Quantitative Research Design & Methods

Topics

Types of quantitative research Measurement Fundamentals Concepts and construct validity Levels of measurement Research Validity

Quantitative Research
1. Exploratory -- It is a good starting point to get familiarized with some insights and ideas (e.g. identify the dependent and independent variables) 2. Descriptive The mapping out of a circumstance, situation, or set of events (McNabb) 3. Causalexperimenting (statistically speaking) to asses cause and effect. For example, whether or not a P.A. program is achieving its objectives. Experiments in the social science take place naturally (e.g. The effectiveness of Homeland Security to respond to natural or anthropogenic hazards).

Measurement Fundamentals
A key difference is that normal science deals with

concepts that are well defined and to great extent standardized measures (e.g. speed, distance, volume, weight, size, etc.)
On the contrary the social science often uses

concepts that are ill defined and therefore the standardization in terms of how it is measured varies or there is little agreement (e.g. social class, development, poverty, etc.) Statistics cannot be used until we understand the the fundamental nature of measurement (McNabb)

Measurement Fundamentals
Thus, our goal is that our measurements of the different

concepts are valid or match as much as possible the real world

What is a concept? A mental construct that represents phenomena in the real world. (Pollock 2005:7) The challenge is to transform concepts into concrete

terms (preferable that can be measured).

Pollocks model
CONCEPT

CONCEPTUAL DEFINITION OPERATIONAL DEFINITION

VARIABLE (A STATE THAT TAKES DIFFERENT ATTRIBUTES O VALUES)

Units of Analysis
Individuals People Places Groups Institutions Nations Programs

The case of development

1. 2. 3.

According to Michael Todaro (1994:18) development is both a physical reality and a state of mind in which society has, through some combination of social, economic, and institutional processes, secured the means for obtaining a better life, development in all societies must have a least the following three objectives: To increase the availability and widen the distribution of basic life sustaining goods To raise levels of living To expand the range of economic and social choices

Concept, conceptualization, operationalization, variables & construct validity

Quality of public institutions

Civil liberties

CONCEPT TARGET (DEVELOPMENT) Income distribution

GDP per capita

Concept, conceptualization, operationalization & construct validity

Construct validity is the match between the land

of theory and the land of observation How effectively do the variable(s) we use represent the mental image of the concept and its manifestation in the real world? This is the fundamental question of construct validity!

Measurement

If our studies do not allow us to measure variation in the dependent variable (Y) as related to variation in our X variables, then we cannot do any scientific testing.
1. 2. 3.

4.

We measure whether certain variables are meaningful individually significant. We measure the variation in our variables. We also measure the significance and explanatory power of our models and the relationships between variables. If it can be quantified, then you should do so.

Qualities of Variables
Exhaustive -- Should include all possible

answerable responses. (Schooling: No Schooling, Elementary, Middle, HS, College) Mutually exclusive -- No respondent should be able to have two attributes simultaneously (e.g. Female Male ).

Some Definitions
VARIABLE DEVELOPMENT

ATTRIBUTE

ATTRIBUTE

DEVELOPED

DEVELOPING

How do we construct variables?

In order to Operationalize our variables

we must first define them and then select a means to construct them. We do this by connecting concepts to observations.
This requires choosing a level of

measurement.

What Is Level of Measurement?

The relationship of the values that are assigned to the attributes for a variable
Variable Development
Low Medium High

Attributes

Values Relationship

The Levels of Measurement

Nominal Ordinal Interval Ratio

Nominal Measurement
The values name the attribute

uniquely (classification).
The value does not imply any ordering

of the cases, for example, jersey numbers in football and dates in a calendar.

Nominal continued
Nominal: These variables consist of categories

that are non-ordered. For example, race or ethnicity is one variable used to classify people.

A simple categorical variable is binary or dichotomous (1/0 or yes/no). For example, did a councilwomen vote for the ordinance change or not? When used as an independent variable, it is often referred to as a dummy variable. When used as a dependent variable, the outcome of some phenomenon is either present or not.

Ordinal
Ordinal: These variables are also

categorical, but we can say that some categories are higher than others. For example, income tax brackets, social class, levels of education etc.

However, we cannot measure the distance between categories, only which is higher or lower. Hence, we cannot say that someone is twice as educated as someone else. Can also be used as a dependent variable.

Ordinal Measurement
When attributes can be rank-ordered Distances between attributes do not have any meaning, for example, code Educational Attainment as
0=less than H.S. 1=some H.S. 2=H.S. degree 3=some college 4=college degree 5=post college

Is the distance from 0 to 1 the same as 3 to 4?

Interval
Interval: Variables of this type are called

scalar or index variables in the sense they provide a scale or index that allows us to measure between levels. We can not only measure which is higher or lower, but how much so.

Distance is measured between points on a scale with even units. Good example is temperature based on Fahrenheit or Celsius.

Interval Measurement
When distance between attributes has meaning, for example, temperature (in Fahrenheit) -- distance from 30-40 is same as distance from 70-80 Note that ratios dont make any sense -80 degrees is not twice as hot as 40 degrees (although the attribute values are).

Ratio
Ratio: Similar to interval level variables

in that it can measure the distance between two points, but can do so in absolute terms.

Ratio measures have a true zero, unlike interval measures. For example, one can say that someone is twice as rich as someone else based on the value of their assets since to have no money is based on a starting point of zero.

Ratio
Has an absolute zero that is meaningful Can construct a meaningful ratio

(fraction), for example, number of clients in past six months It is meaningful to say that ...we had twice as many clients in this period as we did in the previous six months.

Measurement Hierarchy
RATIO
STRONGEST

INTERVAL ORDINAL NOMINAL

WEAKEST

Research Validity
Construct * (Already explained) Internal External Statistical

Internal Validity
Are there other causes for what I am

observing?
If so, a study will lack internal validity if it

cannot rule out plausible alternative explanations. Can the outcome (diminished corruption) be fully attributed to the program in place (tougher sanctions)?

Internal Validity
Our Cause (s) The outcome Results

Y
Alternative Explanations Rival Hypothesis Threats to validity

History, Maturation, Testing, Instrumentation, selection, mortality, etc.

External Validity
How well does my study or sample

relate to the general population? In other words, am I able to generalize to other population, places, across time?

External Validity
Our Cause (s) The outcome Results

Y
Alternative Explanations Rival Hypothesis Threats to validity

Selection * treatment History * Treatment

Settings & Treatment

Model Misspecification and Spuriousness

Antecedent variable: A variable that indirectly

affects the relationship between two other variables. For example, College education increases income. (X Y)

However, parents wealth and education (Z) plays a key role. Thus, income of college graduates may not be random. Z X Y

Model Misspecification and Spuriousness

Intervening Variable: These may be spuriously

related to another relationship.

Drinking coffee causes cancer. Drinking coffee may not be the cause of cancer, but rather the fact that smokers are also coffee drinkers. X Z Y

Model Misspecification and Spuriousness

Alternative Variables: We also want to control for

variables that would bias our results if omitted. In this case, the X variables in a model would produce biased estimates, undermining their validity and producing error that leads to inaccurate inferences. To forecast correctly the number of medals we need to know something about institutions and sports culture of a country. X Y Z

Statistical Validity
The level of measurement used to some extent

determines the type of statistical test used (Chi squared is more appropriate to test association between nominal variables) We use statistics to test the likelihood or probability of being wrong in our conclusions The selection of an adequate statistical test is important to quantitative research How do we know if the relationship that we found is due to chance?

Research types and validity priorities VALIDITY

RESEARCH TYPE
DESCRIPTIVE EXPLORATORY EXPLANATORY EVALUATION PUBLIC OPINION INTERNAL EXTERNAL CONSTRUCT STATISTICAL