be done
by adding enough water to the generating bottle to seal the end
/Ring
•Comirasflbn Tube
Porcelain Boat and CuO Cotton
[am Chloride
Side Arm U-Tobe
- Ring Stand^
FIG. 12
of the thistle tube, then holding a finger on the exit tube of the
apparatus and pouring more water into the thistle tube. If the
top of the column of water in the thistle tube maintains its level
the apparatus is tight. Pour a few cubic centimeters of 6iV
hydrochloric acid through the thistle tube, let hydrogen generate
slowly, and fill the apparatus while preparing the rest of the
material.
After it has cooled, accurately weigh the porcelain boat filled
with the copper oxide. Place the boat carefully, without spilling
any of the copper oxide, in the middle of the combustion tube.
Add a little more acid to the generator, and wait until the ap-
paratus is completely rilled with hydrogen before proceeding fur-
ther. Never bring a flame near the apparatus until the purity of
the hydrogen escaping has been proved. Test the hydrogen by
holding a short test tube over the jet and carrying the tube, mouth
downward, to a distant flame. If the gas does not explode, but
burns quietly, quickly convey the tube, still with mouth down-
ward, to the jet. If the hydrogen still burning in the tube ignites
the jet, it is then safe to proceed with the experiment. The gas
at the jet should be left burning. Increase the evolution of hydro-
DETERMINATION OF MOLECULAR WEIGHT 33
gen a little, being careful in adding acid to pour it in a thin stream

down the side of the tube so as not to drag with it bubbles of air,
as this would introduce oxygen, which would be burned to water
in the combustion tube. Let the hydrogen generate 3 minutes
longer to sweep any last traces of oxygen from the apparatus,
and then begin heating the copper oxide rather gently, using the
wing-top burner. Before the experiment is ended any con-
densed water must be completely driven over into the calcium
chloride tube by playing the flame gently over the parts of the
tube where moisture is seen. When the tube has cooled to room
temperature, disconnect the hydrogen generator from the drying
tube and blow slowly enough air (from the lungs) through the
apparatus to displace all the hydrogen. Weigh the boat to find
the loss, and the calcium chloride tube to find the increase in weight.
Calculation. Calculate the combining ratio of hydrogen and
oxygen, that is, how many parts by weight of oxygen combine
with 1 part of hydrogen.
From this ratio and the volume ratio calculated in Experiment
3, find the weight of 1 liter of hydrogen. This involves the
assumption that the quantity of hydrogen displaced by that
weight of zinc which combines with a given amount of oxygen is
the same as would combine directly with that amount of oxygen.
By comparing the result obtained with the known weight of a
liter of hydrogen ( = 0.090 gram) decide whether this assumption is
correct.
5. DETERMINATION OF THE APPROXIMATE MOLECULAR WEIGHT

OF A VOLATILE LIQUID BY DUMAS' METHOD
According to Avogadro's principle, the volume occupied by the

gram molecular weights of all gases, under standard conditions,
is the same. Determinations made with a large number of gases
have shown that this volume is 22.4 liters. For example, 2.016
grams of hydrogen, or 32 grams of oxygen, or 71 grams of chlorine
occupy a volume of 22.4 liters at 0° and 760 mm. pressure. If a
new gas is discovered, its molecular weight can be determined by
finding the weight that occupies a volume of 22.4 liters under
standard conditions.
This method can be applied also to substances which are liquid
or solid at 0° and 760 mm. pressure, provided they can be vapor-
ized, without decomposition, at a temperature which will permit

the accurate measurement of the volume occupied by a given
weight of substance. If the pressure and temperature of the
determination are also known, this volume can be reduced to stand-
ard conditions, and the weight, which would be required to fill
22.4 liters under standard conditions, calculated. This weight
in grams is the molecular weight.
In the following experiment we shall use carbon tetraehloride
as the " unknown " substance, the molecular weight of which is
to be found.
Materials: pure carbon tetraehloride, 12 cc.
Apparatus: Dumas bulb (250-cc. bulb with neck drawn to a
capillary).
600-cc. beaker.
250° thermometer.
2 Bunsen burners,
burette clamp. „
wire holder and cover,
unglazed porcelain chips.
4-inch iron ring and ring stand,
cork stopper, split.
Data Form:
Weight of the open Dumas bulb filled with
air (a) grams
Weight of the sealed Dumas bulb filled with
CCU vapor (6) grams
Weight of the Dumas bulb filled with water (c).. grams
Barometric pressure mm.
Temperature of the boiling water bath °
Room temperature °
Procedure: Weigh accurately a clean, dry Dumas bulb. Intro-
duce into it about 12 cc. of carbon tetraehloride by warming the
bulb and allowing it to cool with the tip dipping into the liquid.
Heat about 300 cc. of water to approximately 50° in a 600-cc.
beaker. Drop a few pieces of porous tile into the beaker, so that
the water will boil without " bumping." Immerse the bulb in the
water, and hold it in this position by putting the wire holder around
the neck of the bulb. Cover the beaker, and clamp the upper end
DETERMINATION OP MOLECULAR WEIGHT 35
of the wire holder to a ring stand. A split cork stopper will hold
the wire in the jaws of the clamp. The bottom of the bulb should
be about 1 cm. from the bottom of the beaker. Carry the apparatus
to the hood, and heat the water
with a low flame until it reaches
Split Cork
the boiling point. Maintain the K
bath at this temperature until
the carbon tetrachloride has en-
tirely vaporized, and the excess
vapor has escaped through the
open tip. After a lighted match - Wire Holder
is no longer extinguished at the
tip, wait two minutes for the
vapor in the bulb to be heated
to the temperature of the boiling
water, and for the pressure in-
side the bulb to come to equilib-
rium with the atmosphere out- .Dumas Bulb
side. Still keep the water
Unglazed
boiling, and, by means of a / Porcelain
second burner, warm the ex-
posed stem to vaporize any car-
bon tetrachloride which may
have condensed in it. Seal the
bulb by holding the flame at
the tip of the capillary. Re-
move the bulb from the beaker,
dry it, and tip it bottom up.
The condensed carbon tetra-
chloride will run into the stem
of the bulb, and if the tip is not
completely sealed bubbles of air
will be drawn through the liquid - d
into the bulb. If this happens F I G - 13
turn the bulb right side up and
immediately reheat the tip. If the seal is satisfactory allow the
bulb to cool to room temperature and weigh it accurately.
After the sealed bulb has been weighed it is to be filled with
water and weighed on the platform (not the analytical) balance.
Water from which dissolved air has been expelled must be used
to fill the bulb. To this end, while the sealed bulb is being cooled
and weighed, boil about 300 cc. of distilled water in an 8-inch por-
celain evaporating dish, and cool it rapidly. After the sealed bulb
has been weighed, immerse the stem in the air-free water and break
off the tip of the stem. Water will rush into the bulb and fill it
practically completely if the preceding manipulation has been
skilfully performed. If more than 3 cc. of air is found in the bulb,
reject your data to this point and start the experiment again.
The weight of the condensed carbon tetrachloride left in the bulb
may be neglected as it is very small in comparison with that of the
water.
Perform the experiment a second time, starting with a dry
bulb. From your data make the following calculations for each
of the duplicate determinations:
1. The volume of the bulb (c-a), neglecting the weight of air
in the bulb and the coefficient of expansion of the glass.
2. Reduce to standard conditions the volume of vapor in the
bulb at the recorded bath temperature and pressure (assuming
that the vapor would not condense) (vst CCU).
3. Reduce to standard conditions the volume of air in the bulb
when it was weighed (yst air), and find the weight of this air,
using 1.293 as the weight of a liter of air (d).
4. The actual weight of the empty bulb (a-d) (e).
5. The weight of carbon tetrachloride vapor (6-e).
6. The molecular weight of carbon tetrachloride.
Notes and Problems

The law of definite proportions states that whenever two (or
more) elements combine to form a definite compound the ratio
by weight of the elements entering that compound is always the
same.
The law of multiple proportions covers the case where two (or
more) elements form more than one definite compound. The law
of definite proportions applies to each of the compounds, and the
law of multiple proportions says that the definite ratios for the
separate compounds are to each other in the ratio of small inte-
gral numbers.
Perhaps the most easily visualized statement of the law of
multiple proportions is as follows: If the same weight of one ele-
NOTES AND PROBLEMS 37
ment is taken in each case the weights of the second element

which combine with this definite weight of the first element to form
the respective compounds are to each other in the ratio of small
whole numbers.
For example, two different substances are known which contain
copper and chlorine. In cuprous chloride 63.6 grams of copper
are combined with 35.46 grams of chlorine; in cupric chloride
63.6 grams of copper are combined with 70.92 grams of chlorine.
The weights of chlorine are in the simple integral ratio of 1.2.
The law of combining weights covers not only the behavior
described by the laws of definite and multiple proportions, which
apply to specific compounds and to specific pairs of elements, but
it covers the combining ratios in all compounds. In the illustra-
tion above we chose apparently arbitrarily 63.6 grams of copper
and found that the corresponding weights of chlorine were 35.46
and 70.92 in the respective compounds. Without stopping to
inquire why we chose 63.6 grams rather than 1 gram or 100 grams,
let us inspect the following tabulation of combining weights.
Cu Cl Hg O S H C
Cuprous chloride 63 6 35 46
Mercurous chloride 35 46 200 6
Mercuric oxide 200 6 . 16
Sulphur dioxide 16 16
Cupric sulphide 31 8 16
Hydrogen sulphide 16 1 008
Water 8 1 008
Carbon monoxide 8 6
Carbon tetrachlonde 70 92 . 6
Chlorine monoxide 70 92 . 16
It is obvious that the combining weights of the elements are in
every case small whole multiples of recurring numbers: Cu 31.8;
Cl 35.46; Hg 200.6; O 8; S 16; H 1.008; C 6. If we had taken
any other weight, say 100 grams of oxygen, as a starting point
it is evident that the same uniformity would be manifest, but the
fundamental weight of each element would be different.
The law of combining weights may be stated as follows: For
every element a combining weight may be chosen such that in all
pure compound substances the ratio of the number of combining
weights of the different elements is the ratio of simple integrals.
The Atomic Theory. Dalton was impressed by the significance
of the facts generalized in these three laws, particularly the law
of multiple proportions, and he found for them a reasonable ex-

planation in the atomic theory (1808). According to this theory,
the elements consist of atoms which were thought by Dalton
to be indivisible. The atoms of the same element are all alike
in weight and in all their other properties; the atoms of different
elements differ in properties. When elements combine to form
compounds, it is the individual atoms which are concerned.
Suppose for example one atom of element A combines with
one atom of element B, to form the compound AB; then, since
the weights of atoms of the same element are always alike and
since whatever amount of the compound is taken it always contains
an equal number of atoms of each element, the proportion by
weight of the two elements must always be the same in this
compound. Thus the law of definite proportions is a necessary
deduction from the atomic theory. Let it be understood, how-
ever, that the law is a fact established by careful measurements.
The theory is simply the best effort of the human mind to furnish
an explanation of the facts.
The reasoning is similar for the law of multiple proportions.
Suppose that one atom of A can combine with two atoms of B in
forming an entirely different, but none the less definite, compound.
Let us designate this compound AB2. The law of definite propor-
tions would hold for this compound as well as for the first. Fur-
thermore, if we should take such amounts of each compound that
each contained the same number of atoms of A then the second
would contain twice as many atoms of B as the first. The weight
of B in the second would, therefore, be exactly twice the weight of
B in the first compound. Thus the law of multiple proportions is
also a necessary deduction from the atomic theory.
Atomic Weights. We have found that the combining ratio of
oxygen and zinc is 1:4.09. The atomic theory stipulates that
the ratio of the numbers of atoms is simple, but it may be 1:1,
1:2, 1:3, 2 : 1 , 3:1, 3:2, 2:3 or any reasonably simple ratio.
Having at hand no way of telling what the real ratio is we pro-
ceed to assume one to be the correct ratio — in other words,
we make a guess. Where we have nothing else to guide us we
make the simplest possible guess and assume the ratio to be
1:1. If this is correct then the atom of zinc weighs 4.09 times
as much as the atom of oxygen.
The weight of a single atom is so very small that it would mean
little to us if we did express it exactly in arithmetical figures.

What we are interested in is the ratio of the weights. When a
great many million million atoms of oxygen combine with the same
number of million million atoms of zinc we make the actual meas-
urement that 1 gram of oxygen combines with 4.09 grams of zinc.
Standard of Atomic Weights, O = 16. It has been interna-
tionally agreed that it is a matter of convenience to adopt the
exact number 16.000 as the atomic weight of oxygen. Exactly
16 grams is the gram atomic weight of oxygen. We may mention
as a matter of interest that 16 grams of oxygen contains 6.06 X
1023 atoms, although this enormous figure is of no practical im-
portance beyond the mere fact that it is enormous and has been
determined accurately.
The atomic weight of zinc is therefore 4.09 X 16 = 65.4 if
our assumption of the 1:1 ratio is correct. Therefore 65.4 grams
of zinc is the gram atomic weight of this element, and it likewise
contains 6.06 X 1023 actual atoms.
Of course the fact that many cases are known where two ele-
ments can combine in different proportions to form different
compounds (multiple proportions) shows us at once that the atomic
combining ratio cannot always be 1:1. In order to establish
consistent atomic weights for all the elements on the O = 16
basis, we must either make very clever guesses as to the atomic
ratios or we must have some reliable means of finding out this
ratio. We shall state here that there are reliable methods of
doing this, one of the most useful of which will be explained in a
later section of this chapter (p. 48). In the front inside cover of
this book is printed a list of all the elements with their symbols and
their atomic weights. The atomic weights are obtained in many
cases from the combining ratio by weight with oxygen itself,
in other cases from the combining ratio with another element whose
combining ratio with oxygen is known. In every instance the com-
bining ratio by weight with oxygen must be multiplied by 16 and
divided by the atomic ratio of the element to oxygen.
PROBLEMS
1. The combining ratio by weight of zinc and sulphur is
2.039 : 1. Assuming the knowledge that the atomic weight
of zinc is 65.4 and that zinc and sulphur combine in the
1:1 atomic ratio, find the atomic weight of sulphur.
2. The oxide formed when 1 gram of sulphur is burned

weighs exactly 2 grams. What is the combining ratio by
weight of sulphur and oxygen?
3. Using the data and assumptions of the last two prob-
lems and the atomic weight of oxygen as 16, deduce the atomic
ratio by which sulphur and oxygen combine. Write the for-
mula of this compound.
4. From the atomic weights printed in the table, find the
percentage composition by weight in the compounds having
the atomic ratio expressed by the formulas CaO, Li2O, Fe2O3,
Fe-A.
5. One oxide of chromium contains 52 per cent of chro-
mium and 48 per cent of oxygen by weight; another contains
68.42 per cent of chromium and 31.58 per cent of oxygen.
Prove that these compounds are in agreement with the law
of multiple proportions.
6. Look up the atomic weight of chromium and find the
atomic ratio in each oxide. Write the simplest formula of
each oxide.
7. One gram of potassium metal burns to give 1.82
grams of an oxide. Calculate the chemical formula of the
oxide.
8. The oxide obtained when iron is burned in oxygen has
the composition Fe = 72.4; 0 = 27.6. Calculate the chem-
ical formula of the oxide.
9. Find the formula of the substance whose composition
is magnesium 25.57 per cent, chlorine 74.43 per cent.
10. Find the formula of the substance whose composition
is potassium 26.585, chromium 35.390, oxygen 38.025.
Measurement of Gases. Since it is difficult to weigh a body

of gas, but comparatively easy to find its volume, the amounts of
gases are almost invariably estimated by measuring the volume.
But the volume of a definite amount of gas is very dependent on
the conditions, and to make a volume measurement have an
accurate meaning it becomes necessary to know exactly the
conditions of pressure, temperature, and dryness under which
the measurement is made. To make the results of all measure-
ments comparable it is customary to calculate what the measured
volume would become if so-called standard conditions prevailed.
By common consent of scientific men, standard conditions have

been defined as 760 mm. pressure, 0°C, and dry gas.
A remarkable uniformity has been found to exist in the behavior
of all gases under changing conditions. Three simple state-
ments, the so-called gas laws, suffice to define with a considerable
degree of accuracy the volume changes with changing pressure,
temperature, and water-vapor content.
Boyle's law states that at the same temperature the volume of a
definite amount of a gas is inversely proportional to the pressure.
The law is expressed by the equation
or piVi = P2V2
Charles' law defines the change of volume with changing
temperature: the volume of a definite amount of a gas under
constant pressure is directly proportional to the absolute tempera-
ture. The absolute temperature is 273° plus the centigrade
temperature; but really the determination of the absolute scale
of temperature depends entirely on the behavior of gases.
The original statement of Charles' law was made in this way:
For every degree rise or fall in temperature the volume of a gas
increases or decreases by an amount equal to - j ^ its volume at
0°C. If this law held rigidly all the way down the scale of course
the volume of a gas would become zero at — 273°C. This point,
— 273°C, would be the absolute zero below which substances
could not be cooled. As different gases were studied it was found
that they obeyed this law quite exactly until they approached the
temperature at which they would condense to a liquid. The
more difficultly condensible a gas, the further down the scale it
would follow this law. Helium, which was the last gas to succumb
to efforts at liquefaction, follows the law with a good deal of accu-
racy to within a few degrees of — 273°C. Hence, since it was
found that the less condensible a gas the more nearly it approxi-
mated a certain ideal behavior, an imaginary " perfect gas " was
postulated which would have exactly the ideal behavior. The
absolute zero then is defined as the temperature at which the
volume of this perfect gas would become zero, that is — 273°C.
Charles' law is expressed in the equation
when the pressure is constant and T stands for the absolute
temperature; when the volume is held constant the pressure
must vary as the absolute temperature, or
Pi=Ti
T
The equations for the laws of Boyle and Charles can be com-
bined into one equation for use when pressure, volume, and tem-
perature vary.
P1V1
or
Dalton's law describes the behavior of mixtures of gases as
follows: When two or more gases are contained in the same vessel
each one exerts the same pressure as if it occupied the whole vessel
alone at that temperature. The
actual measured pressure is the
sum of the partial pressures of
the gases present.
Since we frequently have to
measure gases which are con-
fined over water in the measur-
ing vessel, and are consequently
111 *Pressure
" Gauge mixed with water vapor, we are
Piston. J^
especially interested in applying
cylinder-^ Dalton's law to water vapor.
A gas may be mixed with any
S3i Reservoir
- Water
amount of water vapor up to the
saturation point, and the satura-
I tion point depends solely on the
At Pump temperature. We need only to
be sure that the gas is saturated
with water vapor in order to cal-
culate the effect of the latter.
FIG. 14 Saturated Water Vapor. In
order to help us make clear the
properties of saturated water vapor, let us make use of the some-
what idealized apparatus shown in Fig. 14,
The piston, which is assumed to be absolutely gas tight, is raised

to a middle position in the cylinder and fastened there. The
stop cock to the vacuum pump is opened and the cylinder evacu-
ated until the pressure gauge reads zero. Now the cock to the
pump is closed and the cock from the water reservoir is opened to
let a thin layer of water run into the bottom of the cylinder.
Immediately the pressure gauge jumps and shortly adjusts itself
to exactly 17.4 mm. when the temperature of the apparatus
is 20°C.
Now let us raise the piston to the top of the cylinder. There
is a momentary depression of the gauge but it at once returns to
exactly 17.4 mm. Now let us force down the piston to the bot-
tom of the cylinder. Again there is a momentary change in the
gauge level but the reading immediately becomes exactly 17.4
mm. again, if the temperature is maintained constant all the time
at 20°.
Saturated water vapor is in equilibrium with liquid water. If
the vapor is not saturated and any liquid water is present, enough
of this evaporates to make the vapor saturated. Compressing
a saturated vapor would tend to increase its concentration, which
would increase its pressure. The observed fact that there is no
such increase in pressure shows that the vapor does not become
more concentrated, that is, that it does not become supersaturated
but condenses to liquid water to maintain the exact state of satura-
tion as the piston is pressed down. When the piston is drawn up
the liquid must evaporate to maintain a saturated condition of the
vapor.
At 20° the concentration of saturated water vapor is such that
its pressure is 17.4 mm. At other temperatures the concentration
is different, but it has an absolutely definite value for each tem-
perature. The pressure of saturated water vapor has been care-
fully measured at different temperatures. The values from 0°
to 100° are given in the table on page 353 in the Appendix.
If the condition of equilibrium between liquid water and water
vapor is not disturbed by the presence of any other gas, then a
cylinder full of oxygen and also saturated with water vapor will
contain the same quantity of water vapor as a cylinder of the
same size containing only saturated water vapor. Dalton's law
would then require that the partial pressure of water vapor be
the same in both cylinders and that the apparent pressure in the
oxygen cylinder be the sum of the partial pressures of the oxygen

and the water vapor.
This deduction can be verified experimentally. Let dry oxygen
run into the dry cylinder until the gauge stands at 760 mm. at 20°.
Then run a thin layer of water into the bottom of the cylinder.
The gauge begins slowly to rise, and finally it stops at 777.4 mm.
if the temperature is still 20°. Thus the partial pressure of sat-
urated water vapor is 17.4 mm. and is not affected by the pres-
ence of the oxygen gas. It takes a much longer time to saturate
the space in the cylinder when oxygen is present because the water
vapor has to diffuse through the oxygen, but the final result is
exactly the same. The oxygen does not diminish the capacity
of the space for the water vapor.
Suppose now that we have to measure a quantity of oxygen
which has been collected in a measuring tube over water in a
trough. The oxygen has bubbled up through the water and we may
assume that it has in this way become fully saturated with water
vapor. We raise or lower the measuring tube until the level of
the water is the same inside and outside the tube. On the outside
surface of the water the atmosphere is exerting its pressure which
is transmitted through the liquid to the gas within the tube.
Let us say that the barometer reads 740 mm. Then the pressure
of the gas in the tube is 740 mm. This pressure, however, is the
total of two partial pressures, that of the oxygen and that of the
water vapor. Let us say that the temperature is 20°; then the
partial pressure of the water vapor is 17.4 mm.; and the pressure
of the oxygen is 740 — 17.4 = 722.6 mm. The volume read in
the measuring tube is, say, 60 cc. We want to calculate the volume
of the oxygen under standard conditions. Substituting in the
general gas equation we have:
722.6 X 60 _ 760 X Vsi
273 + 20 273
or
273
r e o x x722-6
V bU X 20 X
The general formula for reducing to standard conditions the vol-
ume of a gas measured over water is
273 aq tens
v
X P ~ - "
760
Vst = volume of gas under standard conditions.

Vobs = the observed volume under conditions of experiment.
t = temperature of the gas.
p = pressure upon the moist gas.
aq. tens. = tension of saturated aqueous vapor at f (see table).
PROBLEMS
11. Reduce 125.3 cc. of gas at 725 mm. to 760 mm. pressure.
12. A cylinder of 2500-cc. capacity contains oxygen under
91.5 atmospheres pressure. Find volume in liters after the
gas is run into a tank under atmospheric pressure.
13. Reduce 125.3 cc. of gas at 25.8° to 0°.
14. A sealed glass tube contains 125.3 cc. of gas at 27°
and 783 mm. pressure. What will be the pressure if the
tube is heated to 300° without change of volume?
15. Reduce 125.3 cc. of gas at 740 mm. and 20.7° to stand-
ard conditions.
16. Reduce 125.3 cc. of gas at 15.3 atmospheres and
— 65.5° to standard conditions.
17. Reduce 125.3 cc. of gas measured over water at 740
mm. and 20.7° to standard conditions.
18. A certain quantity of dry hydrogen gas occupies 2,275
liters at 25° and 760 mm. If this gas were bubbled through
water and collected in a vessel over water, what volume would it
then occupy at the same temperature and the same barometric
pressure? Assume that no hydrogen is dissolved in the water.
Gay-Lussac's Law of Combining Volumes. The measurement
of the volumes of gases which enter into chemical reaction led
Gay-Lussac to perceive the existence of an extremely simple
relationship which is known by the above title and which may be
stated as follows: The volumes of gases which react chemically
are in the ratio of small whole numbers. Furthermore, if the
products of the reaction are also gaseous their volumes are also in
the relation of small whole numbers to each other and to the vol-
umes of the original gases.
Gay-Lussac was unable to explain this law on the ground of
any reasonable hypothesis. He tried to postulate that equal
volumes of different gases must contain the same number of
atoms, but this postulate was almost at once found to be un-
tenable and he had nothing better to offer.
Avogadro's Principle. In 1811 Avogadro suggested the hy-

pothesis that at the same temperature and pressure all gases con-
tain in equal volumes an equal number of molecules. He defined
the molecule as the smallest particle of a substance and drew a
clear distinction between molecules and atoms; a molecule of a
compound would of necessity contain two or more atoms, at least
one atom of each constituent element. But the startling feature
of Avogadro's hypothesis was that it demanded as a necessary
deduction that the molecules of the elementary gases, oxygen,
nitrogen, hydrogen, and chlorine, should consist of two atoms each.
Such an idea was regarded by his contemporaries as preposterous
and they would have nothing to do with his hypothesis.
It was not until 1858 that Cannizzaro showed how Avogadro's
principle accounted for the reactions of gases and a great variety
of chemical combinations. Since then it has come to be recog-
nized as one of the most fundamental laws of chemistry. It has
been said that modern chemistry dates from 1858.
In order to show that the molecules of oxygen, nitrogen, hydro-
gen and chlorine must be diatomic if Avogadro's principle is
tenable, let us consider the following data which have been estab-
lished by measuring combining volumes of gases and of course
reducing all volumes to standard conditions:
2 volumes of hydrogen + 1 volume of oxygen give 2 volumes
of water vapor.
1 volume of hydrogen + 1 volume of chlorine give 2 vol-
umes of hydrogen chloride.
2 volumes of ammonia give 3 volumes of hydrogen + 1
volume of nitrogen.
In the first set of data let us assume that the 1 volume of oxygen
contains 1 million molecules. Then the 2 volumes of water vapor
according to Avogadro's principle will contain 2 million molecules
of water. But the water vapor is a homogeneous substance, and,
since it contains oxygen, every molecule of it must contain at
least 1 atom of oxygen. Therefore, there must be at least 2 million
atoms of oxygen which were derived from the 1 million molecules.
Therefore, every molecule of oxygen must contain at least 2 atoms.
Following the same line of reasoning 1 million molecules of
hydrogen and 1 million molecules of chlorine produce 2 million
molecules of hydrogen chloride which must contain at least 2
million atoms of hydrogen and 2 million atoms of chlorine. There-

fore the molecules of hydrogen and of chlorine must each con-
tain at least 2 atoms.
Since 2 volumes of ammonia yield only 1 volume of nitrogen,
the same reasoning shows that the molecule of nitrogen must
contain at least 2 atoms.
Molecular Weights. The atomic weight of oxygen has been
settled by convention as 16, and since there are at least 2 atoms of
oxygen in a molecule, the molecular weight of oxygen must be at
least 32. Let us neglect the qualification " at least " and take the
molecular weight of oxygen as 32 without qualification, making
this our standard from which to reckon all other molecular and
atomic weights.
On this basis the molecular weight of any gaseous substance is
easily calculated if we know the weight of a measured volume
of that gas under any stated conditions. From this determination
the weight of 1 liter of gas under standard conditions can be com-
puted. Then, the weight of 1 liter of the gas is to the weight of
1 liter of oxygen as the molecular weight of the gas is to 32, the
molecular weight of oxygen.
Gram Molecular Weight; Mole. The molecular weight is an
abstract number although the molecular weights are related to each
other in the same ratio as the actual weights of the molecules.
The gram molecular weight is, however, a concrete quantity, being
the molecular weight number in grams. It is a quantity that is so
frequently spoken of that the name has been contracted to mole.
A mole of oxygen is 32 grams of oxygen.
Gram Molecular Volume or Molal Volume. One mole, or 32
grams of oxygen, under standard conditions occupies a volume of
22.4 liters. According to Avogadro's principle, the same volume
would contain exactly 1 mole of any other gas under standard con-
ditions; this volume, therefore, assumes a great importance, and it
is called the gram molecular volume or for brevity molal volume.
To find the molecular weight of any gaseous substance it is
necessary therefore only to find the weight in grams of 22.4 liters
of the gas under standard conditions. In actual practice it is not
convenient to weigh containers which hold 22.4 liters. It is only
necessary to know the weight of any volume and the conditions of
the experiment. From these data the molecular weight can be
calculated.
Avogadro's Number. The actual number of molecules of a gas

in 22.4 liters under standard conditions has been determined by
several different methods. The results agree very well, and the
value generally accepted is 6.06 X 1023. This quantity has been
named Avogadro's number in honor of the man who first suggested
the principle on which it depends. It is the number of molecules
in a mole of any substance, whether gas, liquid, or solid. It is
also the number of atoms in a gram atomic weight of an element.
Atomic Weights. In an earlier section (page 39) it was shown
that the atomic weight of an element could be obtained by multi-
plying the combining ratio of the element with oxygen by 16, the
atomic weight of oxygen, and dividing the result by the assumed
atomic ratio. We are now in a position to verify the atomic
weights so found and thus to prove whether the assumed atomic
ratio was correct.
We shall start with the molecular weight of oxygen as 32 and
first demonstrate that on this basis the atomic weight of oxygen
is 16.
Weight in Percentage Weight of Greatest

Substance grams of 1 by weight oxygen in common
mole of oxygen 1 mole divisor
Water 18 016 88 81 16 1 X 16
Carbon dioxide 44 72 7 32 2X 16
Sulphur trioxide 80 60 48 3X 16
Acetic acid 60 53 3 32 2 X 16
Phenol 94 17 02 16 1 X 16
Nickel carbonyl 170 8 37 5 64 4X 16
Phosphorus oxy-
chloride 153 4 10 43 16 1 X 16
Oxygen 32 100 32 2 X 16
There are hundreds of gaseous compounds of oxygen whose

densities have been measured and whose molecular weights are
thus known. The molecules of these compounds can contain
a small whole number of atoms of oxygen but never fractional
numbers. The percentage by weight of oxygen in these compounds
can be found by chemical analysis. This percentage of the molal
weight will be the number of grams of oxygen in a mole of the
compound, and this number must be either the atomic weight
of oxygen or some small even multiple thereof. In the above
table a few typical examples are selected from the data for all
gaseous or volatile oxygen compounds.
The smallest number in the next to the last column is 16, and
this must be the atomic weight of oxygen because it represents
the smallest weight of oxygen in the molecular weight of any of its
compounds. It is extremely unlikely that there would not be at
least some compounds whose molecules contained but a single
atom. But if such could be the case and 16 were for example
twice the atomic weight, we should expect that 8 would be the
greatest common divisor and that numbers equal to 3 X 8 or
5 X 8 and therefore not divisible by 16 would be found in the
next to the last column. We can therefore be reasonably certain
that 16 is the actual atomic weight and not a multiple of the atomic
weight of oxygen.
A similar study of other elements, for example of chlorine, hy-
drogen, sulphur, mercury, shows that in all the gaseous or volatile
compounds of these elements the smallest weight ever found in
the molal volume is 35.46 grams of chlorine, 1.008 grams of hydro-
gen, 32.06 grams of sulphur, and 200.6 grams of mercury; further-
more, when the molal volume contains a greater weight of these
elements, the weight is invariably a small even multiple of these
smallest weights. Thus the atomic weights of these elements
as given in the table are verified.
The following table shows selected examples from the col-
lection of the data for all gaseous or volatile chlorine compounds.
Weight in Percentage Weight of Greatest

Substance grams of 1 by weight chlorine in common
mole of chlorine 1 mole divisor
Hydrogen chloride 36 5 97 22 35 5 1X355
Chlorine 70 9 100 70 9 2X355
Mercuric chloride 270 9 26 19 70 9 2X35 5
Arsenic trichloride 182 1 57 7 107 0 3X355
Silicon tetrachloride 170 2 83 4 142 4X355
Phosphorus penta-
chloride 208 3 85 2 177 5 5X355
Derivation of a Formula. Let us take for example ethyl ether.

This substance is a liquid at ordinary temperature and pressure
but it is easily vaporized. We must first find its molecular weight.
By measurement it is found that 1 liter of the vapor at 136.5°C.

and 760 mm. weighs 2.203 grams. Reduce the volume to stand-
ard conditions:
273
V.t = 1.000 X = 0.6667 liter
273 + 13o.5
Thus 0.6667 liter under standard conditions weighs 2.203 grams.
22.4 liters will weigh
X 2.203 = 74.02 grams
Thus the molecular weight is 74.02.

Chemical analysis shows that the composition of ethyl ether is:
C, 64.87 per cent; H, 13.53 per cent; O, 21.60 per cent
The weight.of each of these elements in one mole is:
C: 0.6487 X 74.02 = 48.02 = 4 X 12.01 grams
H : 0.1353 X 74.02 = 10.01 = 10 X 1.008 grams
O: 0.2160 X 74.02 = 15.99 = 1 X 16.00 grams
Therefore the mole of ethyl ether contains 4 gram atomic weights
of caxbon, 10 gram atomic weights of hydrogen, and 1 gram atomic
weight of oxygen and the formula is C4Hi0O.
PROBLEMS
19. One liter of a certain gas under standard conditions
weighs 2.25 grams. Calculate the molecular weight of this
gas.
20. The molecular weight of a certain volatile substance
is to be determined: 0.435 gram of the substance is placed
in an evacuated vessel and the whole is heated to 136.5°, at
which temperature the substance is entirely converted to gas.
The pressure and volume of the gas are now found to be
380 mm. and 405.6 c c , respectively. Calculate the molecu-
lar weight of the gas.
21. When a certain liquid substance is vaporized, its vapor
is found to weigh 5.413 times as much as an equal volume of
air under the same conditions. Assuming the average mo-
lecular weight of air to be 28.955, find the molecular weight
of the substance.
22. The composition of the above substance is found by

analysis to be: carbon, 45.87 per cent; hydrogen, 3.21 per
cent; and bromine, 50.92 per cent. Calculate the formula of
the substance.
23. A certain compound of chlorine and copper is found to
have the composition: copper, 64.2 per cent; chlorine, 35.8
per cent. When 0.52 gram of this substance is heated to
a sufficiently high temperature to convert it completely into
a gas, it takes the place of a certain volume of air. This
amount of air is found to measure 58.8 cc. under standard
conditions. Calculate the molecular weight and the chemi-
cal formula of the compound.
24. A liquid substance has the composition: carbon,
12.76 per cent; hydrogen, 2.13 per cent; bromine, 85.11 per
cent; and when vaporized its vapor density is 93.3 times
that of hydrogen. Calculate the molecular weight and the
formula of the compound.
25. The chloride of a new element contains 38.11 per cent
of chlorine and 61.89 per cent of the element. The vapor
density of the compound referred to air is 12.85. What is
the atomic weight of the element as far as investigation of
this one substance can give it?
26. Cyanogen contains 46.08 per cent carbon and 53.92
per cent nitrogen. Its density is 1.796 times that of air.
Calculate its formula.
27. In a current of pure oxygen in a combustion tube 0.5000
gram of a substance is burned. The products of combustion
are passed through a calcium chloride tube which weighs
36.5011 and 36.7824, respectively, before and after the ex-
periment. Find the percentage of hydrogen in the substance.
28. The products of combustion in Problem 27 are further
passed through a tube containing caustic soda, and this weighs
40.4010 and 42.1184 grams, respectively, before and after the
experiment. Find the percentage of carbon in the substance.
29. The above substance is converted into a vapor at 273°,
and 0.100 gram is found to occupy a volume of 34.9 cc. at
760 mm. Find the molecular weight of the substance.
30. From the results calculated in Problems 27, 28, and 29
find the formula of the substance.
CHAPTER II
WATER AND SOLUTION
Water is in many respects the most important and interesting

substance on the earth's surface. By its presence in abundance
the physical and chemical conditions necessary for the existence
of life are maintained on the earth. By far the greater part
of the chemical changes, both in nature and in industry, which have
a direct bearing on human life and welfare, involve water, either as
a direct participant in the change or as a solvent for the substances
which are changing.
PREPARATION 1
POTASSIUM NITRATE, KNO 3 , FROM SODIUM NITRATE AND
POTASSIUM CHLORIDE
Solubility plays a controlling part in many chemical processes

of which the present one is a typical example.
Salts, as well as strong acids and strong bases, exist in a pe-
culiar state when they are in solution. This is known as the state
of ionization and is more fully dealt with in Chapter I I I ; but for
our present purposes it is sufficient to know that salts consist of
electrically charged radicals, the metallic radicals being positive
and the non-metallic radicals negative. These radicals are held
together in the compound by electrostatic attraction, which is
enormous. When the salt is in solution, the electrostatic at-
traction still exists and prevents the negative radicals from getting
away from the positive radicals, but there is a certain freedom
of movement which allows radicals to exchange places easily,
subject only to the condition that every negative radical must be
electrically balanced at all times by some positive radical.
When sodium nitrate and potassium chloride are dissolved,
the solution contains four ions, Na+, NO3", K+, C P , and from
these ions not only could the two original salts be reconstructed,
but also two new salts, potassium nitrate and sodium chloride,
through a regrouping of the radicals. Which of the four salts will
crystallize from a solution containing the four ions depends solely
52
POTASSIUM NITRATE 53
on their solubilities, which may vary much or little with the

temperature. The following table gives the solubility at different
GRAMS OF SALT SOLUBLE IN 100 GRAMS OF WATER
At 10° At 100°
KNO 3 21 246
NaCl 36 40
KC1 31 56
NaNO 3 81 180
KNO,
50° 100"
Temperature
VABIATION OP SOLUBILITY WITH TEMPERATURE
temperatures for each salt. Thus, at 10°, 21 grams of K N 0 3 are

soluble in 100 grams of water. This means that, if an excess of
solid potassium nitrate is shaken with pure water until no more
will dissolve, the clear solution will then contain 21 grams of
K N 0 3 for every 100 grams of water. On the other hand, if a
solution of 42 grams of K N 0 3 in 100 grams of water obtained at a
54 WATER AND SOLUTION
higher temperature is cooled to 10° and stirred until an equilibrium

is attained, all but 21 grams of the salt crystallizes out, and the
solution has exactly the same concentration as that obtained in the
other way.
A very important fact concerning solubilities is that the solu-
bility of a given salt is practically unaffected by the presence of
another salt in the solution, provided only that the other salt does
not possess one of the same ions as the first salt.
For example, suppose that sodium nitrate and potassium chloride
in equivalent amounts are added to 100 grams of water at 10°, so
that the total weight of K+ and NO 3 ~ radicals will be 42 grams;
the potassium nitrate in excess of its solubility will then crystallize
out, and 21 grams of the crystals will thus be obtained. The
presence of the radicals of sodium chloride in the solution is with-
out effect on the potassium nitrate.
In the following procedure 2 formula weights (F.W.) of N a N 0 3
(170 grams) and 2 F.W. of KCl (149 grams) are together treated
with 210 grams of water at the boiling temperature. The 170
grams of N a N 0 3 will dissolve in the water since this amount will
not nearly saturate 210 grams of water, but from the table it is
seen that it will take only 118 grams of KCl to saturate this amount
of water. If this were the only consideration we should expect
118 grams to dissolve and 31 grams of KCl to remain undissolved.
But we must consider the presence of the Na+ ions also in conjunc-
tion with the Cl ~~ ions, and since only 84 grams of NaCl are soluble
in 210 cc. of water and in all 2 F.W. or 117 grams of NaCl are
available we may conclude that 33 grams will crystallize out.
This removes C P from the solution and upsets the equilibrium
which would otherwise exist between the solid and dissolved KCl.
Thus the entire KCl will dissolve and furnish the entire 2 F.W. of
Cl" ions for the 2 F.W. of NaCl. The K+ and NO 3 ~ ions thus
made available constitute 2 F.W. or 202 grams of KN0 3 , which
according to the table would be completely soluble in 210 cc. of
water at 100°. Hot filtration at this point will retain a part of
the NaCl as solid in the filter but allow the whole of the 2 F.W. of
K N 0 3 to pass into the filtrate. Cooling of the filtrate will allow
a new state of equilibrium to be established corresponding to the
solubilities at the lower temperature.
In preparing a preliminary report for this preparation, copy
thoughtfully into the laboratory note book the flow sheet of the
procedure and answer the following questions based on the flow

sheet. For the purposes of the calculations one will have to
assume that in every nitration a perfect separation of solution from
crystals is obtained — a condition which obviously is not realized
in practice.
FLOW SHEET
Heat in a covered casserole 170 grams of NaNOa, 149 grams of KC1, and 210 cc of water Boil
the mixture 1 minute and thenfilterhot Do not rinse out the casserole but use it for the second
boiling
On Filter Filtrate (B) Cool to 10° and filter
NaCl, dirt, and On Filter Filtrate (D) Saturated with KNO3 and NaCL Pour it
some KNO3 into original casserole containing impure NaCl (A) Boil
Transfer to cas Crystals of 5 minutes Filter hot
serole in which KNO3 impure
first boiling Press and wash
was made with 20 cc ice- On Filter Filtrate Cool to 10° and filter
cold water NaCl dirt and a
little KNOs
On Filter Filtrate Saturated
KNOs impure with KNO3 and
Press and wash NaCl Savetem
with ice - cold poranly in flask
Save tempora- water labelled "mother
rily liquors "
U) (C) (E) (F) «?)
Y
RECBYSTALLIZATION
Unite the two lots of moist impure KNO3, add half their weight of distilled water, and heat
until solution is complete Cool to 10° andfilter,pressing out as much as possible of the liquid
Stop suction Pour 15 cc ice cold distilled water over the crystals and let it permeate the mass
Apply suction and pressure Test for chloride If any is found repeat the washing process until
the product is free from chloride Add allfiltratesto the mother liquors, G
1. What weight of K N 0 3 will be dissolved in the hot nitrate
2. What weight of NaCl will be dissolved in the hot nitrate
3. What weight of solid K N 0 3 will separate when the nitrate

(B) is cooled to 10° (C)?
4. What weight of solid NaCl will be obtained together with
the K N 0 3 in (C)?
5. Assume that boiling the nitrate (D) after adding (A) re-
duces the amount of water to 150 grams; how many grams of
NaCl will be left on filter (E) after filtering at 100°?
6. How many grams of KNO 3 will be obtained in (F) after

cooling the filtrate from (E) to 10° and filtering?
7. How many grams of NaCl will be obtained in (F)1
8. If (C) and (F) are now united and water added to make a
total of 100 grams of water, the whole heated to 100° and then
cooled to 10°, how many grams of K N 0 3 will separate on cooling
to 10°?
9. How many grams of NaCl will separate from the solution in
Question 8 in cooling to 10°?
Materials: crude Chile saltpeter, NaN0 3 , 170 grams = 2 F.W.
crude potassium chloride, KC1,149 grams = 2 F.W.
Reagent: AgNO 3 solution.
Apparatus: 750-cc. casserole.
5-inch watch glass.
5-inch funnel,
perforated filter plate,
suction flask and trap bottle.
250° thermometer,
Bunsen burner.
Procedure: Place the N a N 0 3 and KC1 in a 750-cc. casserole.

Add 210 cc. of water, cover with a watch glass, and place over a low
flame. While keeping watch of the casserole to see that its contents
do not boil, prepare a suction filter according to Note 4 (b) on
page 6. Then raise the flame under the casserole and watch it until
boiling commences. Lower the flame, and let the mixture boil
gently just 1 minute, keeping the watch.glass over the casserole
to retard evaporation. While it is at the boiling temperature pour
(see Fig. 1, page 5) the mixture from the casserole into the suction
filter. Quickly scrape most of the damp salt into the filter, and
cover the funnel with a watch glass to retard cooling. Do not
rinse out the casserole but reserve it with the adhering salt and to
it add the batch of crystals (A) as soon as they have been
drained from the hot liquor. Pour the filtrate (B) into a beaker,
and cool it to 10° by setting it in a pan of cold water or ice
water.
Stir the crystallizing solution so as to obtain a uniform crystal
meal which is easier to handle and drain on the filter than the
larger crystals that would be obtained by slow cooling. Separate

the KNO3 crystals (C) from the cold liquor by means of the suction
filter (observing the last sentence of Note 3, page 5). Press the
mass of crystals in the filter to squeeze out as much of the solution
as possible. The thin layer of solution left adhering to the surfaces
of the crystals is saturated with NaCl. To remove the greater
part of this, stop the suction, pour carefully over the surface of the
crystals 20 cc. of ice-cold distilled water, let this water penetrate
into the mass of crystals for perhaps 30 seconds, then apply suction
and drain these washings into the rest of the nitrate. Pour the
nitrate (D) into the casserole in which the batch of NaCl crystals
(A) is reserved. Bring this mixture to the boiling point and boil
gently 5 minutes with the casserole uncovered, thus allowing a
part of the water to escape by evaporation. Then filter at the
boiling temperature exactly as in the first instance. Cool the
nitrate, and collect and rinse a second crop of K N 0 3 crystals
(F) in exactly the same manner as the first crop (C). Reserve the
nitrate in a flask labeled " mother liquors " (G). Add together the
two crops of KNO3 crystals (C and F), and test them for chloride
by dissolving about 0.1 gram in 2 cc. of water and adding 5 drops of
dilute HNO3 acid and 1 drop of AgNO 3 solution. A considerable
white precipitate will be seen, indicating the presence of chloride,
and the crystals must be purified by recrystallization. Weigh
the crystals while they are still moist, add to them in a beaker one-
half this weight of distilled water, and warm until solution is
complete.*
Cool the solution to 10° with stirring, and pour the mixture
on to the suction filter. Some of the nitrate, which is saturated
with KNO3, may be poured back into the beaker to rinse the last
of the crystals on to the filter. Drain the crystals with suction,
pressing them down compactly in order to squeeze out as much of
the solution as possible. Stop the suction. Pour carefully over
the crystals 15 cc. of ice-cold distilled water. Let it permeate the
whole mass, then again apply suction and drain and collect all the
* If the solution is not perfectly clear at this point it must be filtered.
Dilute it with 50 cc. of water so that it will not " freeze " on the filter. Pour
it at the boiling temperature without suction through a filter, and then pour
20 cc. of boiling water around the upper edge of the filter, letting it run through
into the filtrate to carry the last of the KNO3. The solution will have to be
evaporated to bring it back to its original volume.
filtrate and washings in the flask of " mother liquors " (G). Again
test for presence of chloride. A trace will probably be shown.
Continue the washing process, using 15-cc. portions of ice water
each time until no test is shown for chloride. Transfer the crystals
to white paper towels. Fold the towels over the crystals to make
a compact package, and leave the package over night to dry at
room temperature. Transfer the dry crystal meal to a dry 4-ounce
bottle and label the preparation neatly.
If a sufficient quantity of pure product is not obtained, all the
mother liquor should be boiled down in the 750-cc. casserole and
used as a starting point in repeating the foregoing procedure.
Fifty grams may be regarded as a satisfactory yield.
The sequence of operations in this preparation can be readily
followed on the flow sheet, page 55.
QUESTIONS
1. In the recrystallization of the potassium nitrate why is it
preferable first to dissolve completely the batch of crystals in water
by heating and then cool to obtain the crystals again, instead of
merely washing the crystals with the same amount of cold water?
2. Define metathesis.
3. If we had barium nitrate and potassium sulphate from which
to prepare potassium nitrate, make a list of the solubilities of the
four salts concerned and arrange a flow sheet of a method by which
pure potassium nitrate could be obtained. Which of the opera-
tions would offer the most difficulty?
PREPARATION 2
PREPARATION OF A HYDRATE
CRYSTALLIZED SODIUM CARBONATE, Na2CO3-10H2O, FROM
ANHYDROUS SODIUM CARBONATE
Many substances, as acids, bases, salts, and even elements,
when they separate from solution, or crystallize, carry water with
them. Familiar examples are (H3AsO4)2-H2O, Ba(OH) 2 -8H 2 O,
CuSO4-5H2O, and C12-8H2O. Such substances, when dried, show
no evidence of fluidity, that is, of the property one must natu-
rally think of as belonging to water, even sometimes when more
than hah" the weight of the substance is water. Such substances
are called hydrates, and the same substance without the water is
known as the anhydrous substance. Substances containing water
CRYSTALLIZED SODIUM CARBONATE 59
of this nature are crystalline, and the water is also known as

water of crystallization. This fact should not lead one to think
that water is necessary for the formation of a crystal, because
many crystals do form that do not contain water.
Soda ash is commercial anhydrous sodium carbonate. When a
solution saturated at boiling temperature is allowed to cool to
below 33°, a transparent crystalline mass separates of the formula
Na2CO3-10H2O, known commercially as soda crystals or sal soda.
If water is evaporated
from the solution, satu-
rated at 100°, a solid of the 90°
composition Na2CO3-H2O
separates. Besides the
dekahydrate and mono- 80
hydrate there is at least .Ni2eo8.*H2
one other well-recognized
hydrate, the heptahydrate,
Na 2 CO 3 -7H 2 O. This com-
pound separates from so-
1
lution only over a narrow
range of temperature and
concentration. N2lCO3-7H
The curves in Fig. 15 •y \
show the different hydrated /
forms which are in equilib- Na2Co3-i<ra2<
rium with the saturated
solution at different tem- /
peratures. It will be seen
that the dekahydrate is the /
0
stable hydrate only below Solubility 10 20 30 40 50
(Grams Anhydrous Na2CO3 in 100 Grama Water)
33°. In the following prep-
FIG. 15
aration, if barely enough
water to form the dekahydrate were added to the anhydrous soda
ash and the mixture heated to 100°, a complete solution would not
be obtained because some monohydrate would separate. Enough
water, therefore, is taken to hold all the monohydrate in solution
at the boiling point. When this solution cools to below 33° it
may become highly supersaturated with the dekahydrate unless a
few crystal fragments of the dekahydrate are added. It occasion-
ally happens that if no seed crystals are added the heptahydrate
is the first to separate spontaneously. However, below 33° the

heptahydrate is more soluble than the dekahydrate, and, therefore,
with the seed crystals added, and equilibrium established with the
latter salt, the heptahydrate again dissolves.
Materials: anhydrous sodium carbonate, Na 2 CO 3 ; 106 grams

= 1 F.W.
Apparatus: 500-cc. flask.
5-inch funnel.
8-inch crystallizing dish.
8-inch glass plate to cover dish,
porcelain filter plate.
Bunsen burner,
Procedure: Place the sodium carbonate and 250 cc. of water in

the flask and warm it to just short of the boiling point until the
salt is dissolved. See Note 7, page 13. Filter the hot solution
into the crystallizing dish, keeping the dish covered with a glass
plate except where the stem of the funnel enters. When the solu-
tion has cooled below 33° add a few crystal fragments of the deka-
hydrate. Set the dish, completely covered, in your desk. After
6 hours or longer separate the crystals from the remaining liquid by
pouring the contents of the dish into a funnel in the bottom of
which is placed the perforated porcelain filter plate without any
paper. It may be possible to get additional crystals from the
mother liquor by cooling it still more. After the crystals have
drained dry them on paper towels. See Note 9 (6), page 15. The
crystals should not be left more than over night wrapped in the
paper towels. When they are dry place the crystals in an 8-ounce,
cork-stoppered bottle.
QUESTIONS
1. What reasons have you for believing that the water in crystal
hydrates is in chemical combination with the salt?
2. How could anhydrous sodium carbonate be prepared from
the hydrate?
3. How could the monohydrate, Na2CO3-H2O, be prepared?
AMMONIUM-COPPER SULPHATE 61
PREPARATION 3
PREPARATION OF A HYDRATED DOUBLE SALT
AMMONIUM-COPPER SULPHATE, (NH4)2SO4-CUSO4-6H2O
Besides forming molecular compounds with water (hydrates)

certain salts have the property of combining with a second salt
either with or without water. In these combinations the charac-
ter of the individual salts is somewhat modified but not completely
changed. Hence the name, " double salts". In physical prop-
erties such as crystalline form, solubility, and, in some cases, color,
the crystals of the double salt differ from those of the simple salts.
These compounds follow the law of definite proportions.
Ammonium sulphate crystallizes from solution as the anhydrous
salt, (NH4)2SO4; copper sulphate as the hydrate, CuSO4-5H2O;
but when equivalent amounts of the two salts are in solution
together the double salt, (NH4)2SO4-CuSO4-6H2O, separates first
because it is less soluble than either of the single salts.
Materials: copper sulphate, CuSO4-5H2O, 50 grams = 0.2 F.W.

ammonium sulphate, (NH4)2SO4, 27 grams = 0.2
F.W.
5-inch funnel and filter paper,
Bunsen burner.
Procedure: Pulverize the copper sulphate, and dissolve it with

the ammonium sulphate in 250 cc. of warm water, to which 10 drops
of 6 N H2SO4 have been added. The solution should not be boiled.
Filter the warm solution into an 8-inch crystallizing dish covered
with a glass plate except where the stem of the funnel enters, and
allow it to stand over night with the cover on. Remove the cover
and allow water to evaporate slowly until a satisfactory yield has
been obtained. This usually requires about 4 days. Seed crystals
are available at the store room, but crystallization usually starts as
soon as the solution cools to room temperature. If a crystal meal
is desired follow the procedure suggested in Note 8 (a), page 14.
Decant the mother liquor from the crystals, wash them with a
little distilled water, and dry them thoroughly, at room tempera-
ture, on paper towels. The double salt tends to effloresce, and the
crystals should be transferred to a stoppered bottle as soon as
they are dry.
QUESTIONS
1. Determine whether double salts can be prepared containing
sodium sulphate and copper sulphate; potassium sulphate and
copper sulphate.
(a) Dissolve 1 gram of potassium sulphate and 2 grams of
copper sulphate in 10 cc. of hot water. Pour the clear solution on
a watch glass. When crystals have formed, see if they are all of
the same kind (i.e., the double salt), or of two distinct kinds (the
two simple salts).
(6) Repeat the experiment using 1 gram of anhydrous sodium
sulphate and 2 grams of copper sulphate. Account for your results.
PREPARATION 4
POTASSIUM-COPPER SULPHATE, K 2 S O 4 - C U S O 4 - 6 H 2 O
Read the preliminary discussion which precedes the preparation

of ammonium-copper sulphate, page 61.
Materials: potassium sulphate, K2SO4, 35 grams = 0.2 F.W.
copper sulphate, CuSO4-5H2O, 50 grams = 0.2 F.W.
Apparatus: 8-inch porcelain evaporating dish.
5-inch funnel and filter paper.
8-inch crystallizing dish,
Bunsen burner.
Procedure: Prepare potassium-copper sulphate from potassium

sulphate and copper sulphate. Follow the procedure outlined in
the previous preparation. Determine the volume of water to be
used to give a saturated solution at 25°.
Solubility of the anhydrous salts in 100 grams water at 25°:
CuSO4 23 grams
K2SO4 12 cc
K2SO4-CuSO4 11 cc
HYDRATES 63
Experiments
HYDEATES
1. Water of Hydration. Heat a crystal of blue vitriol
CuSO4-5H2O rather cautiously in a dry test tube holding the
tube in a nearly horizontal position. Observe that the
crystal gradually loses its blue color and becomes white and
powdery, also that drops of water condense on the cooler
part of the tube. Let the tube cool to room temperature and
add a few drops of water to the white copper sulphate.
Observe that the material regains at once its original blue
color and that it grows so hot that the hand cannot be held
on that end of the tube.
Water combined as water of hydration in crystals is in a true

state of chemical combination, for the hydrated crystal shows
the following characteristics of a chemical compound.
First: Its crystalline form is different from that of the anhy-
drous compound. In some cases (as in this instance) there is a
difference in color.
Second: It follows the law of definite proportions, for example,
every sample of blue vitriol which has been crystallized from water
at room temperature has exactly the composition expressed by the
formula CuSO4-5H2O. (The next experiment is a quantitative
one designed to prove that a crystal hydrate has a definite com-
position.)
Third: There is a marked heat effect produced by the combina-
tion of the anhydrous salt and water.
2. Composition of a Crystal Hydrate. The mineral gyp-

sum contains, besides calcium sulphate, also a certain pro-
portion of water. The latter may be completely driven off
by heat, leaving anhydrous calcium sulphate.
Weigh accurately a clean, dry, 15-cc. porcelain crucible.
Place approximately 2 grams of gypsum in it and weigh again.
Cover the crucible, support it on a nichrome triangle, and
heat (to avoid breaking the cover warm this first uniformly by
playing the flame over it carefully from above) to redness
for 20 minutes in the Bunsen flame. Rest the triangle and
crucible on top of a good-sized beaker and allow to cool.

Again weigh the crucible and contents. Repeat the heat-
ing, and if a further loss of weight occurs repeat until two
successive weighings are the same. This is to ensure that all
the water is driven off. The cover is used for a double pur-
pose: to prevent fragments of the crystals snapping out of
the crucible from sudden expansion of the steam, and to
keep the heat in.
Calculate the percentage by weight of water in gypsum.
From this result calculate the number of molecules of water
of crystallization in gypsum, assuming the formula to be
CaSO4-nH2O (atomic weights on front cover page).
If the experimental work is carefully done it will be found that

n is an even whole number. Thus the substances calcium sulphate
and water combine chemically in amounts proportional to simple
integral multiples of their molecular weights just as elements com-
bine in amounts proportional to simple integral multiples of their
atomic weights. Although the crystal hydrate is just as truly a
chemical compound as is calcium sulphate or water, nevertheless
the force holding the substances together in this compound is
secondary to that holding the elements together in the simpler
compounds.
3. Efflorescence. Place on a watch glass some crystals of

sodium carbonate Iâ2CO3-10H2O, zinc sulphate ZnSO4-7H2O,
or disodium phosphate Na 2 HPO 4 -12H 2 O, and leave them
exposed to the air for some time.
Observe that the surface of the crystals soon becomes white
and powdery and finally the whole crystal changes to a white
powder.
This change which is known as efflorescence is caused by loss of

water of hydration from the crystal, leaving either the anhydrous
salt or a less hydrated salt (of definite composition, however).
Every crystal hydrate has a definite vapor pressure at a given
temperature. If this vapor pressure is greater than the partial
pressure of the water vapor in the air the crystal hydrate will lose
water to the air. This will continue until all the water is lost
or equilibrium between the water vapor in the air and in the
hydrate is reached.
ELEMENTS AND WATER 65
Vapor pressure in milli-

meters of mercury at 20°
Na2SO4-10H2O 13.25
Na2HPO4-12H2O 13.1
Na2CO3-10H2O 12.6
ZnSO4-7H2O 10.07
SrCl2-6H2O 5.8
CuSO4-5H2O 4.8
BaCl2-2H2O 4.04
The partial pressure of the water vapor in the air varies from
day to day, but the average is about 8-10 mm. Hydrates like
Na2CO3-10H2O will lose water on exposure to such air, while salts
like BaCl2-2 H2O will not lose water unless the water vapor in the
air is unusually low.
Heating blue vitriol increases its aqueous tension, and thus
the dehydration by heating is in fact an artificially induced efflor-
escence.
4. Deliquescence. Place on a watch glass small lumps of
any of the following compounds: calcium chloride, zinc
chloride, potassium hydroxide, sodium hydroxide, ferric
chloride. Note that in a few minutes the surface becomes
covered with moisture, and that after a longer time the solids
have completely changed to liquid. This liquefaction is due
to condensation of the water vapor of the air at the surface
of the solid and the dissolving of the solid material. All
deliquescent substances are very soluble in water. The ten-
sion of the vapor escaping from water is always lessened by
substances dissolved in it, and when this tension is lowered
to below that of the water vapor existing in the atmosphere,
water is absorbed by the solution from the air. In general,
substances will deliquesce when the aqueous tension of their
saturated solutions is less than the tension of water vapor in
the air.
ELEMENTS AND WATER
When substances like salts and water form compounds the

force of attraction is of a subordinate character, and the formula
of a hydrate is usually written with a period between the formula
of the salt and that of the water, for example, CuSO4-5H2O.
This indicates that the " primary " valence of the element is satisfied
in the simple compounds, and that it is only some sort of "secon-

d a r y " valence which holds the substances in combination.
When elements react with water, however, a change in the
primary valence is usually involved.
A rather unusual instance of a hydrate of an element is chlorine
hydrate, C12-8H2O, which crystallizes from ice-cold water which
is saturated with chlorine. This substance is clearly a molecular
compound, for if these crystals are placed in a watch glass and
allowed to come to room temperature, chlorine gas escapes and
water containing only the amount of chlorine corresponding to
an ordinary saturated solution is left.
5. Sodium and Water. Danger. Pour about 50 cc. of
water into a 4-inch, porcelain dish. Select a piece of metallic
sodium half the size of a pea and press it in a folded filter
paper to remove the adhering kerosene. Drop the metal on
the surface of the water. Stand at least 3 feet from the dish.
Note that the sodium floats; that it almost immediately melts
to a globule with a bright metallic surface; that a gas is given
off freely under the impulse of which the globule races about
over the surface of the water; that finally the globule entirely
disappears, and then that the remaining solution is strongly
alkaline, turning litmus blue and making the fingers slippery
when wet with it. Often, after the sodium has melted and
become hot, there is a violent explosion which throws the
caustic solution and the burning metal about, hence the
danger.
The gas evolved is hydrogen; the alkaline character of the

solution is due to sodium hydroxide which is left dissolved in the
water
2Na + 2 H 0 H -» 2NaOH + H 2
Sodium is a much more active element than hydrogen and has dis-
placed an equivalent amount of it from water. Sodium hy-
droxide then may be regarded as water in which sodium has taken
the place of one-half of the hydrogen. A gram atom of sodium
can replace a gram atom of hydrogen; in other words, the valence
of sodium is 1.
6. Calcium and Water. Drop a few pieces of metallic
calcium (in the form of turnings) into a test tube of clear
water. Note that a gas is evolved; collect a little of it, and

note that it burns like hydrogen. Note that the water re-
mains clear for a little time but that soon it becomes cloudy
owing to the separation of a finely divided white soh'd sub-
stance. The solution colors litmus blue but produces hardly
a noticeable slippery feeling between the fingers.
This experiment is similar to the preceding one. Calcium dis-

places hydrogen from water
Ca + 2 H 0 H -» Ca(OH) 2 + H 2
but the reaction is less violent; calcium is thus shown to be a less

active metal than sodium. Furthermore, the product obtained
by substituting calcium for hydrogen in water, calcium hydroxide,
is sparingly soluble and appears as a solid substance as soon as
more than enough of it has been formed to saturate the solution.
The formula Ca(OH) 2 shows that one gram atomic weight of
calcium can take the place of two gram atomic weights of hydro-
gen; therefore, the valence of calcium is 2.
It is only the most active metals that displace hydrogen freely
from cold water; nevertheless, many of the metals do react with
water but for one reason or another the reaction does not progress
far. We just saw that calcium hydroxide was only sparingly
soluble. The hydroxides of magnesium, zinc, aluminum, lead,
iron are even less soluble. Thus, although a freshly cleaned piece
of metal may react with water, the hydroxide which is produced
adheres to the surface as a coating which separates the metal and
the water. This is the main reason why most of the fairly active
metals seem to be without action on water.
The following few experiments illustrate the action of such
metals with water. In every case it is a question of removing or
breaking through the film of insoluble material coating the surface.
7. Magnesium and Water, (a) Note the appearance of

the surface of some magnesium ribbon. Scrape the surface
with a knife and note the bright metallic luster. Note also
that this luster quickly grows dim. Put the magnesium into
a test tube half filled with water and note that no reaction
takes place. Heat the water to boiling and note that hydro-
gen is not evolved.
(b) To try the effect of dry steam on hot magnesium,

clamp a piece of Pyrex glass tubing 1 cm. in diameter and
18 inches long in position at an angle of about 5° with the
horizontal. Connect the lower end of the tube with a flask
in such a manner that steam generated from the water in the
flask may be conducted through the tube. Connect the
upper end of the tube with a delivery tube, arranged so that the
gases produced in the reaction may be collected over water
in a trough. Place some pieces of magnesium ribbon in the
middle of the tube. Pass steam through the tube and heat it
cautiously at the lower end until the condensed water is
evaporated and the steam is "dry." Get the whole length
of the tube well warmed with the burner, so that it appears
perfectly dry inside, and then heat the section containing the
magnesium as strongly as possible. It is rather difficult to
get the magnesium to catch fire, and it may be necessary to
stop the water boiling in the flask for a moment, because the
steam cools the magnesium below its kindling temperature.
As soon as the magnesium catches fire pass steam rapidly
through the tube. Slip a test tube full of water over the end
of the delivery tube. Notice that the magnesium appears to
burn in the dry steam with much the same brilliancy as in air;
that a white smoke and ash (magnesium oxide) is produced
as in air. The blackening of the parts of the glass that were in
contact with the melted magnesium or its vapor may be dis-
regarded as far as the purpose of this experiment goes; it is
due to a reduction of the silicon dioxide of the glass to silicon.
The gas collected in the test tube is found to burn with a color-
less flame and is thus shown to be hydrogen.
(c) Magnesium amalgam is an alloy (much like a solution)
of mercury and magnesium. It is made by rubbing powdered
magnesium and mercury together in a mortar. Considerable
rubbing is necessary, because the oxide film on the surface of
the metal has to be rubbed off before the mercury can begin
to dissolve the metal. When the amalgamation once begins,
a good deal of heat is produced and the process is soon finished.
A semi liquid or a stiff amalgam is obtained, according to the
proportions used.
Drop a small lump of magnesium amalgam into a test
tube of cold water. A violent reaction takes place. A gas
is evolved freely which burns with a colorless flame character-

istic of hydrogen. The contents of this tube grow very hot,
and the amalgam disintegrates to yield a finely divided gray
powder which stays suspended in the water.
In experiment (b) the action was extremely slow until the

magnesium reached its melting point. From then on no coherent
film would stick to the liquid surface, and without this mechanical
hindrance to the reacting substances coming in contact with each
other, the natural activity of the magnesium came into play.
In experiment (c) the amalgam is liquid or at least semi liquid
so that no coherent film of magnesium hydroxide can adhere to the
surface.
That magnesium must be a much more active element than hy-
drogen is shown by the vigor with which it displaces it; in ex-
periment (6), for example, the fact that the oxygen with which the
magnesium was combining had to be withdrawn from its com-
bination with hydrogen did not appear to diminish the vigor of the
reaction sensibly, for the incandescence seemed as bright as if the
magnesium ribbon had been burning in oxygen.
8. Iron and Water. Iron filings do not produce any

measurable quantity of hydrogen either in cold or hot water.
Set up the apparatus described in Experiment 7 (b). Put a
layer of fine iron filings in the middle of the combustion tube
in place of the magnesium. Heat cautiously to vaporize the
liquid water condensed in the tube, and then heat the iron
filings strongly. As the steam from the delivery tube con-
denses in the water in the trough it is seen that an occasional
bubble of gas rises in the test tube. After a short time enough
has collected to test and it is found to bum like hydrogen.
Apparently in this case the coating of oxide on the surface

of the iron is not entirely impervious to gases. At the high tem-
perature the steam diffuses more rapidly through the layer and
thus the production of hydrogen becomes measurably rapid.
9. Removal of Protective Coating by Chemical Action.

Note that aluminum metal resembles magnesium in that it
displays a brilliant metallic luster when its surface has just
been scraped but it quickly loses the brightness of its luster.
Drop some aluminum turnings into some sodium hydroxide

solution. Note that gas is immediately given off and that the
aluminum in time dissolves completely. The gas is found to
burn like hydrogen.
Insoluble aluminum hydroxide is known to react readily with

sodium hydroxide producing the soluble sodium aluminate
A1(OH)3 + 3NaOH -> Na 3 A10 3 + 3H2O
With the aluminum hydroxide coating thus continually removed

by the sodium hydroxide there is nothing to prevent the progress of
the primary reaction between aluminum and water.
2A1 + 6H2O - » 2A1(OH)3 + 3H 2
10. Chlorine and Water. The " chlorine water" in the re-
agent bottle is prepared by dissolving chlorine gas in water.
Take a few cubic centimeters of this solution and (to make
sure that it has been acted upon by light) expose it a few min-
utes to direct sunlight or for a longer time to strong diffused
daylight. Boil the solution under the hood to drive off any
chlorine which is left, and then test the liquid with litmus.
The litmus is turned red. Fill a test tube with chlorine water
and invert it in a small beaker containing chlorine water.
Leave the whole in the bright sunlight for several hours. A
few cubic centimeters of a colorless gas collect in the top of the
inverted test tube, and the yellow color of the chlorine water
gradually fades out. The gas causes a glowing splinter to
burst into flame, which identifies it as oxygen.
Metals more active than hydrogen displaced that element from

water. Non-metals, on the other hand, if active enough, would
displace the oxygen. It is obvious that this is what has happened
and that the acid remaining in solution is hydrochloric acid, HC1.
The total effect of the change is given by the equation
2C12 + 2H 2 O -> 4HC1 + O2
That chlorine is not greatly more active than oxygen is shown by

the fact that this reaction does not take place in the dark, and only
slowly under the action of sunlight.
OXIDES AND WATER 71
OXIDES AND WATER
Nearly all the elements are capable of combining with oxygen

to form oxides. All the oxides have a greater or less tendency
to combine with water or with other oxides. In general the oxides
of metals combine with water to form bases, and the oxides of non-
metals combine with water to form acids.
11. Sodium Oxide and Water. Support a porcelain cru-
cible cover on a triangle and heat it to redness; while it is
thus hot, place upon it, by means of iron pincers, a piece of
sodium the size of a small pea. Remove the burner and let
the sodium burn. When cold dissolve the white oxide in a few
cubic centimeters of water and test the solution with litmus.
Notice some effervescence when the oxide is dissolving. Note
that the solution turns litmus blue and feels very slippery
when rubbed between the fingers.
When sodium burns in an abundance of air an oxide of the
formula Na 2 O 2 and called sodium peroxide is formed. When
sodium peroxide is treated with water it reacts according to the
equation
2Na 2 O 2 + 2H2O -> 4NaOH + O2
thus losing one-half of its oxygen and yielding soluble sodium
hydroxide. If the peroxide is heated with sodium out of contact
with the air sodium oxide, Na20, is formed. This compound
has half as much oxygen to a given weight of sodium as the per-
oxide. Sodium oxide reacts with water to form sodium hydroxide
without the liberation of oxygen.
Na 2 O + H 2 0 -> 2NaOH
Sodium hydroxide, NaOH, is very soluble in water; it is one of the
strongest bases.
12. Calcium Oxide and Water. The well-known sub-
stance " quicklime " is calcium oxide. Calcium oxide could be
made by burning bits of calcium, but the oxide quickly coats
over the surface of the metal, and it is difficult to make the
interior portions of the lump react. For this experiment
take a lump of quicklime out of a recently opened container.
Cover it with water in a porcelain dish and then pour off the
excess of water that did not soak into the porous lump. Note
that the lump soon grows very hot, giving off clouds of steam,
and swells up and tumbles apart to form a fluffy white powder.
Stir a little of this powder with water. It makes a milky
suspension. If some of this suspension is placed in a test tube
the white solid settles and a clear liquid remains above. This
liquid colors litmus blue.
It is obvious from the large amount of heat developed that
the affinity between calcium oxide and hydrogen oxide is very
great.
CaO + H 2 O - > C a ( O H ) 2
The same substance, calcium hydroxide, is formed here as in the

action of calcium metal on water, only in this case no hydrogen is
displaced. Calcium hydroxide is not very soluble in water, and
mainly on that account it is not as strong a base as sodium hydrox-
ide. The saturated solution is called "lime water."
13. Magnesium Oxide and Water. Burn a piece of mag-
nesium ribbon held in pincers so that the ash falls into a
clean dish. Stir half of the ash into a small beaker full of
water and test the solution with litmus. Wet the other half
of the ash with a single drop of water and place the moistened
mass on one side of a strip of red litmus paper. Look on the
other side of the paper and note that in a little while the center
of the wet spot turns blue.
MgO + H2O -» Mg(OH) 2
Magnesium oxide does not combine as energetically with water
as calcium oxide, and the magnesium hydroxide formed is very
much more insoluble than calcium hydroxide. Thus the satu-
rated solution of the hydroxide is barely alkaline enough to color
litmus blue.
The hydroxides of aluminum and of the heavy metals are much
more insoluble even than magnesium hydroxide, and for the most
part their suspensions do not affect litmus. The hydroxides of the
metals are, however, considered basic although very weakly so.
14. Non-Metal Oxides and Water. Burn small pieces
of (a) phosphorus (use red phosphorus), (6) sulphur, and
(c) carbon (charcoal) successively in large, clean bottles of
air. The phosphorus and sulphur may be introduced in a
OXIDES AND WATER 73
deflagrating spoon made by winding a piece of wire around a

piece of chalk one end of which has been scooped out. A
large piece of charcoal should be attached to a wire and held
in the flame until it glows brightly before it is put in the jar.
Quickly add 3 to 5 cc. of water to each bottle, close it with a
glass plate (or the palm of the hand), and shake vigorously a
few moments. Test the solutions with litmus. In each case
the litmus turns red.
This experiment shows that non-metals form oxides which react

with water to produce acids.
4P + 5O2 -> 2P2O5 P 2 O 5 -f 3H 2 O - * 2H3PO4
- 0 2 - ^• s o 2 S O 2 4 - H2O ^± H 2 SO 3
c - h O 2 - >co2 c o 2 - h H2O ^ H 2 CO 3
The oxides of phosphorus and sulphur are quite readily soluble

but carbon dioxide is very much less soluble.
WATER CONTAINS TWO SEPARATELY REPLACEABLE PORTIONS

OF HYDROGEN
When sodium or calcium reacts with water hydrogen is liberated

and sodium or calcium hydroxide is formed. The formula
NaOH or Ca(OH) 2 shows that the compound still contains one-half
of the hydrogen of the original water, but let us imagine for a
moment that we are in the place of the early chemists who were
rinding out things for the first time. They carefully dried these
hydroxides and then tried experiments to see if any more hydrogen
was obtained from the hydroxides. When they found that they
could obtain an amount of hydrogen just equal to that displaced
from the water by the metal when the hydroxide was prepared,
they drew the conclusion that water contained two parts of hydro-
gen in combination with one part of oxygen. This experiment was
one of the strong arguments which led to the adoption of the
formula H2O for water rather than HO.
15. Mix 2 grams of dry powdered sodium hydroxide and

3 grams of zinc dust in a mortar. Place the mixture in
a hard glass test tube fitted with a delivery tube. Heat the
mixture in the tube; collect a little of the evolved gas and
show by a test that it is hydrogen.
Water as a Solvent: Concentration of Solutions

The importance of water depends in very large measure on its
ability to dissolve other substances. Oftentimes substances
which, in the dry state, will not react, do react when they are dis-
solved and their solutions mixed. If a reaction is to be brought
about between two substances in solution it is a matter of impor-
tance to know how much of each solution to take, and to do this
it is necessary to know the concentration of the solutions.
Concentration is the ratio of the amount of dissolved sub-
stance either to the volume of the solution or to the weight of the
solvent. In the problems in this chapter, and generally in analy-
tical and synthetic chemistry, the concentration is based on the
volume of the solution, usually 1 liter. In Chapter III, on the
other hand, concentrations are based on weight of solvent, usually
1,000 grams. The amount of dissolved substance may be expressed
in weight — grams — but it is usual in chemical work to express it
in moles, formula weights, or equivalent weights.
Mole. A mole is one gram molecular weight of a substance,
e.g. 36.5 grams of HC1.
Molal Solution. A molal solution contains one mole of dis-
solved substance in 1 liter of solution, e.g., 40 grams of NaOH or
98 grams of H2SO4. One liter of the solution contains less than
1,000 grams of water, but the weight of the whole solution is
usually more than 1,000 grams.
Formula Weight. A formula weight of a substance means
exactly the same as a mole if the formula is the molecular formula.
Sometimes, however, the molecular weight of a substance is not
known although its composition is known and an empirical formula
is given. In such a case the meaning of the term mole is not cer-
tain, but the meaning of formula weight is perfectly definite: it is
the number of grams obtained by adding up the total of the atomic
weights in the formula as it is written.
Formal Solution. A formal solution contains one formula
weight of the dissolved substance in 1 liter of solution.
Equivalent Weight. The gram equivalent weight of a sub-
stance is that amount which is equivalent in a reaction to 1.008
grams of hydrogen. The gram equivalent weight of an acid is
found by dividing the molecular weight by the number of hydro-
gens available for a reaction such as neutralization. The gram
36 5 98
equivalent weight of HC1 is -rr- grams, and of H2SO4 -^- grams.
STANDARDIZATION OF SOLUTIONS 75
The gram equivalent weight of a base is the weight in grams re-

quired to neutralize one gram atomic weight of hydrogen in an
acid. In the reaction HC1 + NaOH —» H2O + NaCl one mole
of NaOH exactly neutralizes one mole of HC1. Therefore, 40
grams of NaOH are equivalent to 36.5 grams of HC1. If calcium
hydroxide is used, the equation Ca(0H) 2 + 2HC1 -> 2H2O +
74
CaCl2 shows that the gram equivalent weight is -~-> or 37
grams.
The gram equivalent weight of salts is obtained in the same way.
In the two neutralization reactions mentioned above, one mole of
NaCl and one-half mole of CaCU are each equivalent to one mole
of HC1. The equivalent weights are * grams of NaCl and - „ -
I Zi
grams of CaCl 2 .
Normal Solution. A normal solution contains one equivalent
weight of the dissolved substance in 1 liter of solution. In a liter
of normal hydrochloric acid (written IN HC1) there are -—^
grams of hydrogen chloride and enough water to make 1 liter of
solution. A liter of 6iV HC1 contains 6 times as much acid,
z—— grams of hydrogen chloride in a liter of solution. Since
it is not convenient to measure or weigh hydrogen chloride gas in
making solutions, a concentrated solution of known composition
is diluted to the desired normality. The concentrated acid of
commerce is approximately 12 N, and, to make a 1 N solution from
it, ' cc. are diluted to 1 liter. A liter of normal sulphuric acid
98
contains -=- grams of the pure acid. In practice, concentrated
sulphuric acid, which is approximately 36 N, is diluted to give the
desired normality. A normal solution of sodium hydroxide con-
tains 40 grams of base in a liter of solution; one of B a ( 0 H ) 2 con-
171 4
tains —~- grams of base in 1 liter of solution.
From this discussion it is obvious that 1 liter or' 1 N acid will
neutralize exactly 1 liter of liV base. It follows that a given
volume of a liV solution of any acid will exactly neutralize an
equal volume of a 1 N solution of any base.
Experiment 6
STANDARDIZATION OF SOLUTIONS
If we have a solution of an acid of known normality we can
determine the concentration of an unknown basic solution by
finding what volumes of the two solutions are required to produce
neutrality. For example, it is found that 60 cc. of a 0.5N hydro-
chloric acid solution are required to neutralize 25 cc. of a sodium
hydroxide solution of unknown concentration. The normality
of the base is 1.2, or the solution contains 48 grams of solid NaOH
per liter. In general
NA : NB = VB : VA
VA = volume of acid and NA = normality of acid.
VB = volume of base and NB = normality of base.
Instead of a hydroxide a carbonate may be used to neutralize an
acid
Na 2 CO 3 + 2HC1 -» 2NaCl + H2O + CO 2
A liV solution of sodium carbonate (molecular weight = 106)
106
contains -~- grams of solid in a liter of solution. Since sodium
carbonate can be obtained in a high state of purity and can be
accurately weighed it is frequently used to determine the exact
concentration of an acid solution. Any solution, the concentration
of which has been accurately determined, is known as a " standard
solution."
In this experiment hydrochloric acid will be standardized against
a known weight of pure sodium carbonate. A solution of methyl
orange will be used as an indicator to tell when the solution is
neutral. This indicator is pink in acid solution and yellow in
alkaline solution (see page 135).
The process of comparing the concentration of solutions is
known as titration. The apparatus used is a burette, a glass tube
accurately graduated in cubic centimeters.
Apparatus: two 50-cc. burettes.
2 burette clamps.
500-cc. graduated cylinder,
bottle with glass stopper,
bottle with rubber stopper.
300-cc. Erlenmeyer flask,
large vial.
Materials: 12 N hydrochloric acid.
sodium hydroxide, pellet form.
sodium carbonate, anhydrous.
solution of methyl orange.
Procedure: (a) Prepare an approximately 0.5N HC1 solution
by diluting 21 cc. of 12 N HC1 with 479 cc. of distilled water.
After thoroughly mixing, store it in the glass-stoppered bottle.
. (6) Prepare an approximately 0.5N NaOH solution by weighing
out 10.5 grams of the solid fused NaOH (0.25 F.W., allowing
5 per cent for impurities). After thoroughly mixing with 500 cc.
of distilled water, store it in the rubber-stoppered bottle.
(c) Pour about 10 cc. of the hydrochloric acid solution into one
of the burettes. Rinse it back and forth, and let the acid drain
out of the tip. Repeat the rinsing with two more 10-cc. portions
of acid. Fill the burette with the acid solution and clamp it to a
ring stand. In the same manner rinse and fill the other burette
with the sodium hydroxide solution. Clamp this
burette to the same ring stand. Make sure that
there are no bubbles of air in the tip of the burettes.
If any are found, they must be removed. This
can be done by opening the stop cock and allowing
the solution to run out rapidly. Drain enough of
the solution from the burette to bring the menis-
cus on the graduated scale. Allow the solution
to stand a minute until the film of liquid on the
wall of the tube has time to drain. Read the
position of the lower Gurve of the meniscus. This
should be done by putting a strip of white paper
around the burette with the upper straight edge
two small divisions below the bottom of the menis-
cus and bringing the eye to a position exactly hori-
zontal with upper edge of the paper (Fig. 16). FIG. 16
Record this reading as the initial volume. Do not try to set the
meniscus on any particular line, but read it exactly wherever it
comes to rest. Run approximately 40 cc. of the HC1 into the
300-cc. Erlenmeyer flask; add 100 cc. of water and 2 drops of
methyl orange. Then run in NaOH until the color changes from
pink to yellow. Rotate the flask to insure thorough mixing, and
rinse down the wall of the flask with distilled water from the wash
bottle. Since the "end point" is probably overstepped a little,
add HC1, drop by drop, until the color changes to pink, and then
make sure that a single drop, or less, of NaOH turns the color yel-
low after thorough mixing. Record the final reading of both bur-
ettes. Calculate the number of cubic centimeters of HC1 equiva-
lent to 1 cc. of NaOH. Confirm your result by running a duplicate,
and for the final value use the average of your two determinations.
Enter your data in your note book according to the following plan:
HC1 AGAINST NaOH
First trial Second trial
HC1 end reading 41.23 cc. 41.20 cc.
Initial reading 1.33 0.05
39.90 cc. 41.15 cc.
NaOH end reading 40.70 cc. 42.43 cc.
Initial reading 0.25 0.65
40.45 cc. 41.78 cc.
1 cc. NaOH = cc. HC1 0.9864 0.9849
Average 0.9857
(d) Standardize the HC1 solution against pure anhydrous
sodium carbonate. Put some dry sodium carbonate (balance
room) into a large vial, and weigh it accurately. Transfer ap-
proximately 1 gram of the solid to a dry 300-cc. Erlenmeyer
flask. Weigh the vial again to find the exact weight of the sodium
carbonate. Add 100 cc. of distilled water to the flask, and 2 drops
of methyl orange. When the carbonate has dissolved completely,
run in the HC1 from the burette, about 2 cc. at a time, with
shaking after each addition, until the pink color disappears more
slowly on shaking; and then proceed more cautiously until a single
drop of the acid turns the color from yellow to red. If the " end
point" is overstepped, add NaOH to bring the yellow color back,
and again add HC1, a drop at a time, until the exact end point is
reached. Immediately perform a duplicate standardization with
a second sample of pure Na 2 CO 3 . On the left-hand page of the
note book should be recorded the weight of the Na 2 CO 3 , and the
initial and final reading of both the HC1 and NaOH burettes.
From the total HC1 subtract the volume equivalent to the
NaOH that may have been used in titrating back. Find the
number of equivalent weights of Na 2 CO 3 equal to 1,000 cc. of
the HC1. Take the average of the duplicate determinations as
the normality of the HC1. Calculate also the exact normality of the
NaOH.
Preserve these standardized solutions for the later determina-
tion of the yield of NaOH in the electrolysis of brine (page 185)
and in the preparation of NaOH (page 183).
Specific Gravity. The specific gravity of a liquid is the ratio of
its weight to the weight of an equal volume of pure water at the
temperature of its maximum density (4°C). This applies alike
to pure liquids such as acetic acid and to solutions.
Substances dissolved in water change the specific gravity, and
since specific gravity is one of the properties of a liquid most easily
measured with great precision, it is much used by chemists for
determining the concentration of solutions which are known to
contain only a single dissolved substance.
Tabulations have been prepared for many common substances
such as hydrochloric acid, sodium hydroxide, ammonia, and al-
cohol, in which the specific gravity and the corresponding percent-
age by weight of the solution have been placed in parallel columns
covering the whole range from pure water to saturated solution.
For example, if we wish to find the concentration of a given solu-
tion of NaOH, we measure its specific gravity which proves to be
1.390. Opposite this specific gravity in the table we find (inter-
polating if necessary) the percentage composition by weight, and
we derive the concentration as follows:
SOLUTION OF NaOH
Specific gravity 1.390 Percentage by weight 36.00
Weight of 1 liter = 1,000 X 1.390 = 1,390 grams
Grams NaOH per liter = 1,390 X 0.3600 = 500.4
F.W. of NaOH per liter = 500.4/40 = 12.5
Normality of NaOH solution = 12.5
The Use of the Formula Weight Method in Chemical Arithmetic.
A chemical equation tells not only what substances, but also how
much of these substances, are involved in a chemical reaction.
For example, the equation
Na 2 CO 3 + C a ( 0 H ) 2 -» CaCO 3 + 2NaOH
reads: 1 F . W., or 106 grams, of sodium carbonate reacts with 1 F . W.,
or 74 grams, of calcium hydroxide to give 1 F.W., or 100 grams, of
calcium carbonate and 2 F.W., or 80 grams, of sodium hydroxide.
If now we want to find the weight of materials necessary to

provide 400 grams of NaOH we translate this into F.W. From
inspection of the equation we find the number of F.W. of each
material and then translate into grams:
400 grams NaOH = 400/40 = 10 F.W.
Na 2 CO 3 required = J X 10 = 5 F.W. = 5 X 106 = 530 grams
Ca(OH) 2 required = h X 10 = 5 F.W. = 5 X 74 = 370 grams
PROBLEMS
1. How many times normal is each of the following solu-
tions?
(a) molal H2SO4.
(6) formal A12(SO4)3.
(c) molal A1C13.
(d) 0.1 molal Na 3 PO 4 .
(e) 3 molal H2SO4.
(/) 6 molal H N 0 3 .
(g) 2.5 formal MgSO4.
2. How many times formal are the following solutions?
(a) 6iVHCl.
(b) normal Na 3 PO 4 .
(c) 0.5 JV K2SO4.
(d) O.liVIQCFeCsNe).
(e) 0.4iV Ba(OH) 2 .
(/) normal CuSO4.
3. (a) What is the normality of a solution of HC1 contain-
ing 39 per cent by weight of HC1 and of specific gravity 1.19?
(6) of a solution of HC1 containing 20 per cent by weight
and of specific gravity 1.12?
(c) of a solution of H N 0 3 containing 68.6 per cent by
weight and of specific gravity 1.41?
(d) of sulphuric acid containing 96 per cent H2SO4 and of
specific gravity 1.84?
4. What is the percentage by weight of the following
solutions?
(a) 6iV HN0 3 , specific gravity 1.195.
(fc) 6iV HC1 specific gravity 1.100.
(c) 6iV H2SO4, specific gravity 1.181.
(d) 0.5N H(C 2 H 3 O 2 ), specific gravity 1.00.
GENERAL QUESTIONS 81
5. How many cubic centimeters of the concentrated sulphu-

ric acid of 3 (d) should be taken to make 1 liter of normal
solution?
6. How many liters of HC1 (gas, figured at standard condi-
tions) are required to make 1 liter of 12 N acid?
7. (a) How many cubic centimeters of 6 N HC1 are needed
to dissolve 1 gram of zinc? Zn + 2HC1 -> ZnCl2 + H 2 .
(6) How many cubic centimeters of hydrogen are evolved?
8. (a) What weight of calcium carbonate will react with 1
liter of 6iV HC1? CaCO 3 + 2HC1 -> CaCl 2 + H 2 0 + C0 2 .
(6) What volume of carbon dioxide will be evolved?
9. It is desired to find the concentration of a solution of
calcium hydroxide. Five hundred cubic centimeters of this
solution are carefully measured into a beaker, litmus is added,
and a 0.5 N solution of HC1 is run in until the color just changes
from blue to red. The volume of the HC1 solution thus used
is 40 cc.
(a) What is the normal concentration of the calcium hy-
droxide solution?
(6) the molal concentration?
(c) the percentage by weight (specific gravity = 1.00)?
GENERAL QUESTIONS II
1. Define solution.
2. Water is essential to the maintenance of plant and
animal life. Discuss the properties of water that make it so.
3. Discuss the nature of the compounds of salts and water.
4. Describe two different classes of compounds formed
from oxides and water.
5. What is the meaning of the term hydrate? Why is
the compound of an oxide and water not regarded as a hy-
drate?
6. Explain the use of the term hydroxide in naming the
compound of a metal oxide and water.
7. Contrast the action of a metal with that of a metal
oxide on water in the formation of a hydroxide.
8. Contrast the formation of chlorine hydrate with the
action of chlorine and water in sunlight.
CHAPTER III
THE THEORY OF IONIZATION
A substance dissolved in a liquid is in a state that resembles the

gaseous state in many respects. It is thoroughly dispersed, and
just as a gas expands into any available space, so a dissolved sub-
stance or solute expands or diffuses until its concentration is uni-
form throughout the solution. It is its tendency to expand which
makes a gas exert pressure. The similar tendency of a solute to
expand throughout the liquid causes osmotic pressure, which is
very similar to gas pressure and has approximately the same mag-
nitude as the pressure of an equal number of moles of a gas in the
same volume at the same temperature. The molecular weights
of gaseous substances can be determined when the weight, volume,
temperature, and pressure are known. Similarly the molecular
weight of a solute can be determined when its weight, volume of the
solution, temperature, and osmotic pressure are known. Although
osmotic pressure is difficult to measure there are other properties
of solutions, related to osmotic pressure, which are readily measured
and serve to determine the molecular weight of the solute.
Soluble substances fall into two classes: those that give solutions
which do not conduct electricity, called non-electrolytes; and those
that give solutions that do conduct electricity, called electrolytes.
In solution non-electrolytes behave normally, or in other words,
molecular weight methods show the same number of moles that one
would expect to find in the gaseous state of that substance if it
were volatile. Electrolytes, on the other hand, show a greater
number of moles than one would normally expect to find.
These facts are accounted for in the theory of ionization, ac-
cording to which electrolytes in solution are dissociated into ions.
These ions are the positively and negatively charged parts into
which the electrolytes dissociate. The individual ion has the same
effect as a complete unionized molecule in causing osmotic pres-
sure and related effects. Under electrical attraction the ions can
move through the solution towards the respective electrodes and
thus they can conduct a current.
82
ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY OF SOLUTIONS 83
A careful study of the laboratory experiments and a working

out of the problems in the following sections should give one an
understanding of the theory of ionization, a theory which is of the
greatest service in interpreting the chemistry of solutions. Al-
though the experiments are printed consecutively in one section
and the problems in the next, the two sections should be studied
together.
Experiments
1. Osmotic Pressure. The formation of osmotic membranes,
as well as the existence of osmotic pressure, may be qualitatively
shown by what may be called the mineral garden, prepared as
follows: small lumps or crystals of certain very soluble salts, such
as ferric chloride, copper chloride, nickel nitrate, cobalt chloride,
and manganese sulphate, are dropped into 50 cc. of a solution of
sodium silicate, or water glass (sp. gr. 1.1), in a small beaker.
The success of the experiment depends on using small, distinct
fragments of the salts. Their behavior resembles that of grow-
ing seeds, as they appear to sprout immediately and to send up
shoots toward the surface of the liquid, which grow with a visible
rapidity.
Record this experiment in the note book, giving a description
and an explanation in your own words. Wash the beaker im-
mediately after the experiment, as the sodium silicate solution
will etch the glass.
ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY OF SUBSTANCES IN SOLUTION
Use the conductivity apparatus found on the ends of the desks, a

diagram of which is given in Fig. 17.
Electrodes A consist of copper rods set so that they will pass into
the two arms of a U-tube when it is raised from underneath. A
lamp of high wattage should be used with these electrodes, which
are designed to show differences in conductivity among good
conductors.
Electrodes B consist of fine platinum wires supported upon glass
rods, and are to be used with a lamp of about 15 watts. They
are to be used in testing the conductivity of solutions of weak
electrolytes in a 3-inch vial. This vial may be raised until the
electrodes are immersed in the liquid. Before testing the conduc-
tivity of any given solution rinse the platinum electrodes with
84 THE THEORY OF IONIZATION
distilled water until, when they are immersed for 10 seconds or

more, no sign of a glow is seen in the lamp filament. To illustrate
the necessity for this precaution, first immerse the electrodes in
hydrochloric acid solution, then, without rinsing, immerse them in
a vial of pure water; the lamp will glow very distinctly.
0 0 Q P
*- Copper
/ Mercury
— Fine
Platinum
Wire
FIG. 17
2. Electrical Conductivity, (a) Pure Substances. Note that

the lamp does not glow when air fills the space between the elec-
trodes. Then raise successively between electrodes B distilled
water, alcohol, pure acetic acid (labeled "glacial acetic acid"),
and place in contact with electrodes A lumps of any two dry
salts found in the laboratory, for example, common salt, NaCl,
and blue vitriol, CuSO4-5H2O.
What general statement can be made about the conductivity
of pure non-metallic substances, gaseous, liquid, or solid?
ACIDS 85
(b) Solutions of Electrolytes. Test for conductivity each of

the following solutions: Crush about 0.3 gram of each of the solid
salts tested in (a) to a powder and dissolve each in 10 cc. of water.
Add 10 drops of glacial acetic acid to 10 cc. of water. Dilute 2
cc. of each of the laboratory acids (which are already in solution
in water) with 10 cc. of water. Dissolve about 0.3 gram each of
sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide in 10 cc. of water.
Dilute 2 cc. of ammonium hydroxide solution with 10 cc. of water.
List the above solutions in the order of their conductivity.
What classes of substances conduct when in solution? What ex-
planation can you give of electrolytic conductance, and how can
you account for the fact that some solutions conduct much better
than others?
(c) Solutions of Non-Electrolytes. Dissolve 0.5 gram of cane
sugar, 0.5 gram of urea, 0.5 cc. of alcohol, 0.5 cc. of glycerine each
in 10 cc. of water, and test the conductivity of the solutions.
ACIDS
3. Test the conductivity of pure tartaric acid (a solid) and of
pure acetic acid (glacial acetic acid).
Then test the conductivity of these same acids dissolved in
10 to 20 parts of water, and also of other common laboratory acids
diluted with water.
Look up the percentage of ionization in 0.1 N solution (table
on page 100) of each of the acids. What component is common to
all acids and is responsible for the characteristic properties of
acids? Name the other components (i.e., species of ions or mole-
cules) in any acid solution.
4. Strong and Weak Acids. In order to compare the strength
of acids it is necessary to have solutions of the same concentra-
tion. Prepare 50 cc. each of 0.1 N hydrochloric and acetic acids
by diluting 5 cc. of IN acid with 45 cc. water. Carefully com-
pare the conductivity of these 0.1 N acids, using electrodes B.
Carefully compare the intensity of the sour or acid taste,* but do not
swallow any of the acid. Rinse out the mouth with water. Quite
a bit of experimenting is necessary to find just the amount of acid
* Since a chemist should be familiar with the taste of hydrogen and hy-
droxyl ions, we have set the very bad precedent here of giving directions to
taste the dilute solutions of acids and bases. In no other case should any
laboratory chemical be taken in the mouth.
to take and how long to hold it on the tongue in order to get a fair
estimate of the comparative acidity. It must be borne in mind
that the strong acid may partly paralyze the nerves of the tongue
for a short time; therefore, after tasting one acid, wait a short time
before tasting another. Compare the effect of the two 0.1 N
acids on blue litmus.
The conductivity of the two acids ought to be proportional to
the degree of ionization; likewise the sour taste, which is the
property of the hydrogen ion, ought to be proportional to the
degree of ionization; even the weaker acid contains enough hydro-
gen ions completely to turn the color of the very sensitive litmus,
so no difference is shown by this indicator.
Make a tabulation for each acid of the number of grams of the
four components present in 1 liter of 0.1 N solution: (1) water,
(2) un-ionized acid, (3) hydrogen ion, (4) acid radical ion. (Con-
sult table of ionization values on page 100.) Arrange the tabula-
tion for each acid somewhat on the following plan.
COMPONENTS IN 1 LITER OF 0.1 N ACETIC ACID
Total acetic acid 0.1 X 60 = 6.0 grams

Water 1000 - 6 =994
Ionized acetic acid = "
Un-ionized acid = "
H+ion = "
C2H 3 O 2 "ion = "
BASES
5. Test the electrical conductivity of a dry lump of sodium or
potassium hydroxide (do not handle it with the fingers) before its
surface has become wet by taking moisture from the atmosphere.
Then test the conductivity of dilute solutions of sodium, potassium,
and ammonium hydroxides. Rub a single drop of liV NaOH
lightly between the thumb and forefinger and note the slippery
feeling. Immediately rinse the alkali from the ringers since it
would very soon take off the skin. Repeat the experiment with a
drop of liVNEUOH.
Look up the percentage of ionization in 0.1 N solution of each
of the bases. What component is common to all bases and is
responsible for the characteristic properties of bases? Name the
other components in any base solution.
NEUTRALIZATION 87
6. Strong and Weak Bases. Repeat in every detail Experiment

4, using sodium hydroxide and ammonium hydroxide as typical
of a strong and a weak base. Make similar tabulations of the
weight of each of the components, (1) water, (2) un-ionized base,
(3) metal radical ion, and (4) hydroxyl ion, in 1 liter of 0.1 N
solution.
NEUTRALIZATION
7. Neutralization of a Strong Acid and a Strong Base. Fill

a narrow U-tube with 1 N hydrochloric acid and insert electrodes
A until the lamp glows dimly but distinctly. Note carefully the
depth to which the electrodes are inserted. Then refill the tube
with liV sodium hydroxide, again insert the electrodes to the
same depth, and notice how strongly the lamp glows.
Run 10 cc. of liV hydrochloric acid into a beaker, add 1 drop
of litmus solution, and then add liV sodium hydroxide until the
color changes to blue. Add a drop or two more acid until the
color again changes, and finally bring the solution to the exact
neutral point when 1 drop of acid will turn the litmus red and a
single drop of base will bring back the blue.
Fill the same U-tube with this neutralized solution, insert the
electrodes to the same depth as before, and compare the conduc-
tivity of the neutral solution with that of the acid and the base.
Explain the process of neutralization according to the ionic
theory, and account for any differences noted in the conductivity.
Write the ionic equation.
Write ionic equations from now on whenever it is possible. Use
the intersecting method as described in Rules 1-8 on page 104.
Do not, however, neglect to give the explanation in words in ad-
dition to the equation.
8. Neutralization of a Weak Acid and a Weak Base. Test
separately the conductivity of liV acetic acid and of liV am-
monium hydroxide, this time using electrodes B. Neutralize
10 cc. of the liV acid by adding the IN base in the same manner
as in Experiment 7; and compare the conductivity of the neutral-
ized solution with that of the acid and base separately.
Explain the neutralization of a weak acid and a weak base ac-
cording to the ionic theory, and account for the change observed
in the conductivity. Explain why the neutral solution contains
no undissociated molecules of the acid and base.
9. High Ionization of All Salt Solutions. The object of Ex-

periments 7 and 8 was to show the relative number of ions in
equivalent acid and base solutions and in the neutral solution re-
sulting from adding the two together. In Experiment 7 the
same electrodes held the same distance apart with the same vol-
ume of liquid between them were used on all three solutions tested.
Hence the brightness of the lamp was proportional to the number
of ions in the solution. But in Experiment 8 a different kind
of electrode was used, and, although a valid comparison of
the concentration of ions in the three solutions of that experiment
was obtained, the brightness of the lamp shown for the neutral
solutions of the two experiments gives no comparison of the num-
ber of ions. Remember that the neutral solution in each experi-
ment is 0.5N with respect to the salt.
Prepare again a neutral solution of sodium chloride by neutral-
izing normal sodium hydroxide with normal hydrochloric acid,
and a neutral solution of ammonium acetate by neutralizing
normal ammonium hydroxide with normal acetic acid. Test the
conductivity of both solutions with electrodes A and again test
both with electrodes B.
What general statement can be made about the ionization of
salts? Explain again (although the write-up of Experiment 8
should already contain the explanation) why the salt of a weak
acid and a weak base can be as highly ionized as the salt of a strong
acid and a strong base.
DISPLACEMENT OF WEAK ACIDS AND BASES
10. Displacement of a Weak Acid from its Neutral Salt by

Means of a Stronger Acid, (a) To 2 cc. of liV sodium benzoate
solution, NaC7H6O2, add a few drops of 6iV H2SO4. At 30 drops
to the cubic centimeter how many drops of the 6iV acid would be
equivalent to the 2 cc. of liV salt? How does this experiment
illustrate the displacement* of a weak acid from its salt?
(b) Observe cautiously the odor of 6N acetic acid. Dilute
1 cc. with 5 cc. of water to make the solution 1 N and see whether
the odor is still detectable in the cold. Warm the solution and see
if the odor is noticeable.
Warm 2 cc. of liV sodium acetate solution, NaC2H3O2, barely
to the boiling point. Remove it from the flame and observe
DISPLACEMENT OF WEAK ACIDS AND BASES 89
whether it has an odor. Add a few drops of 6 N H2SO4 to the warm

sodium acetate solution and observe whether there is an odor of
acetic acid. Suppose that exactly equal volumes of 0.2 N
NaC 2 H 3 O 2 + 0.2N HC1 had been used; what percentage of the
way to completion would the reaction have gone? Compare the
completeness of this reaction with that of neutralization.
(c) To 5 cc. of sodium carbonate solution add acetic acid, a
few drops at a time, till action ceases. What is the gas formed?
What acid is displaced in this case? How is the completeness of
its displacement affected by the escape of the gas?
(d) Treat a small quantity of calcium carbonate with an excess
of dilute hydrochloric acid, and see whether it will all dissolve.
Calcium carbonate is usually considered as an insoluble substance,
nevertheless it is slightly soluble in pure water. Look up its
exact solubility (solubility table on page 364). How would the
acid react with the small amount of calcium carbonate in solution?
How would the equilibrium between the solid calcium carbonate
and its saturated solution be affected by this reaction? To sum
up, explain how the calcium carbonate dissolves in acids.
11. Displacement of a Weak Base from Its Neutral Salt by
Means of a Stronger Base, (a) Note whether a solution of am-
monium chloride has the odor of ammonia. Warm 2 cc. of this
solution to about 50°, note again whether there is an odor; add a
little sodium hydroxide solution and again note if there is an odor.
At 50°, ammonia, NH 3 , from the non-electrolytic dissociation
of NH 4 0H (see page 111), escapes as a gas from the solution to a
sufficient extent to give a powerful odor. Thus the odor of am-
monia indicates the presence of NH4OH in solution. On the other
hand, the amount of gas which escapes during this experiment is
too small to cause a significant change of concentration of the com-
ponents of the solution. If equal volumes of cold 0.2 N NH4C1
and 0.2 N NaOH are mixed, to what degree of completion does the
formation of un-ionized NH4OH proceed?
(6) To 1 cc. of a magnesium sulphate solution add 5 cc. of water
and then a few drops of sodium hydroxide solution. Look up
the solubility and the degree of ionization of magnesium hydroxide
(page 101). Calculate the hydroxyl-ion concentration in a sat-
urated solution of Mg(0H) 2 .
(c) To 1 cc. of magnesium sulphate solution add 5 cc. of water
and then a few drops of ammonium hydroxide solution. Then
add some ammonium chloride solution. Explain the effect on the

hydroxyl-ion concentration of adding an ammonium salt to an
ammonium hydroxide solution.
(d) To 1 cc. of a ferric chloride solution add 5 cc. of water and
then a few drops of ammonium hydroxide solution. Then add
some ammonium chloride solution.
CHARACTERISTIC REACTIONS OF CERTAIN IONS
If two ionized substances are brought together in a solution,

and one of the possible new combinations of a positive and a
negative ion is an insoluble solid substance, that substance will
form as a precipitate. Characteristic precipitates serve as a
means of identifying specific ions.
Some ions possess characteristic colors which they impart to a
clear solution. Thus the cupric ion, CU++, is blue and all dilute
solutions of cupric salts are clear blue unless the color is modified by
another colored component. Thus the appearance of a color or
a change of color in a clear solution when a reagent is added helps
to identify the ions present.
In the following experiments an inexperienced student always
is impelled to make the mistake of using too concentrated solu-
tions and adding too much reagent. This not only wastes ex-
pensive chemicals, but it also obscures the effects to be observed.
The procedure that should be followed is to take about 1 cc. of
the solution to be tested, dilute this with 5 cc. of water, and add
the reagent a single drop at a time, shaking thoroughly after each
drop. In this way keep adding reagent until no further change
is brought about. It often happens that a limited amount of
reagent will produce an effect, say a precipitate, and a larger
amount will produce another effect, say redissolve the precipitate.
If the reagent is "dumped in " carelessly these effects maybe missed.
12. Chloride Ions. To solutions of various chlorides, such as
hydrochloric acid, sodium chloride, and calcium chloride, add a few
drops of a solution of a silver salt — silver nitrate or silver sul-
phate. To the resulting suspension add 6 N HN0 3 . Does the
precipitate dissolve?
To a solution of potassium chlorate (free from chloride) add a
few drops of silver nitrate.
How may the presence of chloride ions be recognized? Why
is not the same test given by the chlorine in potassium chlorate?
CHARACTERISTIC REACTIONS OF CERTAIN IONS 91
13. Sulphate Ions. To solutions of soluble sulphates, such as

sodium sulphate, copper sulphate, sulphuric acid, add barium
chloride solution. After the effect of this reagent is noted add
hydrochloric acid to see whether the precipitate is redissolved by
acid.
14. Copper Ions, (a) To 5 cc. of copper sulphate solution,
add NH 4 OH in small amount and then in excess.
In writing ionic equations consider the light blue precipitate as
Cu(OH) 2 , for the sake of simplicity, instead of the rather indefinite
basic salt. To explain the deep blue color consult page 118.
(b) To another sample of cupric salt solution add ammonium
sulphide. Divide the black suspension in two parts; add HC1
to one part, and NH 4 OH to the other, to see whether the precipi-
tate is soluble in either of these reagents.
15. Zinc Ions. Repeat every step of the preceding experiment
using a zinc salt instead of a copper salt.
Using the information gained in these two experiments, devise
a method by which you could detect the presence of a small amount
of zinc salt in a solution containing copper salt.
16. Ferrous Ions. Repeat (a) and (6) of Experiment 14 upon a
ferrous salt instead of a cupric salt.
(c) To a solution of ferrous sulphate add a freshly prepared
solution of potassium ferricyanide, K3(Fe(CN) 6 ).
17. Ferric Ions, (a) To a solution of ferric chloride add
NH4OH.
(6) To other samples of the ferric salt solution add potassium
ferrocyanide K 4 (Fe(CN) 6 ), and potassium thiocyanate, KCNS,
respectively.
18. Silver Ions, (a) Recalling Experiment 12, state how
chloride ions may be used as a reagent for silver ions.
(6) To 2 cc. of 0.1 N AgNO3 add NH 4 0H very cautiously as
follows so as to avoid an excess at the beginning. Dilute 1 cc.
of the 6iV NH4OH with 10 cc. of water, and transfer 1 drop of
the dilute solution, hanging to the end of a stirring rod, to the
AgNC>3 solution. Continuing to add the reagent in these very
small portions, observe whether a precipitate is formed at any time,
and-whether it redissolves with an excess of the reagent.
(c) To 2 cc. of 0.1 N AgNO3 add 0.5 cc. of liV NaCl, which
gives an excess of chloride ions.
Add 6 N NH4OH cautiously so as to avoid a large excess until
the precipitate has redissolved. The object of the rest of this

experiment is to show that a very appreciable excess of NH 4 OH
is necessary to keep AgCl from reprecipitating. Add 6N HNO 3
1 drop at a time by means of a stirring rod until a precipitate
which fails to redissolve with shaking just appears. With the
thumb over the mouth of the test tube, shake so that any drops
of reagent clinging to the sides of the tube are completely mixed
into the suspension. Remove the thumb and note whether the
odor of ammonia can be detected.
IONIC DISPLACEMENTS
19. Electromotive Series of the Metals, (a) Place a few

pieces of zinc in 5 cc. of 0.2 N solution of copper sulphate, shake
the mixture frequently, and after about 15 minutes withdraw
1 cc. of the solution and test it for copper and for zinc ions, apply-
ing the information obtained from the preceding experiments.
If any copper ions are still present let the remainder of the mixture
stand for 15 minutes more with frequent shaking, and repeat the
test. Continue until you have reached a conclusion as to whether
copper ions can be completely displaced from solution by zinc.
(6) Repeat (a) using 5 cc. of about 0.5 N CuSO4 solution and
some clean pieces of iron wire.
(c) Again repeat (a) using 5 cc. of 0.1 N AgNO 3 solution and
some clean pieces of copper wire.
(d) Recall (or find out by experiment, if preferred) the be-
havior of silver, copper, iron, and zinc with hydrochloric acid or
dilute sulphuric acid. Make a list of these metals, including hy-
drogen, in the order of their ionizing potential.
HYDROLYSIS
20. Dissolve about 0.5 gram each of ferric chloride, sodium

chloride, and sodium carbonate in a little water, and test each
solution with red and blue litmus.
Explain the relation of hydrolysis to the observed results.
Are the reactions of hydrolysis complete? If not, explain why.
21. Hydrolysis a Reversible Reaction, (a) To a solution made
by dissolving 0.5 gram of solid ferric chloride in 10 cc. of water
add powdered calcium carbonate. How is the extent of the
hydrolysis of ferric chloride affected by the calcium carbonate?
HYDROGEN ION CONCENTRATION 93
(b) To about 0.2 gram of powdered bismuth oxide, Bi2O3, in a

dry test tube add 6iV HCl a drop at a time with shaking until the
powder is dissolved. About 12 drops should be necessary. In-
stead of bismuth oxide one may start with basic bismuth nitrate
(Bi(OH) 2 NO 3 or BiONO 3 ). Then add 20 cc. of water to the tube
and mix the contents, observing the white precipitate. Again add
6iV HCl drop by drop with shaking until the precipitate just
redissolves. Then add the solution to 200 cc. of water in a beaker.
The hydrolysis product of the chloride may be a mixture of
BiOHCl 2 , Bi(OH) 2 Cl, Bi(0H) 3 . For simplicity consider it all
as Bi(OH) 2 Cl. Write ionic equation for the hydrolysis, and
explain its reversibility.
SOLUBILITY PRODUCT
22. Prepare a nearly saturated solution of potassium chlorate

by shaking vigorously about 5 grams of the finely powdered salt
with 15 cc. of water for 5 minutes. Let the undissolved salt
settle and pour off the clear solution, dividing it equally among
three test tubes.
(a) To one portion add about 0.5 gram of solid potassium
chloride.
(6) To a second portion add about 0.5 gram of solid sodium
chlorate.
(c) To a third portion add about 1.5 grams of solid sodium ni-
trate. In each tube agitate the mixture until the added crystals
have dissolved. These crystals can be distinguished from any
finely crystalline precipitate that falls out of the solution.
Tabulate the solubility in formula weights per liter at room tem-
perature of KC103, KC1, NaC10 3 , and NaN0 3 .
What is the numerical value of the solubility product of KC103?
How many formula weights of KC10 3 could dissolve in a liter of
1.5 formal NaC103? How many grams?
HYDROGEN ION CONCENTRATION
23. Effect of Its Neutral Salt on the Strength of a Weak Acid.

(a) Methyl orange is an indicator which is used much in the same
way as litmus to show the presence of hydrogen ions. In the
presence of a considerable hydrogen-ion concentration it is pink.
As the hydrogen-ion concentration grows less the color passes
through transition shades to a clear yellow, the latter color being

reached before the neutral point is reached. The yellow color re-
mains the same in neutral solution and in the presence of hydroxyl
ions.
In five test tubes place respectively 10 cc. of liV HC1, 10 cc.
of liV HAc, 10 cc. of liV HAc, 10 cc. of pure water, 10 cc. of liV
NaOH, and to each add 2 drops of methyl orange solution. The
first tube shows the pink color imparted by strong acids, and the
fourth and fifth the yellow color. The second and third tubes
should, of course, show exactly the same color tone. Now drop
into the third tube about a gram and a half of crystallized sodium
acetate, NaC2H3O2-3H2O, and dissolve the salt by shaking. Now
compare the colors of the second and third tubes, still keeping
the other tubes for reference colors.
(6) The acid strength may be compared by the rapidity of the
reaction with calcium carbonate. In each of two small beakers
place 1 gram of powdered calcium carbonate and 10 cc. of water,
and stir until the powder is entirely wet. Have ready two solu-
tions as follows: one consists of 30 cc. of 1 N acetic acid, the other
of 30 cc. of 1 N acetic acid in which an equivalent amount, about
4 grams of sodium acetate, NaC2H3O2-3H2O, has been dissolved.
At the same instant add the two solutions to the respective
beakers containing calcium carbonate. The rapidity of efferves-
cence should be compared, also the time it takes for the solid to
dissolve entirely.
Notes and Problems

MEASUREMENT OF IONIZATION
Molal Lowering of the Freezing Point. The temperature at

which pure water is in equilibrium with ice is the standard fixed
point of thermometry and is designated as 0° on the centigrade
scale. This point, which is called the freezing point, is reproducible
to the greatest precision of thermometric measurements. This
point is reproducible, however, only when the water is pure.
Substances in solution in the water always lower the freezing point,
and not only that, the extent of the lowering of the freezing point
follows some very simple rules with a precision great enough to
make those rules apparent: For non-electrolytes, that is, sub-
stances whose solutions do not conduct electricity, the first rule
MEASUKEMENT OF IONIZATION 95
is that, with the same substance, the extent of the freezing point
depression is proportional to the quantity of substance dissolved
in a given weight of water. The second rule is that, for different
substances, equimolal amounts produce the same freezing point
lowering with the same amount of water. A statement com-
bining these two rules is as follows: The lowering of the freezing
point is proportional to the number of moles of dissolved sub-
stance in a given amount of water. The proportionality factor is
given by the moled lowering of the freezing point, which is 1.86°C.
and is the effect produced by one mole of dissolved substance in
1,000 grams of water. This rule holds only when the solid sepa-
rating from the solution is pure ice, but this is almost invariably
the case when the solution is fairly dilute.
It should be clear that the above statements show a method
of determining the molecular weight of a substance dissolved in
water provided that the substance is a non-electrolyte.
The same regularities hold for solutions in solvents other
than water except that there is a different proportionality factor;
i.e., the molal lowering of the freezing point is different for each
different solvent.
The following set of problems will allow the student to find
whether he has grasped the significance of the statements in the
foregoing paragraphs. For the present we will consider the be-
havior of electrolytes as irregular. In a later section we will try
to discover any regularity that may appear in the " irregularities "
and see if that too can be reduced to any significant rule.
1. At what temperature will a solution freeze that is made
by dissolving 1 gram of sugar, C12H22O11, in 10 grams of
water?
2. — one mole of urea, CO(NH 2 )2, in 10 liters of water?
3. How many grams of methyl alcohol, CH 3 0H, should be
added to 1,000 grams of water to give a solution that will
freeze at - 1 0 ° ?
4. What is the molecular weight of a substance, 3 grams of
which dissolved in 50 grams of water gives a solution freezing
at —0.93°? The solution does not conduct electricity.
5. Pure benzene freezes at 5.48°. What is the molecular
lowering of the freezing point for benzene if a solution of
6.4 grams of naphthalene, CioHs, in 100 grams of benzene
freezes at 3.03°?
6. When 4.88 grams of a certain other substance are dis-

solved in 50 grams of benzene the solution freezes at 2.85°.
What is the molecular weight of the substance?
Osmotic Pressure. From a consideration of the nature of osmotic
pressure (page 83) one would wonder how it could ever be meas-
ured. The pressure of a pure gas against a mercury surface or a
piston is readily determined. The total pressure of a gas mixture
is also just as readily determined, but the partial pressures of the
individual gases in the mixture cannot be separately measured.
Although osmotic pressure resembles the partial pressure of one
gas in a mixture, the problem is much more complicated than with
gases because of the enormous cohesion of liquids. If water, for
example, did not possess cohesion the expansive force of liquid
water at room temperature would be about 1,000 atmospheres.
Thus the cohesive force of water, or of a solution, is more than
1,000 atmospheres, and this force would apply to the molecules
of solute as well as of solvent to prevent them from escaping from
the bounding surface. Osmotic pressure does not exert its force
against a bounding surface such as a beaker or the air. Within
the solution the cohesive force acting upon the molecules of
solute is the same in every direction, and hence the net effect is
zero. Thus the solute resembles a gas, the cohesion between its
own molecules is negligible, and it expands until it has filled
the whole solution at a uniform concentration.
If a solution of sugar is placed in the bottom of a tall cylindrical
jar and pure water is carefully run in on top of it, so as to avoid
mixing the layers, and the whole is left undisturbed, the sugar by
virtue of its osmotic pressure diffuses upward until it has filled
the whole solution. The diffusion is of course slow because of the
friction between the sugar molecules and the water. If now we
could imagine a movable membrane impermeable to sugar,
the pores of which were filled with water, and if this membrane
were placed above the layer of sugar solution, and the cylinder
above the membrane were filled with pure water, then if the sugar
diffused upward it would have to push the membrane before it and
water would pass through the membrane as the latter moved
upward. Such a membrane is called a semipermeable membrane.
The pressure which would have to be applied to the membrane
to prevent its being pushed upward would be equal to the osmotic
pressure of the sugar.
MEASUREMENT OF IONIZATION 97
Such membranes do actually exist. Many animal membranes and

the cell walls of plants serve as more or less perfect semi-permeable
membranes. Many films of inorganic substance also can be pre-
pared which are permeable to water but not to dissolved substances.
Experiment 1 in the first part of this chapter illustrates quali-
tatively the effect of osmotic pressure. The very soluble salts
dropped into the sodium silicate solution at once begin to dissolve,
forming a layer of solution about the lumps. At the junction
between this layer and the sodium silicate solution a coherent film
of insoluble silicate of the metal is formed:
2Fe+++ 6C1"
3SiOr~ 6Na+
i
Fe2(Si03)4
This film is impermeable to salt molecules and ions and permeable
to water. The concentration of the nearly saturated salt within
is higher than that of the sodium silicate outside, and hence the
osmotic pressure from within is greater than that from without
and the film is forced to expand, allowing water to enter and dis-
solve more of the salt. The actual result is the same as if the
water were sucked in through the film. This creates an hydro-
static pressure which is, of course, uniform inside the sac and con-
sequently the film is expanded at the point where it is thinnest
which is at the top. Thus the osmotic pressure accounts for the
effect which we observed — the little colored sprouts shooting up
from the lumps of the salt towards the top of the solution.
7. Find the osmotic pressure of 1 gram of sugar dissolved
in 10 grams of water at 0°.
8. — of 1 gram of urea, CO (NHs^, in 10 grams of water at
0°.
9. How many grams of sugar should be dissolved in 1000
grams of water to give an osmotic pressure of 1 atmosphere
at0°?
10. — to give the same pressure at 38°?
11. What is the molecular weight of a substance, 5 grams
of which at 0° in 250 cc. of water has an osmotic pressure of
2.24 atmospheres?
Ionization. The electrical conductance of electrolytes is ex-
plained in terms of the ionic theory by the presence of independent
charged radicals — the ions — which move through the solu-

tion and carry the current to the electrodes. The question arises
as to how these charged particles affect the freezing point. Ions
of opposite charge exert an enormous attraction for each other,
and this attraction would be expected to impede their freedom of
motion. On the other hand, each ion in the interior of the solu-
tion is surrounded by ions of opposite charge, and the resultant
force of strong ionic attraction from all directions is zero. Hence
at the other extreme we might expect the motion of each ion to
be as unrestricted as the motion of an uncharged molecule.
The actual measurement of the freezing-point lowering caused
by electrolytes has led us to choose the second postulate, that
is, of the freedom of motion of the charged ions, as the nearer ap-
proximation to the true condition within the solution.
If we proceed, then, in the assumption that charged ions have
the same effect on the freezing point as uncharged molecules, we
can again regard the freezing-point lowering as proportional to the
total number of moles in a given solution, only we must revise our
definition of mole so as to include moles of ions as well as moles
of non-electrolytes. For example, if 1 formula weight of AB is
50 per cent ionized into A+ B ~ we have 0.5 mole of AB, 0.5 mole
of A+ and 0.5 mole of B " , or in all 1.5 moles, and the effect of AB
on the freezing point would be 1.5 times what we would expect
if AB were a non-electrolyte.
The following set of problems will test our grasp of the principle
discussed in this section.
12. Assuming complete ionization of the electrolyte, what
would be the freezing point of 10 grams of NaCl in 500 grams
of water?
13. — of 10 grams of CaCl2 in 500 grams of water?
14. — of 10 grams of FeCl 3 in 500 grams of water?
15. — of 10 grams of K,Fe(CN) 6 in 500 grams of water?
16-19. What is the osmotic pressure at 0° of the salt in

Questions 12-15, inclusive?
20. What is the osmotic pressure of 0.1 mole of NaCl in
1,000 grams of water if the salt is 86 per cent ionized?
21. — of 0.1 mole of BaCl 2 in 1,000 grams of water if the
salt is 72 per cent ionized?
EXTENT OF IONIZATION 99
The degree of ionization of a salt may be calculated from the

freezing point of its solution. For example, if 0.1 mole of K2SO4
(17.4 grams) dissolved in 1,000 grams of water freezes at —0.454°,
we know that 0.1 mole of un-ionized substance will lower the
freezing point 0.1 X 1.86 = 0.186°, and that 0.1 mole of a com-
pletely ionized substance giving 3 ions will lower the freezing
point 3 X 0.186 = 0.558°. The actual freezing-point lowering,
0.454°, lies between these values and thus indicates incomplete
ionization. The proportion of the salt ionized is found by di-
viding the difference caused by the actual ionization, 0.454 — 0.186
= 0.268°, by that which would be caused by 100 per cent ion-
ization, 0.558 - 0.186 = 0.372°, thus giving 0.268/0.372 = 0.72.
Thus the salt is 72 per cent ionized.
22. If 9.45 grams of chloracetic acid, H(C 2 H 2 O 2 C1), dis-

solved in 1,000 grams of water show an osmotic pressure of
2.51 atmospheres, find the per cent ionization of the acid,
assuming that only one hydrogen is ionizable and that the
negative ion has the composition of the radical shown in the
parenthesis.
23. A solution of 101 grams of potassium nitrate in 1,000
grams of water freezes at —3.05. Calculate what percentage
of the salt is ionized.
EXTENT OF IONIZATION
In the last section the method was illustrated by which per

cent ionization could be calculated from freezing point on the
assumption that ions and un-ionized molecules are of equal effect.
In the following tables are given the values calculated for the
ionization of various electrolytes in 0.1 equivalent solution on
the basis of this assumption. These values we shall designate as
the apparent ionizations. They come out approximately the same
whether they are calculated from electrical-conductivity measure-
ments or from freezing points.
Since the solvent is undeniably the agent that facilitates ioniza-
tion, it is obvious that the more solvent, or in other words the more
dilute the solution, the greater the percentage of ionization. In
very dilute solutions (1 mole of solute in 10,000 liters of solvent)
strong electrolytes are practically completely ionized. In solu-
tions more than 0.1 equivalent the apparent ionization is less than
SALTS
Neutral salts, with very few exceptions, are highly ionized If

they are classified, as in the table below, according to the valence
of their ions, it is found that all belonging to any one class have
practically the same degree of lonization The six classes which
are indicated may be typified by KN03, Ba(NO3)2, K2SO4, FeCl3,
Na3PO4, and ZnSO4, respectively.
Type of salt Percentage ionization in

0 1 equivalent solution
M+R- 86
M++R-R- 72
M+M+R— 72
M+++R-R-R- 65
M+M+M+R 65
M++R— 45
ACIDS
Substance Percentage ionization in

0 1 equivalent solution
HCl, HBr, HI, HN0 3 1 90
HC1O3, HCIO4, HMnO4J
H2SO4 <=> H+ + HSOr 90
HSO4- <=> H+ + SO4~ 30
H2C2O4 <=> H+ + HC2O4- 50
H2SO3 <=> H+ + HSO3- 20
HSO3- f i E + + SO 3 ~ 10
H3PO4 <=> H+ + H2PO4- 27
H2PO4- <=* H+ + HPO4— 02
HPO4~ <=> H+ + PO4 0 0002
H3As04 <=> H+ + H2ASO4- 20
HF 90
H2C4H4O6 <=> H+ + HC4H4O6- 80
HNO2 . 70
HC2H3O2 *± H+ + C2H3O2- 14
H2CO3 <=s H+ + HCO3- .. 0 12
HCO3- <=> H+ + CO3— 0 002
H2S 0 E H HS- 0 05
HS- <=s H+ + S ~ 0 0002
HCN *=* H+ + CN- . . 0 01
H3BO3 <=s H+ + H2BO3-. . 0 01
IONIC REACTIONS 101
BASES
Substance Percentage ionization in

0.1 equivalent solution
KOH, NaOH 86
Ba(OH)2 <=> Ba++ + 2OH~ 75
NH4OH 1.4
Ca(OH)2, Mg(OH)2 are but slightly soluble, but so far as they do

dissolve they are dissociated to about the same extent as Ba(OH)2
in a solution of the same concentration.
The hydroxides of the heavy metals are very insoluble and, as a
rule, very weakly basic.
AgOH is soluble to the extent of 1 part in 15,000 of water, in
which solution about 33 per cent of its molecules are ionized. It is
thus a moderately strong base.
Hydroxides of the type Zn(0H)2, Fe(OH)2, Mn(0H)2 are less
basic than AgOH, and hydroxides of the type Fe(OH)3, Cr(OH)3,
A1(OH)3 are still much less basic.
Pure water contains 0.000,000,1 mole of H + ions and 0.000,000,1
mole of OH~ ions per liter.
that given in the table, for example hydrochloric acid in 12 N so-

lution is only 13 per cent ionized.
The data above have been calculated from measurements of
electrical conductivity and freezing-point lowering. Although
both methods give concordant results for the degree of ionization,
it has for a long time been felt that these results are subject to
considerable uncertainty. The proximity of other ions retards or
dampens the effect of ions in causing electrical conductivity or
lowering of freezing point in such a way that the calculated per-
centage of ionization is almost certainly too low for strong electro-
lytes. For weak electrolytes the data in the above table are
reliable. The practice generally followed in the succeeding pages
of ignoring any un-ionized fraction of salts, strong acids, and
strong bases has a good deal of justification beyond that of mere
convenience.
IONIC REACTIONS
It is very probably true that all chemical reactions are due to a
rearrangement of the electrical forces residing in the atoms and
molecules concerned. Reactions taking place in water solution
among substances that are ionized are clearly electrical in nature.

On the other hand, a very large number of organic substances (that
is, compounds of carbon) are not perceptibly ionized even in
water solution. At ordinary temperature such substances do not
enter into rapid chemical reaction as electrolytes do.
Non-Ionic Reactions. This term is applied to all slow reactions
in which none of the substances involved show any measurable
degree of ionization; there seems to be no great advantage in
trying to deal with them from the electrical viewpoint.
Ionic Reactions. All reactions among ionized substances clearly
involve electrical forces, and it is the purpose of this outline to
deal with various types of ionic reactions.
Ionization as a Reversible Reaction. The ionization of a sub-
stance is itself a chemical reaction. Pure anhydrous acetic acid
does not possess the properties of an acid: it does not react with zinc
or calcium carbonate, nor does it turn blue litmus red. Yet if a
little acetic acid is dissolved in water it acquires the properties
of an acid: it dissolves zinc with evolution of hydrogen, it dis-
solves calcium carbonate with evolution of carbon dioxide, and it
turns blue litmus red. These new properties betoken the presence
of new substances, the ions, and that the reaction HC2H3O2—>
H+ + C2H3O2 ~~ has taken place. From the preceding table it
-will be seen that if 0.1 mole, or 6 grams, of acetic acid is dis-
solved in 1 liter of water 1.4 per cent of the acetic acid molecules
are ionized.
To show that this reaction may take place in the opposite
direction let us take 1 liter of a 0.2 molal sodium acetate solution.
This solution has no odor of acetic acid. Sodium acetate is a
strong electrolyte, and we may regard it as 100 per cent ionized in
this fairly dilute solution. Let us now mix with this solution 1
liter of 0.2 molal hydrochloric acid, another strong electrolyte
which we may regard as 100 per cent ionized. We will now have
brought together into 2 liters the ions of 0.2 mole of sodium
chloride, which remains ionized, and 0.2 mole of acetic acid. The
latter, however, does not remain fully ionized but immediately
comes to the equilibrium point at which 1.4 per cent only of the
total acetic acid is ionized (the solution is 0.1 molal in acetic acid).
That acetic acid has actually been formed, H+ + C2H3O2" —*
HC2H3O2, can be perceived by the odor of acetic acid which is
now apparent.
IONIC EEACTIONS 103
Equilibrium. When 0.1 mole of HC2H3O2 is dissolved in 1 liter

of water and the two opposing reactions have adjusted themselves
so that 1.4 per cent of the acid is in the ionized condition and 98.6
per cent is in the un-ionized condition, a state of equilibrium is
said to exist. Such a point of equilibrium exists for every ionic
reaction and, as in the example just cited, it is independent of the
direction from which it is approached.
Ionization is a very rapid reaction, as is, indeed, the reverse
reaction, or association; and the point of equilibrium is reached
with great rapidity. In fact, in the time taken to dissolve an
electrolyte in water, and uniformly mix the solution by stirring,
complete equilibrium is attained.
For the sake of comparison a non-ionic reaction may be cited.
If 2 volumes of hydrogen (uncombined hydrogen, not hydrogen
ions) are mixed with 1 volume of oxygen in a glass jar at ordi-
nary temperature, nothing appears to happen. Yet we know this
mixture is not in equilibrium. By the careful use of certain cata-
lyzers, the two gases will combine slowly but completely to form
water, even if the temperature is kept from rising. As we well
know, if a spark is applied to the mixture a violent reaction takes
place. Equilibrium for this reaction exists only when it has gone
practically to completion in the direction 2H 2 + O2 —» 2H 2 O, and
yet at ordinary temperature and without catalyzers the reaction
is so slow that it will not have reached an equilibrium condition
in many years.
Equations for Ionic Reactions. Reactions involving ionized
substances cannot be adequately represented by single equations,
because such equations cannot show all the species of ions and
molecules that take part in the changes. In fact, each species of
undissociated molecule concerned requires a separate equation
to show its passage into, or out of, the ionized condition; but
these equations may be written together so as to intersect and give
a complete picture of the whole change.
In the next section eight rules to be observed in writing ionic
equations are given, and by following these rules one is able
to give, by means of the equations alone, both a fairly complete
description, and a remarkably good explanation, of the reaction.
Until the student has thoroughly mastered the ionic theory, he
should write equations in the fully ionized intersecting form for
every reaction which he studies. Later, with the practice thus
acquired, he will be able to interpret ordinary single equations in

terms of the ionic theory.
Rules for Writing Equations in Ionic Form:
1. Solid substances are underlined: e.g., NaCl.
2. The un-ionized part of substances in solution is shown by
the molecular formula without ionic charges: e.g., HC2H3O2.
3. Ionized substances in solution are shown by the formulas
of the ions: e.g., Na+ Cl".
4. All salts, strong acids and strong bases (that is, those which
are as much as 45 per cent ionized in 0.1 equivalent solution) are
to be treated, as far as equation writing is concerned, as if they
were completely ionized: e.g., N a + C l " ; H + C l " ; N a + O H " ;
2H+SO4"".
5. In equations showing the reactions of weak acids and bases,
the un-ionized parts cannot be neglected. Both the un-ionized
and ionized parts must be shown, e.g.:
HC 2 H 3 O 2 ^ H+ + C 2 H 3 O 2 -
NH4OH ^ NH 4 + + O H "
6. Solid substances formed in a reaction and thus precipitated

are indicated by an arrow pointing downward: e.g., AgCl J,
7. Gaseous substances formed in a reaction and thus escaping
from the solution are indicated by an arrow pointing upward: e.g.,
co2t
8. Intersecting equations. To represent a reaction which takes
place between two ionized substances, the formulas of the ions
should be arranged so that positive will always be adjacent to neg-
ative in either the horizontal or vertical direction. An arrow
then should be inserted to point toward the formula of the new
combination.
Ag+ NOr
Cl~ Na+
1
AgClj
When weak electrolytes are brought together a series of reactions

ensues. First the ionization of these electrolytes is shown in hori-
zontal equations as in Rule 5, but the ionic products must be placed
with positive ion above negative so that, if either new pair of ions
METATHESIS 105
combines, the reaction may be shown by an intersecting vertical

equation.
HC 2 H 3 O 2 ^ H+ + C 2 H 3 O 2 "
NH4OH ^ OH" + NH4+
1
H2O
Types of Reactions. A student who tries simply to remember
each chemical reaction which comes to his attention very soon
becomes bewildered, then discouraged so far as chemistry is con-
cerned, and finally he may acquire a dislike for the subject.
The remedy for this condition is to compare each new reaction
with those previously considered and to group together all those
which show such similarities as to warrant their being classified
as of the same type.
In the following pages several types of ionic reactions are dis-
cussed and illustrated with specific examples.
The most important distinction among the types is whether or
not a change of valence is involved. Valence, as we shall use the
term, is the algebraic number of unit electric charges on an ion
or radical.
TYPES OF IONIC REACTIONS
Metathesis — interchange of radicals — no change of valence.

(a) Precipitation.
(b) Neutralization.
(c) Displacement of a weak acid from its salt.
(d) Displacement of a weak base from its salt.
(e) Hydrolysis.
Formation of Complex ions — no change of valence.
Oxidation and Reduction — valence changes.
METATHESIS
Metathesis, or double decomposition, is one of the main types of

chemical reaction, and it takes place between two compounds, con-
sisting merely in an interchange of radicals, the positive radical of
the first compound pairing off with the negative radical of the
second, and the negative radical of the first pairing off with the
positive of the second. Such a reaction involves no change in
the valence of any radical concerned.
When solutions of two ionized substances are mixed, the oppor-

tunity is thereby furnished for the formation of two new substances.
What will actually take place depends on the properties of these
two substances, as well as upon the properties of the original
substances. The various types of metathetical reactions are
classified on this basis.
Precipitation. When a solution of silver nitrate is added to a
solution of sodium chloride a voluminous, curdy, white precipitate
instantly appears and analysis of the precipitate shows it to be
silver chloride.
The mixing together of the solutions brings together the four
ions, Ag+, NO 3 ", Na+, and Cl", from which four different pairs, or
complete substances, are possible, AgNO 3 , NaCl, NaN0 3 , AgCl.
Reference to a solubility table shows that the first three of these
are very soluble, and reference to the table of ionization values
shows that each of the three is highly ionized; on the other hand,
AgCl is very insoluble. The latter salt, therefore, precipitates
until there are left in solution only the extremely few of its ions
corresponding to its solubility.
Ag+ N(V
Cl" Na+
1
AgCl I
For writing the equations of ionic reactions the set of rules

given on page 104 has been devised. Silver nitrate and sodium
chloride are each about 86 per cent ionized, according to the table.
In the equation these substances both appear as completely
ionized, the 14 per cent un-ionized portion of each which exists
before mixing the solutions being disregarded (Rule 4). As a
matter of fact, as soon as AgCl is precipitated and Ag+ and Cl"
ions are thus removed, the original 14 per cent of un-ionized
AgNO 3 and NaCl are no longer in equilibrium with the ions; fur-
ther ionization ensues, and the salts enter as completely into re-
action as if they had been 100 per cent ionized at the start.
Sodium nitrate, according to the table, is 86 per cent ionized.
Hence 14 per cent of the total amount of this salt must have passed
into the un-ionized condition. It will be noticed that this fact is
neglected in the equation. For all practical purposes the major
part of the Na+ and NO 3 " ions are left in exactly the same con-
METATHESIS 107
dition after the reaction as they were in the beginning, and it is

exactly this fact which is emphasized by this manner of writing
the equation, for these ions simply appear beside the oppositely
charged ions with which they were originally paired and nothing
happens to them. They are placed adjacent to each other, show-
ing that after the changes have taken place they are capable of
balancing each other electrically.
The arrow is indicative of the real reaction, and the formulas
of the components which do change are placed in the line of the
arrow and constitute the equation Ag+ + Cl~ —» AgCl, which, for
convenience, was arranged in a vertical line.
Experiments have shown that any ionized silver salt, e.g.,
Ag2SO4, AgC2H3O2, AgC103, may be substituted for AgN0 3 , and
any ionized chloride may be substituted for the NaCl, and the same
results will be obtained. The union of Ag+ and Cl ~ ions to form
insoluble AgCl is in no wise affected by the other ions with which
these ions are at the outset in electrical balance. These other
ions will simply remain in the solution unless they, too, are the
ions of some insoluble salt, for example, BaSO4 or an undissociated
molecule like H2O.
The above principles do not apply solely to silver salts and chlo-
rides, but to all solutions. Reference to the table of solubilities
on page 364 will inform one whether or not a precipitate will be
formed when any two solutions of electrolytes are mixed together.
PROBLEMS
Divide a good-sized sheet of paper into two columns; in the
left-hand column describe the observable effects of bringing
together the substances noted in the cases below; in the right-hand
column write the equation in the fully ionized intersecting form,
following Rules 1 to 8, inclusive, on page 104. In the following,
unless otherwise specified, the formula stands for the substance
in a fairly dilute solution. The table of solubilities in the Ap-
pendix should be consulted.
24. AgNO 3 + NaCl.
25. AgCl (solid) + Nal.
26. BaCl 2 + Na 2 CO 3 .
27. Pb(NO 3 ) 2 + H2SO4.
28. PbSO 4 (solid) + Na 2 S.
29. Cd(NO 3 ) 2 + Na 2 S.
30. CaCl 2 + Na 2 SO 4 .
31. CaSO4 (solid) + Na 2 CO 3 .
Neutralization. Acids and bases have the ability to mutually
neutralize the distinctive properties of each other.
An acid tastes sour, it turns blue litmus red, and it imparts dis-
tinctive colors to a number of other organic substances which may
be used in the same way as litmus; it reacts with active metals,
hydrogen being evolved and salts of the metal being left; it
reacts with calcium carbonate with an effervescence due to the
escape of carbon dioxide. These properties of an acid are all lost
when the acid has reacted with an equivalent quantity of a base.
A base tastes alkaline, that is, like lime water; it turns red
litmus blue, as well as imparting distinctive colors to the other
organic substances which may be used in a similar manner; it
causes a slippery feeling if a drop of its solution is rubbed between
the finger tips. These properties of a base are all lost when the
base has reacted with an equivalent quantity of an acid.
When the neutralization has been very carefully carried out, so
that exactly equivalent quantities of acid and base have been used,
the resulting solution shows none of the characteristic properties
or either acid or base. It still conducts electricity strongly, show-
ing that it contains ions; if it is evaporated a solid salt is left.
Since we know that all acids yield hydrogen ions when dissolved,
although the negative ions may be of most divergent kinds, it is
obvious that the distinctive properties of acid solutions must be the
properties of hydrogen ions. Likewise it is obvious that the dis-
tinctive properties of solutions of bases must be the properties of
hydroxyl ions.
Since we may see in the table of ionization values that pure
water contains but 0.000,000,1 mole of H+ ions and 0.000,000,1
mole of OH~ ions per liter, we may know in advance that when an
acid and a base are mixed the H+ and O H " ions cannot remain in
the presence of each other, but must unite according to the reaction
H+ + OH" -» H2O
until only a number corresponding to the exceedingly small con-
centration just stated is left.
A salt may be defined as a compound consisting of the positive
radical of a base and the negative radical of an acid. Hence the
NEUTRALIZATION 109
products of neutralization are always un-ionized water and a salt.

But the table of ionization values tells us that all salts are highly
ionized, although acids and bases may or may not be.
Neutralization of a Strong Add and a Strong Base. When a
strong, that is, a highly ionized acid (for example, HC1), is neutral-
ized with a strong base (for example, NaOH), and the resulting
salt, in this case NaCl, is soluble, the essential reaction is the for-
mation of water from its ions.
H+ cr
OH~ Na+
1
H2O
In this connection a most interesting fact comes to our attention,
namely, that the heat produced by the neutralization of one
equivalent of any strong base with one equivalent of any strong
acid is always the same, namely, 13,700 calories. That the heat
effect is the same is in itself a strong indication that the reaction
is in each case the same, and this fact, then, is in entire accord with
our conception of the reaction of neutralization. In the follow-
ing table are given some of the measured values of the heat of
neutralization of acids and bases, both weak and strong.
Heat evolved by the neutralization of one equivalent of
acid with one equivalent of base (in calories)
HC1 HNO3 HC2H3O2 H2S

NaOH 13,700 13,700 13,300 3,800
KOH 13,700 13,800 13,300 3,800
NH4OH 12,400 12,500 12,000 3,100
Neutralization of a Weak Add or a Weak Base. Weak acids

and weak bases are but sparingly ionized. Acetic acid is typical
of a rather weak acid, being 1.4 per cent ionized in 0.1 N solution.
Ammonium hydroxide is typical of a rather weak base, it having
the same degree of ionization as acetic acid, namely, 1.4 per
cent in a 0.1 N solution. Neither acetic acid nor ammonium
hydroxide solution conducts the current strongly, but if the two
solutions are mixed, we observe what is a rather startling fact if
we have not thought out in advance what to expect, namely,
that the resulting solution is a strong conductor.
Neither the acid nor the base alone furnishes many ions, but
when they are mixed, the H+ and O H " ions present unite at once.
This leaves the un-ionized parts of the acid and base out of equi-
librium, and further ionization occurs in consequence. This
process continues until both the acid and the base have become
fully ionized because there can be no accumulation of H+ and OH"
ions in presence of each other.
The neutralization of a weak acid and a weak base then con-
sists of three simultaneous but distinct ionic reactions: the ion-
ization of the acid, the ionization of the base, and the formation
of water from its ions. These reactions may be arranged in an
intersecting form in order to show which of the components take
part simultaneously in two reactions:
HC2HA ^ H+ + C2HA"
NH4OH ^ OH" + NH 4 +
H2O
As this train of reactions proceeds it is obvious that NH.4+ and
C2H3O2" ions, that is, the ions of the salt ammonium acetate, ac-
cumulate in the solution, and that their presence accounts for the
high conductivity of the neutral solution.
The total heat effect, 12,000 calories, produced by the action of
one equivalent of acetic acid and one equivalent of ammonium
hydroxide, is the sum of the heat effects of the three separate reac-
tions, and we should expect the value to be different from the
value of the neutralization of a strong acid and a strong base.
Since 13,700 calories must be generated by the formation of 1
mole of water, the difference between this value and 12,000, or 1,700
calories, must have been absorbed in the ionizing of the acid and
the base.
Displacement of a Weak Acid from Its Salt. When a salt of a
weak acid is treated with the solution of a strong acid the ions
of the weak acid unite to form un-ionized molecules and the salt
of the strong acid remains. One example of such a displacement
has been seen (p. 88, Exp. 10 (&)) in the action of sulphuric acid
with sodium acetate
2H+ SO 4 ""
2C 2 H 3 O 2 " 2Na+
jr
2HC2H3O2
METATHESIS 111
This type of reaction is particularly interesting when the salt

of the weak acid is sparingly soluble. Ferrous sulphide is a salt
of the weak acid H 2 S. It is very insoluble in water, but it passes
completely into solution in dilute HC1. The formation of the
un-ionized H 2 S removes S ions and thus allows the ionization
of the ferrous sulphide to continue unchecked
FeS; Fe++ S"
2C1~ 2H+
i
H2S
Displacement of a Weak Base from Its Salt. An example of this
kind of process is given by the action of the strong base, sodium
hydroxide, upon a solution of the salt, ammonium chloride. The
salt solution is odorless, but the odor of ammonia is observed as
soon as the strong base is added.
NH 4 + Cl"
OH" Na+
IT
NH4OH
In this case, as in the case of the weak acid, the major part of the
ions of the weak base combine to form un-ionized molecules.
The strong odor is due to the escape of small amounts of am-
monia, NH3, from the solution. Ammonium hydroxide is capable
of undergoing two kinds of dissociation: the electrolytic disso-
ciation, or ionization, which we have already discussed, and a
non-electrolytic dissociation,
NH4OH *± H2O + NH 3
The latter sort of dissociation is subject to the same rules of equi-
librium as is ionization, and we can have un-ionized ammonium
hydroxide at the same time in equilibrium with two sets of dis-
sociation products,
NH 4 + + O H ^ NH4OH ^ NH 3 + H2O
Therefore, whenever NH 4 + and OH" ions are brought together,
they must come to equilibrium with a large proportion of NH4OH
and the latter must come to equilibrium with NH 3 and H2O and,
through the NH 4 OH, the NH 3 and H 2 O must be in equilibrium
with the ions. In dilute solutions, where the proportion of H2O
is large, the amount of NH 3 necessary to produce equilibrium is

small. Such a substance as pure ammonium hydroxide of the
composition shown by the formula is unknown, because, if it
existed for a moment, it would at once undergo non-electrolytic
dissociation until it came to a state of equilibrium with the prod-
ucts H2O and NH 3 , the first product remaining as a part of the
NH4OH solution, and the larger part of the NH 3 escaping as gas.
The more water present, however, obviously the less NH 3 is
necessary to maintain equilibrium with the NH 4 OH.
Basic Properties of the Metal Oxides. The oxides of the metals
are characterized as a class in that they are basic. The term
" basic " implies the presence of O H " ions when these oxides are
dissolved in or suspended in water. The most strongly basic
oxides, such as Na20, K 2 O, CaO, BaO, react violently with water
and produce well-defined hydroxides NaOH, KOH, Ca(OH) 2 ,
Ba(OH) 2 which can be isolated as well-defined solid substances of
the exact composition shown by the formulas. These hydroxides
are soluble (Ca(OH) 2 sparingly so) in water, and the dissolved
hydroxides are highly ionized into simple metal ions and OH~
ions.
The oxides of the heavy metals are likewise basic, but they are
only feebly basic. These heavy metal oxides are as a class almost
insoluble, yet when they are suspended in water a certain low con-
centration of metal ions and OH" ions is built up in the solution.
Let us discuss two heavy-metal oxides, ferric oxide, Fe 2 O 3 , and
cupric oxide, CuO, as typical of this class.
Powdered black copper oxide when stirred into water gives a
black suspension and does not visibly dissolve. If the suspension
is allowed to stand the black powder settles to the bottom and the
clear liquid above contains so few ions of C u + + and OH~ that they
cannot be detected by the reagents commonly used for detecting
these ions, NH4OH, Na 2 S. Yet we are confronted with the
fact that, when acid is added to the suspension of copper oxide,
the black powder dissolves completely and we obtain a clear blue
solution of the cupric salt. The initial and final substances in this
reaction are given in the equation
CuO + 2HC1 -* CuCl 2 + H2O
which shows that 1 F.W. of CuO neutralizes 2 F.W. of HC1.
In a similar manner red powdered ferric oxide stirred into
METATHESIS 113
water gives a red suspension. Upon adding HC1 this red powder
very slowly dissolves (much more slowly than copper oxide), and
finally a clear yellow solution of ferric salt is obtained
Fe 2 O 3 + 6HC1 -> 2FeCl 3 + 3H 2 O
Although we are very uncertain about the intermediate forma-

tion of definite hydroxides we are certain that the water in which
the metal oxides is suspended contains metal ions and hydroxide
ions, and we can represent the equilibrium condition by the rever-
sible reactions:
CuO + H 2 O ^ Cu(OH) 2 ^ Cu++ 2OH"
Fe 2 O 3 + 3H 2 O ^± 2Fe(OH) 3 ^ 2Fe+++ 6OH"
The removal of OH~ by acids allows the reactions to run com-

pletely to the right and the metal oxides to dissolve completely.
Precipitation of Metal Hydroxides. In general the addition
of a soluble base to the solution of a metal salt produces a precip-
itate. This precipitate is of rather variable composition, but its
nature is best understood if it is regarded as the hydroxide of the
metal. Thus, sodium hydroxide added to copper sulphate solu-
tion gives a light blue voluminous precipitate and sodium hydrox-
Cu++ SO 4 "" Fe+++ 3C1"
2OH" 2Na+ 3OH" 3Na+
1 1
Cu(OH)2j Fe(OH)3|
ide added to ferric chloride gives a voluminous reddish brown
precipitate. These precipitates which we have designated as the
hydroxides, Cu(OH) 2 and Fe(OH) 3 , certainly" consist of the metal
oxides in combination with water, although whether it is the definite
amount to form these definite hydroxides* is rather doubtful.
These fresh precipitates will dissolve instantly in dilute acids
instead of slowly as do the anhydrous oxides. Furthermore these
precipitates if separated on a filter and dried will lose all their
water content and revert to the oxides. The light blue copper
hydroxide even when suspended in water will turn black at the
boiling temperature, indicating at least a partial loss of water.
* These precipitates also contain variable amounts of the metal salts,
that is, they are basic salts in reality. It is better, however, to ignore this
fact at present as it tends to confuse the argument.
Formation of Volatile Products. When a product of a reaction

is volatile it has a tendency to escape from the sphere of action,
and the progress of the reaction towards the formation of this
product is favored.
When all the products of a reaction taking place in solution are
soluble, their concentration will increase as the reaction pro-
gresses, until a point of equilibrium is reached, at which point the
products react with each other to form the original substances
again, and the backward reaction takes place with sufficient
rapidity just to offset the effect of the forward reaction.
But with the escape of one of the products as a gas, and thereby
the removal of this product from the sphere of action, the reverse
reaction is eliminated, and the forward reaction is thus enabled
to run to completion.
PROBLEMS
Describe the observable effects and write the fully ionized equa-
tions for the following cases:
32. HNO 3 + NaOH.
33. HC 2 H 3 O 2 + NH 4 OH.
34. Mg(OH) 2 (solid) + HNO 3 .
35. CuO (solid) + H2SO4.
36. H 2 S (gas) + NaOH.
37. NH 3 (gas) + HC1.
38. H(C 7 H 6 O 2 ) (solid) + NaOH.
Benzoic acid H (C7H6O2) is a sparingly soluble solid, and a little
stronger than acetic acid.
39. K(C 7 H 6 O 2 ) + HC1.
40. Ca(C 2 H 3 O 2 ) 2 + H N 0 3 . Note odor.
41. (NH 4 ) 2 SO 4 + NaOH. Note odor.
42. NH4CI (in excess) + Ca(OH) 2 (solid). Note odor.
43. CaCO 3 (solid) + HN0 3 .
44. CaCO 3 (solid) + HC 2 H 3 O 2 .
45. FeS (solid) + HC1.
46. MgCl 2 + N a 0 H .
47. MgCl 2 + NH 4 OH.
48. MgCl 2 + NH4CI + NH4OH.
49. Ca(OH) 2 (solid) + FeCl 3 .
50. Ca(OH) 2 (saturated solution) + CO 2 (gas, in moderate
amount and then in excess).
HYDROLYSIS 115
HYDROLYSIS
The ionization of water is so slight that often it can be totally
disregarded. It cannot be neglected, however, in solutions of
salts when either the acid or the base — or both, from which the
salt is derived, is extremely weak.
Sodium cyanide is the salt of the weak hydrocyanic acid,
HCN (ionization = 0.01 per cent in 0.1 equivalent solution),
and the strong base, sodium hydroxide. A solution of this
salt shows an alkaline reaction to litmus, thus demonstrating
that the solution contains an appreciable quantity of OH~ ions.
This is the result of hydrolysis, and the process may be explained
as follows:
Na+ CN'
H+
HCN
The salt, in accordance with the general rule for salts, will exist
in solution in the ionized condition. Water is in equilibrium with
a very small number of its own ions. But even the small num-
ber of H+ ions thus furnished to the solution is more than can
exist in presence of the large concentration of CN~ ions of the
salt. Undissociated hydrocyanic acid, HCN, must form; but
since this removes some of the H+ ions, the equilibrium between
water and its ions is temporarily destroyed. The equilibrium
must be reestablished through the ionization of more water.
This cycle of reactions repeats itself a great many times until
complete equilibrium among all the components is established.
When this condition is reached, as really happens in a very short
time, there has been a considerable accumulation of OH~ ions
and of an equivalent amount of un-ionized HCN.
In order to fully comprehend the extent and the limitation of
this hydrolysis, we should consider the reverse reaction which
occurs when solutions of hydrocyanic acid and sodium hydrox-
ide are mixed:
Na+ OH"
HCN ;=± CN" H+
H2O
The few ions furnished by the acid combine at once with OH"
ions of the base to form water, and this removal of H+ ions allows
more of the acid to ionize. This cycle of operations repeats itself

until we have the same state of equilibrium as existed in the solu-
tion obtained by dissolving pure sodium cyanide in pure water.
The reaction of neutralization in this case goes about 99 per cent
of the way to completion when equivalent amounts of the acid and
base are mixed. The reverse reaction, that is, the hydrolysis of
sodium cyanide, progresses only about 1 per cent of the way to
completion before the state of equilibrium is reached.
If we consider the case of a salt of a much weaker acid than
hydrocyanic acid, or of a salt of both a very weak acid and a very
weak base, it is fairly obvious that hydrolysis will be much more
extensive.
Aluminum sulphide furnishes a good example of this, for when
it is treated with water its hydrolysis is complete;
2A1+++ 3S"
6H2O ^ 6OH" 6H+
1 1
2A1(OH)3 3H 2 S
1 1
2A1(OH)3 1 3H 2 S t
Note in this reaction that solid A12S3 disappears, and solid A1(OH)31
and gaseous H 2 S f appear.
IONIZATION OF POLYBASIC AdDS

It is usually true with polybasic acids that one hydrogen radical
ionizes with greater facility than the remaining ones. Thus
phosphoric acid ionizes primarily as a monobasic acid
H 3 PO 4 ^ H+ + H 2 PO 4 ~
to the extent of 27 per cent in 0.1 equivalent solution. The fairly
high concentration of H+ ions thus established prevents appre-
ciable ionization of the H 2 PO 4 ~ ion, but if one equivalent of NaOH
is added for each mole of H 3 PO 4 , the H+ ions from the first H
radical are entirely removed and the H 2 PO 4 ~ ion itself ionizes
to the extent of 0.2 per cent. If a second equivalent of NaOH

is now added, the HP0 4 ~~ ion is enabled to ionize to the extent
of 0.0002 per cent.
IONIZATION OF POLYBASIC ACIDS 117
When the hydrolysis of the salt of a polybasic acid is considered,
the different H radicals must be treated separately. Thus when 1
mole of tertiary sodium phosphate, Na3PO4, is dissolved in water,
hydrolysis takes place very extensively as follows:
Na+ Na+ Na+ PO4~~~
H+
The solution will have a very strong alkaline reaction, since it

contains a large fraction of 1 mole each of ionized NaOH and of
ionized secondary sodium phosphate, Na 2 HPO 4 . The O H " ions
thus formed check the hydrolysis of the secondary sodium phos-
phate; but if solid secondary sodium phosphate is dissolved in
water, hydrolysis of this salt ensues to a sufficient extent to make
the solution alkaline to litmus.
Na+ Na+ HPO4"
H 2 O;=±OH~ H+
jr
H2PO4"
When primary sodium phosphate, NaH 2 PO 4 , is dissolved, a
weakly acid solution is obtained, this effect being due to the
tendency of the second hydrogen radical of the acid to ionize.
Na+ H2PO4"
jr
H+
HPO4""
PROBLEMS
When the following salts are dissolved in water, decide from a
consideration of the degree of ionization of the base and acid con-
cerned in each case whether the solution will be neutral, weakly
acidic, strongly acidic, weakly basic, or strongly basic, and give
the explanation and an intersecting ionized equation.
51. KNO3. 58. NaHCO3.
52. Ca(CN)2. 59. NaHSO4.
53. NH4C2H3O2. 60. NaH2PO4.
54. A1CU. 61. Na2HPO4.
55. A1(C2H3O2)3. 62. Na3PO4.
56. Na3As04. 63. AgNO3.
57. Na2CO3.
COMPLEX IONS
Ammoniates. Review what was said in Chapter II about water
of crystallization and hydrates (pp 62-65). Two definite crystalline
compounds of sodium carbonate and water are the monohydrate
and the decahydrate. Both of these will dissolve in water, but
both solutions are absolutely identical. Furthermore, either one
or the other of these hydrates can be caused to crystallize from
the solution by adjusting the temperature.
In solution, undoubtedly some water is in combination with
the salt, but it is impossible to say how much, because there is no
physical means of distinguishing the water thus held in com-
bination from the solvent water.
There are other substances than water, notably ammonia,
which form compounds similar to hydrates, in this case ammo-
niates. Numerous solid compounds containing ammonia of
crystallization are known, for example ammonio-copper sulphate
CuSO 4 4NH 3 -H2O, which is the subject of one of our later prepa-
rations (page 227). This substance is easily soluble in water con-
taining a little excess of ammonia, and it is possible to measure
how much ammonia is held to the salt, or rather to the positive
ion, in the solution. This may be done, for example, by passing
an electric current through the solution and measuring the pro-
portionate amounts of copper and ammonia which travel with
the positive current. Results show that 4 moles of NH3 travel
with each mole of Cu++ ions. The formula of the deep blue am-
monio-copper ion is therefore Cu-4NH 3 + + .
When a moderate amount of ammonia is added to a copper salt
solution, a light blue precipitate is formed which is really a basic
salt but which for simplicity we shall treat as the simple hydroxide.
Cu++ sor~
2NH4OH ^± 2OH " 2NH 4 +
jr
Cu(OH)21
Addition of more ammonia quickly causes this precipitate to
redissolve, giving an intensely deep blue solution
Cu(OH)2 ^ Cu++ + 2OH-
4NH4OH ;=± 4NH3 + 4H2O
Cu4NH3++
COMPLEX IONS 119
If the two sets of ionic equations are now put together it is

seen that 2NH 4 + and 2OH ~ have been left and these will combine
to form 2NH4OH, which will cancel. Thus the net result becomes:
Cu++ SO4~~
4NH 4 OH ;=± 4NH 3 + 4H 2 O
Cu-4NH3++
the resulting solution containing ionized (Cu4NH 3 )S0 4 and only-
enough excess of ammonia to prevent the dissociation of this
ammonia te.
It is interesting to note that, if freshly precipitated and thor-
oughly washed Cu(OH) 2 is treated with ammonia, a similar deep
blue solution is obtained, but in this case the negative ions are
hydroxyl instead of sulphate. Ammonio-copper hydroxide is
very soluble and very highly ionized, and the solution compares
in basic strength with one of sodium hydroxide.
It is most interesting that the addition of ammonia to the simple
ions of several of the heavy metals produces similar effects. The
base-forming character of the metals seems thereby to be greatly
strengthened. The following list gives the metals which possess
this property to a marked degree and also the formulas of their
ammonio ions:
copper (ous) Cu-2NH 3 + colorless
(ic) Cu-4NH 3 ++ deep blue
silver Ag-2NH3+ colorless
zinc Zn-4NH3++ colorless
cadmium Cd-4NH 3 ++ colorless
nickel Ni-4NH 3 ++ blue
cobalt (ous) Co-4NH3++ red
(ic) Co-6NH3+++ brownish yellow
Aluminum, iron, tin, lead, and some other metals do not have
the power of forming such ammonio compounds.
Complex Negative Ions. When an equivalent amount of sodium
cyanide is added to a solution of silver nitrate, quantitative pre-
cipitation of silver cyanide takes place
Ag+ N(V
CN" Na+
1
AgCNj
When another equivalent of sodium cyanide is added the pre-

cipitate entirely redissolves. In this solution the silver is found
to be in the negative ion, and to be associated with 2 cyanide
radicals.
AgCN — Ag+CN"
CN" Na+
Ag(CN) 2 -
There are thus two possible reactions between Ag+ and C N " ions
Ag+ + CN " ^± AgCN 1 and Ag+ + 2CN " ^ Ag(CN) 2 ~
The effect of increasing CN" ion concentration upon the second
reaction is far greater than on the first. Thus when an excess
of CN~ ion is employed the removal of Ag+ ions in the second
reaction is so complete as to cause the first reaction to go back-
ward.
This example is typical of complex ion formation. The for-
mulas of a few complex ions in the decreasing order of their
stability are:
Co(CN),~" yellow
Fe(CN) 6 yellow
Fe(CN)6"~ red
Ag(CN) 2 " colorless
Cu(CN) 2 " colorless
Ni(CN) 4 ~~ colorless
CuCl," colorless
Agl 2 " colorless
AaCl." colorless
The last in the list is so little stable that it can exist only in a
concentrated chloride solution. Dilution of such a solution
causes precipitation of all the silver as simple silver chloride.
In solution complex ions are in equilibrium with their con-
stituents, for example, Cu-4NH3++ ^ Cu++ + 4NH 3 . In fact, an
excess of ammonia is necessary to stabilize the complex in solu-
tion. The ions NO 3 ~, SO4~~, CO 3 , PO4 are so very stable that
we do not think of them as other than simple ions. Nevertheless
they may be similar in nature to the complex ions just considered
except for the fact that no simple constituents, of which they might
be supposed to be built, have ever been identified.
REACTIONS OF OXIDATION AND REDUCTION 121
PROBLEMS
Describe observable effects and write the fully ionized equa-
tion for the following cases, when the reagent (second formula)
is added (a) in limited amount, and (6) in excess.
64. ZnSO4 + NH 4 OH.
65. CuCl solid + NH 4 OH.
66. A g2 SO 4 + NH4OH.
67. (Cu4NH 3 )S0 4 + HNO 3 .
68. (Ag-2NH3)C1 + HNO 3 .
69. AgNO 3 + KI.
70. AgCl (solid) + NaCl (saturated solution, in very large
excess).
71. AgNO 3 + KCN.
72. CuCl solid + KCN.
REACTIONS OF OXIDATION AND REDUCTION

Ionic Displacement. Electromotive Series. When a strip of
zinc is placed in a solution of copper sulphate, it is noticed that
a spongy deposit of copper metal soon appears on the surface of
the zinc, and that the solution loses its blue color. Then if the
solution is tested for the presence of copper and zinc ions by add-
ing ammonium sulphide, it is found that this reagent gives a white
precipitate. This test shows that copper ions are now absent
and that zinc ions are present because we know ammonium sul-
phide will precipitate black copper sulphide from a solution of
copper ions, and white zinc sulphide from a solution of zinc ions.
Since ordinary pieces of metal are not charged, it is obvious that
the reaction consists in a transfer of the positive charges of
the copper ions to the zinc atoms, or, more strictly, of negative
electrons from the zinc atoms to the copper ions:
Zn°->Zn+++ 2 0
SO 4 "" Cu++
1
Cu°
The small zero mark ° is not essential; it may be used when it is
desired to attract particular attention to the fact that the atom to
which it is attached is not electrically charged. Since the SO4~~
ions take no part in the above reaction beyond balancing by their
charges the positive charges of the metal ions, we can eliminate

them from the equation, which then becomes simplified to:
Cu++ + Zn» -» Cu° 1 + Zn++
The metals, including hydrogen, may be arranged in the order in

which they tend to pass into the ionic condition, as, in this case,
zinc does at the expense of copper. Such a series is known as the
electromotive series, because the electromotive force of such
reactions, if properly disposed in a cell, may be made to send a
current through an external wire connector. (See Electromotive
Series, Appendix, page 353.)
A characteristic of metallic elements is that they can form simple
positive ions, but never simple negative ions. In other words, a
metal atom may lose one or more negative electrons, but it can
never attach to itself electrons in excess of those forming the make-
up of the unelectrified atom.
On the other hand, a characteristic of some of the most pro-
nouncedly non-metallic elements, fluorine, chlorine, bromine,
iodine, and sulphur, is that they can form simple negative ions.
No non-metal ever forms simple positive ions. The non-metals
may be arranged in a negative electromotive series.
The broadest, as well as the simplest, definition of oxidation is
the increasing of the positive valence of an element. This can be
accomplished only through the simultaneous and equivalent de-
crease of the valence of another element involved in the reaction.
The other element is said to be reduced. Thus oxidation and
reduction always occur together; one cannot occur alone. In the
above definition, positive valence is considered from an algebraic
standpoint. Thus iodine in an iodide is said to be oxidized when
its valence is changed from — 1 to 0; as, for example, in the re-
action
C12°
21" - > 2 O + I 2 °
2K+ 2CF
If we take the viewpoint that valence is due to the attraction of

electrical charges on the atoms, the difference between reactions of
oxidation and reduction and of metathesis resolves itself into this:
oxidation and reduction involve a transfer of charges from one atom
EEACTIONS OF OXIDATION AND REDUCTION 123
to another; metathesis involves no transfer of charges, but simply a

regrouping of the charged radicals.
The simplest type of oxidation and reduction reaction is that
which involves merely the charging and discharging of simple
ions. The course of such a reaction can be predicted from a
knowledge of where the elements concerned stand in the electro-
motive series.
PROBLEMS
In the left-hand column state the observable effect and in the
right-hand column write the fully ionized equations.
73. Fe (metal) + CuSO4.
74. Zn (metal) + HC1.
75. Cu (metal) + HC1.
76. Ag (metal) + AuCl 3 .
77. Cu (metal) + PtCU-
78. AgCl (finely divided solid) + Zn (zinc dust) suspended
in water.
79. Ag (in a photographic print) + PtCl^
80. FeCl2 + Cl2.
81. CuCl (solid) + Cl2.
82. Na (metal) + H 2 O.
FARADAY'S LAW
Let us consider an electric circuit consisting of a dynamo and
metallic conductors connecting the poles of the dynamo to the two
poles of an electrolytic cell. The same amount of electricity flows
through every section of the circuit, but the mechanism by which
the current passes in the different parts of the circuit is of three
different kinds:
(1) Through the metallic conductor the current passes without
any alteration of the conductor. The electrons, which may be
regarded as atoms of negative electricity, simply pass through the
metallic mass without dislocating the atoms of the metal. (2)
Through the electrolytic conductor the current passes solely by the
movement of positive and negative ions in opposite directions.
(3) At the surface of the electrode electrons are transferred to or
from the atoms or ions at that surface. This involves a change of
valence, and at the cathode, which is the electrode at which elec-
trons flow into the cell from the metallic conductor, reduction
occurs. At the anode, which is the electrode at which electrons
flow out through the metallic conductor, oxidation occurs.
The sum of the changes at the anode and cathode makes a
complete reaction of oxidation and reduction, but the location of
the oxidation is remote from the location of the reduction.
Michael Faraday studied quantitatively the extent of the chem-
ical change at the electrodes when electric currents pass through
solutions, and in 1834 he stated a law which has since borne his
name:
Faraday's Law: When the same amount of electric current is
passed through several electrochemical cells the quantities of the
new substances produced at the several electrodes are chemically
equivalent to each other.
The amount of electricity which must pass to effect the change
of one chemical equivalent (for example, to liberate 1.008 gram of
hydrogen) has been found to be 96,500 coulombs. This quantity
has been named the f araday, and it is designated by the symbol F.
The explanation of the mechanism of the electrolytic conduct-
ance in specific cases will make the application of Faraday's law
clearer.
A current is passed through a solution of copper sulphate in a
U-tube with copper electrodes in the opposite arms. At the
cathode copper ions are reduced
2 0 + Cu++ -> Cu°

thus impoverishing the solution of Cu++ ions. At the anode
copper atoms at the surface have electrons withdrawn, thus pro-
ducing C u + + ions
Cu° -> Cu++ + 2 0
and enriching the solution in Cu++ ions. It is fundamental that

every portion of the solution shall at all times remain electrically
neutral, and this condition is preserved through the movement
of the ions through the solution, the SO4~~ ions moving towards
the anode and the C u + + ions towards the cathode.
It is to be remarked that in the cell just described the SO4
ions are not discharged. They simply migrate through the solution
to preserve the electric balance with the copper ions which are
entering the solution at the anode and leaving in equal numbers at
REACTIONS OF OXIDATION AND REDUCTION 125
the cathode. If the anode were of an unattackable material, such

as platinum, the current would have to pass the anode surface by
some different mechanism. As a matter of fact, oxygen gas es-
capes at a platinum anode in a CuSO4 solution, the mechanism
being indicated in the equation
s o r ~ + H 2 O - » 2 H + s o r ~ + ô2 + 2 0
It should be remarked that just as the symbol Cu stands for
63.6 grams of copper or 6.06 X 1023 actual atoms, the symbol ©
stands for 96,500 coulombs of electricity or 6.06 X 1023 actual
electrons.
It should also be stated, to make the relation of positive and
negative electricity clearer, that neutral atoms of elements ap-
parently contain both positive and negative electricity in equal
amounts. The positive electricity is confined within the structure
of the atom. In chemical changes atoms may alter their net
charge by the loss or gain of a small number of electrons without
destroying their identity.
Electric currents forced through chemical cells from an outside
source of energy such as a dynamo can force chemical reactions of
oxidation and reduction to take place. Reactions of oxidation
and reduction which will take place spontaneously under their
own power may on the other hand cause a current to flow through
an external metallic conductor if the solutions and electrodes are
properly arranged. For example, if zinc is placed in a copper
sulphate solution, zinc passes into solution and copper is deposited.
No useful electric current is thereby generated. To dispose the
materials of this reaction so that an external current will flow let
us place a porous clay jar in a beaker; in the porous jar let us place
a copper sulphate solution in which dips a copper electrode; out-
side the porous jar in the beaker let us place zinc sulphate solution
in which dips a zinc electrode. The pores of the clay jar become
filled with solution so that ions can pass through, but the jar pre-
vents the copper sulphate solution mixing with the solution in con-
tact with the zinc. The oxidizing agent, C u + + ions, and the re-
ducing agent, Zn, are remote from each other. Now if the zinc
and copper electrodes are connected by a wire, a current flows,
and zinc dissolves from the zinc electrode and copper deposits on
the copper electrode: Zn -> Zn++ + 2 8 ; 2 0 + Cu++ -> Cu.
The electrons passing through the wire constitute the current in
that part of the circuit. The passage of Zn++ ions through the
porous wall in one direction and of SO4 ions in the other direc-
tion comprise the current in that part of the circuit.
PROBLEMS
If an electric current is passed through each of the following
cells, state observations and write electrochemical reactions for
both the anode and the cathode.
83. Dilute silver nitrate with silver electrodes.
84. Dilute sulphuric acid with copper electrodes.
85. Dilute sulphuric acid with platinum (unattackable)
electrodes.
86. A current of 0.5 ampere passes between silver eleo
trodes in a silver nitrate solution for 2 hours. What is the
change of weight of the anode and of the cathode? (1 ampere
= 1 coulomb per second.)
LAW OF MOLECULAR CONCENTRATION
The treatment of equilibrium in the preceding pages has been

qualitative, having been based on the obvious principle that the
tendency of a reversible reaction, say
A + B;=±C + D
to proceed to the right is determined by the concentrations of A
and B, whereas the tendency to proceed to the left is determined by
the concentrations of C and D and that equilibrium is reached
when the effects of these two opposing changes exactly nullify
each other.
A fairly exact quantitative relationship exists among the con-
centrations of all the components of a reversible reaction when
this reaction is at equilibrium; this is known as the law of molec-
ular concentrations, and may be stated as follows: when a reversi-
ble reaction has reached a state of equilibrium, the product of the
molecular concentrations of all the components on one side of
the reaction bears a definite numerical ratio to the product of
the molecular concentrations of all the components on the other
side of the reaction. This ratio is known as the equilibrium con-
stant of the reaction, and it is always the same at the same
temperature although it may have different values at other
LAW OF MOLECULAR CONCENTRATION 127
temperatures. The word molecule here signifies any individual

component whether electrically charged or not. Thus, a solution
of acetic acid would contain the components H+, C2H3O2, and
HC2H3O2. Concentration signifies the amount of the component
divided by the volume and is usually expressed in gram molecu-
lar weights per liter. For example, take 100 cc. of a solution
containing 0.6 gram (0.01 mole) of HC2H3O2. Dividing the
amount (0.01 mole) by the volume, 0.1 liter, gives the ratio 0.1,
and thus the concentration of the total acetic acid is 0.1 F.W.
(formula weight) per liter. Since the fraction ionized is 0.014 the
concentration of hydrogen ion, [H+],* is 0.0014; the concentration
of the acetate ions [C2H3O2~] is also 0.0014, and the concentration
of un-ionized acetic acid [HC2H3O2] is 0.1 - 0.0014 = 0.0986.
Derivation of the Law of Molecular Concentration from a Con-
sideration of the Speed of Reaction. Let us consider again the
general reaction
A + B ^ C + D
It is obvious that for a molecule of A to react with a molecule of

B the two must come into contact or collide. The chance for
collision of any single molecule of A with molecules of B is pro-
portional to the number of B in a given volume, that is, to the
concentration of B, but there are a great many molecules of A
each of which has the same chance to collide with molecules of B.
Therefore, the total number of collisions is proportional to the
product of the concentrations of A and B. However, the velocity of
the reaction towards the right, that is, the amount changed in
unit time in unit volume, is proportional to the number of collisions.
Thus
Velocity (-») = jfe, [A] [B]
The factor fci is a definite numerical value known as the propor-
tionality constant.
As the reaction progresses and C and D accumulate it is ob-
vious that collisions between C and D will ensue, and an exactly
similar consideration will show that the velocity in the opposite
direction is given by the expression
Velocity (*-) = k2 [C] [D]
* In mathematical equations the formula enclosed in brackets signifies
the concentration of the substance.
in which k2 is likewise a constant which depends on the chemical

affinities of C and D and naturally has a different numerical value
from k\.
Now a reversible reaction is at a point of equilibrium when
no further apparent change is taking place. The two opposing
reactions are without doubt taking place just the same, but they
exactly undo the effect of each other, making the total change
zero. Therefore
vel ( - 0 = vel (*-)
fc, [A] [B] = k2 [C] [D]
[C] [D] _ K R
= if
[ATTB]"^
K is known as the equilibrium constant of the reaction. It is the

ratio of the two velocity constants k\ and k2.
The number of components taking part in a reversible reaction
is not always four as in the equation involving ABCD. Thus in
the ionization of acetic acid, (HAc),
HAc ;=± H+ + Ac"
there is but one component on the left. Each molecule of HAc

has a definite tendency to ionize which is not dependent on any
other dissolved molecules or ion. Therefore the amount of acetic
acid which will ionize in unit time depends solely on the amount
present or
vel (-») = jfe, [HAc]
The speed of the opposing reaction is given by

vel («-) = k2 [H+] [Ac"]
and the condition of equilibrium is given in the expression

[H+] X [Ac"]
[HAc]
K is the ionization constant of acetic acid and has a numerical

value of 0.000018 when concentrations are given in moles per
liter.
Another example of equilibrium is that between sulphur triox-
LAW OF MOLECULAR CONCENTRATION 129
ide and its dissociation products at a temperature above 500°.

2SO3 ^± 2SO2 + O2
The velocity towards the right is dependent on the number of
collisions of SO3 molecules with each other or
vel (->) = ki [BO,] [SOJ = fci [SO,]*
The velocity toward the left is determined by the number of col-
lisions of three different molecules or one oxygen molecule with
two SO 2 molecules
vel («-) = kt [O2] [SO,] [SO,]
= h [O2] [SO2]2
and the equilibrium condition is determined by the expression
[SO2]2 • [O2]
= K
[SO,]'
Interesting as the foregoing line of reasoning is, and logical as
the deductions seem to be, the scientists who thought this out
would at once have discarded it if they had not found that it agreed
to a considerable degree of accuracy with the actual conditions
found to exist in systems in equilibrium.
Thus actual measurements of the three components in solu-
tions containing acetic acid, hydrogen ions, and acetate ions show
that, whatever the actual concentrations, the ratio always has the
same value, namely that of the equilibrium constant.
The importance of the manufacture of sulphuric acid has
caused a great amount of study to be made of the equilibrium
between sulphur dioxide, oxygen, and sulphur trioxide, and the
validity of the law of molecular concentrations, as applied to this
reaction, has been put to a rigid test.
The law is in fact of very wide application; it holds for non-
ionic as well as ionic reactions. The degree of ionization of
weakly ionized substances can be calculated with high precision ac-
cording to the law. But the behavior of strong electrolytes does
not conform as closely to this law, and the law is of value only
in a qualitative fashion to predict the extent of the ionization
of these substances. In this connection we may recall Rule 4
for writing ionized equations, which directed to treat all strong
electrolytes as if they were completely ionized.
PROBLEMS
87. Acetic acid in 0.1 molal solution is 1.4 per cent ionized.
Find the value of the ionization constant K.
HAc ^ H+ + Ac"
[H+] X [Ac"
= K
[HAc]
88. Find the percentage ionization of acetic acid in molal
solution. Take the value of the ionization constant as
0.000018 and solve the quadratic equation by the method
of approximation.
89. What is the concentration of hydrogen ions in a 0.1
molal solution of acetic acid?
90. What is the concentration of hydrogen ions in a solu-
tion containing in a liter 0.1 mole of acetic acid and 0.1 mole
of NaAc? Assume as an approximation that the salt is 100
per cent ionized.
91. For the sake of showing the different effects of a neu-
tral salt of a strong acid upon the ionization of the acid, find
first the ionization constant of nitric acid if it is 90 per cent
ionized in 0.1 molal solution. Then using the constant thus
found calculate the hydrogen-ion concentration in a solution
containing, in 1 liter, 0.1 mole of H N 0 3 and 0.1 mole of KN0 3 .
Assume in this calculation that the law of molecular con-
centration holds accurately. The result shows that the
effect of a neutral salt of a strong acid upon the ionization
of the acid is not marked as it is in the similar case of a weak
acid. As a matter of fact, the actual effect is even less than
that calculated according to the law.
92. The ionization constant of ammonium hydroxide is
0.000018. (a) Find the concentration of OH" ions in a
molal solution of NH4OH. (6) Find the concentration of
OH~ ions in a molal solution of N H 4 0 H which contains
also 0.5 mole of NH4C1 per liter, assuming the latter to be
completely ionized.
93. What is the ionization constant of hydrocyanic acid
if the ionization in 0.1 N solution is 0.01 per cent?
94. What is the hydrogen-ion concentration in a solution
containing, in 1 liter, 0.1 mole of HCN and 0.1 mole of KCN,
assuming the latter to be 100 per cent ionized?
SOLUBILITY AND SOLUBILITY PRODUCT 131
SOLUBILITY AND SOLUBILITY PRODUCT
The solubility of a substance is defined as the concentration of

the solution when it is in equilibrium with some of the undissolved
substance. Such a solution in equilibrium is known as a saturated
solution. Supersaturated solutions of many substances are
possible when there is none of the undissolved substance in con-
tact with the solution. At the surface of contact two processes
are going on: (1) Molecules or ions are passing into solution at a
constant rate per unit of surface. (2) Molecules or ions are de-
positing on the surface and thus building up the crystal structure
of the solid, but the rate is dependent on the concentration of the
dissolved substance. When these opposing rates are equal the
solution is saturated. If the dissolved substance is a non-electro-
lyte there is a definite concentration which gives this equilibrium
condition. If the substance is a salt and ionized in the solution
there is also a definite concentration which gives the equilibrium
provided the ions of the salt are present in equivalent amounts.
We frequently have to consider cases in which we have two salts
in solution which have an ion in common, for example, silver ace-
tate and sodium acetate. The tendency to build up the silver ace-
tate crystals is proportional to the concentration of the Ag+ ions
and of the Ac" ions. The latter includes all the Ac" ions, which-
ever salt they originally came from. Equilibrium is reached
when the product of the concentration [Ag+] X [Ac"] has a
definite value which is called the solubility product.
The solubility of AgAc at room temperature is 0.06 F.W. per
liter. Therefore, in a saturated solution the concentration of
each ion is 0.06 and the solubility product = 0.06 X 0.06 =
0.0036. If we stir crystals of AgAc into a 0.1 formal NaAc solu-
tion the crystals will dissolve until equilibrium is reached and the
product of [Ag+] [Ac"] = 0.0036. Let the solubility of AgAc per
liter = x. Then x = [Ag+] and x + 0.1 = [Ac"] and
[Ag+] [Ac"] = x (x + 0.1) = 0.0036
Solving, x = 0.028, and therefore the solubility of AgAc in 0.1 N
NaAc = 0.028 F.W. per liter.
When we consider the solubility of a salt in which the ions are
of different valence, as for example lead iodide Pbl2 ^ P b + + +
I " + I", the product must include as many concentrations as
there are ions to make the neutral molecule. Thus the solubility
of lead iodide is 0.002 F.W. per liter, the concentration of Pb++

ions is 0.002, and the concentration of I~ ions is 0.004 in the
saturated solution. The solubility product of
Pbl 2 = [Pb++] [I~]2 = 0.002 X 0.0042 = 0.000,000,032
To determine the solubility of Pbl 2 in a 0.1 formal solution of KI
let x = F.W. of Pbl 2 per liter. Then x = [Pb++] and 2x + 0.1 = [I"]
[Pb++] [F] 2 = x (2x + 0.1)2 = 0.000,000,032
Solving, x = 0.000,003, and therefore the solubility of Pbl 2 in 0.1
formal KI is 0.000,003 F.W. per liter.
PROBLEMS
95. The molal solubility of AgBrO 3 at 24.5° is 0.0081.
How many grams of AgBrO3 could dissolve in a liter of 0.1
molal AgNO3? Assume complete ionization of the salts.
96. The solubility of PbSO4 is 0.04 gram per liter at 25°.
How many grams of sodium sulphate should be added to
1 liter to reduce the solubility of the lead sulphate to 0.0001
gram per liter?
HYDROGEN ION CONCENTRATION; T H E pH SCALE
The properties common to all acids are due to hydrogen ions,

but there are two ways in which the extent of the effect of hydro-
gen ions must be gauged. In the first place the normality of an
acid solution is a measure of the amount of base it will neutralize.
One liter of 1 N strong acid, such as HCl, will neutralize the same
amount of base as 1 liter of IN weak acid, such as HC 2 H 3 O 2 .
The normality of an acid thus measures the total amount of avail-
able hydrogen ions. Yet the concentration of the active or ionized
hydrogen in the HCl is about one hundred times as great as in the
HC 2 H 3 O 2 . Vinegar is about 3 per cent or 0.5N acetic acid. Its
taste is sour, but it is possible to hold it in the mouth and even
swallow some of it. On the other hand, 0.5N HCl is so extremely
sour that it cannot be held in the mouth. The sour taste is pro-
portional to the active H+ ion concentration. Many other physi-
ological effects, as well as effects in promoting industrial chemical
reactions, are likewise proportional to the active H+ ion concen-
tration rather than to the total available H+ ion, and it becomes
HYDROGEN ION CONCENTRATION; THE pH SCALE 133
important to have a convenient scale by which to measure this

activity.
In liV strong acid, assuming complete ionization, the con-
centration of the H+ ion is 1 mole per liter ([H+] = 1). In pure
water [H+] = 0.000,000,1 = 10~7, [OH"] = 0.000,000,1 = 10~7.
Since the law of molecular concentration gives for the ionization
of water
[H+] [OH-] R
[H2O]
and since [H2O] is constant for all dilute solutions it follows that
[H+] X [OH"] = 10~7 X 10- 7 = 10~14
and 10~14 is the ion product of water which is constant. In a liV
solution of a strong base since [OH~] = 1 the value of [H+]
must be 10~14.
With a range of hydrogen ion concentrations from 1 to 10~14
in solutions commonly used it has been found advantageous to
adopt a logarithmic notation for expressing the concentration of
the hydrogen ions. This is the so-called pH scale. The pH
value is the logarithm to the base 10 of the number of liters of the
solution in question which would contain 1 mole of active H+ ions.
When the concentration is expressed by the exponential method,
the pH value is simply the exponent to the base 10 with the
negative sign omitted.
THE pH SCALE
pH [H+] Normality of strong acid or base
0 10° 1 N acid
1 io-i 0.1JV acid
2 io-2 0.01 N acid
3 10-' 0.001 N acid
4 10-4
5 io-6
6 10~« Buffer
7 10-7 exact neutrality Range
8 IO-98
9 IO-
10 lO-io
11 10-u 0.001 2V base
12 10-12 0.01 N base
13 IO-13 0.1 A^ base
14 1Q-14 1 N base
Control of pH. Values of pH near the top and near the bottom
of the scale may be definitely controlled by adjusting the nor-
mality of a strong acid or base. For values of 4 through 10 the
amount of the strong acid or strong base which would be added to
water is so small that its effect is commonly exceeded by that of
uncontrollable impurities. However, by the use of buffers the
pH value can be established precisely at any desired point and held
there with extremely little change against large accidental addi-
tions of either acid or base.
Buffers. A mixture of a weak acid and a salt of that acid or a
mixture of a weak base and a salt of that weak base serves as a
buffer. Let us consider a liter of solution containing 0.1 F.W. of
HAc and 0.1 F.W. of NaAc. The ionization constant of acetic
acid is given in the expression
[Ac"] _
[HAc]
which may be transposed:
[H+] = 0.000,018 X t~i} (1)
IA° J
Since [HAc] = 0.1 (the ionization of HAc is repressed to almost
zero by the Ac" ions of the salt) and [Ac"] = 0.1 (the 0.1 mole of
salt is completely ionized)
01 18 10
[H+] = 0.000,018 X - = 0.000,018 = ^ ^ = ^ - = 10—
The pH value of this buffered solution is therefore 4.74.
To appreciate the effectiveness of this buffer solution let us
compare the effect upon the pH value of adding small amounts of
strong acid or base to pure water and then to the buffered solution.
If we add 1 cc. of 1 iV HC1 to 1 liter of pure water we obtain a
solution 0.001 N in H+ ions with a pH of 3. If, on the other hand,
we add 1 cc. of normal HC1 to 1 liter of the buffered solution, the
reaction
H+ + Ac" -* HAc
increases [HAc] by 0.001 and decreases [Ac"] by 0.001 so that
[H+] = 0.000018 X !!', + n ' ^ . = 0.0000184 = 10-*-™

0.1 — 0.001
INDICATORS 135
and the new p H value is 4.735, which is thus not materially changed
from its original value.
If we add Ice. of liV NaOH to 1 liter of pure water we obtain
a solution 0.001 N in OH~ ions with a pH of 11. If on the other
hand we add 1 cc. of 1 iV NaOH to 1 liter of the buffered solution
the reaction
O H " + HAc -» H2O + Ac"
decreases [HAc] by 0.001 and increases [Ac~] by 0.001 so that
[H+] = 0.000018 X = 0.0000176 =
and the new pH value is 4.7 55, which again is not materially changed.
From the above equation (1) it is apparent that the maximum
, „. . . . , , • ! ! ,i e added weak acid
buffering action is obtained when the ratio of a d d e d s a l t o f t h a t a c i d
is unity, also that a numerically greater pH (lower [H + ]) can be
obtained by lowering this ratio and a lower pH by increasing this
ratio. However, to obtain an essentially greater pH value than
5 it would be more advantageous to use a weaker acid and its salt
for the buffer.
The above reasoning applies to weak bases and their salts which
may be advantageously used as buffers to establish pH values be-
tween 7 and 11.
It goes without saying that, although absolutely pure water
has a pH value of 7, the pH value is subject to a variation of 1 or 2
units through almost unavoidable contamination from glass or
from NH 3 , H 2 S, or CO 2 from the air, and that to maintain an
unfluctuating value of 7 a buffer must be used.
INDICATORS
Indicators are highly colored substances which change in color

at certain pH values. The color is so intense that the amount
of indicator needed is so small that it itself has practically no
effect in altering the pH value. There are a great many such in-
dicators, and it is possible to choose a list covering the whole range
of pH values. Thus, if a solution is colorless it is possible to apply
to different portions of it the successive indicators in this list, and
when the one is found which shows its color change in this solu-
tion the pH value of the solution is determined. Three of the

most commonly used indicators are included in the following table.
Indicator Acid color pH range of color transition Basic color
methyl orange red 3.2-4.4 yellow
litmus red 4.5-8.3 blue
phenolphthalein colorless 8.3-10 red
PROBLEMS
97. From the per cent of ionization of hydrocyanic acid in 0.1 N
solution find the value of the ionization constant of that acid.
98. Calculate the H+ ion concentration in a solution 0.1 N in
HCN and O.liV in KCN. What is the pH value of this solution?
99. Calculate the pH value of 0.01 N acetic acid. What color
would this solution impart to methyl orange?
100. Calculate the pH value of 0.01 N HC 2 H 3 O 2 containing
0.1 F.W. of NaC 2 H 3 O 2 per liter. What color would this solution
impart to methyl orange?
CHAPTER IV
THE NON-METALLIC ELEMENTS IN BINARY
COMPOUNDS
One of the distinctive chemical properties of non-metallic
elements is their ability to combine with metals forming simple
binary compounds in which they are the negative constituent.
It is the purpose of this chapter to deal with such simple com-
pounds of the more pronounced non-metals: chlorine, bromine,
iodine, oxygen, sulphur, and nitrogen.
PREPARATION 5
COPPER OXIDE, C U O
The most obvious method of making a metal oxide is to heat the

metal in air or oxygen, but the difficulty with such a method is that
the oxide is solid and adheres to the surface, preventing the action
on the metal underneath. Better results are obtained if an oxy-
salt of the metal is prepared and then heated to a sufficient tem-
perature to drive off the non-metal oxide and thus leave the oxide
of the metal as a residue. Carbonates, nitrates, and some sulfates
can be decomposed in this way.
Dilute nitric acid attacks copper, forming copper nitrate, a
soluble salt, so that the surface of the metal remains free until
the copper has all reacted. Copper oxide may be obtained by
heating the solution, first to expel the water, and then with a
somewhat stronger heat to decompose the residue of copper
nitrate; oxides of nitrogen escape as red fumes, and copper oxide
remains as a black solid. This is the method by which zinc was
converted quantitatively into zinc oxide, page 24.
Since copper carbonate decomposes at a lower temperature than
copper nitrate and yields an impalpable powder instead of black
crusts, it is advantageous in this preparation to first precipitate
copper carbonate (actually a basic carbonate) from the copper
nitrate solution and after drying it, to heat the carbonate.
137
138 NON-METALLIC ELEMENTS IN BINARY COMPOUNDS
Materials: copper metal (turnings or wire), 13 grams = 0.2

F.W.
6 N HNO 3 , 88 cc.
anhydrous sodium carbonate, Na2CO3, 30 grams.
Apparatus: 2-liter common bottle.
5-inch funnel.
8-inch porcelain dish.
600-cc. beaker.
Bunsen burner,
Procedure: Put the copper in a 600-cc. beaker and under the

hood add the nitric acid in small portions until solution is com-
plete; observe Note 7, page 13. The mixture may be heated
toward the end of the reaction if necessary. When all the copper
has dissolved add 200 cc. of water and filter the solution, if it is not
clear, into an 8-inch porcelain evaporating dish.
Dissolve 30 grams of anhydrous sodium carbonate in 300 cc. of
water. Filter the solution if it is not clear. Pour 250 cc. of this
solution into the copper nitrate solution. Stir the mixture and
heat to boiling. The solid should turn nearly black. If this does
not happen add small portions of the sodium carbonate solution
until it does. Boil and stir the mixture for about 3 minutes.
Allow the solid to settle in the dish and pour off most of the liquid.
Stir up the solid with the remainder of the liquid and pour it into
approximately a liter of cold water in a 2-liter bottle. Wash the
solid by decantation until the soluble salts are reduced to less than
one one-thousandth of the original concentration. (Estimate the
volume of liquid poured into the bottle with the solid the first
time. Follow Note 5 (6), page 10.)
Pour the solid onto a filter and allow it to drain as completely as
possible. Spread the paper and its contents on a watch glass and
continue the drying on the hot plate. Separate the black basic
copper carbonate from the paper and place it in a 4-inch porcelain
evaporating dish. Heat with a small flame, and stir the solid with
a glass rod. A low temperature suffices to decompose the basic
carbonate. When the solid has changed to a uniform black powder
test it for carbonate. Place about 0.1 gram in a test tube, cover it
with 5 cc. of water, and heat to the boiling temperature. We now
BARIUM PEROXIDE 139
have a suspension of the copper oxide from which all air has been
expelled. Add a few drops of 6iV HC1 and observe very closely
for "effervescence," that is, for bubbles of escaping gas. Such
gas would be carbon dioxide and would show that the copper car-
bonate had not been entirely decomposed. When the test shows
the absence of carbonate, transfer the solid to a 2-ounce cork-
stoppered bottle.
QUESTIONS
1. Could hydrochloric acid take the place of nitric acid in this
preparation? Explain.
2. Basic copper carbonate is a variable mixture of copper car-
bonate and copper hydroxide. Assuming that it has the composi-
tion Cu(OH)2-CuCO 3 , write intersecting ionic equations to show
how it is formed. What type of ionic reaction does this illustrate?
PREPABATION 6
HYDROGEN PEROXIDE AND BARIUM PEROXIDE HYDRATE,
H A AND BaO2-8H2O
The ordinary oxide of barium has the formula BaO, and it forms
the corresponding base Ba(OH) 2 when it combines with water.
Barium salts are formed when this base is neutralized with acids.
In addition there is another oxide of barium containing twice as
much oxygen, BaO 2 , which is easily obtained when barium oxide
is heated to a dull red heat in air free from carbon dioxide.
This oxide, however, does not behave like an ordinary oxide;
for example, it does not react with water to give such a base as
Ba(OH) 4 nor with acids to yield such a salt as Ba(NO 3 ) 4 . Both
oxygen atoms seem to be present as a single radical having the
same valence, namely 2, as the simple oxygen radical in ordinary
barium oxide, because, when barium peroxide is treated with acids,
the ordinary barium salt and hydrogen peroxide are formed.
BaO 2 + 2HC1 -» BaCl 2 + H 2 O 2
The name peroxide has been given to oxides which contain the
O2~ ~~ radical and which yield hydrogen peroxide when acidified with
acids.
The common heavy metals do not form peroxides; only the
most strongly metallic elements such as the alkali and alkaline
earth metals do so. For example, when sodium metal burns freely
in air the peroxide, Na2O2, is formed. It is difficult to limit the

access of oxygen to burning sodium so as to obtain the ordinary
oxide, Na 2 O.
In the following preparation crude barium peroxide is treated
with hydrochloric acid to obtain a solution of hydrogen peroxide.
Crude barium peroxide invariably contains a little iron which
appears in the solution as FeCl3. The iron, however, is completely
precipitated as the insoluble hydroxide if an excess of barium
peroxide is used. The peroxide hydrolyzes, making the solution
basic.
BaO 2 + 2H2O ^ B a ( 0 H ) 2 + H 2 O 2
2FeCl 3 + 3Ba(OH) 2 -> 2Fe(OH) 3 1 + 3BaCl 2
Pure barium peroxide hydrate BaO2-8H2O is precipitated when
barium hydroxide is added to a hydrogen peroxide solution.
Hydrogen peroxide is not a stable substance; its solution de-
composes slowly in any event into oxygen and water. This de-
composition is greatly hastened by suspended solid matter and by
hydroxyl ions; in the following preparation one should work to
minimize the amount of this decomposition.
After removal of impurities by filtration, a solution of barium
hydroxide is added whereby pure, crystalline barium peroxide
hydrate BaO2-8H2O is precipitated.
Hydrogen peroxide may be regarded as a weak acid. It is
excessively weak, the extent of its ionization being comparable
with that of water itself. Yet its acid character is manifest from
the way it reacts with barium hydroxide:
Ba(OH) 2 + H 2 O 2 -» BaO 2 1 + 2H2O
Were the barium peroxide soluble this reaction would shortly
come to equilibrium, but since the barium peroxide is very in-
soluble, the reaction is fairly complete. Sodium peroxide is
soluble, and it hydrolyzes very extensively, as would be expected
of the salt of so weak an acid; this is equivalent to the statement
that the neutralization of sodium hydroxide by hydrogen peroxide
is very incomplete.
Materials: 6N HC1, 67 cc.
barium hydroxide, Ba(OH) 2 -8H 2 O, 63 grams =
0.2 F.W.
crude BaO 2 40 grams,
ice.
BARIUM PEROXIDE 141

5-inch funnel.
2-liter common bottle.
600-cc. beaker,
suction filter and trap bottle,
mortar and pestle.
Bunsen burner,
Procedure: Dissolve the barium hydroxide in 500 cc. of warm

water and pour through a filter, without suction, into a 2-liter
bottle. Add 1 liter of cold water.
While the filter is draining place the HC1, 250 cc. ice water, and
about 100 grams ice in an 8-inch porcelain dish. Grind the BaO 2
in a mortar with water until a smooth uniform paste is obtained
and add enough water to make 100 cc. Add the BaC>2 suspension,
a little at a time, with constant stirring, to the cold HC1 solution
until the BaO 2 ceases to dissolve. Then add the remainder of
the BaC>2 suspension all at once and stir until the suspension has
turned brown due to the precipitation of Fe (OH) 3 . Then filter the
solution without suction into a 600-cc. beaker.
Pour, in a thin stream, with constant stirring, the hydrogen
peroxide solution into the barium hydroxide solution in the 2-liter
bottle. Let the flaky barium peroxide hydrate settle and then
collect it on a suction filter. As soon as the water is drawn out,
shut off the suction, wash with 15 cc. cold water, press the solid
into a compact cake, and again suck dry. Do not draw any
quantity of air through the product. Wrap the crystals in paper
towels and dry them according to Note 9 (6), page 15. Preserve
the product in a 4-ounce cork-stoppered bottle.
QUESTIONS
1. Explain why barium chloride would not give a precipitate
with hydrogen peroxide.
2. The hydrogen peroxide solution obtained as an intermediate
product in this preparation contained barium chloride. Suggest
with what reagent one might treat the purified barium peroxide
hydrate to obtain a pure solution of hydrogen peroxide. Give
explanation.
PREPARATION 7
HYDROCHLORIC ACID, HC1
Hydrogen chloride may be formed by direct synthesis from the

elements. Although this method has been used on a commercial
scale and yields a very pure product, it is not the one commonly
used. It is far more convenient to treat sodium chloride with
concentrated sulphuric acid. The volatile hydrogen chloride
escapes from the reaction mixture and the reaction goes to comple-
tion.
NaCl + H 2 SO 4 ^NaHSO4 + HC11
The gas is dissolved in water to give hydrochloric acid.
18
FIG.
Materials: sodium chloride, rock salt, NaCl, 117 grams
2F.W.
36 N sulphuric acid, 222 cc.
Apparatus: 2-liter round-bottom flask.
500-cc. Woulff bottle, 3-necked.
8-ounce wide-mouth bottle.
HYDROCHLORIC ACID 143
thistle tube.
2-hole rubber stopper to fit flask and bottles.
three 1-hole rubber stoppers to fit Woulff bottle.
one 1-hole rubber stopper to fit drying tube.
glass delivery tube fitted as in diagram.
drying tube packed with glass wool.
pan of cold water.
8-ounce glass-stoppered tincture bottle.
burette clamp. Bunsen burner.
100
Procedure. Set up the apparatus as in Fig. 18
with the rock salt in the large flask and 150 cc. of
water in each absorption bottle. Pour enough
of the sulphuric acid through the thistle tube to
seal the lower end of the tube. Watch the ac- CO
tion carefully to see that the foam does not rise
into the neck of the flask. As rapidly as seems
safe add the rest of the sulphuric acid. When
the action slackens apply heat very cautiously
to the flask and finally heat it strongly until
all the salt has dissolved and effervescence has
ceased. When the reaction is finished remove FIG. 19
FIGURE 19
The scale at the back is marked off in divisions of 0.1 inch. The acid
is placed in the shallow dish at the left and water in the dish at the right,
both being at the same temperature. The level is adjusted in both
dishes so that the surface of each liquid is exactly at the zero point of the
scale. Suction is applied at the top until the acid rises exactly to the
100 mark when the pinch cock is closed. The reading of the scale at
the top of the water column divided by 100 gives the specific gravity
of the acid.
the burner. Apply a gentle suction to the exit tube in the second
absorption bottle and draw all the hydrogen chloride from the large
flask into the absorption bottle.
Allow the contents of the flask to cool until crystals of NaHSC>4
begin to form. Wrap a towel around the neck of the flask.
Cautiously pour the contents of the flask into running water under
the hood. If allowed to cool completely the by-product of the
reaction will form a solid cake and the flask may be broken in
trying to remove it. It is important, however, to allow the con-
tents of the flask to cool nearly to room temperature before the
mixture of acid and acid sulphate are poured into water.
When the hydrochloric acid has cooled to room temperature
determine the volume and the specific gravity of the solution in
both absorption bottles. Use either a hydrometer or the apparatus
shown in Fig. 19. Consult the table on page 371 and determine
the percentage composition of the preparation. Calculate the
weight of hydrogen chloride obtained, the normality of the solu-
tion, and the percentage yield.
Practically all the hydrochloric acid will be found in the first
absorption bottle. Transfer this to a 250-cc. narrow-necked
glass-stoppered bottle.
QUESTIONS
1. How much of an excess of sulphuric acid was used in this
preparation? What is the advantage of using such an excess?
2. Why was air drawn through the apparatus after the reaction
was complete?
3. What conditions are necessary for the formation of Na2SO4
in the preparation of HC1? Why is NaHSO 4 called an acid salt?
PREPARATION 8
HYDROBROMIC ACID, HBr
The obvious method for preparing hydrobromic acid would be
to treat solid sodium bromide with concentrated sulphuric acid.
This is not a successful method, however, owing to the fact that
hydrogen bromide reacts to some extent with concentrated sul-
phuric acid according to the equation
H2SO4 + 2HBr -> 2H 2 O + SO2 + Br 2
and the gas passing over to the absorption bottles would be con-
taminated with sulphur dioxide and bromine. To prepare pure
hydrobromic acid it is necessary to employ a different procedure.
The method we shall use starts with bromine and allows it to
react with red phosphorus and water. Phosphorus and bromine
combine very easily to form PBr3, but the phosphorus bromide
hydrolyzes completely and hydrogen bromide passes over to the
absorption flask.
PBr 3 + 3H 2 O -y P(OH) 3 + 3HBr
HYDROBROMIC ACID 145
Materials: bromine, 40 grams = 12.5 cc. = 0.25 F.W.

red phosphorus, 7 grams.
sand.
broken glass.
Apparatus: 125-cc. separatory funnel.
300-cc. flask.
two 4-inch side arm U-tubes.
8-inch plain U-tube.
one 1-hole rubber stopper to fit flask.
4 solid rubber stoppers to fit small U-tubes.
one 1-hole rubber stopper to fit large U-tube.
glass delivery tubes as in diagram.
glass wool.
3 ring stands.
4-inch iron ring.
4 burette clamps.
FIG. 20
Procedure: After carefully studying the diagram (Fig. 20)
construct the apparatus. Place 6 grams of the red phosphorus,
12 grams of sand, and 6 cc. of water in the flask. The success of
this preparation depends very largely on the care with which the
phosphorus is spread out over the surface of the broken glass in
the small U-tubes. To this end mix 2 grams of the phosphorus
and 25 grams of the broken glass by shaking in a 300-cc. flask.
The phosphorus will not stick to the glass. Add water one drop
at a time, shaking after each addition until the phosphorus adheres
to the glass, but avoid using enough water to give any appearance
of wetness. Place the uncoated broken glass in the bend of each
small U-tube and fill the vertical arms nearly up to the side arm
with the glass coated with phosphorus. Pack a little glass wool
on top of the broken glass. Pour 25 cc. of distilled water, or enough
to close the bend, into the large U-tube. Caution: Use extreme
care in handling bromine. The liquid produces severe burns on the
skin and the vapor is very irritating to the eyes and throat. Make
sure that the stop cock of the separatory funnel is tight, properly
lubricated, and turns easily. When manipulating it after the
bromine has been added, hold the bulb with one hand, and exert
a slight inward pressure on the stop cock while turning it with the
other hand. Be very careful that the cock does not slip out of the
socket letting the bromine leak out over the fingers.
After making sure that the apparatus is tight, measure the bro-
mine and pour it into the funnel. Then let a single drop of bro-
mine fall into the flask, watching its effect. Add the rest of the
bromine a drop at a time as rapidly as proves safe. After the gas
ceases to be absorbed in the large U-tube disconnect the apparatus.
When the hydrobromic acid has cooled to room temperature deter-
mine its volume and specific gravity. Use either a hydrometer or
the apparatus shown in Fig. 19. Consult the table on page 371
and determine the percentage composition of your solution.
Calculate the weight of hydrogen bromide obtained, the normality
of the solution, and the percentage yield. Preserve your prepara-
tion in a 2-ounce glass-stoppered bottle. Wash out the apparatus
at the sink under the hood.
QUESTIONS
1. Why would not a metal like zinc, which will combine vig-
orously with bromine, serve instead of phosphorus?
2. Explain why phosphorus is placed in the small U-tubes.
3. Explain why at the outset of the process bubbles pass out-
ward through the large U-tube, and later they pass in the op-
posite direction.
4. What are the products of the reaction of concentrated
sulphuric acid with potassium bromide? (See Experiment 13,
page 167.) Write the equations. What property possessed by
hydrogen bromide, but not by hydrogen chloride, is shown?
BARIUM CHLORIDE 147
PREPARATION 9
BARIUM CHLORIDE, BaCl2-2H2O
A general method of preparing a salt is by neutralizing an acid
with the appropriate base. It is almost as effective to use the
carbonate of the metal as the base, because carbonic acid is so
easily displaced. Barium carbonate is found naturally as the
mineral witherite, which contains iron and silica as impurities.
In this country barium carbonate (known as "precipitated"
barium carbonate) is made commercially by reducing barium sul-
phate to sulphide, and converting the latter to the carbonate by
means of carbon dioxide. The resulting product frequently con-
tains silica, barium sulphate, barium sulphide, and iron as im-
purities. After the acid has been neutralized with barium car-
bonate a little barium peroxide is added to the mixture. The
barium peroxide is nearly insoluble, but it does hydrolyze to a
small extent forming barium hydroxide and hydrogen peroxide.
Any iron present is oxidized and precipitated as ferric hydroxide.
4 BaO 2 + 8 H2O + 4 FeCl 2 = 4 Fe(OH) 3 + 4 BaCl 2 + 2 H 2 O 2
2 H 2 O 2 - * 2 H 2 O + O2
After the solution has been filtered it is made acid with hydro-
chloric acid.
Materials: barium carbonate, BaCC>3.
barium peroxide, BaO 2 , 3 grams,
hydrochloric acid.
5-inch funnel.
8-inch crystallizing dish and cover,
two 5-inch watch glasses,
Bunsen burner.
Procedure: The hydrochloric acid obtained in Preparation 7
may be used for this preparation or 166 cc. of 12N HC1 (2 F.W.)
may be used. Calculate the weight of barium carbonate required
to convert your sample of hydrochloric acid into barium chloride.
Pour the acid into an 8-inch porcelain evaporating dish and add
enough water to make 600 cc. of solution. Remove 10 cc. of this
dilute acid and save it for use later in the preparation. Add the
solid barium carbonate in small portions. Stir the mixture after

each addition. (If the carbonate is added too rapidly the mixture
will froth out of the dish.) After all the carbonate has been added
heat the mixture to boiling. Add an additional 5 grams of barium
carbonate and test the solution with litmus paper. If it is not
neutral add barium carbonate in small portions until the acid is com-
pletely neutralized and an excess of carbonate is present. Add 3
grams of barium peroxide, stir the mixture, and boil it gently for 5
minutes. Enough water should be added to make the total volume
600 cc.
Filter without suction into a 600-cc. beaker, keeping both the
funnel and the beaker covered with watch glasses to prevent the
solution from cooling and crystallizing prematurely. Add the
reserve 10 cc. of dilute HC1 to the filtrate and make sure that a
drop of the solution will turn litmus red. Pour the solution into
the crystallizing dish and allow it to stand uncovered until a
satisfactory crop of crystals is obtained. Barium chloride has a
tendency to "creep." To prevent this it is advisable to grease
the rim of the crystallizing dish. Decant the liquid from the
crystals, and wash them with a little distilled water. Dry them
thoroughly at room temperature on white paper towels.
QUESTIONS
1. How could you show that your preparation is a hydrate?
2. Barium carbonate dissolves in water to the extent of 0.0023
gram in 100 cc. of water. Explain how it was possible to dissolve
the carbonate since it is so insoluble. Write an ionic equation.
3. Write equations to show how barium carbonate is prepared
from barium sulphate. Indicate the conditions for each step.
4. Dissolve a small amount of your preparation in 10 cc. of
water. Divide this solution into three portions. To one add a
drop of sulphuric acid; to the second add a drop of potassium
chromate; to the third add a drop of silver nitrate. Record your
observations and write ionic equations for each reaction.
5. To a solution of barium hydroxide add a few drops of hydro-
gen peroxide. Record your observations and write an equation.
What is the role of hydrogen peroxide in this reaction?
6. To a solution of BaCl2 add H 2 O 2 and explain why the same
effect is not observed as in Experiment 5.
ALUMINUM SULPHIDE 149
PREPARATION OF OTHER BARIUM SALTS

By suitable modification, the procedure used to prepare barium
chloride may be adopted to prepare other barium salts such as the
acetate, bromide, and nitrate. The final volume of the solution
should be adjusted so as to give a nearly saturated solution at
25°. The solubility of these salts will be found on page 365.
PREPARATION 10
ALUMINUM SULPHIDE, AI2S3

Although the obvious method of preparing a binary compound
would seem to be to bring the two elements together, such a
procedure is not very often followed. Aluminum and sulphur
can be made to combine directly, it is true, but when the finely
divided substances are mixed and the mixture is heated, either the
sulphur entirely distils off without any reaction taking place, or if
a reaction starts it is too violent to control. We have, therefore,
selected lead sulphide as a source of the sulphide radical because
this substance is not volatile and cannot escape before it reacts,
and the reaction is not too violent. A part of the energy furnished
by the combination of aluminum and sulphur is expended in sepa-
rating lead and sulphur.
Materials: granulated aluminum, Al, 27 grams = 1 F.W.
pulverized galena, lead sulphide, PbS, 359 grams
(a fairly pure sample of the mineral must be
used to obtain good results).
Apparatus: 30-gram clay crucible without cover.
6-inch sand bath pan.
gas furnace.
Procedure: Mix the powdered galena and granulated alumi-
num. Place the mixture in the clay crucible and put it in the gas
furnace. Place the cover on the furnace and if possible slip it a
little toward the front, so that, by standing on a stool, one can look
down through the hole in the cover and see the charge in the cru-
cible. Light the furnace and heat it as rapidly as possible. Make
sure the iron pan is dry by holding it with the tongs over the
furnace. Caution: If the pan should be wet, the heat of the
molten material poured into it would cause an explosive formation
of steam. Watch the furnace every moment of the time after it
begins to get hot. A white puff of smoke indicates that the re-
action is taking place. If one can see the charge one can see an in-
candescence rapidly spread through it. After this reaction, leave the
crucible in the furnace for 30 seconds, then remove it with the tongs
and pour the liquid contents into the iron pan. Leave the latter
unmoved until the contents have solidified. Then, working in the
furnace room, crack the brittle aluminum sulphide from the lead;
place the latter in the box for scrap lead, and pack the aluminum
sulphide in a 2-ounce common bottle fitted tightly with a cork
stopper. Caution: Aluminum sulphide reacts with the moisture
of the air producing hydrogen sulphide. Do not take any part of
the preparation outside of the furnace room except the well-
stoppered bottle of product. The crucible with adhering alumi-
num sulphide can best be disposed of by putting it in a pail of water
as soon as it is cool, thus getting rid of the hydrogen sulphide all
at once.
QUESTIONS
1. Experiment. Drop a small lump of aluminum sulphide
(at the hood) into a test tube of water. What is the gas formed,
and what is the insoluble residue left? This is a case of hy-
drolysis. Write the equation in ionized form, and name the acid
and the base.
2. Lead sulphide does not hydrolyze. Compare the basic
strength of Pb(OH) 2 and A1(OH)3. Does this fully account for
the difference? Perhaps the relative solubility of PbS and A12S3
would account for some of the difference. Explain how. Would
this explanation require the solubility of AI2S3 (as such) in water
to be greater or less than that of PbS?
PREPARATION 11
CALCIUM SULPHIDE, CaS
In this preparation an oxy-salt of sulphur, calcium sulphate, is

reduced at a high temperature by means of carbon. Calcium is
too active to be reduced to the metal by this means, but sulphur
is readily reduced from its valence of + 6 to its minimum valence
of - 2 .
The most abundant source of calcium sulphate is the mineral
gypsum CaSO4-2H2O. We desire anhydrous CaSO4 as our start-
MERCURIC SULPHIDE 151
ing material, but plaster of Paris, CaSO^JEbO, which is made in

enormous quantities by gently heating gypsum, is so available
that we shall choose it and let it become fully dehydrated in the
furnace.
Materials: plaster of Paris, CaSO 4 4H 2 O, 145 grams = 1 F.W.
powdered charcoal, C, 48 grams.
Apparatus: 30-gram clay crucible and cover,
gas furnace.
Procedure: Unless the charcoal is already very finely powdered,
grind it thoroughly in a large porcelain mortar. Add the plaster
of Paris, mix the two materials, and pack the mixture in the clay
crucible. Heat the crucible in a gas furnace to between a bright
red and a yellow heat for 1£ hours. At the end of this time remove
the crucible from the furnace. When cold, inspect the contents
of the crucible, particularly the inner portions to which the heat
would have penetrated least; there should be no unburned char-
coal left; a small sample should dissolve with effervescence (hood)
in hydrochloric acid and leave no residue more than a slight
turbidity.
QUESTIONS
1. Treat a gram of calcium sulphide with 20 cc. of water.
Is there any visible change? Filter. Add hydrochloric acid to
the nitrate. What is dissolved in the nitrate? What is the
substance on the filter? Write equations.
2. Evidently calcium sulphide hydrolyzes extensively. Ex-
plain how this is possible without the evolution of hydrogen sul-
phide. Write equation. Compare this case of hydrolysis with
that of aluminum sulphide.
PREPARATION 12
MERCURIC SULPHIDE, HgS
Mercuric sulphide is conveniently made by direct synthesis from

the elements. Two modifications of this compound are known,
one black, which is formed first in this preparation and also by
precipitation of mercuric and sulphide ions; the other a bril-
liant red (vermilion), which is more stable and into which the
black form tends to change.
Materials: mercury, Hg, 20 grams = 0.1 F.W.

flowers of sulphur, 8 grams.
6iV KOH, 15 cc.
saturated Na2SC>3 solution 50 cc.
sodium sulphide solution.
Apparatus: 4-inch porcelain dish,
large porcelain mortar,
warm closet or plate at about 50°.
600-cc. beaker,
glass spatula,
Bunsen burner.
Procedure: Place the mercury and the sulphur in a large porce-

lain mortar, and triturate the mixture, moistening it with sodium
sulphide solution. When the globules of metallic mercury seem
to have entirely disappeared, add the KOH solution and with it
rinse as much as possible of the black paste into the 4-inch dish.
Use 10 cc. of water to finish rinsing the material into the evapo-
rating dish. Cover the dish with a watch glass and let it stand in
some place at a temperature of about 50°. Replace the water lost
by evaporation as often as each day. Stir the mass thoroughly
each time with a glass spatula.
When, at the end of about a week, the mass has changed to a
pure red color, wash it by decantation (see Note 5 (6), page 10)
in a 600-cc. beaker. Most of the excess of sulphur is floated off.
Then rinse the red sulphide back into the evaporating dish, leaving
behind in the beaker any lumps of black sulphide or globules of
mercury. Boil the red sulphide with 50 cc. of saturated sodium
sulphite solution to remove the last of the uncombined sulphur;
wash by decantation with boiling water and collect the mercuric
sulphide on a suction filter. Dry the product on the hot plate and
preserve it in a 2-ounce cork-stoppered bottle.
QUESTIONS
1. Red and black sulphides of mercury have exactly the same
composition, as expressed by the empirical formula HgS. Would
you regard them as the same or as different substances? Give
your arguments.
ALUMINUM NITRIDE 153
2. What explanation can you give for the action of potassium

hydroxide in facilitating the change of the black to the red modi-
fication?
PREPARATION 13
ALUMINUM NITRIDE, A1N
The very active metals are capable of combining directly with

nitrogen to form nitrides. In the air the oxide is formed so much
more readily, that nitride formation is likely to escape notice;
but if the metal is presented in powdered form in a thick mass
the oxygen is all combined in the surface layer and only nitrogen
penetrates to the interior where pure nitride is formed.
Although aluminum is a very active metal, it enters into many
reactions with extreme difficulty on account of a thin, tenacious
coating of oxide, which keeps it physically separated from the
reacting material. Aluminum powder alone cannot be made to
burn in air, but when it is mixed with lampblack and any part is
brought to the kindling temperature, which is very high, the com-
bustion spreads throughout the mass. The function of the carbon
is to react with this oxide layer. Carbon alone reacts with alu-
minum oxide to yield the carbide
2A12O3 + 9C -» A14C3 + 6CO
In the presence of nitrogen, however, the nitride instead of the
carbide is produced.
A12O3 + N 2 + 3C -> 2A1N + 3CO
Materials: finely powdered aluminum, 45 grams. The ma-
terial sold for use as a pigment and often labeled
" aluminum bronze " is nearly pure aluminum and
is suitable for the purpose. The small amount of
oil which it contains is no disadvantage,
carbon, lampblack, 5 grams,
magnesium ribbon, 4 inches.
Apparatus: 8-iiich square of asbestos paper to be laid on a
thick iron plate.
large porcelain mortar and pestle,
dark-colored glasses may be worn to protect the
eyes from the blinding light.
Bunsen burner.
Procedure: Mix the aluminum powder and lampblack thor-

oughly in a mortar. Heap up the mixture in as compact a mound
as possible on the asbestos paper. The latter must be placed on
a thick iron plate and in a safe location, for the heat will be so in-
tense as to burn through the asbestos. Insert the magnesium
ribbon 0.5 inch into the top of the pile and light the free end from
the gas flame. The temperature of the burning magnesium is high
enough to set fire to the mixture, but the spot thus ignited is quite
likely to cool off before the combustion can get well started. As
soon as the ribbon has burned down to the surface of the pile,
play the gas flame over the hot spot, until the combustion is
thoroughly under way. Although the Bunsen flame alone is not
hot enough to bring the mixture to the kindling point, it prevents
the spot heated by the magnesium from cooling rapidly. Watch
the combustion spread throughout the mixture, but do not look
at the intense light for more than a second at a time unless the
eyes are protected with colored glasses. When the ash is cool,
break it up, remove as much as possible of the white aluminum
oxide crust from the outside, and preserve the nitride in a 4-ounce
QUESTIONS
1. Examine the aluminum nitride and describe its appearance.
2. Treat a little with cold water and then with hot water. Is
there any reaction?
3. Treat a little with NaOH solution and warm. Is am-
monia given off? What type of reaction is this? (See next
preparation.)
4. Why does the hydrolysis of aluminum nitride take place in
NaOH solution but not in pure water? (See Experiment 9,
Chapter I I , p. 69.)
5. Heat a little aluminum nitride in the open air to see how
easily it can be converted to oxide.
PREPARATION 14
MAGNESIUM NITRIDE, Mg 3 N 2
AMMONIUM CHLORIDE, NH4C1
Magnesium nitride is prepared by the same general principle
as that employed in preparing aluminum nitride (Preparation 13).
If, however, a pile of magnesium were allowed to burn freely in the
MAGNESIUM NITRIDE AND AMMONIUM CHLORIDE 155
open air, a much greater conversion of nitride into oxide would

occur before the reaction died out. The reaction is, therefore,
more carefully regulated by being carried out in a crucible which
is heated from an external source.
Magnesium nitride differs from aluminum nitride in that it
hydrolyzes rapidly with pure water; in fact, it does so with con-
siderable violence. Insoluble magnesium hydroxide and volatile
ammonia are formed.
Mg 3 N 2 + 6H2O = 3Mg(OH) 2 + 2NH 3
Materials: powdered magnesium, 10 grams,
dry sand, 50 grams.
Apparatus: iron crucible of 25-cc. capacity and cover,
two 300-cc. flasks.
500-cc. filter flask.
125-cc. separatory funnel.
8-inch U-tube.
4-inch porcelain dish,
thistle tube.
three 2-hole rubber stoppers,
one 1-hole rubber stopper,
asbestos paper,
wire triangle.
iron ring and 2 ring stands.
Bunsen burner,
mortar and pestle.
Procedure: Weigh an iron crucible of about 25-cc. capacity to-

gether with the cover. Pack it even full with powdered magne-
sium, tapping the crucible on the desk to make the powder settle.
Weigh the filled crucible; it should hold about 10 grams of the
powder. Place the cover tightly on top; surround the crucible
on the triangle with a cylinder of asbestos 3 inches in diameter so
as to diminish the loss of heat by radiation. Heat the crucible as
hot as possible with a Bunsen burner for 45 minutes. After it cools
empty the crucible on to a piece of paper and note the white MgO
on top and the yellow Mg 3 N 2 beneath. Place the material in a
mortar, break up the lumps, add 25 grams of dry coarse sand, and
mix well. Then place 25 grams of sand in the bottom of a dry
300-cc. flask and pour the mixture from the mortar on top of it.
Use this as the generating flask A in Fig. 21. Assemble the rest
of the apparatus as shown. Pour 50 cc. of water in the absorp-
tion flask C. The water should seal the bottom of the thistle
tube h but should stand about { inch below the end of the de-
livery tube g. Place 10 cc. of 6N HC1 in the absorption tube D,
and then add enough water to seal the bend. Remove the stopper
!K
IK
FIG. 21
APPABATUS FOB DISTILLATION OF AMMONIA FROM MAGNESIUM NITRIDE
A = Generating flask. B = Trap to catch solid matter entrained with gas
and steam. C = Absorptionflaskwith pure water in bottom. D = Absorp-
tion tube, bend sealed with dilute acid.
and fittings from the generating flask A. Pour water into the sepa-
ratory funnel i and open the stop cock until the stem of the tube
has filled with water. Replace the stopper in the flask and open
the stop cock to admit a single drop of water. Add another drop
as soon as the reaction subsides, and continue to add a single drop
at a time until the reaction becomes less violent. Finally add
enough water to make 70 cc. Rock the flask until the contents are
thoroughly mixed, then while still rocking it apply a small flame
until the liquid boils. Boil gently for 15 minutes. Pour together
VALENCE 157
the contents of the absorption flask and the absorption tube, and,
using litmus as an indicator, add enough more 6iV HC1 to just
neutralize the ammonia in the absorption flask. Evaporate the
solution in a porcelain dish on the hot plate to obtain solid am-
monium chloride, according to Note 6 (6), page 12. Preserve the
product in a 2-ounce cork-stoppered bottle.
QUESTIONS
1. Burn a little calcium in the air and test the ash for nitride.
How?
2. Give reasons for regarding the action of magnesium nitride
with water as an example of hydrolysis. Remember that hy-
drolysis is the exact reverse of neutralization and produces an
acid and a base from a salt and water. What is the acid and what
is the base in this case?
3. Why is it necessary to mix the magnesium nitride with
an inert material such as sand before adding water?
4. The layer from the top of the crucible will often contain a
black substance as well as a white, particularly so if the gases
from the flame entered under the lid of the crucible. What is this
black substance, and why does it form?
5. On the basis that air contains 4 volumes of nitrogen to 1
volume of oxygen and that all the oxygen and nitrogen that enter
under the lid of the crucible combine to form solid oxide and
nitride, calculate what fraction of the magnesium would be con-
verted to nitride.
Experiments
VALENCE
The elements are divided into two classes, metals and non-
metals. Chemically the properties of the metals are as different
from those of the non-metals as physically, for the metals form the
electropositive constituents of compounds, whereas the non-metals
form the electronegative constituents.
It must be remembered that an uncombined element is elec-
trically neutral, but every element, with the exception of the rare
gases, has a more or less strong tendency to assume an electrified
condition, the strength of which tendency is indicated by the posi-
tion of the element in the electromotive series. When a metal
and a non-metal combine chemically with each other we can con-
ceive of the action as consisting merely of a transfer of electricity

so that the metallic constituent becomes positively charged and the
non-metallic constituent negatively charged. The electrostatic
attraction between the charges holds the constituents rigidly in
place in a solid compound, and so the solid substance is a non-
conductor. We have seen in Chapter III that many compounds,
viz., acids, bases, and salts, when they are dissolved in water give
a solution which conducts an electric current. The compounds
are ionized in the solution. Our idea of ionization by no means
signifies that the opposite charges have been separated from each
other; it simply regards the single positive constituent as no
longer bound exclusively to a particular negative constituent, but
as free to wander about through the solution holding under its
attractive force first one negative constituent, then another, and
so on.
Were it not for the discovery of ionization, we perhaps would
never have suspected that the constituents of compounds are
electrically charged. This conclusion, however, seems to be well
warranted, and it is for this reason that one speaks of metallic
elements as positive and non-metallic elements as negative when
they are combined, even in compounds that are not ionized.
The number of charges associated with a simple ion as A1+++ or
Cl" determines its valence, the valence of aluminum thus being
+ 3 and that of chlorine —1 in the compound aluminum chlo-
ride. Such a compound of two elements is called a binary com-
pound, and the constituents are held by the forces of the primary
valence. It is the purpose of this chapter to study the behavior
of the non-metallic elements in binary compounds in which they
show their primary negative valence.
OXIDES
Nearly all the elements combine with oxygen forming simple
binary compounds.
No divalent negative ion of oxygen, 0 , has ever been found;
nevertheless the valence of oxygen is believed to be —2 because
of the composition of these compounds.
1. Treat a little cupric oxide with hydrochloric acid. The
liquid acquires a blue color and the black solid finally disap-
pears entirely. Evaporate the solution and a residue is left
which becomes brown on further heating.
DIFFERENT BEHAVIOR OF OXIDES AND PEROXIDES 159
The brown residue is anhydrous cupric chloride in which the

oxygen of cupric oxide has been replaced by an equivalent amount
of chlorine.
CuO + 2HC1 -> H2O + CuCl 2
The primary valence of all the elements concerned in this re-
action has remained unchanged, the elements have simply "ex-
changed partners," the type of reaction being metathesis. This
instance is typical of the reaction of metal oxides with acids.
The oxygen is simply exchanged for an equivalent amount of acid
radical and the valence of the metal is not altered.
DIFFERENT BEHAVIOR OF OXIDES AND PEROXIDES

Hydrogen peroxide, H 2 O 2 , contains, for a given amount of hy-
drogen, twice as much oxygen as does water, and the additional
amount of oxygen is held in an unstable state of combination.
Pure hydrogen peroxide is explosive; in dilute solution it gives off
one-half its oxygen more or less rapidly but not explosively. In
pure solutions this decomposition proceeds so slowly that it is
practically imperceptible; but many substances act as cata-
lyzers for the reaction, notably platinum and manganese dioxide.
2. To 10 cc. of a 3 per cent solution of hydrogen peroxide
in a test tube, add a pinch of powdered manganese dioxide.
Note that a vigorous effervescence ensues and that the
escaping gas will cause a glowing splinter to burst into flame.
3. Test for Hydrogen Peroxide. To 2 cc. of 3 per cent
hydrogen peroxide solution add 18 cc. of water, thus making
the volume 20 cc. Mix thoroughly, pour about 15 cc. of the
solution into a test tube, and add 1 cc. of a solution of titanium
sulphate.* Note the characteristic yellow color. This is one
of the standard tests for hydrogen peroxide. Determine the
delicacy of the test by repeating it successively with smaller
and smaller amounts of hydrogen peroxide, as follows: take
2 cc. of the remainder of the diluted solution and dilute it to
20 cc. by adding 18 cc. of water. Test 15 cc. of this solution
by adding 1 cc. of titanium sulphate, and reserve 2 cc. for
further dilution. Proceed in this way with successive dilu-
* Prepared by fusing 1 part of titanium dioxide with 15 to 20 parts of po-
tassium bisulphate and dissolving the mass in 500 cc. of cold 6 N sulphuric
acid.
tions according to the powers of 10 until a solution is obtained

which shows a distinct yellow color with the titanium sulphate,
while the next dilution fails to show the test. In the final tests
add 1 cc. of reagent to 15 cc. of pure water and hold this beside
the sample being tested, looking through the length of the
column of liquid and placing a piece of white paper for a back-
ground. By comparing with a " blank " (the pure water plus
reagent) in this way the fainter colors may be recognized with
much more certainty. Express the sensitiveness of the test
as the number of parts of water in which 1 part by weight of
hydrogen peroxide can be diluted and still give a distinct test.
This test is characteristic for hydrogen peroxide and can be
used to differentiate peroxides from simple oxides and dioxides.
We are now going to investigate the behavior of a number of

oxides with acids and we are going to use the titanium sulphate
reagent to discover whether or not hydrogen peroxide is formed
by the action.
4. Peroxides, (a) To 1 gram of barium peroxide, BaO2,
in a small beaker add 15 cc. of water and then 6iV H N 0 3
drop by drop with continuous stirring until the solid has
dissolved. Test the solution for hydrogen peroxide by
adding titanium sulphate. In order to convince yourself
whether or not the effect could have been caused by the nitric
acid, treat 1 gram BaO 2 with 5 cc. of water and 5 cc. 6iV
H2SO4. Here a clear solution cannot be obtained because
insoluble barium sulphate forms. Filter off the insoluble
residue and test the filtrate with titanium sulphate. The
same yellow color is obtained as before.
(6) Test barium oxide BaO in the same way. Since this
oxide reacts vigorously with water to form the hydroxide,
Ba(0H) 2 , we might as well use the hydroxide as a starting
point, but should bear in mind that it is essentially the same
thing as the oxide BaO. No yellow color appears when
titanium sulphate is added.
(c) Heat a porcelain crucible cover on a triangle to red-
ness; drop upon it a piece of sodium metal the size of a small
pea, and remove the flame. The sodium burns to form sodium
peroxide Na 2 O 2 . Place 50 cc. of cold water and 5 cc. of
6 N H2SO4 in a small dish; let the porcelain and adhering
DIFFEEENT BEHAVIOR OF OXIDES AND PEROXIDES 161
sodium peroxide cool completely, and then drop it into the

dilute acid. Test the solution with titanium sulphate. The
characteristic test will be obtained.
(d) Prepare another sample of sodium peroxide in the
same way. Scrape it off the porcelain into a dry test tube.
Add 5 cc. of water. Note the effervescence and that the
gas inflames a glowing splinter. Boil the solution until
effervescence ceases. Acidify with sulphuric acid and test
with titanium sulphate. The test is negative.
In (d) an amount of oxygen is evolved corresponding to one-

half the oxygen of the Na 2 O 2 . (See also discussion of Experi-
ment 11, p. 70.) This leaves in the solution the oxide Na 2 O or
rather NaOH the product of the reaction of Na20 with water.
Na 2 O 2 + H2O - » 2 NaOH + JO,
On acidification we get a simple neutralization;
2NaOH + H 2 S O 4 ^ Na 2 SO 4 + 2H 2 O
In (c) the peroxide has not been given a chance to decompose
before the treatment with acid. Since hydrogen peroxide was
found as a product, the reaction is probably
Na 2 O 2 + H 2 SO 4 -> Na 2 SO 4 + H 2 O 2
Evaporation of the solution yields crystals of Na2SO4-10H2O
identical in every respect to the sodium sulphate that can be
obtained from (d), thus confirming the above equations.
In the same way barium oxide BaO neutralizes an acid, with the
formation of water:
BaO + 2HN0-, - » B a (NO 3 ), + H2O
and barium peroxide yields hydrogen peroxide:
BaO 2 + 2HNO 3 ->Ba(NO 3 )2 + H 2 O 2
It is obvious that the reaction of the peroxide with an acid is a
metathesis in which the O2 radical is concerned just as the 0 is
concerned in the neutralization of an ordinary oxide. It is fur-
thermore obvious from the formulas H2O2 and Na 2 O 2 and BaO2,
if we ascribe the ordinary valence to hydrogen, sodium, and barium,
that the valence of the O2 radical is 2.
Thus the peroxides are not really simple binary compounds in
which the primary positive valence of the metallic constituent is

just equaled by the primary negative valence of the non-metallic
constituent. The peroxides could rather be classed with such
compounds as nitrates and sulphates in which there is a compound
negative radical.
5. Dioxides. To about 1 gram each of manganese diox-
ide, MnO 2 , and lead dioxide, PbO 2 , in separate test tubes add
10 cc. of water and 5 cc. of 6iV H2SO4 or H N 0 3 and warm
for a few moments. Note that the dark-colored powders
do not dissolve or change their appearance in any way,
nor is there any effervescence. Filter off the insoluble pow-
der and add titanium sulphate to the filtrate. Note that
there is no yellow coloration.
These two oxides do not react at all with these acids, and indeed
we should not expect on that account to find any hydrogen perox-
ide produced. These results are merely negative, therefore, and
leave us in doubt as to the nature of the oxides, whether they are
ordinary binary oxides in which case the valence of the manganese
or lead is 4, or whether they are peroxides in which the valence
of the metal is 2 like that of barium in barium peroxide.
6. Different Behavior of Dioxides and Peroxides with Hy-
drochloric Acid, (a) Treat 0.5 gram of finely powdered lead
dioxide with 5 cc. of ice-cold 12 N HC1. Note that a yellow
solution is formed. Dilute 1 cc. of the solution with 100 cc. of
water and add 1 cc. of titanium sulphate. Note that no yellow
color is produced. Heat the rest of the solution. Note that
yellow gas (chlorine) is given off, that the yellow color of the
solution disappears, and that a white crystalline solid settles
out as the solution cools. (6) Treat 0.5 gram of barium perox-
ide in the same way with 5 cc. of ice-cold 12 N HC1. Add cold
water until all the crystalline residue is dissolved; dilute 5 cc.
of this solution with 100 cc. of water and add 1 cc. of titanium
sulphate. The yellow color indicating the presence of hydro-
gen peroxide is obtained. Warm the remainder of the solu-
tion. Note that little or no chlorine is evolved. Dilute
5 cc. of the remaining solution with 100 cc. of water and again
add titanium sulphate. Note that the test for hydrogen
peroxide is still obtained unless the solution had been heated
too long.
THE HALOGENS 163
In (a) the yellow soluble substance is lead tetrachloride PbCU

and is formed by the reaction
PbO 2 + 4HC1 -» PbCl 4 + 2H2O
Lead tetrachloride is very unstable and decomposes rapidly into
the lower chloride PbCl2 and free chlorine. This chloride of lead
is the same one that is obtained when lead monoxide is treated
with hydrochloric acid:
PbO + 2HC1 -» PbCl 2 + H2O
Since the 2 oxygens of lead dioxide are replaced by 4 chlorines,
and the lead is exchangeable for 4 hydrogens of the acid, the
valence of lead is established as 4 and therefore each of the divalent
oxygens is held as a separate unit by the lead.
In (6) the barium peroxide acts as we should expect with hydro-
chloric acid, yielding hydrogen peroxide. Since hydrogen peroxide
is unstable, breaking down into water and oxygen, we should expect
that it would react, at least to some extent, with the excess of
hydrochloric acid and set free chlorine.
H2O2 + 2HC1 -> 2H2O + Cl2
This experiment therefore has shown that lead dioxide is an
ordinary oxide. The prefix di indicates the quantity of oxygen
and that the valence of the metal is sufficient to hold all the
oxygen in the ordinary manner.
T H E HALOGENS
Recall that chlorine is a greenish yellow gas, bromine is a dark

red liquid which readily vaporizes to a red gas, and iodine is a
nearly black solid which is changed by heat to a beautiful violet-
colored gas.
7. Test for the Presence of Iodine. Volatility of Iodine.
Place some small crystals of iodine in the bottom of a 2-liter
bottle and suspend a piece of filter paper moistened with
starch paste in the upper part of the bottle. Cover the
whole with a watch glass, allow it to stand 15 minutes or more,
and observe that the paper slowly turns blue.
This experiment not only shows the volatility of iodine — it must
pass through the space between the solid crystals and the paper as
a vapor — but it also illustrates one of the striking properties of

free iodine, namely its power of turning starch deep blue. We shall
not concern ourselves as to what the blue substance is, but we shall
employ starch in testing for iodine, and look for the blue color to
indicate its presence.
8. Iodide-Starch Paper. Add 1 cc. of potassium iodide
solution to 10 cc. of a starch solution. Wet a number of
strips of filter paper with the solution, allow them to dry, and
save for use in certain of the following experiments. The
test papers thus prepared are colorless.
Free iodine colors starch blue, but iodine in combination has
altogether different properties.
9. Test for the Presence of Chlorine or Bromine. Place
5 cc. each of chlorine water and bromine water in separate wide-
mouthed bottles. Lower for a moment strips of moistened
iodide-starch paper in the mouth of each bottle. The papers
are immediately turned deep blue.
Chlorine and bromine are higher in the electromotive series
than iodine and thus are able to drive it out of the ionic form
10. Chlorine from Hydrochloric Acid. Place about 0.5

gram each of manganese dioxide, lead dioxide, sodium dichro-
mate, and potassium permanganate in separate test tubes.
Add about 2 cc. of 6 N hydrochloric acid to each and test for
chlorine by holding iodide-starch paper in the mouths of the
tubes. Also after warming a very little observe the odor and
color of the gas. Rinse out the tubes immediately at the sink
under the hood. Compare the action of the oxides used above
with that of copper oxide CuO and lead oxide PbO.
The action of the lower oxides is one of simple metathesis,
chlorine and oxygen simply exchange places, no chlorine being
set free.
CuO + 2HC1 -> CuCl 2 + H 2 O
MnO 2 + 4HC1 -> MnCl 2 + Cl2 + 2H 2 O
In the case of MnO 2 the reaction is one of oxidation and reduction
(see page 122).
One atom of manganese changes its valence from + 4 to + 2 , and
THE HALOGENS 165
this is compensated by the change of two atoms of chlorine from

— 1 to 0, so that algebraically the total changes of valence add to 0.
The reactions of potassium dichromate and potassium per-
manganate are represented by the equations
K 2 Cr 2 0 7 + 14HC1 -»2KC1 + 2CrCl 3 + 3C12 + 7H 2 O
2KMnO 4 + 16HC1 -> 2KC1 + 2MnCl 2 + 5C12 + 8H2O
These are likewise reactions of oxidation and reduction, and the
valence changes add up as follows:
2Cr +6 to+3 2 X (-3) = - 6
6C1 -Ho 0 6 X (+1) = + 6
Total change = 0
2Mn + 7 to + 2 2 X (-5) = -10
10C1 - 1 to 0 10 X ( + 1 ) = + 10
Total change = 0
We may summarize this experiment by the statement that
free chlorine is liberated from hydrochloric acid by strong oxidiz-
ing agents. Whether or not the oxidizing agent is strong enough
to do this may perhaps be foretold by considering the element
which has the higher than ordinary valence; if the chloride of this
element in which the higher valence would be satisfied is unstable,
then the oxidizing agent will set chlorine free.
11. Bromine and Iodine from Bromides and Iodides.
Test the action of any one of the oxidizing agents used in
Experiment 10, say manganese dioxide, on hydrobromic and
hydriodic acids.
Add a few drops of chlorine water to 5 cc. of a bromide
solution, for example NaBr. Then, in order to find whether
bromine has been set free, add 1 cc. of carbon disulphide,
shake vigorously, and let the heavier liquid settle to the
bottom. The free halogen is more soluble in carbon di-
sulphide than in water, consequently it dissolves in and im-
parts its characteristic color to it. Note that the globule
has acquired an orange-red color.
Likewise add a few drops of chlorine water and of bro-
mine water to separate portions of an iodide solution, for
example KI, and test in each case with carbon disulphide.
Note that in each case the globule becomes violet colored.
Although this experiment is almost a repetition of Experiment 9,

it does illustrate another method of recognizing small amounts of
free bromine and iodine. It emphasizes again that, corresponding
to their position in the electromotive series, chlorine is more ac-
tive than bromine and bromine in turn more active than iodine.
Iodine can be liberated from its salts by the weakest oxidizing
agents. It should be noted that in this connection the halogens
themselves are oxidizing agents; for, in the reaction
2KI + Br 2 -> 2KBr + I 2
the bromine has been reduced from a valence of 0 to — 1, while
the iodine has been oxidized from valence — 1 to valence 0.
Fluorine is the strongest oxidizing agent of all. It liberates
the other halogens from their compounds. It will even liberate
oxygen from water. It is impossible to liberate fluorine from
hydrofluoric acid or fluorides by any of the chemical oxidizing
agents because there is no other electro-negative element which
exceeds it in activity. It is impossible to liberate it from an
aqueous solution by electrolysis because the less active oxygen is
set free instead. Fluorine can be prepared by electrolysis of
a solution of potassium fluoride in anhydrous hydrogen fluoride.
This solution is a good electrolyte, and since it contains no other
negative ion than fluoride, it is fluorine that has to be discharged
at the anode.
FORMATION AND PROPERTIES OF THE HYDROGEN HALIDES

12. Hydrogen Chloride. Add 2 cc. of concentrated sul-
phuric acid (36 N) to about 0.5 gram of sodium chloride
in a test tube and warm it a very little if necessary. The salt
effervesces in the concentrated acid. Test for hydrogen
chloride gas by blowing gently across the mouth of the tube,
by holding moistened litmus in the gas, and by bringing a
strip of filter paper moistened with ammonium hydroxide
near the mouth of the tube. The gas issuing from the tube
creates a dense fog with the breath. The gas turns moistened
litmus paper red, and it produces a dense white smoke in the
vicinity of the paper moistened with ammonium hydroxide.
The main reaction consists of the displacement of a volatile
acid from its neutral salt by means of a non-volatile acid.
NaCl + H2SO4 -» NaHSO 4 + HC11
FORMATION AND PROPERTIES OF HYDROGEN HALIDES 167
Although hydrogen chloride is excessively soluble in water it is

not soluble in sulphuric acid.
The fogging of the breath is possible because of the extreme
solubility of hydrogen chloride in water. The fog then consists of
countless minute globules of hydrochloric acid solution.
The hydrogen chloride of course dissolves in the water in the
moist litmus paper and makes hydrochloric acid.
The smoke with ammonia is due to the precipitation of solid
ammonium chloride where the gases HC1 and NH 3 meet. The
ammonium hydroxide dissociates non-electrolytically
NH4OH ^ NH 3 + H2O
and the ammonia combines with the hydrochloric acid
NH 3 + HC1 -» NH4CI
These properties of fogging the breath, reddening litmus, and
making a smoke with ammonia are characteristic of volatile acids
and particularly of the hydrogen halides.
13. Hydrogen Bromide. Add 1 cc. of 36 N sulphuric acid
to about 0.5 gram of powdered potassium or sodium bromide
in a test tube. The salt effervesces in the concentrated acid.
Apply the same tests as in Experiment 12 then look for
other new substances formed, applying the following tests,
and towards the last heating the tube a little. Observe the
color of the gas and also the effect of lowering iodide-starch
paper for a moment only into the tube. Continued exposure
of iodide-starch paper to strong acid fumes will develop a
blue color in any case. Observe the odor, but with great
caution. Test the gases with a strip of filter paper mois-
tened with lead acetate solution. The gas evolved fogs
the breath even more strongly than hydrogen chloride.
It reddens litmus, and it gives a dense smoke with ammonia.
The gas is quite strongly tinged with red; it turns iodide-
starch paper blue immediately; it does not darken lead
acetate paper. Sometimes one is able to distinguish the
odor of sulphur dioxide.
The fogging of the breath, litmus test, and smoking with am-
monia indicate that hydrogen bromide is freely evolved. The
reddish tinge to the gas and the coloring of iodide-starch paper
indicate the presence of a rather small amount of free bromine.
The failure to darken lead acetate indicates absence of hydrogen

sulphide.
The principal reaction in this experiment is similar to that in
the preceding experiment:
NaBr + H2SO4 -> NaHSO 4 + HBr
The properties of hydrogen bromide are very similar to those of
hydrogen chloride but differ in that hydrogen bromide reduces
sulphuric acid to form sulphur dioxide and is itself oxidized to free
bromine.
H 2 SO 4 + 2HBr-> H 2 SO 3 + H2O + Br 2
H 2 SO 3 -» H2O + SO2
The major part of the hydrogen bromide, it is true, escapes
from the reaction mixture unaffected, but on bubbling up through
the concentrated sulphuric acid a small part of it is oxidized ac-
cording to the secondary reaction which accounts for the red
color of free bromine.
It is recalled from Experiment 11 that bromine is a less active
element than chlorine; hence it is but natural that we should
find it here displaced from its hydrogen compound by a weaker
oxidizing agent. Chlorine is displaced from hydrogen chloride
by strong oxidizing agents, MnO 2 , PbO 2 , K 2 Cr 2 0 7 , KMnO 4 , but
bromine is displaced by the comparatively weak oxidizing agent
H2SO4 which has no action on hydrogen chloride. The sulphur
of the sulphuric acid is reduced from valence + 6 to valence
+ 4 in sulphur dioxide.
14. Hydrogen Iodide. Add 1 cc. of 36 N sulphuric acid
to 0.5 gram of powdered potassium or sodium iodide, and
apply all the tests enumerated in Experiments 12 and 13;
also inspect the walls of the test tube carefully to see if any
solid sulphur condenses.
As in Experiments 12 and 13 the solid effervesces in the con-
centrated sulphuric acid and the gas evolved fogs the breath
(even more markedly in this case), turns litmus red, and gives
a dense smoke with ammonia. When the tube is warmed,
the beautiful purple iodine vapor is seen inside and nearly
black crystals collect on the cooler upper walls. Lead acetate
paper is colored dark brown. Sometimes a powdery light
yellow substance (sulphur) is seen collecting on the walls of
the tube.
FORMATION AND PROPERTIES OF HYDROGEN HALIDES 169
The primary reaction in this experiment,

N a l + H2SO4 -» NaHSO* + HI
is of the same nature as that in the preceding two experiments.

That hydrogen iodide escapes abundantly from the reaction mix-
ture is attested by the fogging of the breath, by the reddening of
litmus, and by smoke with ammonia. But that hydrogen iodide
enters more extensively into a secondary reaction with sulphuric
acid is shown by the abundance of the secondary products. These
consist of free iodine, shown by the purple vapor and the black
crystalline deposit; hydrogen sulphide, shown by the darkening
of lead acetate paper (PbAc 2 + H 2 S -> PbS + 2HAc), and the
odor; sulphur, shown by the light yellow deposit. Their forma-
tion can be accounted for by the equations:
H2SO4 + 8HI -» H 2 S + 4H 2 O + 4Ij

H 2 S + I , -» 2HI + S
Hydrogen sulphide and iodine do not react in the gaseous condi-

tion, but where they dissolve in the film of moisture condensed on
the cooler walls of the tube they react and this accounts for the
deposit of sulphur.
This experiment, taken in conjunction with the preceding two,
shows the gradation in properties of the hydrogen halides. The
activity of the halogens decreases in the order: fluorine, chlorine,
bromine, iodine. Hydrogen fluoride is so stable therefore that no
chemical substance can displace fluorine, and hydrogen fluoride
is unable to act as a reducing agent in any circumstance. Hy-
drogen chloride can act as a reducing agent upon the most powerful
oxidizing agents. Hydrogen bromide can reduce the compara-
tively weak oxidizing agent sulphuric acid, but it can only carry
the valence of the sulphur down to + 4 in sulphur dioxide. Hy-
drogen iodide can reduce sulphuric acid much more completely,
carrying the valence all the way from + 6 down to the lowest
possible, namely —2 in hydrogen sulphide.
15. Hydrogen bromide and hydrogen iodide might be

obtained pure from their salts, provided the latter were
treated with a non-volatile acid which would not at the same
time behave as an oxidizing agent.
Place about 0.5 gram of powdered sodium bromide in a test

tube with a little concentrated phosphoric acid solution, heat,
and test the evolved gas for free halogen as well as for hy-
drogen bromide. Repeat, using sodium iodide in place of
the sodium bromide.
In both experiments, fogging of the breath, reddening of
litmus, and smoke with ammonia are noted. With the so-
dium bromide, the gas is entirely uncolored and no test with
iodide starch paper is given. With sodium iodide the gas
is at first entirely colorless but when the tube is heated
strongly the film of moisture condensing on the walls of the
tube becomes slightly brown. No test is given with starch
paper.
Phosphoric acid is a much weaker oxidizing agent than sul-
phuric acid, and it fails to oxidize either hydrogen bromide or
hydrogen iodide. The brown color, it is true, indicates a trace
of free iodine, but this is accounted for by a direct decomposition
of hydrogen iodide by heat.
CHARACTERISTIC REACTIONS OF THE HALIDE IONS
The halides of all the metals except silver, lead, mercurous

mercury, and cuprous copper are soluble in water, but with the ions
of these metals, the halide ions give characteristic precipitates.
The precipitates are valuable as tests for identifying either the hal-
ogens or the metals in qualitative analysis.
16. (a) Add a few drops of silver nitrate solution to a
few drops each of hydrochloric, hydrobromic, and hydriodic
acid solutions, diluted with 5 cc. of water, in separate test
tubes. Let each precipitate settle, pour off most of the
liquid, and find whether portions of the precipitate dissolve
in a large amount of boiling water. Test also the solubility of
each in ammonia.
(b) Add lead nitrate solution also to each of the three
acids and test the solubility of the precipitates in hot water.
Tabulate the results obtained in (a) and (6).
The exact figures for the solubility at different temperatures
will be found in the solubility table in the Appendix. The
solubility of the silver halides in ammonia solution depends on the
RELATIVE ACTIVITY 171
formation of the complex ion, Ag-2NH 3 + (see Chapter III, page

118). Silver bromide and silver iodide are decreasingly less sol-
uble in pure water than the chloride, although all three seem by the
direct experiment to be completely insoluble. Thus, In a solu-
tion containing ammonia, the Ag-2NH S + ion does not dissociate
enough for the simple silver ions and chlorine ions to reach the
solubility product of silver chloride. The solubility product of
silver bromide is sooner reached, and silver bromide is only spar-
ingly soluble in ammonia solution. The solubility product of silver
iodide is still smaller, and this accounts for the apparent complete
insolubility of silver iodide in ammonia solution.
RELATIVE ACTIVITY OF THE HALOGENS, OXYGEN, AND SULPHUR
The activity of an element is judged by its power to combine

with other elements, or by its ability to pass from the elementary
condition into solution in the form of ions, whereby it forces other
less active elements out of the ionic into the elementary condition.
There can be no doubt as to the relative activity of the halogens
as regards their tendency to form simple negative ions. The
position of oxygen in this respect is harder to define, for no simple
ions of oxygen exist in solution. Under certain conditions chlo-
rine displaces oxygen from water, as in Experiment 10, page 69;
yet some substances which give up oxygen readily (oxidizing
agents, see Experiment 10 of this chapter) set chlorine free from
hydrochloric acid.
17. Observe the color of the stock solution of hydriodic
acid, or of a dilute solution of KI acidified with a little
H2SO4. If this should chance to be fresh and perfectly color-
less, pour a few cubic centimeters into the bottom of a beaker
and let it stand some time exposed to the air. Apply tests
to determine whether the color is caused by free iodine.
Are hydrobromic and hydrochloric acids similarly affected
by exposure to the air? Is a solution of potassium iodide so
affected?
Hydriodic acid solution can be prepared perfectly colorless and

kept colorless so long as it is kept out of contact with the air.
In contact with air it becomes brown in a very few minutes and
the brown color gradually increases in depth. This color is due
to free iodine which is quite soluble in an iodide solution giving a

brown solution
2H+ + 21" + £O2 -» H 2 O + I ,
In the course of this reaction hydrogen ions are used up; it is
therefore obvious that the presence of hydrogen ions will aid in
the displacement of iodine ions by oxygen. In a neutral potas-
sium iodide solution no iodine is observed and it is thus apparent
that the help of hydrogen ions is necessary to accomplish the
liberation of iodine.
Chlorine and bromine are not liberated by the action of air on
hydrochloric acid and hydrobromic acid, or on neutral solutions
of chlorides and bromides.
18. Add a few drops of iodine solution to a little hydrogen
sulphide water. The brown iodine solution is immediately
decolorized and a white cloudiness (precipitate of sulphur)
appears in the solution.
Observe the precipitate which slowly forms in the bottle
of hydrogen sulphide water to which air has some access.
Explain the reaction in each case, and place sulphur,
oxygen, chlorine, bromine, and iodine in the order of their
chemical activity in acid solutions.
From these experiments it is seen that both iodine and oxygen
are more active than sulphur. The reactions are quite certainly
ionic displacements although it is rather complicated to represent
them in intersecting ionic equations.
H 2 S + I 2 = S 1 + 2HI
H 2 S + K>2 = S 1 + H2O
From this experiment and the preceding one we should conclude
that the non-metallic elements fall in the order F, Cl, Br, 0, I, S
(fluorine being strongest) with respect to their activity in aqueous
solutions containing free acid. This is approximately the order of
the electromotive series for these non-metals. If the solution is
made neutral the electromotive potential of oxygen is lowered so
that the oxygen is no longer able to displace iodine.
In dry gaseous mixtures the order of activity of the non-metals
is somewhat altered, oxygen moving up ahead of bromine and
chlorine, and sulphur and iodine changing places: F, 0 , Cl, Br,
S, I.
SULPHUR 173
SULPHUR
19. Allotropic Forms, (a) Dissolve in a dry test tube a
small piece of roll sulphur in 3 to 5 cc. of carbon disulphide.
Pour the clear solution on a watch glass and allow it to evap-
orate spontaneously under the hood. Examine the crystals.
This is rhombic sulphur.
(6) Heat 10 grams of sulphur in a test tube until it has just
melted. Pour the liquid into the cone of a folded filter paper.
Then allow the melt to cool very slowly, and when it has par-
tially solidified, and a crust has formed over the surface,
break this crust and pour out what is still left in the liquid
state. Examine the crystals and compare them with those
observed in (a). This is monoclinic sulphur.
(c) Melt 10 grams of sulphur in a test tube. Heat slowly,
and observe all the changes that take place during the heating.
When the sulphur boils, pour it into a pan or large beaker
of water and observe the condition of the cooled product.
It will be found to be quite elastic. This is amorphous
sulphur.
Distinguish between the three solid forms of sulphur here ob-
served and discuss the differences in the conditions under which
they are formed (see reference book).
20. Hydrogen and Sulphur, (a) Prepare hydrogen sul-
phide by the action of dilute sulphuric acid on ferrous sul-
phide in a generator bottle (see Note 13 (a), page 18). Pass
the gas through a drying tube containing a plug of cotton
wool, which retains any acid spray, then through a piece of
hard glass tube the end of which is drawn out into a capillary
jet. Heat a section of the tube to redness and observe that
a white deposit is formed on the walls of the cooler part of
the tube beyond.
(6) Light the gas issuing from the capillary jet and note
the products of the freely burning hydrogen sulphide. The
odor of sulphur dioxide is unmistakable. If a cold bottle
is held over the flame, water condenses inside the bottle. Now
thrust a piece of cold porcelain half way into the flame and
note the deposit of sulphur.
(c) Generate hydrogen gas in exactly the same way as
hydrogen sulphide in (a). Place about 0.5 gram of sulphur
in the end of the hard glass tube nearest the generator.

When it is ascertained that the hydrogen coming off is pure,
heat the further end of the glass tube to redness and gradually
move the flame towards the sulphur until this begins to be
volatilized a little. By this arrangement a mixture of hydro-
gen and sulphur vapor is made to pass through a red-hot
tube. Test the escaping gases with lead acetate paper.
Parts (a) and (6) show that sulphur is deposited when hydrogen
sulphide is strongly heated. In the freely burning flame the
ultimate products are sulphur dioxide and water:
H 2 S + | O 2 -y H 2 O + SO2
But if the unburned vapors in the interior of the flame are cooled
by the porcelain before they can burn we find that sulphur is
present there. Although we have not directly proved the presence
of hydrogen we are justified in thinking that it is the other decom-
position product of hydrogen sulphide.
Part (c) shows that some hydrogen sulphide is formed when a
mixture of hydrogen and sulphur vapor is heated to redness, and
it is thus clear that neither the synthesis nor the decomposition
of hydrogen sulphide is complete at this temperature but that
hydrogen sulphide reaches an equilibrium with its products ac-
cording to the reversible reaction.
H2S — H 2 + S
It is instructive to review the properties of the other non-

metals by considering how they would behave in similar circum-
stances.
Chlorine and hydrogen, passed together into a heated tube, com-
bine completely and with explosive violence; oxygen and hydro-
gen explode even more violently; and fluorine and hydrogen can
hardly be mixed together, even at ordinary temperatures, with-
out exploding. Bromine and hydrogen led through a heated tube
combine freely to form hydrogen bromide but without any ex-
plosion. Iodine and hydrogen combine to but a limited extent
— less than sulphur and hydrogen.
On the other hand, the chemical activity of the non-metal may
be judged by the stability of the hydrogen compound, and the
stability in turn may be measured by the temperature to which
SULPHUR 175
it must be heated before it is perceptibly dissociated. Hydrogen

iodide begins to show the violet color of free iodine as low as
180°; hydrogen sulphide does not deposit free sulphur below
310°; hydrogen bromide is first perceptibly decomposed at 800°;
hydrogen chloride at 1,800°; water at 2,000°; and hydrogen fluoride
is still undissociated at this temperature.
21. Ionization of Hydrogen Sulphide. Pass hydrogen sul-
phide, which has been filtered through cotton wool, and
which has bubbled through one bottle containing water,
into distilled water in a flask until the solution is saturated.
Test the conductivity of the solution with electrodes B (see
page 84), and test it with litmus. The conductivity is almost
imperceptible; it does not cause the lamp to glow, but it is
shown by a slight evolution of bubbles from the'electrodes.
Litmus is turned towards the red, but not the full red color
produced by strong acids.
The effects observed in this experiment are caused by the
ionization H 2 S ^± H+ + HS ~ to the extent of 0.05 per cent
(page 100).
22. Hydrogen Sulphide as a Precipitant. Pass hydrogen
sulphide into solutions of salts of the heavy metals acidified
with HC1; take for example a solution of copper chloride.
A heavy black precipitate is formed.
The precipitate is copper sulphide. The table gives the ioniz-
ation HS~ ;=± H+ + S~~ as 0.0002 per cent, but this applies only
to a 0.1 equivalent solution of Na+ HS~ in which all the H+ ions
come from the dissociation in question. In a solution of H 2 S con-
taining the H+ ions of the first dissociation, the concentration of
S~~ ions would be very much smaller. In a solution containing a
strong acid like HC1, the concentration of S~~ which could come
from H 2 S would be excessively small. But copper sulphide is
precipitated from such a solution. The solubility product of
copper sulphide must be extremely small.
The solubility of all the heavy metal sulphides is very small;
they are all insoluble in water, but some dissolve in hydrochloric
acid. The solubility product of these is not quite so small because
it is not reached when the ionization of H2S is driven back by the
strong acid.
23. Reducing Action of Hydrogen Sulphide. Dilute 5 cc.

of a potassium permanganate solution with 100 cc. of water
and add 5 cc. of 6 N H2SO4. Bring the solution to boiling
and pass in hydrogen sulphide. The deep purple color of
the permanganate quickly disappears, and a white opalescent
precipitate appears.
Although sulphur in hydrogen sulphide has a range of eight pos-
sible points in valence, from —2 to + 6 , to go when it acts as
a reducing agent, it usually does not go beyond the zero stage of
valence in aqueous oxidizing agents, the obvious explanation
being that the free sulphur is precipitated and thus removed from
the sphere of action.
2KMnO 4 + 5H2S + 3H2SO4 -»K 2 SO 4 + 2MnSO4 + 8H2O + 5S
2Mn +7 to+2 2 X ( - 5 ) = -10
5S - 2 to 0 5 X ( + 2 ) = +10
Total change = 0
NITROGEN
Nitrogen is an extremely inactive element, combining directly

only with the most active of the metals. Nitrogen forms no
simple ions and it is impossible to give it an exact potential in the
electromotive series, but it is obvious that it is far less active
than sulphur or iodine. Under the influence of electric sparks
or of catalysts at about 400° nitrogen does combine sparingly
with hydrogen to form ammonia NH 3 . It combines quite readily
with magnesium to give the nitride Mg 3 N 2 which compound bears
the same relation to ammonia (its formula should logically be
H 3 N) that magnesium chloride does to hydrogen chloride.
24. Synthesis of Ammonia. Heat a mixture of 14 grams
of iron filings, 0.5 gram of powdered sodium hydroxide, and
0.5 gram of powdered potassium nitrate in a test tube, and
test the gas which escapes by holding a rod wet with con-
centrated hydrochloric acid near the mouth of the tube.
A white smoke is formed.
Test the action of iron on sodium hydroxide and potassium
nitrate respectively by heating 7-gram portions of iron
filings with 0.5 gram of each of these reagents separately.
GENERAL QUESTIONS IV 177
From sodium hydroxide, a gas that burns with a colorless

flame (hydrogen) is evolved. From potassium nitrate a
gas that will neither burn nor support combustion (nitrogen)
is evolved.
Iron is more active than either hydrogen or nitrogen and dis-
places them
2KN0-, + 5Fe -> K2O-5FeO + 2N
2NaOH + Fe -» N a 2 O F e 0 + 2H
The hydrogen and nitrogen are probably in the atomic state at
the moment of liberation. They change at once to ordinary
molecular N 2 and H 2 if they find nothing to combine with, but
in the presence of each other they combine to form ammonia.
25. Nitrides. Place half a gram of magnesium ribbon
rolled into a ball, or half a gram of powdered magnesium, in
a small crucible. Heat it until it catches fire, put the cover
on to restrict the admission of air, and let the magnesium
burn slowly. Transfer the ash to a test tube and add a few
drops of water (cautiously). Note the odor of ammonia,
and bring a rod wet with concentrated hydrochloric acid near
the mouth of the tube, noting the white smoke.
When enough oxygen cannot come into contact with burning
magnesium to form the oxide, magnesium combines readily with
nitrogen. Of course, prolonged heating in air will convert all
nitride into oxide, but if the ash is cooled at once it contains
a considerable amount of nitride. Magnesium nitride hydrolyzes
very easily according to the reaction
Mg 3 N 2 + 6H2O -» 3Mg(OH) 2 + 2H 3 N
The magnesium nitride may be considered as a salt of the base
Mg(OH) 2 and the acid H 3 N. But since H 3 N is so weak an acid
that it is not usually considered as an acid at all, the hydrolysis of
its salt is correspondingly very complete.
GENEEAL QUESTIONS IV
1. What are the distinctive physical and the distinctive chemi-

cal properties of the non-metallic elements?
2. Why are the non-metallic elements considered to be the
negative constituents of binary compounds?
3. Many binary compounds of non-metals with non-metals

are known, but such compounds usually can exist only out of
contact with water. For example, phosphorus trichloride is
completely hydrolyzed by water. Write the equation for this
reaction, and treating it as a metathesis, conclude which element
in the phosphorus trichloride is to be regarded as the positive
constituent.
4. Arrange the non-metals studied in this chapter in the order
of their activity as negative elements, (a) when they react in
aqueous solution, (b) when they react with " d r y " substances.
5. Look up the heat of solution of hydrogen iodide and hydrogen
sulphide, and state how this factor is able to make iodine more
active than sulphur in aqueous solution, whereas sulphur is the
more active in the dry state.
CHAPTER V
ALKALI AND ALKALINE EARTH METALS
These metals constitute the left-hand or A families in Groups I

and II of the periodic classification of the elements, as shown in
the table inside the back cover of the book.
The metals of these two families are studied together because
they are extremely active base-forming elements. On account
of their great activity they are never found uncombined in nature,
and it is only by the aid of the most powerful reducing agencies
(for example, by electrolysis of their molten salts) that the metals
themselves are extracted from their compounds.
The alkali metals are monovalent. Their hydroxides, MOH,
are extremely soluble and are highly ionized as bases; on account
of the corrosive properties of the latter they are known as the
caustic alkalies — hence the designation, alkali metals. The
compounds of the alkali metals are, with a very few exceptions,
soluble in water, and they are all strong electrolytes.
The radical ammonium, NH 4 , is classed with the alkali metals
on account of its ability to form the same kinds of compounds.
The alkaline earth metals are divalent; their hydroxides,
M(OH) 2 , are less soluble than those of the alkali metals, but are
nevertheless very strongly basic. The compounds of these metals
are not so generally soluble as those of the alkali metals, and in
particular the carbonates, sulphates, and phosphates are mostly
insoluble.
PREPARATION 15
SODIUM CARBONATE BY THE AMMONIA (SOLVAY) PROCESS, Na 8 CO 3
The raw materials from which the sodium carbonate of com-

merce is manufactured are common salt, NaCl, and limestone,
CaCO 3 , but these substances do not spontaneously react with
each other, rather a reaction would take place in the opposite
direction, as indicated by the arrow.
2NaCl + CaCO 3 *- CaCl 2 + Na 2 CO 3
179
180 ALKALI AND ALKALINE EARTH METALS
Much ingenuity has been exercised by chemists in attempts to

effect this change through a series of reactions. In the older
Le Blanc soda process sulphuric acid is used in the first step and
coal (carbon) in another, and neither of these auxiliary substances
is recovered. The soda process which is employed exclusively
today is known as the Solvay or ammonia process and uses am-
monia as an auxiliary substance. The ammonia is almost 100
per cent recoverable, however, and can be used over and over
indefinitely. The successive steps in the process are as follows:
1. Heating limestone in kilns to obtain quicklime and carbon
dioxide:
CaCO 3 -» CaO + CO 2
2. Passing carbon dioxide and ammonia into saturated brine
in an absorption tower:
NH 3 + CO 2 + H 2 O + N a C l ^ NH4CI + NaHCO 3 j
3. Collecting the precipitated NaHCO 3 .
4. Recovery of ammonia by treating the ammonium chloride
filtrate with quicklime, expelling the ammonia gas to be used
again in step 2, and working up the calcium chloride left behind:
2NH4C1 + Ca(OH) 2 -» CaCl 2 + 2NH 3 + 2H2O
5. Heating the sodium bicarbonate to obtain sodium carbonate,
the carbon dioxide expelled supplying one-half of the amount
needed in step 2:
2NaHCO 3 -» Na 2 CO 3 + CO 2 + H2O
This preparation stresses particularly the principle involved
in step 2. Carbon dioxide produces no precipitate in a neutral
sodium chloride solution, the ionization of H 2 CO 3 producing too
CO 2 + H2O ^ H 2 CO 3 ^ H+
HC(V
Na+ Cl~
NH 3 + H2O ^ NEUOH ^ O H " I NH4+
1 1
H2O NaHCO 3 1
low a concentration of HCO 3 ~ to saturate the solution with
NaHCO 3 . The presence of the base prevents the accumulation
of H+ and in consequence the carbonic acid may continue to ionize
until a sufficient HCO 3 " concentration to precipitate NaHCO 3 has
accumulated.
SODIUM CARBONATE 181
Materials: sodium chloride, NaCl, 59 grams 1 F.W.

15 N ammonium hydroxide, 80 cc.
carbon dioxide, which can be drawn either from an
automatic gas generator (see Note 13 (c), page 20),
or from a gas holder which is filled as needed
from a steel cylinder of liquid carbon dioxide.
Apparatus: bubbling bottle, through which the carbon dioxide
is to pass to indicate its rate of flow.
suction filter and trap bottle.
2,000-cc. flask equipped with 1-hole rubber stopper,
a delivery tube with a short right-angle bend at
the top and reaching to within an inch of the
liquid in the flask, and 30 inches of rubber delivery
tube.
300-cc. flask with stopper.
funnel and filter.
Bunsen burner.
Procedure: Place the salt, the ammonium hydroxide, and 150 cc.
of water in the 300-cc. flask and shake vigorously until the salt
is nearly dissolved. Pour the solution through a filter into the
large flask. Use this flask as the absorption vessel and connect it
with the source of carbon dioxide. Loosen the stopper of the
flask and let the carbon dioxide expel the air. Then stopper the
flask and shake it as vigorously as possible until the absorption of
carbon dioxide has slackened. Loosen the stopper again to allow
any air that has accumulated in the flask to escape; then continue
the shaking until practically no more gas passes the bubbling
bottle even with vigorous shaking. If the shaking has been
continuous, this point will be reached within 30 minutes.
Pour the suspension of sodium bicarbonate into the suction
filter funnel (Notes 3 and 4 (6)) and allow it to drain until the
surface of the mass in the funnel is firm. Press the surface
gently with the blunt end of a test tube to close up any cracks or
channels that may have opened and to squeeze out the last possible
drops of chloride-containing solution. Stop the suction; pour
over the surface of the product 15 cc. of cold distilled water,
letting it penetrate uniformly into the mass for 3 minutes. Again
apply suction and press out the last possible drops of liquid.
Repeat the washing with another 15 cc. of distilled water. The
product may now be considered to be "commercially pure"
although it still contains an appreciable amount of chloride.
Test the preparation for chloride by dissolving about 0.1 gram in
5 cc. of distilled water, adding an excess' of dilute nitric acid and a
few drops of silver nitrate solution. Transfer the product to
a 4-inch porcelain dish, taking care not to include any of the
filter paper, and allow it to air-dry completely if it is to be pre-
served as sodium bicarbonate. If it is to be converted to the
carbonate it is not necessary to wait for complete drying. Place
the dish on an iron wire gauze on a ring stand, and adjust a gas
flame 2 inches high the top of which is | inch below the wire gauze.
Continue the heating in this fashion until the product appears
dry. Then place a watch glass over the dish to retain the heat in
the upper layer of the powder and continue the heating with
frequent stirring until escape of gas (seething) ceases. One-half
hour's heating with the low flame as described should suffice to
decompose the bicarbonate (200°) and avoid melting the car-
bonate (851°) and causing it to cake together and stick to the dish.
Put up the preparation in a 2-ounce cork-stoppered bottle.
QUESTIONS
1. What is the purpose of washing the product with water?
How much sodium bicarbonate is lost in the mother liquor and
the wash water (see solubility table)?
2. Why must the solution be acidulated with nitric acid before
testing with silver nitrate?
3. Why cannot potassium bicarbonate be effectively prepared
from potassium chloride by the ammonia process? (Look up
the solubility of potassium bicarbonate.) What process may
be used to prepare potassium carbonate from this source?
4. Write the intersecting ionic equation for the recovery of
ammonia from the ammonium chloride liquors.
5. What becomes of the ammonium chloride still clinging to
the sodium bicarbonate preparation when the latter is heated to
convert it to the carbonate?
6. Define an acid salt. Compare the acidity of NaHSC>4 and
NaHC0 3 . Write equations for reactions in which these acid salts
are showing their acid character.
CAUSTIC ALKALI FROM ALKALI CARBONATE 183
PREPARATION 16
CAUSTIC ALKALI FROM ALKALI CARBONATE, NaOH
CAUSTICIZING REACTION
The industrial process by which large quantities of sodium

hydroxide are made consists in treating a 10 per cent solution of
sodium carbonate with an excess of calcium hydroxide (milk of
lime). After the reaction is complete the mixture is filtered to
remove the precipitated calcium carbonate and excess of calcium
hydroxide. This process involves a most important application
of the principle of solubility product: calcium hydroxide continues
to dissolve and calcium carbonate to precipitate according to the
reaction
Ca(OH) 2 ^ Ca++ + 2OH"
CO-T ~ + 2Na+
CaCO 3 1
until equilibrium between both solids and the solution is attained.
Solubility in pure water Solubility product

moles per liter
Ca(OH)2 0 02 0 02 X 0 042
CaCO3 0 00013 0 00013 X 0 00013
At this point the concentration of both C a + + and CO 3 ions

is so small (both close to the value 0.00013) that for practical pur-
poses it is disregarded and the filtered solution is said to be free
of either calcium or carbonate. However, with so small a C a + +
ion concentration the OH~ ion concentration can be quite large
without exceeding the solubility product of Ca(0H) 2 . In fact
the filtered solution has a concentration of nearly 2-molal in NaOH.
If, however, the OH~ ion concentration gets above 2-molal, the
C a + + ion concentration is depressed to such an extent that an
appreciable concentration of C O 3 " ions can remain without ex-
ceeding the solubility product of calcium carbonate. In other
words, if we started with a more concentrated solution of Na 2 CO 3
than 10 per cent, a complete conversion to the hydroxide would
not be possible.
Materials: anhydrous sodium carbonate, Na2CO3, 53 grams =

0.5 F.W.
slaked lime, Ca(OH)2, 50 grams.
burette with standard HC1.
10-cc. pipette.
300-cc. Erlenmeyer flask.
Bunsen burner.
500-cc. bottle with rubber stopper.
Procedure: Dissolve the sodium carbonate in 300 cc. of water,

and stir the slaked lime into another 300 cc. of water, making milk
of lime. Bring the carbonate solution to boiling in the 8-inch
dish and pour the milk of lime slowly with stirring into the boiling
solution. Let the mixture boil 15 minutes and then filter, using
a suction bottle (see Note 4 (6)). Measure the volume of the solu-
tion of caustic alkali obtained and preserve it in the rubber-stop-
pered bottle.
Determine the Strength of the Solution. With a pipette measure
10 cc. of the preparation into a 300-cc. Erlenmeyer flask, add
100 cc. of distilled water, and titrate against standard HC1 using
phenolphthalein as the indicator. (See Experiment 6, page 75.)
Carry out a duplicate titration with a second 10-cc. sample, and
take the average of the results to give the normality of the solu-
tion. Label the bottle with the number of cubic centimeters of
the solution, with its normality, and with the actual amount in
grams of the hydroxide.
QUESTIONS
1. The calcium hydroxide used in causticizing is soluble only
to the extent of 1.7 grams per liter. Explain how, in spite of its
limited solubility, the required amount can enter into reaction.
2. Explain why the solution obtained contains practically no
calcium ions although an excess of calcium hydroxide, which is
appreciably soluble in pure water, has been used for causticizing.
SODIUM HYDROXIDE BY ELECTROLYSIS 185
PREPARATION 17
SODIUM HYDROXIDE BY ELECTROLYSIS OF SODIUM CHLORIDE
SOLUTION. FARADAY'S LAW AND THE CURRENT EFFICIENCY
Another widely used commercial method for the production of

sodium hydroxide lies in the electrolysis of sodium chloride solu-
tion — a method which is economical when the chlorine simul-
taneously produced can also be utilized.
In this preparation we shall construct a laboratory cell embody-
ing some of the features of the commercial cell and determine the
ratio of the actual yield of sodium hydroxide to that theoretically
obtainable from the current. We shall use the entire product in
making the determination and, therefore, there will be no prepa-
ration to be preserved.
The section on electrochemical reactions and Faraday's law,
pages 123-126, should be carefully reviewed before proceeding
with this preparation.
Coulometer. A cell consisting of copper electrodes immersed
in a copper sulphate solution furnishes one of the most reliable and
exact methods of measuring the amount of electricity flowing
through the circuit into which it is inserted. We shall measure
the decrease of weight of the copper anode, rather than the in-
crease of weight of the copper cathode, because some of the copper
deposit on the cathode may not be firmly attached, and may
powder off in the process of washing, drying, and weighing. It
should be remembered that since the C u + + ion has two charges,
the equivalent weight of copper is one-half the atomic weight,
and 1 faraday will dissolve 31.8 grams rather than 63.6 grams from
the anode.
In the commercial electrolysis of brine, carbon anodes and iron
cathodes are employed. The anode reaction is mainly the dis-
charge of chlorine ions:
2 C r - > C l 2 + 2O
but to a small extent hydroxyl ions are discharged, liberat-

ing oxygen:
2OIT -> H 2 0 + iO 2 + 2 0
and a part of this oxygen attacks the electrode, producing CO2.
The cathode reaction consists almost exclusively in the dis-
charge of H+ ions furnished by the progressive ionization of water:

H , O - » H + + OH~
O+H+->±H2
The 0H~ ions, which thus accumulate in the cathode compartment,
are balanced by the Na+ ions, which are brought up by the electro-
lytic conduction. The commercial sodium hydroxide is obtained
by evaporating the cathode solution to a high concentration of
NaOH, in which NaCl is insoluble. The crystals of NaCl are
removed in centrifugal filters, and the purified solution is evap-
orated until molten NaOH is left. This is poured into molds and
allowed to solidify. If the total sodium hydroxide could be re-
covered, 40 grams would be realized for each faraday. It is the
object of this experiment to determine what percentage of this
ideal yield can be obtained in a simple cell.
Side Reactions Which Decrease the Yield. The products in the
anode and cathode compartments will react if they are allowed to
mix.
Cl, + 2NaOH -> NaOCl + NaCl + H 2 O
Commercial cells are so designed as to reduce this mixing to a
minimum. In our experiment we employ a loose plug of cotton
wool to prevent the mixing of the solutions. But even if con-
vection currents are eliminated completely, the unfortunate con-
dition holds that the electrolytic conduction carries OH~ as well
as Cl~ ions from the cathode through the cotton wool plug into
the anode compartment, where the OH~ ions react with the dis-
solved chlorine.
Cl2 + 2OH- -» CIO" + Cl" + H2O
(This is identical to the above reaction, except that it is here
written ionically.)
Power Efficiency. Since the cost of electricity is based on the
energy consumed rather than the amount of electricity, the cur-
rent efficiency which we are determining is not a measure of the
cost efficiency. The energy consumed is proportional to the
product of the coulombs and the volts. The minimum voltage
to discharge CI2 from a normal NaCl solution, and H 2 from a
normal NaOH solution, in a cell is 2.17 volts. A somewhat higher
voltage must be applied to make a sufficient current flow through
the cell. The cell we use in this experiment, however, has a high
internal resistance, and more energy will be expended in over-
SODIUM HYDROXIDE BY ELECTROLYSIS 187
coming this than in bringing about the electrochemical change

itself. Hence, we shall not even measure the voltage drop across
the cell to determine the power efficiency, but we shall frankly
limit our problem to a study of the current efficiency.
Materials: saturated sodium chloride solution,
saturated copper sulphate solution,
standard acid and base,
phenolphthalein solution,
reagent alcohol.
Apparatus: two 8-inch U-tubes.
2 burette clamps.
2 copper electrodes,
iron electrode,
carbon electrode,
brass connector.
100-watt lamp and socket,
ring stand,
cotton wool.
2 burettes.
Data Form:
Duration of Experiment Hour Minute Second
1. Ended (lamp unscrewed)
2. Begun (lamp screwed in)
3. Time elapsed minutes seconds
4. Weight of copper anode, before grams
5. Weight of copper anode, after grams
6. Loss in Weight grams
Titration
HC1
7. Normality of HC1 solution
8. Burette reading after titration cc.
9. Burette reading before titration cc.
10. Number of cc. used in titration cc.
NaOH
11. Normality of NaOH solution
12. Burette reading after titration cc.
13. Burette reading before titration cc.
14. Number of cc. used in titration cc.
Procedure: Set up the apparatus as shown in Fig. 22. A car-

bon anode and a spiral iron cathode are placed in the electrolytic
cell at the right. A plug of cotton wool is placed at the bend of
the U-tube; it is not packed very tightly, only enough to hinder
the bodily mixing of the solutions in the two arms. The electro-
lytic cell is filled with a
saturated solution of com-
mon salt. The metal con-
nection on the carbon pole
should not touch the solu-
tion.
The coulometer, or left-
hand U-tube, should con-
tain saturated copper sul-
phate solution, which is
specially prepared for this
Cotton experiment. The cathode
is made of copper; the
anode is a spiral of heavy
FIG. 22 copper wire free of any
coating of oxide. Clean and dry the anode and weigh it.
Connect the two U-tubes " in series," as in the diagram; connect
the terminals through a 100-watt lamp with the direct-current
laboratory circuit. The current should be turned on or off by
unscrewing the lamp from the socket, never by pulling the plug.
If the plug is pulled, in re-inserting, the direction of flow of the
direct current might be reversed.
Before starting the experiment, the polarity of the terminal
posts must be determined by placing across them a strip of pink
litmus paper moistened with NaCl solution. The spot touching
the cathode turns blue.
Let an instructor approve your arrangement of apparatus.
Note the time that the current is turned on.
Allow the current to flow for about 20 minutes. During the
flow of the current, prepare two clean beakers, which should be set
side by side on the desk, near the apparatus; also have a wash
bottle at hand. As soon as the current is turned off, place the
iron electrode in one of the beakers; set the carbon pole aside.
Pour the solution out of the electrolytic cell, holding it so that the
cathode arm will empty into the beaker containing the iron cathode,
CHEMICALLY PURE SODIUM CHLORIDE 189
and the anode arm into the other beaker. Rinse out the cathode
arm with three portions of 3 to 5 cc. of distilled water, adding the
rinsings to the beaker. Add a few drops of phenolphthalein.
Now carefully remove the anode from the coulometer, and set
it in a test tube full of distilled water. Be careful not to bruise it.
Then rinse it with alcohol and, after it has dried, weigh it. Return
the CUSO4 solution to a bottle marked " Used CUSO4 Solution."
Titrate the cathode solution with the standard acid prepared
in Experiment 6, and thus determine the number of equivalents
of NaOH produced in the cathode compartment.
From the loss of weight of the copper anode determine the num-
ber of faradays of electricity that were used in the cell. The ratio
of the number of equivalents of NaOH to the number of faradays
gives the current efficiency.
QUESTIONS
1. One coulomb per second is the unit of electric current, and
is called the " ampere." From the loss of weight of the anode
and the elapsed time, calculate the current that flowed through
the cell on the assumption that it was uniform during that time.
2. At the beginning of the electrolysis what ions are transferred
through the cotton plug of the U-tube? As the electrolysis
progresses and an OH~ ion concentration is built up in the cathode
compartment, how is the picture of the ion transference altered?
3. If N a + ions are practically the only positive ions which move
up to the cathode, how do you explain that H+ rather than Na+
ions are discharged at the cathode surface? Describe some form
of cell in which sodium metal is actually liberated at the cathode.
What is the essential difference between the latter cell and the
cell used in this experiment?
4. If the current efficiency of the hydrogen discharge is 100
per cent, calculate from the copper coulometer data the volume of
hydrogen escaping.
5. If a silver coulometer had also been inserted in the circuit,
what weight of silver would have been deposited on the cathode?
PREPARATION 18
CHEMICALLY PURE SODIUM CHLORIDE FROM ROCK SALT, NaCl
All deposits of salt in the earth are a result of the evaporation
either of sea water or of water containing approximately the same
salts as sea water. " Rock s a l t " is the name applied to coarse
unpurified salt, and it contains the same impurities as sea salt
although usually in lesser amount.
COMPOSITION OF SEA SALT
NaCl 77 76% K2SO4 2 46%

MgCl2 10 88% CaCOa 0 33%
MgSO4 4 75% MgBr2 0 22%
CaSO4 3 60%
For most commercial purposes these impurities are not harmful.

By careful crystallization of the salt from solution, a product
sufficiently free from these impurities can be obtained to be used
as table salt. To obtain chemically pure sodium chloride, however,
more elaborate precautions must be taken. A satisfactory method
depends upon the insolubility of sodium chloride in a concentrated
solution of hydrochloric acid. A nearly saturated solution of the
rock salt is prepared, and, without removing the dirt and insoluble
matter, enough pure sodium carbonate is added to precipitate the
calcium and magnesium in the solution as carbonates. Into the
clear nitrate gaseous hydrochloric acid is then passed until the
greater part of the sodium chloride is precipitated, while the small
amounts of sulphates and of potassium salts remain in the solution.
The precipitate is drained and washed with a solution of hydro-
chloric acid until the liquid clinging to the crystals is entirely free
from sulphates.
Materials: sodium chloride (rock salt), 75 grams.

36 N sulphuric acid, 95 cc.
12 N hydrochloric acid, 50 cc.
Apparatus: 2-liter round-bottom flask with 2-hole rubber
stopper.
3-necked Woulff bottle with rubber stoppers.
65 mm. funnel.
2 thistle tubes.
delivery tube and connection; see Fig. 23.
600-cc. beaker,
tripod and wire gauze.
CHEMICALLY PURE SODIUM CHLORIDE 191
Procedure: Dissolve 25 grams of rock salt in 75 cc. of water,

hastening the action with gentle heating. To the solution add
about 1 gram of sodium carbonate dissolved in a few cubic centi-
meters of water. Stir, let settle, and add a few drops more of
sodium carbonate solution, and if no fresh precipitate is pro-
duced in the clear part of the solution no more need be added;
otherwise enough more must be added to produce this result.
Filter the solution, hot, through an ordinary filter (Note 4 (c),
FIG. 23
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od
ceases to be evolved on heating ktheer. W gehnenerathoyr,drocgoelnectcthhleoridpere-
cipitated sodium chloride on a suction filter. Test the filtrate for

sulphate by adding a little barium chloride solution to a small
sample of it diluted with water. A positive test will probably be
obtained. Now wash the crystals with successive portions of
10 cc. of 6N HC1, until the washings show no further test for
sulphates. (See Note 5 (a), page 9.) Then transfer the crystals
to a porcelain dish and heat gently, while stirring, until all decrepi-
tation ceases. Put up the product in a 2-ounce cork-stoppered
bottle.
QUESTIONS
1. Why must the hydrochloric acid gas be passed through a
washing bottle? Why is the safety tube necessary?
2. Why, in the light of the law of molecular concentration,
should one expect the solubility of sodium chloride to be lessened
by the presence of hydrochloric acid? It may be stated that
another effect known as the " salting-out effect " also comes into
play here and likewise tends to lessen the solubility of sodium
chloride. The great amount of heat liberated when hydrogen
chloride dissolves in water indicates a chemical action, and it is
very probable that the water and hydrogen chloride unite to form
an unstable compound. In the saturated solution then nearly all
the water is chemically combined and very little is left to hold
sodium chloride in solution.
3. Mention two possible causes for the very considerable
amount of heat produced when the hydrochloric acid gas is ab-
sorbed by the solution in the beaker.
4. Why does not the solution in the washing bottle also grow
hot?
PREPARATION 19
AMMONIUM BROMIDE, NH 4 Br
Ammonium bromide could be prepared by the neutralization
of ammonium hydroxide with hydrobromic acid,
N H 4 0 H + HBr = NI^Br + H2O
Since, however, hydrobromic acid is a more expensive material
than uncombined bromine, the latter would have the preference
as a source of bromine, provided it yielded as satisfactory a prod-
uct. Bromine reacts upon a cold solution of sodium hydroxide
AMMONIUM BROMIDE 193
with the formation of sodium hypobromite and sodium bromide.

Br 2 + 2NaOH = NaBr + NaBrO + H2O
Sodium hypobromite reacts with ammonium hydroxide according
to the equation
3NaBrO + 2NH 4 OH = 3NaBr + 5H2O + N 2
If now we substitute NH4 for Na in the last two equations and
add the equations we obtain
3Br2 + 8NH4OH -»• 6NH4Br + N 2 + 8H 2 O
which gives the complete reaction of bromine with ammonium

hydroxide.
Materials: bromine, Br2, 12.5 cc. = 40 grams = 0.25 F.W.
I5.ZVNH4OH = 44 cc.
300-cc. Erlenmeyer flask.
pan of cracked ice and water,
burette clamp,
ring stand,
mortar and pestle.
Procedure: Lubricate the stop cock of the dropping funnel

lightly with vaseline, and secure it in place with a rubber band,
so that it will not slip out when in use and let the bromine spurt
out over the fingers. Secure the funnel with a clamp to a ring
stand so that the bottom of the stem is about 1 inch above the
ice water. Place 50 cc. of water and the ammonium hydroxide in
the Erlenmeyer flask, float the latter in the ice water, and insert
the stem of the funnel in the flask so that it is kept from tipping
over. Pour the bromine into the funnel. Now, holding the bulb
of the funnel with the left hand, turn the stop cock with the right
hand to let one drop of bromine fall into the flask; quickly close
the stop cock and with the right hand grasp the flask and rotate
its contents. Proceed in this way until all the bromine is added,
working as rapidly as possible yet avoiding heating the flask and
causing white smoke and bromine vapor to belch out. If, when all
the bromine is added, the solution is yellow or red, add ammonium
hydroxide, a drop at a time, until the color disappears. Pour
the solution into the evaporating dish and evaporate it to dryness

on the steam bath (see Note 6 (6), page 12). Pulverize the dry
salt and put it in a 2-ounce cork-stoppered bottle.
QUESTIONS
1. What products would be formed if bromine were added to
a solution of sodium hydroxide instead of ammonium hydroxide
(a) if the solution were kept cold? (6) if it were heated?
2. Add about 10 drops of bromine to 10 cc. of a cold 3.ZV
sodium hydroxide solution. Add this gradually to a solution
of ammonium hydroxide, made by diluting 1 cc. of the 6 N reagent
with 10 cc. of water. Determine what gas is given off.
3. What fraction of the entire amount of ammonium ion used is
lost through formation of nitrogen gas when ammonium bromide
is made by the action of bromine on ammonium hydroxide?
4. Why cannot hydrobromic acid be prepared from potassium
bromide by a method analogous to that used in the preparation of
hydrochloric acid?
PREPARATION 20
STRONTIUM HYDROXIDE FROM STRONTIUM SULPHATE,
Sr(OH)2-8H2O
One of the most important sources of strontium is the mineral
celestite, SrSO*. By reduction with charcoal this can be con-
verted into strontium sulphide,
SrSO4 + 4C = SrS + 4CO
and the strontium sulphide, by treatment with copper oxide and
water, can be made to yield strontium hydroxide,
SrS + CuO + H 2 O = Sr(OH) 2 + CuS
Copper oxide is, in the ordinary sense, insoluble; nevertheless, in
contact with water it does yield to an infinitesimal extent the ions
of cupric hydroxide.
CuO + H2O ^± Cu(OH) 2 ^ Cu++ + 2OH"
Since copper sulphide is a far more insoluble substance than
copper oxide, it follows that the few C u + + ions from the latter
unite with the S~~ ions from the strontium sulphide to form
copper sulphide, which precipitates continuously, while the
STRONTIUM HYDROXIDE 195
copper oxide continuously goes into solution to resupply C u + +

ions. This action continues until either the copper oxide or the
strontium sulphide is exhausted.
Strontium hydroxide crystallizes with 8 molecules of water,
Sr(OH) 2 -8H 2 O. It is very soluble in hot water, but sparingly
soluble in cold water.
Materials: celestite, SrSO 4 ,61 grams = 0.33 F.W.
powdered charcoal, 35 grams,
copper oxide, 48 grams.
Apparatus: gas furnace.
30-gram clay crucible and cover.
large mortar and pestle.
500-cc. flask.
5-inch watch glass.
400-cc. beaker.
Bunsen burner.
Procedure: Grind the powdered celestite in a porcelain mortar
until no more grit is felt under the pestle. Add 24 grams of
powdered charcoal and continue to grind with the pestle until the
two are thoroughly mixed. Place the mixture in a clay crucible,
pack it firmly, and cover it. with a layer of powdered charcoal \
inch deep. Cover the crucible with a close-fitting cover and heat
it in a gas furnace for 1 hour, at a bright red heat. After the
contents of the crucible have cooled, remove the layer of charcoal
from the surface and bring the remainder, after crushing it to
a powder, into an 8-inch porcelain dish; add 360 cc. of water,
bring the mixture to a boil, and while it is boiling add copper
oxide, a little at a time, until all of the soluble sulphide has inter-
acted with it — about 48 grams in all. As long as any unchanged
strontium sulphide is present the solution will show a yellow color,
which may be observed by letting the black solid settle for a mo-
ment, and then looking through the upper layers of the clear liquid
at the background of the white porcelain dish. As soon as the
yellow color has entirely disappeared, the strontium sulphide has
all reacted. Crystals of strontium hydroxide separate rapidly
from this solution when it cools. Hence it must be filtered quickly
196 ALAKLI AND ALKALINE EARTH METALS
in order to avoid having the crystals form in the filter and clog it
completely. Heat 50 cc. of water to boiling in a beaker, and keep
it at this temperature until it is required. Add hot water to the
dish to replace any lost by evaporation, and pour (Note 2, page 4)
the hot solution through a large ordinary filter (Note 4 (c), page
7), catching the filtrate in a 500-cc. flask, and allowing the main
part of the residue to remain in the dish. Add the 50 cc. of hot
water to this residue, stir it thoroughly, heating it for a moment
over the flame, and then pour solution and residue into the filter
and drain out all the liquid. In order to lessen the rate of cooling
of the liquid in the filter funnel the latter should be kept covered
with a watch glass. Stopper the flask to exclude the air, and
wrap it with a towel, so that the solution may cool slowly and
larger crystals may be formed. Finally, after several hours cool
the solution with running tap water and then collect the crystals
on a suction filter. Drain the crystals for a moment, but do not
draw too much air through them, as they retain all the carbon
dioxide it contains. Wrap the product in paper towels and leave
it to dry over night at room temperature. (See Note 9 (6),
page 15.) Put the product in a 6-ounce cork-stoppered bottle.
QUESTIONS
1. What constituent of the atmosphere must be excluded from
the solution while crystallizing and from the crystals while drying?
How would it contaminate the preparation?
2. A sample of the preparation should dissolve nearly clear in
hot water. What will surely cause a slight cloudiness?
3. How could strontium chloride be prepared from strontium
sulphide?
4. Give some other method by which strontium hydroxide
could be obtained from strontium sulphide without the use of
copper oxide.
5. Starting with the mineral strontium carbonate, how might
strontium hydroxide be prepared? Strontium oxide? Strontium
chloride?
PREPARATION 21
STRONTIUM CHLORIDE FROM STRONTIUM SULPHATE, SrCl2-6H2O
Strontium chloride might be prepared by treating strontium
sulphide, the intermediate product in the last preparation, with
hydrochloric acid, but, to avoid the hydrogen sulphide nuisance,
STRONTIUM CHLORIDE 197
and furthermore, to show that strontium sulphate may be at-

tacked without the use of a furnace, we shall employ quite a differ-
ent method.
The method consists in first converting the sulphate into the
carbonate by boiling it with a concentrated solution of sodium
carbonate, and then dissolving the carbonate in hydrochloric
acid, thereby yielding a solution of the chloride. The conversion
of solid strontium sulphate into solid strontium carbonate fur-
nishes an interesting illustration of the solubility product principle,
for the solubility of these two salts in pure water is as follows:
Solubility in grams Solubility in mols

per 100 cc. per liter
SrSO4 0 Oil 0.0006
SrCO3 0.0011 0.00007
Strontium sulphate would dissolve in the solution of sodium

carbonate in the same manner as it would in pure water until
it had saturated the solution, and its solubility product, which is
equal to 0.0006 X 0.0006, was reached, but for the fact that long
before this could occur the solution would be supersaturated with
respect to strontium carbonate, the solubility product of which is
only equal to 0.00007 X 0.00007. Thus strontium carbonate is
precipitated continuously as strontium sulphate dissolves; and
since the solution cannot become saturated with the latter as long
as a large excess of carbonate ions is present, the solid salt finally
remaining will consist entirely of strontium carbonate, pro-
vided a sufficient amount of sodium carbonate were employed.
The reaction which takes place is, however, reversible, SrSC>4 +
Na 2 CO 3 ^ SrCO 3 + Na2SO4, and, if strontium carbonate were
boiled with a solution of sodium sulphate, the solid would change
into sulphate until carbonate ions had accumulated in the solution
to such an extent as to make the concentration ratio [CO3~~] :
[SC>4~~] = 1:74. When this ratio prevails, both solids are in equi-
librium with the solution and no change takes place in either
direction.
Materials: celestite, SrSO4, 61 grams = 0.33 F.W.
anhydrous Na 2 CO 3 , 73 grams.
chlorine water.
6ATHC1, l l l c c .

600-cc. beaker,
mortar and pestle,
Bunsen burner.
Procedure: Grind the powdered celestite in a mortar until

it is so fine that it no longer feels gritty under the pestle. Cover
it in an 8-inch porcelain dish with 360 cc. of water, add the anhy-
drous sodium carbonate, and boil the mixture for 30 minutes, stir-
ring it constantly at first. Transfer the solution and solid to a
600-cc. beaker, using 100 cc. of fresh water in rinsing out the last
of the residue, and let the solid matter settle for 5 minutes. De-
cant off the liquid, which is still somewhat cloudy, but from which
the essential part of the solid has settled, and wash the residue
three times by decantation with 400-500 cc. of water. (See first
paragraph, Note 5 (6), page 10). The residue is now sufficiently
free from soluble sodium sulphate. Transfer about one-tenth of the
moist strontium carbonate to another beaker, to be used in a later
part of the process. To the remaining nine-tenths add 50 cc. of
hot water, and then add hydrochloric acid, drop by drop, while
stirring the mixture, until the further addition of a drop of acid
produces no more effervescence. This solution now contains a
slight excess of acid, and probably a trace of iron chloride as im-
purity. Add a few drops of chlorine water to oxidize any ferrous to
ferric salt, then add the remaining one-tenth of the strontium car-
bonate and boil the mixture for 5 minutes. The solution should
now be perfectly neutral to litmus, in which case all iron will
be precipitated as Fe(OH) 3 . If it is acid, it shows that the
hydrochloric acid was added carelessly and that there was thus
more than could be neutralized by the strontium carbonate. Filter
the perfectly neutral solution, and evaporate the filtrate until a
faint scum forms on removing the solution from the flame and
blowing vigorously across the surface. Allow the solution to cool,
but stir occasionally in order to obtain a uniform crystal meal
rather than a cake of crystals. Finally, drain the crystals on a
suction filter (Note 4 (6), page 6); evaporate the mother liquor
to crystallation exactly as at first, and if the second crop of crystals
is pure white, add it to the first crop. Wrap the crystals of
SrCl2-6H2O in paper towels and leave them over night to dry
BARIUM OXIDE AND BARIUM HYDROXIDE 199
(Note 9 (6), page 15). These crystals are efflorescent, hence, as

soon as the paper package is unwrapped, place them in a 2-ounce
QUESTIONS
1. Explain why strontium carbonate, which is less soluble in
pure water than strontium sulphate, should dissolve readily in
dilute acids, while the latter salt will dissolve scarcely any more
in acids than in pure water.
2. If a small quantity of a solution of strontium chloride were
added to a solution containing equimolal quantities of sodium
carbonate and sodium sulphate, what would be the precipitate
formed?
PREPARATION 22
BARIUM OXIDE AND BARIUM HYDROXIDE FROM
BARIUM CARBONATE, Ba(OH)2-8H2O
The commercial method of preparing calcium oxide (quicklime)
consists in heating calcium carbonate (limestone) in lime kilns.
Barium oxide might be made from barium carbonate according
to the same principle, except for the fact that the temperature
required for the decomposition of barium carbonate is so high as
to make such a method almost impracticable. This greater
stability of the barium salt is an illustration of the fact that barium
oxide is even more strongly basic than calcium oxide. The reac-
tion, BaCO 3 ?± BaO + CO 2 , is reversible, and in common with
other reversible reactions it may be made to progress in one
direction or the other by suitably altering the concentration of
the substances present in the reacting system. Of the three
substances involved in this reaction the only one which can be
removed during the course of the reaction is the carbon dioxide.
It is, however, not enough to let it merely pass off as a gas, be-
cause to escape from the crucible it will have to push back the
atmosphere. The pressure of carbon dioxide in equilibrium with
barium carbonate at 1350° is seen from the table to be but one-
half an atmosphere, that is to say, barium carbonate will decompose
until the atmosphere in the crucible contains about 50 per cent of
carbon dioxide and then the decomposition will stop. However,
at high temperatures charcoal reacts with carbon dioxide to form
carbon monoxide
CO 2 + C ^ 2CO
At the equilibrium point of this reaction the partial pressure of
carbon monoxide is many times that of the carbon dioxide;
thus it would be much above 1 atmosphere, and carbon monox-
ide would escape from the crucible. With excess powdered char-
coal in the crucible, therefore, both reactions would continue
to run until all the barium carbonate had changed to barium
oxide. Carbon monoxide does not react with barium oxide.
In the following procedure, in addition to the charcoal, a little
rosin is mixed with the charge. On heating, the rosin decomposes
forming finely divided carbon which becomes very intimately
mixed with the charge.
Pressure of CO2 in
equilibrium with
Temperature
CaCO3 BaCOs
700° 22 mm.
750 80
800 167
897 760
1000 2.7 mm.
1100 8740
1350 381.
The barium oxide obtained in this way is not pure, but contains
particles of charcoal as well as impurities coming from the mineral.
It is very suitable, however, for the manufacture of barium hy-
droxide, into which it is converted by treatment with water.
Barium hydroxide is extremely soluble in hot water, but sparingly
so in cold water, from which it separates in flake-like crystals of
the composition Ba(OH)2-8H2O.
Materials: barium carbonate, BaCO3, 99 grams = 0.5 F.W.; if
the mineral witherite is used it should be very
finely powdered; the artificially prepared mate-
rial will react more readily,
powdered charcoal, 25 grams,
rosin, 5 grams.
Apparatus: gas furnace.
30-gram clay crucible, with cover.
BARIUM OXIDE AND BARIUM HYDROXIDE 201
5-inch filter funnel and filter.

5-inch watch glass.
500-cc. flask,
Bunsen burner.
Procedure: Mix the finely powdered barium carbonate with

10 grams of powdered charcoal and 5 grams of powdered rosin.
After mixing the whole mass very thoroughly in a mortar, place
it in the crucible, press it down firmly, and cover it with a layer
of charcoal at least \ inch deep. Place a well-fitting cover on the
crucible and heat the whole for 1 hour in the gas furnace to as
high a temperature as possible. After the crucible has cooled,
remove the top layer of charcoal, place the barium oxide in the
porcelain dish, and very cautiously add a few drops of water,
noting the very violent reaction. Finally add 400 cc. of water,
and heat the mixture in the dish to boiling; pour the solution
through a large, ordinary filter (Note 4 (c), page 7), letting the
clear liquid run directly into a 500-cc. flask and keeping the funnel
covered with a watch glass to prevent cooling during the filtration.
Rinse the residue in the dish with 75 cc. more of boiling water, and
pour this upon the filter after the first portion has nearly all run
through. Stopper the flask and allow the solution to cool slowly
to room temperature; finally, cool it nearly or quite to 0°; collect
the crystals on a suction filter; wrap the product in paper towels
and leave it over night to dry at room temperature (Note 9 (6),
page 15). Put the product in an 8-ounce cork-stoppered bottle.
QUESTIONS
1. How does barium hydroxide become contaminated by ex-
posure to the air? Why might this product be dried with less
contamination by exposure to the air out-of-doors than to the air
of the laboratory?
2. The mineral witherite often contains barium sulphate as
an impurity. State what changes this substance would undergo
during the above process. How could barium hydroxide be pre-
pared from barium sulphide? (Compare preparation of stron-
tium hydroxide from strontium sulphate, page 194.)
3. Devise a method for preparing barium hydroxide from
barium carbonate by which the use of a furnace may be avoided.
Suggestion: Make use of the difference in solubility of barium

chloride and barium hydroxide.
Experiments
Very few of the chemical properties of the non-metals are dis-
played except in conjunction with the metals; in our study of the
non-metals in the preceding chapters, therefore, we already have
had revealed to us many of the chemical properties of the metals.
1. Place a few small lumps of marble (calcium carbo-
nate) in a small porcelain crucible. Cover the crucible in
order to keep in the heat, and heat it strongly for 20 minutes
with a Bunsen flame. When the product has cooled, wet
each lump with a single drop or two of water and wait a few
minutes, if necessary, to observe the effect. The lumps
should grow very hot, and steam be driven off. Then wet
the product with somewhat more water, and test the reaction
of the moist mass towards litmus. The litmus is colored
strongly blue by the suspension.
It requires a bright red heat to decompose CaCO3 into CaO

and CO2. The CaO is a strongly basic oxide and combines
strongly with water to form the base Ca(0H) 2 , as is evidenced by
the heat evolved. C a ( 0 H ) 2 is sparingly soluble but enough dis-
solves to color litmus strongly blue.
2. Place a few grams of magnesium carbonate in a 4-inch
porcelain dish and heat it rather moderately, testing to see if
carbon dioxide is being expelled. From time to time test the
residue for carbonate by removing a little from the dish,
thoroughly wetting it with about 5 cc. of hot water in a test
tube, adding acid, and watching for effervescence. Very
gentle heating suffices to change the magnesium carbonate
so that it no longer effervesces with dilute HC1.
In both calcium carbonate and magnesium carbonate, which

may be formulated CaO-CO2 and MgO-CO2, we have the same
acid anhydride, CO 2 . The tenacity with which the basic an-
hydrides CaO and MgO hold this acid anhydride is a measure of
their basic strength. Magnesium oxide is, therefore, less strongly
basic than calcium oxide.
EXPERIMENTS 203
3. Burn a strip of magnesium ribbon, held with iron pincers,

and let the ash fall in a porcelain dish. Wet the magnesium
oxide with a single drop of water and place the moist mass on
a strip of red litmus paper. A small fleck of blue shows on
the reverse of the litmus paper when the moist magnesium
oxide is applied.
Magnesium has a very strong affinity for oxygen as shown by

the intensity with which the metal burns. However, the residual
affinity of magnesium oxide for water is much smaller than that of
calcium oxide. The solubility of magnesium hydroxide is so
small that the saturated solution acts but slowly in turning
litmus blue.
4. To some magnesium chloride solution, add (a) some am-

monium hydroxide; (6) some ammonium chloride and then
some ammonium hydroxide. In (a) a copious white precipi-
tate is observed; in (6) no precipitate.
The weakly ionized NH4OH furnishes a sufficient concentration

of OH~ ions to cause the precipitation of Mg(0H) 2 . However, as
the reaction progresses, NH4+ ions accumulate in the solution and
Mg++ 2C1"
2NH4OH ^ 2OH " 2NH 4 +
Mg(OH) 2 1
cause a continual lessening of the OH~ ion concentration. Since

the solubility of Mg(0H) 2 although small, is still appreciable
(0.0002 F.W. per liter in pure water) it is clear that with the OH ~
ion concentration sufficiently depressed a fairly high M g + + ion
concentration can prevail without reaching the solubility product
of Mg(OH) 2 .
In part (6) an initial addition of NH4+ ion depresses the OH ~
ion concentration so that no precipitation of M g ( 0 H ) 2 at all takes
place.
5. Dip a clean platinum wire in solutions of such of the chlo-
rides of the. alkali and alkaline earth metals as are at hand,
and observe the color imparted to the Bunsen flame when the
wire is inserted into the lower part of the flame.
AMMONIUM COMPOUNDS
When ammonium hydroxide dissociates electrolytically it yields
the ion NIL/1". The group of atoms NH 4 , which is often spoken
of as the ammonium radical, resembles in many respects the atom
of sodium or potassium. Like these, it can form a monovalent
positive ion, or it can form compounds with acid radicals, for
example, NH4CI, (NH^SCV, but unlike sodium and potassium,
it cannot exist in the uncombined state.
6. (a) Place a mixture of dry ammonium chloride and
calcium hydroxide in a dry test tube and heat gently. A gas
escapes from the tube, which has the odor of ammonia and
which turns moist litmus blue.
(6) Add a solution of a strong base to a solution of any
ammonium salt, warm. The odor of ammonia is at once
apparent.
These experiments furnish an example of the displacement of
a weak base by means of a strong base. In (a) there is doubtless
enough moisture condensed on the surface of the solid material so
that the reaction can be considered as an ionic one. In this
case as well as in (6) we have the weak base NH4OH forming from
its ions. The non-electrolytic dissociation of NH4OH yields the
gas NH 3 , the odor of which is observed.
7. Gaseous Dissociation of Ammonium Chloride. Like all
ammonium salts, ammonium chloride can be volatilized by
applying heat. Some of the other salts are permanently de-
composed by the process, but the vapor of ammonium chloride
can be condensed again to the same solid substance.
Place 2 grams of ammonium chloride in the middle of a
combustion tube, and on either side place loose plugs of
asbestos. Outside the asbestos plugs at both ends place mois-
tened strips of both red and blue litmus paper. Support
the tube in a slightly inclined position by means of a clamp,
and heat the section containing the salt, using a flame spreader.
At both ends the red litmus is colored blue at first. Later
the color at each end changes to red.
The vapor of ammonium chloride is very largely dissociated
non-electrolytically
NH4CI ^ NH 3 + HC1
GENERAL QUESTIONS V 205
The rate of diffusion of gases, according to Graham's law, is
inversely proportioned to thesquare root of thedensities. Thus
the ammonia in the mixture wil diffuse —7=^- or1.5 times as fast
V
V1177
as the hydrogen chloride,and at eachend the gas which diffuses
through the plugs contains atfirstan excess of ammonia. The
residual gas inthemiddle is left with an excess of HC1, and when
this gasisfinallyexpelled by heat the moist litmus at each end
turns red.
8. Hydrolysis of Ammonium Salts. Boil for some time
a solution of ammonium sulphate to which has been added
a few dropsof blue litmus solution. Pass the vaporsinto a
flask of water containing a few drops of red litmus. The
litmus in the boilingflaskslowly turns red. The litmus in
theflaskin which the vapors are condensed turns blue.
The neutral salt of a base as strong as ammonium hydroxide is
practically not hydrolyzed at all in cold water, certainly not enough
to show by the litmus test. Water at 100° is ionized about ten
times as much as at ordinary temperature and consequently the
hydrolysis of the ammonium sulphate is increased:
2NH4+ SO4""
2H+
w
2NH4OH ?± 2NH3 + 2H2O
Even at 100° the hydrolysis is practically negligible except that
one hydrolysis product, NH40H, is volatile, whereas the other,
H2SO4, is non-volatile. Thus, since a minute amount of ammonia
passes over with the steam, before long the accumulation of
NH4OH in the condensingflaskturns litmus blue, and the residue
of H2SO4 in the boilingflasklikewise shows its presence there.
GENERAL QUESTIONS V
ALKALI AND ALKALINE EARTH METALS
1. Make a tableof the elements of Group I, Family A, includ-
ing lithium and sodium, giving in succeeding columns: (1) the
symbol of the element; (2) itsvalence in its compounds; (3) the
formula of the oxide; (4) theformula of thehydroxide; (5) the
solubility of the hydroxide in grams per 100 grams of water at

25°; (6) the formula of the sulphate; (7) the solubility of the sul-
phate at 25°; (8) the formula of the carbonate; (9) the solubility
of the carbonate at 25°; (10) the formula of the chloride; (11) the
solubility of the chloride at 25°.
2. Make a similar table of the elements of Group II, Family A,
including magnesium.
3. Give the same information for ammonium. Discuss the
difference between ammonium and ammonia.
4. Make a list of the percentage of ionization of the hydroxides
of the alkali metals, of ammonium, and of the alkaline earth
metals in 0.1 N solution if the substance is soluble to that extent.
Give figures for the hydroxyl-ion concentration in 0.1 N NH4OH
solution and in saturated solutions of C a ( 0 H ) 2 and Mg(0H) 2 .
Describe and discuss the results of Experiment 4 in the light of
these figures.
5. An oxy-salt, such as CaC0 3 ( = CaO-CO 2 ), can be broken
up by a sufficiently high heat into a basic oxide and an acid oxide —
for example, C a O C 0 2 —> CaO + CO 2 . The higher the tempera-
ture necessary to accomplish this, the greater is the chemical
affinity between the two oxides, that is, the more strongly basic
and acidic, respectively, are these two components; and therefore
in a series of salts, all containing the same acidic oxide — for
example, CaCO 3 , SrCO3, BaCO 3 — the greater the stability of the
salt, the stronger is the basic oxide. Compare the approximate
temperatures at which the alkaline earth carbonates are decom-
posed, and list the alkaline earth oxides in the order of their
basic strength.
The carbonates of the alkali metals are practically undecom-
posable by heat alone. Compare the basic strength of the alkali
metal oxides as a family with that of the alkaline earth oxides.
6. More precise information as to the relative basic strength
may be given from the molal heats of formation in a series of
oxy-salts like the carbonates. In the thermochemical tables
sometimes the figure that we want is given, namely, the heat of
formation of the salt from the metal oxide and the non-metal oxide,
for example, MgO + CO 2 - • MgCO 3 + 28,850 calories. But
more often we will find only the heat of formation from the ele-
ments, for example, Mg + C + fO 2 —• MgCO 3 + 269,900 cal-
ories. We must then look up the heat of formation of mag-
GENERAL QUESTIONS V 207
nesium oxide, Mg + iO2 —• MgO + 143,400, and the heat of

formation of carbon dioxide, C + O2 —> CO 2 + 97,650 calories,
and subtract the sum of these quantities: 269,900 — 143,400 —
97,650 = 28,850 calories.
Find in the thermo chemical tables the molal heat of formation
of the carbonates of sodium, potassium, calcium, and barium from
the metal oxide and carbon dioxide, and draw conclusions as to the
relative basic strength of the basic oxides.
7. State the colors imparted to a Bunsen flame by vaporized
salts (chlorides) of the alkali and alkaline earth metals.
8. Give formulas of the peroxides of sodium and of barium.
How do these substances react with cold dilute acids? What is
the formula of the peroxide of potassium? Compare the action
of the oxides Na 2 O, K 2 O, and BaO in water with that of the per-
oxides. What is the valence of the metal in each of the peroxides,
and how do you account for the amount of oxygen over that con-
tained in the oxide?
CHAPTER VI
ELEMENTS OF GROUP III OF THE
PERIODIC SYSTEM
Boron and aluminum, the first two members of this group, are
the only ones which are classed among the common elements.
On this account, and also because the difference in properties
between Family A and Family B is far less marked than in Groups I
and II, the whole group is taken up under one heading.
The characteristics of this group are that the elements possess
a valence of 3, and that the oxides, M2O3, have but a weakly
developed basic character. Boron, in fact, shows practically
no base-forming properties, but forms rather a weak acid. The
oxide of aluminum displays both basic and acidic properties;
that is, it is amphoteric. The remaining elements are more dis-
tinctly base-forming than aluminum, without, however, approach-
ing in any way the alkaline earth metals in this respect.
PREPARATION 23
BORIC ACID, H3BO3
In this preparation, borax, the sodium salt of tetraboric acid,
is chosen as the source of boron. Although boron is decidedly a
non-metal, still its acid-forming characteristics are not highly
developed and its acids are readily displaced by strong acids from
solutions of their salts. Thus tetraboric acid, H2B4O7, would be
set free from borax by hydrochloric acid, but the acid which
actually crystallizes is the more highly hydrated orthoboric acid,
H3BO3.
Materials: borax, NaaB^-lOHaO, 96 grams = 0.25 F.W.
12.ZVHC1.
methyl orange solution.
Apparatus: 600-cc. beaker.
5-inch funnel.
5-inch watch glass,
Bunsen burner,
towel and rubber band.
208
BORIC ACID 209
Procedure: Dissolve 96 grams of borax in 175 cc. of boiling water.

Calculate the volume of 12 N HC1 required to liberate the boric
acid completely. Add this amount in small portions to the boiling
solution, stirring after each addition. When all the acid has been
added, test a drop of the solution with methyl orange. If an acid
test is not obtained, add 12 N HC1 in 2-cc. portions until a decided
pink color is obtained. Finally add an extra 2-cc. portion. Cool
the solution in a pan of tap water to 15° or below, and filter, using
suction. Press all the liquid possible out of the crystals. Test
the filtrate with methyl orange, and if it is not distinctly acid,
add enough 12 N HC1 to make it so. Add any boric acid thus pre-
cipitated to the main product. Pour 15 cc. of cold water over the
cake of crystals in the filter, and allow it to soak in, then drain
it off with suction. Dissolve the crystals in 300 cc. of boiling dis-
tilled water. Filter hot, without suction, into a clean 600-cc.
beaker. (See Note 4 (c), page 7.) Heat the solution, and com-
pletely dissolve any crystals of boric acid which may have sepa-
rated. Wrap the beaker in a towel held in place by a rubber
band. Cover it with a watch glass, and set it in your locker to
crystallize. Collect the crystals and let them dry at room tem-
perature on a paper towel. If the filtrate is evaporated to one-
third of its volume, a second crop of crystals will be obtained.
Dissolve a small amount of your product in distilled water, and
test it for chloride ion.
QUESTIONS
1. Explain the relations between orthoboric acid, metaboric
acid, tetraboric acid, and boric anhydride. Experiment: Place
a few grams of boric acid on a watch glass upon the steam table
(100-110°) and leave for \ hour. What is formed? What
would be formed if the acid were heated to 140°? Suspend a
little of the acid in a loop of platinum wire, and heat in the Bunsen
flame. What is formed?
2. Experiment: Place a few crystals of boric acid in a small
porcelain dish, cover them with 5 cc. of alcohol, set fire to it. Ob-
serve the color of the edges of the flame, especially when stirring
and when the alcohol is almost burned out. Repeat, using borax
instead of the boric acid, and again, using borax moistened with
concentrated sulphuric acid.
210 ELEMENTS OF GROUP III
What causes the green color of the flame, and why is it not
observed with borax alone?
Repeat if necessary the last part of Experiment 1, noticing the
color imparted to the flame while the orthoboric acid is first
melting, and again when a clear bead of boric anhydride is obtained.
What conclusions can you make from these experiments regard-
ing the volatility of boric acid and of boric anhydride?
3. What effect has a solution of borax upon litmus? Explain
what is thus shown regarding the strength of boric or tetraboric
acid. Explain why litmus will not be turned a bright red until
more than 2 moles of HC1 have been added to 1 mole of borax.
4. How can boron chloride be prepared? How does this sub-
stance behave when treated with water? How would it behave
if boron were a strongly metallic element?
PKEPABATION 24
SODIUM PERBORATE, NaBO3-4H2O
At least three boric acids of the definite compositions shown
by the formulas H3BO3, HBO2, H2B4O7 can be prepared in the solid
form. These are all obtainable from the anhydride B 2 O 3 , and
they differ only in the degree of hydration of the B2O3.
Hydrogen peroxide differs from water in that it possesses the
divalent negative radical O2 instead of the ordinary divalent 0
radical of water. (Compare page 160.)
Peroxides such as BaO 2 possess the same O2 radical as hydro-
gen peroxide and exhibit similar oxidizing properties. There is
also a large number of acids and salts known in which an O2 group
takes the place of the single 0 atom in the ordinary compound.
These also possess the oxidizing properties of peroxides. One of
the most easily prepared of these is sodium perborate NaBO 3
which bears the same relation to sodium metaborate NaBO 2 that
hydrogen peroxide does to water. A solution prepared with equi-
formal amounts of H3BO3 and NaOH contains the proportions of
acid and base to yield NaBO 2 . But if this solution is evaporated
to the point where crystals separate, we do not obtain NaBO2 but
rather borax Na2B4O7-10H2O, and the remaining solution contains
a higher proportion of base. If, however, H 2 O 2 is added to the
dilute sodium metaborate solution, the sparingly soluble hydrated
sodium perborate NaBO 3 -4H 2 O crystallizes out. This salt when
SODIUM PERBORATE 211
dry keeps fairly well, but if it is left suspended in the solution it

gradually loses oxygen and the sodium metaborate goes back into
solution:
Materials: borax, Na2B4O7-10H2O, 24 grams = 0.0625 F.W.
NaOH, 5 grams.
3 per cent H 2 O 2 solution, 283 cc.
alcohol,
ether.
pan of ice.
Bunsen burner.
Procedure: Dissolve the 24 grams of borax and 5 grams of
NaOH in 150 cc. of warm water. Cool the solution to room
temperature and add the 283 cc. of hydrogen peroxide slowly.
Cool the solution by immersing the beaker in ice water, finally
dropping 20 grams of ice into the solution. Stir; after a few
minutes fine crystals begin to separate. Stir frequently for the
next 20 minutes. Then collect the crystals on a suction filter.
Wash the crystals with two successive portions of 25 cc. each of
alcohol and then two successive portions of 25 cc. each of ether.
Stop the suction before each washing and let the washing liquid
sink into the crystals before applying suction again. Dry the
crystals on paper towels and preserve them in a 2-ounce cork-
stoppered bottle.
QUESTIONS
1. To 50 cc. of water, add 1 cc. of KI solution and 1 cc. of starch
emulsion. Note absence of blue color. To half of this starch-
iodide solution, add a few crystals of sodium perborate and then a
drop or two of acetic acid until a blue color appears. To the other
half of the starch-iodide, add a few drops of hydrogen peroxide
and note a blue color which disappears when a drop or two of 6 N
NaOH is added. Write equations and compare the action of
sodium perborate and hydrogen peroxide.
2. To 50 cc. of water, add 1 gram of sodium perborate and 10 cc.
of QN H2SO4. Dissolve 0.1 gram of potassium permanganate in
10 cc. of water and add 5 cc. of 6N H2SO4. Pour this solution
into the first one with stirring and observe the decolorization and
the evolution of a gas. Again compare with the action of hydrogen
peroxide.
PREPARATION 25
HYDRATED ALUMINUM CHLORIDE, A1C13-6H2O
A solution of aluminum chloride can be prepared by the action

of hydrochloric acid on the metal, but if this solution is evaporated
to dryness, the solid that is left is the oxide instead of the chloride.
Hydrolysis is prevented by hydrochloric acid, and the hydrated
chloride can be crystallized from an acid solution. In this prepa-
ration the solution is saturated with hydrochloric acid, which not
only drives back hydrolysis but also reduces the solubility of the
salt.
Anhydrous aluminum chloride can be prepared by the action
of dry chlorine on aluminum; in its properties it is very similar to
aluminum bromide, which is the subject of the next preparation.
Materials: aluminum turnings, 13.5 grams = 0.5 F.W.
12 AT HCl, 125 cc.
rock salt, NaCl, 90 grams.
36iVH 2 SO 4 , 175 cc.
shredded asbestos suspended in water,
sodium hydroxide pellets for the desiccator.
suction filter and marble.
2-liter flask for generator (Fig. 23 on page 191).
desiccator.
pan of ice and water.
Procedure: Place the aluminum turnings in a 500-cc. flask; add

50 cc. of water and then the 12 N HCl drop by drop until a vigorous
reaction has started and finally as rapidly as may be without pro-
ducing too violent a reaction. The 125 cc. of acid should just
suffice to dissolve the metal. Unless it is perfectly clear, filter the
solution through asbestos on a suction filter (Note 4 (d), page 8)
and return it to the 500-cc. flask. Fit up the hydrogen chloride
generator and connections so that the gas will pass first through
a washing bottle containing a little 12 N HCl and provided with a
ANHYDROUS ALUMINUM BROMIDE 213
safety tube (Fig. 23, on page 191). The gas will then pass into the
flask containing the aluminum chloride solution. The end of the
delivery tube dipping into the solution must be at least 1.5 cm. in
diameter, else it will become stopped with the precipitated prod-
uct. To the latter flask fit an exit tube which will lead any
waste gas to within \ inch of the surface of water in a bottle.
Surround the flask of aluminum chloride with cracked ice and
water, and pass the gas into the solution until it is saturated.
Observe the usual caution about disposing of the hot contents of
the generator. Collect the crystalline precipitate in a 5-inch
funnel containing a marble and dry it as completely as possible
with suction while pressing the crystal mass with the round end of
a test tube. Place the product in a 4-inch porcelain dish in the
desiccator over solid sodium hydroxide. It will take several days
for the excess of hydrochloric acid to evaporate from the crystals.
When it is dry put the product in an 8-ounce cork-stoppered bottle.
QUESTIONS
1. Treat some of the aluminum chloride with water. Does it
dissolve to give a clear solution? Is there any noticeable heating?
Test the solution with litmus. Is the salt hydrolyzed? Is it
hydrolyzed extensively? Explain how you reach your conclusion
from this experiment.
2. Warm about 1 gram of the preparation in a porcelain dish
over a flame until fumes cease to come off. What are the vapors
given off, and by what tests do you make your conclusion? Is the
residue soluble in water? Of what does it consist?
3. Explain the difference in the extent to which the hydrolysis
takes place when the salt is dissolved in a large amount of water
and when it is heated with merely its water of crystallization.
PREPARATION 26
ANHYDROUS ALUMINUM BROMIDE, AlBr 3
Like aluminum chloride this salt is completely hydrolyzed if its

solution is evaporated to dryness. Only the hydrated salt can be
prepared by the action of hydrobromic acid solution (see preceding
preparation); the anhydrous substance is prepared by the direct
action of the elements on each other. The action is one of such
extreme violence that it is safe to let the vapor only of bromine

come in contact with the metal.
Aluminum bromide melts at 97.5° and boils at 268°. It is very
soluble in carbon disulphide without chemical action. It reacts
explosively with water, and throughout this preparation extreme
caution must be observed not to let any of it come in contact with
water.
Materials: aluminum turnings, 9 grams = 0.33 F.W.

bromine, 80 grams = 25 cc. (must be dry and must
be measured in a dry graduate),
carbon disulphide.
Apparatus: two 125-cc. distilling flasks.
125-cc. separatory funnel.
600-cc. beaker.
3 clean dry test tubes.
18 inches hard glass tube of 15-mm. diameter.
360° thermometer,
burette clamp,
ring stand.
Bunsen burner.
Procedure: This preparation must be carried out entirely under

the hood. Fit the separatory funnel with a rubber stopper into
one of the distilling flasks; clamp the latter upright with the bulb
immersed in water in a 600-cc. beaker on a ring stand. Fit the
side arm of the distilling flask with a rubber stopper into one end
of the hard glass tube. The other end of this tube should be
thrust loosely into the neck of the other distilling flask. Place the
aluminum turnings about in the middle of the hard glass tube.
The tube should slope downward toward the receiving flask but
not so much that the aluminum will not remain in place. The
entire apparatus must be absolutely dry inside. Transfer the
bromine to the separatory funnel. Heat the water in the beaker
to boiling, and regulate the flame so that it continues to boil
gently. Open the stop cock of the dropping funnel and let the
bromine drip very slowly into the heated flask and vaporize. Heat
the aluminum in the hard glass tube until it begins to glow; then
regulate the dripping of the bromine to keep up a vigorous reaction.
The reaction will now be self-sustaining if the bromine is per-
ANHYDROUS ALUMINUM BROMIDE 215
fectly dry. The glass tube may be heated, if necessary, in order

to sustain the reaction. Some uncombined bromine will pass
the aluminum and escape from the receiving flask. The alumi-
num bromide will condense and drip into the receiving flask.
If any solidifies in the tube it should be melted out.
After this phase of the process is over, clamp the receiving flask
in an upright position, using it now as a distilling flask, and close
the neck with a rubber stopper carrying a thermometer. Label
three dry test tubes and record the weight of each on the label.
Support one of these tubes with the side arm of the distilling flask
inserted about 3 inches, and start the distillation. At first bro-
mine vapor alone comes over, part of which condenses. As soon
as the red color has disappeared from the bulb of the flask, sub-
stitute a fresh tube as receiver, and catch 1 or 2 cc. of slightly
colored product; then, as soon as the aluminum bromide, comes
over entirely colorless, change the receiver again, and collect the
bulk of the product, which distils at 268°, in the third tube.
Stopper all three tubes immediately with rubber stoppers. Hand
in the third tube and contents as the preparation. Half fill the
second tube with carbon disulphide and restopper it, leaving the
aluminum bromide to dissolve. Take the stopper from the dis-
tilling flask and observe the dense fumes, caused by the reaction
of the aluminum bromide left in it with the water vapor of the air.
It is unsafe to pour water into the vessels containing any aluminum
bromide. To clean them dissolve the aluminum bromide in a little
carbon disulphide, then add water and rinse them out. Carbon
disulphide vapor is inflammable and the liquid should not be
handled near a flame. If a deposit of aluminum oxide adheres
to the inside of the distilling flask add a few cubic centimeters of
12 N HC1 and let it stand over night.
QUESTIONS
1. Place 3 cc. of the carbon disulphide solution of aluminum
bromide in a dry 600-cc. beaker. In another beaker place 100 cc.
of cold water, and holding it at arm's length with the face turned
away, pour it all at once into the first beaker. The effect is
startling but not dangerous if one is not too near. Heat the con-
tents of the beaker until all the carbon disulphide is evaporated.
Is the aluminum bromide now dissolved in the water? Make
tests for Al + + + and Br~ ions on separate small portions. How?
Is the solution clear or cloudy? Is the salt in the dilute aqueous

solution extensively hydrolyzed?
2. Place another 3 cc. of the carbon disulphide solution in a
watch glass. After the carbon disulphide evaporates let the residue
stand on a hot plate until it appears dry. Is this residue soluble
in water? Of what does it consist?
3. How could hydrated aluminum bromide be prepared?
4. Suggest a method of making anhydrous aluminum bromide,
using hydrogen bromide instead of bromine, and state why you
think the method might be feasible.
Experiments
1. Acid Strength of Boric Acid. Dissolve 3 grams of
H3BO3 in 50 cc. of water, thus making a formal solution.
Add a few drops of a solution of blue litmus and compare the
color with that produced by dilute HC1. Add 12V NaOH,
1 cc. at a time, noting the gradual change in color, until
the litmus is completely blue, and note the amount taken.
It would take 150 cc. of 12V NaOH to give Na 3 BO 3 , 50 cc
to give NaBO 2 , and 25 cc. to give Na2B4O7. The fact that the
solution becomes alkaline when there is still a large excess of boric
acid in the solution (even when it is figured as tetraboric acid,
H2B4O7) shows how very weak the acid is.
AMPHOTEKIC SUBSTANCES
A substance which can behave both as an acid and a base is
known as amphoteric. In water such a substance would yield
both H + and OH~ ions, but the product of the concentrations of
these ions could not exceed the ion product of water;
[H+] X [OH"] = 10"7 X 10"7 = 1 0 - "
Amphoteric substances are necessarily extremely weak both as
acids and as bases, but they possess the property of reacting with
strong acids on the one hand and with strong bases on the other
hand.
Aluminum hydroxide is amphoteric; it is itself insoluble, but
its salts, such as A1C13 and Na 3 A10 3 , are very soluble; it is therefore
most easy to observe whether the aluminum hydroxide reacts with
an acid or a base, because if it does it is seen to dissolve.
AMPHOTERIC SUBSTANCES 217
2. Aluminum Hydroxide. Add NH4OH to an aluminum

sulphate solution until a strong odor of ammonia persists
after stirring. A gelatinous white precipitate forms. Col-
lect some of this precipitate on a filter and wash it repeatedly
with hot water until all excess of ammonia is removed. Then
dip red and blue litmus paper into the precipitate and ob-
serve that neither is affected.
This experiment shows the insolubility of aluminum hydroxide
and the extreme weakness of its acidic and basic properties.
3. Aluminum Hydroxide Acting as an Acid. To a little
aluminum sulphate solution add NaOH solution a drop at
a time until a copious precipitate is observed; continue to
add NaOH, and observe that the precipitate soon redissolves.
The precipitate is aluminum hydroxide, A12(SO4)3 + 6NaOH —•
2A1(OH)3 + 3Na2SO4. That the aluminum hydroxide dissolves
in the solution of the base indicates that it has reacted to form a
soluble salt and that it is itself an acid. There are two acids of
aluminum differing in degree of hydration in the same way as
the different boric acids.
A1(OH) 3 —• H3AIO3 (ortho aluminic acid)
A1(OH) 3 -»• H2O + HAIO2 (meta aluminic acid)
The soluble salt may be either sodium ortho aluminate, Na 3 A10 3 ,
or sodium meta aluminate, NaA102, depending on the amount of
NaOH used.
4. Aluminum Hydroxide Acting as a Base. To the solu-
tion left at the end of Experiment 3 add an acid (say HNO 3 )
drop by drop until a copious precipitate is observed. Con-
tinue to add acid and observe that the precipitate redissolves.
The precipitate is aluminic acid, displaced from its salt by the
stronger acid, NasAlO;, + 3HNO 3 -»• H3A1O3 + 3NaNO 3 . That
the aluminic acid dissolves in nitric acid indicates that it reacts to
form a soluble salt and is itself reacting as a base.
5. Comparative Basic and Acidic Strength of A1(OH)3.
Add NH4OH in excess to an aluminum salt solution, and note
that the precipitate does not redissolve in the excess of
NH4OH. Add acetic acid drop by drop. For a time the
precipitate remains unaffected, but after the NH4OH is all

neutralized (shown by the solution ceasing to smell of am-
monia after shaking) a little more acetic acid redissolves the
precipitate.
Ammonium hydroxide and acetic acid are of equal strength as

base and acid respectively. That the A1(OH)3 does not dissolve
in excess NH4OH indicates that it is not a strong enough acid to
react with a base of this feeble strength. That it does dissolve
in acetic acid indicates that it is a strong enough base to react with
an acid of the feeble strength of acetic acid. Thus aluminum
hydroxide, although an extremely weak base, is more basic than
acidic.
6. Instability of Aluminum Carbonate. Add together
solutions of A12(SO4)3 and Na 2 CO 3 . Effervescence takes
place, and the escaping gas can be shown to be carbon dioxide.
A gelatinous white precipitate is formed resembling previous
precipitates of A1(OH)3. To show whether this precipitate
is really the hydroxide, or perhaps the carbonate or basic
carbonate, collect some of it on a filter and wash it very
thoroughly with water to remove any excess of Na 2 CO 3 .
Then add an acid (say HC1) to the precipitate and observe
that it dissolves without a trace of effervescence.
Reference books tell us that aluminum carbonate has never

been prepared. In this experiment we brought together the ions
of aluminum carbonate and the result showed that this salt cannot
exist in solution. The reaction might be described as the hydroly-
sis of aluminum carbonate:
2A1+++ 3CO3~~
6H 2 O^=;6OH" 6H+
I 1
2A1(OH)3 3H 2 CO 3
1 I
2A1(OH)3 i 3H 2 O + 3CO 2 1
That aluminum carbonate is thus completely hydrolyzed indicates
that the base and the acid are both very weak.
GENERAL QUESTIONS VI 219
GENERAL QUESTIONS VI
ELEMENTS OF GROUP III
1. Make a table of all the elements of Group III, giving in

succeeding columns: (1) the symbols of the elements in the order
of their increasing atomic weights, placing the elements of the A
Family in the left of the column, and of the B Family in the right;
(2) the formula of the hydroxide, or hydroxides, if more than one
is described in reference books; (3) the character of the hydroxide,
distinguishing strongly acid, weakly acid, amphoteric, weakly
basic, and strongly basic; (4) the formula of the chloride, or chlor-
ides; (5) the degree of hydrolysis of the chloride, distinguishing
complete, much, little, or none.
2. Compare aluminum hydroxide with the hydroxides of sodium
and magnesium, the corresponding elements in Groups I and II,
as regards solubility and degree of ionization.
3. Compare the thermal stability of magnesium and aluminum
carbonates — of dry magnesium and aluminum sulphates. What
do the facts thus cited show as to the relative basic strength of
magnesium and aluminum oxides?
4. Describe the successive observations that are made when
NaOH solution is added gradually to an A1C13 solution until an
excess of the base is present. Likewise describe observations
when HC1 solution is added gradually to an Na3A103 solution
until the acid is in excess. Write fully ionized intersecting equa-
tions corresponding to each observation, and explain how the
amphoteric character of aluminum hydroxide is manifested in this
experiment.
CHAPTER VII
HEAVY METALS OF GROUPS I AND II OF

THE PERIODIC SYSTEM
The metals coming under this heading constitute the right-
hand or B Families in Groups I and II of the periodic system.
They possess high specific gravities, and chemically they are far
less active than the metals of the corresponding A Families,
reacting but little or not at all with water or air. They are base-
forming with the exception of gold, and their oxides yield fairly
stable salts with the strong acids; their basic properties, however,
are comparatively weak, and the oxides of some of them show very
feeble acidic properties as well.
Copper, silver, and gold in Group I show a similarity to sodium
and potassium principally in the fact that they form certain
compounds of the same type, for example, M2O and MCI. Zinc,
cadmium, and mercury in Group II resemble calcium, barium, and
strontium in that they form compounds of the types MO, MSO4,
MCI2, etc. In other respects, the divergence in the properties of
the elements of the A and B Families is at a maximum in these
two groups.
PREPARATION 27
CRYSTALLIZED COPPER SULPHATE, CUSO4-5H2O
(BLUE VITRIOL)
On account of the fact that copper has not the power of displac-
ing hydrogen from acids, it is not possible to dissolve it directly in
dilute sulphuric acid. But although the metal itself is so difficult
to attack with non-oxidizing acids, nevertheless copper oxide is
readily dissolved by all acids; and thus the problem is to convert
copper into its oxide. The cheapest source of oxygen is the atmos-
phere, and on the commercial scale, the usual method of obtaining
copper sulphate from scrap copper is to allow dilute sulphuric acid
to drip slowly over the latter, to which air is given free access.
Since, however, this method would be too time-consuming for the
220
CRYSTALLIZED COPPER SULPHATE 221
laboratory, nitric acid instead of air will be employed as the

oxidizing agent.
3Cu + 2HNO3 = 3CuO + H2O + 2NO
CuO + H2SO4 = CuSO4 + H2O
Materials: copper turnings, 64 grams = 1 F.W.
6.ZVHNO3.
QN H2SO4.
Apparatus: 6-inch iron sand bath.
8-inch crystallizing dish with glass plate,
Bunsen burner.
Procedure: Heat the copper turnings in an iron pan until all
oily matter is burned off and the metal has become coated with
oxide. In an 8-inch porcelain dish treat the ignited copper turn-
ings with the calculated volume of 6N H2SO4 and 6N HNO3.
Warm in the hood for 20 minutes; if any metallic copper remains
undissolved, pour the solution off from it and treat it with a few
cubic centimeters of fresh nitric acid and twice as much sulphuric
acid. If the solution is not perfectly clear, filter it while still at
the boiling temperature; then cool as rapidly as possible, stirring
to get a crystal meal. Separate the meal from the mother liquor,
using the suction filter. Evaporate the mother liquor somewhat,
and obtain a second crop of crystals, discarding the mother liquor
from this crystallization. Dissolve all the damp product by add-
ing its own weight of water and warming; place the warm solution
in the crystallizing dish, add some seed crystals when the tempera-
ture is about 35°, cover the dish, wrap it with towels, and leave it
to cool very slowly. Remove the crystals, and leave the saturated
solution in the crystallizing dish uncovered to evaporate slowly
and deposit more crystals. Spread the entire product on paper
towels to dry, and hand in the preparation in an 8-ounce cork-
stoppered bottle.
QUESTIONS
1. Explain why copper will not dissolve in dilute sulphuric acid.
2. Write the equation for the reaction of copper with con-
222 HEAVY METALS OF GROUPS I AND II
centrated sulphuric acid. Analyze this reaction, and show in

what manner the copper is oxidized.
3. How can copper sulphate be obtained from copper sulphide
on a commercial scale?
PREPARATION 28
CUPROUS CHLORIDE, CuCl
Cupric salts derived from the oxide CuO are stable in contact
with air and water and comprise the most used compounds of
copper. Cupric ions, C u + + , are present in solutions of cupric salts.
Cuprous salts are derived from cuprous oxide, Cu 2 O, and are
generally unstable in contact with air and water. No soluble
cuprous salts which dissolve in water to give cuprous ions, Cu+,
are known.
The conditions under which cuprous salts can exist may be ex-
plained in terms of the equilibrium which establishes itself in the
reaction
Cu° + Cu++ <=t 2Cu+ (1)
When copper metal is dipped in cupric sulphate solution this
reaction runs a very small distance to the right until the equilib-
rium ratio of cuprous and cupric ions is reached. This ratio is
very small. The same concentration ratio is reached from the
opposite direction when cuprous oxide is treated with dilute sul-
phuric acid
Cu 2 O + H 2 SO 4 -»• 2Cu+ SO«~~ + H 2 O
2Cu+ <=t Cu++ + Cu
when nearly all the cuprous sulphate resulting from the neutrali-
zation changes to cupric sulphate and copper.
Cuprous ions and chloride ions form two different combinations
Cu+ + Cl" ^ CuCl | (2)
Cu+ + 2C1" ^ CuCl 2 " (3)
In presence of chloride ions, C u + ions are thus removed and copper
can continue to react with C u + + ions as in (1) until the cupric
salt is all reduced to cuprous. Increasing concentration of Cl"
favors reaction (3) more than reaction (2), and thus in con-
centrated HC1 we obtain the soluble H + CuCl 2 ~. Dilution of the
latter reduces the concentration of (Cl~), which favors the com-
plex ion formation in proportion to its second power, and of the
CUPROUS CHLORIDE 223
insoluble CuCl only in proportion to its first power. Therefore

reaction (3) runs to the left and reaction (2) to the right and white
CuCl precipitates.
In the following procedure finely spun copper is placed in a
solution of CuCl 2 and concentrated HCl and warmed. The clear
solution of the complex is poured into a large volume of water,
and the precipitate of CuCl is collected, washed, and dried with
great precaution to avoid oxidation.
In the presence of dilute HCl cuprous chloride is slowly oxidized
by air to soluble cupric salt which can be washed off.
2CuCl + 2HC1 + §O2 -»• H2O + 2CuCl 2
Without HCl the dark-colored insoluble basic salt is produced to
contaminate the preparation
2CuCl + H 2 O + \O2 - » 2Cu(0H)Cl |
Thoroughly dry cuprous chloride is not oxidized by the air.

Materials: cupric chloride, CuCl 2 -2H 2 0,43 grams = 0.25 F.W.
fine copper ribbon, 25 grams (the material used for
domestic scouring pads).
122V HCl, 100 cc.
9 5 % alcohol, 30 cc
ether, 80 cc.
short-stemmed funnel.
2-liter common bottle,
Bunsen burner.
Procedure: Dissolve 43 grams of crystallized cupric chloride

in 100 cc. of water, and filter the solution into a 500-cc. flask.
Rinse the filter with 10 cc. of water. Add 100 cc. of 122V HCl
and then 25 grams of fine copper ribbon. Note the color changes
which take place. Suspend a short-stemmed funnel in the neck
of the flask to prevent the loss of acid and to exclude air. Heat
the mixture with a low flame until it just reaches the boiling
point. Then reduce the flame to the smallest possible size and
keep the solution just below the boiling point until the color
changes to a very light brown. Do not heat more than 15 min-

utes. While the reduction is taking place, pour 50 cc. of ether and
approximately 1,500 cc. of cold water into a 2-liter bottle. (Ether
is inflammable. Do not bring it within 3 feet of a flame.) The
ether serves to partly expel the oxygen dissolved in the water.
Shake the mixture and allow it to stand until the fine bubbles of
air have risen to the surface. When the cupric salt in the flask is
reduced as indicated by the change to a light brown color, pour it
so carefully into the water-ether mixture in the large bottle that
all solid particles of copper will be retained in the flask. Rinse
the flask with 20 cc. of 3 N HCl, and pour this with equal care into
the large bottle. Let the white precipitate settle. Moist cuprous
chloride darkens in direct light, and the bottle should not stand
near a window. Pour off most of the liquid, stir up the solid with
the rest, and pour the suspension into a suction filter. Use 50
cc. of water, to which 1 cc. of 6 N HCl has been added, to rinse all
the cuprous chloride into the funnel. The solid cuprous chloride
will settle on to the filter paper, and most of the liquid can be
decanted from the funnel if the filter runs too slowly. Continue
the suction until only a thin film of water covers the solid; stop
the suction. Pour 15 cc. of alcohol in a thin stream around the
upper edge of the funnel and let it run down, washing the sides
of the funnel and covering the cuprous chloride. Allow the alcohol
to soak into the solid, and when it begins to drip through the filter
plate, apply suction until only a thin film of alcohol covers the solid.
In exactly the same way wash the sides of the funnel and the
cuprous chloride with a second 15 cc. portion of alcohol and with
two successive 15-cc. portions of ether. Until the second portion
of ether is added, the solid cuprous chloride should not be allowed
to come in contact with the air. It should always be covered with
a thin film of the wash liquid. The second portion of ether should
be removed completely by applying suction.
If the cuprous chloride was not dried thoroughly it will turn
green on standing. This is due to the formation of basic cupric
chloride. The colored impurity may be removed by grinding the
preparation in a mortar with enough 0.5 N H2SO4 to make a thin
paste. When all the lumps have been removed pour the mixture
into 400 cc. of distilled water and repeat the filtration and wash-
ings with alcohol and ether.
Transfer the cake of cuprous chloride to a dry watch glass, re-
CUPROUS OXIDE 225
move the filter paper, and break up the cake. Rest the watch
glass on a wooden ring or on a beaker and set in on the hot plate.
As soon as the odor of ether has disappeared, pulverize the product
and put it into a 2-ounce bottle which has been thoroughly dried.
The product should be pure white.
QUESTIONS
1. Explain why copper does not reduce cupric sulphate to cu-
prous sulphate.
2. Place 0.5 gram of cuprous chloride in the bottom of a dry
test tube. Fill it completely with 6N NH4OH and immediately
stopper it tightly, allowing no air bubble to remain at the top.
Invert the tube a number of times until the salt is dissolved. At
this point, the solution should be nearly colorless, and it would
be quite so if the salt had been pure and air had been completely
excluded. Pour the solution into an open beaker and note the
change in color. Equations?
3. Spread about 0.5 gram of cuprous chloride in a watch glass;
moisten it, and let it stand 5-10 minutes. What causes the
discoloration? Equation? Rinse the discolored mass into a
beaker and add 1-2 cc. 6N HC1. What causes the solid to
again become white and the solution blue? Equation?
PREPARATION 29
CUPROUS OXIDE, CU 2 O
When metallic copper is heated in the air it becomes coated

with a layer of oxide, which, according to conditions, may be
cuprous or cupric oxide, or a mixture of the two. Pure cuprous
oxide is most conveniently prepared in the wet way by treating
an alkaline cupric salt solution with a reducing agent, whereby
the red cuprous oxide is precipitated.
Cupric hydroxide is nearly insoluble in NaOH solution alone, but
it dissolves when a soluble tartrate is added, the copper going into
a complex negative ion similar in color to the ammonio-cupric ion.
Materials: blue vitriol, CuSO4-5H2O, 50 grams = 0.2 F.W.
Rochelle salt, KNaCJÔe-ilÔ, 75 grams,
sodium hydroxide, 75 grams,
dextrose, 10 grams.
9 5 % alcohol, 45 cc.

Bunsen burner.
Procedure: Dissolve the blue vitriol and the Rochelle salt each
in 200 cc. of hot water, filter the solutions separately if they are
not clear, and when they are nearly cold mix them together in the
8-inch dish. In the meantime dissolve the sodium hydroxide in
200 cc. of water, cool it completely, filter if not clear, and pour
it in a thin stream into the mixture in the dish, stirring constantly
and being careful not to allow the mixture to get more than barely
warm from the reaction. A clear deep blue solution results.
Dissolve the 10 grams of dextrose in 100 cc. of water. Heat the
cupric salt solution to boiling; add the dextrose solution 10 cc.
at a time until the blue color of the cupric salt is discharged. To
determine this point it is necessary after stirring to wait a few
moments to let the red precipitate of CU2O settle so that one can
observe the color of the upper layer of solution. Avoid adding
more than necessary of the dextrose since this substance is turned
brown by the hot alkali and the brilliant red color of the cuprous
oxide is dulled. Pour the contents of the dish into about 1 liter
of cold water in a 2-liter bottle and mix thoroughly; let settle for
about 15 minutes. Although the supernatant liquid still appears
turbid at this point, the amount of suspended cuprous oxide is
very small. Decant this turbid liquid very carefully so as not to
stir up the cuprous oxide. As the bottle is gradually tipped, the
heavy cuprous oxide finally settles into the shoulder of the bottle
and all but about 100 cc. of the liquid runs over the lip. Fill the
bottle again with water, mix, let settle, and decant as before.
Transfer the cuprous oxide to the suction filter, and as soon as the
last drop of water is sucked into the compacted cake in the bottom,
stop the suction. Then wash with 2 successive portions of 15 cc.
each of water and 3 successive portions of 15 cc. each of alcohol,
following the directions of the preceding preparation. Place the
cuprous oxide on a watch glass on the hot plate, and as soon as
the alcohol is evaporated, put up the product in a 2-ounce cork-
stoppered bottle.
AMMONIO-COPPER SULPHATE 227
QUESTIONS
1. Treat 0.25 gram of the product with 5 cc. of hot 6N H2SO4.
Note carefully the appearance of the undissolved residue, and
whether the solution is blue after the residue has settled. Read
the discussion of the preceding preparation and interpret the results
observed in this preparation.
2. Treat 0.25 gram of the product with 6 drops of water or
enough to moisten it and then add 6 N HCl a drop at a time noting
the progressive change in the appearance of the residue. Finally
see if a considerable amount (5-10 cc.) of the HCl will dissolve
the residue. Pour the clear solution into 500 cc. of cold water.
Read the discussion of the cuprous chloride preparation and
explain the observations made in this experiment.
3. Treat 0.25 gram of the product with 10 cc. of cold QN NH 4 0H
and compare the results with those of Experiment 2 under Cuprous
Chloride. Could you explain the difference by assuming that
cuprous oxide is much more insoluble than cuprous chloride in
pure water?
PREPARATION 30
AMMONIO-COPPER SULPHATE, C U S O 4 - 4 N H 3 - H 2 O
Preparation 3 illustrated the formation of a double salt, am-

monium copper sulphate, ( N H ^ S O r C u S O ^ ^ O . In the double
salt, ammonium plays the part of a positive radical. In the
present preparation ammonia plays an altogether different role.
It does not possess a primary valence, and it enters into a molecular
compound with the salt by virtue only of a secondary valence.
In fact, the ammonia in this preparation is held in the same sort of
a combination as the water in the hydrate CuSO4-5H2O. The
molecules of ammonia would appear to be bound to the copper
rather than to the sulphate radical, because when the salt is dis-
solved in water the four ammonia molecules remain in combina-
tion with the copper as the complex ion Cu(NH3)4++, while the
sulphate radical appears as the ordinary SC>4~~ ion. Thus we
might say that this salt is the sulphate of the ammonio-copper
complex. (Cf. Ammoniates, page 118.)
The salt is exceedingly soluble in water, and therefore, in pre-
paring it, use is made of its insolubility in alcohol. The method
adopted of allowing the alcohol to mix with the aqueous solution
by slow diffusion is to insure the formation of large, well-defined

crystals.
Materials: copper sulphate, CuSO4-5H2O, 25 grams = 0.1 F. W.
6.ZVNH4OH, 85 cc.
9 5 % alcohol, 165 cc.
ether, 20 cc.
8-ounce common bottle.
two 300-cc. flasks.
400-cc. beaker.
Procedure: Pulverize the copper sulphate, place it in a flask and
dissolve it in the 85 cc. of cold 6 N NH 4 0H. (See Note 7, page 12.)
Pour the solution through a filter, catching the filtrate in another
flask. Place 125 cc. of alcohol in the bottle; fill the stem of the
dropping funnel with water; insert it to the bottom of the alcohol,
and run in 20 cc. of water to form a layer beneath the alcohol to
separate the latter from the ammoniacal copper solution, which
is next introduced through the funnel. Allow no bubbles of air
to be sucked with the liquid into the stem of the funnel and thus
avoid stirring up the solution and mixing the layers. Set the
bottle away for at least a week, at the end of which time crystals
2 or 3 cm. long will have formed. The alcoholic and aqueous
layers have not yet completely diffused into each other, and when
they are mixed, a meal of very small crystals is precipitated.
Therefore pour the liquid all at once out of the bottle into a clean
beaker. The large crystals adhere to the inside of the bottle.
Remove them to a small dish; add 10 cc. of alcohol to which 1 cc.
of ammonia has been added; stir thoroughly by rotating the dish,
and pour off the alcohol, allowing it to carry with it any of the
precipitate of small crystals. Repeat the washing with 10 cc. of
alcohol and then with 10 cc. of ether. Spread the crystals on
paper towels and leave them until they cease to smell of ether.
Then at once stopper them tightly in a 2-ounce cork-stoppered
bottle, since they give off their ammonia rather easily. Drain on
a suction filter the crystal meal formed in the beaker, and wash it
on the filter (Note 5 (a), page 9) with the same liquids as were
used for the larger crystals. Preserve the large crystals and the
crystal meal separately, each in a 2-ounce cork-stoppered bottle.
ZINC OXIDE 229
QUESTIONS
1. What is the reaction between C u + + and OH~ ions? To
a little 1 N CuSO* add 6 N NaOH drop by drop, until it is present
in excess.
2. Explain what successive reactions occur when ammonium
hydroxide is added instead of sodium hydroxide.
3. To 5 cc. of IN CUSO4 add 10 cc. of a molal solution of
tartaric acid; then add sodium hydroxide solution, as in (1),
and compare the results with those in (1) and (2), but do not
attempt to ascribe a definite formula to the complex compound
formed.
PREPARATION 31
ZINC OXIDE, ZnO
Zinc oxide is used as a white pigment, for which purpose it has

the advantage of not turning black under the action of hydrogen
sulphide. It may be obtained directly by burning metallic zinc,
or from a soluble zinc salt by precipitating first a basic carbonate
and then heating this to convert it into the oxide. Both zinc
carbonate and zinc hydroxide are insoluble in water, but the basic
carbonate is of still greater insolubility, and therefore precipitates
more readily than either of the former when the ions necessary
for its formation are brought together. The simplest formula for
the basic carbonate is
„ .OH
In < CO 3
Zn<
but the precipitate may be of varying composition according to the

conditions of its formation.
If zinc sulphate in solution is treated with sodium bicarbonate,
pure zinc carbonate is precipitated, because a sodium bicarbonate
solution contains but a minute quantity of OH~ ions. On the
other hand, a sodium carbonate solution, in consequence of hydroly-
sis, contains a considerable quantity of OH~ ions, and thus it
furnishes both the CO3~~ and OH~ ions necessary for the forma-
tion of basic zinc carbonate.
Basic zinc carbonate is decomposed by heat into zinc oxide and
carbon dioxide.
Commercial zinc sulphate invariably contains a small amount of

iron as an impurity. Since FeSO4-7H2O crystallizes isomor-
phously with ZnS(V7H 2 O a preparation of the latter cannot be
freed of the former by recrystallization. By addition of chlorine,
or its equivalent, to the solution of zinc sulphate, the iron is oxidized
to ferric salt; the ferric salt hydrolyzes somewhat, and, if the acid
produced by the hydrolysis is neutralized as fast as formed, the
hydrolysis proceeds to completion and all the iron is precipitated
as Fe(OH) 3 . In this case, the reagent used to bring about the
exact neutrality of the solution is a suspension of basic zinc car-
bonate. (Compare the similar procedure for removing traces of
iron in the preparation of strontium chloride, Preparation 21.)
To obtain the pure white, impalpable powder which is sought it
is necessary: to remove the iron salts, which cause a yellow or
brown color; to wash entirely free of soluble sodium sulphate,
which would give a lumpy product; to avoid getting filter fibers
mixed with the material, for these would char and cause darken-
ing; and to avoid overheating the product, which might cause it
to react with the glaze of the dish.
Materials: zinc sulphate, ZnSO4-7H2O, 57 grams = 0.2 F.W.

anhydrous sodium carbonate, Na2CO3, 24 grams,
bleaching powder or calcium hypochlorite
(" H. T. H."), 1 gram.
Apparatus: two 2-liter common bottles.
5-inch filter funnel.
Bunsen burner.
Procedure: Dissolve the ZnS(V7H 2 O in 700 cc. water. Pre-

pare a NaOCl solution as follows: Add 1 gram of calcium hypo-
chlorite or bleaching powder and 1 gram of Na2CO3 to 100 cc. cold
water. Stir thoroughly and pour through a filter. Add the cold
nitrate to the cold solution of ZnSO* in 700 cc. water in an 8-inch
porcelain dish. Heat with a small flame during 10 minutes to a
temperature of 100°, when the iron will be completely precipitated
as Fe(OH) 3 . Pour the solution through a filter, collecting the
filtrate in a 2-liter common bottle. Dissolve 23 grams of sodium
ZINC OXIDE 231
carbonate in 500 cc. of water and filter. Pour the filtrate into the
purified ZnSO4 solution. Note if there is any effervescence. The
precipitate should be pure white. Stir or shake to aid the escape of
carbon dioxide. Fill the bottle to the top with water, stir, and
let stand until the white precipitate has settled to one-third or
one-fourth the volume of the bottle. This will take about 30
minutes. Draw off the clear solution and wash the remaining
precipitate by decantation until it is calculated that it is con-
taminated with less than 0.1 per cent of the soluble sodium sulphate
present at first (see Note 5 (6), page 10). Finally, transfer the
sludge to a large, ordinary filter (Note 4 (c), page 7), and allow it
to drain over night. It should now be in the form of a jelly-like
cake which holds its shape. Without removing it from the filter
lift the latter from the funnel, unfold it without tearing, spread it
flat on paper towels, and leave it on the steam table until the ma-
terial is dry. Do not try to remove the material from the filter
until it is absolutely dry; it will then flake off clean when the paper
is bent. Heat the basic zinc carbonate in the 4-inch porcelain dish
gently with a flame 2 inches high which is held in the hand and
played over the bottom of the dish. The material falls to an
impalpable powder which seethes, or appears to boil, as long as
gases are being expelled. Avoid heating the dish to any faintest
sign of visible redness. The product is faintly yellow when hot
but it should become pure white when cold. Test the product by
wetting 0.1 gram with 2 cc. of water and adding a few drops of
6N HC1. The zinc oxide should dissolve, and there should be no
trace of effervescence. Put up the preparation in a 2-ounce
QUESTIONS
1. Why could not the precipitate of basic zinc carbonate have
been advantageously freed from the solution by means of a suction
filter?
2. Which is more readily decomposed by heat, calcium car-
bonate or zinc carbonate? Which then is the more strongly basic,
calcium oxide or zinc oxide?
3. To a solution of zinc sulphate add a solution of sodium
hydroxide, drop by drop, until the precipitate first formed re-
dissolves. How is zinc hydroxide similar to aluminum hydroxide
in respect to its behavior towards strong acids and strong bases?

Write ionic equations.
4. Write an equation for the reaction of calcium hypochlonte
with sodium carbonate solution. Trace through the reactions and
show what impurity would have gone through into the final
product if calcium hypochlorite had been used directly instead of
sodium hypochlorite.
PREPARATION 32
MERCUROUS NITRATE, HgNCVHÔ
Mercury, like copper, will not dissolve in non-oxidizing acids,
but it does dissolve in nitric acid. Two oxides of mercury are
known, Hg2O and HgO, corresponding to the mercurous and mer-
curic salts. In order to obtain the nitrate corresponding to the
lower oxide, it is necessary merely to keep mercury present in
excess until after the acid is exhausted.
6N H N 0 3 , 20 cc.
Bunsen burner.
Procedure: Treat 25 grams of mercury in a flask in the hood with

20 cc. of 6 N HNO3, warming gently, until no further action takes
place. Allow to cool until the flask can be held in the hand, then
pour the solution away from any remaining globule of mercury
into a small dish, and leave to crystallize until the next day.
Spread the crystals out on a filter paper placed on a paper towel
and let them dry at room temperature. Put the product in a
cork-stoppered test tube as soon as it is dry.
QUESTIONS
1. Treat 0.5 gram of the preparation with 20 cc. of cold water.
It does not dissolve to give a clear solution. Note the character of
the residue of basic salt. Add dilute nitric acid drop by drop,
until a clear solution is obtained. Explain why the presence of a
little nitric acid should enable us to get a clear solution.
MERCURIC NITRATE 233
2. The cold dilute nitric acid in Question 1 does not oxidize

the mercurous salt. Now add cold dilute hydrochloric acid, drop
by drop, until all the mercurous salt is precipitated as white
mercurous chloride, HgCl. Look up the solubility of mercurous
and mercuric chlorides.
3. Filter off the precipitate obtained in Question 2. The
solution will contain any mercuric salt which was present in the
sample originally taken. What reagent could you use to test for
mercuric salt in this solution? Make the test and report the result.
4. Addition of hydrochloric acid to the solution containing
nitric acid gives the strongly oxidizing mixture known as aqua
regia. What is the chief reason why, if the solution is cold and
dilute, the mercurous salt escapes oxidation?
PREPARATION 33
MERCURIC NITRATE, Hg(NOs)2
When mercury is heated with an excess of nitric acid, mercuric
nitrate is produced. This salt is exceedingly soluble in water, and
it can be crystallized only with a good deal of difficulty. When
a solution of it containing an excess of nitric acid is evaporated,
it becomes a thick, heavy sirup, which by further driving off of
nitric acid and water becomes a pasty mass, due to formation of
small crystals of basic nitrate, Hg < _ *. If the materials taken
for the preparation of this salt are pure, the product can contain
no other foreign matter than an excess of nitric acid; consequently,
in view of the difficulty of obtaining good crystals, it is convenient
to preserve the salt in this pasty condition.
6.ZVHNO3, 60 cc.
125-cc. casserole.
2-ounce glass-stoppered bottle,
Bunsen burner.
Procedure: Heat 25 grams of mercury in a flask in the hood with
60 cc. 6N HNO3 until it is all dissolved. Test a drop of the solu-
tion by adding to it in a test tube 1 cc. of cold water and a drop of
dilute hydrochloric acid. A precipitate will probably form, in

which case add 10 cc. of concentrated nitric acid to the flask and
boil until a precipitate is no longer obtained when tested as above.
Pour the solution into a casserole and evaporate in the hood over a
very small free flame until the liquid has assumed a sirupy consist-
ency and crystals just commence to form on the surface. Then
transfer the whole mass to a warmed sample bottle, which has
previously been weighed; let it cool and stopper the bottle.
QUESTIONS
1. To prepare a solution of this salt for use as a laboratory
reagent, explain why it is necessary to add nitric acid. (Compare
with Question 1 under Mercurous Nitrate, page 232.)
2. To a solution of mercuric nitrate add a little hydrochloric
acid. Now add a little stannous chloride solution. What is the
precipitate, and what change in the valence of mercury must have
occurred before it could form?
PREPARATION 34
MERCURIC SULPHOCYANATE, Hg(SCN) 2
In most of its properties the sulphocyanate radical resembles
the halogens, with which it is often classed, in the same manner
that the ammonium radical, NH 4 , is classed with the alkali metals.
Mercuric sulphocyanate is insoluble in water, and may be pro-
duced by bringing together equivalent quantities of solutions of
mercuric nitrate and potassium sulphocyanate, but if a suffi-
cient excess of either of these reagents is used, the precipitate
dissolves in it. From a consideration of the principle of solu-
bility product one would predict that an excess of either ion
would cause a decrease in the solubility of the salt Hg(SCN) 2 ,
but this effect is outweighed by the tendency of Hg(SCN) 2 to
combine with either H g + + or SCN~ ions to form fairly stable
complex ions (see page 119). A very neat expedient may be
adopted in this preparation to show when the proper amount
of reagent has been added, as follows: ferric sulphocyanate,
Fe(SCN) 3 , is a soluble substance which has an intense red color.
If to a given solution of mercuric nitrate a few drops of a ferric
salt solution are added, and then to this is gradually added a
solution of potassium sulphocyanate, the SCN~ ions will unite
MERCURIC SULPHOCYANATE 235
with the Hg++ ions as long as any of the latter are present, the
solution remaining colorless and the precipitate, Hg(SCN) 2 , form-
ing towards the end; but as soon as the H g + + ions are exhausted,
then the SCN~ ions unite with F e + + + ions, producing the red
compound, which indicates that the reaction is complete.
Mercuric sulphocyanate has a peculiar property: when ignited
it burns with the production of a very voluminous coherent ash,
which, from the form it assumes, is called " Pharaoh's Serpent."
It should not be burned indoors because of the production of
poisonous vapors.
Materials: mercuric nitrate from preceding preparation,
potassium sulphocyanate, KSCN, 25 grams,
ferric chloride for indicator.
Procedure: Dissolve the mercuric nitrate in 1 liter of water,

adding enough nitric acid to prevent the formation of any basic
salt. To this add 10 drops of a ferric chloride solution; then add
gradually, with constant stirring, a solution of the potassium
sulphocyanate in 500 cc. of water until a red color appears and
persists after stirring. Collect the precipitate on a suction filter,
and dry it on paper towels.
The dried salt may be made into the so-called Pharaoh's serpent
eggs by mixing it with 1.5 grams of dextrine and water to obtain
a paste, placing the latter in conical molds about 1 cm. wide
and 1 cm. deep, and letting it dry out and harden.
QUESTIONS
1. What is the degree of ionization of the soluble halides of
mercury, i.e., HgCl 2 , Hg(CN) 2 ? Do these salts form, in this
respect, any exception to the general rule regarding the ionization
of salts?
2. Describe at least three instances which have previously fallen
under your observation in which a reagent in limited amount will
give a precipitate, but, added in excess, will cause the precipitate
to redissolve.
Experiments
Review in Chapter III Experiments 14, 15, 18, 19, pages 91-92
and the discussion of the basic properties of metal hydroxides,
page 112, and of complex ions, page 118. In Chapter IV, review
Experiments 16 on page 170 and 22 on page 175.
1. Stability of the Carbonates, (a) To about 10 cc. each of
solutions of CuSO4, ZnSO4, CdCl2, and AgNO 3 add 1 N Na 2 CO 3
until no further precipitate is formed and notice very carefully
whether any bubbles of gas escape. No gas escapes from the
cadmium and silver salt solutions; effervescence is noted with
the copper and zinc salt solutions. Collect the precipitates
from the copper and zinc salt solutions on niters, and wash
thoroughly with water until the excess of Na 2 CO 3 is removed.
This is accomplished when the washings from the filter no
longer effervesce when HC1 is added. Now pour a few drops
of HC1 on these precipitates and note that they effervesce
when they dissolve.
The escape of carbon dioxide when the Na 2 CO 3 is added shows
that the copper and zinc carbonates hydrolyze, but the further
escape of carbon dioxide when the precipitates are treated with
acid shows that the hydrolysis has not been complete. The pre-
cipitates then must consist of basic carbonates, such as Cu(OH) 2 .
CuCO 3 . This shows that the basic character of the hydroxides is
weak, but not as weak as that of A1(OH)3, because not even a basic
carbonate of aluminum can be formed. Since no effervescence
took place with the cadmium and silver salts, the precipitates
must have been the neutral carbonates, CdCO 3 and Ag2CO3, which
indicates that cadmium and silver oxides are more strongly basic
than the others.
(6) Heat a little dry basic copper carbonate by shaking it
in a test tube at some distance above a small flame. The
light blue powder is quickly changed to black, and the seeth-
ing of the dry powder shows that a gas is being expelled.
A drop of lime water is clouded by the gas. To the residue
after it has cooled add 5 cc. of water and then a little HC1 and
note that the black powder dissolves without effervescence.
The ease with which copper carbonate is decomposed by heat
shows further the weakness of the basic character of copper oxide.
EXPERIMENTS 237
2. Hydrolysis of Salts. Recall the fact, or observe by experi-

ment, that the salts HgNO 3 , Hg(NO 3 )2, and ZnCl2 do not dissolve
in pure water to give a clear solution but that a flocculent residue
of basic salt, HgN0 3 -Hg0H, HgOHNO 3 , ZnOHCl, is left. The
formation of the basic salt is a partial hydrolysis, it leaves the
solution faintly acidic; that the hydrolysis is not extensive, is
shown by the fact that a moderate amount of the corresponding
acid will in each case prevent the formation and precipitation of
the basic salt.
3. Hydroxides. In separate test tubes place (a) 1 cc. of
12V CuSO 4 ; (6) 10 cc. of 0.1 2V AgNO 3 ; (c) 1 cc. of 12V ZnSO4;
(d) 1 cc. of 12V CdCl 2 ; (e) 5 cc. of 0.12V HgNO 3 ; and (/) 5 cc.
of 0.22V Hg(NO 3 ) 2 . To each tube add water to make a volume
of 10 cc. and then add 62V NaOH, 1 drop at a time, shaking
after each drop. Finally add in all 5 cc. of the NaOH.
In every case a precipitate is formed with a small amount of the

reagent as follows: (a) light blue Cu(0H) 2 , (6) brown Ag2O,
(c) white Zn(0H) 2 , (d) white Cd(OH) 2 , (e) black Hg2O, (/) yellow
HgO. Those precipitates whose formulas are given as hydroxides
are in fact likely to come down as rather indefinite basic salts,
that is, as mixtures of the hydroxides and the salt, but for the sake
of simplicity in discussion it is allowable to regard them as hydrox-
ides. Silver, mercurous, and mercuric hydroxides do not exist in
the solid state; they lose water and form the oxides.
Of the above precipitates, zinc hydroxide alone dissolves freely
in excess of the reagent. It forms the soluble salt sodium zincate,
Na 2 Zn0 2 , and it is thus an amphoteric substance like aluminum
hydroxide (compare Experiments 2, 3, 4, and 5, page 217).
The copper hydroxide does not dissolve altogether in the excess
of the reagent, but the solution acquires a deep blue color which is
seen better after the precipitate settles out. This color shows that
there must be copper in solution, and that the copper hydroxide
possesses amphoteric properties to a slight degree.
4. Basic Strength of Silver Oxide. Collect on a filter the
silver oxide precipitate obtained in (6) of the last experiment.
Wash it thoroughly with hot water. Put part of the moist
residue on a piece of red litmus paper and note that the paper
is turned blue. Pour 2 cc. of water over the rest of the brown
residue; let it run through the filter, and test the filtrate for
Ag + ions by adding a drop of HC1. A distinct test is obtained.
Test a silver nitrate or a silver sulphate solution with litmus
and note that the indicator is not affected.
The brown silver oxide must combine with water to form the
hydroxide when it dissolves because of the tests for Ag + and OH~
ions that are obtained in the solution. Silver oxide is thus shown
to be appreciably soluble and markedly basic. As would be
expected of salts of such a base, we find that silver nitrate and
silver sulphate are not hydrolyzed. Silver oxide is exceptional for
a heavy metal oxide in displaying so marked a basic strength.
5. Ammoniates. Repeat Experiments 3 using 6 N NH4OH

instead of NaOH. Note that in every case a limited amount of
reagent produces the same precipitate as NaOH, and that
excess of the reagent redissolves all the precipitates except
those of the mercury oxides.
Test the resulting ammonia silver salt solution for Ag+ ions
by adding a drop of KC1 and note that no precipitate is
formed.
The hydroxides dissolve in NH4OH, not because of any acidic

character but because of the ability of the metal ions to form
ammoniates (see pages 118-119). Addition of ammonia to the
simple metal radical seems to strengthen its metallic character so
that it can exist more easily as a positive ion. Thus the hydroxides
of the ammonio-metal radicals, excepting those of mercury, are
soluble and as highly ionized as the hydroxides of the alkali metals.
6. Complex Negative Ions, (a) To 1 cc. 1 N CuSO4 add

10 cc. water and 2 cc. of 1 N KI. Note that the solution turns
brown and that a precipitate is formed. Let the precipitate
settle, pour off the brown solution and note that a drop of it
will turn some starch paste blue, showing the presence of
iodine. Wash the precipitate by decantation and note that
it is white after the brown solution is removed. To the pre-
cipitate suspended in about 2 cc. of water add a small crystal
of potassium iodide. This dissolves quickly, giving a fairly
concentrated solution. Note that the precipitate dissolves
in the KI solution.
EXPERIMENTS 239
The ions of cupric iodide are brought together but cupric iodide
is unstable and decomposes into insoluble cuprous iodide, Cul, and
free iodine. With excess of KI the soluble salt KCuI 2 , which is
ionized as K+ CuI 2 ~, is formed. Cupric chloride, CuCl 2 , and
cupric bromide, CuBr2, do not decompose in the same way into
cuprous salts. (Compare the relative reducing action of chloride,
bromide, and iodide, Experiments 12, 13, and 14, pages 166-168.)
(6) To 1 cc. of 0.2 2V Hg(NO 3 ) 2 add a few drops of 12V KI

and note a bright red precipitate. Add a little more KI and
note that the precipitate redissolves to give a colorless solu-
tion.
(c) To 1 cc. of 0.12V AgNO 3 add a few drops of a saturated

NaCl solution. Note the white precipitate. Add 10 cc. of
saturated NaCl, shake, and note that the precipitate cannot
be seen to dissolve. To show that some does dissolve, filter,
and add a large amount of water to the clear nitrate, noting
an opalescent precipitate.
Mercuric iodide, Hgl 2 , is very insoluble but with excess iodide

ions it readily forms the complex ion Hgl4~~. Similarly silver
chloride can, in the presence of a high concentration of chloride ions,
form to a limited extent the complex ion AgCl2~. The latter is
very unstable, however, and dilution reduces the Cl~ ion concen-
tration sufficiently to allow the complex ion to dissociate, AgCU"
^± AgCl | + Cl~, with a reprecipitation of silver chloride.
The above experiments show the strong tendency of the heavy
metals of this chapter to enter into the formation of complex
negative ions. (See page 120.) The negative radical ions show
differing tendencies to enter into these complexes, and in the
decreasing order of the strength of this tendency are CN~, SCN~,
I", Cl~. Sulphate and nitrate ions show very little tendency to
join heavy-metal ions in the formation of complexes of this kind,
although it may be that the formation of the crystallized double
salts like the alums and the double sulphate of potassium and
copper is due to such a cause.
7. Sulphides, (a) To separate tubes containing diluted

heavy-metal salt solutions as in Experiment 3, (a) to (/), add
2 cc. of 62V (NH 4 ) 2 S in each case and note the character of the
precipitate. Collect each precipitate on a filter, wash it with

hot water, and then pour over it a few cubic centimeters of
GNKCl.
The precipitates are CuS, dark brown; Ag2S, black; ZnS, white;
CdS, yellow; HgS + Hg, black; and HgS, black. Of these only
zinc sulphide and cadmium sulphide dissolve in 6 N HC1.
(6) To 1 cc. of 1 N ZnSO4 add 10 cc. of water and 1 cc. of
6N HC1, and pass hydrogen sulphide in until the solution
is saturated with the gas. No precipitate is formed. Add
10 cc. of 1 N NaAc and observe the white precipitate.
Zinc sulphide does not precipitate from an acidified solution
because the S~~ ion concentration is repressed by the H+ ions of
the strong acid, H 2 S ^± 2H+ + S~~, and the solubility product of
zinc sulphide cannot be reached. Acetate ions, however, remove
H+ ions, and, the hydrogen sulphide thus being allowed to ionize
to a greater extent, the solubility product of zinc sulphide is ex-
ceeded and the white precipitate appears. (See Solubility Prod-
uct, page 131, and Experiment 22, page 175.)
8. Electromotive Series. Review Experiment 19, page 92,
and make what further experiments of a similar nature are necessary
to determine the relative position in the electromotive series of the
heavy metals considered in this chapter.
GENERAL QUESTIONS VII

HEAVY METALS OF GROUPS I AND II
1. Make a table as follows. In column 1 give the symbols of
the metals — copper (leave two lines), silver, gold (two lines), zinc,
cadmium, and mercury (two lines); in column 2, the formulas of
the chlorides; in column 3, the solubility of the chloride, speci-
fying sol = soluble, ins = insoluble; in column 4, the formula of
the oxide corresponding to the chloride in column 2; in column 5,
the formula of the corresponding nitrate, if one exists; in column 6,
the degree of hydrolysis of the chloride or nitrate, whichever is
soluble, specifying none, little, large.
2. Give all available information as to the stability of the car-
bonates of the metals of this chapter. Compare the base-forming
properties of these metals among themselves, and also with the
alkali metals, the alkaline earth metals, and aluminum.
GENERAL QUESTIONS VII 241
3. What is an ammoniate? Give the formulas of the ammonio

ions of copper, silver, zinc, and cadmium. How can crystallized
ammonio-copper sulphate be prepared? How would you make a
solution of ammonio-copper hydroxide? What is the alkaline
strength of such a solution?
4. Discuss the tendency of the heavy metals of Groups I and II
to enter complex negative ions; give several examples, at least one
for each metal, also examples in which the simple cyanide, thio-
cyanate, iodide, and chloride ions are involved. Describe experi-
mental facts to illustrate the great stability of potassium argenti-
cyanide, KAg(CN) 2 , and the instability of sodium argentichloride,
NaAgCl 2 .
5. Compare the metals of this chapter among themselves with
regard to their position in the electromotive series, also with the
metals of the A families of Groups I and II, and with aluminum.
CHAPTER VIII
THE OXY-ACIDS AND SALTS OF THE NON-METALS
The elements which are distinctly and invariably non-metallic

in character are boron in the third group; carbon and silicon in the
fourth group; nitrogen and phosphorus in the fifth group; oxygen,
sulphur, and selenium in the sixth group; and fluorine, chlorine,
bromine, and iodine in the seventh group. Non-metallic elements
have already been studied in Chapter IV, in so far as they enter
binary compounds in which they act as the negative constituents.
When two non-metallic elements unite, the one which is the
less strongly non-metallic is regarded as the positive constituent;
it is, so to speak, compelled to play the positive r61e in the com-
pound. For example, sulphur is regarded as the positive constit-
uent of sulphur trioxide. Although in such a compound the
primary valence of each element seems to be satisfied — sul-
phur, + 6 , and oxygen, —2, in sulphur trioxide — there must be a
large residual combining power (secondary valence) because the
compound combines so readily with other saturated compounds.
The oxides of non-metals thus unite with metal oxides to form salts,
and with water to form acids, for example, SO3+ Na20 —• Na2SO4j
SO3 + H2O —* H2SO4. When such salts or acids ionize, the non-
metal always appears as a constituent of the complex negative ion.
In the sulphate ion the combination of 1 sulphur, with a valence
of + 6 , and 4 oxygens, with a valence of —2 each, would leave
the unbalanced valence of —2 for the whole ion; this is the
actual valence of the ion. Hence we conclude that elements
present in molecular compounds and in complex ions still possess
the same primary valence as in the simple compounds.
Although all the non-metals except oxygen and fluorine show
positive primary valences in some of their compounds, nevertheless
it is the most characteristic property of the non-metals that they
do not form positive ions. In ions they are always combined with
enough of an electronegative element to furnish a surplus of nega-
tive charges for the whole ion.
An inspection of the periodic arrangement of the elements shows
that non-metals do not occur at all in the first and second groups;
242
POTASSIUM BROMATE AND POTASSIUM BROMIDE 243
that they occur only at the top in the third, fourth, and fifth
groups; and that in the sixth and seventh groups they comprise
all the well-known members of the B families. It is true in these
families, as might be expected by recalling characteristics of
preceding groups, that the strength of the non-metallic character
grows weaker, and that the approach towards metallic character
grows more evident, as the atomic weight increases.
The characteristic valences of the sixth and seventh groups are
6 and 7, respectively, and the corresponding oxides are EO 3
and E2O7. In these oxides and in the compounds derived from
them, there is little dissimilarity between the A and B families.
Thus perchlorates and permanganates are analogous to each
other, as are also sulphates and chromates. In the lower states
of valence, the elements of the B families are entirely differ-
ent from those of the A families, the B family elements forming
exclusively negative ions, S~~, SC>4~~, whereas the A family
elements form positive ions, Cr + + , C r + + + .
PREPARATION 35
POTASSIUM BROMATE AND POTASSIUM BROMIDE,
KBrO 3 AND KBr
Bromine, like chlorine, hydrolyzes to a considerable extent ac-
cording to the reversible reaction:
Br 2 + H2O ^ HBr + HBrO (1)
In presence of a base both acids are neutralized as fast as formed
and reaction (1) proceeds to completion. Thus the complete
reaction in presence of KOH is:
Br2 + 2 K 0 H -» KBr + KBrO + H2O (2)
Hypobromites are unstable, and, at boiling temperature, and
particularly in slightly acid solution, undergo an action of oxidation
and reduction, the total result of which is:
3KBrO -» KBrO 3 + 2KBr (3)
Multiplying equation (2) by 3 and adding equation (3) the equa-
tion
3Br2 + 6 K 0 H -»• KBrO 3 + 5KBr + 3H 2 O (4)
is obtained. This equation represents the sum total of the chemi-
244 OXY-ACIDS AND SALTS OF THE NON-METALS
cal changes occurring in the process, and on it the calculation of

quantities of materials and products is to be based.
The reaction represented in (3) does not take place to an appre-
ciable extent in alkaline or neutral solution, but when the neutral
point is overstepped by a mere trace of acid the reaction readily
completes itself in a few minutes at the boiling temperature. A
little excess of bromine, shown by a reddish color, gives, by virtue
of the hydrolysis above mentioned, the requisite degree of acidity.
The following train of equations gives an idea of the way in which
this trace of bromine promotes the reaction. It will be noticed
that in equation (9) the bromine used in equation (5) is regener-
ated, so that a trace of bromine working over and over again
suffices to convert all the hypobromite into bromate. The addi-
tion of all the equations (5) to (9) in the train gives the equation
(10) for the total net change which is identical to equation (3)
Br 2 + H2O -» HBr + HBrO (5)
HBr + KBrO -» KBr + HBrO (6)
2HBrO + KBrO -»• KBrO 3 + 2HBr (7)
HBr + KBrO -»• KBr + HBrO (8)
HBrO + HBr -> Br 2 + H2O (9)
3KBrO -» KBrO 3 + 2KBr (10)
Materials: potassium hydroxide, 0.5 F.W. = 28 grams; this
material should be as nearly free from carbonate
as possible. Since it is very deliquescent it will
doubtless contain water, and a somewhat greater
weight than 28 grams will have to be taken. Take
31 grams if the analysis of the material is not
known.
bromine, 40 grams = 12.5 cc. = 0.25 F.W. Br 2
charcoal, 5 grams.
Apparatus: 300-cc. Erlenmeyer flask.
400-cc. iron crucible,
2.5-inch funnel.
50-cc. graduate,
asbestos paper,
Bunsen burner.
POTASSIUM BROMATE AND POTASSIUM BROMIDE 245
Procedure: Dissolve the potassium hydroxide in 100 cc. of water

in a 300-cc. Erlenmeyer flask. At the hood obtain the liquid
bromine in a measuring cylinder and perform all the operations
with bromine under the hood. Cool the KOH solution to room
temperature and pour the bromine into it, about 1 cc. at a time,
rotating the contents of the flask until the bromine has dissolved
after each addition. When all the bromine is added, it should be
in slight excess, which is shown by a distinct reddish tint in the
solution, not merely a yellow color.
Now heat the contents of the flask to boiling and boil until the
excess of bromine has been expelled. Then cool to 15° or lower.
Collect the crystals on a suction filter. Preserve the nitrate to
obtain the by-product, potassium bromide.
Dissolve the crystals in four times their weight of hot water. Un-
less the solution is perfectly clear, filter it hot, and without suction,
to remove dirt, rinsing the filter with about 5 cc. of boiling water.
Cool the nitrate to below 15° as before, and collect the crystals.
Add the mother liquor to that reserve for obtaining the by-product.
Dissolve 0.05 gram of the crystals in 2 cc. of hot water; add 1
drop of AgNO 3 solution. A precipitate while the solution is at the
boiling temperature is silver bromide and shows that the product
has not been purified from bromide. Repeat the recrystallization
as many times as necessary to obtain a pure product.
Potassium Bromide. Combine all the mother liquors, evaporate
in a porcelain dish until a pasty mass is obtained, mix this thor-
oughly with 5 grams of powdered charcoal, and dry the friass
completely. Pulverize the dry mixture in a mortar and heat
it to redness, for 20 minutes, in an iron crucible surrounded by an
asbestos mantle. Extract the product with 60 cc. of hot water,
filter, wash the residue and filter with an additional 15 cc. of hot
water, and evaporate the solution to dryness to obtain potassium
bromide. The solution of potassium bromide " creeps." If it has
to be set away over night the vessel containing it should be placed
in a clean large dish to catch any of the salt that creeps over the
edge of the smaller vessel.
Test the product for absence of bromate by dissolving some in a
little water and acidifying with sulphuric acid. If no bromate
is present, no free bromine will be produced, i.e., the solution will
remain colorless and odorless.
Put up the two products in separate cork-stoppered bottles.
QUESTIONS
1. When the bromate is tested with silver nitrate why is it nec-
essary to have the solution hot? (Look up solubility of silver
bromate.)
2. How does dilute H2SO4 react with a pure bromate? Explain,
with reactions, the test for the presence of bromate in the
bromide.
3. Explain why it would not be possible to free a preparation of
potassium bromide of a little bromate by recrystallization.
4. Explain why potassium bromate can be readily freed of
bromide by recrystallization.
PREPARATION 36
POTASSIUM CHLORATE, KC10 3
Read the discussion of the hydrolysis of bromine in the pre-
ceding preparation. About one-third of the chlorine in chlorine
water is hydrolyzed. The bleaching power of chlorine is due
directly to the oxidizing action of the hypochlorous acid produced
by the hydrolysis. The formation of chlorate in this prepara-
tion is also a result of the oxidizing action of hypochlorous
acid.
In the action of chlorine with an alkali hydroxide, six equivalents
of the latter must react in order to produce one equivalent of
alkali chlorate. To economize in potassium hydroxide, which is
more expensive than sodium hydroxide, we shall use one equivalent
only of the former and five equivalents of the latter. The five
equivalents of sodium chloride which could be recovered as a by-
product is not of great value, and we shall discard it in this prep-
aration.
Materials: potassium hydroxide, 16 grams 1 ., „ „ „

,. i i - i , . , . > the pellet iorm of
sodium hydroxide, 44 grams J ^
these hydroxides, as free of carbonate as pos-
sible, should be used. Allowing roughly 10 per
cent as water gives the net amounts: KOH, 0.25
F.W.; NaOH, 1.25 F.W.
chlorine, from a cylinder or generated from granu-
lar manganese dioxide and 12 N HC1.
POTASSIUM CHLORATE 247
Apparatus: 500-cc. flask with 2-hole rubber stopper.

chlorine generator, use 2,000-cc. round-bottomed
flask.
Bunsen burner.
Procedure: Calculate the amount of manganese dioxide and

12 JV HC1 required to generate the chlorine necessary to react with
the alkalies. Take 10 per cent in excess of this amount and fit up
the chlorine generator. Dissolve the potassium and sodium hy-
droxides together in 70 cc. of water in the 500-cc. flask, but do not
filter the solution, even if it is not entirely clear. Arrange a wide
delivery tube to bubble chlorine into the alkali solution in the
flask, which is supported on a lamp stand so that it can be heated.
The exit tube from the flask is prolonged to a bottle containing
6N NaOH to absorb any excess chlorine. Pass chlorine into the
alkali solution until the latter is saturated with it. Let the reaction
heat the solution. Finally make sure that the solution is saturated
with chlorine. Remove the generator fittings, close the flask with
a solid rubber stopper, and shake vigorously; if the upper part of
the flask still contains chlorine gas the solution is saturated. Boil
the contents of the flask gently, avoiding " bumping," until the
excess of chlorine is expelled; then pour it all, still at boiling
temperature, on to the suction filter. Stop the suction before any
air has been drawn into the layer of crystals; add 15 cc. of water
to the flask, heat it to boiling, pour it on to the salt crystals in the
filter, and, after it has soaked in, apply the suction. In this way
nearly all the potassium chlorate is washed into the filtrate.
Cool the filtrate to 0° and collect the potassium chlorate crystals
on the suction filter. Dissolve the moist crystals in three times
their weight of water. If the solution is not clear, pour it through
a small common filter, rinsing the filter with 10 cc. of boiling water
to carry through any potassium chlorate which crystallized in the
filter. Purify by recrystallization until the product is free from
chloride. Preserve it in a 2-ounce cork-stoppered bottle.
A product of 15 grams is to be regarded as satisfactory. The
mother liquors should all have been saved to work over again if the
recrystallizations have not been skilfully enough carried out the
first time.
QUESTIONS
1. Tabulate the solubilities at high and low temperatures of
the salts concerned, and arrange a flow sheet of the method to
be followed if the mother liquors are worked over.
2. The commercial method of making potassium chlorate is
by the electrolysis of a potassium chloride solution. What are
the primary products formed at the two electrodes? Explain how,
when the primary products are allowed to mix in the cell, the re-
actions are similar to those of this and the preceding preparations.
PREPARATION 37
POTASSIUM IODATE, KIO 3
As is well known, the chemical affinity of the halogens for
hydrogen or positive elements decreases in passing from fluorine
to iodine; but the affinity for oxygen increases in this order, so that
iodates and iodic acid (I2O6) are more stable than chlorates and
chloric acid (CUCX). Use is made of this fact in the following
preparation, in which the total change is represented fairly closely
by the equation
KCIO3 + | I 2 -»• KIO3 + |C1 2
The actual reaction, however, is not so simple as this. The
presence of a small amount of acid is necessary to make it take
place. This acid gives rise to a little free chloric acid, which is a
far stronger oxidizing agent than potassium chlorate, and oxidizes
iodine to iodic acid. The latter acid reacts with more potassium
chlorate and thus chloric acid is regenerated. It will be noticed
that in carrying out the following directions more iodine is taken
than is necessary to react with the potassium chlorate according
to the equation given above. This excess of iodine is oxidized to
iodic acid by a part of the free chlorine which is represented in the
equation as escaping.
Materials: potassium chlorate, KCIO3, 31 grams = 0.25 F.W.
iodine, 36 grams.
Apparatus: 1,000-cc. flask.
short-stemmed funnel.
pan of cold water.
Bunsen burner.
IODIC ACID; IODINE PENTOXIDE 249
Procedure: Dissolve 31 grams of potassium chlorate by warming

it with 100 cc. of water in a 1000-cc. flask. Add 36 grams of pow-
dered iodine and hang a small funnel in the neck of the flask to
prevent, to some extent, the escape of iodine vapor. Place a pan
of cold water close at hand; then add 1 cc. of 6 N nitric acid to the
flask, and warm rather carefully until a brisk reaction commences.
Then allow the reaction to proceed so that violet vapors fill the
flask, but if iodine starts to escape through the funnel, check the
reaction by dipping the flask for a moment in the cold water.
After the reaction has moderated warm the solution until the
iodine color has disappeared, and then boil it for about 10 minutes
to expel most of the free chlorine. The solution now contains a
considerable quantity of iodic acid in addition to the potassium
iodate. Add a solution of potassium hydroxide until the neutral
point is just reached (test by dipping a stirring rod in the solution
and touching it to litmus paper). Allow the solution to cool,
collect the crystals of potassium iodate, and evaporate the mother
liquor to obtain another crop of crystals. Purify the entire prod-
uct by dissolving it in four times its weight of hot water, cooling,
and collecting the crystals. Dry the product and preserve it in a
2-ounce cork-stoppered bottle.
QUESTIONS
1. Explain the secondary reaction of the foregoing preparation
in which chlorine reacts with iodine.
2. From knowledge of the reactions of chlorine and bromine
predict how iodine would react with a KOH solution. Find from
reference books whether this prediction is borne out by the facts.
PREPARATION 38
IODIC ACID; IODINE PENTOXIDE, I2O5
Iodine pentoxide is a white solid substance that, at ordinary

temperatures, is entirely stable. It cannot be prepared by direct
synthesis from iodine and oxygen, because when cold the elements
combine too slowly, and when heated the compound is unstable.
It may be readily prepared by the direct oxidation of iodine by
means of strong oxidizing agents, such as concentrated nitric acid
or chlorine. One method for the oxidation of iodine has already
been illustrated under the preparation of potassium iodate, but
there the conditions were such that a salt of iodic acid was obtained
rather than the free acid or its anhydride. Starting with this salt,
however, the free acid is obtained by metathetical reactions which
depend on the insolubility of barium iodate and the still greater
insolubility of barium sulphate.
Materials: potassium iodate, KIO 3 , 43 grams = 0.2 F.W.
barium nitrate, Ba(NO 3 ) 2 ,26 grams = 0.1 F.W.
362VH2SO4, 8 c c .
162V H N 0 3
750-cc. casserole,
Bunsen burner.
Procedure: Dissolve the potassium iodate and the barium ni-
trate, separately, each in 250 cc. of hot water, and mix the two
solutions at the boiling temperature while stirring well. Cool the
mixture, let the heavy precipitate settle, decant off the clear liquid,
and wash the salt twice by decantation with pure water. Drain
the barium iodate on a suction filter, and wash it on the filter with
cold water. Then remove it to a porcelain casserole, suspend it in
250 cc. of water, heat to boiling, and stir in a solution of 8 cc.
36 2V H2SO4 in 100 cc. of water. Keep this mixture well stirred at
the boiling temperature for at least 10 minutes, since the conver-
sion of solid barium iodate into solid barium sulphate is a reaction
that requires some time. Filter the solution and rinse the last
of the iodic acid from the solid barium sulphate by washing two
or three times on the filter with small portions of water. Evapo-
rate the solution in a casserole to a small volume, and finally,
holding the casserole in the hand, keep the contents rotating, so
that the whole inside of the dish is continually wet. Continue
evaporating until solid iodic acid separates in some quantity.
Cool completely and rinse the crystals with three successive por-
tions of 10 cc. each of 162V nitric acid, triturating the crystals
thoroughly with each portion of the acid. Warm the casserole
carefully until the product is perfectly dry and ceases to give off
acid vapors. This warming will convert the iodic acid to a large
extent into the anhydride I2O5. Place the iodine pentoxide at
once in a 2-ounce cork-stoppered bottle.
POTASSIUM PERCHLORATE 251
To obtain completely anhydrous iodine pentoxide, the product

could be heated for some time in an oven at about 200°. Crys-
tallized iodic acid could be obtained by dissolving the product
in a very little water, in which it is extremely soluble, and allowing
the solution to evaporate slowly.
QUESTIONS
1. Dissolve a little of the iodine pentoxide in water. Test the
solution to show whether it contains a strong acid. How?
2. Heat 0.5 gram of iodine pentoxide in a dry test tube. Insert
a glowing splinter in the tube. Note whether the entire substance
can be volatilized; also if any of the original substance deposits in
the cooler part of the tube.
PREPARATION 39
POTASSIUM PERCHLORATE, KCIO4
When potassium chlorate is heated to about 400° it may de-
compose according to either of the following independent reactions:
4KC1O3 = KC1 + 3KC1O4 (1)
KCIO3 = KC1 + l i O 2 (2)
The second reaction is accelerated by catalyzers, such as man-
ganese dioxide or ferric oxide, or in fact any material with a rough
surface. Too high a temperature also causes reaction (2) princi-
pally to take place. On the other hand, if the temperature is
maintained at the right point, the salt is free from dirt, and the
inside of the crucible is perfectly clean and free from roughness,
the decomposition proceeds mainly according to reaction (1).
Potassium perchlorate is very sparingly soluble in cold water and
may be separated from potassium chloride and any undecomposed
potassium chlorate by crystallization.
Material: potassium chlorate, KC1O3, 61 grams = 0.5 F.W.
Apparatus: 100-cc. porcelain crucible and cover,
Bunsen burner.
Procedure: Place 61 grams of potassium chlorate in a dry, clean
100-cc. porcelain crucible, the glaze of which is in perfect condition.
Cover the crucible to prevent loss of particles of the salt by de-

crepitation, and heat gently until the charge just melts. Then
remove the cover and keep the melt just hot enough to main-
tain a brisk evolution of oxygen, but do not increase the tem-
perature when the mass shows a tendency to grow solid. At
the end of about 20 minutes the melt should begin to stiffen around
the edges and become more or less pasty or semi-solid throughout;
when this point is reached, let the contents of the crucible cool
completely, then cover it with 200 cc. of water, and let it stand
until it is entirely disintegrated. Collect the undissolved potas-
sium perchlorate on a suction filter and wash it with two successive
portions of 15 cc. of cold water (see Note 5 (a), page 9). Re-
dissolve the salt in hot water (see solubility table) and allow it to
recrystallize. About 30 grams of potassium perchlorate should be
obtained. A few crystals of the product should give no yellow
color (Cl2) when treated with a few drops of 12 N hydrochloric
acid. The product should be entirely free from chloride (test with
silver nitrate).
QUESTIONS
1. Why is manganese dioxide added when oxygen is prepared
by heating potassium chlorate?
2. What is the reaction of hydrochloric acid with hypochlorous,
chloric, and perchloric acids, respectively?
3. What are the four oxy-acids of chlorine? Compare their
stability.
4. To what extent are hydrochloric, hypochlorous, chloric, and
perchloric acids ionized in dilute solution?
5. How could pure perchloric acid be prepared from potassium
perchlorate?
6. What is the solubility of silver chlorate and of silver per-
chlorate? How may preparations of chlorates and perchlorates
be tested for the presence of chlorides?
PREPARATION 40
SODIUM THIOSULPHATE, Na2S2O3-5H2O
Sodium sulphite is a salt of the lower oxide of sulphur, and may
thus be regarded as unsaturated with respect to oxygen; it is, in
fact, capable of slowly absorbing oxygen from the air and thereby
SODIUM THIOSULPHATE 253
going over into sulphate. If it is allowed to react with sulphur,

the latter enters into the compound in much the same way as
oxygen, and i/iiosulphate instead of sulphate is formed. The
sulphur so taken up certainly plays a different function from the
sulphur already contained in the compound, although it is perhaps
a question whether the thiosulphate is exactly the same compound
as sulphate, except that one oxygen atom is replaced by a sulphur.
Sodium sulphite is conveniently prepared by allowing sulphur
dioxide (sulphurous acid) to react with sodium carbonate. It is
practically impossible, however, to distinguish the exact point at
which the normal sulphite (Na2SO3) is formed; therefore it is more
expedient to divide a given amount of sodium carbonate into two
equal parts, to fully saturate one part with sulphur dioxide, where-
by sodium bisulphite, NaHSO 3 , is formed, and to add the other
half of the sodium carbonate, thereby obtaining the normal
sulphite, Na 2 SO 3 .
Materials: anhydrous sodium carbonate, Na2CO3, 106 grams
= 1 F.W.
sulphur dioxide; this gas is most conveniently
drawn from steel cylinders in which liquid
sulphur dioxide is held under pressure. It
can be prepared by the action of copper turn-
ings on 36 N H2SO4.
sulphur (powdered roll sulphur), 48 grams.
Apparatus: two 500-cc. flasks with 2-hole rubber stoppers and
delivery tubes.
600-cc. beaker.
5-inch funnel.
5-inch watch glass,
Bunsen burner.
Procedure: Dissolve 53 grams of the sodium carbonate in 300 cc.
of hot water, and place about five-sixths of the solution in one
flask and the remainder in another flask. Connect these flasks
in series so that sulphur dioxide gas may be passed first into the
larger volume of solution, and what is there unabsorbed may pass
on through the second flask. Pass a vigorous stream of the gas
into the solutions. After a short time a marked frothing occurs

in the first flask, due to the escape of carbon dioxide, and after
this frothing ceases a similar frothing soon commences in the
second flask. When the latter ceases, pass the gas a little while
longer until sulphur dioxide escapes freely from the second bottle.
Then place the solution of sodium bisulphite in a 600-cc. beaker,
and cautiously add the remaining 53 grams of sodium carbonate.
Boil the solution uncovered for 15 minutes, replacing water lost
by evaporation; weigh and record the weight of the sulphur in the
note book; then add the sulphur, cover the beaker with a watch
glass, and keep the mixture gently boiling for an hour and a half
or longer, again replacing all the water boiled off. Filter the
solution without suction. Rinse the residual sulphur onto the
filter with 15 cc. of water, catching the drainings with the filtrate.
Then wash the sulphur, dry it, and weigh it to find whether the
calculated quantity has reacted. Evaporate the filtrate in a
porcelain dish to 200 c c , let it cool to 30°; if any unchanged sodium
sulphite is left it will separate as a crystal meal which is to be
filtered off. Leave the solution uncovered at room temperature
in an 8-inch crystallizing dish until an abundant crop of crystals is
obtained; discard the final 30 cc. of mother liquor. Sodium thio-
sulphate can remain in highly supersaturated solution; it is best
therefore to add some seed crystals to the solution set to crystal-
lize. Wrap the product in paper towels and leave it over night to
dry. Preserve it in an 8-ounce cork-stoppered bottle.
QUESTIONS
1. Dissolve 0.5 gram of the product in 5 cc. of water and add
2 cc. of hydrochloric acid. Observe the odor and the precipitate.
What is the free acid corresponding to the salt, sodium thio-
sulphate? What can be said regarding the stability of this
acid?
2. What is the valence of sulphur in each of the salts: sodium
sulphide, sodium sulphite, and sodium sulphate? State in each
case whether the sulphur plays the part of a positive or negative
element.
3. Distinguish between the parts played by the two atoms of
sulphur in sodium thiosulphate.
4. When sulphur dioxide was passed into the sodium carbonate
EXPERIMENTS 255
solution the following distinct stages in the process were noted:

(a) The gas passed into the solution in distinct bubbles and was
in large part absorbed. (6) Effervescence took place with minute
bubbles arising from every part of the solution, (c) Effervescence
ceased, and the gas entered the solution again in clear, distinct
bubbles, but still it was for the most part absorbed, (d) The gas
passed through the solution in distinct bubbles and was entirely
unabsorbed. Look up the degree of ionization of both hydrogens,
both of sulphurous and carbonic acids. Write equations for the
reactions taking place during each of the stages enumerated
above.
Experiments
The behavior of the halogens with aqueous solutions of bases,
in fact even with seemingly dry bases such as calcium hydroxide
in which a trace of moisture is present, can best be accounted for
when it is taken into account that they hydrolyze extensively.
Thus in chlorine water, that is, water nearly saturated with chlorine
at atmospheric pressure, chlorine comes to equilibrium with its
hydrolysis products HC1 and H0C1 with about two-thirds of the
chlorine present as Cl2 and one-third in the form of equimolal
amounts of HC1 and H0C1.
Cl2 + H2O ^ HC1 + H0C1
A similar condition exists in water solutions of bromine and

iodine except that iodine is much less soluble than either chlorine
or bromine.
1. Hypochlorites. (a) To 10 cc. of freshly prepared
chlorine water, which has a distinct yellow color, add 6N
NaOH until the yellow color has disappeared. Close the test
tube and shake thoroughly, and then note that the odor of
chlorine has also disappeared.
Since two-thirds of the chlorine in chlorine water is in the form

of Cl2, the yellow color is apparent in spite of the fact that one-
third of the total chlorine exists in the form of the colorless com-
pounds HC1 and HOC1. Addition of sufficient base neutralizes
both the acids, upsetting the equilibrium, and the hydrolysis
runs to completion. The salts NaCl and NaOCl are both color-
less.
(6) Stir 5 grams of bleaching powder with 5 cc. of water.

It cannot be seen to dissolve at all. Add 1 cc. of the suspen-
sion to 100 cc. of water, and note that it imparts a cloudiness to
the whole so that it cannot yet be told whether any has dis-
solved. Pour the rest of the undiluted suspension into a
filter and collect the filtrate. To 1 cc. of the filtrate add a
few drops of QN HC1. The color and odor of chlorine are
perceived.
Bleaching powder is prepared by treating slaked lime, Ca(OH) 2 ,
with chlorine, and it is essentially a mixture of equivalent amounts
of calcium chloride, CaCU, and calcium hypochlonte, Ca(OCl)2.
The formula of the solid material is written CaOCU, indicating
the belief that it is not a mixture of two salts, but rather a mixed
salt in which each molecule contains a chloride and a hypochlonte
radical.
Calcium chloride and calcium hypochlonte are both extremely
soluble; but bleaching powder always contains a considerable
excess of calcium hydroxide which has not reacted with the
chlorine, and also a good deal of calcium carbonate. That hypo-
chlorite and chloride dissolve freely out of the bleaching powder is
shown by the action with hydrochloric acid.
2HC1 + Ca(OCl)Cl -»• CaCl 2 + H2O + Cl2
(c) Soak a piece of colored cotton cloth in one-half of the
filtrate obtained in (6). Different colors bleach with varying
ease, but it is probable that this one will decolorize hardly
perceptibly. Remove the cloth with the solution still cling-
ing to it and immerse it in very dilute H2SO4 (1 cc. of 6N acid
to 50 cc. of water). The color now rapidly disappears.
Add 5 cc. of 6 N NaOH to the other half of the filtrate from
the bleaching powder suspension. A voluminous white preci-
pitate is formed. Soak another piece of cloth in this sus-
pension and note that it is not bleached at all.
It is a well-known fact that dry chlorine does not bleach dry

cloth, but that chlorine water bleaches it easily. It is known that
chlorine hydrolyzes (see Preparation 36), and the bleaching is
attributed to the hypochlorous acid, which, on account of its
instability, is a strong oxidizing agent and oxidizes the colored
substance to a colorless one.
EXPERIMENTS 257
The hypochlorite solution contains OCF ions, and the fact that
this solution does not bleach rapidly indicates that the ions are not
the principal bleaching agent. Addition of sulphuric acid pro-
duces un-ionized hypochlorous acid, H+ + OC1~ —• H0C1, the
ionization of this acid in 0.1 N solution being 0.06 per cent. Thus
it is clear that HOC1 must be the principal bleaching agent.
That the hypochlorite solution did bleach the cloth slowly might
have been due to a slow action of the OC1~ ion, or perhaps to a
small amount of HOC1 produced by hydrolysis of the salt, or set
free by the action of carbonic acid from the air. That no bleaching
occurs after adding the NaOH settles this point, because no free
H0C1 can remain in presence of the base.
This experiment shows that the salt of hypochlorous acid is
more stable than the acid itself.
2. Hypobromites. Add a few drops of bromine to 2 cc.
of 6N NaOH diluted with 5 cc. of water. The red color of
the bromine disappears. Dip colored cloth and litmus paper
in this solution and then in dilute H2SO4, to show that it
bleaches in the same way as a hypochlorite solution.
Add a part of the solution to 2 cc. of NH4OH and notice
that there is effervescence, the escaping gas being non-com-
bustible and a non-supporter of combustion (nitrogen). (See
Preparation 19.)
Add the rest of the solution to a solution of 0.25 gram of
urea in 5 cc. of water and notice a similar effervescence.
Hypobromites are very similar in properties to hypochlorites

and oxidize organic coloring substances. Ammonia and urea are
oxidized, even in alkaline solution, by hypobromite,
3NaOBr + 2NH 3 -»3NaBr + 3H 2 O + N 2

3NaOBr + CO(NH 2 ) 2 -»• 3NaBr + CO 2 + 2H2O + N 2
3. Chlorates and Bromates. The formation of chlorate

and bromate by heating hypochlorite and hypobromite, re-
spectively, is illustrated in Preparations 35 and 36. Test-
tube experiments may be tried, adding excess of chlorine and
bromine respectively to hot 6N KOH, boiling a little and
cooling, whereupon the sparingly soluble potassium chlorate
and potassium bromate crystallize out.
4. Bromic and Iodic Acids. To a globule of carbon di-

sulphide in a test tube add a few drops of bromine water until,
after shaking, the globule has assumed a distinct red color.
Add 5 cc. water and then chlorine water, a few drops at a
time, shaking after each addition. The red color bleaches
and finally disappears altogether.
Repeat, substituting iodine for bromine, and note that the
deep violet color, which the free iodine imparts to the globule
of carbon disulphide, is likewise bleached on shaking the glob-
ule with chlorine water.
Recall Experiment 11, page 165, which showed that chlorine
oxidizes bromide and iodide respectively to free bromine and iodine.
The present experiment carries the oxidation still further and raises
the valence of each element to + 5 .
5C12 + Br 2 + 6H 2 O -»• 2HBrO 3 + 10HC1
5C12 + I 2 + 6H 2 O - » 2 H I O 3 + 10HC1
Bromic and iodic acids are colorless; they are very soluble in
water, and highly ionized.
5. Properties of Potassium Chlorate, (a) Heat some
potassium chlorate in a test tube. It melts and soon after-
wards the melted salt effervesces. A glowing splinter thrust
into the gas bursts into flame.
(6) Place a very small crystal of potassium chlorate on a
watch glass, (Danger! use of a larger amount may cause a
violent explosion), place 2 drops of 36 iV H2SC>4 on an adjacent
part of the glass and let it flow until it touches the crystal.
The latter dissolves with effervescence, a deep yellow gas
with a very strong odor somewhat resembling that of chlorine
being formed. Part of this gas dissolves in the sulphuric acid
coloring it a deep brownish yellow.
(c) Add 6 N H2SC>4 to a dilute potassium chlorate solution.
In (c) the ions of chloric acid are brought together and thus a
solution of chloric acid containing also the ions of potassium sul-
phate is obtained. Chloric acid is a soluble, highly ionized acid
of a stability comparable to that of nitric acid.
In (b) chloric acid is formed, but the concentrated sulphuric acid
acts as a dehydrating agent.. The oxide C12O6, which is obviously
EXPERIMENTS 259
the anhydride of chloric acid, however, does not appear; it breaks

down into the oxide C1O2, which is the dark yellow gas, and free
oxygen. Chlorine dioxide is not the anhydride of any known acid,
but it dissolves in water and forms equivalent amounts of chlorous
and chloric acids, in which the valence of chlorine is + 3 and
+ 5 respectively,
2C1O2 + H2O -»HCIO2 + HCIO3
Chlorine dioxide is extremely explosive, and it is very dangerous

to make larger amounts of it than that directed in this experiment.
The instability of the oxy-compounds is further shown in (a) in
which chlorine is reduced from a valence of + 5 to — 1.
6. Reduction of Iodic Acid, (a) Dissolve a little potassium
iodate in water and add some starch paste. No color is ob-
served. Add a little potassium iodide to part of the mixture,
and still no color is observed. Now add an acid, for example,
HNO3, and observe that instantly the solution turns deep
blue.
Iodate and iodide ions alone have no action on each other, but
with hydrogen ions present a mutual oxidation and reduction of the
iodine takes place.
6H+ + 51" + IO 3 " -»• 3H 2 O + 3I 2
No oxidation or reduction of the hydrogen occurs, but the hydro-

gen ion is used up, which explains why the presence of acid is
necessary to make the reaction take place.
(6) Dip filter paper in the rest of the potassium iodate-

starch mixture and suspend it in a bottle containing a little
sulphurous acid. A deep blue color immediately appears in
the paper. If the paper remains in the bottle the blue is very
quickly bleached, leaving the paper white again.
The sulphur dioxide escaping from the solution dissolves in the

water on the paper and the sulphurous acid reduces the iodate to
free iodine which gives the blue color.
H 2 SO 3 + 2KIO 3 -» K 2 SO 3 + 2HIO 3
2HIO 3 + 5H 2 SO 3 -»• 5H2SO4 + H2O + I 2
The iodine is then reduced by more sulphurous acid to hydriodic

acid, which is colorless,
I 2 + H2O + H2SO3 -» H2SO4 + 2HI
7. Sulphur Dioxide. Burn some sulphur in a deflagrating

spoon in a bottle. Note the characteristic odor of the gaseous
product. Lower into the bottle a piece of filter paper soaked
in potassium iodate-starch solution and note the same effects
as in Experiment 6.
Sulphur burns forming sulphur dioxide SO2. The effect with

the potassium iodate-starch paper constitutes a convenient test
for sulphur dioxide.
8. Sulphurous Acid, (a) Bubble sulphur dioxide into a

bottle of water and note that it dissolves freely. The solu-
tion colors litmus red and it conducts electricity fairly well.
(b) Test for Sulphurous Acid. To 5 cc. of sulphurous acid
add 1 cc. of 6N HC1 and 2 cc. of BaCl 2 solution. A small
precipitate or a slight clouding will probably occur at this
point, for the sulphurous acid solution invariably contains
some sulphuric acid if it has stood exposed to the air. Pour
the liquid through a filter; the filtrate may come through
cloudy, in which case pour it repeatedly through the same
filter until it is clear. To this filtrate add bromine and note
that the red color disappears and a white precipitate is formed.
Sulphurous acid is a rather weak acid, and presence of the strong

acid HC1 prevents the formation of SO3~~ ions in sufficient con-
centration to precipitate with B a + + ions. The first precipitate
removes all the sulphuric acid. Then the addition of bromine
oxidizes the sulphurous acid to sulphuric acid and another pre-
cipitate of barium sulphate is produced.
H 2 SO 3 + Br 2 + H2O -»• H2SO4 + 2HBr
9. Reducing Action of Sulphurous Acid. To 5 cc. of

potassium permanganate solution add sulphurous acid. The
deep purple solution becomes colorless.
5H2SO3 + 2KMnO 4 -»• K2SO4 + 2MnSO 4 + 2H2SO4 + 3H 2 O

EXPERIMENTS 261
10. Oxidizing Action of Sulphur Dioxide and Sulphurous

Acid, (a) Fill a 250-cc. wide-mouth bottle with sulphur
dioxide and lower into the gas a burning strip of magnesium
ribbon held by pincers. The magnesium continues to burn
brilliantly, forming the same white smoke as if it burned in
air. There is also noticed a yellowish deposit on the glass
(sulphur).
(6) Pass hydrogen sulphide into a solution of sulphurous
acid. A milky precipitate is formed.
Although sulphur has considerable affinity for oxygen, its
strength in this respect is far less than that of the active metal
magnesium.
In (6) we have another case similar to that in Experiment 6 (a)
in which an element existing in different states of oxidation mu-
tually oxidizes and reduces itself.
H 2 SO 3 + 2H 2 S -»3H 2 O + 3S j
4 + 2(-2) = 0
11. Dehydrating Action of Sulphuric Acid. Add 10 cc. of
36 N H2SO4 to 5 grams of sugar in a porcelain dish. If
necessary warm the mixture a little to start a reaction. Once
started the reaction proceeds vigorously giving off a good deal
of heat, and the sugar swells up and grows black. Finally,
there is left a bulky brittle charcoal-like mass.
The formula of sugar, C12H22O11, shows that it contains hydrogen
and oxygen in the proportion to form water. The affinity of sul-
phuric acid for water is so great that it causes the sugar to decom-
pose so as to yield carbon and water.
12. Oxidizing Action of Sulphuric Acid. In separate test
tubes heat sulphur, charcoal, and copper turnings with 36 N
H2SO4, and hold potassium iodate-starch paper in the mouth
of each tube. In each case the test paper is turned blue.
Concentrated sulphuric acid is an oxidizing agent (cf. Experi-
ments 13 and 14, pages 167-168), it being reduced usually to sul-
phurous acid (SO 2 ).
2H2SO4 + S -^ 3SO2 + 2H 2 O
2H2SO4 + C - • 2SO2 + CO2 + 2H 2 O
{ H2SO4 + Cu -* CuO + SO2 + H2O
I CuO + H2SO4 -» CuSO4 + H2O
This experiment should be compared with Experiments 6 (6),

8 (b), and 9, in which sulphurous acid reduces iodic acid, bromine,
and permanganate, it itself being oxidized to sulphuric acid. The
latter is not an oxidizing agent in dilute solution.
13. Nitric Acid as an Oxidizing Agent, (a) To 3 grams of
copper turnings in a test tube add 5 cc. water and 5 cc. of 6 N
HNO 3 . Fit the stopper with a delivery tube leading to a
trough of water. Heat the test tube a very little to start the
reaction; let the gas go to waste until it appears colorless in the
test tube, then collect a test tube full of it at the water trough.
Note that the gas is colorless and that it is not soluble in the
water. Remove the test tube from the trough, turn it mouth
up, and hold a sheet of white paper behind it; a red gas is seen
where the gas in the tube meets the air. Note the suffocating
odor of this gas.
Non-oxidizing acids have no effect on copper but they dissolve

copper oxide. Dilute nitric acid first oxidizes copper, it itself being
reduced to nitric oxide, 3Cu + 2HNO 3 -»• 3CuO + H2O + 2NO;
before any further oxidation of the copper occurs, the nitric acid
acts as an acid with the copper oxide giving the soluble copper
nitrate, and it is for this reason that we see no direct evidence of
the intermediate reaction. Nitric oxide has the most remarkable
property of combining spontaneously with oxygen at ordinary
temperature, forming the deep reddish brown gas nitrogen dioxide,
NO + §O2 -»• NO 2 .
(6) To 2 grams of granulated zinc in a test tube add 20 cc. of
water and 2 cc. of 6N HN0 3 . Warm the mixture but not
to boiling; then let it stand 5 minutes. Test the solution by
pouring it from the undissolved zinc, adding sodium hydroxide
in excess, and warming, when the odor of ammonia becomes
apparent.
Zinc is a much more powerful reducing agent than copper:
furthermore, zinc displaces from an acid, hydrogen, which, at the
moment of its displacement, is in the atomic or " nascent " condi-
tion, and especially active. Under these conditions the nitrogen
is reduced to its lowest valence, which is shown in ammonia. The
ammonia does not escape from the solution because it combines
with the excess of nitric acid.
EXPERIMENTS 263
4Zn + 8HNO3 -»4Zn(NO 3 ) 2 + 8H

HNO 3 + 8H -»• 3H 2 O + NH 3
N H 3 + HNO3 -> NH4NO3
4Zn + IOHNO3 -»4Zn(NO 3 ) 2 + 3H 2 O + NH 4 NO 3
4Zn 0 to + 2 4 X (+2) = + 8
IN +5 t o - 3 = -8
Total change = 0
Explain how the final step in the experiment is an example of the
displacement of a weak base from its salt by a stronger base and
that it involves no change in the primary valence of any of the
elements.
14. Nitrous Acid, (a) Dissolve 0.5 gram of sodium nitrite
in 5 cc. of ice water and add 1 cc. of cold 6 N H2SC>4. A blue
solution results which at 0° effervesces very slowly. Add a
few drops of this solution to a half test tube of water con-
taining a few drops of iodide-starch solution. An intense
blue color is produced. Add a few drops of sodium nitrite
solution alone, of sulphuric acid alone, and of nitric acid alone
to tubes made up with a similar amount of iodide-starch, and
note that in none of these cases is any color produced. (To
produce no effect the nitric acid must be free from nitrous
acid and it should be taken from a special bottle prepared for
this experiment.)
Allow the rest of the potassium nitrite-sulphuric acid mix-
ture to warm up to room temperature. Note that it effer-
vesces rather strongly, giving off a reddish brown gas, and that
the blue color quickly disappears.
Nitrous acid is of about the same strength as acetic acid, and it
is blue in color. It is formed when its ions are brought together.
It is very unstable, decomposing mainly according to the equation
3HNO 2 -»• H N 0 3 + 2NO + H2O
the NO giving the reddish brown color when it comes in contact
with air. Nitrous acid is an oxidizing agent, liberating iodine
from hydriodic acid,
2HNO 2 + 2HI -> 2H2O + 2NO + I 2
Since nitric acid does not liberate iodine under similar circum-
stances, the nitrous acid is shown to be the more vigorous oxidizing
agent. This is quite in accord with what we have already found

in other cases, namely, that the stability of the acid is greater the
higher the valence of the principal element. It is also seen that
the nitrite ion alone is not the oxidizing agent; the presence of
hydrogen ions is necessary.
(6) Reducing Action of Nitrous Acid. To about 0.1 gram of
sodium nitrite and 100 cc. of cold water in a beaker add 10 cc.
of 6N H2SO4. To this solution add drop by drop with con-
stant stirring 0.1 formal KMnC>4, until the pink color pro-
duced by each drop disappears more and more slowly and
finally 1 drop more produces a permanent pink color.
The permanganate oxidizes the nitrous acid to nitric acid,
5HNO 2 + 2KMnO 4 + 3H2SO4 -»• K2SO4 + 2MnSO 4 +
3H2O + 5HNO 3
The reaction proceeds so sharply to completion, and the intense
color of the permanganate serves as such an excellent indicator,
that it is very easy to estimate the amount of nitrite from the
volume of a solution of KMnO 4 of known strength that it will
decolorize.
GENERAL QUESTIONS VIII

T H E OXY-ACIDS AND SALTS OF THE NON-METALS
1. Make a table, in the first column of which place the formulas

of hypochlorous acid, chlorous acid, chloric acid, perchloric acid,
hypobromous acid, bromic acid, hypoiodous acid, iodic acid, two
per-iodic acids differing in degree of hydration, sulphurous acid,
sulphuric acid, nitrous acid, nitric acid. In the second column
give the valence of the element in the particular acid; in the third
column the formula of the anhydride; in the fourth column the
word gas, liquid, solid, or hyp., according to the state of aggrega-
tion of the anhydride at ordinary temperature, hyp. signifying
hypothetical or non-existent; in the fifth column the percentage
ionization of the acid in 0.1 N solution — if no exact figure can
be found specify whether very weak, weak, or strong.
2. Give the names of the oxides having the formulas N 2 O, NO,
NO 2 , C1O2. Give a brief account of the properties of each, includ-
ing state of aggregation, stability, ability to support combustion,
behavior with water.
GENERAL QUESTIONS VIII 265
3. When an element forms a series of oxy-acids, what rule seems

to hold connecting the valence with the acid strength?
4. Compare the affinity of sulphur dioxide and sulphur trioxide
for water, giving whatever data you can find. Make a similar
comparison of C12O and C12O7, N 2 O 3 and N2OB. Can any general
rule be stated to cover these cases?
CHAPTER I X
ELEMENTS OF GROUP IV OF THE

PERIODIC SYSTEM
This group stands in the middle of the Periodic Table of the

elements, and in it the difference in properties between the elements
of Family A and Family B is at a minimum. Like Group III,
therefore, the whole group is considered under one heading.
The elements of this group which come most to our attention
in everyday life are carbon, silicon, tin, and lead. Carbon and
silicon are the first two members and are exclusively acid-forming
elements, although the acids formed are not strong ones. Tin
and lead are the last two members of Family B and are in the
main base-forming; they are comparable in this respect with the
heavy metals already considered under Groups I and II. In this
group the elements of low atomic weight are exclusively acid-
forming, and the elements of high atomic weight are almost en-
tirely base-forming. Between these extremes there is an almost
regular gradation of properties.
PREPARATION 41
PRECIPITATED SILICA, SiO2
Carbon dioxide and silicon dioxide are chemically very similar
to each other in that both form weak acids, that of silicon, the
heavier element, naturally being the weaker acid. On the other
hand, these oxides are very dissimilar in their physical properties,
one being a gas, and the other a solid with an extremely high
melting point.
The mineral quartz is crystallized silicon dioxide. Sea sand
consists mostly of rounded grains of broken quartz. If finely
ground quartz or sand is fused for a long time with sodium car-
bonate, the weaker, but non-volatile, acid anhydride displaces
the carbon dioxide, and sodium silicate is obtained. This is a
glass-like substance, which, however, can slowly be dissolved by
water heated under pressure. The solution so obtained is evapo-
rated to a sirup-like consistency and is sold on the market under
266
PRECIPITATED SILICA 267
the name of " water glass." Several grades of water glass of differ-
ent ratios Na2O:SiO2 are sold, but perhaps the most common
grade approximates the composition Na2Si4O9 ( = Na2O-4SiO2 =
Na 2 Si0 3 -3Si0 2 ).
The addition of an acid to a sodium silicate solution causes a
separation of silicic acid which appears as a jelly-like substance.
Orthosilicic acid has the composition H^SiC^, metasilicic acid,
H 2 Si0 3 ; the acid corresponding to the sodium salt of the above
formula, H2Si4O9. Suspended in water these different silicic acids
are more or less easily interchangeable one into another, but,
if silicic acid is heated, it loses all its water and becomes the an-
hydride. The anhydride practically will not take on water again
to form acids.
The very finely divided anhydride prepared by precipitating
and drying silicic acid is more reactive than the most finely
powdered quartz, and it finds use as a reagent in certain analytical
tests.
Materials: water-glass, 25 cc.
6.ZVHC1.
12ATHC1.
600-cc. beaker,
hot plate.
Procedure: To 25 cc. of water glass in a porcelain dish add
25 cc. of water and slowly stir in 6N HC1 until the acid is in excess.
The liquid first coagulates to a jelly, then the jelly hardens and
breaks up on stirring into seemingly dry lumps, and later after
an excess of acid is added (about 30 cc. in all) the mass grows
partially fluid again. Place the dish on a water bath or a hot
plate to evaporate to complete dryness. If a hot closet or hot
plate at 130° is available the dish and contents should be baked for
1 hour at this temperature. Otherwise heat the dish over a flame
for 15 minutes, avoiding, if possible, letting any part of the con-
tents get above 150° as this would render traces of iron oxide
very difficult to redissolve in acid. While the dish is still warm
moisten the contents completely with 12 N HC1. Let it digest
for 15 minutes. Wash the contents of the dish into a 600-cc.
beaker and let the silica settle. Wash by decantation several times
268 ELEMENTS OF GROUP IV
and collect the silica on the suction filter, washing it well on the
filter. Dry the product and put it up in a 2-ounce cork-stoppered
bottle.
QUESTIONS
1. Quartz can be melted like glass, but at a much higher
temperature, and many kinds of chemical apparatus are made
of fused quartz. Dishes made of fused quartz are used for boiling
concentrated sulphuric acid. Why cannot they be used equally
well for concentrating caustic alkalies?
2. Mix 0.5 gram of the precipitated silica with 1 gram of pow-
dered calcium fluoride. Place the mixture in a test tube, moisten
it with 36 N H2SO4, and warm it gently under the hood. Dip a
stirring rod in water and lower it, with a drop adhering, into the
gas in the test tube. Note the precipitate that forms in the drop of
water. Write equations for all the reactions, and state what
rather unusual properties are shown by this experiment to be
possessed by hydrofluoric acid and by silicon tetrafluoride.
PREPARATION 42
STANNOUS CHLORIDE, SnCl2-2H2O
This salt can be prepared by the action of hydrochloric acid
upon metallic tin, but since the action is exceedingly slow, it is
hastened by the addition of a very small quantity of nitric acid,
which oxidizes the tin. Nitric acid is ordinarily reduced only to
the oxide NO by its action upon a metal; but in the course of
this preparation no red fumes of oxides of nitrogen are found to
escape, because, under the influence of tin and stannous chloride,
the reduction does not stop at nitric oxide, but continues to the
lowest possible step, which is ammonia or in this case its salt,
ammonium chloride. Stannous salts are oxidized quite readily
to stannic by the oxygen of the air; to prevent this happening
during the evaporation of the solution, an excess of metallic tin is
kept in the liquid.
Materials: feathered tin, 100 grams.

12#HCl,175cc.
6N HNO3, 25 cc.
750-cc. casserole.
STANNOUS CHLORIDE 269
Apparatus: shredded asbestos suspended in water,

Bunsen burner.
Procedure: Place 100 grams of feathered tin in a 750-cc. casse-

role, cover with 175 cc. of 12 iV HC1, and add (at the hood) 25 cc. of
6 N H N 0 3 , a little at a time, during a period of 10 minutes. Then
concentrate the solution, by boiling over a free flame, to a volume
of 90-100 c c , at which point a crystal scum will form on blowing
on the surface of the hot liquid. There should still be left a small
amount of undissolved metal. If at any time during the evapo-
ration all the tin becomes used up, add a little more. Prepare an
asbestos filter (Note 4 (d), page 8), moisten it with concentrated
hydrochloric acid, and filter the concentrated stannous chloride
solution before it has cooled to below 60-70°. Finally, rinse out
the casserole with 15 cc. of concentrated hydrochloric acid and
pour this liquid through the filter, letting it mix with the main
part of the solution. If during the filtration the liquid stops flow-
ing, due to crystals separating in the filter, add 5-10 cc. of boiling
water. Pour the solution into an 8-inch porcelain dish, and
leave it to evaporate slowly at room temperature in a place ex-
posed to the air but protected from dust. (The solubility of
stannous chloride decreases very rapidly with decreasing temper-
ature. Hence it is advantageous to carry out the crystallization
in as cool a place as possible.) When a good crop of crystals has
formed, pour off the liquid into another dish; spread the crystals
on paper towels and allow them to dry. It is to be remembered
that stannous chloride is extremely soluble in water and that the
composition of the mother liquor is not far different from that of
the crystals of SnCl2-2H2O which separate. Heat the remaining
solution carefully just to the boiling temperature, but do not allow
it to boil more than a moment. In this way sufficient water and
hydrochloric acid are expelled to allow another crop of crystals
to form. If too much hydrochloric acid is expelled by the evap-
oration and an indistinctly crystalline precipitate of basic salt
separates on cooling, add a few drops of hydrochloric acid and
redissolve the salt by warming. Set the solution aside to cool and
evaporate, as before, and collect another crop of crystals. By
repeating this process once or twice more, almost the entire mother
liquor should be used up and nearly the calculated yield of stannous
chloride should be obtained.
QUESTIONS
1. Explain why during this preparation no red oxides of nitrogen
are seen to escape in consequence of the reduction of nitric acid
by the metal. If nitric acid is reduced to NH3, show how many
more equivalents of oxygen it will yield for the oxidation of the
tin than if it were reduced only to NO.
To test for the presence of ammonium salt in the product, take
about 1 gram of the crystals; dissolve in 10 cc. of water in a small
beaker. Add sodium hydroxide solution until the precipitate
first formed redissolves. Place over the beaker a watch glass, on
the under side of which is stuck a piece of moistened red litmus
paper. Place some cold water in the hollow of the watch glass,
and warm the solution in the beaker very gently. What observa-
tion will indicate the presence of ammonium salt, and why?
2. Dissolve 1 gram of stannous chloride crystals in 1 to 2 cc. of
cold water. Then add a considerable amount of water. What
is the precipitate? What can be added to prevent its forma-
tion?
3. To a cold solution of stannous chloride add sodium hydroxide
until it has redissolved the precipitate first formed. Write the
equation. Save the solution.
4. Pour the solution saved from Experiment 3 over a little
bismuth hydroxide on a filter paper. (The bismuth hydroxide can
be precipitated for the occasion.) Compare the action with that
of stannous chloride on mercuric chloride.
5. Prepare a very concentrated cold solution of sodium stan-
nite: Dissolve 1 gram of stannous chloride in 1 cc. of water. Dis-
solve a small lump of sodium hydroxide in its own weight of water,
and add this solution, a drop at a time, to the first solution —
cooling all the while under the water tap — until the precipitate
at first formed redissolves. Then heat the solution. Compare
the action with that in Experiment 4.
6. In preparing a solution of stannous chloride for a laboratory
reagent, what is the necessity of adding hydrochloric acid and of
placing a piece of metallic tin in the bottle?
STANNIC SULPHIDE 271
PREPARATION 43
STANNIC SULPHIDE (MOSAIC GOLD), SnS2
Stannic sulphide, SnS2, is the higher sulphide of tin, and can

be prepared by direct combination of the metal or, still better, of
the lower sulphide, SnS, with sulphur. Under ordinary conditions
these two substances will not react at a temperature below that
which will decompose stannic sulphide. If, however, they are
mixed with ammonium chloride the presence of this substance
makes possible the combination at a lower temperature. The
stannic sulphide formed in this way appears as soft, glistening,
yellow crystals. It is used as a bronzing powder, and is known
under the name of mosaic gold. In physical properties it is very
different from the stannic sulphide which can be precipitated by
hydrogen sulphide from a solution of stannic chloride.
Stannous chloride, the raw material, if it is fresh, is completely
soluble in a very little water; with much water it hydrolyzes
somewhat with precipitation of basic stannous chloride, Sn(OH)Cl.
If the stannous chloride is old, it has probably become partially
oxidized to stannic chloride, and the latter extensively hydrolyzed
to insoluble stannic acid H 2 Sn0 3 . A clear solution is therefore not
obtained when the stannous chloride is treated with a large amount
of water. Nevertheless the addition of ammonium sulphide con-
verts all the tin to sulphide, the sulphides being very much less
soluble than the products of the hydrolysis.
Materials: stannous chloride, SnCl 2 -2H 2 0,45 grams = 0.2 F.W.

hydrogen sulphide (Note 13 (c), page 20).
powdered sulphur,
ammonium chloride.

hydrogen sulphide generator.
250-cc. beaker.
5-inch filter.
mortar and pestle.
8-inch test tube, stopper, and glass tube.
6-inch sand bath and sand.
Bunsen burner.
272 ELEMENTS OF GROUP" IV
Procedure: Stannous Sulphide. Place the stannous chloride in

a beaker and treat it with its own weight of water. If it dissolves
completely pour it into a large common bottle and dilute it with
1,500 cc. of hot water. If it does not all dissolve decant the solu-
tion into the bottle, crush any hard lumps with a pestle, and treat
the residue successively with small amounts of water pouring the
easily floatable suspension each time into the bottle. Make up
the volume to 1,500 cc. and, under the hood, pass hydrogen sul-
phide in through a delivery tube leading to the bottom of the bottle.
Continue this treatment until the solution is saturated with the
gas, when, after vigorous shaking, it will smell of hydrogen sul-
phide. Let the precipitate settle, decant off the clear solution
and transfer the sludge on to a gravity filter. Do not wash the
sludge; merely let it drain thoroughly. Without tearing the filter,
remove it from funnel and spread it out on paper towels on the
hot plate. Pulverize the product when it is dry.
Stannic Sulphide. Save 2 grams of stannous sulphide for an
experiment. Grind the rest together with one-half its weight
of sulphur and 0.4 its weight of ammonium chloride. Bring the
mixture into an 8-inch test tube. Close the tube with a stopper
bearing a short piece of glass tube drawn out to a capillary and
bend downward at right angles. The capillary is to relieve any
pressure caused by heating and at the same time prevent outside
air entering the tube during the heating. Lay the tube in a sand
bath pan containing a j-inch layer of sand. Then heap sand over
the part of the tube containing the charge. Heat the sand bath,
first rather moderately for 15 minutes, then for 1 hour so that the
bottom of the iron pan is bright red. Cool, break the tube, sepa-
rate the layer of stannic sulphide from the dirty-colored material
on top, pulverize the product and put it up in a 2-ounce cork-
stoppered bottle.
QUESTIONS
1. Experiment: Treat 0.25 gram powdered stannous sulphide
with sodium sulphide (Na 2 S) solution, warming for about 3 min-
utes. Does the solid dissolve? Then add about 0.1 gram of
powdered sulphur and warm a little longer. Does the stannous
sulphide now go into solution? Write equations and explain how
the sulphur could have caused the stannous sulphide to dissolve.
Finally acidify the solution. What is the precipitate? Equation?
Test portions of this precipitate to see if it will dissolve in
ANHYDROUS STANNIC CHLORIDE 273
62V HC1 — in warm Na2S. Does the mosaic gold dissolve in

these reagents? Can you explain the difference?
2. Write ionized equations for (a) the precipitation of basic
stannous chloride SnOHCl, when a solution of SnCl2 is diluted
with a large amount of water; (6) the conversion of SnOHCl to
SnS when this precipitate is treated with Na 2 S solution.
PKEPABATION 44
ANHYDROUS STANNIC CHLORIDE, SnCl4
Anhydrous stannic chloride, SnCU, is prepared by the action
of dry chlorine gas upon metallic tin. It is a colorless, very
mobile liquid which boils at 114°. At ordinary temperature it
has a considerable vapor pressure, and the vapor, reacting strongly
with the water vapor of the air, gives rise to dense fumes. With
liquid water stannic chloride reacts violently. If a limited amount
of water is added with caution it is possible to obtain solid hydrates
of the composition SnCl4-3H2O, or SnClr5H 2 O. These hydrates
dissolve to form apparently clear solutions, but the salt is very
extensively hydrolyzed, the rather complex hydrolysis products
remaining for the most part in a colloidal condition.
Materials: feathered tin, 119 grams = 1 F.W.
chlorine (from a cylinder or generated from granu-
lar MnO 2 and 122V HC1).
tin foil.
Apparatus: 350-cc. tubulated retort or distilling flask.
five 8-ounce wide-mouth bottles.
chlorine generator (2,000-cc. flask) or cylinder of
liquid chlorine.
36-inch condenser.
250-cc. distilling flask.
150-cc. container for stannic chloride: the neck
must be previously drawn out to a narrow tube
that can be quickly sealed off in blast flame.
delivery tubes, connectors, and rubber stoppers as
in diagram.
tripod.
2 ring stands.
2 iron rings.
clamp and fastener.
2 Bunsen burners.
This preparation is to be attempted only if 4 consecutive
hours are available in the laboratory, and even then, the apparatus
should be assembled at a previous exercise.
Fit up a chlorine generator with a 2,000-cc. flask in which place
33 per cent in excess of the calculated quantity of manganese
dioxide. The gas is to be passed through first one wash bottle
containing water, and then two wash bottles containing concen-
trated sulphuric acid. Place 119 grams of feathered tin in a tubu-
lated retort, and place the retort on a sand bath. The neck of the
retort should pass into a long condenser which should empty
into a 250-cc. distilling flask, in which has been placed some tin
foil. Connect the side-arm of the flask with a bottle containing
sodium hydroxide solution to absorb the waste chlorine. The tube
Chlorine Water
Generator 6-N NaOH
Fro. 24
entering the bottle should not dip into the liquid, but should reach
down to near its surface; a safety tube should be supplied, and
the exit tube should dip into a solution of sodium hydroxide in
another bottle. Into the retort should be fitted the tube supply-
ing chlorine from the generator and wash bottles, and this should
reach nearly to the center of the surface of the tin, which is to be
melted before the action is started. Glass tubing is to be used
throughout, and where connections are made with rubber the
ends of the glass tubes should be brought close together. Before
beginning to generate the chlorine, the whole apparatus must be
proved to be tight, so that none of this gas can escape into the
laboratory.
Procedure: Melt the tin. Commence the generation of chlorine,
and regulate it so that the tin in the retort can be seen to burn
ANHYDROUS STANNIC BROMIDE 275
quietly. Continue the action until all the tin has disappeared
and the tin tetrachloride has been caught in the receiving flask.
Remove the neck of the retort from the condenser, and insert
instead a stopper with a tube leading to the bottles already used
for absorbing waste chlorine. Close the side arm of the receiving
flask and, with the condenser still in the same position, boil the tin
tetrachloride .until it is colorless (it contains a large amount of
dissolved chlorine and, on boiling, this reacts with the tin foil).
Change the position of the flask and condenser, and distil the tin
tetrachloride into the prepared container. During the distillation
this container should not be open to the air, but should be con-
nected by a tube to the absorbing bottles already used. When
the liquid is all distilled, seal the neck of the container at a blast
lamp, so that the preparation can be preserved out of contact
with the air.
QUESTIONS
1. What is the purpose of the wash bottles as arranged for the
chlorine gas?
2. Suggest how hydrated stannic chloride, SnCl4-5H2O, might
be made, starting with stannous chloride.
3. What happens if hydrated stannic chloride is heated? (Com-
pare aluminum chloride and bromide, Preparations 25 and 26.)
PREPARATION 45
ANHYDROUS STANNIC BROMIDE ( T I N TETRABROMIDE), SnBr4
(This preparation must be started at the beginning of the

laboratory period and must be completed the same day. Perform
under the hood.)
There are two series of compounds of tin and the halogens;
those related to stannous oxide, SnO, in which the metal has a
valence of 2 (stannous salts), and those related to stannic oxide,
SnO2, in which it has a valence of 4 (stannic salts). The com-
pounds with lower valence are usually prepared by the action of
the halogen acids on the metal. Stannous chloride, for example,
is formed when hydrochloric acid reacts with tin. Stannic salts,
on the other hand, are prepared by the reaction of tin and the free
halogen. In this preparation stannic bromide results from the
reaction of bromine and tin. The reaction between the two ele-
ments is a vigorous one, and usually it is necessary to cool the

mixture to prevent the loss of bromine. Stannic bromide boils at
a relatively low temperature (203°), and it can be purified by
distillation. Since stannic bromide reacts with water, care
must be taken to exclude moisture during the distillation, and the
product must be preserved in a dry, well-stoppered tube.
Materials: bromine, 12.5 cc. = 40 grams = 0.25 F.W. Br2.

feathered tin, 25 grams.
125-cc. distilling flask,
thermometer, 250°.
Pyrex test tubes,
ring stand,
burette clamp.
Bunsen burner.
Procedure: Place 24 grams of feathered tin in a 125-cc. dis-

tillling flask which has been warmed to expel all moisture. (Save
1 gram of the smallest pieces of tin for use later in the preparation.)
In a 125-cc. separatory funnel place 12.5 cc. of bromine. (Before
pouring the bromine into the separatory funnel, make sure that
the stop cock has been lubricated and that the bore is not ob-
structed.) Insert the stem of the funnel in the neck of the flask.
Regulate the stop cock of the separatory funnel so that the
bromine falls at the rate of 1 or 2 drops a second. Observe the tin
when a drop of bromine first falls on it. If bromine vapor comes
out of the side arm, stop the addition of bromine and immerse the
bulb of the flask a moment in a pan of water.
When all the bromine has been added, shake the flask and allow
it to stand 5 minutes. Then add the gram of tin saved at the
beginning of the preparation and allow it to stand 5 minutes. If
the mixture commences to boil, cool the flask again with water.
When the reaction is apparently complete, replace the separatory
funnel with a 250° thermometer arranged so that the bottom of
the mercury bulb is 1 inch below the side arm of the distilling
flask. Adjust the clamp holding the flask so that the side arm of
the flask dips into a dry test tube. Warm the stannic bromide
in the flask with a very low flame until it begins to boil. Grad-
ually increase the temperature until uncombined bromine has
ANHYDROUS STANNIC BROMIDE 277
been expelled and the liquid begins to distil slowly into the tube.
The first part of the distillate is usually dark colored and boils
around 150°. It should be rejected. Watch the color and boiling
point of the distillate; when it becomes colorless and the tem-
perature reaches 200°, change the receiver to a weighed, dry,
6-inch Pyrex test tube. This should be done without interrupting
the distillation. If the distillation is not too rapid, all the vapor
will condense in the side arm of the flask and the test tube. When
the distillation is complete, immediately stopper the test tube
and allow it to stand in an upright position until the stannic
bromide has crystallized.
The product should be colorless. If a satisfactory result is not
obtained, the stannic bromide may be redistilled from a clean,
dry flask, to which one or two small pieces of tin have been added.
QUESTIONS
In each of the following experiments record your observation
and write an equation.
Make a solution of stannic bromide by mixing in a graduated
cylinder 1 cc. of your preparation of anhydrous stannic bromide,
4 cc. of 6N HC1, and 15 cc. of water. Shake the mixture until
solution is complete. Use this solution for the following tests.
1. (a) To 3 cc. of the solution add a few drops of 6N NaOH.
Then add an excess of NaOH.
(6) To 3 cc. of the solution add a few drops of 6N NaOH.
Then add an excess of 6 N HC1.
(c) Repeat (a) using stannous chloride solution.
(d) Repeat (6) using stannous chloride solution.
2. (a) To 3 cc. of mercuric chloride solution add an equal
volume of the stannic bromide solution.
(6) To 3 cc. of mercuric chloride solution add an equal volume
of stannous chloride, and then 3 cc. more stannous chloride.
Compare the reducing properties of stannous and stannic ions.
3. (a) To 3 cc. of stannic bromide solution add a few drops of
sodium sulphide, and then an excess of sodium sulphide.
(6) To 3 cs. of stannous chloride add a few drops of sodium
sulphide, and then an excess. To the mixture add sodium poly-
sulphide, Na2S:e.
Name the different compounds of tin formed in these reactions.
PREPARATION 46
LEAD NITRATE, Pb(NO3)2
Lead nitrate is one of the most readily prepared salts of lead,
since it is of moderate solubility and can be obtained in well-
formed anhydrous crystals, Pb(NO3)2. In it lead appears in its
usual state of oxidation, which corresponds to that of the oxide
PbO; indeed, the salt is actually prepared by treating this oxide
(litharge) with nitric acid.
A saturated solution contains for each 100 grams of water the given
number of grams of lead nitrate
Temperature. 0° 10° 18° 25° 50° 100°

Pb(NO3)2.... 36 44 51 56 79 127
Materials: litharge, P b O , 56 grams = 0.25 F . W .

6 N nitric acid.
Bunsen burner.
Procedure: T a k e 56 grams, or 0.25 F . W . , of litharge, P b O . Cal-

culate t h e a m o u n t of 6 N nitric acid which would be necessary t o
convert it into lead n i t r a t e a n d the a m o u n t of water needed to dis-
solve t h e salt t h u s formed. Proceed t o prepare lead nitrate,
striving to obtain good crystals of as large a size as possible.
T h e solution which is set to crystallize should be slightly acid —
enough to redden litmus. If insufficient nitric acid was used, the
excess of P b O would h a v e dissolved somewhat in t h e hot con-
centrated P b ( N O 3 ) 2 solution forming t h e basic salt P b O H N O 3
which would separate as a fine granular or flaky precipitate when
t h e solution cooled.
QUESTIONS
1. Explain w h y lead n i t r a t e should be less soluble in dilute
nitric acid t h a n in p u r e water.
2. Add a few drops of a m m o n i u m hydroxide t o 1 cc. of lead
LEAD DIOXIDE 279
nitrate solution. Then add an excess of the reagent. Repeat,

using sodium hydroxide instead of ammonium hydroxide. Write
equations and explain the amphoteric character of lead hydroxide.
3. Are lead salts (nitrate or chloride) appreciably hydrolyzed
in aqueous solution? Compare the basic strength of the hydroxide
of divalent lead with that of aluminum hydroxide.
4. Precipitate a little lead chloride by adding hydrochloric acid
to a solution of lead nitrate. Describe its properties and compare
them with those of lead tetrachloride (reference books). To what
oxide of lead does lead tetrachloride correspond?
PREPARATION 47
LEAD DIOXIDE, PbO2
The compounds of lead in which its valence is 2 are the most
stable, but with strong oxidizing agents the valence may be raised
to 4. The oxide PbO 2 is very much less basic than the lower
oxide, and, furthermore, it is very insoluble — either the anhy-
drous oxide or its hydrated forms, Pb(0H)4 or PbO(OH) 2 . The
effect usually observed when a salt of divalent lead is oxidized is
a precipitation of dark brown lead dioxide. This precipitate can
be obtained by oxidizing an alkaline solution containing a lead
salt with chlorine, but it cannot be obtained in an acid solution
with this oxidizing agent because hydrochloric acid reduces lead
dioxide (see Experiments 10 and 6, Chapter IV, pages 162 and
164). In an acid solution containing no reducing agent, that is
in a nitric acid or a sulphuric acid solution, lead dioxide can be
formed by the action of a very strong oxidizing agent, as for
example,^ by the electrolytic oxidizing action at the anode of a
lead storage battery. It is to be noted that nitric acid does not
oxidize lead to the tetravalent condition.
In this preparation we shall make use of bleaching powder in
a slightly alkaline solution as the oxidizing agent. This is chosen
in preference to chlorine because it is easier to handle and no
precautions need be taken to avoid escape of objectionable chlorine
into the laboratory. It should be recalled that the effect of bleach-
ing powder is the same as that which would be obtained by passing
chlorine into an alkali. The precipitate finally obtained after
the bleaching powder has acted contains the greater part of the
lead in the form of lead dioxide; but it may also contain a small
residue of unoxidized lead, as Pb(OH) 2 , as well as calcium hydrox-

ide and calcium carbonate from the bleaching powder. By
treating this precipitate with nitric acid everything except the lead
dioxide is dissolved or decomposed, and practically pure lead diox-
ide remains.
The packages of bleaching powder are labeled with the percent-
age of available chlorine. This is the percentage by weight of
chlorine which would be given off if the material were treated with
dilute H2SO4.
CaOCl 2 + H2SO4 -» CaSO* + H2O + Cl2
It is to be noted that bleaching powder may contain unavailable
chlorine (e.g., CaCU). Calculate the weight of bleaching powder
with the given content of available chlorine (assume 30 per cent
if the package is not marked) that would be required to oxidize
the lead acetate used for this preparation. The so-called high-
test hypochlorite, Ca(OCl) 2 , which has recently become avail-
able in the chemical market, may be used in place of bleaching
powder.
Materials: lead acetate, Pb(C 2 H 3 O 2 ) 2 -3H 2 O, 95 grams = 0.25
F.W.
sodium hydroxide, NaOH, 25 grams,
bleaching powder containing 30 per cent available
chlorine, 66 grams, or calcium hypochlorite,
40 grams.
6iVHNO 3 ,250cc.
mortar and pestle,
Bunsen burner.
Procedure: Dissolve the lead acetate in 200 cc. of cold water in

the 8-inch porcelain dish; add a solution of the sodium hydroxide
in 100 cc. of water, stirring well, and into the mixture, which should
not be warmer than 30°, stir a paste made by rubbing 66 grams of
bleaching powder or 40 grams of calcium hypochlorite in a mortar
with a little water. Warm the mixture slowly to the boiling
BED LEAD 281
temperature, stirring frequently, and finally boil it for 30 min-

utes, replacing water lost by evaporation. Transfer the con-
tents of the dish to a 2-liter common bottle and wash the
sludge by decantation with cold water (see Note 5 (6), page
10) until over 99 per cent of the soluble chloride is removed.
Then transfer the sludge again to the dish, add 250 cc. of &N
HN0 3 , and boil it for 10 minutes. Wash the residue of lead
dioxide by decantation until the wash water is no longer acid;
transfer the product to a filter and let it drain without suction
(Note 4 (c), page 7). After the lead dioxide has drained, remove
the filter and contents carefully from the funnel, unfold the filter,
and spread it on paper towels on the steam table to dry. When
completely dry, detach the lumps of lead dioxide from the paper,
and pulverize them in a mortar. Put up the product in a 2-ounce
QUESTIONS
1. Why could not lead dioxide be prepared equally well by
treating a solution of lead chloride with chlorine?
2. Compare the reaction of lead dioxide and of lead monoxide
with hydrochloric acid.
3. Compare the action of lead dioxide with that of manganese
dioxide upon hydrochloric acid.
4. Why should not lead dioxide and manganese dioxide dissolve
in dilute nitric acid as well as in hydrochloric acid?
PREPARATION 48
R E D LEAD, Pb3O4
Of the oxides of lead, the monoxide PbO is the most stable when
heated to a high temperature, and in fact all the other oxides
are converted into this one when they are heated strongly in con-
tact with the air. At a moderate heat, however, the monoxide
is capable of taking on more oxygen from the air until the com-
position approximates that of the formula Pb3O4. This substance
is not to be regarded as a simple oxide of lead, but rather as a
compound of PbO and PbO 2 , in which the monoxide is the basic
component and the dioxide the acidic. It may thus be regarded
as the salt, lead orthoplumbate, 2PbO-PbO 2 = Pb 2 (Pb0 4 ). This
view is strengthened by the behavior of the substance when treated

with nitric acid — part of the lead dissolves to give lead nitrate,
while the other part is left as lead dioxide,
Pb 2 (Pb0 4 ) + 4HNO 3 ^ 2 P b ( N O 3 ) 2 + H 4 (Pb0 4 )
»PbO 2 + 2H 2 O
The following procedures should yield a product of nearly the
composition Pb3C>4. This substance, under the commercial name
of minium, finds use as a red pigment.
DRY METHOD
Material: lead monoxide (massicot), PbO, 25 grams.

Apparatus: iron or aluminum plate 2-4 mm. thick,
ring burner,
iron spatula.
Procedure: Spread 25 grams of lead monoxide in a thin layer
on an iron or aluminum plate 2-4 mm. thick. Either use the
variety of lead oxide which has not been fused and is known under
the name of massicot, or use lead carbonate, which on being heated
yields a very pure and finely divided lead monoxide. Heat the
lead oxide over a ring burner so adjusted that the flames do not
quite touch the metal plate. The plate must be kept just below
a perceptible red heat. Continue the heating for 6 hours or more
and turn over the powder frequently with an iron spatula. When
the change is complete, the product is dark brown when hot, a
bright scarlet-red when partly cooled, and a somewhat less brilliant
red when entirely cold.
W E T METHOD
Materials: lead monoxide (litharge) PbO, 33 grams = 0.15

F.W.
lead dioxide PbO 2 ,24 grams = 0.1 F.W.
6iVNaOH.
5-inch funnel.
150-cc. casserole,
Bunsen burner,
CERIC OXIDE FROM CEROUS OXALATE 283
Procedure: It is rather difficult to adjust the temperature suc-

cessfully for the dry method. Place 33 grams litharge, 24 grams
of lead dioxide and 50 cc. of 6 N NaOH in a 600-cc. beaker. Stir
thoroughly and leave in a warm place (80°), striring when conven-
ient and adding water whenever the mass becomes dry, until the
contents have become bright red. Finally wash the red lead thor-
oughly by decantation, and rinse on to a gravity filter in a 5-inch
funnel. Let it drain over night. Lift the filter intact from the
funnel, open it out on paper towels, and leave it on the hot plate
until it is entirely dry. Detach the red lead from the paper by
bending the paper; transfer the dry material to a 150-cc. casserole
and heat it in a flame about 2 inches high, holding the casserole in
the hand and rotating it in the flame. At the correct temperature
(350-400°) the material becomes a dark reddish brown; after cool-
ing it is a much more brilliant red than before heating. Great
care must be taken to keep the material stirred during the heat-
ing so that the under layers do not become superheated and
changed to PbO. Preserve the preparation in a 2-ounce cork-
stoppered bottle.
QUESTIONS
1. If it is assumed that Pb2C>3 and PbgO* are lead metaplumbate
and lead orthoplumbate, respectively, write formulas to express
these facts. Write the formulas of the corresponding meta- and
orthoplumbic acids.
2. Warm a little of the red lead with nitric acid. What is the
residue, and what soluble salt is formed? Filter the mixture and
test the filtrate by diluting and adding a few drops of sulphuric
acid.
3. Heat a little of the red lead to a dull red heat on a thin piece
of iron.
PREPARATION 49
CERIC OXIDE FROM CEROUS OXALATE, CeO2
Cerous oxalate, Ce2(C2O4)3-10H2O, is formed in the Welsbach

treatment of Monazite sands in the production of thorium nitrate,
and is the starting point in the preparation of nearly all cerium
salts. Since ceric oxide is more easily acted upon by common
reagents, it is often prepared as the first step in making other
salts from the oxalate.
If cerous oxalate is strongly heated in air, the water of crystal-

lization is first driven off, then the cerous oxalate decomposes into
cerous oxide and oxides of carbon. The cerous oxide is oxidized
by the oxygen in the air to eerie oxide.
Material: Cerous oxalate, Ce2(C2O4)3-10H2O,72.5 grams = 0.1
F.W.
Apparatus: 6-inch iron sand bath,
Bunsen burner.
Procedure: Pour the cerous oxalate into the clean iron sand bath.
Support the pan on an iron ring and heat with a long blue flame
with no cone. The flame should be long enough to be in contact
with all parts of the pan, but it should not appear above the rim.
The solid should be stirred frequently to insure complete decompo-
sition. When the solid is no longer white, the temperature should
be increased and the pan heated for 10-15 minutes with a hot flame.
Cool, weigh the pan plus the solid, and heat again until the weight
is approximately constant. Put the product in an 8-ounce cork-
stoppered bottle.
QUESTIONS
1. Pour 4-5 cc. concentrated hydrochloric acid on 0.5 gram of
the product. Equation?
2. Heat 0.5 gram of the product in a test tube with 5 cc. con-
centrated nitric acid. Equation? To what is the color due?
PREPARATION 50
CEROUS OXALATE, Ce2(C2O4)3- 10H2O
In the quantitative determination of cerium, use is made of
the fact that cerous oxalate is insoluble in neutral and acid solu-
tion. Since a quantitative yield is not necessary in this prepara-
tion, some of the cerium is sacrificed to insure complete removal
of any iron that may be present. In order to have a neutral
solution for the hydrolysis of the iron, a slight excess of eerie
oxide is used.
From the discussion of the preparation of eerie oxide it is evi-
dent that the cerous oxide, Ce2O3, which would be the direct
CEROUS OXALATE 285
product of the decomposition, of cerous oxalate, is readily oxidized

by the oxygen of the air to eerie oxide, CeO2. In contact with
the air therefore eerie oxide is the stable oxide. The salts of
eerie oxide, however, are in general not stable and go over rather
easily to cerous salts. This is particularly true of eerie chloride,
CeCU, which decomposes spontaneously into cerous chloride,
CeCl3, and free chlorine.
Materials: Crude CeO 2 ,22.2 grams = 0.1 F.W. + 5 grams.
12iVHCl,34cc. = 0.4 F.W.
oxalic acid, H2C2O4-2H2O, 20 grams.
3 N sodium carbonate,
ammonium oxalate solution.
300-cc. flask.
. 5-inch funnel.
400-cc. beaker,
Bunsen burner.
Procedure: Dilute 34 cc. of 12N HC1 to 50 cc. and pour it into

the 300-cc. flask. Add the eerie oxide under a hood. Warm
gently until the reaction starts. Stop heating until the reaction
slows down, then heat cautiously to boiling and keep at that tem-
perature for 5 minutes. Cool; filter without suction directly into
the large bottle. Dilute to 700 cc. The iron is now to be pre-
cipitated as Fe(OH) 3 . Add 5 cc. of 3 N Na 2 CO 3 . If the precipi-
tate is light colored, showing that it consists in the main of white
cerous carbonate, no more Na 2 CO 3 need be added, otherwise add
3-cc. portions of this reagent until the new precipitate shows no
brownish color of ferric hydroxide (best let the precipitate settle
and pour some of the nearly clear liquid into a beaker in order
that the color may be observed when the reagent is added).
Stir the whole suspension in the bottle and let it settle. Decant
the clear liquid through the filter directly into an 8-inch evap-
orating dish, finally pouring the sludge on to the filter and letting
it drain. Add 5 cc. of 12N HC1 to the filtrate; boil down to
75-100 cc. Pour into the beaker. Dissolve the oxalic acid in
50 cc. of boiling water, filter if necessary, and pour into the hot
solution of cerous chloride while stirring. Boil for 1 minute,
filter hot, using suction. Wash the precipitate on the filter with
two successive 10-cc. portions of ammonium oxalate solution.
Dry on paper towels, weigh, and put up in a 2-ounce cork-stop-
pered bottle.
QUESTIONS
1. Explain at what point in the preparation and how the eerie
compound was reduced to cerous.
2. Explain how the separation of iron depends on the difference
in the extent to which ferric and cerous salts hydrolyze. Which
is more basic, Fe(OH) 3 or Ce(OH) 3 ?
PREPARATION 51
CEROUS CHLORIDE, CeCl3-7H2O
Ceric oxide dissolves in hydrochloric acid, forming cerous
chloride and evolving chlorine. (Read the discussion of Prepara-
tion 50.) The cerous chloride hydrolyzes to only a slight extent
in neutral solution. By evaporating and cooling the solution,
crystals of CeCl3-7H2O may be separated if hydrolysis is prevented.
A saturated solution at room temperature contains 128 grams of
CeCl3-7H2O in 100 cc. of solution, and the solubility increases
rapidly with rise in temperature. The salt is soluble in its own
water of crystallization at a temperature below the boiling point.
Materials: CeO2, 48 grams = 0.25 F.W. + 5 grams.
12ATHCl,84cc. = 1F.W.
sodium carbonate, anhydrous.
500-cc. flask.
5-inch funnel.
5-inch watch glass,
Bunsen burner.
Procedure: Dilute 84 cc. of 12 N HC1 to 125 cc. and pour it into
the 500-cc. flask. Add the ceric oxide under a hood. Warm
EXPERIMENTS 287
gently until the reaction starts. Stop heating until the reaction
slows down, then heat cautiously to boiling, and keep at that tem-
perature for 5 minutes. Cool, filter without suction into the 2-
liter bottle. To remove iron from the solution proceed according
to the same principle as in the preparation of cerous oxalate.
Prepare cerous carbonate by adding an excess, about 5 grams,
Na 2 CO 3 to one-tenth of the cerous chloride solution. Wash the
cerous carbonate by decantation (see Note 5 (6), page 10) until
the soluble sodium chloride is completely removed. Add the
cerous carbonate suspension to the main part of the cerous chloride
solution; digest with frequent stirring for 15 minutes or longer.
Remove the ferric hydroxide and excess cerous carbonate by
filtering, add 5 cc. 12 N HC1 to the filtrate, and evaporate in
the 8-inch porcelain dish to 70 cc. Pour into a small crystallizing
dish, cover with a 5-inch watch glass, cool slowly. Remove the
crystals; dry them on a watch glass. Allow the solution to
evaporate in an uncovered dish to obtain an additional crop of
crystals. Put up the product in an 8-ounce cork-stoppered bottle.
QUESTIONS
Answer the questions under Cerous Oxalate.
Experiments
1. Carbon Dioxide. From a generator (Note 13 (a), page
18) fill with carbon dioxide several test tubes inverted in a
pan of water, and use them in the following experiments.
(a) Place the thumb over the mouth of a test tube of
carbon dioxide and transfer it to a beaker of freshly drawn
water. Clamp it in position and note the level of the water
at intervals of about 15 minutes.
(b) Stick a gummed label on a second test tube of the gas,
and make a light pencil mark at the middle point of the
length of the tube. Place the thumb over the mouth of this
tube, remove it from the water, and turn it upright. Draw
some fresh water from the tap, and, removing the thumb
sufficiently, pour water into the tube until the level stands
at the pencil mark. Close the tube again tightly with the
thumb, invert the tube, and place a heavy mark at the level
of the surface of the water, calling this mark 1 (it will of course
nearly if not quite coincide with the light mark). Shake

the tube vigorously for 60 seconds, then place the mouth
of the tube under water in the pan, remove the thumb, and
mark the level to which the water rises, calling this mark 2.
Now measure with a graduate, first, the volume between the
closed end of the tube and mark 1, thus giving the volume
of carbon dioxide taken; second, the volume between marks
1 and 2, thus giving the volume of carbon dioxide, measured
under atmospheric pressure, dissolved by the water; third,
the volume between mark 1 and the open end of the tube,
thus giving the volume of water in which the carbon dioxide
was dissolved. Take the temperature of the water in the
pan. The undissolved gas was under a pressure less than
atmospheric just before the thumb was removed from the
end of the tube. Calculate this pressure according to Boyle's
law from the volume. Then calculate the volume of carbon
dioxide that would be dissolved at the temperature of the
experiment in 1 volume of water if the gas were at atmos-
pheric pressure, applying Henry's law that the quantity of
a gas dissolved in a liquid is proportional to the pressure.
At 15° 1 volume of water will dissolve 1 volume of carbon

dioxide under 1 atmosphere pressure.
(c) Take a third tube of the gas, introduce 5 cc. of IN
NaOH, and shake as in (6). Note that except for a small
bubble, which is doubtless air introduced when the NaOH was
poured in, the gas is entirely dissolved by the solution.
The carbonic acid, which in (6) comes to equilibrium with the

carbon dioxide in the gas phase, is in this experiment neutralized
by the base,
H 2 CO 3 + 2NaOH -»• Na 2 CO 3 + 2H 2 O
and since 5 cc. of 1 N NaOH reacts, according to the equation, with
carbonic acid equivalent to 56 cc. of carbon dioxide, all the gas
is dissolved.
(d) Repeat (c) using 5 cc. of liV Na 2 CO 3 instead of
NaOH. Note that the gas is nearly if not all dissolved. If
the experiment is repeated and the shaking is continued for
a longer time the gas is entirely dissolved.
EXPERIMENTS 289
According to the equation, Na 2 CO 3 + H 2 CO 3 —• 2NaHCO 3 ,

56 cc. of carbon dioxide should be dissolved in this experiment.
(e) Repeat (c) using 10 cc. of lime water (saturated
Ca(OH) 2 solution) instead'of 5 cc. of 12V NaOH. Note
the appearance of the solution during and after the absorption.
Write equation to account for this appearance. What volume

of CO 2 should 10 cc. of saturated Ca(OH) 2 be able to absorb (the
Ca(0H) 2 is 0.02 molal) if (1) CaCO 3 is formed, (2) Ca(HCO 3 ) 2 is
formed?
(/) Bubble carbon dioxide slowly into a test tube of lime
water. A white precipitate forms at once but very soon
redissolves and the solution then remains clear.
As long as the base is in excess both stages of the ionization

of carbonic acid can proceed to completion because of the re-
moval of H+ ions (see Ionization of Polybasic Acids, Chapter III,
page 116),
Ca++ 2OH"
H2CO3^H+ + HCO3-^CO3-- 2H+
1 1
CaCO 3 I 2H 2 O
but, as soon as the carbon dioxide is in excess, the concentration
of H+ ions from the first hydrogen of the carbonic acid is greater
than can exist in equilibrium with the CO3~~ ions in a saturated
solution of calcium carbonate; hence the carbonate ions are re-
moved progressively and the solid continues to dissolve until the
solution is again clear.
CaCO 3 -» Ca++ CO,"
H 2 CO 3 ^ HCO," H+
1
HCO 3 "
The components boxed in by the dotted lines represent the ionized

salt calcium bicarbonate present in the final solution.
2. Combustibility of Carbon Compounds. Place succes-
sively a few drops of gasoline, carbon disulphide (CS 2 ), carbon
tetrachloride (CCI4), and chloroform in a porcelain dish and
apply a lighted match.
Make mixtures of gasoline and carbon tetrachloride in the

proportion of 5 cc. and 1 cc.; 4 cc. and 2 cc.; 3 cc. and 3 cc.;
2 cc. and 4 c c ; 1 cc. and 5 c c , and under the hood apply a
lighted match to each. If the mixture does not at once catch
fire, heat it to its boiling point, and try again.
Place 1 cc. of gasoline and 5 cc. of water in the dish and
apply a lighted match.
Gasoline is a mixture of hydrocarbons, that is compounds of

carbon and hydrogen, of which hexane C 6 H H , heptane C7II16,
and octane CsHis, are the principal ones. Gasoline and carbon
disulphide are very combustible. Carbon tetrachloride and
chloroform do not burn.
Carbon tetrachloride and gasoline are mutually soluble in each
other in all proportions. The vapor pressure of gasoline is lowered
by the admixture, and furthermore the vapor that escapes is mixed
with non-combustible carbon tetrachloride vapor; it is thus
understandable that the combustibility of gasoline is lessened by
large admixture with this substance.
Gasoline and water do not mix, but the former will float in a
layer over the latter; water is of little effect in extinguishing a
gasoline fire.
3. Carbon Monoxide. Place a plug of shredded asbestos

loosely 2 inches from one end of a combustion tube. Fill
the tube with granulated (not powdered) charcoal for a
length of about 4 inches, and insert another plug of asbestos.
Join this tube to a carbon dioxide generator, and let the gas
flow until air is completely expelled from the apparatus.
Draw out the end of a delivery tube to a fine capillary in order
that it may deliver very small bubbles of gas, and connect
this by means of a rubber tube with the other end of the tube
containing the charcoal. Place a little 6N NaOH in a shal-
low dish; fill a test tube with the same solution, and invert
the tube in the solution in the dish. Have the generator de-
livering a very slow stream of carbon dioxide, and insert the
delivery tube under the mouth of the test tube. The carbon
dioxide should be completely absorbed in rising through the
NaOH solution. If it is not, it must not be delivered so
rapidly by the generator. Now heat the charcoal as hot as
EXPERIMENTS 291
possible, using the flame spreader, and note if now any gas
issues from the delivery tube which is not absorbed by the
NaOH. Test the gas for its combustibility.
Carbon dioxide is reduced by hot carbon to carbon monoxide

which is not an acidic oxide because it does not react with the base.
Carbon monoxide is combustible.
4. Carbides, (a) The aluminum nitride made in Prepa-
ration 13 contains a considerable amount of carbide AI4C3.
Treat some of this product, or some commercial aluminum
carbide, with 6 N NaOH in a test tube with a delivery tube.
Collect some of the gas over water, which will dissolve all the
ammonia. Test the combustibility of this gas and find that
it burns with a nearly colorless flame.
(6) Drop a little calcium carbide, CaC 2 , into water in a test
tube; note that a gas is evolved and that this gas will burn
with an intensely luminous and very smoky flame.
Nearly all the metals form carbides which will hydrolyze more
or less readily. The hydrolysis products of aluminum carbide are
methane and aluminum hydroxide
A14C3 + 12H2O ->4A1(OH) 3 + 3CH 4
from which it is concluded that in aluminum carbide the carbon
is acting as a simple negative radical with a valence of 4. Note
that the maximum negative valence of carbon is 4 as well as the
maximum positive valence (in CO2) and the arithmetical sum of
the maximum positive and negative valences is 8. No element
is known for which this sum exceeds 8, and, with a large number,
the value of 8 is equaled.
The hydrolysis product of calcium carbide is acetylene
CaC 2 + 2H 2 O -» Ca(OH) 2 + C 2 H 2
The weight of 22.4 liters of acetylene is 26 grams, which is equal
to the formula weight of C 2 H 2 . It thus appears that there is
present in calcium carbide the complex carbon radical C 2 with a
negative valence of 2 for the whole radical.
5. Silicon Dioxide and Silicic Acid, (a) Wet a little silicon
dioxide (very finely powdered quartz, or better the product
of Preparation 41), test with litmus, and note that litmus is not
affected. Add Na 2 CO 3 solution and warm gently, noting

that there is no effervescence.
(6) Collect a little of a mixture of anhydrous potassium
carbonate and sodium carbonate (the mixture melts more
easily than either salt alone) in a loop on the end of a platinum
wire and melt it in the Bunsen flame to a clear bead. Dip
the bead into powdered silicon dioxide and melt it again.
Note that the liquid bead effervesces until the silica has dis-
solved.
(c) Dilute 5 cc. of water glass, sodium silicate solution,
with 5 cc. of water in a beaker, and add 6 N HC1, drop by drop,
with stirring, noting that the solution coagulates to a stiff,
apparently dry jelly.
Repeat, diluting 5 cc. of water glass with 100 cc. of water
and noting that coagulation does not take place on acidify-
ing.
Silicon dioxide is the anhydride of silicic acid, but when it is

entirely dehydrated its action with water is almost imperceptible.
It does not react with a solution of the salt of the weak carbonic
acid. Silicic acid is in fact a far weaker acid than carbonic.
With melted sodium carbonate, however, silicon dioxide reacts,
SiO2 + Na 2 CO 3 —> Na 2 Si0 3 + CO2 | , but this does not necessarily
show that silicon dioxide is more strongly acidic than carbon di-
oxide; the effect is due rather to the greater volatility of the carbon
dioxide. Water glass is obtained by dissolving the sodium silicate
melt in hot water under pressure. From it ordinary acids dis-
place the weak silicic acid in colloidal form. This colloidal silicic
acid appears as a jelly in concentrated solutions. In dilute solu-
tion it remains dispersed so that its formation is not apparent.
When the colloidal silicic acid is heated it is changed to the anhy-
dride, which will not again take up water.
6. Hydrolysis of Stannous Salts. Dissolve 0.5 gram crys-

tallized SnCl2-2H2O in a few drops of water. A clear solution
can be obtained if the preparation is fresh. Dilute the solu-
tion with water and note the white precipitate. Add a little
HC1 and note that the precipitate redissolves.
Stannous salts in which tin displays the lower valence of 2

are derivatives of the hydroxide Sn(OH) 2 . That salts, such as
EXPERIMENTS 293
the chloride, nitrate, and sulphate, can exist in solution indicates

that stannous hydroxide is basic; but that the salts hydrolyze
very easily, with precipitation of basic salt, SnCl2 + H2O ;=±
SnOHCl I + HC1, indicates that the base is a weak one.
7. Reducing Action of Stannous Salts, (a) Add SnCl2
solution drop by drop, to 2 cc. of HgCl 2 solution diluted with
10 cc. of water. Notice the white precipitate which turns
gray and then black with more of the reagent.
(6) To 2 cc. FeCl 3 solution diluted with 10 cc. of water
add SnCl2 until the solution appears colorless. Then test
for ferric ions by adding KSCN to a part and note that there
is no red color. Test for ferrous ions by adding a freshly pre-
pared solution of K 3 Fe(CN) 6 , and note the deep blue pre-
cipitate.
Tin has a marked tendency to develop the valence 4 character-
istic of the group, and in consequence stannous compounds are
strong reducing agents.
SnCl2 + 2 H g C l 2 ^ SnCL, + 2HgCl j
SnCl 2 + 2HgCl -»• SnCLt + 2Hg |
SnCl2 + 2FeCl 3 -»• SnCl4 + 2FeCl 2
8. Lead Salts, (a) Dissolve a little pure crystallized lead
nitrate in water and test with litmus noting that it is not
affected. Dilute the solution and note that there is no
precipitate of basic salt.
(6) Moisten some litharge (PbO) with water and test with
litmus, noting that the litmus is turned blue. Boil the litharge
a few minutes with 10 cc. of water, filter, and add hydro-
gen sulphide solution to the nitrate, noting a little black
precipitate.
That lead monoxide is soluble enough to give a precipitate of

lead sulphide and that the solution is alkaline enough to color
litmus blue marks it as exceptionally basic for a heavy-metal
oxide. The absence of hydrolysis of the lead salts is a further
evidence of the distinctly basic character of Pb(OH) 2 .
9. Amphoteric Character of the Hydroxides of Tin and
Lead. Dilute 2 cc. of 1 N SnCl2 with 10 cc. of water. From
a 10-cc. graduate add QN NaOH, noting the amount required
to produce the maximum precipitate and again the amount

necessary to redissolve the precipitate.
Repeat using 2 cc. of IN Pb(NO 3 ) 2 instead of SnCl2 and
note that a very much larger volume of the NaOH is necessary
to redissolve the precipitate.
Pb(OH) 2 is much more basic than Sn(OH) 2 ; it is correspond-

ingly more weakly acidic, as is shown by the greater excess of base
required to convert it to the soluble salt.
H 2 Sn0 2 + 2Na0H -» Na 2 Sn0 2 + 2H 2 O
H 2 Pb0 2 + 2Na0H -»• Na 2 Pb0 2 + 2H2O
Sodium stannite and sodium plumbite both hydrolyze easily but

the latter much more so, consequently the greater amount of base
to overcome its tendency to hydrolyze.
10. Stannic Acid. Heat 0.5 gram of tin in a casserole with
a little 16 N H N 0 3 . Note that red gases are evolved, that
the metal disintegrates, and that a white powder insoluble
in the nitric acid, and later insoluble in water, is formed.
Concentrated nitric acid oxidizes tin to the dioxide which, in a

hydrated form, usually called meta-stannic acid (approximately
H 2 Sn0 3 ), is left as the white insoluble residue.
11. Thio-Salts of Tin. Perform Experiment 1 under
Preparation 43. Stannous sulphide does not dissolve in
Na 2 S solution. Addition of sulphur causes it to dissolve.
Addition of HC1 to the solution produces a yellow precipitate
and an evolution of hydrogen sulphide.
Sulphur and oxygen are interchangeable in sulphides and oxides.

Metal oxides (basic) and non-metal oxides (acidic) combine to
form salts. Likewise metal sulphides may combine with sulphides
of weakly metallic or non-metallic elements to form salts, the so-
called thio-salts, or sulpho-salts. Thio-salts of a few of the ele-
ments, notably tin, are very well denned. Stannous sulphide does
not form a thio-salt; but addition of sulphur converts it to stannic
sulphide which does form a soluble thio-salt with the sulphide of
an alkali metal.
Na 2 S + SnS2 -»• Na 2 SnS 3
EXPERIMENTS 295
In the same way that the higher oxide SnO2 is more acidic than
SnO, the higher sulphide SnS2 is more acidic and reacts more easily
with the basic sulphide, Na 2 S.
Addition of an acid displaces the very weak thio-stannic acid
from its salt solution, 2HC1 + Na 2 SnS 3 -»• 2NaCl + H 2 SnS 3 ; this
acid is very unstable and decomposes into stannic sulphide, the
yellow precipitate, and hydrogen sulphide, H 2 SnS 3 —* H 2 S f +
SnS2 i .
12. Lead Dioxide, (a) To 2 cc. of Pb(NO 3 ) 2 solution add
5 cc. of water and 6 2V NaOH until the precipitate first formed
redissolves. Then add chlorine water and note the dark
brown precipitate.
(b) Collect the precipitate on a filter, wash it with water,
break the tip of the filter, and wash the precipitate with a jet
from the wash bottle into a test tube. Shake the test tube
and divide the suspension equally among four tubes. Add
to the respective tubes (1) 62V HNO 3 , (2) 62V H2SO4, (3) 62V
HC1, (4) 62V NaOH, and note that nitric and sulphuric acids
have no effect, hydrochloric acid dissolves the brown precip-
itate with evolution of chlorine, and sodium hydroxide has
no effect.
Chlorine in alkaline solution oxidizes the divalent lead to tetra-

valent, the latter appearing as the very insoluble brown PbO 2
Na 2 Pb0 2 + Cl2 -»2NaCl + PbO 2 j
This highest oxide of lead has practically no basic properties

and it does not react with nitric and sulphuric acids. Neither are
its acidic properties highly developed, for it does not react with
NaOH in solution. The action with HC1 has already been dis-
cussed; it depends on the reducing action of this acid. The
next experiment, however, throws a little more light on this sub-
ject.
13. Lead Tetrachloride. Cool to 0° 5 c c of 122V HC1 in
a test tube, and keeping the solution cold add about 1 gram
of dry lead dioxide a little at a time with shaking. Note that
a clear yellow solution is formed. Add a drop or two of this
solution to 500 cc. of cold water in a large beaker and note an
opalescent brown precipitate which rather slowly becomes
visible. Let the rest of the yellow solution grow warm and
note that chlorine gas is evolved and that a crystalline white
precipitate separates.
The yellow solution contains lead tetrachloride. It is puzzling

to explain why lead dioxide will not react with two of the strong
acids tried, yet does react with hydrochloric acid to give what is
apparently a salt, PbCU. The explanation lies in the character of
lead tetrachloride, which is practically un-ionized, and therefore
is hardly to be classed as a salt. In the anhydrous condition it is
a liquid like carbon tetrachloride. Furthermore it combines with
excess HC1 to form the complex acid H 2 PbCl 6 , of which the am-
monium salt (NILJ 2 PbCl6 can be crystallized. By comparison,
if nitric acid reacted with lead dioxide, the tetranitrate, Pb(NO 3 )4,
would be the product; this presumably would be highly ionized
like all nitrates, which means that it would have to hydrolyze
completely.
With a large amount of water the lead tetrachloride hydrolyzes
PbCU + 4H 2 O -»• Pb (OH) 4 1 + 4HC1
giving the brown precipitate. In concentrated solution it decom-

poses into chlorine and PbCl 2 , the white crystalline precipitate.
14. Stability of Lead Carbonate, (a) To a neutral lead
nitrate solution add Na2CO3 solution drop by drop, noting the
white precipitate and the absence of effervescence.
(6) Heat a little dry white lead carbonate in a test tube
and note that it changes to a yellow powder when it has
become moderately hot. The temperature is much higher
than that required to decompose copper carbonate. Treat
some of the residue with dilute HNO 3 and note that it dis-
solves without effervescence.
The facts that lead carbonate PbCO 3 will precipitate without

hydrolyzing to a basic carbonate, and that lead carbonate must
be heated moderately hot to be decomposed, both confirm the
conclusion, already made, that PbO is a distinctly basic oxide.
GENERAL QUESTIONS IX 297
GENERAL QUESTIONS IX
1. Arrange a table of the dioxides of the elements of Group IV:
column 1, the formulas of the dioxides, placing those of the A
family at the left and those of the B family at the right of the
column; column 2, the character of the dioxide specifying, a. =
distinctly acidic, w. a. = weakly acidic; ind. = indifferent; w.b.=
weakly basic; b. = distinctly basic; amph. = amphoteric; column
3, the formula of as well denned a salt as possible of the dioxide;
column 4, the extent of hydrolysis of this salt, specifying much,
little, or none.
2. Make a similar table embracing the lower oxides, CO, SnO,
Ce2O3, PbO.
3. Make a table for the tetrachlorides of all the elements of
Group IV: column 1, the formula of thetetrachloride; column 2,
its state of aggregation, specifying, gas, liquid, or solid; column 3,
its boiling point at atmospheric pressure, specifying dec if it de-
composes before the boiling point is reached; column 4, the equa-
tion for its reaction with a large amount of water.
Judging from the decreasing metallic properties in the series, Pb,
Sn, Si, C, we should expect the tetrachlorides to hydrolyze more
readily as we progress in this order. Two factors modify this
effect: the tendency to form a complex acid such as H^SnCle with
the anion SnCl6~~, and the insolubility or total lack of ioniza-
tion of the tetrachloride. Explain from this point of view why
carbon tetrachloride and carbon disulphide are without perceptible
action with water.
4. Find out what elements of Group IV form carbonates, and
give the formulas of the carbonates and approximately their
relative stability.
5. What is a thio-salt? Describe how a thio-salt of tin can be
formed, and discuss its properties and its relation to the corre-
sponding oxy-salt.
CHAPTER X
ELEMENTS OF GROUP V OF THE

PERIODIC SYSTEM
In this group, as in Groups III and IV, the difference in prop-

erties between the elements of Families A and B is not so striking
as in Groups I and II (or as in Groups VI and VII), and the
whole group is considered under the same heading. It is also true
that the elements of Family A, that is, vanadium, columbium, and
tantalum, are of comparatively infrequent occurrence, and are
given no attention in this course. On the other hand all the ele-
ments of Family B are of frequent occurrence
and considerable importance.
The characteristic valence of the group is 5,
corresponding to the oxide M 2 OB, but the ele-
ments likewise exhibit a valence of 3 in the
oxide M2O3. It is noteworthy that the valence
is nearly always either 3 or 5.
D It is true in this group, as well as in Group
IV, that the acid-forming properties are most
marked in the elements of low atomic weight
(nitric acid is one of the strongest acids), and
decrease with increasing atomic weight, whereas
the base-forming properties are most strongly
developed with the elements of high atomic
weight.
PREPARATION 52
ORTHO-PHOSPHORIC ACID, H3PO4
Pure phosphoric acid is prepared commer-

cially by burning phosphorus in air to form
FIG. 25 phosphorus pentoxide and then treating this
compound with water. On a laboratory scale it is more convenient
to oxidize the phosphorus with a solution of nitric acid.
The solution first obtained by the action of dilute nitric acid
298
ORTHO-PHOSPHORIC ACID 299
upon phosphorus contains a considerable quantity of phosphorous

acid, H 3 PO 3 ; but upon concentrating this solution, a point is
reached at which a rather vigorous reaction takes place, which
consists of an oxidation of the phosphorous to phosphoric acid by
means of the nitric acid still present.
Commercial phosphorus often contains a small quantity of
arsenic. This on the treatment with nitric acid is oxidized to
arsenic acid, which would contaminate the preparation of phos-
phoric acid unless removed by hydrogen sulphide.
Phosphorous acid may always be present in the product if
the oxidation with nitric acid has not been complete, and its
presence may be detected by its ability to reduce silver nitrate
and give a black precipitate of metallic silver,
H3PO3 + 2AgNO 3 + H 2 O = 2HNO3 + 2Ag 1 + H3PO4
Materials: red phosphorus, P, 31 grams = 1 F.W.
6N HNO3, 295 cc.
16ATHNO3, 20 cc.
seed crystal of H3PO4.
Apparatus: 2-liter round-bottom flask.
condenser to hang in neck of flask (Fig. 25.)
250° thermometer.
125-cc. casserole.
2-ounce glass-stoppered bottle.
tripod.
burette clamp.
wood ring.
Bunsen burner.
Procedure: Place 295 cc. of QN nitric acid in a 2-liter round-

bottom flask; connect the condenser with the cold water tap, and
hang it in the neck of the flask to condense acid vapors and allow
them to drip back into the reacting mixture. Add about one-fifth
of the phosphorus and warm the flask very cautiously until red
vapors begin to appear; then stand the flask in a wooden ring and
allow the reaction to proceed, keeping a pan of cold water at hand,
in which to immerse the flask if the reaction gets too violent.
After the foaming has abated somewhat add a little more of the
phosphorus, and again wait until action has abated, and so on,
300 ELEMENTS OF GROUP V
until all the phosphorus is used. Then add 20 c c of 16 N HN0 3 ;

boil the mixture gently in the flask with the condenser in place
until no more red vapor is evolved and until the last specks of
phosphorus have dissolved. If any black residue does persistently
remain filter it off at this point. Transfer the solution to an 8-
inch porcelain dish and boil it under the hood until a rather violent
reaction begins to take place. Remove the flame and let the re-
action proceed; it grows very violent and then suddenly ceases
altogether.
The solution should now be clear and almost colorless, and should
contain no phosphorous acid. Test for phosphorous acid by adding
a few drops of the liquid to 10 cc. of distilled water, adding 1 cc.
of 0.05N AgNC>3 and warming; a dark coloration, or black pre-
cipitate, appearing within 2 minutes indicates phosphorous acid. If
it is found, follow the special procedure given in Note 1; other-
wise transfer the solution to a small casserole and evaporate it
over a low flame until a thermometer whose bulb is immersed in
it stands at 180°. During this final evaporation one must give it
constant attention, for if it is left and the temperature rises
above 180°, not only does the orthophosphoric acid become
changed partially into pyrophosphoric acid, but it attacks the
material of the dish, and the preparation becomes contaminated.
Allow the acid to cool nearly to room temperature and then pour
it into a previously weighed 2-ounce glass-stoppered bottle, and
stopper it tightly. When cool introduce a small crystal of phos-
phoric acid to induce crystallization of the mass.
Note 1. If phosphorous acid was found at the point where the
test was made, it showed that the reaction had been allowed to take
place too violently in the earlier part of the procedure, the heat
driving nitric acid vapor out of the flask. Unless nitric acid is
present in the right amount and at the right concentration when
the secondary reaction takes place, the phosphorous acid is not all
oxidized and it is afterwards extremely difficult to bring about
conditions under which the oxidation can be completed. However,
the following may be tried: Pour the solution back into the large
flask, add 275 cc. of 62V H N 0 3 and 10 cc. of 122V HC1 to act as a
catalyzer, insert the condenser in the neck of the flask, and boil
very gently for an hour. Then proceed as before.
Note 2. In the above procedure no provision is made for re-
moving traces of arsenic. If this is to be done, the solution, im-
DISODIUM PHOSPHATE 301
mediately after the violent secondary reaction has ceased, is

poured into a flask, diluted to about a liter with water, saturated
with hydrogen sulphide gas, stoppered, and allowed to stand over
night. If, the next morning, the contents of the flask smell
strongly of hydrogen sulphide, the precipitate of arsenic sulphide
is filtered off; if not, the solution is again treated with hydrogen
sulphide in the same manner as before. Evaporate the filtrate
until its temperature has risen to 125°, and proceed as above.
Note 3. If no crystallized phosphoric acid is at hand for use
as seed crystals the sirupy acid can be made to crystallize if it is
heated to 180° and then cooled with a freezing mixture.
QUESTIONS
1. Write the reaction by which phosphoric acid can be prepared
from calcium phosphate.
2. How can phosphoric anhydride, pyrophosphoric acid, and
metaphosphoric acid be prepared? Give formulas. Why cannot
the anhydride be prepared by heating orthophosphoric acid?
For what practical purpose is phosphoric anhydride used?
3. Compare the acid strength of phosphoric acid with that of
other common acids. Do all three hydrogen ions of H3PO4 dis-
sociate with equal readiness?
4. Give the formulas of primary, secondary, and tertiary
sodium phosphates. State how the solution of each behaves with
litmus.
5. Write the reaction for the precipitation which occurs when
magnesium chloride and a large excess of NH4OH are added to a
solution of phosphoric acid. This precipitate constitutes one of
the most important tests for a phosphate.
6. Give an example of phosphorous acid acting as a reducing
agent.
PREPARATION 53
DISODIUM PHOSPHATE, N a J I P C V ^ H ^ O
The raw material from which phosphorus and its compounds are
prepared is calcium phosphate, either in the form of natural " phos-
phate rock" or in bone ash. For laboratory preparations bone
ash is preferable since it is practically free from fluorides and com-
pounds of iron. This bone ash may be assumed to be 80 per cent
Ca 3 (PO 4 ) 2 , 10 per cent CaCO 3 , and 10 per cent inert material.

The following reactions with sulphuric acid may take place:
CaCO 3 + H2SO4 -»• CaSO 4 1 + CO 2 + H2O (1)
Ca 3 (PO 4 ) 2 + 3H 2 SO 4 -»• 3CaSO 4 1 + 2H3PO4 soluble (2)
Ca 3 (PO 4 ) 2 + 2H 2 SO 4 -»• 2CaSO 4 j + Ca(H 2 PO 4 ) 2 soluble . (3)
Ca 3 (PO 4 ) 2 + H2SO4 -»• CaSO 4 1 + 2CaHPO 4 1 insoluble (4)
The inert material does not react at all with the acid.
It is obvious that if all the phosphate is to be dissolved, such an
amount of sulphuric acid should be taken that after all the cal-
cium carbonate has reacted there will be more than 2 F.W. of
H2SO4 for each formula weight of Ca 3 (PO 4 ) 2 . Furthermore, an
amount of acid in excess of that required for reaction (2) is to be
avoided since the excess would remain in solution. A quantity is
chosen, therefore, which is more than sufficient to complete re-
action (3) but insufficient to complete reaction (2). All the
phosphate is converted into soluble form, and all the sulphate
appears as insoluble calcium sulphate.
After the removal of the insoluble calcium sulphate the filtrate
is treated with sodium carbonate in sufficient amount to satisfy
the equations:
Na 2 CO 3 -» Na 2 HPO 4 + CO 2 + H 2 O
Ca(H 2 PO 4 ) 2 + 2Na 2 CO 3 -»2Na 2 HPO 4 + CaCO 3 1 + CO 2 + H2O
An excess of sodium carbonate does not react to convert Na2HPO4

to Na 3 (PO 4 ). On page 100 it is seen that the acidic ionization of
HCO3~ is greater than that of HPO 4 ~~. Since a stronger acid
displaces a weaker acid, the reaction NaHCO 3 + Na 3 PO 4 —•
Na 2 HPO 4 + Na 2 CO 3 would take place rather than the reverse
reaction.
Materials: bone ash, 80 per cent Ca 3 (PO4) 2 ,100 grams.

36iVH 2 SO 4 ,47cc.
anhydrous sodium carbonate, Na 2 CO 3 .
Bunsen burner.
PHOSPHORUS TRIBROMIDE 303
Procedure: Put the bone ash in a porcelain evaporating dish,

add 70 cc. of water, and stir the mixture until a thick paste is
obtained. Stir and add 47 cc. of concentrated sulphuric acid as
rapidly as possible without excessive heating. Continue to stir
vigorously until the mixture begins to stiffen. This usually
requires from 10 to 15 minutes. Add 500 cc. of cold water and
stir until a thin paste, free from lumps, is obtained. Filter the
cold mixture, using suction. Wash the solid in the funnel with
50 cc. of cold water. Combine the nitrates. Add anhydrous
sodium carbonate in small portions with stirring until effervescence
no longer takes place and a drop of the solution turns phenolphthal-
ein pink. This usually takes 55-60 grams. Filter and evaporate
the solution to 250 cc. Transfer the clear liquid to an 8-inch
crystallizing dish and allow it to stand until a satisfactory crop of
crystals is obtained. Decant the liquid from the crystals and
rinse them with a little distilled water. Dry them thoroughly
on paper towels (Note 9 (6), page 15). Disodium phosphate is
efflorescent.
QUESTIONS
1. Test solutions of monosodium phosphate, NaH 2 PO4, disodium
phosphate, Na 2 HPO4, and trisodium phosphate, Na3PO4, with
litmus paper. See pages 116-117. Explain how a compound
can be an acid salt and react alkaline to litmus.
2. List the solubilities of the three sodium phosphates. How
would you prepare each from phosphoric acid?
3. To 5 cc. of magnesium chloride solution add 6N NH 4 0H
until it is alkaline. Add solid NH4C1 in small portions until the
precipitate of magnesium hydroxide is dissolved. This solution
is known as "magnesia mixture" and is used in testing for phos-
phates. Add a little Na2HPC>4 solution and allow the tube to
stand until a white, crystalline precipitate of MgNHaPO* is formed.
Write equations for all reactions.
PREPARATION 54
PHOSPHORUS TRIBROMIDE, PBr3
Phosphorus reacts directly with bromine to form two com-
pounds. With an excess of phosphorus the tribromide, PBr 3 , is
formed; the pentabromide, PBr 5 , results from the use of an excess
of bromine. In both cases the reaction is very vigorous, and con-

siderable caution must be exercised in the following preparation.
Phosphorus tribromide is a colorless liquid which freezes at —40°
and boils at 173°. The pentabromide is a yellow crystalline solid
which, when heated, decomposes into the tribromide and bromine.
Since both bromides hydrolyze completely, perfectly dry materials
and apparatus must be employed.
Materials: bromine 12.5 cc. = 40 grams = 0.25 F.W. Br 2 .
red phosphorus, 7 grams.
Apparatus: special Pyrex test tube 1 inch in diameter and 24
inches long.
2.5-inch funnel.
125 cc. distilling flask,
small beaker.
2-ounce glass-stoppered bottle.
250° thermometer.
Bunsen burner.
Procedure: Clamp the long test tube in a vertical position,
covering the clamp jaws with folded paper instead of rubber.
Under the hood pour the bromine into the test tube. Take
about 0.05 gram of the red phosphorus on a spatula and drop it
into the bromine. When the heat from the reaction has dissi-
pated add another portion of phosphorus. Continue the addition
of the phosphorus until all is used, being careful to avoid driving
red bromine vapors out of the top of the tube. About 20 minutes
is required. The tube now has a yellow deposit of PBr 5 along the
sides, red bromine vapor and liquid and excess phosphorus in the
bottom. Apply a small flame held by the hand to the bottom of
the tube, and boil the liquid. The level of the top of the vapor
column can be clearly seen. Boil the liquid until this level has
risen to within half an inch of the top of the tube. The hot vapor
decomposes the PBr 5 . The condensed PBr 3 dissolves the bromine
and carries it back to the bottom of the tube to react with the
excess phosphorus. Continue this " refluxing " until the red color
of free bromine has disappeared from the tube. After partial
cooling, pour the liquid PBr 3 with the aid of a dry funnel into the
distilling flask. Close the neck of the flask with a cork stopper
carrying a thermometer. Insert the side arm 1 inch into the small
bottle, and distil the PBr 3 slowly into the bottle. The side arm
CRYSTALLIZED ARSENIC ACID 305
of the flask and the sides of the bottle offer sufficient cooling sur-
face to condense all the vapor if the distillation is not too rapid.
Cover the mouth of the bottle with an inverted beaker until it
has cooled; then insert the glass stopper.
QUESTIONS
1. Experiment. Caution at the hood. Place 0.5 cc. of PBr 3 in
each of two dry test tubes. To one tube add 0.5 cc. of water and
note that it forms a layer above the heavier PBr3. Agitate gently
to mix the layers and increase the surface of contact. The mixture
warms up, and rather suddenly the two liquids become homo-
geneous and a gas is evolved. Blow the breath across the mouth
of the tube while this gas is issuing and note the effect. What is
the gas? What is left in the residual solution? To the other
tube add suddenly 15 cc. of cold water and let the tube stand until
the two layers become homogeneous. Explain the difference in
the observed effect in the two tubes.
2. Write the equations for the hydrolysis of PBr 3 and PBr 6
respectively.
3. What are the specific gravity, melting point, and boiling
point of phosphorus trichloride — of phosphorus pentachloride?
How would you arrange an apparatus to prepare each of these
compounds?
PREPARATION 55
CRYSTALLIZED ARSENIC ACID, (HsAaO^-HÔ
Arsenic acid in its properties shows a striking similarity to
phosphoric acid; and even the method of its preparation is similar,
in that use is made of the oxidizing action of nitric acid. Instead
of starting with uncombined arsenic, however, use is made of
arsenious oxide, As2O3, a product which condenses in the flues
wherever ores which contain arsenic are roasted. This is oxidized
by the nitric acid to the higher oxide, AS2O5, which, with water,
yields arsenic acid, H3ASO4. By evaporating its solution for a
long time on the water bath, crystals of ortho-arsenic acid having
the composition H3ASO4 can be obtained. By prolonged evapo-
ration at higher temperatures crystals of the composition H4AS2O7
and HAsO 3 , respectively, can be obtained. When a solution of
arsenic acid is concentrated according to the following directions,
a liquid is obtained of almost exactly the composition given by the
formula (H3AsO4)2-H2O. This liquid when cooled to 35.5°, or

below, can be crystallized to a solid product of the same com-
position, and this is the most satisfactory form in which to crystal-
lize arsenic acid. It is interesting to note that this liquid can be
much supercooled below 35.5°, but when once crystallization is
induced the temperature immediately rises to this point and
remains there until solidification is complete. Likewise when the
solid is being melted the temperature will not rise above the melt-
ing point, 35.5°, until the whole mass is liquefied.
Materials: arsenious oxide, As2O3, 50 grams = 0.25 F.W.
162V H N 0 3 , 75 cc.
seed crystal of (HaAsO^-HÔ.
150-cc. casserole.
250° thermometer.
2-ounce glass-stoppered bottle,
Bunsen burner.
Procedure: Place 50 grams of arsenious oxide in a 750-cc.
casserole; add 20 cc. of water, and then at the hood add 75 cc. of
16 2V HNO3, warm occasionally, just enough to keep up an action,
but do not allow the reaction to become violent, because the heat
would drive off nitric acid. When red vapors cease to be given off,
all the original white powder should have dissolved, and a clear
colorless or very pale yellow solution should be obtained. It will
sometimes happen, however, for no very apparent reason that the
reaction stops with a considerable amount of white powder still
undissolved although a plentiful excess of nitric acid may be
present. When this happens the addition of 5 cc. of 62V HCl
will make the reaction start up vigorously again and run to com-
pletion. Arsenious chloride is volatile and very poisonous; if
HCl is added keep the dish under the hood during the reaction and
the subsequent evaporation. Since HCl is not an oxidizing agent
its action must be essentially that of a catalyzer. Finally evapo-
rate the solution, holding the casserole with the hand and rotating
it to spread the liquid up on the sides, until the residue is just dry.
This residue should be arsenic pentoxide, and it should dissolve
completely, although somewhat slowly, when treated with 60 cc.
of water (see Note 1). Evaporate the solution by boiling it gently
CRYSTALLIZED ARSENIC ACID 307
in a small casserole until the temperature has risen to 115°. Then

transfer the liquid to a very narrow beaker or a test tube, and boil
it carefully with a small flame until the temperature shown by a
thermometer inserted in the liquid has just risen to 160°. Cool the
product to below 35.5°, place it in a weighed sample bottle, and
seed it with a small crystal of (H3AsO4)2-H2O, whereupon the whole
will slowly crystallize to a solid mass. Stopper the bottle tightly,
since arsenic acid takes moisture rapidly from the atmosphere.
Note 1. If the residue on evaporation does not redissolve after
warming it 10 minutes with 60 cc. of water, it contains arsenious
oxide either from incomplete oxidation by nitric acid, or from a
decomposition of arsenic pentoxide by overheating. Test 1 cc.
of the suspension containing the undissolved substance by adding
10 cc. of water, then solid sodium bicarbonate until no more
effervescence occurs, and then a considerable quantity in excess.
Add to this a solution of iodine, drop by drop. The amount of
the latter which is decolorized (if any) corresponds to the amount
of arsenious acid (AS2O3), which was in the sample.
If arsenious acid is present it must be oxidized by further treat-
ment with 162V HNO3 and a little HC1.
QUESTIONS
1. Compare the strength of arsenic and arsenious acids. Of
what general rule is this comparison an example?
2. To a solution of arsenic acid (0.1 gram in 10 cc. of water)
add magnesium chloride and then NH4OH until strongly alkaline.
Compare with Question 5 under Phosphoric Acid.
3. Add a little potassium iodide solution to some arsenic acid
solution, and warm gently. Is iodine set free? Write equation.
Prepare a faintly alkaline solution of arsenious acid as follows:
Dissolve a minute quantity of arsenious oxide in not more than 2
or 3 drops of hydrochloric acid; dilute to 10 cc. and add, without
heating, a considerable amount of sodium bicarbonate in excess
of what is necessary to neutralize the acid. To this solution add,
drop by drop, a solution of iodine, and determine whether any
free iodine disappears. Write the equation. So far as the state of
oxidation of the arsenic is concerned, the reaction is exactly the
reverse of the one preceding. Recall a previous instance in which
the direction of a reaction of oxidation and reduction is changed on
passing from an acid to an alkaline solution.
PREPARATION 56
ANTIMONY TRICHLORIDE FROM STIBNITE, SbCl3
(BY-PRODUCT: ANTIMONY OXYCHLORIDE)
Native antimony sulphide (stibnite) dissolves quite readily in

hydrochloric acid, yielding antimony trichloride,
Sb 2 S 3 + 6HC1 = 2SbCl 3 + 3H 2 S
If the solution so obtained is distilled, steam and hydrochloric
acid pass off at first, later a mixture of hydrochloric acid and anti-
mony trichloride, and finally pure antimony trichloride.
Antimony trichloride hydrolyzes with a moderate amount of
water, giving a precipitate according to the reactions
SbCl 3 + 2H 2 O = Sb(OH) 2 Cl j + 2HC1
Sb(OH) 2 Cl = SbOCl + H2O
with more water a further hydrolysis takes place:

4SbOCl + H 2 O = Sb4O6Cl2 + 2HC1
The product obtained in this preparation by mixing the next to the
last distillates with a considerable amount of water has the latter
composition. This compound, however, if repeatedly boiled with
fresh portions of water may be made to undergo complete hydroly-
sis, leaving finally only Sb2O3.
Pure antimony trichloride melts at 73° and boils at 223°.
Materials: stibnite, Sb 2 S 3 , 168 grams = 0.5 F.W.
12 N commercial concentrated HC1, 840 cc.
shredded asbestos suspended in water,
unglazed porcelain.
wide 6-inch test tube.
350-cc. retort or distilling flask.
6-inch sand bath.
asbestos paper.
1-liter flask.
2-liter common bottle.
5-inch watch glass.
Bunsen burner.
ANTIMONY TRICHLORIDE 309
Procedure: Treat the powdered stibnite in an 8-inch dish at the

hood with the commercial hydrochloric acid; warm the mixture
slightly and keep it at 50-70°, with frequent stirring, for 20 minutes.
Finally, boil the solution for 5 minutes. Then add 15 cc. more
of concentrated hydrochloric acid; filter the solution through
asbestos felt (Note 4 (d), page 8) which has previously been
moistened with hydrochloric acid, and rinse the residue on to the
filter with an additional 15 cc. of hydrochloric acid. Evaporate
the filtrate in an open dish to 200 c c ; then transfer it to a retort,
in the bottom of which are placed a few small pieces of unglazed
porcelain to prevent bumping. Place the retort on a sand bath
and distil, after first covering the bulb of the retort with an asbestos
mantle to prevent loss of heat. At first insert the neck of the
retort into a liter flask half filled with cold water (to absorb the
hydrochloric acid). When a little of the distillate begins to give
a precipitate on dropping into a tube of cold water, exchange the
receiving flask for a smaller dry one and continue the distillation
until a drop of the distillate will solidify when cooled on a watch
glass. Save the portion thus obtained for later use and continue
distilling, using a wide 6-inch test tube, which has previously been
weighed, as a receiving vessel, until all the liquid is driven out
of the retort. Stopper the test tube tightly and preserve the
preparation in it. If the product thus obtained is not white it
should be dissolved in concentrated hydrochloric acid and re-
distilled.
Note. If the stibnite contains a considerable quantity of
silicates soluble in acids, there will be left in the retort as the dis-
tillation progresses a quantity of gelatinous silicic acid which is
likely to interfere with obtaining distinct fractions of the distillate.
In such a case distil until the residue in the retort is left dry, but
without making the final change in receiving vessels. Then pour
all the distillate containing any of the antimony salt into a fresh
retort and distil again, this time separating the fractions.
Antimony Oxychloride. Pour the first portion of the distillate
saved from the above procedure into 2 liters of water. Stir, allow
to settle, and draw off the clear liquid. Stir up with water once
more, let settle, draw off as much of the water as possible, and
drain the precipitate on a suction filter. Dry it on paper towels
and put it up in a cork-stoppered test tube.
QUESTIONS
1. Treat a fragment of antimony trichloride with water. Why
does it not give a clear solution? Add HC1. Why does this cause
a clear solution to be formed?
2. Pass hydrogen sulphide into the solution of antimony tri-
chloride. What is the color of the precipitate? How could it be
converted into a product like stibnite?
3. Compare the reactions of phosphorus, arsenic, and antimony
trichlorides with water. Is hydrolysis more complete or less
complete in the case in which a precipitate forms?
PREPARATION 57
SODIUM SULPHANTIMONATE, Na3SbS4-9H2O
The oxides of arsenic and antimony, and more particularly the
higher oxides, are acidic in nature, and form salts with basic oxides.
3Na 2 O + As2O3 = 2Na 3 As0 3

3Na 2 O + As2O6 = 2Na 3 As0 4
Sulphur, in accord with its similarity to oxygen, can be substituted
for it in many of its compounds without essentially altering their
chemical nature, and the compounds thus obtained have the
same nomenclature as the corresponding oxygen compounds, except
that the prefix thio or sulpho is used. Thus sulpho-salts are
produced in the same manner as the oxy-salts above:
3Na 2 S + As2S3 = 2Na 3 AsS 3
3Na 2 S + As2S6 = 2Na3AsS4
The sulpho-salts of arsenic, antimony, and stannic tin are particu-
larly characteristic of these metals. (See Preparation 43 and
Experiment 11, page 294.) They are easily produced, and all
are soluble. They are stable in neutral or basic solutions, but are
decomposed by acids, because the anions of the salts combine with
hydrogen ions to produce the very weak sulpho-acids, which, being
unstable, decompose at once into the sulphides of the metals and
hydrogen sulphide:
6H+ + 2AsS 3 """ -* 2H3AsS3 -* 3H 2 S + As 2 S 3 j
6H+ + 2AsS4~~~ - • 2H3AsS4 - • 3H 2 S + As 2 S 6 1
SODIUM SULPHANTIMONATE 311
Sodium sulphantimonate can be prepared from stibnite by the

combined action of a solution of sodium sulphide and sulphur,
2S + Sb2S3 -»• Sb2S6
3Na 2 S + Sb2S6 -»• 2Na 3 SbS 4
it crystallizes well with nine molecules of water.
The hydrolysis of this salt, which produces a dirty appearing
reddish brown precipitate consisting of an indefinite mixture of
Sb2S6 and Sb2O6, may be prevented by an excess of sodium sul-
phide or by the presence of sodium hydroxide.
Materials: powdered stibnite, Sb2S3, 67 grams = 0.2 F.W.
sodium sulphide, Na 2 S-9H 2 O, 140 grams, or use
47 grams of anhydrous sodium sulphide and an
additional 93 cc. of water,
powdered sulphur, 13 grams.
8-inch crystallizing dish with glass plate.
Bunsen burner.
Procedure: To the finely powdered stibnite, sodium sulphide,
and powdered sulphur in a casserole add 150 cc. of water, bring to
a boil, and keep at the boiling temperature for 15 minutes. Filter
with suction and rinse the residue in the dish and on the filter with
hot water containing a little NaOH, bringing up the volume of the
solution to 250 cc. While still hot put it away in a covered dish,
with a towel placed over it, to crystallize. Drain the crystals;
evaporate the mother liquor somewhat to obtain a second crop of
crystals. If there is any tendency for a muddy brownish precipi-
tate to form in the solution, or for the same substance to form as
a scum on the crystals, add a little 6 N NaOH to the solution and
rinse the crystals in it. Spread the crystals on paper towels, and
as soon as they are dry, stopper them tightly in an 8-ounce cork-
stoppered bottle.
QUESTIONS
1. What is the acid of which Na 3 SbS 4 is the salt? Add HC1 to
a solution of this salt. Is the acid set free? Is it a stable acid?
2. What is the primary reaction in the hydrolysis of Na3SbS4?
What secondary reaction accounts for the formation of the precipi-

tate if its formula is Sb2S5?
3. Actually the precipitate is a mixture of Sb2S6 and Sb2O5 or an
oxysulphide. Write an equation for the change of Sb2S6 to Sb2OB
in the presence of NaOH solution, and show that Na 2 S ought to
repress the change to the oxide.
4. What general principle is illustrated in the fact that Sb2S3
dissolves much less readily than Sb2S5 in Na 2 S solution?
PREPARATION 58
ANTIMONY PENTASULPHIDE, Sb2S6
This compound cannot be prepared directly from the trisulphide
and sulphur, because it is decomposed at a temperature below that
at which the latter substances would react. As has just been seen,
however, the higher sulpho-salt of antimony can be readily pre-
pared in the wet way; and this, on decomposition with a dilute
acid, yields antimony pentasulphide. This substance is used in
vulcanizing rubber and produces a red colored product.
Materials: sodium sulphantimonate, Na3SbS4-9H2O, from pre-
ceding preparation, 48 grams = 0.1 F.W.
6N H2SO4, 108 cc.
5-inch funnel.
Procedure: Dissolve the sodium sulphantimonate obtained in
the last preparation, and dilute with 1 liter of cold water. Add the
sulphuric acid and 350 cc. of water to the large common bottle.
To this add slowly, and with constant stirring, the solution pre-
pared above. Fill the bottle with water and stir thoroughly. Let
the precipitate settle, draw off the liquid, and wash by decantation
until the wash water no longer gives the test for a sulphate with
barium chloride. After the last washing let the solid settle for
some time, draw off as much as possible of the clear liquid, and
transfer the sludge to a large plain filter (Note 4 (c), page 7; do
not omit to reenforce the point of the filter) to drain for 12 hours
or longer. Without removing the pasty antimony sulphide,
open out the filter on paper towels, and leave it on a shelf above
the steam table where the temperature does not rise above 50°.
When the product is completely dry, detach the hardened lumps
METALLIC ANTIMONY 313
from the paper and pulverize them in a mortar. Put up the prod-
uct in a cork-stoppered bottle.
QUESTIONS
1. Write equations for all reactions involved in the preparation
of antimony pentasulphide from stibnite.
PREPARATION 59
METALLIC ANTIMONY, Sb
This metal is obtained on a commercial scale both by reducing
antimony oxide with carbon and by reducing antimony sulphide
by means of metallic iron. The second method possesses the ad-
vantage that antimony sulphide, a natural product, is used directly
and does not need to be first converted into the oxide. The iron
sulphide formed by this method is fusible and forms an immiscible
layer which floats on top of the molten antimony. The addition
of borax facilitates the separation of the liquid layers, and thus the
globules of melted antimony are allowed to sink more easily to the
bottom of the crucible and form a metallic regulus. The upper
layer furthermore covers the surface of the metal and hinders its
oxidation and the escape of the volatile Sb2O3.
Materials: stibnite, Sb2S3, 112 grams = 0.33 F.W.

iron filings, 48 grams,
borax, Na2B4O7, 30 grams.
Apparatus: clay crucible 30 grams, with cover,
gas furnace,
iron stirrer.
Procedure: Mix thoroughly 112 grams of stibnite, 48 grams of

iron filings, and 30 grams of borax. Pack the mixture into a clay
crucible. Cover the crucible and heat it strongly in a gas furnace.
After half an hour remove the cover and stir gently with an iron
rod to determine if the flux is completely melted. If it is not,
replace the cover and heat for 10 minutes and again examine the
contents of the crucible. (Antimony boils at 1,380°, and pro-
longed heating diminishes the yield.) When the reaction is
complete, remove the crucible from the fumace and let it cool with
the cover on. Break the crucible with a hammer and separate the
regulus of antimony. Crack the regulus so as to show the crystal-

line structure of the metal.
QUESTIONS
1. Warm a piece of metallic antimony with hydrochloric acid.
Where does antimony stand in the electromotive series?
2. Boil 0.5 gram of powdered antimony in a small flask with 6 N
HN0 3 . Describe the result and write equations remembering that
Sb2O3 is basic and gives a soluble nitrate with HN0 3 , but that
Sb2O6 (H3Sb04) is an acidic oxide.
PREPARATION 60
BISMUTH BASIC NITRATE (BISMUTH SUBNITRATE),
Bi(OH) 2 NO 3 OR BiONO 3
Bismuth is the most strongly metallic element of the fifth group,
yet its salts in aqueous solution undergo partial hydrolysis very
readily. In presence of a considerable amount of free acid, the
B i + + + ion is capable of existence in solution; but with decreasing
quantities of acid the tendency to hydrolyze increases, and the
basic salt of bismuth, which is only slightly soluble, separates:
Bi(NO 3 ) 3 + 2H 2 O ^ Bi(OH) 2 NO 3 1 + 2HNO 3
On pouring a solution of bismuth nitrate into a considerable
quantity of cold water the basic nitrate is precipitated, according
to the above formula. This salt, however, is not stable in con-
tact with a solution which does not contain nitric acid of a con-
centration of at least 0.5 molal, but slowly changes over into some
other more basic nitrate, and if washed repeatedly with pure water
will finally go over completely into the hydroxide:
Bi(OH) 2 NO 3 + H2O ^ Bi(OH) 3 J, + H N 0 3
Under the conditions in the following procedure, this production
of a more basic salt will occur if the precipitate is allowed to stand
in contact with the solution for a considerable time; hence the
directions to filter at once.
The basic nitrate is by no means completely insoluble in water,
and the filtrate contains considerable quantities of bismuth, which
can be conveniently saved as oxide by precipitating with sodium
carbonate.
EXPERIMENTS 315
Materials: crystallized bismuth nitrate, Bi(NO 3 )3, 5H 2 O, 42

grams = 0.1 F.W.
QN HNO 3 , 10 cc
Na 2 CO 3 solution.
Procedure: Dissolve without heating the crystallized bismuth
nitrate, in 10 cc. of 6 N H N 0 3 and 20 cc. of water. Pour this into
2 liters of cold water and stir thoroughly for a few minutes. Let
the precipitate settle completely, and as soon as this has occurred
draw off and save the supernatant liquor; drain the precipitate
on a suction filter, and wash it quickly with about 20 cc. of water.
Dry the precipitate on the steam table, and preserve it as a powder
in a cork-stoppered bottle.
Bismuth Oxide. Combine all the liquors from the foregoing;
add sodium carbonate until alkaline to litmus; let settle, and draw
off the supernatant liquor; boil the remaining suspension after
adding to it about 20 grams more of sodium carbonate. Then
wash the precipitate twice by decantation, drain on a suction
filter, and wash with two or three portions of water. Dry and
preserve this product in a cork-stoppered bottle.
QUESTIONS
1. In accordance with the above directions, sodium carbonate
is used to precipitate bismuth hydroxide. Why should not the
precipitate be bismuth carbonate?
2. If this precipitate is not finally boiled with an excess of
sodium carbonate, it is likely to contain a certain amount of basic
nitrate. Explain why this should be so and why the boiling will
convert it completely into the hydroxide.
Experiments
Review in Chapter III the section on the ionization of polybasic
acids, page 116; in Chapter IV, Preparations 8 and 14, and
Experiments 15 and 25; in Chapter VIII, Experiments 11 and 12.
1. Oxidation Products of the Elements of Group V. Treat
0.5 gram each of (a) red phosphorus, (6) powdered arsenic,
(c) powdered antimony, and (d) powdered bismuth with
excess of 6N HNO 3 (10-15 cc.) and note that red gases are
evolved in each case.
(a) A clear solution results. Evaporate this until excess
of volatile nitric acid is expelled, but do not exceed a tem-
perature of 180°. A sirupy liquid is left which dissolves in
water to give an acid solution.
(6) A clear solution is left. Evaporate this carefully to
dryness. A white solid is left which dissolves in water to give
an acid solution.
(c) The metal disappears and a white powdery solid re-
mains in the liquid. This solid is insoluble in nitric acid or
water.
(d) A clear solution results out of which, after concentrat-
ing and cooling, clear crystals of a salt separate. These crys-
tals dissolve in a little water acidified with H N 0 3 to give a
clear solution, but a white precipitate is formed if the solution
is diluted with a large amount of water.
Phosphorus, arsenic, and antimony are oxidized by nitric acid to

hydrated forms of the pentoxides, giving respectively: phosphoric
acid, H3PO4, which is very soluble in water and a fairly strong acid;
arsenic acid, H3ASO4, which can be dehydrated to the oxide AS2O6
which will dissolve in water again to form the acid; meta-anti-
monic acid, which is a very weak and insoluble acid. Bismuth is
oxidized only to the trivalent condition; Bi2O3 is basic and forms
the salt Bi(NO 3 )3 with the excess of H N 0 3 . This salt hydrolyzes
very easily to an insoluble salt, and with a large amount of water it
hydrolyzes completely to Bi(0H) 3 .
2. Sulphides and Thio-Salts. Pass hydrogen sulphide

into hot dilute solutions of arsenic, antimony, and bismuth
trichlorides in separate test tubes. Note that yellow, orange,
and black precipitates respectively are formed. Let the
precipitates settle to the bottom of the tubes, pour off the
liquid, and treat the solid with sodium polysulphide (Na 2 S
solution in which sulphur is dissolved) in each case. The
yellow and orange precipitates dissolve; the black one does
not. To the two solutions add 6N HC1 in excess and note
that yellow and orange precipitates respectively are again
thrown out.
EXPERIMENTS 317
Review the discussion of thio- or sulpho-salts under Prepa-

ration 57. The trisulphides As2S3 and Sb 2 S 3 are oxidized by the
free sulphur to the pentasulphides, As2S5 and Sb2S6, which react
with the Na 2 S to form the soluble thio-salts, Na3AsS4 and
Na3SbS4. The addition of HC1 displaces the weak thio-acids,
H3AsS4 and H3SbS4, which are too unstable to exist alone and
decompose into H 2 S and the respective pentasulphides. The
color of the pentasulphides seems to be identical with that of the
trisulphides. Bismuth shows no tendency to form a thio-salt.
3. Reducing Action of Phosphorous Acid; Non-Oxidizing
Property of Phosphoric Acid. Review the discussion of Prepa-
ration 52, and the test employed for phosphorous acid. Phospho-
rous acid reduces silver nitrate to metallic silver, it itself being
oxidized to phosphoric acid.
Recall that in Experiment 15, page 169, phosphoric acid did
not oxidize hydrogen bromide or hydrogen iodide, which are excep-
tionally strong reducing agents.
4. Arsenious and Arsenic Acids. Review Note 1 and Ex-
periment 3 under Preparation 55. Arsenious acid reduces iodine
to hydriodic acid in a solution containing sodium bicarbonate, the
latter neutralizing the acid produced:
+ I 2 + H2O *± HsAsO* + 2HI
but in an acid solution the reaction goes in the opposite direction,

the hydrogen iodide being oxidized.
The reaction progressing to the right according to the equation
produces H+ ions. It is natural that the removal of H+ ions
favors the reaction and their presence reverses it.
5. Reduction of Bismuth Salts, (a) Suspend about 2 milli-
grams of bimuth subnitrate in 10 cc. water, add 5 cc. QN
NaOH, boil, and note that the white suspension does not
change color. Add a few drops of dextrose solution, con-
tinue to boil, and note that the white suspension turns
black.
(6) Again suspend about 2 milligrams of bismuth sub-
nitrate in 10 cc. boiling water. Pour through a filter leaving
the white Bi(OH) 3 , to which the salt is hydrolyzed, on the
paper. Make a sodium stannite solution by adding drop by
drop 6 N NaOH to 2 cc. of SnCl2 solution with constant shak-
ing and cooling until the precipitate formed at first is redis-

solved. Pour this solution over the filter paper, and note the
intense black color.
Bismuth stands low in the electromotive series, and its salts
are easily reduced to the metal which in the finely divided state is
intensely black.
2Bi(OH) 3 + 3Na 2 Sn0 2 -> 2Bi 1 + 3Na 2 Sn0 3 + 3H 2 O
6. Bismuth in a Higher State of Oxidation. Fusion of bismuth
salts with sodium hydroxide and an oxidizing agent yields a ma-
terial which has been called sodium bismuthate, from the hypo-
thetical oxide Bi2C>6. Such a compound has never been obtained
pure. If the melt is extracted with water, the salt hydrolyzes
completely and analysis of the brown residue gives a composition
approximating the formula BiO2, rather than Bi2O6.
Add 1 drop of Mn(NO 3 ) 2 or MnSO 4 solution (but not
MnCl 2 ) to 5 cc. of cold 6N HNO 3 . Add about 0.1 gram
solid bismuth dioxide, agitate, let the brown solid settle, and
note the deep red permanganate color of the solution.
Bismuth in a higher state of oxidation than that corresponding
to the oxide Bi 2 O 3 must be a very strong oxidizing agent if it can
oxidize a manganese compound to permanganic acid.
Mn(NO 3 ) 2 + 13HNO 3 + 5BiO2 -> 5Bi(NO 3 ) 3 + HMnO 4 + 6H2O
GENERAL QUESTIONS X
ELEMENTS OF GROUP V
1. State in each case whether the nitrate or sulphate of tri-

valent phosphorus, arsenic, antimony, or bismuth can be prepared,
and if so whether it can be dissolved in water without suffering
complete hydrolysis. How does the basic nature of the trioxide
change in the series phosphorus to bismuth? Can nitrates or
sulphates of any of these elements in their pentavalent condition
be prepared? For any one of the elements, which is the more
strongly basic in nature, the trioxide or the pentoxide? Which
is the more strongly acidic? Give the formula of the most common
acid, if one exists, which is derived from the pentoxide of each of
these elements. How does the acidic nature of the pentoxide
change in passing from nitrogen to bismuth?
GENERAL QUESTIONS X 319
2. Name the simplest hydrogen compounds of nitrogen, phos-

phorus, arsenic, and antimony. Compare the stability of these
hydrides when heated. Compare any ability they may possess to
unite with water to form bases, and with acids to form salts.
3. Write the equations for the reaction of nitric acid with phos-
phorus, arsenic, antimony, and bismuth, respectively. Describe
the properties of the product in each case.
4. How do the trisulphides of arsenic and antimony behave
when treated with a solution of Na^S? With a solution of Na^S-S^?
How does the solution obtained with sodium polysulphide behave
when it is acidified? Give equations for all the reactions.
What is the relation between sulpho- and oxy-acids? Show,
for example, how sodium sulpharsenate is derived from two simple
sulphides, and sodium arsenate from the corresponding oxides.
CHAPTER X I
HEAVY METALS OF GROUPS VI, VII, AND VIII

OF THE PERIODIC SYSTEM
An inspection of the Periodic Table of the elements shows that

chromium, manganese, iron, cobalt, and nickel, and following
these copper and zinc, come in the middle portion of the long
period that begins with potassium and ends with bromine. The
seven elements mentioned possess high specific gravities, and all
come under the classification of heavy metals. In certain of their
compounds they are similar t o one another; in other of their
properties they are very dissimilar and exhibit the chemical
characteristics of the respective groups to which they belong.
The heavy metals occupying a corresponding position in the
middle of the next long period are molybdenum, an element which
should come below manganese, ruthenium, rhodium, palladium,
silver, and cadmium. In the middle of the next long period come
tungsten, rhenium, osmium, iridium, platinum, gold, and mercury.
In the last long period, of which there is at best only a fragmentary
indication, the only representative of this class of heavy metals
is uranium.
In the sixth group, chromium, molybdenum, tungsten, and
uranium constitute Family A. In their trioxides they show the
characteristic valence of the sixth group and resemble in properties
the non-metals of Family B, of which sulphur is the type. In their
lower oxides they possess none of the characteristics of Group VI
but show the general base-forming properties of the heavy metals.
In Group VII, manganese, the best-known representative of
Family A, resembles the halogens in its heptoxide, MH2O7; in its
lower oxides it shows no resemblance to the halogens, but does
show properties similar to those of other heavy metals when they
are in the same state of oxidation; in its lowest oxide, MnO, it is
distinctly a base-forming element. The most characteristic com-
pound of rhenium which justifies its position in Group VII is
potassium perrhenate, KReC>4, which corresponds to potassium
permanganate, KMnC>4, and is derived from the oxide Re2O7.
320
POTASSIUM CHROMATE AND DICHROMATE 321
In Group VIII, each position instead of being filled by a

single element is occupied by a group of three elements. Thus
there appear in triads: iron, cobalt, and nickel; ruthenium,
rhodium, and palladium; and osmium, iridium, and platinum.
In this group there is no subdivision into families, but all the
members are heavy metals.
Of the heavy metals discussed above, the ones that are of
most frequent occurrence and that are to receive detailed treat-
ment in this chapter are chromium, manganese, and iron.
PREPARATION 61
POTASSIUM CHROMATE AND DICHROMATE, K 2 Cr04 AND K 2 Cr 2 0 7

The most important source of chromium is the mineral chromite,
FeO-Cr2O3 or Fe(CrO 2 ) 2 . This substance, as indicated by the
formula, may be regarded as a compound of ferrous oxide and
chromic oxide, in which ferrous oxide is the basic constituent and
chromic oxide the acidic. Chromite is a difficult material to
decompose, and the ordinary method b y which this is done is
treatment at a high temperature with an alkali and an oxidizing
agent. The iron is thereby converted to the ferric condition
(Fe 2 O 3 ), and the chromium is oxidized to the sexivalent con-
dition (CrO 3 ), at the same time combining with the alkali to form
a chromate.
In the commercial method for manufacturing chromates, atmos-
pheric oxygen is the oxidizing agent. The chromite is mixed
with sodium carbonate and calcium carbonate, the latter to give
porosity, and then heated for a considerable time in a furnace
with free access of air. Treatment of the cooled furnace product
with water causes a metathesis between the CaCrO* and Na2CO3,
and Na^CrC^ is obtained in the aqueous extract. The exact
amount of H2SO4 is added: 2Na2CrO4 + H2SO4 -> Na 2 Cr 2 0 7 +
Na^SC^ + H2O. By a carefully regulated procedure the
is crystallized from the solution of the very soluble
and lastly the latter salt itself separates on cooling. Chromates
and dichromates bear the same relation to each other as sulphates
and acid sulphates, Na2SO4 and NaHSO 4 ; acid chromate and acid
sulphate differ by the ease with which the former loses water,
2NaHCrO 4 ?± Na 2 Cr 2 0 7 + H 2 O
322 HEAVY METALS OP GKOUPS VI, VII, AND VIII
On account of the difficulty of carrying out the industrial process

on a laboratory scale, the following less economical procedure is
recommended: The raw material, chromic oxide, Cr2O3, is first
treated with fused KOH. The oxidizing agent, KNO 3 , is then
added and it works more effectively than if it had been added at
the outset. The aqueous extract of this fusion is allowed to
crystallize to obtain a preparation of potassium chromate. The
mother liquor from these crystals is acidified with acetic acid to
obtain a preparation of potassium dichromate. Potassium com-
pounds are prepared because they are less soluble and crystallize
better than the corresponding sodium compounds.
5Cr 2 O 3 + 14K0H + 6KNO3 = 10K2CrO4 + 7H 2 O + 3N 2
2K 2 Cr0 4 + 2HC 2 H 3 O 2 = K 2 Cr 2 0 7 + 2KC 2 H 3 O 2 + H2O
number of grams of the anhydrous salt.
Temperature 0° 10° 20° 30° 40° 50° 70° 100°

K2C1O4 59 61 63 65 67 69 73 79
K2Cr207 5 7 12 20 26 35 55 88
Materials: chromic oxide, Cr 2 O 3 , 50 grams = 0.33 F . W .

potassium hydroxide, 65 grams
potassium nitrate, 50 grams.
glacial acetic acid.
Apparatus: 4-inch sheet iron crucible with cover.
suction filter a n d t r a p bottle.
4-inch iron ring and ring stand.
Procedure: Set the iron crucible in a 4-inch iron ring a n d sup-
port it on a ring stand. P u t 65 grams of solid K O H into the
crucible and heat it until t h e hydroxide is completely melted.
Remove t h e flame a n d add 50 grams of chromic oxide, Cr 2 O 3 ,
free from lumps. Stir the mixture with a n iron spatula or t h e wire
end of a test-tube brush. Add 50 grams of finely powdered K N 0 3
a n d stir the mixture until a thin paste is formed. Partially cover
t h e crucible (leave a i-inch space a t one side), and heat t h e mix-
ture with a flame not more t h a n an inch high. R e m o v e the cover
a t frequent intervals to prevent boiling over. After a b o u t 15
POTASSIUM CHROMATE AND DICHROMATE 323
minutes' heating the mixture becomes quite thick and is likely to

froth over. To prevent this, remove the cover and stir, protecting
the hand against spattering. When the mass becomes solid, heat
it again until it froths very little. Finally heat this solid for 20
minutes with the full flame of one burner and with the cover on.
Stir at frequent intervals and scrape any solid from the sides of the
crucible into the hot mass. When the heating is finished and the
solid has partially cooled, stir it and, while still hot, scrape it into
an 8-inch porcelain evaporating dish. When the crucible has
cooled to room temperature, heat in it 300 cc. of water to boiling
and add the hot water, with what it has extracted from the crucible,
to the solid in the evaporating dish. Heat this until all the lumps
have disintegrated. Allow any sediment to settle and decant
the yellow solution through a gravity filter. Boil an additional
50 cc. of water with the sediment in the dish, and pour this extract
through the same gravity filter. Transfer the entire yellow fil-
trate to the porcelain evaporating dish, and evaporate it over a
flame until crystals of potassium chromate begin to separate on the
surface of the liquid. (If a small amount of dark-colored solid
separates during the evaporation, the solution should be filtered
a second time.) Add 50 cc. of water to the hot solution and allow
it to stand until a satisfactory crop of crystals has separated.
Remove the crystals from the solution, using suction filtration.
Press the solid on the filter plate to remove as much of the mother
liquor as possible. Spread the yellow crystals of K 2 Cr04 on a
white paper towel and allow them to dry at room temperature.
Pour the filtrate into the evaporating dish and add 30 cc. of glacial
acetic acid. Stir the mixture, and if it is not orange-red add small
portions of glacial acetic acid until it is. Cool the mixture in a
pan of ice water. Filter off the meal of potassium dichromate on
a suction filter and press it as dry as possible. Dissolve the crystal
meal in boiling water, adding small portions of water until solution
is complete. If a clear solution is not obtained, filter hot, using
suction. Allow the K 2 Cr 2 07 to crystallize from the solution.
Dry the potassium dichromate on a white paper towel at room
temperature. Put the potassium chromate and dichromate into
separate 2-ounce cork-stoppered bottles. Calculate the theo-
retical yield of potassium chromate from 50 grams of chromic oxide.
Deduct your yield of chromate from this result, and calculate the
theoretical yield of potassium dichromate.
324 HEAVY METALS OF GROUPS VI, VII, AND VIII
QUESTIONS
1. Name at least three oxidizing agents which might have
been used instead of potassium nitrate in this preparation, and
write equations.
2. To 5 cc. of a chromic sulphate solution add NaOH in excess;
cool, add about 1 gram of sodium peroxide, agitate for a few min-
utes, and then boil until effervescence ceases. Describe observa-
tions and write equations.
3. To a solution of potassium dichromate add K 2 CO 3 until no
more effervescence takes place. Explain the effervescence and
the change in color. Write equation.
4. To the solution from Experiment 3 add 6 N H2SO4; observe
and explain as before. Explain fully the difference between chro-
mates and dichromates.
5. Show that potassium acid sulphate, KHSO4, and potassium
dichromate, are very similar, differing mainly in the degree of
hydration.
PREPARATION 62
CHROMIC ANHYDRIDE, CrO 3
The addition of sulphuric acid to a solution of either a chromate

or a dichromate liberates chromic acid which is very soluble and
can exist in solution in the different forms, H 2 Cr04, H2Cr207 and
CrO3, in equilibrium with each other. With the addition of a
large excess of concentrated H2SO4, water is withdrawn from the
hydrated forms and the anhydride separates in the shape of red
needles.
Materials: sodium dichromate, Na2Cr2O?-2H2O, 100 grams =
0.33 F.W.
36.ZVH2SO4, 400 cc
glass plate to cover the 8-inch dish,
suction filter with glass marble,
glass-stoppered sample bottle,
tripod.
Bunsen burner.
Procedure: Dissolve the 100 grams of sodium dichromate in 250
cc. of water and filter from any sediment. Add rather slowly with
CHROMIC ANHYDRIDE 325
constant stirring about half of the concentrated sulphuric acid

until a slight permanent precipitate of CrO 3 is formed. Let the
mixture cool for half an hour or longer, then add slowly, while
stirring, the rest of the sulphuric acid. Let the mixture stand
over night covered with a glass plate in order that the crystal
meal may become somewhat coarser. In such a crystal meal
standing in its saturated solution, the smaller grains dissolve and
their material deposits out on the larger crystals. But even now
the crystal meal will be rather fine and it will at first run through
the filter; if, however, while waiting, the mixture is heated with
stirring to 100° and allowed to cool slowly, and this process is
repeated once or twice, a more satisfactory product will be ob-
tained. To collect the crystals, use a suction filter, but place a
small glass marble in the funnel instead of the usual plate and
paper. If the red crystals at first run past the sides of the marble,
pour the liquid in the bottle repeatedly back on to the filter un-
til finally the filtrate runs clear (see last sentence of Note 3 on
page 5). After draining the crystals completely and pressing the
surface with the round end of a test tube, stop the suction and
pour 15 cc. of 16 N H N 0 3 so as to wash down the sides of the funnel
and cover the surface of the product. Stir up the product with
this washing fluid for a depth of about \ inch. Suck dry and
repeat the operation twice with 10 cc. of nitric acid each time.
Finally drain the red crystals as free of liquid as possible, transfer
the crystals to a dry 8-inch evaporating dish and place this on a
hot plate to let the nitric acid evaporate. When the product is
dry and no longer gives off vapors of nitric acid place it in the
glass-stoppered sample bottle.
QUESTIONS
1. Dissolve 0.5 gram of chromic anhydride in a few drops of
water. What is the color of the solution? Dilute with 200 cc.
water. What is the color? Write ionic equations showing the
equilibrium condition among the different acids of chromium and
their ions in the solution. Show that according to the law of
molecular concentration the proportion of the yellow to the red
components should increase as the solution is diluted with water.
2. Heat a little chromic anhydride strongly on a bit of porcelain.
Pulverize the residue in a white mortar so as better to observe its
color. What is the residue? Is it soluble in water?
3. Without the recrystallization the weight of the product of

this preparation is often greater than that calculated. To what
impurity is this excess weight due?
RECRYSTALLIZATION OF CHROMIC ANHYDRIDE
Dissolve about 300 grams of the student's preparation in 0.6 its

weight of water. Decant carefully from any undissolved residue
and add very slowly with stirring such an amount of concentrated
sulphuric acid as will make 100 cc. for every 100 grams of the
crude chromic anhydride. When the suspension has cooled to
room temperature, collect and wash crystals in the same manner
as in the original preparation using 60 cc. of 16 N HNO3 for the
first washing and 40 cc. each for the second and third washings.
Drain the crystals very thoroughly with suction, transfer them to
an 8-inch porcelain dish and place it on the hot plate. Break up
and turn over the mass of crystals frequently with a spatula. After
several hours, when nitric acid vapors cease to come off, weigh and
bottle the product.
PREPARATION 63
AMMONIUM CHROMATE AND AMMONIUM DICHEOMATE,
(NH 4 ) 2 Cr04 AND (NH4)2Cr207
The raw material for this preparation is the chromic anhydride
from the preceding preparation, which contains at least a small
amount of sodium acid sulphate. This dissolves with the chromic
anhydride, and it should remain in the mother liquor (as neutral
sulphate) from which the ammonium chromate is crystallized.
The second and third crop of crystals of the latter, however, are
likely to be contaminated with sodium sulphate. An excess of
ammonium hydroxide is used to insure the formation of the
neutral chromate.
Materials: chromic anhydride, CrO3, 100 grams = 1 F.W.
15 N ammonium hydroxide, 160 cc.
6 N acetic acid.
5-inch funnel.
Bunsen burner.
AMMONIUM CHROMATE AND AMMONIUM DICHROMATE 327
Procedure: Place the chromic anhydride in a 500-cc. flask and add

70 cc. of water. Shake the mixture until solution is complete and
then cool the flask in a pan of water. Add the ammonium hy-
droxide in 5-cc. portions. Cool after each addition and shake the
mixture to prevent the formation of a solid cake. After 100 cc. of
the hydroxide have been added, break up any lumps with a glass
rod and add the remaining 60 cc. in four portions. Shake the mix-
ture thoroughly; cool the flask in a pan of ice water and shake for
10 minutes. Break up the solid cake by shaking and transfer the
material to a suction filter. Use the filtrate to rinse out the flask
and transfer all the solid to the filter. Remove the liquor as
completely as possible by pressing the solid on the filter. Cover
the crystals with 10 cc. of 15N ammonium hydroxide, and after it
has stood a few minutes, apply suction again. Evaporate the
filtrate, under the hood, to half the original volume. Place the
flask in a pan of ice water, and when the liquid has cooled t o about
60°, add 10 cc. of 152V N H 4 0 H and shake for 10 minutes. Filter
off the second crop of crystals and treat them as before. If
the two crops are the same color, combine them and dry them
together. If, however, the second crop is much darker than the
first, it should be kept separate. Dry the crystals at room tem-
perature and weigh them. One half of the preparation should be
preserved in a 4-ounce cork-stoppered bottle, and the other half
used to prepare ammonium dichromate.
To convert the ammonium chromate to dichromate it is dissolved
in acetic acid. Calculate the volume of 62V acetic acid required
to convert the weight taken of dry ammonium chromate according
to the equation:
2(NH 4 ) 2 Cr04 + 2HC2H3O2 = (NH4)2Cr207 + 2NH4C2H3O2 + H2O
Actually use 100 cc. of 62V acetic acid for each 45 grams of ammo-
nium chromate. Pour this volume of 6 2V acetic acid into a 500-cc.
flask and add the solid ammonium chromate. Insert a funnel in
the neck of the flask and heat the mixture until it just boils. Keep
it below the boiling temperature until solution is complete. If
solution is not complete in 10 minutes, add a little more 6 2V acetic
acid through the funnel. When solution is complete, place the
flask containing the solution in a pan of ice water and shake for
10 minutes. Filter off the ammonium dichromate, using suction.
Remove the liquor as completely as possible by pressing the solid
on the filter. Wash the crystals with 10 cc. of ice water and drain
again. Dry the product in a warm place until it does not smell of
acetic acid. Preserve the preparation in a 4-ounce cork-stoppered
bottle.
QUESTIONS
1. Heap up 10 grams of ammonium dichromate in a small
mound on a porcelain plate, and apply the flame to the top of the
mound until a reaction starts. Write the equation. What ele-
ment is oxidized and what one reduced? Show that the algebraic
sum of the valence changes is zero.
2. Note the color of the dry crystals of ammonium chromate
and ammonium dichromate. Do either have the odor of am-
monia? Dissolve 1 gram of the chromate in as little water as
possible. Note whether the solution has an odor of ammonia.
What is its color (yellow like K2CrC>4 or orange like K 2 Cr 2 07)?
Write equation for the hydrolysis of (NH^CrO* and explain why
it should hydrolyze more than K2CrC>4.
3. Heat 10 grams of ammonium chromate and compare its
action with that of ammonium dichromate and with that of
chromic anhydride when heated.
PREPARATION 64
CHROMIC ALUM, K2SO4-Cr2(SO4)3-24H2O

The preparation of potassium dichromate (Preparation 61)
illustrated how chromic oxide, Cr2O3, can be oxidized to a chromate
in which chromium exists as CrC>3. For the preparation of chromic
alum, it might seem as if chromic oxide or the natural chromite
should yield chromic sulphate directly on treatment with sulphuric
acid. This is impossible, however, because both of these sub-
stances are very resistant to the action of acids. Practically, they
yield only to the action of alkaline oxidizing agents, which convert
them into a chromate. Therefore potassium, or sodium, dichro-
mates are always the products made directly from the mineral,
and these serve as the materials from which other compounds of
chromium are prepared. To make chromic alum from potassium
dichromate it is necessary to reduce the chromium to the state of
oxidation in which it originally existed in the mineral, and to add
sufficient sulphuric acid to form the sulphates of potassium and
CHROMIC ALUM 329
chromium. Alcohol may be used as the reducing agent, it being

itself oxidized to acetaldehyde, C2H4O, a substance whose presence
is made very evident by its penetrating odor.
Chromic alum is isomorphous with common alum and can easily
be obtained in large and beautiful deep purple crystals. Chromic
salts present a phenomenon which complicates the task of crystal-
lizing out definite salts. In cold solution the simple chromic ion
probably has the composition [Cr-6H2O] +++ . At higher tempera-
tures this ion becomes altered, through loss of H2O and substitu-
tion of OH~ ions or of the anions of the salt. For example,
[Cr-4H 2 OS04] + is a possible composition of the chromium ion
in a hot solution of chromic sulphate. The ion [Cr-6H 2 O] +++ is
purple, and with the SC>4~~ ion the crystallizable purple chromic
sulphate, or the chromic alum, can be obtained. The altered ion
in the hot solution is of a very deep green color, and it does not give
crystallizable compounds.
Probably similar conditions hold in the solutions of the salts of
most heavy metals, but in most cases the change back and forth is
BO rapid that the crystallizable form of the salt is at once obtained
when the solution is cooled. With chromium, however, once the
green form is obtained when the solution is heated, the change
back to the purple form, which is the stable form at lower tempera-
ture, is very slow. In this preparation we have the option of
carrying but the reduction at a low temperature and obtaining
the crystallizable chromic alum at once, or of letting the tempera-
ture rise and then leaving the green non-crystallizable form to
change very slowly back to the purple form and crystallize slowly
as it does so. We shall choose the latter option particularly as it
offers the advantage of a very slow crystallization which of course
favors the formation of large, perfectly formed crystals.
At 25°, 24 grams of KaSO^CraCSOOsÎÔ will dissolve in
100 grams of water, and the solubility increases very rapidly with
the temperature.
Materials: potassium dichromate, K 2 Cr 2 07, 98 grams = 0.33

F.W.
36 N H2SO4, 76 cc.
95 per cent ethyl alcohol, 63 cc.
8-inch glass plate.
Procedure: Pulverize 98 grams of potassium dichromate, and

cover it in an 8-inch porcelain dish with 400 cc. of water. Add
76 cc. of concentrated sulphuric acid, and stir until all the salt is
dissolved. Adding the sulphuric acid should produce enough heat
to dissolve the dichromate, but, if it is necessary, heat the mixture
a little more. After all the salt has dissolved, filter the solution if
it is not absolutely clear. Add the alcohol rather cautiously,
stirring after each addition. Allow the heat of the reaction to
raise the temperature of the solution to the boiling point. Cover
the hot solution with a glass plate and set it away in a cupboard for
a week or longer. Remove the crystals from the liquid, and if
possible get a further crop of crystals. Dry the crystals by leaving
them wrapped in paper towels over night (Note 9 (6), page 15), and
then stopper them at once in a bottle, since they are efflorescent.
QUESTIONS
1. Write equations for the following steps in the reaction of
potassium dichromate in acid solution with alcohol, (a) Resolve
the salt into its basic and acidic anhydrides. (6) Let the acid
anhydride, which is the higher oxide of chromium, be reduced by
the alcohol to the lower oxide, Cr 2 O 3 . (c) Let the sulphuric acid
form salts with the basic anhydride and the lower oxide of chro-
mium, which is also a basic oxide. Add the steps together to give
the complete equation.
2. Sulphur dioxide might serve as the reducing agent. Write
equations for the reaction in steps and add the equations.
3. Describe the effect observed when hydrogen sulphide is
passed into a hot acidified solution of K2Cr2O7. Write the equa-
tion in one line marking the valences of sulphur and chromium
and showing that the algebraic sum of the valence changes is zero.
PREPARATION 65
BASIC LEAD CHEOMATE, PbCrCVPbO
Basic salts may be considered as bases partially neutralized by

acids, or as compounds of a base and a salt of that base.
Bi(OH) 3 + HC1 -+ Bi(OH) 2 Cl
Pb(OH) 2 + PbCrO* - • Pb(OH) 2 -PbCrO 4
Such basic salts lose water very readily, but are still considered
as basic salts in the dehydrated condition, e.g., BiOCl, PbO-PbCrO*.
BASIC LEAD CHROMATE 331
It is often true that a basic salt is less soluble than either the
base itself or the salt, and in such cases the basic salt is especially
easy to prepare. In general, basic salts do not have definite
composition but are indefinite mixtures of base and salt. This is
true of basic lead chromate in which the ratio of PbO to PbCrO*
varies with the method of preparation. Lead chromate, PbCrO4,
is used as a yellow pigment for paints. Basic lead chromate is
bright red and is also used as a pigment.
Materials: lead acetate, Pb(C2H3O2)2-3H2O, 38 grams = 0.1
F.W.
sodium dichromate, Na2Cr2O7-2H2O, 8 grams,
sodium hydroxide, NaOH, 12 grams.
5-inch funnel.
Bunsen burner.
Procedure: Dissolve 38 grams of lead acetate in 400 cc. of water

in an 8-inch porcelain dish. (The solution will not be clear.)
Dissolve 8 grams of sodium dichromate in 50 cc. of water, and
add the solution to the lead acetate. Yellow lead chromate will
precipitate. Dissolve 12 grams of sodium hydroxide in 50 cc. of
water and add this solution while stirring. Heat the mixture
to boiling. The color of the solid will slowly change to a reddish
orange. Boil the mixture gently until no further change in color
takes place. Pour the mixture into a liter of cold water in a
large bottle. Allow the precipitate to settle and wash it three
times by decantation. Transfer the basic lead chromate to a filter
and let it drain without suction. When the cake is dry enough to
hold its shape, unfold the filter paper from it, spread it on a watch
glass, and dry it on the hot plate. Pulverize the dry product and
preserve it in a 2-ounce cork-stoppered bottle.
QUESTIONS
1. Treat about 0.5 gram of your product with 5 cc. of 6 N acetic
acid. Warm the mixture until it boils. Note the change in color.
Filter and add a few drops of sodium sulphide solution to the
nitrate, (a) Write equation. (6) Explain the change in color,

(c) Compare the reactions of normal lead chromate and basic
lead chromate with acetic acid.
PREPARATION 66
CHROMIUM METAL BY THE GOLDSCHMIDT PROCESS
The readiest method of obtaining the metal chromium from its

oxide, and one which yields it in a high state of purity, is the so-
called Goldschmidt, or alumino-thermic, process, in which use is
made of metallic aluminum as the reducing agent according to the
reaction
2A1 + Cr2O3 = A12O3 + 2Cr
The heat produced by the oxidation of aluminum is so great that

it is sufficient to effect the decomposition of the chromic oxide with
still enough surplus heat to melt the metallic chromium and the
slag of AI2O3. It is evident that before this reaction can be made
to progress spontaneously a sufficient temperature must be
developed to decompose the chromium oxide. This necessary
temperature is a good deal higher than that of a flame or of a
common furnace, but can be obtained by use of the fuse powder
described below. When once started in this way the reaction
itself produces a temperature high enough to insure its continu-
ance.
When the reaction is carried out on the small scale of a laboratory
preparation, the heat produced is not quite sufficient to melt the
metal and slag so thoroughly that the metal can settle out to form a
compact regulus at the bottom of the crucible. By adding a small
amount of potassium dichromate to the charge, however, the
reaction becomes more energetic, owing to the more available
supply of oxygen.
Materials: chromic oxide, Cr2O3, 210 grams,

potassium dichromate, 60 grams,
granulated aluminum, 96 grams,
barium peroxide, 20 grams,
magnesium ribbon,
mortar and pestle.
CALCIUM MOLYBDATE 333
Apparatus: clay crucible of 600-cc. capacity,

gas furnace.
6-inch iron sand bath,
pail of sand,
hammer.
Procedure: Heat the chromic oxide in the crucible in the gas
furnace for 40 minutes or longer. Melt the potassium dichromate
in a clean iron pan, and pulverize it in a mortar after it has solidi-
fied. Mix the chromic oxide, potassium dichromate, and granu-
lated aluminum thoroughly in a mortar. Make a fuse powder with
2 grams of granulated aluminum and 20 grams of barium peroxide.
Take half of the fuse powder and mix it with twice its bulk of
the main charge. Hold a rather wide test tube in the middle of
the crucible, pack the charge around it, and withdraw it carefully,
leaving a deep hole in the middle. Carefully pour the mixture
of fuse powder and charge into the bottom of the hole; pour the
fuse powder on top of it in the hole; and insert a strip of mag-
nesium ribbon into the fuse powder. Imbed the crucible in a pail
of dry sand and place the pail under the hood in the furnace room
at a distance from any woodwork. Start the reaction by igniting
the end of the magnesium ribbon with a gas flame. It is advisable
not to look directly at the reaction because of the intense light,
and to keep at a little distance to be out of the way of flying sparks.
When the crucible has cooled, break it with a hammer and sepa-
rate the regulus of metallic chromium from the slag of fused
aluminum oxide.
QUESTIONS
1. What is approximately the position of chromium in the
electromotive series? What bearing does this have upon the
question of reducing chromic oxide?
2. What metals can be used in place of aluminum in the alumino-
thermic process?
3. What other metals than chromium can be advantageously
prepared by this process, and why?
PREPARATION 67
CALCIUM MOLYBDATE, CaMoO 4
Molybdenum trioxide, MoO3, is, like sulphur trioxide, an acid
oxide. It is a white, solid substance, sparingly soluble, but
334 HEAVY METALS OP GROUPS VI, VII, AND VIII
capable of combining with bases to form molybdates which are

analogous to sulphates. The alkali metal and ammonium salts of
molybdic acid are soluble. The calcium salt is sparingly soluble.
Materials: molybdenum trioxide, MoO3, 5 grams.
6.ZVNaOH, 12 cc.
QN HNO 3 .
calcium chloride, anhydrous, 3.8 grams,
litmus paper.
2.5-inch funnel.
Procedure: Dissolve 5 grams of MoO3 in 12 cc. of 6N NaOH.

Barely neutralize with QN HNO3, using litmus as indicator.
The neutral point must not be overstepped if a precipitate of
molybdic acid is to be avoided. Dissolve 3.8 grams of anhydrous
calcium chloride in 9 cc. of water and stir this into the sodium
molybdate solution. Collect the precipitate, wash it with cold
water, and dry it on the steam table (80-100°) over night.
PREPARATION 68
AMMONIUM TUNGSTATE, (NH4)2WO4
Tungsten like chromium and molybdenum is acidic in its high-
est valence, WO3, and forms salts known as tungstates.
Materials: tungstic oxide, WO3, 23.2 grams = 0.1 F.W.
15 N NH4OH, 50 cc.
4-inch evaporating dish.
4-inch iron ring and ring stand.
2.5-inch funnel.
Procedure: Digest the tungstic oxide with 40 cc. of 15 N NH4OH

for 10 minutes at 50°. Pour off the clear solution, and if a solid
residue is left digest it repeatedly with 5-cc. portions of the NH4OH,
adding the extract to the main solution. Filter, if necessary,
directly into the evaporating dish. Let stand at about 80° until
dry. Save the needle shaped crystals in a 2-ounce, cork-stoppered
bottle.
SELENIOUS ACID 335
QUESTIONS
1. Heat 1 gram of the product in a dry test tube. Smell cau-
tiously. Observations? Equations?
2. Heat a few crystals with 5 cc. of hydrochloric acid. How do
you explain the results?
PREPARATION 69
SELENIOUS ACID, H 2 Se0 3

Elementary selenium constitutes a large part of the " anode
mud " obtained during the electrolytic refining of copper. Like
many non-metals, selenium is converted to an acid (H 2 Se0 3 )
when dissolved in nitric acid. Selenious acid, H 2 Se03, so formed,
is a solid, soluble in water, whose solubility increases rapidly with
rise in temperature. Selenious acid may be oxidized to selenic
acid, H2Se04, by KMnC>4. Selenic acid is very similar to sulphuric
acid. Selenious acid is easily reduced to selenium by reducing
agents, for example, by sulphurous acid.
The element selenium exists in several allotropic forms.
Materials: selenium, 39 grams = 0.5 F.W.
I6.ZVHNO3, 113 cc.
250-cc. beaker,
suction filter,
spatula, iron or glass,
Bunsen burner.
Procedure: Warm the nitric acid in the flask gently until the
acid is almost boiling. Using a spatula, add a small amount of
selenium; when this has been dissolved, add a little more. Con-
tinue this intermittent addition until all the selenium has been
added. Regulate the addition and the heating so that the con-
tents of the flask will not boil over. After all the selenium has
been added, boil for 5 minutes after red fumes cease to be evolved.
Cool, filter if necessary, and let the filtrate stand in a previously
weighed beaker until it has evaporated to dryness. (Do not
heat, as SeO2 is volatilized by heat!) Dissolve in one-fifth its
weight of boiling water, cool to room temperature, add a small seed
crystal. Let stand undisturbed to aid formation of large crystals.

Drain the crystals, and leave them on a large previously weighed
watch glass to dry. Put the product in a 2-ounce, cork-stoppered
bottle.
QUESTIONS
1. Dissolve 1-2 grams of the crystals in 15 cc. water. Dilute
1 cc. stannous chloride solution with 5 cc. hydrochloric acid; add
1 cc. of this to one-third of the solution of selenious acid. Ob-
servations? Equations? How do you account for the color?
2. To another third of the solution of selenious acid, add 5 cc.
saturated solution of sulphurous acid. Let stand 5 to 10 min-
utes. Observations? Equations?
3. To the remainder of the solution add 5 cc. potassium per-
manganate solution. Observations? Equations? Filter; to the
colorless nitrate add 5 cc. barium chloride solution. Let settle,
pour off the supernatent liquid, add 5 cc. 12 N hydrochloric acid
to the residue and boil for 2 minutes. Dilute to 25 cc. Add 1 to
2 cc. of sulphurous acid. Observations? Equations?
4. How would you show the presence of a small amount of
selenic acid in a large amount of sulphuric acid?
PREPARATION 70
MANGANESE CHLORIDE FROM WASTE MANGANESE LIQUORS
The waste liquors left after the generation of chlorine from

manganese dioxide and hydrochloric acid contain principally
manganous chloride. Besides this, however, there is always some
free acid and almost always a considerable amount of ferric chloride
present. The greater part of the free acid can be removed by
evaporating the solution until a pasty mass is left which will
solidify on cooling. The iron can be removed from the solution of
this residue by virtue of the ease with which ferric salts hydrolyze.
The nearly neutral solution is treated with suspended manganous
carbonate (obtained by treating a part of the solution itself with
a soluble carbonate). Ferric chloride hydrolyzes according to the
reversible reaction, FeCl 3 + 3 H 2 O ^ 3 H C 1 + Fe(OH) 3 . In the
presence of manganous carbonate the small amount of free acid
thus formed is continuously used up according to the reaction
MnC0 3 + 2HC1 - • MnCl 2 + H2O + CO2. Thus the reaction of
hydrolysis is enabled to run to completion. The remaining solu-
MANGANESE CHLORIDE 337
tion, which is neutral and entirely free from iron salts, yields
crystallized manganous chloride, MnCl 2 -4H 2 O, upon evaporation.
Materials: waste liquor from chlorine generator, 250 cc.
anhydrous sodium carbonate.
5-inch funnel and filter.
Bunsen burner.
Procedure: Boil 250 cc. of waste manganese liquor in an 8-inch

porcelain dish under the hood until the residue becomes pasty.
After a scum begins to form on the surface of the liquid, there is
danger of spattering and the mixture should be stirred with a glass
rod until it becomes semi-solid. Heat the residue to boiling with
750 cc. t5f water; without filtering the solution, take one-tenth of
it, dilute this portion to 1,000 cc. in a 2-liter bottle, and add a solu-
tion of sodium carbonate to it until all the manganese is precipi-
tated as carbonate (test for complete precipitation). Allow the
solid to settle and wash it by decantation at least four times.
Add the solid manganous carbonate to the remaining nine-tenths
of the manganous chloride solution, and boil the mixture in an
8-inch dish until a few drops of the filtered liquid give no red color
when tested with KSCN. Filter the solution and evaporate it
until a crystal scum forms on blowing across the surface. Then
allow the solution to cool slowly and crystallize, leaving it for at
least 12 hours uncovered in a place protected from dust. Collect
the crystals and evaporate the mother liquor to obtain further
crops of crystals until practically all the salt has crystallized.
Spread the light pink crystals on paper towels to dry, and preserve
the product in an 8-ounce, cork-stoppered bottle.
Note. The crystals of manganous chloride are deliquescent
when the temperature is low and the atmosphere charged with
moisture. If the product cannot be obtained satisfactorily by the
above directions, carry out the crystallization and drying in a place
at a slightly elevated temperature, 25° to 30°; or cool the saturated
hot solution rapidly by stirring or shaking, and dry the crystal
meal so obtained by rinsing it with alcohol and then letting the
latter evaporate rapidly.
QUESTIONS
1. Explain the action of manganese dioxide in the generation
of chlorine gas from hydrochloric acid. In what state of oxidation
does manganese exist in the salt manganous chloride?
2. If iron were in the ferrous condition, it would not be removed
frbm the solution by the above procedure. Explain why iron is
necessarily in the ferric condition in the liquors used.
3. Dissolve a small grain of manganous chloride in a half test
tube of water. Test the solution with hydrogen sulphide; then
add a few drops of ammonia, and if necessary add a little more
hydrogen sulphide. Then add acetic acid (a weak acid) until the
solution is again faintly acid. Does the manganous sulphide
dissolve? Compare the solubility of manganous sulphide with
that of copper sulphide; of zinc sulphide.
4. Explain how facts involved in the foregoing preparation
show that Mn(OH) 2 is more strongly basic than Fe(OH^».
PREPARATION 71
POTASSIUM PERMANGANATE, KMnO 4
Although manganese dioxide is a powerful oxidizing agent, it
is nevertheless capable of being itself oxidized when it is fused
with a basic flux. The trioxide of manganese is acidic in nature
and combines with the base to form a salt. Thus it is evident that
the presence of a base favors the oxidation.
The dioxide of manganese is neither strongly basic nor acidic in
nature and shows no marked tendency to form salts. The mon-
oxide is distinctly basic and the trioxide is distinctly acidic, so
that the former forms salts with acids and the latter with bases.
It follows, therefore, that in the presence of acids the dioxide has
a tendency to produce salts of manganous oxide whereby an atom
of oxygen is set free, and that in the presence of bases manganese
dioxide has a tendency to take on another atom of oxygen in order
to produce a salt of the trioxide.
Thus, when manganese dioxide is fused with potassium hy-
droxide and an oxidizing agent, the salt potassium manganate is
formed. This salt is soluble in water and is fairly stable as long as
a considerable excess of potassium hydroxide is present; but in
presence of an acid — even as weak a one as carbonic acid — the
POTASSIUM PERMANGANATE 339
manganate decomposes spontaneously, two-thirds being oxidized

to permanganate at the expense of the other one-third, which is
reduced again to manganese dioxide:
3K 2 Mn0 4 + 4H2CO3 -»• 2KMnO 4 + MnO 2 + 2H 2 O + 4KHCO 3
The permanganate (or permanganic acid) corresponds to the
heptoxide of manganese, Mn2O7, which is the most strongly acid-
forming of the oxides of manganese. Permanganic acid is a strong
and very soluble acid, being of approximately the same acid
strength as nitric or hydrochloric acids. It is in addition a very
powerful oxidizing agent.
Materials: powdered pyrolusite, MnO 2 , 50 grams,
potassium hydroxide, 60 grams,
potassium chlorate, 25 grams,
carbon dioxide,
shredded asbestos for filter.
Apparatus: 4-inch sheet-iron crucible,
tongs.
5-inch watch glass,
porous plate.
suction filter and glass marble.
Bunsen burner.
Procedure: Grind 50 grams of pyrolusite to as fine a powder as
possible (the finer it is ground, the more successful the preparation).
Place 60 grams of potassium hydroxide and 25 grams of potassium
chlorate in a 4-inch sheet-iron crucible. Heat the mixture care-
fully until it is just melted. Remove the flame from under the
crucible and add the pyrolusite, a little at a time, stirring vigor-
ously all the while. Since the charge in the crucible effervesces and
spatters particles of melted salt, great care should be taken to keep
the eyes at a safe distance. The hand holding the stirrer should
be protected, and with the other [hand the crucible should be
held firmly by means of iron tongs. After all the pyrolusite is
added, place a small flame below the crucible, and keep stirring
the charge. Gradually increase the strength of the flame, and
stir continuously until the mass stiffens completely. Then cover

the crucible and heat it 5 minutes longer at a dull red heat.
When the mass has cooled, place crucible and all in 1 liter of
water in an 8-inch porcelain dish. After the solid has entirely
disintegrated, remove the crucible and rinse it off with a little
water from the wash bottle. Transfer the mixture to a 2-liter
bottle and pass carbon dioxide into the cold solution until the green
color of the manganate has entirely changed to the violet red of
the permanganate. Test the color by touching a drop of the
solution to a piece of filter paper. Examine the spot on the reverse
side. If it is purple with no trace of green the change to perman-
ganate is complete. Let the sludge of manganese dioxide settle
in the bottle for 10 minutes; then syphon the liquid on to an as-
bestos filter. Lastly, with the aid of a jet of water from the wash
bottle, transfer all the sludge to the filter and drain it free from
liquid. Evaporate the solution in a clean dish to a volume of
300 cc. Let it settle a moment and filter it through asbestos as
before. Pour the nitrate into the 8-inch porcelain dish, and allow
it to cool slowly in a place protected from dust. When cold,
collect the crystals of potassium permanganate in a filter funnel in
which a marble is placed. Evaporate the mother liquor to 100 c c ,
filter it hot through asbestos, and obtain a second crop of crystals
on cooling the nitrate. Discard the remaining liquid, since it
cannot contain more than about 6 grams of potassium permanga-
nate and to evaporate it further would cause potassium chloride
also to crystallize out. Weigh all the crystals, dissolve them in
eight times their weight of water (to give a saturated solution at
about 40°), filter the solution through asbestos at near the boiling
temperature, and let it cool slowly and crystallize in a small por-
celain dish covered with a watch glass. Recover another crop of
crystals in the same way from the mother liquor, after evaporating
it to a volume of 60 cc. Allow the crystals to dry on a clean un-
glazed plate, and preserve them in a 2-ounce, cork-stoppered bottle.
QUESTIONS
1. Name and give the formulas of all the oxides of manganese.
2. From which oxide is K 2 Mn04 derived? KMnO 4 ?
3. Write the reactions involved in the above preparation.
4. How could KMnO 4 be converted back into K2M11O4? Equa-
tion?
MANGANESE METAL BY THE GOLDSCHMIDT PROCESS 341
PREPARATION 72
MANGANESE METAL BY THE GOLDSCHMIDT PROCESS
The principle of the production of manganese by this process

is exactly the same as that of the production of chromium in
Preparation 66. On account of the violence of the reaction be-
tween the oxide of manganese and aluminum it is not advisable to
ignite the whole charge at once in the crucible; yet on account of
the high melting point of manganese a considerable quantity of
charge must be used in order to produce heat enough to obtain the
metal melted together in a uniform lump, instead of distributed in
small globules throughout the mass of the slag. Before mixing
up the charge, the pyrolusite which is used must be first heated by
itself in order to drive off any water which it may contain and to
convert it at least partially to the lower oxide,
Materials: powdered pyrolusite, MnO 2 , 900 grams,

granulated aluminum, 250 grams,
barium peroxide, 10 grams,
magnesium ribbon, 5 inches.
Apparatus: clay crucible of 600-cc. capacity,
gas furnace,
pail of dry sand,
long-handled iron spoon,
furnace glove,
hammer.
Procedure: Place the pyrolusite in a crucible and heat it to a

bright heat in a gas furnace. To prepare the charge, mix 750 grams
of this material, when it is cooled sufficiently, with 250 grams of
granulated aluminum. Heat the empty crucible again in the
furnace, and while still hot imbed it in a pail of sand. Place about
20 grams of the charge in the bottom of the hot crucible. Put on
colored glasses and a heavy glove, and start the reaction with a
fuse powder made of 10 grams of barium peroxide and 1 gram of
aluminum, and a magnesium ribbon (see Preparation 66). When
this reaction has just passed its maximum intensity add about 20
grams more of the charge with the long-handled spoon; continue in
this way to add the charge in small portions following each other
rapidly. It is important not to let the reaction cool so that it
342 HEAVY METALS OF GEOUPS VI, VII, AND VIII
cannot ignite the next addition instantly. On the other hand, if

another portion is added before the previous one has acted, both
may start together with explosive effect. When the crucible has
cooled, break it, and separate the regulus of metallic manganese
from the slag of fused aluminum oxide.
QUESTIONS
1. If pyrolusite containing water were used without previous
heating, what disadvantage would result during the process?
2. What economy of materials is effected by converting the man-
ganese dioxide into the lower oxide?
PREPARATION 73
FERROUS AMMONIUM SULPHATE, FeSO4-(NH4)2SO4-6H2O, AND

FERRIC AMMONIUM ALUM, Fe2(SO4)3-(NH4)2SO4-24H2O, FROM IRON
Corresponding to the two most important oxides of iron, FeO
and Fe 2 O 3 , the two sulphates, FeSC>4 and Fe2(SO4)3, can be pre-
pared. By dissolving iron in sulphuric acid a solution of ferrous
sulphate is obtained. This, however, is readily oxidizable, slowly
even by the oxygen of the air, to the higher sulphate, and ferrous
sulphate can be preserved free from ferric salt only when all oxygen
is excluded, or when it is kept in contact with an excess of metallic
iron in an acidified solution. Dry, crystallized ferrous sulphate,
or green vitriol, FeSO4-7H2O, can be preserved fairly well without
becoming oxidized; but the double salt, ferrous ammonium sul-
phate, not only is more easily prepared on account of the readiness
with which it crystallizes, but also is less easily oxidized by con-
tact with the air.
Materials: 6N H2SO4, 222 cc. + 61 cc.

iron filings, 40 grams,
ferrous carbonate, 10 grams,
ammonium sulphate, 45 grams + 25 grams.
16 N H N 0 3 , 14 cc.
500-cc. graduated cylinder,
two 8-inch crystallizing dishes.
FERROUS AMMONIUM SULPHATE 343
Procedure: Measure 222 cc. of 6N H2SO4 into a 500-cc. flask,
and add 40 grams of iron filings in small portions. Shake the
mixture after each addition, and do not add a second portion until
the vigorous effervescence has begun to slacken. When all the
iron has been added, set the flask on the hot plate and let it stand
until no further reaction takes place. Allow the solution to cool,
and add cautiously 5 grams of ferrous carbonate. Shake the mix-
ture, and after 5 minutes again add 5 grams of ferrous carbonate.
Heat the mixture to boiling. The free acid should be completely
exhausted, and the solution should contain 2/3 F.W. FeSC>4.
Filter the hot solution and divide it into two equal portions. Use
one for preparing ferrous ammonium sulphate, and the other for
preparing ferric ammonium alum.
FERROUS AMMONIUM SULPHATE

To one portion of the ferrous sulphate solution add 45 grams of
ammonium sulphate and 5 cc. of 6 N H2SO4. From the solubility
data given below determine the volume of solution required to
crystallize ferrous ammonium sulphate. (Note that the data are
for anhydrous salts.) After your instructor has checked your
result, adjust the volume to the proper value. Filter the solution
if it is not clear, and allow it to stand in a crystallizing dish until
a satisfactory yield of the double salt has formed. Decant the
mother liquor from the crystals, and wash them with a little dis-
tilled water. Dry them thoroughly at room temperature with
white paper towels.
Test the finished product for ferric iron, by dissolving a little in
water, adding a drop of 6 N H2SO4 and a few drops of KSCN. A
red color indicates ferric iron.
number of grams of the anhydrous salt.
Temperature 0° 10° 20° 30° 40° 50° 70° 90°

FeSO4 16 21 26 33 44 48 56 43
(NH4)2SO4 71 73 75 78 81 84 92 99
FeSO4-(NH4)2SO4... 12 17 22 28 33 40 52
QUESTIONS
1. What tests can be applied to show whether this preparation
dissociates in solution into the ions of the two simple salts?
2. Recall instances in which complex salts of heavy metals do
not give the simple ions of the heavy metals.
FERRIC AMMONIUM ALUM

Ferrous sulphate in solution can be oxidized by nitric acid
to a ferric compound, but to obtain the full yield of ferric sulphate
the presence of sulphuric acid is necessary according to the equation
6FeSO4 + 2HNO 3 + 3H2SO4 -> 3Fe2(SO4)3 + 4H 2 O + 2NO
After adding ( N H ^ S C ^ to the solution so obtained, the double salt,
ammonium ferric sulphate, or ferric alum, may be crystallized out-
In order to obtain a satisfactory product it is very important to
adjust the amount of acid very precisely. Too little acid will
allow a brown basic salt to form (mFe(OH)3-nFe2(SO4)3), which
will discolor the preparation. Too much acid has the obvious
disadvantage that it will cling to the crystals of the product from
which it cannot be removed by evaporation or by washing
(because of the great solubility of the product).
Procedure: Transfer the second portion of the ferrous sulphate
solution to an 8-inch porcelain evaporating dish, and add 61 cc.
of 6N H2SO4. The volume of the mixture should be not less
than 165 cc. or more than 185 cc. Carry the dish to the hood,
add 14 cc. of 16 N HNO 3 , and heat the mixture slowly to the
boiling point. Continue heating, and stir until a very vigorous
reaction begins to take place with the evolution of oxides of
nitrogen. Remove the flame, and let the reaction proceed.
This reaction may take place when the nitric acid is added but
usually it is necessary to heat the solution for several minutes.
When the reaction is complete the color of the solution will
change from black to light brown. The solution may be tested
for ferrous iron at this point with potassium ferricyanide. When
the oxidation is complete heat the mixture for a few minutes,
and then add 25 grams of ammonium sulphate. Cool to room
temperature, and add enough distilled water to make the total
volume 250 cc. Allow it to stand in the evaporating dish until
the alum has crystallized. Decant the mother liquor from the
EXPERIMENTS 345
crystals, and wash them with a little distilled water. Dry them
thoroughly at room temperature with white paper towels. Do
not expose the crystals to direct sunlight or to temperatures higher
than that of the room. Discolored crystals may be washed with
a little distilled water and dried as before.
QUESTIONS
1. If an unacidified solution of ferrous sulphate is oxidized by
the oxygen of the air, what products are formed? Equation?
Compare the equation for the oxidation of ferrous sulphate as
carried out in this preparation.
2. Experiment: Prepare a solution of a ferrous salt by dissolv-
ing 2 grams of ferrous ammonium sulphate in 20 cc. of water,
adding a little dilute sulphuric acid and a piece of iron wire.
Test both this solution and a solution of a ferric salt (nitrate or
chloride) with potassium ferrocyanide, potassium ferricyanide, and
potassium sulphocyanate. Tabulate the results. These consti-
tute the standard tests for ferrous and ferric salts. Write equation.
Experiments
The elements of the alkali and alkaline earth families show a
uniform valence in all their compounds. Proceeding in the order
in which the elements have been taken up in this book, a con-
stantly increasing tendency has been shown to display two or
more valences. In fact, the most important chemical properties
of the elements considered in the present chapter depend on their
ability to change their valence. When the valence changes to a
lower one the element acts as an oxidizing agent. Examples of
compounds of chromium and manganese acting as oxidizing agents
are shown in Experiments 10 and 23, pages 164 and 176.
1. Stability of Carbonates of Metals in Divalent State.
Heat about 1 gram of dry, light green nickel carbonate in a
dry test tube by shaking it a little distance above a small
flame. The powder turns black, and the gas that comes off
clouds a drop of lime water. Treat a second sample of nickel
carbonate with dilute HC1. It dissolves with effervescence to
give an apple green solution; no odor of chlorine is manifest.
Treat the black residue with dilute HC1. It dissolves to give an
apple green solution, and a strong odor of chlorine is manifest-
The ease with which carbon dioxide is expelled from NiCO 3 indi-
cates that nickelous oxide, NiO, is a weakly basic oxide. The fact
that NiCO 3 , the salt of weak carbonic acid, exists at all shows
that NiO has distinct, even if rather weak, basic properties. Since
the carbonates CrCO 3 , MnCO 3 , FeCO 3 , CoCO 3 , CuCO 3 , ZnCO3,
PbCO 3 all decompose at about the same temperature the oxides
CrO, MnO, FeO, CoO, CuO, ZnO, PbO are indicated as having a
basic strength of about the same order as that of NiO. The black
oxide which remained after heating NiCO 3 dissolved in HCl to give
a solution of NiCl 2 , but the evolution of free chlorine indicated an
oxidizing agent. Nickelous oxide, NiO, takes on oxygen from the
air to form nickelic oxide, Ni2O3, and this is the oxidizing agent
Ni 2 O 3 + 6HC1 - • 2NiCl2 + 3H 2 O + Cl2
2. Non-Existence of Carbonates of Tnvalent Metals.

Dissolve 2 grams of ferric alum in 10 cc. of water and add 2 N
Na 2 CO 3 in excess. Effervescence and a reddish brown,
voluminous precipitate are noted. Collect the precipitate on
a filter and wash it free of Na 2 CO 3 solution. Then treat the
precipitate with 6 N HCl in which it dissolves without effer-
vescence.
The ions of ferric carbonate are brought together in the solu-

tion, but this salt evidently cannot exist. Its hydrolysis products,
ferric hydroxide and carbonic acid (CO 2 ), are obtained. The
behavior of the red precipitate when treated with HCl shows that
it is ferric hydroxide and not ferric carbonate.
Chromic salts and sodium carbonate show the same behavior.
Since the carbonates of trivalent iron and chromium do not exist
the oxides Fe 2 O 3 and Cr 2 O 3 are more weakly basic than FeO and
CrO.
3. Oxidation of An Oxide of a Divalent Metal. Heat

0.5 gram of cobalt carbonate in a dry porcelain dish, holding
the dish in crucible tongs and rotating it gently over a small
flame. Do not allow it even to approach a visible red
heat. The light pink cobalt carbonate turns jet black. After
it cools treat this black powder with QN HCl. It dissolves,
and a pronounced odor of chlorine is observed. The solution
is deep blue when concentrated but light pink when diluted.
EXPERIMENTS 347
The decomposition of cobalt carbonate gives cobaltous oxide,

COCO3 —• CoO + CO2, but this is easily oxidizable in the air to a
higher oxide. The higher oxide reacts as an oxidizing agent to-
wards HCl and the chloride corresponding to CoO is obtained:
CO2O3 + 6HC1 -»2C0CI2 + 3H 2 O + Cl2
The monoxides CrO, MnO, FeO, CoO, NiO are all easily oxidiz-
able in contact with air. The higher oxides of manganese and
nickel behave as the cobaltic oxide above. On the other hand,
the chlorides CrCl 3 and FeCl 3 are stable, and the treatment of
Fe 2 O 3 and Cr 2 O 3 with HCl produces no free chlorine.
Note. In Experiment 1 a higher oxide of nickel was probably
formed in the same manner, although to a considerably less extent.
4. Properties of the Hydroxides. In separate test tubes
take 2 cc. each of IN solutions of (a) CrCl 3 , (6) MnCl 2 ,
(c) FeCl 2 , (d) FeCl 3 , (e) CoCl2, (/) NiCl 2 . Add 10 cc. of
water to each tube and 6 N NaOH until the solution is alka-
line in each case.
(a) Chromic hydroxide, Cr(OH) 3 , a light greenish gray vo-
luminous precipitate. Soluble in excess of cold NaOH. Re-
precipitated on boiling.
(6) Manganous hydroxide, Mn(0H) 2 , a light buff-colored pre-
cipitate. Insoluble in excess of NaOH. Oxidizes easily, turning
dark brown or black as it comes in contact with air, Mn(0H) 3 .
(c) Ferrous hydroxide, Fe(OH) 2 , a gray-green precipitate in-
soluble in excess NaOH. Oxidizes easily, turning reddish brown
as it comes in contact with air, (FeOH) 3 .
(d) Ferric hydroxide, Fe(OH) 3 , a reddish brown voluminous
precipitate insoluble in excess of NaOH.
(e) Cobaltous hydroxide, Co(OH) 2 , insoluble in excess of
NaOH.
(/) Nickelous hydroxide, Ni(0H) 2 , an apple green precipitate
insoluble in excess NaOH, not oxidized by air.
5. Action of Aqueous Alkaline Oxidizing Agents. Pre-
pare a sodium hypochlorite solution by stirring bleaching
powder and an excess Na 2 CO 3 solution and filtering. Place
about 2 cc. of thin suspensions of each of the hydroxides pre-
pared in Experiment 4 in separate test tubes and treat each
with excess NaOH and the sodium hypochlorite solution.
(a) The gray-green Cr(OH) 3 dissolves to give a clear yellow

solution.
2Cr(OH) 3 + 3NaOCl + 4NaOH -* 2Na 2 Cr0 4 + 3NaCl + 5H2O
The basic Cr 2 O 3 is oxidized to the acidic CrO 3 which forms the
soluble salt with the alkali.
(6) The light buff Mn(OH) 2 is turned black
Mn(OH) 2 + NaOCl - > M n O 2 + H2O + NaCl
MnO is oxidized to MnO 2 which is indifferent and forms salts
with neither bases nor acids.
(c) The gray-green Fe(OH) 2 turns reddish brown
2Fe(OH) 2 + NaOCl + H2O -+ 2Fe(OH) 3 + NaCl
(d) The reddish brown Fe(OH) 3 is not altered.
(e) The light-colored Co(OH) 2 turns jet black
2Co(OH) 2 + NaOCl + H2O -* 2Co(OH) 3 + NaCl
(/) The apple green Ni(OH) 2 turns jet black
2Ni(OH) 2 + NaOCl + H2O -+ Ni(OH) 3 + NaCl
6. Oxidation in Alkaline Fusion, (a) Melt sodium car-
bonate in a loop on the end of a platinum wire until a colorless
bead is obtained. Dip the bead in a precipitate of MnO 2
obtained as in Experiment 5 (6), and melt it again, holding
it in the outer edge of the flame to come under the oxidizing
influence of the air. (It is better to use a blow-pipe, holding
the bead in the oxidizing part of the flame.) After the bead
is cold it has a green color.
(6) Repeat (a) using Cr(OH) 3 instead of MnO 2 . A yellow
bead is obtained.
(c) Prepare a somewhat larger amount of sodium man-
ganate as follows: Melt a mixture of 5 grams of sodium hy-
droxide, 1 gram of potassium nitrate, and 0.1 gram of .man-
ganese dioxide in a small iron crucible and heat it until it
ceases to foam and the crucible is dull red. Cool the crucible
and treat the contents with about 200 cc. of water. A most
intense green solution of sodium manganate is formed. Let
the solution settle in a tall beaker, pour the clear, but intense
green, liquid into another beaker, and reserve it for Experi-
ment 7 (a).
EXPERIMENTS 349
In (a) the oxygen of the air oxidizes MnO 2 to MnO 3 , an acidic

oxide, in the presence of a base which will form a stable salt with
the acidic oxide.
MnO 2 + | O 2 -> MnO 3
MnO 3 + Na 2 CO 3 -»• Na 2 Mn0 4 + CO 2
In (6) the Cr 2 O 3 is oxidized to the acidic CrO 3 which gives the
yellow salt Na2CrC>4.
7. Permanganate, (a) Add 6N HNO 3 , drop by drop, to
the solution of Na 2 Mn0 4 reserved from Experiment 6 (c).
The intense green color changes to the equally intense purplish
red of permanganate. Let the solution settle and carefully
pour off the red liquid; a very small dark brown precipitate is
found in the bottom. Reserve the solution for (6).
(6) To the red permanganic acid solution reserved in (a),
add 6 N NaOH until it is strongly alkaline. The color changes
back to the intense green of the manganate.
(c) To 1 drop of Mn(NO 3 ) 2 solution and 10 cc. 6N H N 0 3
in a test tube add 1 gram of lead dioxide and boil. Let the
surplus of lead dioxide settle, and note that the clear solution
has the intense permanganate color.
In (a), nitric acid displaces manganic acid from its salt:
2HNO 3 + K 2 Mn0 4 -» H 2 Mn0 4 + 2KNO 3

The free manganic acid is very unstable and decomposes
3H 2 Mn0 4 -> 2HMnO 4 + MnO 2 + 2H2O
or
3Mn 6 -»• 2Mn 7 + Mn*
In (6) the instability of permanganate ion in presence of OH~

ions is shown
2MnO4~ + 2OH" -»• 2MnO4~~ + H2O + §O2
In (c) in an acid solution the very strong oxidizing agent PbO 2
oxidizes the manganous ion M n + + to the permanganate ion MnC>4~
2Mn(NO 3 ) 2 + 5PbO 2 + 6HNO3 -»• 2HMnO 4
+ 5Pb(NO 3 ) 2 + 2H 2 O
8. Chromate and Dichromate. To a yellow solution of

potassium chromate add 6iV H2SO4, and note that the color
changes to orange red. To an orange red solution of potas-
sium dichromate add 6N NaOH and note that the color
changes to yellow.
The yellow color of the chromate solution is due to the CrOi~~

ion, the orange red of the dichromate to the CtaO?"" ion. The
changes take place according to the reversible reaction.
~ + 2OH" ^ 2 C r O 4 " " + H 2 O
It is obvious that presence of OH~ ions must favor the formation
of chromate, and presence of H+ ions, since they remove OH~ ions,
must favor the formation of dichromate.
It should be noted that the valence of chromium is 6, both in
chromate and dichromate. The difference between manganate
and permanganate lies in the changing valence of the manganese.
The difference between chromate and dichromate lies merely in
the state of hydration and can be referred back to the acids.
CrO 3 + H 2 O -»• H 2 Cr0 4 chromic acid
2CrO 3 + H2O —• H 2 Cr 2 07 dichromic acid
GENERAL QUESTIONS XI
HEAVY METALS OF GROUPS VI, VII, AND VIII

1. In which groups of the periodic system do the elements
chromium, manganese, iron, nickel, and cobalt fall? What is
peculiar about the position of the last three? What other metals
belong to the same family as chromium? In what relation do they
stand to sulphur, selenium, and tellurium? In what relation does
manganese stand to the halogens? What other elements occur
in the eighth group in triads similar to iron, nickel, and cobalt?
2. How do the monoxides of chromium, manganese, iron, cobalt,
and nickel compare in basic strength with the oxides of copper
and zinc and with the oxides of the alkali and alkaline earth metals?
How do the sesquioxides, R2O3, compare with the monoxides of
this group as regards basic strength?
What is true as regards the base- or acid-forming properties of
the oxides higher than the sesquioxides, e.g., of CrO3, MnO 3 ,
Mn2O7?
GENERAL QUESTIONS XI 351
3. Give the formulas and names of salts derived from each of

the three oxides of chromium, CrO, Cr2O3, CrO 3 . In which of its
compounds does chromium most resemble sulphur? iron and
aluminum? nickel, cobalt, copper, and zinc?
4. Give the formulas and names of salts derived from each of
the oxides of manganese, MnO, Mn 2 O 3 , MnO 2 , MnO 3 , Mn 2 O 7 . In
which of its compounds does manganese most resemble chlorine?
aluminum? cobalt, nickel, copper, and zinc? sulphur? lead in the
dioxide?
5. Give a definition of oxidation and reduction. Consider
two examples, (a) the action of KMnO 4 with H2SO3, and (6) the
action of K 2 Cr 2 0 7 with HCl. For both of these cases write equa-
tions according to the oxide method as outlined in Question 1,
under Preparation 64, Chromic Alum. Also write the equations
according to the valence method as outlined in Question 3 under the
same preparation.
APPENDIX
CONCENTRATION OF REAGENTS
The use of a uniform concentration of 6 2V for the acids and bases
in the desk reagent bottles has proved to be very satisfactory.
The more concentrated reagents, which are kept under the hood,
are of the full strength supplied by the manufacturers. '
Acetic add
172V, use commercial glacial acetic acid, about 99.5%, of sp. gr.
1.055.
6 2V, mix 350 cc. of glacial acetic acid with 650 cc. of water.
Hydrochloric acid
12 2V, use commercial concentrated HC1 of sp. gr. 1.19.
6 2V, mix 12 2V HC1 with an equal volume of water.
Nitric add
16 2V, use commercial concentrated HN03 of sp. gr. 1.42.
62V, mix 380 cc. of 16 2V HN03 with 620 cc. of water.
Sulphuric add
36 N, commercial 96% H2SO4 of sp. gr. 1.84.
6 2V, pour 1 volume of the 96% H2SO4 into 5 volumes of water.
Ammonium hydroxide
15 2V, use commercial concentrated NH4OH of sp. gr. 0.90.
62V, mix 400 cc. of 152V NH40H with 600 cc. of water.
Sodium hydroxide
62V, add to 250 grams of NaOH enough water to make the
volume 1,000 cc.
Salts
12V, all salt solutions on the reagent shelves unless otherwise
labeled are understood to be 12V.
352
APPENDIX 353
TENSION OF SATURATED AQUEOUS VAPOR
Temp. Pressure Temp. Pressure Temp. Pressure
0° 4.6 mm. 21° 18.5 mm. 30° 31.5 mm.

5 6.5 22 19.7 35 41.9
10 9.2 23 20.9 40 55.0
15 12.7 24 22.2 50 92.2
16 13.5 25 23.6 60 149.2
17 14.4 26 25.1 70 233.8
18 15.4 27 26.5 80 355.5
19 16.3 28 28.1 90 526.0
20 17.4 29 29.8 100 760.0
ELECTROMOTIVE SERIES
When a metal is in contact with a solution containing its ions,
a difference in electrical potential arises due to the resultant effect
of two tendencies: of the metal on the one hand to throw off posi-
tive ions and thus charge the solution positively, and of the metal
ions on the other hand to deposit on the metal and impart their
charges to it.
The figures given in the table are for the potential of a solution,
normal in the ions of the given metal, measured against the metal
itself which dips in the solution. The potential of a normal
solution of hydrogen ions measured against a hydrogen electrode
(platinum electrode saturated with hydrogen gas under atmos-
pheric pressure) is taken as zero, and the other potentials are
measured from this arbitrary zero point.
The elements for which no figures are given are placed in ap-
proximately their correct position in the series.
METALS
K +2.9 Fe(Fe++) +0.44 As —
Na + 2.7 Cd +0.40 Bi —
Ba + 2.7 Co +0.23 Sb —
Ca +2.7 Ni +0.23 Hg(Hg+) -0.74
Mg + 1.8 Sn(Sn++) + 0.13 Ag -0.80
Al + 1.3 Pb +0.12 pa —
Mn + 1.1 H2 +0.00 Pt —
Zn + 0.8 Cu(Cu++) -0.34 Au ,. - 1 . 3
Cr +0.5
NON-METALS
— I2 -0.53
2 -1.36 O2 (in IN OH" solution)... -0.40
Cli -1.24 S —
O2 (in 1 N H+ solution). -1.08
Br2
354 APPENDIX
PERIODIC CLASSIFICATION OF T H E ELEMENTS A C -

CORDING TO T H E I R ATOMIC NUMBERS AND
T H E ARRANGEMENT OF T H E I R ELECTRONS
The periodic recurrence of similar properties in passing through

the series of chemical elements suggests a recurrence of similar
structural units within the atom, the properties of the element
being dependent on the extent to which each of the units in turn
has been developed. Modern knowledge of the structure of the
atom, although still very inadequate, indicates very clearly
certain principles which render the periodicity of the elements
more comprehensible.
Atoms of Electricity. Atoms of matter are believed to be built
entirely of electrical atoms, of which there are two kinds: the
electron, or atom of negative electricity, with a charge of 4.774 X
10~10 electrostatic unit and a mass T ^¥u t n a * of the hydrogen atom;
and the proton, or atom of positive electricity, with a charge equal
in magnitude to that of the electron but opposite in sign, and a
mass equal that of the hydrogen atom. In fact, the proton is
identical with the hydrogen ion — the neutral hydrogen atom
consisting of one proton and one electron.
Atoms of Matter. Electrically neutral atoms consist of two
parts: the nucleus, and the planetary electrons. There is a certain
analogy between the atom and the solar system, the nucleus cor-
responding to the sun and the planetary electrons to the planets,
and an atom is mostly space just as our solar system is.
The Nucleus. The nucleus of hydrogen consists of a single
proton with unit positive charge; the nucleus of helium consists
of an aggregate of four protons and two electrons with mass four
and two units of net positive charge. The nuclei of all the elements
consist of closely packed aggregates of protons and electrons, with
protons always in excess, so that the net charge is always positive.
The atomic number of an element is equal to the number of net
positive charges of the nucleus; the atomic weight is approximately
equal to the number of protons of the nucleus. Elements are now
known representing practically all the atomic numbers from
hydrogen 1 to uranium 92.
Variation of Mass in Close Packing of Nucleus. The atomic
weight of hydrogen is 1.008, that is to say, 6.06 X 1023 (Avogadro's
number) hydrogen atoms weigh 1.008 grams. The atomic weight
THE PEEIODIC AERANGEMENT ACCOEDING TO ELECTEON GEOUPINGS
0 1 1 2
H H He
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
He 2 He Li Be B C O F
N Ne
Ne 2-8 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Ne Na Mg Al Si P S Cl A
A 2-8-8 18 19 20 21 22 23 25 26 27 28
A K Ca Ti Cr Mn Co
29 Sc 32 V
31 Fe Ni
Ni0 2-8-18 28 30 33 34 35 36
Ni/J Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
Kr 2-8-18-8 36 37 38 39 40 41 W 43 44 46 46
Kr Eb Sr Y Zr Cb Mo Ma Ru Rh Pd
Pda 2-8-18-18 46 47 48 49 50
Pd0 Ag Cd In Sn Sb
51 52 53 54
Te I Xe 3
54 55 56 57 58 69 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 o
Xe 2-8-18-18-S Xe Cs Ba La Ce Pr
i Nd 11 Sa Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb
68 71 72 73 n 75 76 77 78
ErjS 2-8-18-32-8 Er/J Lu Hf Ta w Re Os Ir Pt
78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Pt/J 2-8-18-32-18 Pt/J Au Hg Tl Pb Bi RaF Nt
86 87 88 89 90 91 92
Nt 2-8-18-32-18-8 Nt Ea Ac Th Pa U
Symbol printed in heavy type — the kernel never acquires the structure of an inert gas or a beta kernel
Symbol printed in italics — the kernel sometimes acquires the structure of an inert gas or a beta kernel
Symbol printed in ordinary type — the kernel usually or invariably has the structure of an inert gas or a beta kernel
Elements 43, Masurium; 61, Illinium; 84, Polonium or Radium F; 89, Actinium; 91, Uranium Xa do not appear in the CO
atomic weight tables. Although their existence has been indicated by means of X-rays or radioactive properties, they have
not been isolated in amounts to allow of atomic weight determmation.
356 APPENDIX
of helium is exactly 4, that is to say, 6.06 X 1023 helium atoms weigh

4.00 grams. If it is true, as we believe, that the helium nucleus
contains four protons, which apart have a mass of 4.032 units, they
must, in the process of packing together with two electrons into the
minute space of the nucleus, have lost 0.032 unit of mass. When
we consider the incredibly great forces that must exist within the
nucleus, such a loss of mass cannot be considered as surprising.
In the building up of all the other atoms the protons always
suffer about the same diminution of mass as in the formation of
helium nuclei. Thus the masses of all atoms except hydrogen are
very nearly even multiples of the same unit, that is, one-fourth
the mass of the helium atom, or one-sixteenth the mass of the
oxygen atom.
Isotopes. Elements which like chlorine have uneven atomic
weight really consist of a mixture of atoms of different masses but
of the same atomic number. Ordinary chlorine, for example, of
atomic weight 35.45 consists of a mixture of atoms of masses 35
and 37 of which there are about three times as many of the former
as of the latter. These two atomic species are called isotopes.
It is the atomic number, or the charge of the nucleus, which
determines the chemical properties of the element; so the different
isotopes are identical in chemical properties and cannot be sepa-
rated by any chemical processes. Thus the uniformity of the
atomic weight of chlorine wherever found. The isotopes must
have been uniformly mixed at the creation of our earth and no
process since has ever sorted them out into separate fractions.
Permanency of Nucleus. The force which must be overcome in
forcing protons together against their enormous electrostatic re-
pulsion into the narrow confines of the nucleus is beyond our
comprehension. No adequate theory has been devised to explain
the stability of the nucleus; yet the fact of the permanency of the
nucleus exists. The identity of the element depends on the perma-
nency of the nucleus, and our well-known law of the conservation
of the elements expresses the almost absolute permanency of the
nuclei of the common elements. Only with the radioactive
elements is the nucleus subject to change, and this change is in
most ways entirely unaffected by any physical or chemical forces
which scientists are able to bring to bear.
Radioactive Disintegration. In radioactive disintegration a
nucleus suddenly explodes ejecting either an electron (beta par-
APPENDIX 357
tide) or a helium nucleus (alpha particle) and leaving as a residue

the nucleus of a simpler element. The beta or alpha particles are
ejected with enormous velocity, and streams of these particles
constitute the so-called beta and alpha rays. For each radio
element there is a definite probability as to the length of time an
atom will maintain its identity before the radioactive disintegra-
tion occurs. The radioactivity of uranium, for example, is very
weak, and if we start with a definite mass today it will take eight
billion years (8 X 109) before one-half of its atoms have disinte-
grated. On the other hand, the much more strongly radioactive
radium disintegrates more rapidly, and it takes but two thousand
years before one-half of its atoms have changed.
Without doubt somewhere in the universe nuclei of all elements
are being both built up and disintegrated. Such processes are
perhaps going on in the interior of the sun and the hot stars where
temperatures of 40,000,000 degrees prevail, perhaps also out in
infinite space, but such ideas are highly speculative.
Law of Electrostatic Attraction and Repulsion. This law, which
is known as Coulomb's law, has the same mathematical form
as Newton's law of gravitation: The force repelling two like
charges is equal to the product of the charges divided by the
square of the distance between. The force attracting unlike
charges is of the same magnitude. If the charges are of 1 electro-
static unit each and the distance is 1 cm. the force is 1 dyne.
The total net charge on one electrochemical equivalent of ions,* say
on 35.45 grams of chlorine ions, is 6.06 X 1023 X 4.774 X lO"10 or
29 X 1013 electrostatic units. Therefore, if this charge is concen-
trated at a point and the total net charge on 23 grams of sodium
ions is concentrated at a point 1 cm. away, the attraction between
these charges will be 84 X 1027 dynes, or 1020 metric tons.
If these charges are a meter apart the attraction will be 1016
metric tons. If they are as far apart as the north and south poles
of our earth the attraction will still be 60 metric tons.
Structural Forces within the Atom. Coulomb's law holds ac-
curately for all distances outside of atomic dimensions (10~8 cm.),
* The total charge on one gram equivalent of ions, expressed in the common
unit, is 96,500 coulombs. This quantity of electricity is known as the faraday,
and it is constantly used by electrochemists. One coulomb consists of 3 X 109
electrostatic units, and the faraday therefore contains 29 X 1013 electrostatic
units.
358 APPENDIX
and there are indications that it holds down to the dimensions of

the nucleus (10~13 cm.). Within the atom there are other forces,
which include possible magnetic and centrifugal forces, which,
superimposed upon the force of Coulomb's law, give a condition of
stability to electrons in certain discrete positions within the atom.
If Coulomb's law alone were operative all electrons would sink into
the nucleus. The forces which prevent this and hold the plane-
tary electrons out at relatively great distances from the nucleus
are an expression of the nature of the electrons themselves, but
about this we know very little and have in the main to content
ourselves with the fact that there are certain discrete levels of
shells around the nucleus which can be occupied by electrons,
and the number of electrons in a shell cannot exceed a certain
maximum. Within the limitations of these discrete shells th(t
electrons appear to be subject to the electrostatic attraction of the
positive nucleus and the mutual repulsion of the electrons, and to
take such positions within atoms and molecules as are in conformity
with the requirements of Coulomb's law.
Electron Shells. A very theoretical study of the spectrum lines
of the light emitted by the elements, combined with a study of the
chemical properties of the elements, seems to establish the general
rule that the maximum number of electrons which can occupy the
succeeding shells* around the nucleus progresses as twice the
square of succeeding whole numbers, or as 2, 8, 18, 32
The mutual repulsion of the electrons for each other, however,
tends to prevent the larger numbers collecting in a shell, and
electrons may stay in outer shells rather than enter into an inner
one up to the maximum number. The configuration produced
by these numbers, however, seems to impart stability to a shell,
and whenever the shell is not filled to the maximum there seems
to be a strong tendency to acquire the number eight, and, next to
that, eighteen.
Stability of Inert Gases. The key to the method of building up
the electronic structure of atoms in layers was found through a
consideration of the inert gases. Their inertness points to the
great stability of their atomic structure. Since they never form
* Although spectrosoopio study indicates the existence of subgroups within
the shells here discussed, the subgrouping does not seem to exhibit itself
strongly in determining chemical properties. For the sake of simplicity it is
omitted entirely in this discussion.
APPENDIX 359
compounds their atoms are always electrically neutral and the

number of planetary electrons is the same as the nuclear charge.
The atomic numbers give the sequence 2, 18, 36, 54, 86, and it is
obvious that these numbers of electrons must fall into layers of
great stability. The numbers in the succeeding shells are probably
as follows:
He 2 2
Ne10 2 8
Al8 2 8 8
Kr3e 2 8 18 8
Xe64 2 8 18 18 8
Nt 86 2 8 18 32 18 8
To take for example the atom of xenon, the first three shells
are filled to the maximum numbers of 2, 8, and 18. There remain
26 electrons, but when the number 18 in the fourth shell is reached,
it is more difficult for the remaining electrons to enter this shell
than to begin building a new shell. The 8 electrons left are
just enough to give the stable configuration of 8 in the fifth
shell.
The neutral atom of cesium has one more electron than xenon,
and this extra electron stays in the sixth shell rather than forcing
itself into either the fourth or fifth shells and disturbing the stable
arrangements of 18 and 8 in these.
Positive Polar Valence. This single electron in the outer layer
has very little stability in its isolated position and is easily removed
altogether from the atom, leaving the atom with a net positive
charge of one unit. Thus the ease with which cesium changes
to cesium ion Cs+ is accounted for. Similarly, the formation of
barium ion B a + + and lanthanum ion L a + + + is accounted for.
Negative Polar Valence. There still exists the usual electrostatic
attraction between the electron and the kernel of the cesium atom.
The kernel consists of the nucleus and all the electron layers except
the outer layer, or valence layer. In fact, the electron would
ordinarily be held in the outer layer unless some other atom were
ready to take it up. Neutral atoms with nearly complete outer
shells show a strong tendency to take on enough electrons to com-
plete the shell. This tendency is strong enough to overcome the
electrostatic repulsion of the other electrons and impart to the
atom a net negative charge. Thus the chlorine atom Cln 2-8-7
360 APPENDIX
will take up the electron lost by the cesium atom and become the
chlorine ion, Cli7 2-8-8.
Major Periods. The major periods of the periodic classification
embrace all the elements between two succeeding inert gases.
The first period comprises but two elements, hydrogen and
helium.
The next two periods comprise eight elements each.
The next two periods comprise eighteen elements each.
The next period comprises thirty-two elements.
Only a fragment of the next period is known. Obviously nuclei
of elements of a higher atomic number than 92 are unable to exist.
In fact, all the known elements of this period, and RaF (or polon-
ium) in the preceding period, are radioactive.
In the eight element periods the chemical properties of the
elements are dependent on the tendency for the atoms to gain or
lose electrons to acquire the structure of the atoms of the inert
gases at either end.
The electrostatic strain of acquiring a large charge (either posi-
tive or negative) is great and distinctly polar valences of more than
3 are very unusual. Yet sulphur in H2SO4 is considered to have
a positive valence of 6 due to its tendency to revert to the structure
of neon; and chlorine in HCIO4 is considered to have a positive
valence of 7 due to the same cause. Yet these high valences are
not altogether of a polar nature, although they are obviously
dependent on the distance of the element beyond the preceding
inert gas.
In the longer periods (of 18 and 32 elements) the elements near
the beginning and end obviously derive their properties from their
proximity to the inert gases.
In the middle parts of the longer periods the electrons to be
gained or lost to acquire the structure of the nearest inert gas
would impart too great an electrostatic strain. The usually
encountered positive valences of two or three of such elements is
attributed to a shifting of electrons into the kernel layers, thus
leaving but two or three electrons in the valence layer (or sheath)
of the neutral atom. Take, for example, the period beginning with
Xe M : The elements Cs66, Ba6e, La57 display the expected valences
of 1, 2, and 3, respectively. Cerium, Ce58, sometimes displays a
valence of 4 which is derived from the structure of xenon, Ce68
2-8-18-18-8-4, but cerium shows an even stronger inclination to
APPENDIX 361
display the valence of 3 which is explained by the transfer of one

electron from the sheath to the fourth kernel layer giving the
structure Ce68 2-8-18-19-8-3.
Praseodymium PrB9 never displays the valence of 5, but it and
the succeeding elements up through lutecium LU71 display almost
without exception the valence of 3. Each additional electron in
this so-called transition series, LaB7 to Lu7i, sinks into the fourth
kernel layer until in lutecium this layer is filled to a maximum of
32. Lu7i 2-8-18-32-8-3. The next element, hafnium, should
retain four electrons in its valence layer and display an invariable
valence of 4.
It is one of the great triumphs of theory that Bohr's predictions
concerning element 72 were proved to be accurate. Bohr con-
cluded from reasonings along the lines we have indicated that the
element of atomic number 72 should have a valence of 4 and
resemble zirconium and thorium in chemical properties, instead
of having a valence 3 and resembling the rare earth elements as
had previously been supposed. He instigated a search in his
laboratories at Copenhagen for this element, and very shortly it
was found in some of the minerals that were tested and it proved
to be present in the earth in fair abundance. It proved to have
the properties predicted, and it was named hafnium in honor of
the country in which it was discovered.
The shorter transition series in the eighteen element periods are
indicated in the table by printing the symbols of the elements in
heavy type or italics.
Subordinate Periods. Within the long periods are clearly
recognizable subordinate periods, which were already indicated
in the older Mendelejeff and Lothar Meyer charts of the periodic
system (see back cover page). Closer study seems to indicate
that the elements of the subordinate periods are related to the
elements Ni, Pd, Er, Pt in the same way that the elements of the
two short periods are related to He and Ne. The number of
electrons in these apparently key elements is such as might give
the following structures.
Ni28 2 8 18
Pd46 2 8 18 18
Er08 2 8 18 32 8
Pt78 2 8 18 32 18
362 APPENDIX
These structures possess layers of inherent stability, but the

nuclear charge is not great enough to hold the large outer layer of
18 or the next to the last of 32 against the repulsive forces.
Given the greater nuclear charge of the succeeding elements, how-
ever, and these structures become stable. (In the case of erbium
the three additional nuclear charges of lutecium are necessary
before this particular erbium kernel structure becomes stable.)
Thus the following elements derive their properties from the
tendency to revert to the stable forms of the key elements. These
are called the beta forms, or Ni/3, Pd/3, Er/3, Pt/3, and the subordi-
nate periods are based on these forms, as is apparent in the table,
in the same way that the major periods are based on the inert gases.
Non-Polar Valence. Inorganic chemists very generally ascribe
a polarity to valence even in compounds which show little or no
ionization. In the carbon compounds of organic chemistry there is
almost absolutely no evidence of polarity, and the organic chemist
has been in the habit of regarding valence merely as the number
of non-polar chemical bonds holding atoms together in molecules.
These two ideas of valence formerly led to much misunderstanding.
But this misunderstanding is obviated by an hypothesis first
suggested by G. N. Lewis in 1916 and extended by Langmuir in
1919, which allows both polar and non-polar valence to be referred
back to the same common cause. This cause is the tendency of
atoms to acquire outer layers containing stable numbers, (most
often 8, but 2 for the period ending with He and 18 in the periods
based on Ni/3, Pd/3, and Pt/3). The specific hypothesis is that in the
case of non-polar valence certain electrons may simultaneously
occupy places in the completed sheaths of two atoms. Thus in
forming the chlorine molecule from two neutral chlorine atoms
Cln 2-8-7, the two sheaths are completed if two electrons are
held jointly in both sheaths. The kernel charge of chlorine is 7.
The following formula, in which the sheath electrons are repre-
sented by dots and the symbol Cl stands for the chlorine kernel
with its 7 net positive charge, represents the arrangement in the
chlorine molecule:
: C l : Cl :
The pair of electrons held jointly constitutes the chemical bond,

for it exerts an electrostatic attraction for both kernels and thus
APPENDIX 363
holds them together. The formulas of methane, carbon tetra-

chloride, sulphate ion, perchlorate ion, are shown as follows, it
being remembered that the kernel charges are: 1 for hydrogen,
4 for carbon, 6 for oxygen, and 7 for chlorine; and that the
completed sheath of hydrogen contains but two electrons.
H Cl: *0 : *0 :
H: C: H : Cl: C : Cl: : 0: S : 0: : 0 : Cl: 0 :
H Cl: .0 : 0 :
If one counts the positive and negative charges of these formulas it

is noted that CH 4 and CC14 are electrically neutral, but that the
sulphate ion has a net of 2 negative charges, S0 4 ~~, and the
perchlorate ion has a net of one negative charge, C104~.
SOLUBILITIES
A substance is classified as soluble if as much as 2 parts by
weight dissolves in 100 parts of water. There is no sharp dividing
line between soluble and insoluble, but in general a substance is
classified as insoluble if less than 1 part by weight dissolves in 100
parts of water. It is advisable to learn the following general
statements of solubilities.
SOLUBLE IN WATER
1. All simple salts of sodium, potassium, and ammonium.
2. Acetates and nitrates, except some basic acetates and ni-
trates.
3. Chlorides, except AgCl, HgCl, CuCl, PbCl 2 .
4. Sulphates, except BaSO4, SrSO4, CaSO4, PbSO 4 .
INSOLUBLE IN WATER
1. Oxides and hydroxides
2. Carbonates except those of
3. Phosphates sodium, potassium,
4. Sulphides and ammonium.
TABLE OF SOLUBILITIES 1
The tables on the following pages give more exact data which
should be useful in connection with the preparations and ques-
tions in this book.
The formulas are those of the crystallized compounds which
most readily separate from aqueous solution at the laboratory
temperature, but it should be remembered that many salts have
several hydrates.
In the second column the behavior of the crystallized salt when
it is exposed to the air of the laboratory is indicated: s = stable,
i.e. unchanged by exposure to atmosphere; e = efflorescent; d =
deliquescent; d, e = deliquescent or efflorescent, according as
to whether the humidity is above or below the average; CO2 =
absorbs carbon dioxide and falls to a white powder; Ox = com-
pound is oxidized, especially in presence of moisture; Hyd =
hydrolyzed, even by the water vapor of the air.
In the third column are given the figures for the solubility at
0°, 25°, and 100°, except in the cases in which other tempera-
tures are indicated in parenthesis. Fractions have, as a rule,
been dropped in giving the solubilities.
1
Much of the data in this table has been obtained from Seidell, Solu-
bilities of Inorganic and Organic Substances.
364
APPENDIX 365
SOLUBILITY IN WATER
Salt Formula of crystallized salt. ^3

Color g •« Grams anhydrous salt per F W per liter
(White unless otherwise specified) I s 100 grains water in a sat- of solution
s, 1 urated solution at at laboratory
1 0° 25° 100° temperature.
Aluminum:
chloride, A1C13 6H2O d (15°) 70 4
nitrate, A1(NO3)3 9H2O d very soluble
sulphate, A12(SO4)3.18H2O s 31 38 89 0.8
sulphide, A12S3 Hyd hydrolyzes completely
Ammonium"
acetate, NH4C2H3O2 d very soluble
bromide NH4Br s 61 79 146 6
(bi) carbonate, NH4HCO3 s 12 24 27
chloride, NH4C1 s 29 39 77 5
chromate, (NHj) 2CrO4, yellow s (30°) 40 2.3
dichromate, (NH4)2Cr207, or
ange s (30°) 47 1.4
iodide, NHJ d 154 177 250 6
nitrate, NH4NO3 d 118 214 871 11
oxalate, (NH4)2C2O4 s 2 1 48 04
sulphate, (NH4)aSO4 s 71 77 103 4.5
Antimony:
chloride, SbCl3 d f hydrolyzes with water
sulphate, Sb2(SO4)3 d < to insoluble basic salt.
[ very soluble in acids
sulphide, Sb2S3, black, orange s insoluble, soluble in con
centrated acids
Arsenic" insoluble in water or acids.
sulphide, As2S3, yellow s soluble in alkalies
Barium:
acetate, Ba(C2H3O2)2 H2O s 58 77 75 2
bromide, BaBr2 2H2O s 98 106 149 25
carbonate, BaCO3 s 0 0023 0 000,11
chloride, BaCl2 2H2O s 32 37 59 17
chromate, BaCrO4, yellow s 0 0004 0 000,015
hydroxide, Ba(OH)2.8H2O CO2 17 4 7 (80°) 101 02
iodate, Ba(IO3)2 H2O s 0 008 0 03 0 2 0 001
iodide, Bal2 6H2O d 170 213 272 3
nitrate, Ba(NO3)2 s, d 5 10 34 03
peroxide, BaO2 8 H 2 O . . . . e 0 15 0 01
sulphate, BaSO4 s 0 00023 0 000,010
sulphide, BaS Ox hydrolyzes to Ba(SH)i
(soluble) and Ba(OH)i
sulphite, BaSO3 s (20°) 0 020 (80°) 0 002 0 001
Bismuth:
chloride, BiCl3 d 1 hydrolyzes with water to
nitrate, Bi(NO3)3 5H2O d > insoluble basic salt.
sulphate, Bi2(SO4)3 d 1 very soluble in acids
sulphide, Bi2Sa, black s insoluble in acids or alkalies
366 APPENDIX
>spheie
SOLUBILITY IN WATER
hen
Salt. Formula of crystallized salt *a
Color 2 « Grams anhydrous salt per F W per liter
(White unless otherwise specified) 100 grams water in a sat. of solution
is 1 urated solution at ab laboratory
01 0° 25° 100° temperature
Cadmium:
carbonate, CdCO3 . . s insoluble, soluble m acids
chloride, CdCl2 2|H2O e 90 (18°) 110 147 5
nitrate, Cd(NO3)2 4H2O d 110(l8°)127 326 43
sulphate, CdSO4 2?H2O e 76(40°) 79 61 2
sulphide, CdS, yellow s insoluble, soluble in con
centrated acids
Calcium"
acetate, Ca(C2H3O2)2 2H2O e 37 34 30 19
bromide, CaBr2 6H2O d 125 153 295 5
carbonate, CaCO3 s 0 0013 0 00013
chlorate, Ca(C103)2 2H2O d (18°) 178 53
chloride, CaCl2 6H2O d 60 88 159 52
chromate, CaCrO4 2H2O,
yellow e 11 12 3 08
fluoride, CaF2 s 0 0016 0 0002
hydroxide, Ca(OH)2 CO2 0 19 0 16 0 08 0 02
nitrate, Ca(NO3)2 4H2O d (18°) 122 52
oxalate, CaC2O4 H2O s 0 0007 0 00004
sulphate, CaSO4 2H2O . s 0hydrolyzes
18 0 21to Ca(SH)0 16 0 015
sulphide, CaS .. Ox (soluble) and Ca(OH)22
sulphite, CaSO3 0 004 0 0003
Chromium"
chloride, CrCl3 6H2O, purple d 130 8
nitrate, Cr(NO3)3 9H2O,
purple very soluble melts 36 5°
sulphate, Cr2(SO4)3 18H2O,
purple s, e 120 4
Cobalt:
carbonate, CoCO3, pink s insoluble, soluble in acids
chloride, CoCl2 6H2O, pink s 42 53 104 3
nitrate, Co(NO3)2 6H2O, pink d (0°)84 (91°) 340 43
sulphate, CoSO4 7H2O, pink s 26 in water
insoluble 39 or dilute
83 2
sulphide, CoS, black. s acids
Copper:
carbonate,
mCu(OH)2reCuCO3,green s insoluble, soluble in acids
chloride, CuCl2 2H2O, blue s, d 71 79 108 50
nitrate, Cu(NO3)s 6H2O, blue e 82 150 275 48
sulphate, CnSO4 5H2O, blue s, e 14 23 75 12
sulphide, CuS, black s insoluble in water or acids
APPENDIX 367
asphere
SOLUBILITY IN WATER
hen
Salt Formula of crystallized salt. t£
Color 2« Grams anhydrous salt per F W per liter
(White unless otherwise specified) a 2 100 grams water in a sat of solution
•§ "8 urated solution at at laboratory
0° 25° 100° temperature.
Hydrogen:
arsenic acid, H3ASO4 JHÔ d very soluble melts 35 5°
benzoic acid, HC7H6O2 s 0 17 0 35 5 9 0 03
bone acid,
iodic acid, H3BO3
HIO3 s 20 47 27 5 0 6
d, s 300
oxalic acid, H2C2O4 2H2O 09
phosphoric acid, H3PO4 sd 3very
5 soluble,
11 4 melts
(70°) 64
37°
Iron:
carbonate (ous), FeCO3. s insoluble soluble in acids
chloride (ous), FeCl2 4H2O,
pale green
chloride (IC). FeCl3 6H2O, d (15°) 67 (80°) 100
yellow d very soluble, melts 31°
nitrate (ous), Fe(NO3)2 6H2O Ox (18°) 82
(ic),Fe(NO3)3 9H O d very soluble melts 47°
sulphate (ous), FeSO4 7H22O,
pale green
sulphate (ic),Fe2(SO4)3 9H2O e, dOx (0°)16 (30°) 33 (90°) 43 2
very soluble
sulphide, FeS, black s insoluble, soluble in acids
Lead
acetate, Pb(C2H3O2)2 3H2O s 50 200 15
bromide, PbBr2 s 0 5 10 4 8 0 02
carbonate, PbCO3 s 0 0001 0 000,003
chloride,
chromate,PbCl 2
PbCrOj, yellow s 0 7 11 3 3 0 05
s 0001 000,000,3
hydroxide, Pb(OH)2 s 0 01 0 000,4
iodide, Pbl2, yellow s 0 04 0 08 0 44 0 002
nitrate, Pb(NO3)2 s 38 61 139 14
sulphate, PbSO4 s 0 004 0 000,13
sulphide, PbS, black s insoluble soluble in con-
centrated strong acids
Lithium
carbonate, Li2CO3 s 15 13 0 7 0 17
(bi) carbonate, L1HCO3 s (13°) 5 5 08
chloride, LiCl d 67 82 128 13 3
hydroxide, LiOH H2O CO2 12 7 12 9 17 5 50
nitrate, LiNO3 3H2O d (0°) 54 (30°) 138 (70°) 176 7 3
sulphate, Li2SO4 s 35 34 30 28
Magnesium
bromide, MgBr, 6H2O d 92 98 120 46
carbonate, MgCO3 3H2O s 02 0 01
chloride,
hydroxide,MgCl 2 6H2O
Mg(OH) d 53 57 73 51
2 CO2 0 001 0 000,2
nitrate, Mg(NOi>)s 6H2O d (0°) 67 (40°) 85 4 0
sulphate, MgSO4 7H2O e 27 39 74 28
368 APPENDIX
>sphere
SOLUBILITY IN WATER
hen
Salt. Formula of crystallized salt :i
Color 8 1 Grams anhydrous salt per F W per liter
(White unless otherwise specified) H 100 grams water in a sat- of solution
11 urated solution at at laboratory
V 0° 25° 100° temperature.
Manganese:
carbonate, MnCO3, pale pink. S insoluble, soluble in acids
chloride, MnCl2 4H2O, rose e, d 63 77 115 5
nitrate, Mn(NOj)j 6H2O, rose d 102 166(35 5°)331 5
sulphate, MnSO4 5H2O, rose s, e 53 65 32 4
sulphide, MnS, pink . Ox insoluble soluble
acids
in dilute
Mercury:
chloride (ous), HgCl s 0 0002 0 000,01
(ic), HgCl2 s 37 74 61 02
iodide (ic), Hgl2, red s 0 005 0 000,1
nitrate (ous), HgNO3.H2O s, e \ very soluble inalittle water
much water ppts basic salt
(ic), Hg(NO3)2 iH2O d [very soluble in HNOa
sulphate (ous), Hg2SO4 s 0 06 0 001
(ic), HgSO4. s hydrolyzes. moderately
soluble in acids
sulphide (ic), HgS, black.. s insoluble insoluble in con
centrated acids
Nickel-
carbonate, N1CO3, green s insoluble, soluble in acids
chloride, NiCl2 6H2O, green s, d 54 67 88 4
nitrate, NiNO3 6H2O, green s, d (0°)80 (20°) 96 (95°) 233 6
sulphate, NiSO4 7H2O, green e (0°) 27 (30°) 43 (99°) 77 2
sulphide, NiS, black s insoluble inacids
water or dilute
Potassium:
acetate, KC2H3O2 d (5°) 188 (14°) 230 (62°) 492 25
bromate, KBrO3 s 3 1 80 50 0 38
bromide, KBr s 54 68 104 46
carbonate, K2CO3 1§H2O d 89 113 156 59
(bi) carbonate, KHCO3 s 22 36 (80°) 60 28
chlorate, KC103 s 31 82 56 0 52
chloride, KC1 s 28 36 57 39
chromate, K2Cr04, yellow s 59 64 79 27
(di) chromate, K2Cr207, or-
ange s 5 16 89 04
ferricyanide, K3Fe(CN)6, red s 31 46 82 12
ferrocyanide,
K4Fe(CN)6.3H2O, yellow s 13 28 76 06
fluoride, KF 2H2O . d (18°) 92 12 4
hydroxide, KOH.2H2O .. d 97 119 178 18
iodate, KIO3 . . s 47 99 32 0 35
iodide, KI . . s 128 148 208 60
manganate, K2Mn04,
intense green . . d very soluble
nitrate, KNO3 s 13 37 246 26
APPENDIX 369
>sphere.
SOLUBILITY ra 1,VATEB
hen
Salt. Formula of crystallized salt *a
Color Grams anhydrous salt per F W per hter
(White unless otherwise specified) ^ s 100 grams water in a sat- of solution
&1 urated solution at at laboratory
I 0° 25° 100° temperature.
Potassium:
oxalate, K2C2O4 H2O s 38 16
perchlorate, KC104 s 19 20 0 11
permanganate, KMnO4,
intense purple s 2 8 8 0 (65°) 25 0 33
sulphate, K2SO4 s 7 12 21 0 62
(bi) sulphate, KHSO4 36 (20°) 51 122 35
sulphide, K2S 5H2O d very soluble
sulphite, K2SO3 2H2O d very soluble
thiocyanate, KSCN d 177 (20°) 217 11
Silver:
acetate, AgC2H3O2 s 07 1 1 (80°) 2 5 0 06
bromate, AgBrO3 s 0 19 0 008
bromide, AgBr s 0 000,01 0 000,000,6
carbonate, Ag2CO3 s 0 003 0 000,1
chlorate, AgC103 s 15 06
chloride, AgCl s 0 000,2 0 000,01
chromate, Ag2Cr04, red s 0 002 0 000,15
fluoride, AgF . . d (16°) 182 13 5
iodate, AgIO3 s 0 005 0 000,2
iodide, Agl, yellow s 0 000,000,3 0 000,000,01
nitrate, AgNO3 s 122 257 952 84
nitrite, AgNO2 s 0 16 0 4 1 36(60°) 0 03
oxide, Ag2O, brown, dis-
solves as AgOH s 0 0025 0 000,2
perchlorate, AgClCh d very soluble
sulphate, Ag2SO4 s (18°)0 73 (100°) 1 5 0 024
sulphide, Ag2S, black s lnaoluble in water or acids
Sodium:
acetate, NaC2H3O2.3H2O s, e 36 50 170 6
(tetra) borate,
Na2B4O7 10H2O s 13 33 53 0 15
bromate, NaBrO3 s 28 38 91 17
bromide, NaBr 2H2O s 73 87 118 69
carbonate, Na2CO3 10H2O e 70 28 46 18
(bi) carbonate, NaHCO3 s 69 10 11
chlorate, NaC103. .. s 82 105 233 64
chloride, NaCl s 36 36 40 54
chromate, Na2CrO4.10H2O,
yellow e 32 86 127 33
(di)chromate, Na2Cr20, 2H2O
orange d (o°)163 (98°) 433 50
fluoride, NaF s (21") 4 2 11
hydroxide, NaOH H2O d 42 114 348 21
iodate, NaIO3 s 25 11 34 05
iodide, NaI.2H2O e, d 159 184 302 81
370 APPENDIX
>sphere
SOLUBILITY IN WATEB
hen
Salt. Formula of crystalhzed salt *a
Color Grams anhydrous salt per F W per liter
(White unless otherwise specified) « -2 100 grams water in a sat- of solution
m* urated solution at at laboratory
! 0° 25° 100° temperature.
Sodium*
nitrate, NaNO3 s 73 92 178 74
nitrite, NaNO2 d 72 88 162 10
oxalate, Na2C2O4 s 36 03
permanganate,
NaMnO4 3H2O, intense
purple d very soluble
phosphate, Na3PO4 12H2O e 1 15 108 0 85
Na2HPO4 12H2O e 1 12 102 0 81
NaH2PO4H2O . s 58 95 247 60
sulphate, Na2SO4.10H2O e 5 28 43 18
(bi) sulphate, NaHSO* H2O d 29 50 2
sulphide, Na2S 9H2O /Ox 17 2
ld,e
sulphite, Na2SO3 10H2O e (0°) 14 20°) 27 (40°) 50 2
(bi) sulphite, NaHSOa e very soluble
thiosulphate, Na2S2O3.5H2O s, e (10°) 60 (25°) 76 (45°) 124 5
Strontium:
carbonate, SrCO3 s 0 001 0 000,07
chloride, SrCl2 6H2O e 44 56 101 30
hydroxide, Sr(OH)2 8H2O CO2 04 10 32 0 06
nitrate, Sr(NO3)2 4H2O e 40 79 101 27
sulphate, SrSO4 s 0 01 0 000,6
Tin:
s
chloride (ous), SnCL 2H2O /(.Ox (o°)84 (15°) 270 7
sulphide (ous), SnS, black s insoluble soluble inNasS*
(ic), SnS2, yellow s insoluble soluble in Na2S
Zinc-
carbonate, ZnCO3 s insoluble soluble macids
chloride, ZnCl2 3H2O d 208 432 615 92
nitrate, Zn(NO3)2 6H2O d 95 127 47
sulphate, ZnSO4 7H2O e 42 58 81 31
sulphide, ZnS s insoluble soluble inacids
APPENDIX 371
DENSITIES OF HYDROCHLORIC ACID SOLUTIONS
Per cent H C l by weight Density 20°/4°
1 1 0032
2 1 0082
4 1 0181
6 1 0279
8 1 0376
10 1 0474
12 1 0574
14 1 0675
16 1 0776
18 1 0878
20 1 0980
22 1 1083
24 1 1187
26 1 1290
28 1 1392
30 1 1493
32 1 1593
34 1 1691
36 1 1789
38 1 1885
40 1 1980
DENSITIES OF HYDROBROMIC ACID SOLUTIONS
Per cent H B r by weight Density 2074°
1 1 0053
2 1 0124
4 1 0269
6 1 0417
8 1 0568
10 1 0723
12 1 0883
14 1 1048
16 1 1219
18 1 1396
20 1 1579
22 1 1767
24 1 1961
26 1 2161
28 1 2367
30 1 2580
35 1 3150
40 1 3772
45 1 4446
50 1 5173
55 1 5953
60 1 6787
65 1 7675
LIST OF APPARATUS
Articles which have a limited use are indicated by the experiment (E) or
preparation (P) number for which they are required. Articles in the desk
equipment are indicated by *. Roman numerals refer to chapters.
Anvil and hammer P. 59, 66, 72 Condenser, Liebig, 36-inch P. 44

Asbestos paper P. 13, 35 Condenser, phosphoric acid P. 52
Balance, analytical, sensitive to 0.01 Conductivity apparatus Chapter III
gram E. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, P. 17 Connector, brass P. 17
Balance, Trip Cork borers, sizes 1-3
Bath, sand, iron 6-inch P. 27, 43, Crucible, clay, with cover, 30 gram,
49,66 3 | X 3|-inch, P. 10, 11, 20, 22, 59
*Beaker, 150 cc. Crucible, clay, with cover, size I,
*Beaker, 250 cc. 4 | X 51-inch, P. 66, 72
*Beaker, 400 cc. Crucible, porcelain, with cover, 15 cc.
*Beaker, 600 cc. Crucible, porcelain, with cover, 100 cc.
•Block, test tube P. 39
Boat, porcelain, 88 mm. E. 4 Crucible, iron, with cover, 400 cc.
Bottle, tincture, common, 1-pint P. 61, 71
E. 6,P. 16 "Cylinder, graduated 50 cc.
Bottle, wide mouth, common 2 oz. Cylinder, graduated 500 cc. E. 6,
Bottle, wide mouth, common 4 oz. P. 62, 73
*Bottle, wide mouth, common 8 oz. Desiccator 6-inch P. 25
*Bottle, wide mouth, common | Dish, crystallizing, 4-inch
gallon Dish, crystallizing, 8-inch
Bottle, tincture, glass stopper 8 oz. *Dish, evaporating, porcelain, 4-inch
E. 6, P. 7 *Dish, evaporating, porcelain, 8-inch
Bottle, wide mouth, glass stopper, 2 Electrode, carbon, \ X 6-inch, P. 17
oz. P. 52, 53 Electrode, copper, spiral, about 13
Bottle, wide mouth, glass stopper, 4 gauge wire, P. 17
oz. P. 62 Electrode, iron, spiral, about 18
Bottle, Woulff, 3 neck, 500 cc. P. 7, gauge wire, P. 17
18 File, round
•Brush, test tube *File, triangular
Bulb, Dumas, 250 cc. E. 5 (Note 1) Flask, distilling, 125 cc. P. 26, 45, 54
Burette, plain 50 cc. E. 6, P. 16, 17 Flask, distilling, 250 cc. P. 44
Burner, furnace P. 10, 11, 20, 22, 59, *Flask, Erlenmeyer, 300 cc. E. 6,
66,72 P. 16, 17, 19
*Burner, Bunsen *Flask, filtering, 500 cc.
Burner, ring P. 48 Flask, fiat bottom, 300 cc.
*Burner, wingtop *Flask, fiat bottom, 500 cc.
Casserole, 150 cc. P. 48, 52, 55 Flask, fiat bottom, 1000 cc. P. 56
Casserole, 750 cc. P. 1, 55 Flask, round bottom, 2000 cc. P. 7,
"Clamp, burette, small 15, 18, 24, 51
*Clamp, test tube holder *Forceps, iron
373
374 APPARATUS AND CHEMICALS
Tunnel, 2|-inch Stopper, cork, numbers 7, 9,12,15,26

*Funnel, 5-inch Stopper, rubber, numbers 00 solid,
Funnel, short stem, 2J-inch P. 28, 38 00 1-hole, 0 solid, 0 1-hole, 1 solid,
Funnel, separatory, 125 cc. P. 8, 14, 1 1-hole, 2 solid, 2 1-hole, 3 solid,
19, 26, 30, 45 3 1-hole, 3 2-hole, 4 solid, 4 1-hole,
*Funnel, support 4 2-hole, 5 solid, 5 1-hole, 5 2-hole,
Furnace, gas, P. 10, 11, 20, 22, 59, 6 solid, 6 1-hole, 6 2-hole, 6|
66, 72 2-hole, 7 1-hole, 7 2-hole, 8 2-hole
*Gauze, iron wire Support, ring stand
Hydrometer, sp. gr. 1.00-1.20 P. 7, 8 "Test tube, 6-inch
Jar, hydrometer, 6-inch, P. 7, 8 Test tube, 6-inch Pyrex E. 2, P. 45
Labels, bottle Test tube, 8-inch Pyrex P. 43
Marble, glass P. 25, 62 Thermometer, 250° P. 1, 45, 52, 54,
*Mortar and pestle, 3 J-inch 55, 56
Mortar and pestle, 8-inch P. 12, 13 Thermometer, 360° P. 26
*Paper,filter,5.5-cm. Tongs, crucible
*Paper,filter,11-cm. Tongs, furnace P. 10, 11, 20, 22, 59,
*Paper,filter,24-cm. 66, 72
Pinchcock, spring E. 2, 3 Towel, cotton
Pipette, volumetric, 10 cc. E. 6, P. 16 Towel, white paper (Note 4)
*Plate, filter, porcelain, lj-inch Triangle, nichrome wire 2-inch
Plate, glass, 8-inch Tripod, iron, 6-inch
Plate, iron 2-4 mm. thick P. 13, 48 Trough, water
Plate, porous, 6-inch P. 71 Tubing, glass, 6-7 mm.
Retort, 350 cc. Pyrex P. 44, 56 Tubing, rubber, T8s-inch
*Ring, iron, 4-inch Tubing, rubber, f-inch
*Ring, iron, 6-inch (Note 2) Tubing, rubber, i-inch medium wall
Ring, wood, 4-inch hole P. 15, 52 Tube, combustion E. 4
Rod, glass, 5 mm. Tube, Pyrex, f" X 18" P. 26
Shears, 6-inch *Tube, drying, 4-inch
Specific gravity apparatus, P. 7, 8 *Tube, thistle
Spatula, glass P. 12 U-tube, 3-inch Chapter III
*Spatula, stainless iron, 4-inch blade U-tube, 8-inch P. 8, 14, 17
*Sponge U-tube, side arm, 4-inch E. 4, P. 8
Spoon, deflagrating IV, VIII *Vial, 1 X 3-inch E. 4, Chapter III
Spoon, iron, 18-inch P. 72 *Watch glass, 5-inch
Stirrer, iron (Note 3) P. 59 Wire, platinum Q. 23, V, IX, XI
Note 1. Dumas bulb made from a 250 cc. Pyrex flat bottomed flask.
The neck replaced by a 12 mm. tube drawn down to a capillary at the end.
See Figure 13, p. 35.
Note 2. Iron ring, 6-inch, should have an extra long shank to permit its
use to support an 8-inch evaporating dish without tilting the dish. Otherwise
tripods are required.
Note 3. An iron rod \ inch diameter and 24 inches long with a 4-inch
right angle bend at one end.
Note 4. Paper towels are generally used for drying crystals.
Note 5. Made of Pyrex glass with side arms of unequal length.
LIST OF RAW MATERIALS
Preparations are indicated by P and number and Quantitative Experi-

ments by E and number.
Aluminum, granular 10-20 mesh Copper ribbon P. 28
P. 10, 66, 72 Copper turnings P. 5, 27
Aluminum powder ("aluminum Copper wire, 16 gauge, E. 3
bronze") P. 13 Copper chloride P. 28
Aluminum turnings P. 25, 26 Copper oxide, powder P. 20
Ammonium chloride P. 43 Copper oxide, wire E. 4
Ammonium sulphate P. 3, 73 Copper sulphate P. 3, 4, 29, 30
Antimony sulphide (stibnite) P. 56, Copper sulphate, saturated solution
57, 59 P. 17
Arsenic acid (seed crystals) P. 55 Dextrose E. 29
Arsenic trioxide P. 55 Hydrogen peroxide 3% P. 24
Barium carbonate P. 9, 22 Hydrogen sulphide (cylinder or gen-
Barium hydroxide P. 6 erator) P. 43
Barium nitrate P. 38 Iodine P. 37
Barium peroxide P. 6, 9, 66, 72 Iron filings, 20 mesh P. 59
Bismuth nitrate P. 60 Iron filings (" Amco ") P. 73
Bleaching powder or calcium hypo- Ferrous carbonate (siderite) P. 73
chlorite P. 31, 47 Ferrous sulphide (for H2S) P. 43
Bone ash P. 53 Lead acetate P. 47
Bromine P. 8, 19, 26, 35, 45, 54 Lead dioxide P. 48
Calcium carbonate P. 15, 71 Lead monoxide (litharge) P. 46, 48
Calcium chloride, anhydrous E. 4, Lead monoxide (massicot) P. 48
P. 67 Lead sulphide (galena) P. 10
Calcium hydroxide P. 16 Magnesium, powder P. 14
Calcium hypochlorite or bleaching Magnesium, ribbon P. 13, 66, 72
powder P. 31, 47 Manganese chloride (waste liquor
Calcium sulphate (plaster of Paris) from chlorine generator) P. 70
P. 11 Manganese dioxide, granular for
Calcium sulphate (gypsum) page 63 chlorine generator P. 36, 44
Carbon (charcoal powder) P. 11, 20, Manganese dioxide, fine powder P. 71,
22,35 72
Carbon (lampblack) P. 13 Mercury P. 12, 32, 33
Carbon dioxide (cylinder or gener- Molybdenum trioxide P. 67
ator) P. 15, 71 Oxalic acid P. 50
Carbon tetrachloride E. 5 Phosphorus, red P. 8, 52, 54
Cerium dioxide P. 50, 51 Phosphoric acid, ortho, seed crystals
Cerium oxalate P. 49 P. 52
Chlorine (cylinder or generator) P. 36, Potassium chlorate P. 37, 39, 71
44 Potassium chlorate, dry powder E. 2
Chromic anhydride P. 63 Potassium dichromate P. 64, 66
Chromic oxide P. 61, 66 Potassium hydroxide P. 35, 36, 61, 71
375
376 LIST OF RAW MATERIALS
Potassium iodate P. 38 Sodium nitrate (crude) P. 1
Potassium nitrate (crude) P. 1 Sodium potassium tartrate P. 29
Potassium nitrate P. 61 Sodium silicate P. 41
Potassium sulphate P. 4 Sodium sulphantimonate P. 58
Potassium sulphocyanate P. 34 Sodium sulphide P. 57
Rosin P. 22 Strontium sulphate (celestite) P. 20,
Selenium P. 69 21
Sodium borate (borax) P. 23, 24, 59 Sulphur (flowers) P. 12, 40, 43, 57
Sodium carbonate, anhydrous E. 6, Sulphur dioxide P. 40
P. 5, 16, 21, 31, 40, 60, 70 Tin, feathered metal P. 42, 44, 45
Sodium carbonate, crude P. 2 Tin, foil P. 42
Sodium chloride (fine crystal) P. 15 Stannous chloride P. 43
Sodium chloride (rock salt) P. 7, 18, Tungsten trioxide P. 68
25 Zinc, feathered metal E. 4
Sodium chloride, saturated solution Zinc C.P. granular metal 20 mesh E. 1
P. 17 Zinc C.P. rod E. 3
Sodium dichromate P. 62 Zinc sulphate P. 31
Sodium hydroxide P. 25, 36, 47
REAGENTS
Roman numerals indicate reagents required for experiments in the text of
that chapter. Reagents required for experiments in questions at the end of a
preparation are indicated by the letter Q and number of the preparation.
Reagents used in a preparation are designated by the letter P and number of
the preparation.
SOLIDS
Aluminum metal, turnings II Ferrous ammonium sulphate Q. 73
Aluminum carbide IX Ferrous sulphide for H2S generator
Ammonium chloride Q. 53, V IV, VIII, X, P. 70
Antimony metal, powdered X Lead dioxide IV, IX
Arsenic metal, powdered X Lead monoxide IV, IX
Arsenious oxide Q. 55 Lead nitrate Q. 47, IX
Asbestos fibre V, IX Litmus paper, blue
Barium peroxide IV Litmus paper, red
Bismuth metal, powdered X Magnesium metal, powder IV
Bismuth dioxide X Magnesium metal, ribbon II, IV, V,
Bismuth trioxide III, X VIII
Bleaching powder VIII, IX Magnesium carbonate V
Calcium metal, turnings II Manganese carbonate P. 70
Calcium carbide IX Manganese dioxide, powder IV, XI
Calcium carbonate, lump V, IX Nickel carbonate XI
Calcium carbonate, powder III Phosphorus, red II, X
Calcium chloride II Porcelain chips, unglazed E. 5, P. 56
Calcium hydroxide V Potassium carbonate IX
Calcium oxide II Potassium chlorate III, VIII
Cobalt carbonate XI Potassium dichromate IV
Carbon, decolorizing Potassium hydroxide II, III
Carbon, granulated charcoal II, IX Potassium iodate VIII
Copper metal, wire III Potassium iodide IV, VIII
Copper metal, turnings VIII Potassium nitrate IV, XI
Copper basic carbonate VII Potassium permanganate IV, VIII
Copper oxide, powder IV Potassium sulphate Q. 3
Copper sulphate Q. 3, III, VII Silicon dioxide, precipitated IX
Cotton wool E. 4, IV Silicon dioxide, coarse sand P. 66, 67
Cotton cloth, colored VIII Silicon dioxide, fine sand P. 8, 43
Dextrose X Sodium bicarbonate P. 55
Glass, broken P. 8 Sodium bromide IV
Glass wool P. 7, 8 Sodium carbonate, anhydrous III, IX,
Iodine IV XI
Iron metal, wire III Q. 73 Sodium carbonate, crystal II
Ferric ammonium alum XI Sodium chlorate III
Ferric chloride II, III Sodium chloride III
Ferric oxide XI Sodium hydroxide II, III, IV
377
378 REAGENTS
Sodium nitrate III Tin metal, feathered IX
Sodium nitrite VIII Stannous chloride IX
Sodium peroxide IV, Q. 61 Urea III, VIII
Sodium sulphate Q. 3, II Vaseline
Sodium tetraborate Q. 23 Wood splinters IV, VIII
Starch, soluble IV, VII, VIII Zinc metal, dust II
Strontium carbonate P. 21 Zinc metal, feathered III, VII
Sugar, cane III, VIII Zinc chloride II, VII
Sulphur,flowersII, IV, VIII Zinc sulphate II, VII
Tartaric Acid III
LIQUID REAGENTS AND SOLUTIONS

Acetic acid, glacial III, P. 61 Hydrogen peroxide, 3 % Q. 6, IV
Acetic acid, 6-normal VI, Q. 65 Hydriodic acid, 0. l-normal IV
Alcohol, reagent P. 28, 30, 64, Q. 23, Iodine water, saturated P. 55, IV,
III VIII
Aluminum sulphate, l-normal VI Ferric chloride, l-normal P. 34, I X ,
Ammonium chloride, l-normal V XI
Ammonium hydroxide, 6-normal Ferrous sulphate, 2-normal I I I , X I
Ammonium hydroxide, 15-normal Lead acetate, l-normal IV
Ammonium sulphate, 2-normal V Litmus solution, blue I I I
Ammonium sulphide, 6-normal Q. 43, Litmus solution, red I I I
III, V I I Magnesium chloride, l-normal P. 55,
Asbestos suspension for filtering V
Barium chloride, l-normal Q. 69,VIII Magnesium sulphate, l-normal X I
Barium hydroxide, 0.4-normal Q. 6, IV Manganese sulphate, l-normal X
Bromine Q. 19, V I I I Mercuric chloride Q. 45, 53, I X
Bromine water, saturated IV, V I I I Mercuric nitrate, 0.2-normal V I I
Cadmium chloride, l-normal V I I Mercurous nitrat e, 0.2-normal VII
Calcium chloride, l-normal I I I Mercury II
Calcium hydroxide, saturated VII, Methyl orange I I I , P . 23
IX, X I Nickel chloride X I
Carbon disulphide P. 26, IV, V I I I Nitric acid, 6-normal
Carbon tetrachloride I X Nitric acid, 16-normal
Chlorine water, saturated P. 21, II, Phenolphthalein P . 53
IV, I X Phosphoric acid, ortho, 8 5 % IV
Chromium chloride, l-normal Q. 61, Potassium chlorate (chloride free) I I I
XI Potassium ferricyanide I I I , IX, P . 73,
Cobalt nitrate, 0.3-normal X I Q. 73
Copper sulphate, l-normal I I I , IV, Potassium ferrocyanide, l-normal III,
VII Q.73
Ether P. 28, 30 Potassium hydroxide, 6-normal III,
Gasoline I X VIII
Glycerine I I I Potassium iodide, 0. l-normal Q. 55,
Hydrobromic acid, 0.l-normal IV IV, V I I
Hydrochloric acid, 6-normal Potassium thiocyanate, l-normal P.
Hydrochloric acid, 12-normal 70, I I I , IX, Q. 73
REAGENTS 379
Silver nitrate, 0.1-normal P. 1, 6, 35, Sodium (tri) phosphate, 1-normal
47, 52, III, VII Q. 53
Sodium acetate, 3-normal I I I , V I I Sodium polysulphide Q. 45, X
Sodium bromide, 0.5-normal IV Sodium silicate, Sp. Gr. 1.1 I X
Sodium benzoate, I I I Sodium sulphide, 1-normal Q. 43, 45
Sodium carbonate, 3-normal III, VI, Stannous chloride, 1-normal Q. 33,
IX, X I 45, 69, IX, X
Sodium chloride, 2-normal I I I , IV Sulphuric acid, 6-normal
Sodium hydroxide, 6-normal Q. 13, Sulphuric acid, 36-normal
II, I I I , VI Titanium sulphate reagent IV
Sodium (mono) phosphate, 1-normal Zinc sulphate, 1-normal I I I , V I I
Q. 53
Sodium (di) phosphate, 1-normal
Q. 53
INDEX
Preparations are indicated by !
Atom, theory of structure, 354.
Acetylene generator, 19. Atomic numbers, 354.
Acids, 85. Atomic theory, 37,354.
Acids, displacement of weak, 88, 110. Atomic weight, 38,48.
Acids, polybasic, ionization of, 116. Atomic weight, standard of, 39.
Alkali metals, 179. Avogadro's number, 48.
Alkaline earth metals, 179. Avogadro's principle, 46.
*Alum, chromic, 328.
*Alum, ferric ammonium, 342. B
*Aluminum bromide, anhydrous, 213. Balances, use of, 21.
Aluminum carbonate, instability of, *Barium chloride, 147.
218. *Barium hydroxide, 199.
*Aluminum chloride, 212. *Barium oxide, 199.
Aluminum hydroxide, amphoteric, *Barium peroxide hydrate, 139.
69, 217. *Barium salts, 149.
*Aluminum nitride, 153. Bases, 86.
*Aluminum sulphide, 149. Bases, displacement of weak, 89, 111.
Ammonia, process for sodium car- Binary compounds, 137.
bonate, 179. *Bismuth basic nitrate, 314.
Ammonia, synthesis of, 176. Bismuth salts, reactions of, 317.
Ammoniates, 118, 238. *Bismuth subnitrate, 314.
*Ammonio-copper sulphate, 227. *Blue vitriol, 220.
*Ammonium bromide, 192. *Boric acid, 208.
*Ammonium chloride, 154. Boric acid, acid strength of, 216.
Ammonium chloride, gaseous disso- Boyle's law, 41.
ciation, 204. Bromates, reactions of, 257.
*Ammonium chromate, 326. Bromic acid, reactions of, 258.
Ammonium compounds, 204, 205. Bromine, 164,165.
*Ammonium copper sulphate, 61. Buffers, 134.
*Ammonium dichromate, 326.
*Ammonium tungstate, 334
Amphoteric substances, 216, 293. Calcium and water, 66.
*Antimony, metallic, 313. "Calcium molybdate, 333.
*Antimony oxychloride, 308. Calcium oxide and water, 71.
* Antimony pentasulphide, 312. *Calcium sulphide, 150.
*Antimony trichloride, 308. Carbides, reactions of, 291.
Aqueous tension data, 353. Carbon compounds, combustibility
*Arsenic acid, 305. of, 289.
Arsenic acid, reactions of, 317. Carbon dioxide generator, 18.
Arsenious acid, reactions of, 317. Carbon dioxide, reactions, 287.
381
382 INDEX
Carbon monoxide, reactions, 290. Electromotive series, 92,121,171,353.
Carbonates, formation of, 236, 296. Electrons, 354.
Carbonates, stability of, 202,236,345. Electron shells, 358.
*Ceric oxide, 283. Electrostatic attraction and repul-
*Cerous chloride, 286. sion, 357.
*Cerous oxalate, 284. Elements, reactions with water, 65.
Charles' law, 41. Equilibrium, in ionization, 103.
Chlorates, reactions of, 257. Equivalent weights, 74.
Chloride ions, reactions of, 90. Evaporation, 11.
Chlorine, reactions of, 164.
Chlorine and water, 70.
Chlorine generator, 274.
Chromates, reactions of, 350. Faraday's law, 123, 124, 185.
*Chromic alum, 328. *Ferric ammonium alum, 342.
*Chromic anhydride, 324. Ferric ions, reactions of, 91.
*Chromium metal by the Gold- *Ferrous ammonium sulphate, 342.
schmidt process, 332. Ferrous ions, reactions of, 91.
Combining volumes, Law of, 45. Filtering, 5.
Combining weights, Law of, 37. Formal solution, definition of, 74.
Complex ions, 118, 238. Formula, derivation of a, 49.
Concentration of reagents, 352. Formula weight, definition of, 74.
Copper ions, reactions of, 91. Formula weight method in chemical
*Copper oxide, 137. arithmetic, 79.
*Copper sulphate, 220. Freezing point, lowering of, 94.
Coulometer, copper, 185. Furnaces, 17.
Crystallization, 4, 13.
*Cuprous chloride, 222. G
*Cuprous oxide, 225. Gas generators, 18.
Cyanides, complex, 120. Gas generators, automatic, 20.
Gases, measurement of, 40.
D Gay-Lussac's law, 45.
Dalton's atomic theory, 37. Goldschmidt process, 332, 341.
Dalton's law, 42. Gram molecular volume, 47.
Decantation, 10. Gram molecular weight, 47.
Definite proportions, Law of, 36. Gypsum, water of hydration in, 63.
Deliquescence, 65.
Dichromate, reactions of, 350. H
Dioxides, reactions of, 162.
*Disodium phosphate, 301. Halide ions, tests for, 170.
Dry reactions, 17. Halogen acids, reactions of, 166.
Drying, 15. Halogens, reactions of, 163.
Dumas' method for molecular Hydrate, composition of a crystal, 63.
weights, 33. Hydrates, 63.
Hydration, water of, 63.
E *Hydrobromic acid, 144.
Efflorescence, 64. Hydrobromic acid, composition of
Electrical conductivity, 83. solutions, 371.
Electrolytes, 85. •"Hydrochloric acid, 142.
INDEX 383
Hydrochloric acid, composition of Law, Charles', 4 1 .

solutions, 371. Law, combining weights, 37.
Hydrogen generator, 18, 20. Law, Dalton's, 42.
Hydrogen, volume displaced by zinc, Law, definite proportions, 36.
28. Law, Faraday's, 123, 124.
Hydrogen and oxygen, combining Law, Gay-Lussac's, 45.
ratio, 30, Law, molecular concentration, 126.
Hydrogen and sulphur, 173. Law, multiple proportions, 36.
Hydrogen bromide, 167. Lead carbonate, stability of, 296.
Hydrogen chloride, 166. *Lead chromate, basic, 330.
Hydrogen halides, 166. *Lead dioxide, 279.
Hydrogen iodide, 168. Lead, hydroxide, amphoteric char-
Hydrogen ion concentration, 93, 132. acter, of, 293.
*Hydrogen peroxide, 139. *Lead nitrate, 278.
Hydrogen peroxide, test for, 159. *Lead, red, 281.
Hydrogen sulphide as a precipitant, Lead salts, reactions of, 293, 295.
175. Lead tetrachloride, 295.
Hydrogen sulphide, ionization of, 175.
Hydrogen sulphide, reducing action M
of, 176. Magnesium and water, 67.
Hydrogen sulphide generator, 18. "Magnesium nitride, 154.
Hydrolysis, 92,115, 237, 292. Magnesium oxide and water, 72.
Hydroxides, 113, 203,237, 347. •"Manganese chloride, 336.
Hydroxides, amphoteric, 216, 293. "Manganese metal by the Gold-
Hypobromites, reactions of, 257. schmidt process, 341.
Hypochlorites, reactions of, 255. ""Mercuric nitrate, 233.
"Mercuric sulphide, 151.
I "Mercuric sulphocyanate, 234.
Indicators, 135. "Mercurous nitrate, 232.
Inert gases, stability of, 358. Metals, electromotive series of, 92,
*Iodic acid, 249. 121, 171, 353.
Iodic acid, reactions of, 258, 259. Metathesis, 105.
Iodide-starch paper, 164. Mineral garden, 83.
Iodine, 163, 165. Molal solution, 74.
"Iodine pentoxide, 249. Molal volume, 47.
Ionic equations, rules for writing, 104. Mole, 47, 74.
Ionic reactions, 87, 101, 105. Molecular concentration, Law of, 126.
Ionization data, 100-101. Molecular weight, 47.
Ionization, theory of, 82, 97. Molecular weight, Dumas' method,
Ions, complex, 118-121. 33.
Ions, complex negative, 119, 238. "Mosaic gold, 271.
Iron and water, 69. Multiple proportions, Law of, 36.
Isotopes, 356.
N
Neutralization, 87, 108.
Law, Avogadro's, 46. Neutralizing, 16.
Law, Boyle's, 41. Nitric acid, reactions of, 262.
384 INDEX
Nitrides, reactions of, 177. *Potassium nitrate, 52.
Nitrogen, 176. *Potassium perchlorate, 251.
Nitrous acid, reactions of, 263. *Potassium permanganate, 338.
Non-electrolytes, 85. Pouring, 4.
Non-polar valence, 362. Precipitation, 4.
Normal solution, 75. Precipitation reactions, 106.
Nucleus atomic, 354, 356. Proportions, Law of definite, 36.
Proportions, Law of multiple, 36.
O Pulverizing, 16.
*Orthoboric acid, 208. R

*Ortho phosphoric acid, 298. Radioactive disintegration, 356.
Osmotic pressure, 83, 96. Reagents, concentration of, 352.
Oxidation in alkaline fusion, 348. Reduction-oxidation reactions, 121,
Oxidation products of the metals, 315. 165, 263.
Oxidation-reduction reactions, 121,
165, 263.
Oxides, metallic, 71, 112, 158. Salt, sea, composition of, 190.
Oxides, non-metal and water, 72. Salts, hydrolysis of, 92, 115, 237,292.
Oxy-acids, 242.
Salts, ionization of solutions of, 88.
Oxygen, weight of a liter of, 25. *Selenious acid, 335.
Oxygen and hydrogen, combining *Silica, precipitated, 266.
ratio, 30. Silicic acid, 291.
Oxygen and zinc, combining ratio, 24. •Silicon dioxide, 266.
Oxygen generator, 18. Silicon dioxide reactions, 291.
Silver ions, reactions of, 91.
Silver oxide, basic-strength of, 237.
p H scale, 132. Sodium and water, 66.
pH, control of, 134. *Sodium bicarbonate, by the Solvay
Periodic classification of the ele- process, 179.
ments, 354. *Sodium carbonate, crystalline, 58.
Periodic classification, Table, 355. *Sodium carbonate by the Solvay
Permanganate, reactions of, 349. process, 179.
Peroxides, reactions of, 160. *Sodium chloride chemically pure, 189.
*Phosphoric acid, ortho, 298. *Sodium hydroxide by the causticiz-
Phosphorous acid, 317. ing reaction, 183.
Phosphorous acid, test for, 300. *Sodium hydroxide by electrolysis,185.
Phosphorus, oxidation of, 315. Sodium oxide and water, 71.
*Phosphorus, tribromide, 303. *Sodium perborate, 210.
Polar valence, 359. *Sodium phosphate, 301.
*Potassium and copper sulphate, 62. *Sodium sulphantimonate, 310.
*Potassium bromate, 243. *Sodium thiosulphate, 252.
*Potassium bromide, 243. Solubilities, tables of, 364.
*Potassium chlorate, 246. Solubility product, 93, 131.
Potassium chlorate, reactions, 258. Solutions, concentration of, 74.
*Potassium chromate, 321. Solutions, standardization of, 76.
*Potassium dichromate, 321. Solvay process, 179.
*Potassium iodate, 248. Specific gravity, 79.
INDEX 385
Specific gravity, apparatus for de- Tin, reactions of salts of, 294.
termining, 143. Tin, thio-salts of, 294.
*Stannic bromide, anhydrous, 275. Titanium sulphate, reagent, 159.
*Stannic chloride, anhydrous, 273. Titration, 77.
Stannic salts, reactions of, 294.
*Stannic sulphide, 271.
•Stannous chloride, 268. Valence, 157.
Stannous salts, reactions of, 292, 293, Valence, non-polar, 362.
294. Valence, polar, 359
Steam bath, 12. Vapor pressure of hydrates, 65.
*Strontium chloride, 196.
"Strontium hydroxide, 194 W
Suction filter, 6.
Sulphate ions, reactions of, 91. Water, composition of, 73.
Sulphides, reactions of, 175, 239, 316. Water of crystallization, 63.
Sulpho salts, 294, 316. Water of hydration, 63.
Water vapor, 42.
Sulphur, 173.
Weighing, 21.
Sulphur and hydrogen, 173.
Sulphur dioxide, reactions of, 260.
Z
Sulphuric acid, reactions of, 261.
Sulphurous acid, reactions of, 260. Zinc and oxygen, combining ratio, 24.
Zinc hydroxide, amphoteric proper-
ties, 237.
Thio-salts, 294. Zinc ions, reactions of, 91.
Tin, hydroxide of, amphoteric char- *Zinc oxide, 229.
acter, 293.
740 1-175 1-171 1-166 1-162 1-158 1-154 1-150 1-146 1-142 1-138 1-135 1-131 1-127 1-123 1-119 1-115 740
742 1-178 1-174 1-170 1-165 1-161 1-157 1-153 1-149 1-145 1-141 1-138 1-134 1-130 1-126 1-122 1-118 742
744 1-181 1-177 1-173 1-169 1-165 1-160 1-156 1-152 1-149 1-145 1-141 1-137 1-133 1-129 1-125 1-121 744
746 1-184 1-180 1-176 1-172 1-168 1-164 1-160 1-156 1-152 1-148 1-144 1-140 1136 1-132 1-128 1-124 746
748 1-187 1-183 1-179 1-175 1-171 1-167 1-163 1-159 1-155 1-151 1-147 1-143 1-139 1-135 1-131 1-128 748
750 1-191 1-186 1182 1-178 1-174 1-170 1-166 1-162 1-158 1-154 1-150 1-146 1-142 1-138 1134 1-131 750 o
o
752 1-194 1190 1-186 1-181 1-177 1-173 1-169 1-165 1-161 1-157 1-153 1-149 1-145 1-141 1-137 1-134 752
754 1-197 1-193 1-189 1-185 1-180 1-176 1-172 1-168 1-164 1-160 1-156 1-152 1-148 1-144 1-140 1-137 754
756 1-200 1-196 1-192 1-188 1-183 1-179 1-175 1-171 1-167 1-163 1-159 1-155 1-151 1-147 1143 1-140 756
758 1-203 1-199 1-195 1191 1-186 1-182 1-178 1-174 1-170 1-166 1-162 1-158 1-154 1-150 1-146 1-143 758
760 1-206 1-202 1-198 1-194 1-190 1-185 1-181 1-177 1-173 1-169 1-165 1-161 1-157 1-153 1-149 1-146 760 u
762 1-210 1-205 1-201 1-197 1-193 1-189 1-184 1-180 1-176 1-172 1-168 1-164 1-160 1-156 1-152 1-149 762
764 1-213 1-209 1-204 1-200 1196 1-192 1-188 1-183 1-179 1-175 1-171 1-167 1-163 1-159 1-156 1-152 764
766 1-216 1-212 1-207 1-203 1199 1-195 1-191 1-187 1-182 1-178 1-174 1-170 1-166 1-162 1-159 1-155 766
768 1-219 1-215 1-211 1-206 1-202 1-198 1194 1-190 1-186 1-181 1-177 1-173 1-169 1-165 1-162 1-158 768
770 1-222 1-218 1-214 1-209 1-205 1-201 1-197 1193 1-189 1-185 1-181 1-176 1-172 1-169 1-165 1-161 770
H
P 10° 11° 12° 13° 14° 15° 16° 17° 18° 19° 20° 21° 22° 23° 24° 25° P g
u
f (mm.) 5-6 6-0 6-4 6-9 7-3 7-8 8-4 8-9 9-5 10-1 10-8 11-4 12-2 12-9 13-7 14-6 f (mm.)
If the confining liquid is 30 per cent potassium hydroxide, solution, the pressure of water vapour over this solution at the
temperature concerned (f mm., see above) must be subtracted from the observed barometric pressure after reduction to 0°.

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S Y N T H E T I C

A COURSE OF LABORATORY A N D CLASSROOM

All Rights Reserved

Students are required to prepare a preliminary report on each

I. Precipitation; Crystallization. 2. Pouring. 3. Transferring

CHAPTER I. THE QUANTITATIVE ASPECTS OP CHEMISTRY

CHAPTER II. WATER AND SOLUTION

CHAPTER III. THE THEORY OF IONIZATION

CHAPTER V. ALKALI AND ALKALINE EARTH METALS

CHAPTER VI ELEMENTS OP GROUP III

Preparations ... 208

CHAPTER VII. HEAVY METALS OP GROUPS I AND II

CHAPTER VIII. THE OXY-ACIDS AND SALTS OF THE NON-METALS

CHAPTER IX. ELEMENTS OP GROUP IV

CHAPTER X. ELEMENTS OP GROUP V

CHAPTER XI. HEAVY METALS OP GROUPS VI, VII, AND VIII

LIST OP RAW MATERIALS AND REAGENTS . . . . . 375

DIRECTIONS FOR WORK

Present this preliminary report to an instructor and obtain

These notes are intended to help the student in foreseeing

3. TRANSFERRING PRECIPITATES OR CRYSTALS

most of this may be scraped out by means of a spatula, but the

4. FILTERING; COLLECTING PRECIPITATES

(6) Filtering with Suction. With a fine-grained crystal meal,

phere can be obtained. If the pressure is insufficient, an equally-

After the precipitate is collected in the filter and drained, it

directions will be given when it is necessary to use wash liquids

7. DISSOLVING SOLID SUBSTANCES

The finer particles of the solid dissolve first; as the solution

evaporate very slowly. This is easily accomplished in industrial

mention the liquid which adheres to the crystal surfaces. By

ether evaporates so rapidly that a preparation wet with it may be

in pure water or a neutral salt solution. When a solution which

12. DRY REACTIONS; FURNACES

of the hot charcoal is oxidized to carbon monoxide, which then

zinc for hydrogen, and ferrous sulphide for hydrogen sulphide, is

Usually powdered solids are weighed in a small vial or on a piece

THE QUANTITATIVE ASPECTS OF CHEMISTRY

So many things happen when substances undergo a chemical

combine to form zinc oxide the ratio is found to be 1.00 of oxygen

1. DETERMINATION OF THE COMBINING RATIO OF ZINC

Weight of evaporating dish + zinc oxide

2. WEIGHT OF A LITER OF OXYGEN

Oxygen is generated by heating potassium chlorate, and its

Materials: potassium chlorate, dry, powdered.

3. DETERMINATION OF THE VOLUME OF HYDROGEN DISPLACED

When hydrochloric acid reacts with zinc a definite volume of

Weight of flask and water grams

hydrogen is evolved from the metal. The cone of the funnel

4. T H E COMBINING RATIO OF HYDROGEN AND

It is only with great care and refined apparatus that volumes of

which it combines, and then through another calcium chloride

gen a little, being careful in adding acid to pour it in a thin stream

5. DETERMINATION OF THE APPROXIMATE MOLECULAR WEIGHT

According to Avogadro's principle, the volume occupied by the

ized, without decomposition, at a temperature which will permit

Notes and Problems

ment is taken in each case the weights of the second element

of multiple proportions, and he found for them a reasonable ex-

little to us if we did express it exactly in arithmetical figures.