Cnapter

10 The Bipolar Transistor

Early effect: Another term for base width modulation. Early voltage: The value of voltage (magnitude) at the intercept on the voltage axis obtained by extrapolating the lc versus VCE curves to zero current. Emitter-base junction capacitan ce charging time: The time constant describing the time for the B-E space charge width to change with a change in emitter current. Emitter injection efficiency factor: The factor in the common base current gain that takes into account the injection of carriers from the base into the emitter. Forward active: The bias condition in which the B-E junction is forward biased and the B-C junction is reverse biased. Inverse active: The bias condition in which the B-E junction is reverse biased and the B-C junction is forward biased. Output conductance: The ratio of a differential change in collector current to the corresponding differential change in C-E voltage. Punch-through: The bias condition such that the B-C space charge region extends completely through the neutral base region to the B-E depletion regin. Rcembnation factor: The factor in the common base current gain that accounts for recombination in the forward-biased B-E junction. Saturation: The bias condition in which both B-E and B-Cjunctions are forward biased and the collector current is no longer controlled by the B-E voltage . .Storage time: The time duration from the point when the input base signal switches from forward to reverse bias, to the point when the collector current is reduced to 90 percent of its saturation value. .

PROBLEMS
(Note: In the following problems, use the transistor geometry shown in Figure 10-7.) Section 10.1 1. For a uniformly doped n+ p+n bipolar transistor in thermal equilibrium, (a) sketch the energy-band diagram, (b) sketch the electric field through the device, and (e) repeat parts (a) and (b) for the transistor biased in the forward-active region. 2. Consider a p + + n +p bipolar transistor, uniformly doped in each region. Sketch the energy-band diagram for the case when the transistor is (a) in thermal equilibrium, (b) biased in the forward-active mode, (e) biased in the inverse-active region, and (d) biased in cutoff with both the B-E and B-C junctions reverse biased.

Problems

Section 10.2

3.

4. 5.

6.

A uniformly doped silicon npn bipolar transistor is to be biased in the forward-active mode. The transistor dopings are NE = 1017 cm'. NB = 1016 cm", and N = 1015 cm". (a) For T = 300oK, calculate the B-E voltage at which the minority carrier electron concentration at x = O is 10 percent of the majority carrier hole concentration. (h) At this bias, determine the minority carrier hole concentration at X' = O. (e) Repeat parts (a) and (h) if the temperature is increased to T = 435K. Derive the expressions for the coefficients given by Equations (lO-6a) and (l0-6b). Derive the expression for the excess minority carrier hole concentrtion in the base region of a uniformly doped pnp bipolar transistor operating in the forward-active region. The idealized excess minority carrier concentration 8nBO(x) in the base of an npn transistor is a linear function of distance through the base when the transistor is biased in the forward-active region (see Example 10-6). Using Equation (10-7) for the uniformly doped npn device, determine

at x -:- xB/2 for (a) xB/LB = 0.1 and (h) xB/LB = 1.0. Assume VBE kT/e. 7. Consider a pnp bipolar transistor. Assume that the excess minority carrier hole concentrations at the edges of the B-E and B-C space charge regions are 8PB(0) = 8 x 1014 cm ? and 8PB(XB) = -2.25 x 104 cm", respectively. Plot, on the same graph, 8PB(X) for (a) the ideal case when no recombination occurs in the base, and (h) the case when XB = LB = 10 p,m. What can be said about the slopes of the two curves at x = Oand x = XB? *8. (a) A uniformly doped npn bipolar transistor at T = 300 K is biased in saturation. Starting with the continuity equation for minority e carriers, show that the excess electron concentration in the base region can be expressed as
0

for XB/ LB 1 where XB is the neutral base width. (h) Show that the minority carrier diffusion current in the base is then given by
{. J n = _ eDBnBO XB exp

(eV BE) kT

exp

(eV Bc)} kT

Chapter

10 The Bipolar Transistor

(e) Show that the total excess minority carrier charge (coul/cm-) in

the base region is given by

*9.

Consider a silicon pnp bipolar transistor at T = 300 K with uniform dopings of NE = 5 X 1018 cm". NB = 1017 cm", and N = 5 X 1015 cm:". Let DB = JO crn-Zsec, XB = 0.7 .tm, and assume XB LB. The transistor is operating in saturation with Jp = 165 A/cm2 and VEB = 0.75 volt. Determine (a) VCB, (b) VEC(sat), (e) the #/crri2 of excess minority carrier holes in the base, and (d) the #/cm2 of excess minority carrier electrons in the long collector. Let Le = 35
0

usn,
10.
An npn silicon bipolar transistor at T = 3000K has uniform dopings of NE = 1019 cm :", NB = 1017 cm :", and N = 7 X 1015 cm ='. The transistor is operating in the inverse-active mode with VBE = - 2 volts and VBC = 0.565 volt. (a) Sketch the minority carrier distribution through the device. (b) Determine the minority carrier concentrations at x = XB and x" = o. A uniformly doped silicon pnp bipolar transistor at T = 300 K with doping s of NE = 5 X 1017 cm=', NB = 1016 cm ", and N = 5 X 1014 cm ? is biased in the inverse-active mode. What is the maximum B-C voltage so that the low-injection condition applies? Consider a pnp silicon transistor at T = 300oK. Assume that the base doping is NB = 5 X 1016 cm:", the neutral base width is XB = 1.2 p.m, and the minority carrier diffusion length in the base is LB = 10 p.m. (a) For VEB = VCB = O, calculate the minority carrier charge (coull cm-) in the base. (Assume the abrupt junction approximation applies.) (b) If the B-C and B-E junctions are reverse biased at 1 volt, calculate the minority carrier charge (coul/cm-) in the base. (As sume the neutral base width is unchanged.)
0

11.

12.

Section 10.3

.13.

The following currents are measured in a uniformly doped npn bipolar transistor: ()
InE = 1.20 mA IpE

Inc = 1.18 mA lo = 0.001 mA

= 0.10 mA IR = 0.20 mA

lpeo = 0.001 mA

Determine (a) a, (b) 'Y, (e) aT, (d) 8, and (e) {J. Consider a uniformly doped npn bipolar transistor at T = 3()()OK with the following parameters:

Problems

NE = 1018 crn" DE = 8 cm-/sec

= XE =

10-8 sec 0.8 J-tm

NB = 5 X 1016 cm ? DB = 15 cm-Zsec TBO = 5 X 10-8 sec XB = 0.7 J-tm

N = 1015 cm ? D = 12 cm-Zsec reo = 10-7 sec

J,o

10-8 Al

cm?
For VBE = 0.60 volt and VCE = 5 volts, calculate (a) the currents JnE, JpE, JnC, and JR and (h) the current gain factors 'Y, CXT, 8, cx, and {3. 15. (a) Calculate and plot, for a bipolar transistor, the base transport factor, CXT, as a function of (xBILB) over the range 0.01 <: (xBILB) <: 10. (Use a log scale on the horizontal axis.) (b) Assuming that the emitter injection efficiency and recombination factors are unity, plot the common ernitter current gain for the conditions in part (a). (e) Considering the results of part (h), what can be said about the base transport factor being the limiting factor in the common emitter current gain? 16. (a) Calculate and plot the emitter injection efficiency as a function of the doping ratio, NBINE, over the range 0.01 <: NBINE <: 10. Assume that DE = DE, LB = LE, and XB = XE' (Use a log scale on .. the horizontal axis.) Neglect bandgap narrowing effects. (h) Assuming that the base transport factor and recombination factors are unity s plot the cornmon emitter current gain for the conditions in part (a). (e) Considering the results of part (h), what can be said about the emitter injection efficiency being the Iimiting factor in the cornmon emitter current gain. 17. (a) Calculate and plot the recombination factor as a function of the forward-bias B-E voltage for 0.1 <: VBE <: 0.6. Assume the following parameters:
DB = 25 cm-Zsec NE = 5 X 1018 cm ? Ne = 5 x 1015 cm ?
TBO

TEO

= 10-7 sec

DE = 10 cm-Zsec NB = 1 X 1017 cm ? XB = 0.7 J-tm JrO = 2 X 10-9 Azcm?

ni = 1.5 x 1010 cm>' (h) Assuming the base transport and emitter injection efficiency

18.

factors are unity, plot the common emitter current gain for the conditions in part (a). (e) Considering the results of part (h), what can be said about the recombination factor being the limiting factor in the common emitter current gain. Consider an npn silicon bipolar transistor at T = 300 K with the following parameters:
0

DB = 25 cm-zsec
TBO.

DE
TEO

= 10 cm-zsec
= 5
X

= 10-7 sec NB = 10]6cm ?

10-8 sec

XE = 0.5 J-tm

Chapter 10

The Bipolar Transistor

* 19.

The recombination factor, a, has been determined to be a = 0.998. We need a comrnon emitter current gain of f3 = 120. Assuming that Ol.T = 'Y, determine the maximum base ,width, XB,' and the minimum emitter doping, N E, to achieve this specification. (a) The recombination current density, JrO, in an npn silicon bipolar transistor at T = 300 K is JrO = 5 x 10-8 Al cm", The uniform dopings are NE = 1018 cm", NB = 5 X 1016 cm-3, and N = 1015cm:". Other parameters are DE = 10 cm-/sec , DB = 25 cm-/sec , 'TEO = 10-8 sec, and 'TBO = 10-7 seco Determine the neutral base width so that the recombination factor is a = 0.995 when VBE = 0.55 volt. (b) If JrO remains constant with temperature, what is the value of a when VBE = 0.55 volt for the case when the temperature is T = 400 K? Use the value of XB determined in part (a).
0 0

Section 10.4 20.

*21.

22.

23.

24.

A silicon pnp bipolar transistor at T = 300 K has uniform dopings of NE = 1018 cm'", NB = 1016cm-3, and N = 1015cm>'. The metallurgical base width is 1.2 J-tm.Let DB = 10 cm-Zsecand 'TBO = 5 X 10-7 seco Assume that the minority carrier hole concentration in the ..base can be approximated by a linear distribution. Let VEB = 0.625 volt. Determine the hole diffusion current density in the base for (a) V CB = 5 volts, (b) V CB = 10 volts, and (e) V CB = 15 volts. In a silicon npn bipolar transistor at T = 300oK, the doping concentrations in the emitter and collector are NE = 1018 cm? and Nc = 1015 cm:", respectively. The netural base width is 0.65 J-tmwhen VBE = 0.70 volt and VeB = 5 volts. Let DB = 25 cm-/sec and 'TBO = 5 X 10-7 seco The minority carrier diffusion current in the base is to increase by no more than 5 percent when VCB increases to 10 volts. (a) Determine the minimum base doping. (b) Estimate the Early voltage. Consider a uniformly doped silicon npn bipolar transistor in which XE = XB, LE = LB, and DE = DB Assume that Ol.T = a = 0.995 and let NB = 1017 cm>'. Calculate and plot the common ernitter current gain{3forNE = 1017,1018,1019, and 102ocm-3, andfor the case (a) when the bandgap narrowing effect is neglected, and (b) when the bandgap narrowing effect is taken into account. A silicon pnp bipolar transistor at T = 300 K is to be designed so that the emitter injection efficiency is 'Y = 0.996. Assume that XE = XB, LE = LB, DE = DB, and let N E = 1019cm:". (a) Determine the maximum base doping, taking into account bandgap narrowing. (b) If bandgap narrowing were neglected, what would be the maximum base doping required? A first-approximation type calculation of the current crowding effect can be made using the geometry shown in Figure 10-40. As0 0

Problems

x=
Figure 10-40

XB

= S/2

Figure for problems 24 and 25.

sume that one half of the base current enters from each side of the emitter strip and fiows uniformly to the center of the emitter. Assume the base is p-type with the following parameters:
NB = 1016 cm ? J.Lp = 400 cm-/V-sec Emitter Length,
XB =

0.70 J.Lm S = 8 J.Lm L = 100 J.Lm

(a) Calculate the resistance between x = Oand x = S/2. (p) If (!)IB ="10 J.LA, calculate the voltage drop between x = Oand x = S/2. (e)

If VBE = 0.6 volt at x = O,estimate in percent the number of electrons being injected into the base at x = S/2 compared to x = O. Consider the geometry shown in Figure 10-40 and the device parameters in problem 24 except the emitter width, S. The emitter width S is to be changed so that the number of electrons injeeted into the base at x = S12 is no more than 10 percent less than the number of electrons injected into the base at x = O. Calculate S. *26. The base doping in a diffused n +pn bipolar transistor can be approximated by an exponential as
NB

25.

NB(O) exp ~

( -ax)

where a is a constant and is given by a = In ( N B(O) )

(a) Show that, in thermal equilibrium, the electric field in the neutral base region is a constant. (h) Indicate the direction of the elee-

trie field. Does this electric field aid or retard the flow of minority earrier electrons aeross the base? (e) Derive an expression for the steady-state minority carrier electron concentration in the base under forward bias. Assume no recombination occurs in the base. (Express the electron concentration in terms of the electron current density.)

Chapter

10

The Bipolar Transistor

27.

Consider a silicon npn bipolar transistor with uniform dopings of NE = 5 X 1018 cm :", NB = 1017 cm :", and N = 5 X 1015 cm='. Assume the c<?mmonbase current gain is a = 0.9920. Determine (a) BV CBO, (b) BV CEO, and (e) the base-emitter breakdown voltage. (Assume n = 3 for the empirical constant.) 28. A high-voltage silicon npn bipolar transistor is to be fabricated with a uniform base doping of NB = 1016 cm ? and a common emitter current gain of f3 = 50. The breakdown voltage BV CEO is to be at least 60 volts. Determine the maximum collector doping and the minimum collector length to support this voltage. (Assume n = 3.) 29. A uniformly doped silicon epitaxial npn bipolar transistor is fabricated with a base doping of NB = 3 X 1016 cm ? and a heavily doped collector region with N = 5 X 1017 cm>'. The neutral base width is XB = 0.70 /Lmwhen VBE = VBC = O. Determine VBC at which punch-through oecurs. Compare this value to the expected avalanche breakdown voltage ofthe junction. 30. A uniformly doped silicon pnp bipolar transistor is fabricated with NE = 1019 cm"? and N = 1016 cm>'. The metallurgical base width is 0.75 /Lm. Determine the minimum base doping so that the punchthrough voltage is no less than Vpt = 25 volts.
a

Section 10.5

31.

The VCE(sat)voltage of a npn transistor in saturation continues to decrease slowly as the base current increases. In the Ebers-Moll model, as sume aF = 0.99, aR = 0.20, and lc = 1 m.A, For T = 300oK, determine the base current, lB, necessary to give VCE(sat)= 0.10 volt. 32. Consider an npn bipolar transistor biased in the active mode. Using the Ebers-Moll model, derive the equation for the base current, lB, in terms of aF, aR, lES, 1CS, and VBE. 33. Consider the Ebers-Moll model and let the base terminal be open so lB = o. Show that, when a collector-emitter voltage is applied, we have

34.

In the Ebers-Moll model, let aF = 0.98, lES = 10-13 A, and les = 5 x 10-13 A at T = 300oK. Plot lc versus VCB for - VBE < VCB < 3 volts and for VBE = 0.2, 004, and 0.6 volt. (Note that VCB = - VBC.) What can be said about the base width modulation effect using this model?

Problems

Section 10.6 35. Consider a silicon npn transistor at T = 300oK. Assume the following parameters:
l t:
XB

= 0.5 mA
=

eje

= 0.8 pF

0.7 ,um CM

D = 25 cm-/sec

Xdc

= 2.0 ,um

re;
pF

= 30 n
= 50

C,

= 0.08

f3

(a) Calculate the transit time factors. (h) Calculate the cutoff and

36.

beta cutoff frequencies, fT and f~, respectively. A silicon npn bipolar transistor has a beta cutoff frequency of f~ = 100 MHz and a common emitter current gain of f3 = 125. Assume that the base transit time and the ernitter base junction charging time are equal limiting factors. If lE = 1 mA, determine eje, XB, and
[r-

37.

A silicon npn bipolar transistor at T = 300 K has a uniformly doped base region. The cutoff frequency is fT = 500 MHz and is limited by the base transit time. Estimate the base width. Discuss the variation in fT expected as the temperature increases to T = 400 K.
0 0

Summary and Review ,*38.

with an Early voltage of at least 200 volts and a current gain of at least f3 = 80. (h) Repeat part (a) for a pnp bipolar transistor. *39. Design a uniformly doped silicon npn bipolar transistor so that f3 = 100 at T = 300oK. The maximum CE voltage is to be 15 volts and any breakdown voltage is to be at least three times this value. Assume the recombination factor is constant at () = 0.995. The transistor is to be operated in low-injection with a maximum collector current of le = 5 mA. Bandgap narrowing effects and base width modulation effects are to be minimized. Let DE = 6 cm-zsec, DB = 25 crn-Zsec, 'TEO = 10-8 sec, and 'TBO = 10-7 seco Determine doping concentrations, the metallurgical base width, the active area, and the maximum allowable VBE. *40. Design a pair of complementary npn and pnp bipolar transistors. The transistors are to have the same metallurgical base and emitter widths of WB = 0.75 ,um and XE = 0.5 ,um. Assume that the following minority carrier parameters apply to each device.
D; = 23 cm-zsec
'TnO 'TpO

D; = 8 cm-Zsec

= 10-7 sec = 5 X 10-8 sec

The conector doping concentration in each device is 5 x 1015 cm-3 and the recombination factor in each device is constant at () =

Chapter 10 The Bipolar Transistor

0.9950. (a) Design, if possible, the devices so that {3 = 100in each

device. If this is not possible, how clase a match can be obtained? (b) With equal forward-bias base-emitter voltages applied, the collector currents are to be le = 5 mA with each device operating in low-injection. Determine the active cross-sectional afeas. READING LIST
1. Muller, R. S., and T. 1. Kamins. Device Electronics [or Integrated Circuits.

2nd ed. New York: Wiley, 1986. 2. Navon, D. H. Semiconductor Microdevices and Materials. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1986. 3. Neudeck, G. W. The Bipolar Junction Transistor. Vol. 3 of the Modular Series on Solid State Devices. 2nd ed. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley,
1989.

4. Roulston, D. J. Bipolar Semiconductor Devices. New York: McGraw-Hill,

7. Streetman, B. G. Solid State Electronic Deoices. 3rd ed. Englewood Cliffs, N J.: Prentice Hall, 1990. ' 8. Sze, S. M. Physics oj Semiconductor Deoices. 2nd ed. New York: Wiley,
1981.

9. Tiwari, S.; S. L. Wright; and A. W. Kleinsasser. "Transport and related properties of (Ga, AI)As/GaAs double heterojunction bipolar junction transistors." IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices ED-34 (February 1987), pp. 185-187. *10. Wang, S. Fundamentals oj Semiconductor Theory and Device Physics. Englewood Cliffs, NJ.: Prentice Hall, 1989. *11. Warner, R. M., Jr., and B. L. Grung. Transistors: Fundamentals [or the lntegrated-Circuit Engineer. New York: Wiley, 1983. 12. Yang, E. S. Microelectronic Devices. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1988.