An Introduction to Code Division Multiple Access [CDMA]

S. Suresh Mohan , M. Vinoth Kumar

Pre final year, Bachelor of Engineering,
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering,
Thanthai Periyar Government Institute of Technology,
Bagayam,Vellore-632002.
‘[email protected]’, ‘[email protected]’

ABSTRACT

CDMA is a form of multiplexing which allows numerous signals to occupy a single

transmission channel, optimizing the use of available bandwidth. It refers to protocols
used in second and third generation wireless communication. It employs analog to digital
conversion in combination with spread spectrum technology. Audio input is digitized into
binary element. The transmitted frequency is varied to a defined pattern code so it can be
intercepted only by a receiver whose frequency response is programmed with transmitted
code. Many codes occupy same channel but only user associated with particular code can
understand each other. It is used in high frequency cellular telephone system in the
800MHZ and 1.9GHZ bands. CDMA has been used in military applications such as Anti-
jamming, ranging, secure communication.

Introduction:

CDMA (Code-Division Multiple

Access) refers to any of several
protocols used in so-called second-
generation (2G) and third-generation
(3G) wireless communications. As the
term implies, CDMA is a form of
multiplexing, which allows numerous
signals to occupy a single transmission An analogy to the problem of multiple
channel, optimizing the use of available access is a room (channel) in which
bandwidth. The technology is used in people wish to communicate with each
ultra-high-frequency (UHF) cellular other. To avoid confusion, people could
telephone systems in the 800-MHz and take turns speaking (time division),
1.9-GHz bands. speak at different pitches (frequency
division), or speak in different languages
(code division). CDMA is analogous to than Tb, the bandwidth of the spread
the last example where people speaking spectrum signal is much larger than the
the same language can understand each bandwidth of the original signal. The
other, but not other people. Similarly, in ratio Tb / Tc is called spreading factor or
radio CDMA, each group of users is processing gain and determines to
given a shared code. Many codes occupy certain extent the upper limit of total
the same channel, but only users number of users supported
associated with a particular code can simultaneously by a base station.
understand each other.

CDMA is a spread spectrum multiple

access technique. A spread spectrum
technique is one which spreads the
bandwidth of the data uniformly for the
same transmitted power. Spreading code Each user in a CDMA system uses a
is a pseudo-random code which has a different code to modulate their signal.
narrow Ambiguity function unlike other Choosing the codes used to modulate the
narrow pulse codes. In CDMA a locally signal is very important in the
generated code runs at a much higher performance of CDMA systems. The
rate than the data to be transmitted. Data best performance will occur when there
for transmission is simply logically XOR is good separation between the signal of
(exclusive OR) added with the faster a desired user and the signals of other
code. The figure shows how spread users. The separation of the signals is
spectrum signal is generated. The data made by correlating the received signal
signal with pulse duration of Tb is XOR with the locally generated code of the
added with the code signal with pulse desired user. If the signal matches the
duration of Tc. bandwidth is proportional desired user's code then the correlation
to 1 / T where T = bit time Therefore, the function will be high and the system can
bandwidth of the data signal is 1 / Tb and extract that signal. If the desired user's
the bandwidth of the spread spectrum code has nothing in common with the
signal is 1 / Tc. Since Tc is much smaller signal the correlation should be as close
to zero as possible (thus eliminating the Each user is associated with a different
signal); this is referred to as cross code, say v. If the data to be transmitted
correlation. is a digital zero, then the actual bits
transmitted will be –v, and if the data to
In general, CDMA belongs to two basic
be transmitted is a digital one, then the
categories: synchronous (orthogonal
actual bits transmitted will be v. For
codes) and asynchronous
example, if v=(1,–1), and the data that
(pseudorandom codes).
the user wishes to transmit is (1, 0, 1, 1)
this would correspond to (v, –v, v, v)
Code Division Multiplexing:
which is then constructed in binary as
(Synchronous CDMA)
((1,–1),(–1,1),(1,–1),(1,–1)). For the
Synchronous CDMA orthogonality purposes of this article, we call this
exploits mathematical properties of constructed vector the transmitted
between vectors representing the data vector.
strings. For example, binary string
If sender0 has code (1,–1) and data
"1011" is represented by the vector (1, 0,
(1,0,1,1), and sender1 has code (1,1) and
1, 1). Vectors can be multiplied by
data (0,0,1,1), and both senders transmit
taking their dot product, by summing the
simultaneously, then this table describes
products of their respective components.
the coding steps:
If the dot product is zero, the two vectors
are said to be orthogonal to each other.
Ste
Encode sender0 Encode sender1
p
Each user in synchronous CDMA
vector0=(1,–1), vector1=(1,1),
uses a code orthogonal to the others'
0 data0=(1,0,1,1)=( data1=(0,0,1,1)=(
codes to modulate their signal. An
v,–v,v,v) –v,–v,v,v)
example of four mutually orthogonal encode0=vector0. encode1=vector1.
1
digital signals is shown in the figure. data0 data1
Orthogonal codes have a cross- encode0=(1,–1). encode1=(1,1).(–
2
correlation equal to zero. An example of (1,–1,1,1) 1,–1,1,1)
encode0=((1,–1), encode1=((–1,–1),
four mutually orthogonal digital signals.
3 (–1,1),(1,–1),(1,– (–1,–1),(1,1),
1)) (1,1))
 signal0=(1,–1,– signal1=(–1,–1,– Further, after decoding, all values
4
1,1,1,–1,1,–1) 1,–1,1,1,1,1) greater than 0 are interpreted as 1 while
all values less than zero are interpreted
Because signal0 and signal1 are
as 0. For example, after decoding, data0
transmitted at the same time into the air,
is (2,–2,2,2), but the receiver interprets
they add to produce the raw signal:
this as (1,0,1,1).
(1,–1,–1,1,1,–1,1,–1) + (–1,–1,–1,–
1,1,1,1,1) = (0,–2,–2,0,2,0,2,0) We can also consider what would
happen if a receiver tries to decode a
This raw signal is called an interference
signal when the user has not sent any
pattern. The receiver then extracts an
information. Assume signal0=(1,-1,-
intelligible signal for any known sender
1,1,1,-1,1,-1) is transmitted alone. The
by combining the sender's code with the
following table shows the decode at the
interference pattern, the receiver
receiver:
combines it with the codes of the
senders. The following table explains
Ste
how this works and shows that the Decode sender0 Decode sender1
p
signals do not interfere with one another: vector0=(1,–1), vector1=(1,1),
0 pattern=(1,-1,- pattern=(1,-1,-
Ste
Decode sender0 Decode sender1 1,1,1,-1,1,-1) 1,1,1,-1,1,-1)
p decode0=pattern. decode1=pattern.v
vector0=(1,–1), vector1=(1,1), 1
vector0 ector1
0 pattern=(0,–2,– pattern=(0,–2,– decode0=((1,–1), decode1=((1,–1),
2,0,2,0,2,0) 2,0,2,0,2,0) 2 (–1,1),(1,-1),(1,- (–1,1),(1,-1),(1,-
decode0=pattern. decode1=pattern.v
1 1)).(1,–1) 1)).(1,1)
vector0 ector1 decode0=((1+1),
decode0=((0,–2), decode1=((0,–2), decode1=((1–1),(–
3 (–1-1),(1+1),
2 (–2,0),(2,0),(2,0)). (–2,0),(2,0),(2,0)). 1+1),(1-1),(1-1))
(1+1))
(1,–1) (1,1)
decode0=((0+2),
decode1=((0–2),(– data0=(2,–
3 (–2+0),(2+0), 4 data1=(0,0,0,0)
2+0),(2+0),(2+0)) 2,2,2)=(1,0,1,1)
(2+0))
data0=(2,– data1=(–2,–
4
2,2,2)=(1,0,1,1) 2,2,2)=(0,0,1,1)
When the receiver attempts to decode exactly the same time. Thus, this
the signal using sender1’s code, the data technique finds use in base-to-mobile
is all zeros, therefore the cross links, where all of the transmissions
correlation is equal to zero and it is clear originate from the same transmitter and
that sender1 did not transmit any data. can be perfectly coordinated.

Spread Spectrum Characteristics of

CDMA:

Most modulation schemes try to

minimize the bandwidth of this signal
since bandwidth is a limited resource.
However, spread spectrum techniques
use a transmission bandwidth that is
several orders of magnitude greater than
In CDMA, each phone's data has a
the minimum required signal bandwidth.
unique code.
One of the initial reasons for doing this
was military applications including
Asynchronous CDMA:
guidance and communication systems.
The previous example of orthogonal These systems were designed using
Walsh sequences describes how 2 users spread spectrum because of its security
can be multiplexed together in a and resistance to jamming.
synchronous system, a technique that is
CDMA can also effectively reject
commonly referred to as Code Division
narrowband interference. Since
Multiplexing (CDM). The set of 4 Walsh
narrowband interference affects only a
sequences shown in the figure will
small portion of the spread spectrum
afford up to 4 users, and in general, an
signal, it can easily be removed through
NxN Walsh matrix can be used to
notch filtering without much loss of
multiplex N users. Multiplexing requires
information.
all of the users to be coordinated so that
each transmits their assigned sequence v
(or the complement, -v) starting at
Direct Sequence Spread Sprectrum -
DSSS CDMA :

In this method, the direct sequence(input

data) which is spread over a limited
bandwidth is multiplied with a code or
spreading sequence (a pseudorandom
sequence also known as PN sequence)
which will spread the input data over the
CDMA Demodulation:
entire bandwidth of the communication
channel.  CDMA's spread spectrum

The power density is also reduced and is technique overlaps every

spread over the frequency spectrum and transmission on the same carrier

hence is known as spread spectrum frequency by assigning a unique

method. The modulation part of DSSS is code to each conversation.

as shown below.  The signal is spread at two levels

first using a Walsh Code and then
using a PN Code. The number of bits
in either of the two codes is known
as the "chip rate," and each bit in the
spreading signal is called a "chip".
One bit from each conversation
(baseband signal) is multiplied with
the Walsh code and then the PN code
CDMA Modulation: by the spreading techniques giving
The modulated signal is transmitted over the receiving side an enormous
the channel and all users can receive it amount of data it can average just to
but only the user which knows the determine the value of one bit.
correct code can decode the message.  Base station is the one that
This is depicted in the figure below. assigns spreading code to each call
when a mobile requests for a call
(unique Walsh code for each
 conversation and a same PN code for
each call in a cell sector). In the
analysis henceforth we discuss the
dynamic allocation of these spread
codes in accordance with the
required QoS.


Multipath Fading :

In a mobile environment, a mobile

station will receive one direct signal Power Control:
from the base station and multiple
As the propagation losses between BS
signals which are reflected from
and MS's are different according to
obstructions like buildings and towers.
individual communication distances, the
Each signal would have traveled a received levels at the base station are
different length and would be displaced different from each other when all
in time. Due to this, when they are mobile stations transmit their signals at
combined at the mobile handset, it will the same power.
cause interference resulting in poor
Moreover, the received level fluctuates
signal quality. This is known as fading.
quickly due to fading. In order to
This problem is handled in a very good maintain the strength of received signal
way in CDMA. Here, the phase of the level at BS, power control technique
multiple signals is modified such that must be employed in CDMA systems.
only positive interference (addition)
takes place and the overall signal
strength increases. A receiver that
implements the above principle is known
as a RAKE receiver as shown in the
figure below.
Power control can be implemented in
two ways: open loop power control and implemented in TM is to enhance the
closed loop power control. current PSTN network and is targeted to
serve customers in rural areas.
TM's CDMA Network consists of 3
main elements:

• 3 Mobile Switching Centres

(MSC)
• 10 Central Base Station
Controllers (CBSC)
• 257 Base Transceiver Stations
(BTS)

Effect of Power Control: Frequency used:

Power control is capable of • Base Station transmission:

compensating the fading fluctuation. 869Mhz – 894 MHz
Received powers from all MS are • Base Station reception: 824 MHz
controlled to be equal. 　 Near-Far – 849 MHz
problem is mitigated by the power • Currently 2 carriers being used
control. within the above frequency band.
• CDMA channels currently in use
are (centre frequency):

Channel 1: 878.49 / 833.49 MHz (Base

Tx/Rx)
Channel 2: 877.23 / 832.23 MHz (Base
Tx/Rx)
Benefits:
The channel bandwidth is 1.25 MHz.
CDMA is a mobile technology that has
been implemented by TM as a Fixed Features:
Wireless service. The CDMA network
i) Access Line • Call forwarding on busy
• Call forwarding on no reply
• Fixed Wireless Telephone
(CDMA) will provide basic CDMA vs. GSM? – Which is more
telecommunications applications ubiquitous? Well, the obvious answer is
of a normal fixed telephone, GSM, but this answer may not be that
which support incoming and obvious few years down the line –
outgoing PSTN voice calls. CDMA is quickly catching up with
GSM; and the subscriber base (for
ii) Data (Internet)
CDMA) in India has already surpassed
50 million fixed and mobile device
• CDMA 95B System-Internet
users.
services in the circuit switch
environment
As per the report from CDG,
• CDMA 1X System-Internet
Access up to 144 Kbps • 50 million subscriber growth
reached this milestone only four
iii) Facsimile
years after the technology’s
introduction to the market, while
iv) Traffic Minutes/Calls
it it took GSM more than ten
The connection will support outgoing
years to reach the same number.
PSTN calls of all types:
• CDMA growth rate exceeds than
• Geographic calls that of GSM on a monthly basis
• Non-geographic calls, 1800, (5% vs. 4,1%).
1300 • With up to 2.01 million net
• Emergency calls, e.g. 999, 994 subscriber additions in June
• Equal access 2007, CDMA2000’s 5 percent
• Operator assistance growth rate exceeded that of
• Directory assistance GSM, at 4.1 percent,.
• Enhanced features • Reliance Communications and
• Call waiting Tata Teleservices, are among
• Call forwarding
 the top 20 fastest-growing
operators in the world.
• CDMA2000 is quickly becoming
the technology of choice for
emerging markets.
• Reliance has embarked on one of
the largest CDMA2000 network
expansions on the planet—with
plans to reach more than 20,000 Conclusion:
towns and 300,000 villages.
 CDMA provides an advanced
Key reasons behind this growth are: technology for cellular
applications.
• Availability of very low-end
 It provides high-quality service
(VLE) handsets – There are
to a large number of users.
currently 45 VLE CDMA2000
 It is a system that has been
devices from 14 suppliers
extensively tested and it will be
available below US$50 in
deployed later this year in
wholesale price.
precommercial applications.
• Rapid expansion of the
Commercial service is scheduled
CDMA2000 networks into the
to begin in 1994.
rural areas of India to deliver
state-of-the-art telephone and
References:
broadband Internet access
• Price gap between 2G GSM low- [1] G. K. Rushforth, “Transmitted-
end handsets and 3G reference techniques for random
CDMA2000 handsets has orunknown channels,” IEEE Trans.
narrowed to only $4 USD Inform. Theory, vol. IT-10, pp. 39–
42,Jan. 1964
.2. J.G. Proakis, Digital
Communications, Second Edition,
McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1989.