Chapter 4: Manual Work Design

From: Niebels Methods, Standards, and Work Design, Twelfth Edition

By Andris Freivalds and Benjamin Niebel

Physiology
Physiology - a branch of biology concerned with the vital processes of living organisms and how their constituent tissues and cells function. Important for Human Factors because work requires the expenditure of physical energy.

Anthropometry
Anthropometry a branch of anthropology concerned with the dimensions of the human body, such as height and reach. Important for Human Factors because the dimensions of the human body affect the capabilities of the worker.

4.1 The Musculoskeletal System

The human body is able to produce movements because of a complex system of muscles and bones, called the musculoskeletal system.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C2dTbJDQ3u0

The Musculoskeletal System

Human musculoskeletal system: Primary actuator for performing physical labor and other activities requiring force and motion. Composed of muscles and bones connected by tendons. 206 bones in human body. Energy to perform physical activity provided by metabolism.

The Musculoskeletal System

The musculoskeletal system is composed of bones, muscles, and connective tissue (ligaments, tendons, and cartilage). The main functions of the musculoskeletal system are to: Support and protect the body and body parts. Maintain posture and produce body movement. Generate heat and maintain body temperature.

The Musculoskeletal System

Bones and Connective Tissues: The skeleton establishes the body framework and holds all other body parts together. Some bones protect internal organs while others work with the attached muscles to support body movement and activities. Other connective tissues attach muscles to bones and have their own special functions.

The Musculoskeletal System

Body joints: Two or more bones are linked with each other at joints. Types: No-mobility Hinge: one plane Pivot: two degrees of freedom Ball-and-socket: three degrees of freedom

The Musculoskeletal System

Muscles are attached to the bones on either side of a joint, so that the agonist muscles act as the prime activators of motion, and the antagonist muscles counteract the agonists and oppose the motion.

Skeletal Muscles
Approximately 400 skeletal muscles. 40 percent of human body weight. Provide power for force and motion in the musculoskeletal system. Blood vessels and nerves distributed throughout muscle tissue to deliver fuel and provide feedback.

Skeletal Muscle Contractions

Concentric muscle contraction muscle becomes shorter when it contracts. Eccentric muscle contraction muscle elongates when it contracts. Isometric muscle contraction muscle length stays the same when it contracts.

The Musculoskeletal System of the Arm

From: Niebels Methods, Standards, and Work Design by Andris Freivalds and Benjamin Niebel

From: Niebels Methods, Standards, and Work Design by Andris Freivalds and Benjamin Niebel

Muscle Structure and Metabolism

Muscle Structure: The primary function of muscle is to generate force and produce movement. Types of muscle cells: Smooth. Cardiac. Skeletal or striated.

Muscle Types
Smooth: found in stomach and intestines, blood vessel, urinary bladder, and uterus. Involved in the digestion of food and the regulation of the internal environment of the body. The contraction of smooth muscles is not normally under conscious control. Cardiac: heart muscle. It is not normally under direct conscious control.

Muscle Types
Skeletal or striated: attached to the bones and skeleton, accounts for 40 percent of the body weight. Its control enables bones to act like levers. The contraction of most skeletal muscles is under direct conscious control, and the movements produced by skeletal muscles make physical work possible.

Muscle Structure
Each skeletal muscle is made up of thousands of cylindrical elongated muscle fibers. Fibers are surrounded by a network of connective tissues through which blood vessels and nerve fibers pass to the muscle fibers. Each fiber consists of many cylindrical elements called myofibrils, each of which is divided into a number of sarcomeres, which are the contractile unit of skeletal muscle.

Muscle Structure

From: Niebels Methods, Standards, and Work Design by Andris Freivalds and Benjamin Niebel

Muscle Structure

From: An Introduction to Human Factors Engineering by Christopher Wickens, John Lee, Yili Liu, and Sallie Gordon Becker

4.2 Principles of Work Design: Human Capabilities and Motion Economy

1. Achieve the maximum muscle strength at the midrange of motion.

Force-Length Relationship of Skeletal Muscle

From: Niebels Methods, Standards, and Work Design by Andris Freivalds and Benjamin Niebel

Relaxed Position in Weightless Conditions

From: Niebels Methods, Standards, and Work Design by Andris Freivalds and Benjamin Niebel

4.2 Principles of Work Design: Human Capabilities and Motion Economy

2. Achieve the maximum muscle strength with slow movements.

Force-Velocity Relationship of Skeletal Muscle

From: Niebels Methods, Standards, and Work Design by Andris Freivalds and Benjamin Niebel

4.2 Principles of Work Design: Human Capabilities and Motion Economy

3. Use momentum to assist workers wherever possible; minimize it if it is counteracted by muscular effort. Downward motions are more effective than upward motions, because of the assistance from gravity.

4.2 Principles of Work Design: Human Capabilities and Motion Economy

4. Design tasks to optimize human strength capability. Human strength capability depends on: Type of strength. Muscle or joint being utilized. Posture. Read example 4.1.

Static Strength Positions

From: Niebels Methods, Standards, and Work Design by Andris Freivalds and Benjamin Niebel

Static Muscle Strength Moment

From: Niebels Methods, Standards, and Work Design by Andris Freivalds and Benjamin Niebel

Maximum Weights Acceptable

From: Niebels Methods, Standards, and Work Design by Andris Freivalds and Benjamin Niebel

Push and Pull Forces at Waist Height Acceptable

From: Niebels Methods, Standards, and Work Design by Andris Freivalds and Benjamin Niebel

Elbow Flexion Torque

What is the maximum load than an average female could lift with the elbow flexed at 90 degrees? Assume the average female lower arm weights 2.5 lb and the load is located 10 inches from the elbow. How much force must be exerted by the equivalent muscle (biceps) to lift this load?

Elbow Flexion Torque

Elbow Flexion Torque

4.2 Principles of Work Design: Human Capabilities and Motion Economy

5. Use larger muscles for tasks requiring strength. Leg and trunk muscles should be used in heavy lead lifting, rather than weaker arm muscles.

4.2 Principles of Work Design: Human Capabilities and Motion Economy

6. Stay below 15% of maximum voluntary force. T = 1.2/(f 0.15)0.618 1.21 T: endurance time in minutes. f: required force, expressed as a fraction of maximum isometric strength.

Static Muscle Endurance-Exertion Level

From: Niebels Methods, Standards, and Work Design by Andris Freivalds and Benjamin Niebel

Endurance Time
How long would a worker be able to sustain a force level of 30 percent of maximum strength?

4.2 Principles of Work Design: Human Capabilities and Motion Economy

7. Use short, frequent, intermittent work/rest cycles.

Percentage of Maximum Isometric Strength

From: Niebels Methods, Standards, and Work Design by Andris Freivalds and Benjamin Niebel

4.2 Principles of Work Design: Human Capabilities and Motion Economy

8. Design tasks so that most workers can do them. There is a considerable range of strength in the normal, healthy adult population, due to individual factors: gender, age, handedness, and fitness/training.

Changes in Maximal Isometric Strength with Age

From: Niebels Methods, Standards, and Work Design by Andris Freivalds and Benjamin Niebel

4.2 Principles of Work Design: Human Capabilities and Motion Economy

9. Use low force for precise movements or fine motor control.

Muscle Recruitment

From: Niebels Methods, Standards, and Work Design by Andris Freivalds and Benjamin Niebel

4.2 Principles of Work Design: Human Capabilities and Motion Economy

10. Do not attempt precise movements or fine control immediately after heavy work. This principle is violated when operators load their workstations before their shift or replenish parts during a shift. Use less-skilled workers to restock bins on a regular basis.

4.2 Principles of Work Design: Human Capabilities and Motion Economy

11. Use ballistic movements for speed. Speed-accuracy tradeoff: In a short, gross, voluntary motion, the agonist is activated and the antagonist is inhibited to reduce counterproductive muscle contractions. For precise movements, feedback control from both set of muscles is utilized, increasing motion time.

4.2 Principles of Work Design: Human Capabilities and Motion Economy

12. Begin and end motions with both hands simultaneously. When the right and left hands of the operator are working in their normal areas, a feeling of balance tends to induce a rhythm in the operators performance, which leads to maximum productivity.

4.2 Principles of Work Design: Human Capabilities and Motion Economy

13. Move the hands symmetrically and simultaneously to and from the center of the body. Deviations from symmetry in a two-handed workstation result in slow, awkward movements of the operator.

4.2 Principles of Work Design: Human Capabilities and Motion Economy

14. Use the natural rhythms of the body. The natural frequency of the system is essential to the smooth and automatic performance of a task. Read examples of manual tasks work tempos.

4.2 Principles of Work Design: Human Capabilities and Motion Economy

15. Use continuous curved motions. It is easier for humans to produce curved motions, i.e., to pivot around a joint. Straight-line motions involving sudden and sharp changes in direction require more time and are less accurate.

4.2 Principles of Work Design: Human Capabilities and Motion Economy

16. Use the lowest practical classification of movement. There are five classes of motions. First-class motions require the least amount of effort and time, while fifth-class motions are considered less efficient.

4.2 Principles of Work Design: Human Capabilities and Motion Economy

Classification of motions: 1. First-class: Finger motions. 2. Second-class: Finger and wrist motions. 3. Third-class: Finger, wrist, and lower arm motions. 4. Fourth-class: Finger, wrist, lower arm, and upper arm motions. 5. Fifth-class: Finger, wrist, lower arm, upper arm, and trunk motions.

Classifications of Movements

From: Niebels Methods, Standards, and Work Design by Andris Freivalds and Benjamin Niebel

4.2 Principles of Work Design: Human Capabilities and Motion Economy

17. Work with both hands and feet simultaneously. It is economical to relieve the hands of work that can be done by the feet, only if this work is performed while the hands are occupied. The operator should be seated when operating a foot pedal.

4.2 Principles of Work Design: Human Capabilities and Motion Economy

18. Minimize eye fixations. Primary visual targets should be located within the primary visual field, about +/- 15 degrees around the line of sight. Within this area no head movements are needed and eye fatigue is minimized.

Normal Line of Sight

From: An Introduction to Human Factors Engineering by Christopher Wickens, John Lee, Yili Liu, and Sallie Gordon Becker

Motion Economy Checklist

From: Niebels Methods, Standards, and Work Design by Andris Freivalds and Benjamin Niebel

Motion Economy Checklist (Therblig Analysis Checklist)

From: Niebels Methods, Standards, and Work Design by Andris Freivalds and Benjamin Niebel

Motion Economy Checklist (Therblig Analysis Checklist)

From: Niebels Methods, Standards, and Work Design by Andris Freivalds and Benjamin Niebel

4.4 Manual Work and Design Guidelines

Muscular strength still remains an essential part of many occupations, especially those involving manual material handling (MMH) or manual work. Overexertion from moving heavy loads can highly stress the musculoskeletal system, resulting in nearly one-third of all occupational injuries.

4.4 Manual Work and Design Guidelines

Low-back pain cases account for approximately onequarter of these injuries and one-quarter of the annual workers compensation costs. Back injuries often result in permanent disorders, with discomfort and limitations for the employee and large expenses (an average case with surgery exceeds $60,000) for the employer.

4.4 Manual Work and Design Guidelines Energy Expenditure and Workload Guidelines
Physical work is possible only when there is energy to support muscular contraction. The energy required for muscular contraction comes in the form of high-energy phosphate compounds know as ATP (adenosine triphosphate) and CP (creatine phosphate). These components are derived from metabolism of nutrients and the creation of high-energy phosphate compounds.

Metabolism
Sum of the biochemical reactions that occur in the cells of living organisms. Functions: 1. Provide energy for vital processes and activities, including muscle contraction. 2. Assimilate new organic material into the body.

Types of Metabolism
Basal metabolism energy used only to sustain the vital circulatory and respiratory functions. Activity metabolism energy associated with physical activity. Digestive metabolism energy used for digestion. Daily metabolic rates: TMRd = BMRd + AMRd + DMRd

Biochemical Reactions in Metabolism

Food categories: Carbohydrates (4 kcal/g) converted into glucose (C6H12O6) and glycogen. Primary source of energy muscle Proteins (4 kcal/g) converted into amino acids. Lipids (9 kcal/g) converted into fatty acids (acetic acid and glycerol).

4.4 Manual Work and Design Guidelines Energy Expenditure and Workload Guidelines

Metabolism of basic foods: carbohydrates, fats, and protein. Aerobic metabolism: processing nutrients in the presence of oxygen. Anaerobic metabolism: processing nutrients without oxygen. Aerobic metabolism is more efficient than anaerobic metabolism, but is relatively slow.

Sources of Energy

From: Niebels Methods, Standards, and Work Design by Andris Freivalds and Benjamin Niebel

4.4 Manual Work and Design Guidelines Energy Expenditure and Workload Guidelines

Anaerobic metabolism produces lactic acid as a waste product. Lactic acid increases the acidity of the muscle tissue and causes muscle pain and fatigue. The removal of lactic acid requires oxygen. If there is an oxygen debt, oxygen will be consumed after muscle contraction is stopped, in the cooling down period.

4.4 Manual Work and Design Guidelines Energy Expenditure and Workload Guidelines
Aerobic metabolism produces carbon dioxide as a waste byproduct, which must be removed from the tissues by the circulatory and the respiratory systems.

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Cardiovascular System
Arteries - deliver oxygen, glucose, & other nutrients from lungs and digestive tract to muscle tissue and organs. Veins - deliver carbon dioxide & waste products to lungs, kidneys, and liver. Capillaries - small blood vessels between arteries and veins to exchange nutrients and waste between blood and tissue.

Respiratory System
Nasal cavity (nose) - inhales air (oxygen) and exhales carbon dioxide. Air passageway connecting nasal cavity and lungs. Lungs - consist of alveoli (air-containing cells) that provide for exchange of gases in the blood circulating through them. 200 to 600 million alveoli in adult human lungs. Surface area = 70 to 90 m2 (750 to 970 ft2).

Muscular Effort and Work Physiology

Capacity of human body to use energy and apply forces depends on: 1. Capacity of cardiovascular and respiratory systems to deliver required fuel and oxygen to muscles and carry away waste products 2. Muscle strength and endurance 3. Ability to maintain proper heat balance within the body

Respiratory and Cardiovascular Systems

From: Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work by Mikell Groover

Energy Inputs, Metabolism, and Outputs

From: Ergonomics How to Design for Ease and Efficiency by Kroemer, Kroemer, and KroemerElbert

Energy Expenditure Requirements of Work

From: An Introduction to Human Factors Engineering by Christopher Wickens, John Lee, Yili Liu, and Sallie Gordon Becker

4.4 Manual Work and Design Guidelines Energy Expenditure and Workload Guidelines

The energy expended on a task can be estimated by assuming that most of the energy is produced through aerobic metabolism and measuring the amount of oxygen consumed by the worker. The amount of inspired air is measured with a flow meter and the expired oxygen is also measured with an oxygen meter.

4.4 Manual Work and Design Guidelines Energy Expenditure and Workload Guidelines

E(kcal/min) = 4.9xV(0.21 EO2) where E: energy expenditure(kcal/min) V: volume of air inspired (L/min) EO2: fraction of Oxygen (O2) in expired air.

4.4 Manual Work and Design Guidelines Energy Expenditure and Workload Guidelines

The energy expended on a task depends on: Type of task being performed. Posture maintained during the task. Type of load carriage.

Energy Costs of Various Types of Human Activity

From: Niebels Methods, Standards, and Work Design by Andris Freivalds and Benjamin Niebel

Energy Expenditure Rates for Various Activities

From: An Introduction to Human Factors Engineering by Christopher Wickens, John Lee, Yili Liu, and Sallie Gordon Becker

Energy Expenditure Rates

Sleeping Standing (not walking) Walking at 4.5 km/hr Jogging at 7.2 km/hr Soldering work (seated) Mowing lawn (push mower) Chopping wood Shoveling in front of furnace BMRm 2.2 kcal/min 4 kcal/min 7.5 kcal/min 2.7 kcal/min 8.3 kcal/min 8 kcal/min 10 kcal/min

Work Activity and Energy Expenditure

Energy expenditure, heart rate, and oxygen consumption for several categories of work activity

From: Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work by Mikell Groover

4.4 Manual Work and Design Guidelines Energy Expenditure and Workload Guidelines

Physical demands of work according to the energy expenditure requirements: Light: under 2.5 kcal/min Moderate: about 2.5 to 5.0 kcal/min Heavy: between 5.0 to 7.5 kcal/min Very Heavy: between 7.5 to 10.0 kcal/min Extremely Heavy: greater than 10 kcal/min

4.4 Manual Work and Design Guidelines Energy Expenditure and Workload Guidelines

It usually takes about 1 to 3 minutes for the circulatory and respiratory systems to adjust to the increased metabolic demands and reach the level at which energy requirements of work are met. The oxygen deficit incurred at the start of work must be repaid at some time, either during work or during the recovery period immediately after work ceases.

Changes in Energy Expenditure Rate

From: An Introduction to Human Factors Engineering by Christopher Wickens, John Lee, Yili Liu, and Sallie Gordon Becker

4.4 Manual Work and Design Guidelines Energy Expenditure and Workload Guidelines

Acceptable limit for energy expenditure for an 8-hr workday: 5.33 kcal/min for average US male. 4 kcal/min for average US female.

4.4 Manual Work and Design Guidelines Energy Expenditure and Workload Guidelines

Rest allocation guideline: R = (W 5.33)/(W 1.33) where R: time required for rest (% of total time) W: average energy expenditure during work (kcal/min) 1.33 kcal/min energy expenditure during rest

4.4 Manual Work and Design Guidelines Energy Expenditure and Workload Guidelines

What are the rest period requirements for a sawing wood operation performed by healthy male and female workers on an 8-hour shift basis?

4.4 Manual Work and Design Guidelines Energy Expenditure and Workload Guidelines

4.4 Manual Work and Design Guidelines Energy Expenditure and Workload Guidelines

The total rest time should be divided into several short breaks distributed throughout the 8-hr work shift rather than taken as few long breaks. The use of frequent, short work/rest cycles is highly recommended.

4.4 Manual Work and Design Guidelines Heart Rate Guidelines

Heart rate number of beats per minute. Heart rate increases as workload and energy demands increase. Since the heart pumps the blood carrying oxygen to the working muscles, the higher the required energy expenditure, the higher the corresponding heart rate. Heart rate is often used in industrial applications as an indirect measure of energy expenditure.

Increase of Heart Rate with Physical Workload

From: Niebels Methods, Standards, and Work Design by Andris Freivalds and Benjamin Niebel

4.4 Manual Work and Design Guidelines Heart Rate Guidelines

The equipment used to measure heart rate is less intrusive than the equipment to measure oxygen consumption. However, heart rate may vary considerably between individuals, depending on their fitness level and age. Heart rate is influenced by emotional stress, drinking coffee or tea, working with a static and awkward posture, working in hot environments.

4.4 Manual Work and Design Guidelines Heart Rate Guidelines

The average heart rate for an adult is 60 to 80 beats/min. A typical heart rate is 72 beats/min. The maximum heart rate determines the maximum work capacity or the maximum energy expenditure rate of an individual. The maximum heart rate is affected by age, gender, health, and fitness level. Maximum Heart Rate = 220 age

4.4 Manual Work and Design Guidelines Heart Rate Guidelines

The average working heart rate is compared to the resting pre-work heart rate. An acceptable increase in heart rate is 40 beats/min, corresponding to the recommended working energy expenditure limits. For the typical heart rate of 72 beats/min, the working heart rate should be 112 beats/min.

4.4 Manual Work and Design Guidelines Heart Rate Guidelines

An increase in heart rate during steady-state work, called heart rate creep, indicates an increasing buildup of fatigue and insufficient recovery during rest pauses. Heart rate creep should be avoided by providing additional rest.

Heart Rate for Two Different Workloads

From: Niebels Methods, Standards, and Work Design by Andris Freivalds and Benjamin Niebel

4.4 Manual Work and Design Guidelines Subjective Ratings of Perceived Exertion

Simple subjective rating scales of physical workload. Borg RPE (Ratings of Perceived Exertion) scale requires workers to rate their perceived level of physical exertion on a scale of 6 to 20. 6: minimum heart beat rate of 60 beats/min 20: maximum heart beat rate of 200 beats/min

Borgs RPE Scale with Verbal Anchors

From: Niebels Methods, Standards, and Work Design by Andris Freivalds and Benjamin Niebel

4.4 Manual Work and Design Guidelines Subjective Ratings of Perceived Exertion
Subjective measures are cheaper and easier to implement than physiological measures. Subjective measures may be influenced by other factors: Workers satisfaction with a workplace. Motivation. Other emotional factors. Preferable to use them along with physiological measures of workload.

4.4 Manual Work and Design Guidelines Low Back Compressive Forces
Human spine or vertebral column: S-shaped 25 bones or vertebrae, divided in 4 regions: 7 cervical vertebrae 12 thoracic vertebrae 5 lumbar vertebrae sacrum in pelvic area

Anatomy of the Human Spine

From: Niebels Methods, Standards, and Work Design by Andris Freivalds and Benjamin Niebel

Human Spinal Column

From: Ergonomics How to Design for Ease and Efficiency by Kroemer, Kroemer, and KroemerElbert

4.4 Manual Work and Design Guidelines Low Back Compressive Forces
The spinal cord travels from the brain to the end of the vertebral column through the opening at the center of each vertebra. Spinal nerve roots separate from the spinal cord and pass between the vertebral bone out to extremities, heart, organs, and other parts. Vertebral bones are separated by the intervertebral disks that allow a large range of motion in the spine.

4.4 Manual Work and Design Guidelines Low Back Compressive Forces
Disks are composed of a gel-like center surrounded by layers of fibers. The lower back is the most vulnerable link of the musculoskeletal system in material handling because it is the most distant from the load handled by the hand. Significant stress occurs on the two lowest joints, L5/S1 disk and L4/L5 disk.

Lumbar Section of the Spinal Column

From: Ergonomics How to Design for Ease and Efficiency by Kroemer, Kroemer, and Kroemer-Elbert

4.4 Manual Work and Design Guidelines Low Back Compressive Forces
The combined effect of aging and manual work exposure can weaken disks with time. Disks may release some of their gelatinous material and the disk space may narrow, allowing vertebral bones to come closer and touch, causing irritation and pain. Disk herniation or slipped disk may allow large amount of gel to extrude and impinge upon the nerve roots.

Anatomy of a Vertebra Disk Degeneration

From: Niebels Methods, Standards, and Work Design by Andris Freivalds and Benjamin Niebel

Back Compressive Forces

From: Niebels Methods, Standards, and Work Design by Andris Freivalds and Benjamin Niebel

4.4 Manual Work and Design Guidelines Low Back Compressive Forces

Low-Back Biomechanical Model

From: An Introduction to Human Factors Engineering by Christopher Wickens, John Lee, Yili Liu, and Sallie Gordon Becker

4.4 Manual Work and Design Guidelines Low Back Compressive Forces
The simple model neglects the offset aligment of the disks, weight of the body segments, and other factors. Therefore, this model probably underpredicts the extremely high compressive forces typically obtained in the low back area. A compressive force of 770 lb should be considered the danger threshold.

Effect of Weight of Load

From: Niebels Methods, Standards, and Work Design by Andris Freivalds and Benjamin Niebel

4.4 Manual Work and Design Guidelines NIOSH Lifting Guidelines

National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/ NIOSH issued a set of Lifting Guidelines to control the growing problem of work-related back injuries.

4.4 Manual Work and Design Guidelines NIOSH Lifting Guidelines

Theses guidelines are summarized in the NIOSH Lift Equation to analyze lifting demands on low back in order to prevent or reduce the occurrence of liftingrelated low-back pain and injuries. The key output is the Recommended Weight Limit (RWL).

4.4 Manual Work and Design Guidelines NIOSH Lifting Guidelines

Recommended Weight Limit (RWL): load value for a specific lifting task that nearly all healthy workers could perform for a substantial period of time without an increased risk of developing lifting-related low-back pain. Once the RWL is exceeded, musculoskeletal injury incidences and severity rates increase considerably.

4.4 Manual Work and Design Guidelines NIOSH Lifting Guidelines

The 770lb compression force on the L5/S1 disk, created by the RWL, can be tolerated by most young, healthy workers. Over 75% of women and over 99% of men have the strength capability to lift a load described by the RWL. Maximum resulting energy expenditures of 4.7 kcal/min will not exceed recommended limits.

NIOSH Lifting Equation

NIOSH Lifting Equation

RWL = LC x HM x VM x DM x AM x FM x CM LC: Load constant = 51 lb HM: Horizontal multiplier = 10/H VM: Vertical multiplier = 1 0.0075V 30 DM: Distance multiplier = 0.82 + 1.8/D AM: Asymmetric multiplier =1 0.0032xA FM: Frequency multiplier Table 4.7 CM: Coupling multiplier Table 4.8

NIOSH Lifting Equation

H: horizontal location of the load cg forward of the midpoint between the ankles, 10 H 25 in. V: vertical location of the load cg, 0 V 70 in. D: vertical travel distance between origin and destination of lift, 10 D 70 in. A: angle of asymmetry between the hands and feet (degrees), 0 A 135.

NIOSH Lifting Equation

RWL = 51(10/H)(1 0.0075V 30) (0.82 + 1.8/D)(1 0.0032xA) x FM x CM FM: Frequency multiplier Table 4.7 CM: Coupling multiplier Table 4.8

NIOSH Lifting Equation Work Duration

Short duration: duration 1hr, recovery period of 1.2 times the work time. Moderate duration: 1hr < duration 2hr, recovery period of at least 0.3 times the work time. Long duration: 2hr < duration 8hr, standard industrial rest allowances.

NIOSH Lifting Equation Coupling

Good coupling Fair coupling Poor coupling A good coupling will reduce the maximum grasp forces required and increase the acceptable weight for lifting while a poor coupling will generally require higher maximum grasp forces and decrease the acceptable weight for lifting.

Decision Tree for Couping Quality

From: Niebels Methods, Standards, and Work Design by Andris Freivalds and Benjamin Niebel

NIOSH Lifting Index (LI)

LI = Load weight/RWL LI is used to estimate the hazard level of lifting a given load. LI useful for prioritizing jobs for ergonomic redesign. LI > 1 The lifting task is likely to pose an increased risk for some workers. LI > 3 nearly all workers are at an increased risk of developing a work-related injury.

4.4 Manual Work and Design Guidelines NIOSH Lifting Guidelines

Controlling the hazards: 1. Engineering controls: Job / workplace redesign. Administrative controls: Specialized selection and training of workers.

2.

4.4 Manual Work and Design Guidelines NIOSH Lifting Guidelines

Most common changes: Avoiding high and low locations. Using lift and tilt tables. Using handles or specialized containers for handling loads. Reduce the horizontal distance by cutting out work surfaces and bringing loads closer to the body.

4.4 Manual Work and Design Guidelines Multitask Lifting Guidelines

For jobs with a variety of lifting tasks, the physical/metabolic load is increased compared to the single lifting task. Composite Lifting Index (CLI) represents the collective demands of the job.

Composite Lifting Index (CLI)

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Compute a single-task RWL (STRWL) for each task. Compute a frequency-independent RWL (FIRWL) for each task, FM=1. Compute a single-task LI (STLI) by dividing the load by STRWL. Compute a frequency-independent LI (FILI) by dividing the load by FIRWL. Compute the CLI for the overall job. CLI = STLI1 + LI LI = FILI2(1/FM1,2-1/FM1) + FILI3(1/FM1,2,31/FM1,2) +...+ FILIn(1/FM1,2,3,...,n-1/FM1,2,...,(n-1))

Multitask Job Analysis Worksheet

From: Niebels Methods, Standards, and Work Design by Andris Freivalds and Benjamin Niebel

4.4 Manual Work and Design Guidelines General Guidelines: Manual Lifting
Safe lifting procedure. Avoid twisting and jerky motions. Avoid carrying uneven loads in both arms or an entire load in only one arm.

Safe Lifting Procedure

From: Niebels Methods, Standards, and Work Design by Andris Freivalds and Benjamin Niebel

General Posture and Task Evaluation Checklist

From: Niebels Methods, Standards, and Work Design by Andris Freivalds and Benjamin Niebel

Manual Material Handling

Loads or Material Handling Devices (MHDs) should be kept close to the body and located at about thigh or waist height if possible. Large packages should not be presented to a worker at a height lower than about midthigh, or about 30 inches above the floor. Use lift tables to assist workers when handling large or heavy objects and to reduce vertical travel distance.

Lifting Loads

From: Ergonomics How to Design for Ease and Efficiency by Kroemer, Kroemer, and Kroemer-Elbert

Lifting Loads

From: Ergonomics How to Design for Ease and Efficiency by Kroemer, Kroemer, and Kroemer-Elbert

Appropriate Height

From: Ergonomics How to Design for Ease and Efficiency by Kroemer, Kroemer, and Kroemer-Elbert

Appropriate Height
From: Ergonomics How to Design for Ease and Efficiency by Kroemer, Kroemer, and KroemerElbert

Adjustable Lift Table

From: An Introduction to Human Factors Engineering by Christopher Wickens, John Lee, Yili Liu, and Sallie Gordon Becker

Manual Material Handling

Torso twisting should be minimized. Design lifting tasks to use both hands in front of the body and balance the load between the hands. Frequency of lifting should be minimized with lifting and work rest schedules. Use MHDs for frequent and heavy lifting. Loads and MHDs should be easy to grasp and handle.

Eliminate Torso Twisting

From: An Introduction to Human Factors Engineering by Christopher Wickens, John Lee, Yili Liu, and Sallie Gordon Becker

Eliminate Torso Twisting

From: Ergonomics How to Design for Ease and Efficiency by Kroemer, Kroemer, and Kroemer-Elbert

Lifting Loads

From: Ergonomics How to Design for Ease and Efficiency by Kroemer, Kroemer, and Kroemer-Elbert

Carts and Dollies

From: Ergonomics How to Design for Ease and Efficiency by Kroemer, Kroemer, and Kroemer-Elbert

Conveyors

From: Ergonomics How to Design for Ease and Efficiency by Kroemer, Kroemer, and Kroemer-Elbert

Lift Tables

From: Ergonomics How to Design for Ease and Efficiency by Kroemer, Kroemer, and Kroemer-Elbert

Forklift Truck

From: Ergonomics How to Design for Ease and Efficiency by Kroemer, Kroemer, and Kroemer-Elbert

Manual Material Handling

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References
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