Oe ice MCh cS ® Covers all the key points of Bleed CUE Le CNH aecm nd ou CUcy ® Thousands of examples © All grammatical terms explained ier la ® Detailed tables of Japanese Adem eat) Author, Jonathan Bunt, is Associate Director Cymer Centre at the University of Manchester. Reon CM A mater MUy-Ur ime oe ere Ca Linguistic Science at the University of Reading. O x FORD 1 0-19-860382-7 www.oup.com AskOxford cmv I 198 Oxford Dictionaries Passionate about language £9.99 rap $14.95 603825" >Grammar & Verbs Clear and simple ea lire (Hi cyOXFORD ‘UNIVERSITY HSS Great Clarendon Street, Oxford OX2 6DP ‘Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford it furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship and education by publishing worldwide in ‘Oxford New York ‘Auckland Bangkok Buenos Aires Cape Town Chennai ‘Dar es Salaam Delhi Hong Kong Istanbul Karachi Kolkata Kuala Lumpur Madrid Melboumne Mexico City Mumbai Nairobi Sao Paulo Shanghai Singapore Taipei Tokyo Toronto ‘Oxford is a registered trademark of Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries Published in the United States by Oxford University Press Inc., New York © Oxford University Press 2003 First published 2003 ‘All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, ‘stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, ‘without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted by law, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction ‘outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the address above You must not circulate this book in any other binding or cover and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Data available Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Data available ISBN 0-19-860382-7 10987654321 ‘Typeset by Graphicraft Limited, Hong Kong, Printed in Great Britain by Clays Lad, Bungay, Suffolk Preface ‘Acknowledgements Parts of speech Topic, comment, and predicate In-group and out-group Conjunctions and conjunctive particles Particles ~ Auniliary suffixes The < - = - &- E group of words Numbers, counters, time, dates Nominalization: the nominalizer @ and the noun = & Reigo Interrogatives Perspective and pronouns Punctuation and script terms Glossary of grammatical terms Appendices. Hiragana chart Katakana chart "Word endings for finding the dictionary form English index Japanese indexPreface | The Japanese Grammar and Verbs is part of a series of Oxford grammars of modern languages. It includes information on a wide number of structures likely to be encountered in the first few years of studying Japanese at school or college and contains everything that is essential up to A level. For those living and working in Japan, it presents commonly seen and heard material. It is designed to serve both as a source of information in itself, and as a supplementary reference for users of textbooks which may not cover grammar topics adequately. | The book is largely organized according to parts of speech. | This is not an approach often taken in textbooks and it has been adopted here to try to present a picture of Japanese grammar overall. Japanese parts of speech are discussed in their own chapter (see pp. 1-4). | About the example sentences The issue of style in Japanese grammar is crucial. In this book the examples are presented in a mixture of styles to reflect formal and informal spoken and written usage. If you are uncertain about the styles of Japanese you should look at the chapter on style (p. 10). To allow the book to be as widely usable as possible, a romanized form of Japanese example sentences has been given. As learning the kana scripts as quickly as possible will aid the learner's pronunciation (and because the rows and lines of the kana chart are important in making/explaining certain ‘forms’), there are kana charts as appendices. The example sentences are given in two Japanese versions. The first version presents a normal, Japanese version without spaces, in a mixture of kanji (Chinese characters) and kana. Numerals are not given in kanji as this is unnatural in horizontal[Preface text, Whether or not kanji should be used to write a particular word is sometimes a matter of personal choice or of a sense of ‘balance’ between kanji and kana in a sentence, but the examples try to reflect current usage. Some words are mostly in kana although the kanji forms may also be common, e.g. < and & #. Learners need to grow used to varied orthography at an early stage. ‘The second Japanese version is a romanized one with spaces between ‘words’ although this should not be taken to imply that the Japanese can or should be separated in this way. The romanization is given simply as an aid to learners and is very much secondary to the ‘real’ Japanese version. The system used for romanization is modified Hepburn. The Japanese examples have been kept as natural as possible while the English translations, while trying to sound natural, have sometimes been made slightly literal where this may help the user understand a structure in use. Jonathan Bunt Acknowledgements | Many people have contributed to the writing of this book. The Series Adviser (Dr Richard Ingham) and Academic Adviser (Dr Phillip Harries) made helpful and constructive comments and suggestions. Lynne Strugnell was heroic, cheerful, and clear-sighted in editing the text into its final form and getting this. project to completion. The author would like to especially thank the Trustees of The Great Britain Sasakawa Foundation and Mike Barrett, the Chief Executive, whose support enabled him to take leave from teaching in order to complete this book. The author would also like to thank: Suzuko Anai at the University of Essex; my friend and colleague Yukiko Shaw; Noriko Kajihara, Atsumi Griffiths, Minako Oshima, and Motoi Kitamura at the Japan Centre North West; and friends and colleagues in the British Association for Teaching Japanese as a Foreign Language (BATJ). Special thanks are due to the author's wife Atsuko (RF), and sons George (#874), and Harry (#8). Thanks are also due to those students at the University of Salford, Manchester Metropolitan University, and Manchester University who tried out sections of the book. ‘The editors at OUP were extremely helpful and thanks go to Della Thompson and Vivian Marr for their support. ‘The author's sincere hope is that users of this book will sometimes say (sincerely) 725(ZE as well as € U7| Proprietary terms The inclusion in this book of any words which are, or are asserted to be, proprietary names or trademarks (labelled propr.) does not imply that they have acquired for legal purposes a non-proprietary or general significance, nor is any other judgement implied concerning their legal status. Parts of speech | Japanese and English are considerably different in structure as well as vocabulary. For example, meanings expressed with verbs in English may use adjectives in Japanese, and words that do not change form in English may do so.in Japanese (and vice versa). The English sentence “I want a car’ features a pronoun (‘I’), a verb (‘want’), and a direct object noun (‘car’) with an indefinite article (a’), but the Japanese translation #.%@k LW has no pronoun, no article, and ‘car’ is the subject of an adjective. ‘The grammatical terms for Japanese parts of speech vary a great deal in textbooks, dictionaries, grammars, and more scholarly works. The system for parts of speech used in this bookis basically that taught in Japanese schools (sometimes called Hashimoto grammar, or Kokugo grammar) but with modifications to include terminology widely used in teaching Japanese as a foreign language (see, for example, the discussion of stems in the chapter on verbs, pp. 21-24). Japanese classification recognizes as parts of speech certain dependent words such as ~ $ and ~7Z1) which cannot appear in sentences as words in their own right, but only when they are attached to other ‘words’. Japanese classification also makes a distinction between words that change their forms (to indicate, for example, past tense or negation) and those that do not. The term ‘conjugate’ is used to describe changes in the form of verbs and adjectives. Information about the part of speech of a Japanese word can usually be found in a Japanese dictionary designed for native Speakers of Japanese (<< “UTAy + fSIRBEBA). Textbooks and dictionaries for non-Japanese learners do not usually use the Kokugo categories for parts of speech. The English names Riven here are for guidance only.[Lt parsotspecch 1A list of Japanese parts of speech jependent words part of speech characteristics ESC: iia (verb)* dictionary forms* end with a sound from the 3 line of the kana chart; conjugate GWESU- ESB or 4 WESL-4 ram Giadjective) SESW Bea Ki end with asound from the 6) line of the kana chart; conjugate GUESESL> raw or HF GHSL-F ESA (na adjective) any (4) anu (2) (Fhe (K) (fhe (7) Lm (e) LY (7) ‘end with % or related form (including 2 in front of a following noun); viewed as conjugating part of speech, as #E conjugate OWL: 2H (noun) eae [za tatty can be joined to other nouns with particle ®; do not change form F5l- Re (counter) BED Bev EY SAIEA Bom expressions for counting; do not change form &A BD BAL WBA various BES dig... Suen omall... dP our... (DS what's known as. BSS every kind of... only used in front of nouns; donot change form toE TH. (For adjectives with C7, see the chapter on adjectives, ‘pp. 96-111.) It is usual to keep a conversation or piece of writing consistently in one style | Polite, plain, and written styles of Japanese In addition to the plain and polite styles discussed above, there is also a written style which has a small but consistent variation in the forms of ## - TY. Each of the styles is briefly described and illustrated with examples below. Style 113 | ‘desu-masu’ style (2 + YAM) ‘This style is used mostly in spoken language or in letters, and features polite style verb forms and TF (including TF following ( adjectives). Keigo, or respect language, comes within this category (see p. 213): © AYE VSeBTIMSSTMCRLUTH Rondon wa shuto desu kara sasuga ni utsukushil desu. ‘You would expect London to be beautiful as itis a capital city © BIR, BAAOMEAIC. WHE< THLOIISVEKA ee: HBOICL CTLED | This tentative form of #¢ is used to indicate conjecture, although it is not always necessary or appropriate to translate it into English with ‘probably’. It follows the plain forms of verbs, adjectives, and nouns: © RBS eAFETL ES Mayumi chan wa shogakusei deshd Mayumi is an elementary student, ion’t she? * HAMARSES5 Ashita ame ga furu daré | will probably rain tomorrow © 4¥VATHRISORBUTL ED Igirisu de gaishoku suru no wa takai desho Eating out in England is expensive, ten't it? An adverb of conjecture, such as 7:%Ay ‘maybe’, ‘perhaps’, issometimes used with #5 - CL & 3 (see adverbs): © BARES ARAWTL ES Tamura sensei wa tabun konai desho Ms Tamura probably isn't coming #245 - CLs 5 can be used in questions as a polite equivalent off - ct: s + A-WEATL ESD HOru-san deshé ka Are you Ms Hall? © BRASLMA SERA OTL ESD Nihonjin wa doydbi mo gakk6 e iku no deshé ka lin Japan, do they go to school on Saturdays too? BD - TU & 3 is commonly used to seek agreement with a statement. This is similar in function to the tag question in English: * BREAISBSATL ES Okesan wa Nihonjindeshd Your mum's Japanese, ien’t she? © MAOKSMAMBUTLES Ame dattara, shiai ga nai deshd- if rains, there won't be a match, will there? HEBD * TCU£ 4D is also discussed in the chapter on auxiliary Suffixes (see p. 181). ON eee Se Gh ee MI ce ee ae a| Verbs 1 What is a verb? ‘A verb is a word which expresses an action or a process: I watched TV last night ‘The door opened A verb can also describe a state of affairs: The horse is standing in the field All the cups are broken. | Properties of Japanese verbs English verbs change their endings according to the person doing the action (‘I go’, ‘she goes’), but this is not the case with Japanese verbs. Neither do they need a pronoun (‘I’, ‘you’, ‘he’, etc.) to show the grammatical subject. The subject of the sentence is usually clear from the context. This means that many of the examples given below have pronouns such as ‘I or ‘she’ in the English translations but not in the Japanese (see pronouns) The main verb comes at the end of a Japanese sentence, although both verbs and verb phrases are also used in clauses within complex sentences. In this latter use they are often referred to as ‘modifiers’ because the verb or clause modifies the following noun of noun phrase (see p. 209). 1 Verb forms Japanese verbs are usually spoken of as having ‘forms’, e.g, ‘= form’ and ‘~fE40 form’. In fact, ~¥F and ~7RU are auxiliaries which are attached to particular stems of verbs, and are called jod@shi ( 98)85)) in Japanese. This book refers to ‘forms’ of verbs, in line with most textbooks, but also uses the term Nerds 21 J ‘auxiliary’ as an English equivalent of joddshi. Auxiliaries are very important in Japanese, and they are considered in their ‘own chapter (see p. 181). Allverbs have dictionary forms ending in one of the syllables from the 5 line of the kana chart (see p. 255). The possible endings Bie. ~ So ~< wd. 2, ~0~8, ~R, ~S. 1 Verb stems Japanese verbs have a series of stems to which suffixes are added. ‘The following chart gives the stems together with their names, examples, and the most common suffixes attached to them. ‘The verbs used as examples are the wR eS~ [ED ~ed (~kttA, ~ELK etc.) PALIT BAB [EV~ [ES a7 L~| ttt __| (see a~ [BS Conjunctive ER~_ [RRS _ | form) L~ [5% a~_ [ SS EAN~/ERS also called th~ [Fs Ld LISL) > RET ~t9 nels or ~£5 0) he ay AI «RTE ~BUb mee? Bae ih #2 #2 ~BIEW = 2 The reason forhaving [ES [eS ce za Soe airmen alternative names is that (see VE ESL é3~ [és the dictionary form p. 181) lst~| (sey can be sentence final a~ [as NED (- Lie 3 UIFU\) or Fock mg ER~ [ERS form part of a modifying, modify nouns CE~ [FS clause and join toa ieaiaiaias See following main clause : (= AAR). Both p. 209) ae BRE [DIT |< forms are the same in rs A [bd (see Imperative modern Japanese, Ea Ex) form) so VU &ITU is the én tS referred term. tafett [tee aT [lteF__| (see Uses of the BA BS gee hea. 7 Setaneg Im) ERB [ERS ERS [RRS ta te 75 [33 ea cu ks ~e ¥ot [kD |~Hs got [eS |~a< eet |aer |~ ERT [ERS ~bhuy (see ~T form) Ux (t3 act |<é EI 9H PE [D< ~% form Bor [65 ~CEMbS Kok | FD ~ ES UY got [ES |~me BELA aS ak [bs (see ~# form) ERE [RRS Lk [FS nz |[<é {Verb conjugation groups Japanese verbs can be divided into two main groups according to how they conjugate (change the endings to indicate, for example, a negative or a past meaning). These groups are known as ichidan (—F&) verbs and godan ( 8%) verbs. There are also two slightly irregular verbs which do not fit into these groups, FS and <4. (522A verbs in the dictionary form end in a kana from the Wor Z line of the kana chart, followed by ~ . The possible he Verbs 125 | endings for (\5 EA, verbs are ~11S,~2RB,~LS,~HS, ~55,~TS, ~KcS, ~NS, ~US,~NS,~HS, ~03,~5,~nd ‘Verbs with other endings in the dictionary form are classified as SEA verbs, except for the two irregular verbs $% and <3. ‘The majority of verbs can be identified as either WE 7EA, or HEA, verbs by their dictionary form ending, but note that there are some <7) verbs ending in -eru of -iru, i.e, a kana from the % or | lines of the kana chart followed by 3. A list of some of the ‘most common of these is given after the basic conjugation charts. The best way to be certain of the conjugation of an unknown verb ending in -eru or-irwis to look in a good learner’s dictionary (such as the Oxford Starter Japanese Dictionary) where the conjugation group of a verb is given. CRA verbs The verbs in this group are sometimes called -u verbs’ in English, 4s the final -u of the romanized dictionary form is dropped before other endings are added. Other English terms found in text books are “vowel stem verbs’ and ‘group one verbs’. The Japanese term godan (if), meaning ‘five-step’, refers to the fact that the final kana of the dictionary form changes to another from the same row ofthe kana chart when making different forms, and these changes involve all five vowels. This is shown below with the verbs AG + ML ‘to read’ and [d/2F - HF “to speak’: BO REG RAT ROHS Rod yomu yomanai yomimasu yomeru—-yomd Mo Bee BlLst BtS Hts hanasu hanasanai hanashimasu hanaseru _hanasd Conjugation chart for “7A, verbs ‘Note that the inclusion of a form in the chart does not necessarily ‘mean that it is in common use, and some verbs may be rarely used in certain forms:[261 ves Verbs |27 J 7 ee ese fo meaning | dictionary form | passive potential tend_{wat_|iomp_|reat_| te (> mS ns | PAS ar 2 Be au 7) rt0.90 << Dens [ngs es es les les les lev orcad [kU MG [eens [ewe conjmeiveau [me [mu feb [ew [ew [EU roopeak |aat BY [amend [ames ore #4) foretumn |DAS-WS [MASS [DANS stem ~RW eu |me l>u [es [eu [ke [ey W6A verbs ao lab [Au jen lew jen jeu RW Bd [om los [ee [ele [ke [eS my jen [en jen joo jan jan Bot Put PUT FoT EAT EAT EDT Bok|Puk| PLe| Foe EAM | KA | Ee > [ow lor [fe [eA [ta [eo eS [RS [ko [RS [KS [RS [AS Bo [ow leu feo [EA [kA [eo ry [ey jev jay [ey [ey |ey wit BAls| ois | ovis | RTS | Eels | hols | Ett potential [BAS | mits |MeS| ETS EXS| KOS ENS passive lab lom [me lke [ete [ke [eS ne [ne [ho |no [na [ne [hd causative |&b |om |e [RK [eis |eE [eS causative. |Sdt|mme|not [Re eee eRe|coe passive |5S|5hS|used |5nS|5n|| 5nd |5ns volitional |%3|—3|MF5/#ES [ES | £3/e55 imperative |2 [mit [me [ec [EX [kw [En negative || D [ener rs $55 5 > 5 DRS MS |toreturnhome |#@AS | tochange 22. aoe e = $ goer nee DES BS |rohunry <> # [next Bid OF - RF [tolena v3 U [oust US ES |tobe (BS) | toexior lated + HT [to speak Fv > [teres necesoary #22 [towaie D> > 5 lesar AS BA |todecrease |S ‘to pass (time) Lia: Hwa | todie wm > Kk [beer UBS [RS |tobedamp | POS | toclose(the EX RE [toy aS feusy window ete) FOR [tread Te Re MS |toknead RS to go to bed tS oe a> 2 saat [Bates todoonesbest |S > YU |MAlLUET i The ~F form the ~3-F form of (15 2A, verbs ‘The use of the auxiliary ~ FF is a feature of keigo (see p. 213), and makes the level of speech polite. For a discussion of politeness levels and the use of ~¥ F versus plain forms, see the chapter on style (p. 10). The ~%&F form is made up of the conjunctive (pre- #7) stem and the auxiliary ~*, which can be made negative, past, past negative, etc. Making the ~% form of “#A, verhs To make the ~&F form of “##A, verbs, the final kana of the dictionary form changes from the ~ 5 line of the kana chart to the ~t) line, and the auxiliary ~# Tis then added: final ~ of the dictionary form is dropped, and the auxiliat ~&T is added: ms dictionary form | meaning with ~3 |~EF dropped _| form [as RS 0.608, to watch |B~ BET [BSS -RFS toot be~ [Beet ERS -RXS [tocar RA~ [ERE [BLURS - HAS [torcach wis [BLA~ [BLART Making the ~ 4 form of $+ and < 3 ot form of $4 is LEF. The~¥F formof < Sis Conjugation of ~ #3 ‘conjugation chart of ~£4 is given below:[22 vets form ending example meaning nonpast [~St est will go past ELE WEEE went negative [~RUA DeRtA won't go past negative |~EUA TUE |WEEEA TUR | didnt 90 volitional [~kU&> [WEKLED |levog0 Thereisalsoa~T formof ~#F, with the ending ~ LT, but this is relatively rare, It is used to connect sentences in formal spoken situations: © FMSLUSLBEVLESZELT. BKSUMES CY WELE ‘Subarashii omiyage 0 itadakimashite, makoto ni arigat6 gozaimashita | am sincerely grateful for the marvellous present | have recalved Other forms of ~&$ may be encountered on rare occasions, but the only common one not in the chart above is \}5 > L PUK t, the expression frequently used by staff in shops and businesses to greet customers. Use of ~ ES ‘The ~#F form is generally used in conversation rather than writing (except in the case of letters, where keigo including ~F is common). Iris used at the end of sentences only, and not in modifying clauses (see p. 209). ‘The auxiliary ~&F makes sentences polite in style (ee style), and so is very common in everyday conversational exchanges between adults who are not familiar with each other: © THEA, BMISA< CSVETD Sumimasen. Denwa wa chikaku ni arimasu ka Excuse me, le there a phone nearby? © ECMSSELED Doko kara kimashitaka Where do you come from? © A-ARDUTMOSSELK Osutoraria kara kimashita _I'm/I come from Australia sy 8 FVESHSUREHA Terebi o amari mimasen © RICFREBAELA ImOto nitegami okakimashita | wrote letter to my sioter ~# L & 5 is an equivalent of the volitional form (see below), and ig used with the meaning ‘Let's ...”: © -@IcHeELES Issho niikimashd Let's go together © Ue, S525MUELES Ja, sorosoro kaerimashd Right! Let's go home 3 L & 3 can be followed by the question particle # to seek agreement with a proposal: * BREANELLID Ocha oiremashdka Shall make tea? FA with the question particle # is a polite way of offering Something or extending an invitation: © T-E-ERAEHAD __ K6hii onomimasen ka + -Hictektam __Issho ni tkimasen ka Idon't watch much TY Would you like a coffee? Shall we go together? 1 The ~7¢1) form ‘This is an auxiliary that is attached to the conjunctive (pre-€F) ‘stem, and gives the meaning of ‘want to’. Itis used to make ‘Statements about the speaker or writer. ~7¢4) is a sentence final form, and so does not need C$ in the plain style, although itis followed by C+ in the polite style (see p. 10) * REAACTALUTS Rainen Nihon ni ikitai desu Iwant to go to Japan next year * ZhURLOoKh, ERHEK q Sore wa tanoshikatta ne. Mata ikitai That: was fun.| want to go again!l 34 | Verbs ‘The particle marking the desired object is usually 4 , but is also found, especially where the feeling is very strong and an effort has to be made in order to bring about the desire: © SRI—AY BRAKE Konban ramen ga tabetai na Tonight |want-to.eat ramen ° KETEMFEMRLEN Daigaku de seibutsugaku o benkyS ‘shitai | want to study biology at university Conjugation of ~7=1' JEU conjugates in the same way as + adjectives to form negative, past, and past negative sentences, etc.: form |meaning ending example plain want to. ~kW Wee negative |don'twantto | ~%<7rby Wer 9 ([itny EG MG — |toread o> eke #2: #2 towait: Dots ies 5 BEA verbs ERS: BRS | teat remove final & [EX 3S RS to 9ee, towatch |remove final S | % ‘The conjunctive stem of $4 is L, and the conjunctive stem of - BS to think bb2T #2 - 2 towait EoT $2 -8D [to hold, to have bot ES -WS-MS — |totake Lor, [OS RS ‘to ride, to travel (on/by) | DT The verbs & 5 - M5 ‘to ask’, ‘to enquire’ and = 5 +9 -E5 “toentreat’, “to beg’ have the~T forms £5 T and <5 T fespectively. The ~T forms of these verbs are relatively uncommon. ‘Merhs ending in~ts , ~~, ~i ‘The final kana of the dictionary form is dropped, and Art is |, and Ay ps dictionary form meaning ST form SG Rt toread FAT toemile (RAAT tofly EAT torejoice, tobe delighted [EBA ‘to die LAT[20 vers Verbs ending in ~~ The final ¥ of the dictionary form is dropped, and LT is added: dictionary form meaning ~T form et - BS talenad PUT eae to speak (LT Verbs ending in ~<, ~: A final < of the dictionary form is dropped, and °C is added. A final Le (honorific), depending on the level and style (see p. 213 and p. 10): * RBCS. MFCLTHVEFOCEREESE _ Saito desu. Rusu ni shite orimasu node dengon o dozo This is Saito, lam out, 60 please leave a message BATA COWIEATUS DLeEWET HD Suzuki sensei wa kono hen ni sunde irasshaimasu ka "Do you live around here, Professor Suzuki? 1s Which are usually or rarely used in the ~C.\ form e verbs with implied continuous meanings tend to be used inthe ~T form with (\. Among the most common of tt to > TATHS ‘tollive (in) W2EhtS ass > IF2EZAUTHS tobe married 62 i> > BTS to hold, to have LS: > LoThS ‘toknow 25 BS > 32THS tosell WEES < <> (AESUTHS — towork — DEHS “HHS > DEBTHS —towork BERS -HAS > BERTHS to remember[Lee tvete © BHMERORPRATHETD Kare ga nani o itta ka oboete imasu ka Doyou remember what he said? © SS-kARMLTUST Mira san wa kekkon shite imasu Me Miller is married The verb LS + #1 ‘to know’ is used in the ~T form with 403 when positive, but not when negative: ° CRREOBMBSEMS CHET ‘Satd sensei no denwa bango o shitte imasu ka Do you know Professor Sato’s phone number? © OUR, MUHA. BRATMUTC ES lie, shirimasen. Jimusho de kite kudasai No, | don't (know it). Please ask at-the office Ifa question with US mentions previously unknown, information, then the answer needs to be in the past negative form, and not the ~T form with WS: * BM Mbehé HeAOTISOS MOTUELEMD Kare ga Kaoru chan to tsukiatte iru no 0 shitte ‘imashita ka Did you know that: he's going out with Kaoru? © WA, MUEHACLE lie, shirimasen deshita No. | didn't know ‘The verbs & % ‘to exist’, ‘to be’, ‘to have’, 1 ‘to exist’, ‘to be’, and) + #4 ‘to need’ are not used in the~T form with WS. Potential forms (see potential form) are not used with ~TUS. However, T&S in the sense of ‘to be completed’, “to be ready’, can be used with~ TS: + SAAR TS Gohan ga dekite iru Dinner is ready Verbs of motion inthe ~T form + (\S When (1 follows the~T form of \<, < S,or PAS, it shows that a state is continuing, and is often translated into English with ‘has gone’, ‘has come’, ‘has returned’: Verbs |47 J EARSUCTOTURT ‘Shujin wa kaisha ni ite imasu My husband has gone to work EALSIRICMDTHS ‘Shujin wa mo ie ni kaette iru My husband has already come home the sentence below, the in-laws have come (and are still here): 8 BORRMRTUTARIL UCT i __Tuma no kazoku ga kite ite taihen isogashii desu ___ My wife's family are here 50 we are very busy! ‘The ~C form + verbs of giving and receiving ‘The verbs (4 ‘I give’, < 714 ‘(someone) gives me’, 655 ive’, and other verbs of similar meaning are used with the _ = form when there is some sense of a benefit being given ‘or received by the action taking place (see pp. 94-95). In the following sentences, the verb is translated as ‘tell’ in Doth cases, but the Japanese equivalents differ. Japanese requires _ ‘verb of benefit’ to be used, especially when both the giver and ‘the receiver of the action are in polite face-to-face discussion (first example), or where the speaker feels that she or he has benefited some way (second example): TV ORUMERERA THIFS Anya no atarashii jUsho o oshiete ageru Iwill tell you Anja’e new address © FLY ORUUEMERATSNSEWUELE ___ Anya no atarashii jUsho o oshiete kureru to iimashita Heald he would tell me Anja’s new addres ‘the same way, the verb % 5 5 “to receive’ is used following a Ee testto sow tharthe speaker or writer has benefited by e's action. This usage is often translated in English as {someone} to... ’, or ‘have someone do. ..": 8 ECM REMNTESS ‘Gakusei ni renrakusakio kaite morau Get the students to write down their contact details epg[8 yes © BMALRGS boc F< RTOSVELSES Jikan ga shinpai nara motto hayaku kite moraimashd IFyou're worried about time, let's get them to come earlier © BPAAICFROARBEF ry ILTOSI Tanaka san ni tegami no Nihongo o chekku shite morau Ill get Me Tanaka to check the Japanese in my letter Notice that the last sentence above may not be acceptable if Ms. ‘Tanaka is of higher status (such as the speaker's boss), or if she is actually present, in which case the verb is likely to be the more polite (E7E< (see pp. 94-95 and p. 213): ° BRAACFROAABEF sy OUTUAES ‘Tanaka san ni tegami no Nihongo o chekku shite itadaku Fl get Me Tanaka to check the Japanese in (my) letter The following examples show other situations where the action of the verb is seen as beneficial to the speaker or listener, and so the ~T form is followed by a verb of giving or receiving: * AYEBNTLENELL. RLTCHECAD Pen o wasurete shimaimashita. Kashite kuremasen ka Ihave forgotten my pen. Could you lend me one? © BUSABL BOTTLE OR Gomen ne. Kare ni md itte shimatta Sorty. Ive already told him (and | shouldn't have) _ Inthe spoken language, ~ 5 3 as a contracted form of ~TL “2 is very common. Verbs with a~T form of ~AvT have the “contracted form Ue 5 * SBRX5 25 Zenbu tabechau Iwill eat it all * E-WER< SAMA POR Biiruwo takusan nonjatta | drank loads of beer The ~T form+ 4B “The use of the verb 44 ‘to see’ after a~T form is equivalent to ‘the English ‘try to ... and see what happens’; © CHERNTATSEAW Kore otabete mite kudasai Please taste this and eee * BHERLAYea—s THO THR ‘Shukudai o atarashii konpyata de utte mita tried using the computer to do my homework * RESTO SPENT I THR Ichido dake demo ii kara Chagoku e Ite mital Even ifit’s only once, | want to go to China and see what faite ime ‘The ~T form +S The basic meaning of the verb & % is ‘to exist’. The use of a~T form with 4% shows that something was affected by an action, and it still exists in that state. This structure occurs mostly with ‘Atansitive verbs (see pp. 87-91), but notice that the particle used ‘4s to show a subject, rather than € to mark a direct object: * Sim cTHs Mado gaaketearu The windowie openee © BAMRRCRNTHS ‘Shukudai ga kokuban ni kaite aru The homework le written on the blackboard ~ Td often occurs with the adverb > ‘already’: © PRESS DTHS ‘Yahan wo mé tsukutte aru \ have already made dinner ‘The particle & in the sentence above shows that the emphasis is on the person who made dinner. The particle 4 could also bbe used, in which case the emphasis would be on dinner being ready: © SRMSIOTHS ‘Yahan ga mo tsukutte aru Diner's already made ‘The agent (the person who does the action) is not usually explicitly stated, but implied by the context. The ~T form + 5 < ‘The basic meaning of the verb #< - HE< isto put’. The~T form with @&< shows that an action is done to prepare something for future use: * E-LERPLTHEST Biiru ohiyashite okimasu | will chill the beer ROLMORFEBUTHEET Boku no namiae no kanjic kaite okimasu Vl write down my name in kanji (For you) AA ORRO ROI MML THOTT SEW ‘Ashita no shiken no tame ni benkyé shite okanakereba naranai | must etuidy in order to be ready for the exam tomorrow. WITHUTCL ES Nimotsu 0 doa no chikaku ni olte olte kudasai Please put the bags by the door ‘Compare the following pairs of sentences which show the difference between ~T#% and ~T8<: © ROMEAOFVHY bee THAET toto no tanjobi no purezento o katte okimasu Iwill buy my brother a birthday present (in advance) Otto no tanjdbi no purezento ga katte arimasu “thave bought my brother's birthday present: MAEMWUTHUTHIFET KE . ZU 0 kaite oite agemasu yo Tildraw a map for you (to take along) SHRM UTHVETE Ochizugakaite arimasu yo The map is ready Cform +295 after a~T form shows that the action of the verb is, d before a subsequent event or action begins: RPMS TPSBLELES ‘Shokuji ga owatte kara hanashimasho Let’s talk about it after we finish the meal WEALTH SRMABICAU ELE _Kikoku shite kara shishoku katsudé ni hairimashita or Ineturned home (to my own country),| started looking for 3 form + (£4 UMF7EU\ + SRW + EH (72) This structure expresses negative obligation ‘must not..." © KIFC SMI TSF a Tabakoo sutte wa ikenai You mustn't smoke ARIF CHS TEOEL ori dake de itte wa dame da yo | You mustn't go on your ownl palso ~7E< TIEUMI TEL and MeSH SB + AIFS 75) under ~%51 below. ~T form + (¢ sis often used when making suggestions ‘how about EHR SMBIC2 DHA TILED TID e nara dOji ni futatsu tanonde wa db desu ka that cage, why not order two at the same time?[sa tverts ‘The E5 CFM can be implied and omitted: * SHKOER, TABS Tt? Kyo wa dame da na. Dewa ashita itte wa Well, it’s no good today, then. OK, how about going tomorrow? ~T form + & The addition of $ toa ~~ T form gives a structure meaning ‘even. elves MhldoTH1IATETEBWNK Ganbatte mo ichinichi de wa dekinai yo Even if | really work at it, | can't do it in one day PrV—-HREIMD TOTS YATIA VENI MR Ferii dai o haratte mo Furansu de wain o kau hd ga yasui Even after paying for the ferry, wine is cheaper in France ‘The addition of (1) gives a structure used to ask or grant permission: ¢ BREHOTHNUTTD Denwa o tsukatte mo ii desu ka May luge the phone? © EDERATOULE Dozotabetemoliyo You may start eating For (&<) T followed by ©, see below under #2< TS. For more on ®, see the chapter on particles (pp. 167-169). i The ~7z(.\ form This is the negative form, and is made by adding the auxiliary ~fE(\ toa verb stem. ~724) is a conjugating part of speech, i.e. it alters its endings to show negatives and other forms. (For more information on auxiliaries, see p. 181.) Making the ~75\ form of C7 line to the ~& line before adding ~#£1. Verbs ending in ~3 in their dictionary form change this to~4 (rather than ~d). There is one very important irregularity: the verb @H has the ~/2U) form of 7) (rather than % 57241), The following chart shows the changes, with examples: rhs | 55 form | meaning change in |~724\ form final kana to meet 3 > blSbeu to receive 3 > bl eb5bmt towrite <> Pl ppA 0 hurry <> milneaA tolend > &lPen to speak F > siidmann towait D> RFRA todie tm > | LAY tofly & > el eléau toread b> FteRW D - NS - MS |totake % > 5le5RW todoone'sbest |S > 6 l MAIZE toexist, tobe, | (irregular) [70 to have the ~72.1) form of (\57EA, verbs final~& ofthe dictionary form of (\ #¢/v verbs is replaced vith ~72 11: meaning ~7RU form tosee,towatch | IEL\ togetup Ben toeat RR B-MTS- ATS | toattach DIF ‘to turn on, to light Zz. conjugates by dropping the final \ before adding endings the past tense and other forms, such as ~f 5 and ~Id: _Nanimoiwanakatta | didn’t say anything[so tverts © NAMR1 ORCAMIREIDY—THEELLS Basu ga ato jup-pun konakattara takushii de ikimasho Ifthe bus doesn't come in 10 minutes, let's get. a taxi © BBFEORTIERRLET Ashita tegami ga konakereba denwa shimasu Ifthe letter doesn't come tomorrow, | will telephone For more on ~t£ and ~25, see conjunctive particles. ~" as an alternative to ~7z4. ‘The ending ~¥" instead of ~/E4 is an older form of negative that is still quite commonly used: © BRIARICMST. TIESHCWELE ‘ShUmatsu wa ie ni kaerazu zutto kaisha ni imashita He wasin the office the whole weekend, without going home at ail ‘The formation of the negative of ¥ 4 in this way is irregular, being er: © QUAYAFAL—-Yavees, 25HEMARLE Kurisumasu dekoréshon 0 sezu ni-{G-go-nichi o mukaemashita We had Christmas Day without putting up any decorations The ending ~¥ is commonly followed by IZ to mean ‘without . ing’. For examples, see the section on ~7E4)T below. Uses of the ~7r(\ form This form is used for negative sentences in the plain style {see p. 10): © WET A-WERERW Watashi wa aruk6ru 0 nomanai © AKVELe Ty bMAadDBW Zubon to jaketto ga awanai The trousers and jacket don't match Like the dictionary form, the ~754\ form can also be used ina modifying clause in complex sentences (see p. 209): * BRET /EBSPACRELAVARLF CASAL) Mainichi piano wo chanto renshd shinai hito wa j6zu ni naranai People who don't practise the piano properly every day will not improvel | don't drink alcohol Yerbs 57 | + PPSRWVESARICMUT< EEN _ Wakaranal toki wa boku ni kiite kudasai _ Please ask me when you don't underetand (something) Constructions using ~7r1. AST "The form ~7z< T can be used as a negative equivalent of the >T form (see ~T form). The ~/z< T ending shows a cauise or ‘Teason, often shown in English translations with ‘because’ or ‘as": © FYUATIP IIL Y MMAR < CRUEL Igirisu dewa yappari densha ga konakute komarimashita Iwas in trouble because the train didn't come —as youd expect in England! * BAMiME in informal spoken language58 | Verbs © fToR< be Ikanakucha [must go. IES THU and ~B #¢ is form [meaning final kana [~% form «| dropped 25 tomeet b~ bok 3-85 to think bb~ Bok ie) towait ~ Fok #2 tohold,tohave [S~ bok “WS “MS |totake é~ Ese RS to ride, to travel |Q~ Ook (on, by) everbs & 3 + PIS ‘to ask’, ‘to enquire’, and 23 “to entreat’, ‘to beg’ have ~#t forms of & 3% and 23%, tively. The ~7 forms of these verbs are relatively nbs ending in ~&3, ~ 36, ~2a kana of the dictionary form is dropped, and AE is form — [meaning final kana | ~7 form dropped toread &~ EAE CBRE [to omile iZA~ [ISIERAE RE to fly es tne RSBCR- BR | torejoice, tSc~ [ESCA tobe delighted to die l~ LAKThe final ¥ of the dictionary form is dropped, and L-# is added: dictionary form | meaning final kana |~f= form dropped bt - RT tolend Dm DLE (dat - BT tospeak | ldtz~ (aU Verbs ending in~<,~< ‘The final < of the dictionary form is dropped, and \\# is added, A final < is replaced by (WE: dictionary form | meaning final kana |~7 form dropped DSBS towrite D~ DUE BK B< =< |tonork kb~ [RSE VEC: BS — [tohuny ne~ VEE OS RS tosmell,to sniff |7>~ DUE The only irregularity is that the verb ¢< ‘to go’ has the~ft form D2 (and not (14%), Making the ~7 form of (\5 7A, verbs The final of the dictionary form is dropped, and % is added: dictionary form meaning % dropped ~f form B25 -RES togetup |Be~ bar RNS BRS toeat hn~ ERK Uses of the ~ 7 form The ~% form is used for past sentences in the plain style, and shows that an action has been completed: ° MARBERE Kind eigaomita | sawa film yesterday WBS ANSAFESRL COMBHICA DIE Isobe san wa daigaku 0 sotsugyd shite gaimushé ni haitta 'eobe graduated from university and joined the foreign ministry RBS AGM L H CRAIC Amano san wa tenshoku shite ginkoin ni natta ‘Amano changed jobs and became a bank clerk Patt vesob erm 9 2IcRBLE Jonasan to At-chan ga ky0-|0-ni-nen ni kekkon shita Jonathan and Aveuko | married in 1992 MREALRERO TREBLE Endo san wa shigoto o yamete sh6setsu o kaita Endo gave up work and wrote a novel SBME Yohengadekita Suppers ready! 1 ~# form can be used within complex sentences as part of a idifying clause (see p. 209): AE TUB LERMNEDY 2 LBM Oe Daigaku de benkyd shita tokeigaku ga yatio yaku nitatta ‘The statistics course | studied at university finally came in useful AAPRBERSAATRAE HE RICMU ANE Zukobu eiga kantoku wa Nihon de mita né 0 sakuhin ni toriireta | The film director Zhukov incorporated the Noh Theatre he had seen in Japan into hie work 1 ~% form is also used for the instant when something is loticed, realized, or discovered: MP IORT y bICMHEANRAEITE Bok! be! Tashika kono poketto ni saift 0 ireta n da kedo... Ah, atta! \was oure | put the wallet in this pocket ... Ah, here it isl BS. BSC KTMMESE. POH! Hayaku, hayaku doa ga shimaru zo. Yattal Quickly, quickly! The door's about,to shutl We made it![Lest verts seine ever, in some cases a verb describing an action can express When #5 follows the ~# form, it makes the situation described continuing action and completion with ~T 4: by the verb the reason or cause for what follows. (Care should be MAISG 5 ORMERKTHS taken not to confuse this with ~C +45, discussed above): __ Kenta wa mo gohan o tabete iru + REMMEOAMSE? = Kaoruwamonete iru Kaoru's already gone to bed MEERAKU LTRROMY EHO THE © mBSILT OMICRE Zasshi 0 yondari shite kanojo no kaeri o matte ita Kacruwayiijini neta... Kanna went ta bed at 10- Iread magazines and 60 on while | waited for her to come home With verbs which describe actions, ~C4\% usually indicates. his structure is also used with actions of opposite meaning which continuing action: hank a8 iY. DSORYLELE + MALS CMEMKTHS a s Herjeeselvtliaiianyd tebete ra’- Kenta le axting Naitari warattari shimashita _| wae laughing and crying[66:1 verbs © RVEMIFKY, MOLY LATS ay Doa 0 aketari shimetari shinalde kudasai Stop opening and closing the door ~kS This is a conjunctive particle thatis used to join sentences, and add the meaning ‘if’ or ‘when’ to the first clause. Its formed by adding 5 to the ~& formofa verb: + WAMRS PAIR IKS. CHEBLT t+it fazntele #2: tonait [2 > T+lt Exdrd ‘The use of ~(¢ is dealt with in the section on conjunctive particles (p. 129). I The potential form Potential verbs show that someone can do something or that something is possible. aking the potential form of 7:4, verbs Potential form of 7A, verbs is made by changing the last na of the dictionary form from the > line to the & line of the ina chart and adding &: meaning [change in [potential final kana __| form to buy 2 > A_ [mas fain <> [ngs] toread & > 6 [kbs to take S > hn lens Making the potential form of (\ #2A, verbs Potential form of (157 verbs is made by removing the last a of the dictionary form, and adding ~ 541. In spoken ese, ~ 541 Bis often contracted to~H3: meaning | final kana | potential dropped form ‘tocat EX~ ERSAS tolend DU~ DYSNS onjugation of potential verbs ‘verb in the potential form becomes a new verb in its own right, th ~7z1\, ~f, ~#4,, conditional, and ~T forms, etc, tential verbs conjugate regularly as (\7¢A, verbs. The chart slow shows some of the possible variations in the potential verb BA - HAS ‘to be able to buy’, which has been formed from he verb 5 - 5 “to buy’: Example meaning DAB cant buy DART can buy. DAR could buy negative PARDO couldn't buy PAT could buy, and ..[os tects The potential forms of 4 and < S The potential of $4 is T& . The potential of < 4 is C5NS (often contracted to 244 in spoken Japanese). T#% can be used with certain nouns, such as the names of languages, sports, musical instruments, etc., to indicate ability: ETI RCEET Piano gadekimasu {can play the piano ° A-ALEAWBABMCES Kakamu san wa Nihongo ga dekiru Mr Kirkham can epeak Japanese Verbs that do not have potential forms ‘The following verbs are not generally used in the potential form: DPS -RMPS — tounderstand LO:ms ‘toknow bs to exist, to have, tobe WS - BS tobe neceseary WS + BS) to exist, to be Intransitive verbs describing states, such as those listed in the chart of transitive and intransitive verbs (see pp. 87-91), are not generally used in the potential form. Uses of the potential form Potential verbs show that a person etc. can do something, or that something is possible: * BETIVEs-PMR OYE YTAAOMBORSHET __ Rondon de Nihon no eiga mo miraremasu Ih London, you can even eee Japanese films | BAICWTS BBC =a—2ABITS ___ Nihon ni ite mo bii bii shii nydsu ga kikeru __ Even (if you are) in Japan you can hear the BEC news +15 41% is used to talk about the occurrence of phenomena or cumstances: TSF AB) EWS ERT IREPSARLRSNS ‘Sake’ to iu kotoba wa Ainugo kara kita to mirareru The word ‘cake’ (=‘ealmon’)ie eeen as having come from the Ainu language form ~£%54TU indicates a provisional judgement: ABORAUHEEE OBREE RENTS __ Kaji no genin wa tabako no suigara da to mirarete iru A cigarette end deems to have been the cause of the fire No, |ean’t read kanji[2011 vere The intransitive verbs 42 % ‘be visible’ and & = A.S “be ee audible’ suggest that something can be seen or heard without final kana on any effort, or that this is inevitable in a certain situation (see pp. 87-91): eee eaed ae ‘to take — + HEA, MHOFORALTD Sores es Minasan, kokuban no ji ga miemasu ka £ay, Can everyone ee the writing on the blackboard? DSB towrite |< > & [Pons © BIBSIECASWMCMLTS KEN, ES MCAEA : Mé chotto Okii koe de hanashite kudasai, Yoku kikoemasen WSL verbs Pleace speak more loudly. | can't hear you very well EXS-RRB tot (|S > 5 [RXBHS * S96 LD EMI< EMOASSTE LS -MS ‘to know > 56 [b5ns Mo chotto chikazuku to kikoeru hazu da we 40 a bit closer, we should be able to hear There is also a way of expressing possibility with CE MT#S following the dictionary form of a verb. For more on this, see the section on & & (seep. 126 and p. 206) Ie passive of $H is EHS, and the passive of < Sis <5HS. of the passive form e passive can be a counterpart of an active sentence, and efore similar to the English active and passive sentences low: RBSAMBEAERSELE ‘Abe san wa Yamada séin o buchimashita Mr Abe hit Mr'Yamada! WESABE AIC RANE LE ‘Yamada san wa Abe san ni butaremashita Mr Yamada was hit by Mr Abel the active sentence, Mr Yamada is the direct object, marked ith , but becomes the subject, marked by (, in the passive itence. Mr Abe is the subject, marked with (z, in the active tence, but becomes the agent in the passive semtence, marked ith I ‘The agent does not need to be mentioned if itis not important: RABLT S UFCBTONE Todai-jiwa nana-hyaku go-j0-ichi-nen ni taterareta ‘Todai Temple was buitt in 751AD. jere the agent is shown in passive sentences, it can be marked ith either Ic or [Ck > T without a significant difference in -aning, although the latter is more formal. If a passive is used | The passive form Ina sentence with an active verb, the subject performs an action, but when the verb is passive, the subject of the sentence has some kind of action performed on it. active verb: The dog ate the sausage, passive verb: The sausage was eaten by the dog. Making the passive form ‘The passive is formed with the auxiliary (5) 114. All CA, verbs change the final kana of the dictionary form to the & line, and then add 41%. (Verbs ending in 5 change it to 4 and add 2S.) WBA verbs drop the final 8 and then add 5S[22 vers to say who wrote books, films, music, etc., then [£3 T is required, although the passive is not used in this way as much as itis in English: © LOFESLUELI—-FIRE—Y 7 LEK THES nk Kono subarashii serenade wa MBtsuaruto ni yotte sakkyoku sareta This wonderful serenade wae composed by Mozart ‘The particle #5 can also be used as an equivalent of ‘by’ when an item, request, etc. comes from the agent: © ERPSRBOBAEKOSHE Keisatsu kara ssa no kyryoku o tanomareta My cooperation in the investigation was requested by the police Things made offfrom ... The passive is not generally used to describe what things are made from. Instead, the particle T is used where the material does not change in form, but where the material does change in form, either 5 orT can be used. Notice that the choice of kanji for the verb 2< & in the following examples reflects this: © RAGMHTHS Shakuhachi wa take de tsukuru Shakuhachi (Japanese flutes) are made of wood * BISKD SES ‘Sake wakome kara tsukuru Sake is made from rice The indirect passive ‘The passive in Japanese can be used to suggest that something is, perceived negatively, a use that has no real equivalent in English. ‘This indirect passive use is sometimes called the ‘adversative’ or ‘suffering’ passive. The direct object of the active sentence is not converted into a subject, but retains the particle @ andis used with a passive verb. The agent is marked with the particle [c: * AVIEMREBENELL Suri ni saifu o nusumaremashita Mywallet was stolen ky a pickpocket: (cayvea-s—emene oO 0 ni konpydita o kowasareta The children broke my computer = agent can sometimes be omitted if the context makes it clear. following example, itis not stated exactly who trod on my although it was clearly fellow passengers: RMLBECIASEEMEHE _ Boku wa densha de san-kai mo ashi o fumareta “When | wae on the train, my feet: were trodden on three times! ‘negative perception of an event expressed with an indirect sive is sometimes clear from the use of expressions such as AAAy ‘it’s terrible’, or = & 9% ‘I'm troubled’: BCAREN THO Haha ninydin sarete komatta __ Iwas avulwhen my mother went into hospital many cases, the reason for the negative nuance can be deduced sasily from the circumstances: P CAMEL WO ICRF ICAREN Konna isogashii no ni buka ni yasumareta __ Although we're so busy, my staff took time off (and so |had more work!) McBone ‘Amenifurareta | got wet in the rain! BREFALTNSECSSSA & + 3 [Wd USK [tog ([< > = + 9 [hed (ga - EF |tospeak |F > € + 5 [ltwed KO-+HO |tonat [> > € + 5 [RES SO:RC [torad |G > 6 + 3 [£65 £3 - MS Cea the volitional form of (\ 72 A, verbs itional form of (\ 7A, verbs is made by removing the last. form |meaning final kana | volitional dropped _| form RX | tocar ER~ [ERED “RS to.go to bed, to sleep | ta~ tks B+ BES |toget up be~ bets HS to s¢¢, to watch be~ HED ing the volitional form of $4 and <4 of the vt ional form RNICRREMHS, SECCRED Ekimae ni kissaten ga aru, Asoko de ad ®3fTcS MOiko Let’ego | 835m MOikoOka Shall we go? » RATHITLID _ Yonde ageyd ka Shalll| read tt to you? ~£ form above): Ue, BAKOUTELEL ESD Ja nan ni tsuite hanashimashé ka Well, what: hall we talk about? addition of the particle # can add to the nuance of suggestion: volitional of $4 is U&S, The volitional of < 3 is C5. ‘volitional form shows the speaker's proposed intention: ‘There's a coffee shop in front of the station. Let's meet there is can sometimes be an offer of help (see pp. 47-49): fe polite-style equivalent of the volitional is ~# Lx 3, and is is very common, especially for offers (see the section on the[82 1vers ° THRELEID Dewaitadakimashd ka Right, hall we (start to) eat? ‘The volitional is often used with~& 63+ EBS, literally ‘Ithink ll...” Itcan sometimes be translated into English as “have decided”: + REOBARAHCSCRUET Raiinen no natsu Nihon ik® te omoimasu Ihave decided to go to Japan next year Se—SemMRLESLBOTUS Kotoshi isshdkenmel benkyé shlyé to omotte iru \"ve decided to study hard this year DIVAMICS EBS THK ERREDN OHM Dok Furansu e iké to omotte ita kedo kekkyoku doko e mo ikanakatta | hadfintended to go to France, but inthe end | didn't go anywhere: When the intention of the speaker is less fixed, the particle #» ean be used before 8% 5: * REORASNACIMEBUVET Rainen no natsu Nihon e iké ka to omoimasu lam wondering whether to go to Japan next summer The volitional form can be used with the question particle #», or just marked with rising intonation, when seeking agreement (see p. 33): ° 12K, SSRLSD Janiisugi da. Mo neyo ka It's after 12. Shall we go to bed? ° 1 2RMEKE, SSBES Janiji sugida yo. Md neyd it’s after 12, Let's go to bedl When used with ~£$, the volitional form shows that an unsuccessful attempt was made, or that something happened just as the attempt was being made: ° MODCLAMMLITE HORM OK | Yom6 to shita ga muzukashisugite yomenakatta tried to read it but it was too difficult (=| couldn't) BRICFALESEFSERMBBICADTER _Kanojo ni kisu shiyé to suru to ani ga heya ni haitte kita was just about to kiee her when my brother came into the room e imperative and negative imperative ratives are forms used for giving commands, king the imperative form of =7< A, verbs imperative of 7A, verbs is formed by changing the final a of the dictionary form to the . line of the kana chart: meaning change in imperative final kana form §3°83 toy [5 > a lna W<-f<[t090 <> 5. [ug FT ltocpeak |F > # [ame 2-2 to wait eee et “BG [toad |G > © [kB £3-BS rota [8 > A len king the imperative form of (\ #2 Ay verbs The imperative of (\5 7A, verbs is formed by changing the final tod: dictionary form [meaning Tmperative form ERBRRS |tocat ERS aS - BS 10.90 to bed tosleap [tS BeS-BES_ [toactup Bas BS -RS to 809, to watch BS Making the imperative form of $ and < 5 The imperative of $4 is either LA or the less common tE. ‘The imperative of < is =[84 ters Making the negative imperative The negative imperative is formed in the same way for all verbs: the dictionary form is followed by 7. (Note that there is also a structure using the pre- &F form + Zz which is used for requests and commands, See p. 37.) dictionary form [meaning | negative imperative form ERB-*BNS [tocar ERB aes eT tospeak [tea yas Uses of the imperative and negative imperative ‘The imperative can sound very rough and angry, so requests and instructions are normally given using other forms, such as ~C + < EW) (see above). The imperative is restricted to giving orders in urgent situations, or where there is a clear hierarchy, e.g. when a parent speaks to a child: + S<#8S Hayaku okiro’ Hurry up and get-up! © Sob (AN) ch Kotchi (e) kot Come here! ‘The imperative of #8As1£% ‘to do one's best’ is often used to shout encouragement, e.g. to a team at sports matches: © min Gambare Go forit! ‘The negative imperative is used for urgent instructions and exhortations on signs and posters: © MSe. fe) Sawaruna.Abunai Don't touch! Danger ¢ £2. REBEON—LETN Aseru na! Anzen unten no aru 0 mamore Don't hurry. Drive according to the safety rules! are other, less abrupt-sounding structures, such as the $F form + 72% (\ , which are used for giving orders in most ns (see p. 37). ples are given below: MS 1 EMS = BYERS Xe ‘moru + agaru = moriagaru “topileup togoup toswellup,torise is + eS = maEteS hataraku + sugiru = hatarakisugiru towork tobeexcessive to overwork RS + We = UAT foru + kesu = torikesu totake toextinguich to cancel xe are a number of verbs that can regularly be added to .ctive forms to give new compound verbs. Verbs showing ement in particular directions (‘upwards', ‘downwards’, ards’, etc.) are very common: EVBIFS-MVLFS — toaccept (aplan, etc) DOF5SF +3 FSF — topull downwards/to unseat PEWNS + BANS tofillin(aformetc.) following list shows some of the elements most commonly in compounds, some of which have several meanings:[861 vers ending [meaning [example ‘meaning of ‘meaning | example example example ~H>- |tobein (sELBS - ‘to speak torotate HSEEDS~ | towalk around ee accordwith | L&D ‘together seHS BS - | tofinish £eBDS - ‘to finish reading ET: ltoretum |EVBEF- ‘to put back BS MARDS + (something) | RUBS DAF [toretum |F ‘jogging’, SA & 5 ‘study’, and TAD elephone’, can be made into verbs by the addition of $5. Many the verbs so derived use the particle € to mark the noun as the ect object: PRARIRSRLBILY yA-ETS Gakké ga owattara boku to Satoshi wa sakké o suru Satoshi and | play soccer after school BRYA yIe LET Maiasajoginguo shimasu | willjog every morning WEABBELTHET Kiyoshi kun wa shukudai o shite imasu Kiyoshi ie doing hie homework However, in some cases the verb does not have a direct object ked with &, and can appear as a single unit of noun+ ¥ :[22 terts ° 6RICE—S—(ICRBBLELE Roku-ji ni Piita ni denwa shimashita At 6 o'clock | eallled Peter © SRMULBETS CUD ORMNTLEVET San-jkan ijO unten suru to itsumo tsukarete shimaimasu | always get tired if| drive for more than three hours If there is some modifying element in front of the noun, then & must be used (see p. 206): © RROMRETS shiken no benkyé o suru study for an exam (= do some study for an exam) © CRORBETS gohan no junbi o suru prepare a meal (= do some preparation for a meal) Certain verbs such as HUTS » BFS ‘to love’, toe & in yrmal speech) is used: RRC. OVEvE. EbSMRUTIMD ‘Tokyo to Rondon to dochira ga takai desu ka Which is more expensive, Tokyo or London? BABEL, AX VBC. Cob HOLA? Nihongo to Supeingo to dotchi ga omoshiroi? Which Io more interesting, Japanese or Spanih? answer is given by adding [5 #f o the chosen alternative, the appropriate adjective: RRO MBVTH TokyG no hé ga takai desu BAMOIES HEELS Nihongo ne hé ga omoshirol Japanese is the more interesting (language) parisons with < 54, (ZL, and Bok mparisons such as ‘as cold as ice’ can be expressed with < 51 <1), meaning ‘extent’, ‘level’, following the noun with ich is being used for comparison. In negative constructions e.g. ‘notas hot as last summer’), the particle [&€ is used: OY EVISRR CSUR Rondon wa Tékyé gurai takai London is as expensive as Tokyo! Tokyo io the more expensive[20611 Adictves © AYE YOMMERRIZER< 20 EANSEBOEBULSBVEFKE Rondon no bukka wa Tékyé hode takaku nai io oireru to motto oishiku narimasu yo London prices are not.as high as Tokyo (prices)! It will taste even better if you put some sait in The adverb > & ‘more’ can also be used to show comparison: 6 MMSERICR< AS * DYEVismP oka, RRISGD CMITTE Roku-ji sugi wa ky ni samuku naru Rondon wa takakatta ga Tokyo wa motto takal desu yo After 6 o'clock it suddenly gete cold London was expensive but Tokyo ie (even) more expensive! PRORSARTLAMRMICAY KLE : 4iko no ato wa taihen deshita ga genki ni narimashita The ae ge . Itwas hard after the accident but I've got better ‘The superlative is the form of the adjective which expresses the : e highest degree, such as ‘biggest, "most beautiful’ most expensive’. Fen en neue aes ‘The Japanese equivalent of ‘most’ is }\51£A, (—%), literally it willook even prettier if you wear these shoes (with it) “number one’, and is placed in front of the adjective: 5b eo ekecmuTCeEW + HEC-BRRSATID Md chotto dkiku kaite kudasai Please write alittle larger ‘Sekai de ichi-ban takai kuruma wa nan desu ka What is the most expensive car in the world? AAO 1 SRSouitetwuces Nihon no ichi-ban yiimei-na yama wa Fujisan desu The most famous mountain in Japan ie Mt Fuji \djectives with irregular forms EU FG \e 72. adjective $42 U , meaning ‘the same’, is slightly irregular. ‘Questions giving three choices the end of a sentence it requires #© « C¥, but it does not need In questions where three or more choices are offered, these when it appears in front of a noun: choices are marked with the particle &., and the question word MOZMAOCE Ett is used: Musume no namae ga onajida ° BRBL, AN YBE, OL TRL, EnsRLUTID My daughter's name ie the same (as yours) Nihongo to Supeingo to Roshiago to dore ga muzukashii desu A FURECBALEOMCRUEE ka __ Igirisu to Nihon wa sono men de onajida Which is most difficult, Japanese, Russian, or Spanish? In that respect the UK and Japan are the same BIRMLAULAFE | Adverbial use of adjectives Kimi wa boku to onaji daigaku da ‘Msi a ipa eat ICRU Siscasine TLR You and | are at the same university ives can be used in front of a verb to describe a state ee: resulting from an action or a process. In such cases, the ~< form c pcyea mae we of U\ adjectives is used, and [< is added to # adjectives. This use a ga game person came three times is adverbial and is discussed in more detail in the chapter on a one adverbs (see pp. 119-120) e form #572 U-< is used to combine sentences:[298 1 aaiectves © BLEAseMe ACA < BRE Watanabe san wa Satd san to onajiku ryagakusei da Watanabe is an exchange student, the same ae Sato (ie) BPS +S, CB< > BX, aM BSS - SS ‘The three ( adjectives 52), £456), and S41) are not commonly used before nouns. Instead, the alternative noun forms ending in ~< are used. The particle 0) is needed to join them to the following nouns: * B 2Y ‘completely’ PISL IEW UBLT< EEL M6 chotto yukkuri hanashite kudasai Please speak more slowly RUMCT< DEF OPUENELE Kaimono ni iku no o sukkari wasuremashita | completely forgot o do the shopping! er types of adverb: st adverbs are used to introduce the speaker's judgement opinion (& 5 ‘somehow or other’, 6 3A ‘of course’), request by the speaker (* L ‘if, in that case’), or to emphasize Tequest or hope (t£0): very difficult:[4 aaverts © BLETH & ‘definitely’: © SROBUTL SS Tabun konaideshd Maybe she's not coming REEICABTSTL AD Rainen kitto gokaku suru desh He will definitely pase (the exam) next year, (don't you agree?) | Words which symbolize the sound or manner of an action Japanese has numerous words which imitate sounds, or describe the way something is done, or symbolize psychological states and feelings by their sound. Many words of this type can be used as adverbs to describe the manner in which something happens. They are often joined to the following verb or predicate by the particle &: © RBIS ILERMUTUR Inu ga wanwan to naite ita The dog was barking (woof woof’) KyAvembe Dossuntoochita. It dropped with a crash BIN Y EY ERNE Eta ga pakkin to oreta Rid ERK Chichi wa katto okotta The branch enapped with a crack Dad flew into a temper are also many adverbs of this type which do not require & with the following verb or predicate: RIZBABENSAS LOANS "Kare wa Nihongo o perapera shabereru He can speak Japanese fluently BERUROFE LID UB OK _ Kanojo ga boku no te o shikkari nigitta ‘She gripped my hand firmly BOF (CEMEME 2 LYBEOTHE ‘Densha no naka ni tskinkyaku ga gisshiri tsumatte ita ‘The commuters were jam-packed inside the train BAM RECS MA TISURMS AMOK dibun ga ittai doko ni iru ka sappari wakaranakatta Ihad absolutely no idea where | was Wo< URATCEEW Yukkuri yonde kudasai Pleace read it slowly Adverbials derived from adjectives phrases such as [$< 4% ‘eat quickly’, and UF MIC :t3 ‘read quietly’, the words ‘quickly’ and ‘quietly’ describe the er of eating and reading. Japanese adverbials of this type are ‘ved from adjectives, and in this way they are similar to the sh “ly’ suffix in words such as ‘quickly’ and ‘easily’. Some iples are given below, but they are strictly part of the \jugation and use of adjectives (see pp. 106-107). adjectives change the final (to <: BAM, TDSENB< + iF< ‘close’ and E< + WK “far’ are nouns ‘and take the particle [= when used adverbially. These words and their uses are discussed in more detail in the chapter on adjectives (seep. 108): ° RURIDE< CREATHRT Kazoku wa chikaku ni sunde imasu 4%. adjectives add the particle i © MRMBNICKS YT 14 TEP STHUST Kanojo wa sekkyokuteki ni borantia o yatte imasu She does her voluntary work enthusiastically © BANS ASAT AICEHLTHIS Ojiichan wa maiasa genki ni undo shite iru Grandad does his exercises energetically every morning My family ive nearby | Other adverbs and adverbials Certain common expressions are adverbial, and among these are KARAM ‘regrettably’, HLOFSE, BLALAS ‘probably, perhaps’ (with a tentative ending), and LEW ‘I'm back!, just now’: ° RSGMS. SASATH Zannennagara, kyo wa dame desu Unfortunately, it’s impossible today + OLOTSL, MOMSMPELNETA Moshikasuruto, ame ga furu kamo shiremasen Perhaps it’s going to rain © Husband: AS! Wife: BMUREW Tadaima —'mhomel ‘O-kaeri nasal Welcome back | Comparative and superlative of adverbs The comparative of adverbs is similar to the comparative of adjectives (see p. 104). Comparative of adverbs In English, the comparative of an adverb is formed with the word ‘more’ or with the addition of the suffix ‘-er’: [2201 Adverts ld you speak more quietly, please? he studies harder than | do ith Japanese, the item to which the comparison is being made ‘marked with & U, and the adverb itself doesn’t change: PALME V ES RBLET Kanojo wa watashi yori yoku renshd shimasu She practises more often than | do COMBOSRTH-AN-FYTEMEVBMICTES Kono kikal no o-kage de homu bakingu wa mae yori kantan ni dekiru Home baking can be done more easlly than before, thanks to this machine e adverbs and adverbials of degree can also be used to modify verbs to show comparisons: SoEMBL weakness’, and the same is true of Japanese. me The suffix ~& can be added to the stem of some adjectives to give noun meanings: adjective ‘meaning [derived noun | meaning BSE Kav [big BEE size Be heay _[8bE weight VSU- BW wide USE width, scale BIEL - BU [ead DLE sadness ~h ‘There are also a few nouns formed by adding the suffix ~# to an adjective stem: adjective meaning [derived noun | meaning BEW- HW sweet. BES sweetness SSUW- SUN | painful DRY FY retum, homecoming < toface > GE+Mz direction I< tocontinue > DI#- Me continuation 4S tofinioh > BEY + HY conclusion, finish Dt tolike, to preter > CMa - ta taste, preference SG toshrink > BBA RAH shrinking louns with special functions ‘small number of nouns can have a structural function in certain . There are some examples below to show how the meanings the nouns change in this use, but for more information, refer to section on nominalization (see p. 206). = is is used after the plain forms of verbs and adjectives, with ions of time: FAVAN WIRES when|went-to America ENSER when | eat/when eating BIWce when it’s hot DPVece when | was young ‘® can also be used following another noun, to which itis joined by the particle D:© FROLEE< BROMEMZELE Kodomo no toki yoku kyoryU no e 0 kakimashita When |was.a child, | often drew pictures of dinosaure ce Japanese uses = & ‘abstract thing’ after the plain forms of verbs to form a noun phrase, and this can often be translated into English with an “-ing’ ending (e.g. ‘watching’, ‘going’): * FVEERSCEMSTT Terebi o miru koto ga suki desu © PRAMAVC else < Ak Gakko ¢ ikanal koto wa yoku nal yo Not going to school is a bad thing (to do) When < & comes after the ~ form of a verb, it has the special use of referring to a past experience (see p. 60 and p. 206): + BICROKCEMSVETD Uma ni notta koto ga arimasu ka Have you ever ridden a horse? ccs Although the noun & £4 means ‘place’, it can be used after the plain forms of verbs to refer to an event which is just about to happen or has just happened. In this use it refers to a point in time: © BOISECSCH like watching TV Dekakerutokoro desu 'mJust about to go out © SRERKKETSTH ‘Yohanotabetatokoro desu | have Just eaten With a~TU4 structure, middle of . ..” something: * WEBMULTUSECZKMSb sé MOTH Ima denwa shite iru tokoro dakara chotto matte ne Just a minute - I'm on the phone £4 emphasizes being ‘in the [L226 1 Nouns YU 5, meaning ‘way, street’, is used after the dictionary form 7: form of a verb, or after a noun with @, to talk about the of doing something or way in which something happens: EME SMUICL RAL Watashi ga iu t6ri ni shi nasai PRA BYE Boku gaittatorida it’s just.as| eald RABOMY CB4UTS Setsumeisho no tori ni kumitateru Assemble as per the instructions Please do.as| tell you is used after the plain forms of verbs or adjectives to show there is a likelihood or expectation of something happening: (BSTC TCH Mo sugutsukuhazu desu They should be here shortly BPSASABRAWET CH Tanaka san wa ashita konai hazu desu I'm fairly eure that Tanaka won't be coming tomorrow oy shows the purpose or result of an action. It can follow the in forms of verbs: BAN < OMMBTSROTH Nihon e iku no wa benky® suru tame desu | The reason for going to Japan is to study CHSMMETSLOORMTH Kore wa insatsu o suru tame no kikal desu This is a machine for printing can also be used after another noun when joined by the cle : BBOKYD, AMEE Taifd no tame, ki ga taoreta Attree was brought down as a result of the typhoonl 128 | Nouns © HAOLORBLELE Bydki no tame kesseki shimashita | did not attend, owing to illness For Z20IC, see pp. 144-145, £5 To talk about how something seems to be, & 5 ‘appearance’ is used, following the plain forms of verbs and adjectives: ° HHMICR ABBE SAMHATISLSE ‘Sekai-tekini Nihongo ga hanaseru hito ga fuete iru yo da It seems that the number of people worldwide who can speak Japanese Is increasing ° BRB THLOIICH, HPSRULSKOA ‘Nihongo de hanashikaketa ga wakaranai yo datia | spoke to her in Japanese but che didn't seem to understand For & 3c, see pp. 146-147. | Nouns with the polite prefixes 4 and The style of a sentence can be changed to a more formal or polite register by using the prefixes & or < with certain nouns. For more on this subject, refer to the chapter on keigo (p. 213). | Nouns used as adverbs Some Japanese nouns can also be used as adverbs (see p. 111). This is most common with nouns referring to relative time such as & UK ‘tomorrow’, and tty Li 3 ‘last week’ etc., and with nouns of quantity such as #2 < & Av ‘a lot (of)’. The following sentences show the word 4 LU used first as a noun, and then as an adverb. * RAORRARUORSTH Ashita no jugyé wa tonari no kyéshitsu desu Tomorrow's class will be in the room next door * BURA CIMRARSNEA Moshiwake nai desu ga ashita koraremasen I'm very sorry, but (1) can't come tomorrow What is a conjunction? fons link words, phrases, or clauses. English pnjunctions include ‘and’, ‘but’, and ‘however’, and some pI nor. .."). Subordinating conjunctions and ‘because’ link main and “in order to’, yrdinate clauses. Japanese equivalents of English conjunctions ‘and’, ‘both’, ar’, and ‘neither’ are particles (for ¢ meaning ‘and’, ®, 6, nd 2, see particles). Some of the conjunctions given below can be described as noun and particle combinations. Others are njunctive particles, which are often considered as forms of verbs d adjectives. In addition, all of the ~T form group of endings, g.~T, ~%INT, ~7E< T, T, etc,, are conjunctions in that link phrases and sentences. These are discussed in the shapters on verbs and adjectives. |Conjunctive particles are several particles which are conjunctions in terms of their ition, but which are usually described in textbooks as either ‘of verbs (or adjectives), or as particles. Two of them, ~ 5 nd ~(£, cause changes in the form of the verb or adjective to fhich they are attached. They are included in the charts of forms or verbs and adjectives. ated 4:5 consists of the ~# form of the verb or adjective followed y 5. It joins clauses together and shows that one action begins before another action. In the following sentence, going to Japan scedes the visit to Kyoto:l 130 | Conjunctions and conjunctive particles © BANTORSRBCTALY Nihon e ittara Kyoto ni kitai When if | go to Japan, | want to go to Kyoto ‘The English translation of this sentence can be with ‘when’ or ‘i’, depending on whether or not a trip to Japan is being planned. A ‘wide range of relative time relationships can be expressed with ~#¢6, and there may be a choice as to the use of ‘if’ or ‘when’ (or indeed some other phrasing) in English: * RABRORORBLET ‘Tabeowattara denwa shimasu {will call you when | finish eating * CAERRNTDRSBRICACS Kondo Nihon e ittara onsen ni iko Next time we go to Japan, let's go to an oneen (hot epring) © ROMS TURE RAMAUTUSISTE Kare ga kaette itara denki ga tsuite iru hazu da Fhe is (has come) home, the lights should be on Note that £4376, from (xt) “good”, means “if you like’ © kMokS, BOERATSL RE Yokattara, motto tabete kudasai Please eat some more if you like! ~7¢ 5 in questions and suggestions ‘There is a common use of ~#:5 in ‘what should I do?” questions and in making suggestions in response, as illustrated by the following examples: ° ABBEODER 6 [cor ‘to-go <3 [ne to epeak t > # [eee to wait. 2, Pee[222 1 conjunctionsand conjunctive particles dictionary form [meaning changein [+~It form [meaning [~i%U form |~#iFhit final kana ‘adjectives 55-29 to mest 3 > A [bale LY RU [cold St hn ANKE : BS" RS tosee.towatch | > ti [etd BoS|toocr [Boba |BoSRTHE TS ‘todo a> fh [tne GB ltorad [EERO [kRMIHE KB RS ‘to come S > ih [xne togo [bE [DERI Uses of ~ tf RNS | tocar RABY Reis ‘The two clauses linked with ~t£ show a relationship where pees AB Brats the first action or situation must occur in order for the second statement or action to be true. In the following sentence, a cat todo Ura Liaise must be used in order to complete the journey in 90 minutes: tocome caw Cats * CHIE IORDMS Kuruma de ikeba ky0-jup-pun kakaru Htyou go by car, It takes 90 minutes In the examples below, the CDs must be cheap before the speaker will consider buying any, and it must be raining before a decision is made to cancel the match: © CD SRItUEROET Shildii wa yasukereba kaimasu IfCDs are cheap, Il buy some MORNE CRS ‘Ame ga fureba shiai ga chashi ni naru Ifit rains, the match will be cancelled Ifthe ~1 clause holds true, then the other event becomes true: © MBMNHIZAT EY FICTeEL ES Ashita harereba haikingu ni ikimashd, If it’s fine tomorrow, let's go hiking ~t with negative conditions ‘The addition of ~ Iz to negatives of verbs and | adjectives changes the ~#24Y ending to ~#a144U£ and the condition established with ~Iz becomes negative: CD ISR aITHIERUEEA Shiicii wa yasukunakereba kaimasen IFCDs aren't cheap, | won't buy any ERE AMRUIINLS ACTHAS PSL OR Sato san ga konakereba san-nin de shial o yaru shika nai HSato doesn't come, there's nothing for it but to play thematch | with three people RB SROR SHIRES Ashita tegami ga konakereba denwa shimasu ifthe letter doesn't. come tomorrow, Ill telephone also the section on the#Z4) form in the chapter on verbs where atic uses of ~ 7x (S41 are discussed, and (3 in the ter on particles for ~Ié ~IZE. lL MOE is an idiomatic structure meaning ‘I wish that . . .’: SrcMeTHIZLMIe Motto Benkyé sureba yokatta I wish I'd studied more![25+ conjunctions and conjunctive parses 3 Conjunctions and conjunctive particles | 135 er, ifthe main clause is an intentional action by the subject, Comparison of ~I£ and ~75 ‘Sometimes there will be little or no difference in meaning rather than showing ‘when...’ by ~~: 5, the two clauses are between sentences joined with ~{# and sentences joined with with a~T form meaning ‘and’: ~s¢5. Inthe two sentences below there is only aslight difference PRC TH CRBLE in nuance: the first (~1d) indicates that the air conditioning cicen| thule Agu dena shite should be used only at times when the weather is hot, and the Jarrived at the airport and phoned straight away second (~7¢/5) shows a time relationship where hot weather precedes putting on the air conditioning: © BUMEILTAVERTSREW je use of E shows a natural and inevitable link between what ‘Atsukereba eakon o tsukete kudasat pens in the first clause and what follows in the next. This Ifit’s hot, please tum on the air conditioning ns that English translations may feature ‘and’, “if*, or ‘when’. BMORSITAVERITTSREN LORS EMT ERAS 14S, Atsukattara eakon 0 tsukete kudasai Kono botan o asu to kikai ga ugokihajimeru ifit'shot, pleace-turn on the air conditioning Push ste burn and he machin otatelf you pastiche itton, machine starts Th id half of the sentence can be a request (as above) or _ Se ee BICESEBIOMT SS - _ Yoru ninaru to obake ga de + BRS T. ‘is a contracted form of the particle & and the verb (3 . Itcan either a topic (first example) or report (second example): BBotEC? _ Jisho tte doko? Where is the dictionary?Lire artis * SISORBAMK SK. S5MUKIT ‘Sakki no denwa wa Obuchi data. M6 tsuita tte That phone call just: now was from Obuchi. He eal he'd arrived Ips ‘The basic meaning of #5 is ‘from’: ° RRS) OMMSTT Jugyo wajd-jikaradesu Classes are from 10 o'clock * KARP SRUTID Daigaku wa eki kara ti desu ka Ig the university far from the station? #5 can also mark the source in giving and receiving, in place of ki © ROSY Ty bhECSWVELA Ani kara jaketto 0 moraimashita | gota jacket: from my brother © BOSFRMREELE Haha kara tegami ga todokimashita Aletter came from mum * LREACORMAREAD SME Uehara san to no kekkon 0 otdtosan kara kiita heard about you getting married to Mr Uehara from your brother 25 is used to mean ‘from’ with named | organizations (where the use of [< is ungrammatical): * BRORAD SRYSt G5 9% Nihon no seifu kara shdgakukin o moratta | received a scholarship from the Japanese government (There is also a conjunction #5 whose possible English equivalents include ‘because’ and ‘after’. See p. 143.) 1ET 3 T is used to mark allimit (of time, space, etc.): KA HSE BPS 1 ORETCH ibaito wa yoru roku-ji kara j@-ji made desu dy part-time job ie from 6 to 10 pm. EC MICTAELED made issho ni ikimasho 5 go as far as the station together ICASETBA HME / OMBELE ku ni hairu made mainichi san4jkan piano no rensho.o ‘shita “Up until | was at university, | practised the plano for 3 hours ‘every day ‘can also be used toshow the most extreme extent to which an yn might lead: BRSREITRHBBETSLAWTLES -Chishaihan dake de kyéseisdkan made wa shinai deshd Surely they wouldn't go 60 far as deporting me for a parking offence? &T is followed by the particle IC, it emphasizes the point it which the time period finishes, e.g. when giving a deadline: Lat— bdRMORMAKTICHHLT< EE Repéto wa raishi no mokuyébi made ni no teishutsu shite kudasai _ Please hand in the essay by Thursday next week ty .Y is the particle of comparison, and means ‘than’ or ‘rather RRSARLV RATE Tokyo wa Osaka yori samui desu Tokyo is colder than Osaka BABISZSLABLY PSL Nihongo wa Furansugo yori yasashii Japanese ls easier than French VATHS EY 2A TH< OMIM Hitori de iku yori futari de iku no gai Is better to go together than (to go) aloneL272 pants £¥ is also used to mean ‘from’ in relation to a point in space or time, similar to #5: _” cea WUETOCREURE AMIS FAS. T 9) KReBeSHe hiwa gaikokujin to kekkon shita bakari ni chichini kando IY shows a limited quantity only’, ust’): BRKIRME STEELE “Kanojo dake bent0 0 motte kimashita ‘Only she brought a packed lunch ‘CO COMSEALUTLA ‘ono shiidii wa go-hyaku-en dake deshita ie CD wae only 500 yen iF is used with Cl&#x< to express ‘not only . .. but also... F4-FiBABEM Tide —MBBLADRS & is used to soften statements in male speech: ura kun wa kanojo ni m6 ichido denwa shita kana © MIAHRSKIPSE wonder if Kimura called hie airlfriend again Boku wa dekiru dake yaru sal do as muchas | can $ also written DAE: SOs MIsEKDE® 1e ‘Ky no yi han wa nani kana a i: |wonder what's for dinner tonight: is a sentence-ending particle used to mark information new to the listener (familiar information is marked with 4a). This draws & attention to whatever is marked: PLS ° BSHEREN. BHMECHE } isa distinctly female-speaker version of #7: Haynlugh nese) ache} ae Secu Rb ehldicd5—KBBLEDLS Get up quickly. It’s after & o'clock chan wa kare ni m6 ichido denwa shita kashira Ba-Veals FAVAATTA wonder if Aki called her boyfriend again Joji san wa Amerikajin desu ne , George ie an American, isn't he? BES. FIYWATI A Chigaimasu. Burajirujin desu yo No, he isn't, he's Brazilianl 180 | Particles Ib ‘ is used by women to express emotion and soften the tone: © MLIvd Muzukashiiwa iv’ difficult ° EATELUTTD Mataikitaidesuwa like to go again ID This is a masculine version of the question particle : * SERUM Moo-shimaikai Finished already? xiliary suffixes Vhat is an auxiliary? inglish, auxiliaries are verbs such as ‘be’, ‘do’, and ‘will’, ch are used with other verbs to show changes in function n 8. For example, ‘do’ can be used to express questions you understand?’}, and ‘will’ can be used to express a future ne (‘She will understand when she’s older’). " Japanese auxiliaries, or joddshi (AUEH4), cannot exist as pendent words, but instead are used as endings attached pertain stems of verbs or adjectives. They often have modal eanings expressing likelihood or obligation, comparable to lish ‘may’, ‘must’, etc. of auxiliary ny Japanese auxiliaries are used in ways that are often thought ‘forms’ of verbs and adjectives. These include EF, FEL, , ££, and (5) #1. For more information on these, € the chapters on style, verbs, and adjectives. There are, jwever, other auxiliaries which are usually treated as suffixes. € most important of these is # , which is given a chapter of wn because of its importance (see p. 15). W ‘4 is added to the plain forms of verbs and adjectives, ‘conjugates like an (\ adjective, with the meaning ‘seems’. ere are other structures with similar meanings - see & 5 (7) ad 3 (7) below.) It is generally used to show that tion the speaker has heard or seen leads him to believe something is (or is not) the case with a very high degree ainty. In this use, 5 L4) follows plain forms:I 182 | Auxiliary sullixes © BAOMUAFOAFRMIHLIVS LTH Nihon no kokuritsu deigaku no nyogaku shiken wa muzukashii rashil desu Apparently Japanese national university entrance examinations are difficult © BRISA RNS LUN Toyoda sensei wa ashita konai rashit 1t seems that Mrs Toyoda ien't coming tomorrow ° BRILL < FEBURSOLN Dorokoji ga mezurashiku yotei-cori owaru rashil The roadworks are apparently going to finish on time, for a change + BSMOREIMUNE, MEAMBTUSSLW Hayaku keetta ho gail yo. Okusan ge okotte iru rashit You'd better go home quick. Your wife seems to be angry! The use of 5 L4 with a noun indicates the conformity of someone or something to a type, as in the English ‘teacher-like’ or ‘typical teacher’: + EAM LEFEOARES LSBU Sonna bake-na kolo 0 suru no wa sensei rashiku nai Doing something that stupid ie not fitting for a teacher © ty y-kAOBABILEFEMARAS LBA Tal Nanshil san no Nihongo wa jézu da ga, Nihonjin rashii Nihongo ja nai Nancy Japanese ie good, but it ie not like a native speaker's Japanese 3 (#) 5 (2) is used in two ways. With the plain forms of verbs and adjectives, and #, it indicates information based on hearsay: © MSBOTSES TT Karewa salkon surusddesu _I'veheard that he's remarrying © RELORRCSMERMESSESIE Rainendo no shiken ni wa mensetsu shiken mo aru s6 da Ihear that there is going to be an oral test in next year's examination FSEMKCHMESRESTH yain suru chokuzen mace genki datta sé desu say that he wae well until just. before he was admitted to ital samt STH Ashita ame da sé desu parently it's going to rain tomorrow second use of € 3 (4) is to indicate a judgement based on is seen, with the meaning ‘it looks like’. In this case itis used the pre- &F forms of verbs and with adjective stems. b) ctives drop the final |. and 2 adjectives lose the final /&: WMVUESE, # 6) meaning 2 is used to distinguish between two choices. (See below jet meanings of & 5 5.) If there are more than two choices, is used: FH=APKU—K-MdD, Eb MBE? Tenisu ka boréboru ka, dotehi ga suki? “Which do you prefer, tennis or volleyball? COFaAL—howcensecty Kono chokoréto no naka de dore ga suki desu ka ich of these chocolates doyou like? a following noun, the word for ‘which?’ is &®: EDKTI MD Donohondesuka Which bookie it? BBRREAILEDATID sJimukyoku-san wa done hite desu ka Which one ie the personnel manager? ere’, ‘there’, and ‘where?’ words for ‘here’, ‘there’, and ‘over there’ are C&, €C, and BoOMscoccHvEts Kuruma nokagiwa koko niarimasu The car keys are herel[Liss ime % +> E groupotwords © RLSTCCH MD Ekiwaasokodesuka isthe station over there? ‘The word for ‘where?" is &&, or the more polite US 5: © FTHECAMMTROAUOIECTID Sumimasen ga Chikatetsu no iriguchi wa doko desu ka Excuse me! Where is the entrance to the subway? ° BHESS TID (O-kuni wa dochira desu ka Where (which country) are you from? 255, t65,665,E65 This is another set of < « + % + & words, meaning ‘this direction’, ‘that direction’, ‘which direction?': © SBSART £3 - % - ED ‘this/that/which way?’ are ed with verbs (notably $ 4) to show the manner in which hing is done: E2RNTIANIE $6 tabete wa ikenai You shouldn't eat like that/that way STH LACRS 6 sureba sukoshi raku ni naru What's happened?/s anything tho mattor? (ES TLED Dé deshitaka #38 “Dademoii — Whateveril don't care which Esm Bok “Dé nikanaru yo _ fewill be all right/Gomehow or other it will be OK. Well?/How was it?l 190 |The = + = E group of words The forms 23613, €31\3, HWS, EFWD are commonly used to modify nouns and noun phrases, meaning “this/tliat/what kind of?" (see modifiers): © CHISEDWSRRTTO Kore wa dtu imidesuka — What does thio mean? © BOG OMMUALMITIS, CSWSEMISSS LOE Maishd roku-ja jikan ijo hataraite iru. K6 iu seikatsu wa mo dame da |.am working more than 6O hours every week. can't: take this kind of lifestyle! For use of & 3 UT, see the chapter on interrogatives (p. 224). | Use of € and % to refer back ‘Words beginning with € and 4 (and occasionally =) are used to refer back to previously mentioned topics and phrases: + 30MTAMORRICROL, TOLEMHTHHEAL Heo ‘San-jO-sai de Osaka no jikka ni modotta. Sono toki hajimete Masada san ni deatta ‘At the age of thirty | went back to the family home in Osaka, Itwas at that time that | first met Masuda * SAREAMPRERVELA. EHLHES THU DRTLE Ojiisan ga kabu o kaimashita. Sore wa amakute oishii kabu deshita Grandfather bought a turnip. It was a sweet, delicious turnip Words in the & group tend to refer to some information shared between speaker and listener: + —RICRMUNICBORESOTEMRATHS 2 ON Apott Issho ni Asamayama ni nobotta toki no koto ga oboete iru? Are wa omoshirokatta ne You remember when we climbed Mt Asama together? That was furl mbers, counters, e, dates numerals are generally written in kanji in vertical text, ‘numerals (1, 2,3, etc.) in horizontal text. inal numbers .al numbers are those which are used when counting (‘one’, , three’): pronunciation and kanji eA or hls: F Ces = += Cesk t= Upsca- Ce dlorbedta: ta Ueda th Upoa< tA Ups bor be ome tt[192 somber comin tate ‘Numbers,counters, time, dates | 193 muumber | pronunciation and kanji 18 Cwsiss- +A 19 Cw sed or bos - th 20 bes -=+or=O Cth: BF or 5 F 21 [Uw 55 -=t— BStth + KF or OF 22 Uw Sie + = fatatthy » CF or 7F 23 KUMSeA° lkottaA - For 8F KUesthorklesl-=ta Spsth AF or9F Kbesc-=th UBEA + —For 1 [CU M53< Sth WbKAtA oO NEE SEA EUeSLborkbe sem: ott REA or 270 Uw dt6 tN tAEA + BR or 4 [Uw se m5 or SUH S< othr Teh + tH or TH SACwd -Stor=O Bwe5FA Aor 9h EALwINS -S— ),000_ bestr: thor 10h tA > * Bt or BO 000,000 Oe < kA + Bor 1008 cles -ktorhO (0,000,000 WotAkA * FH or 1 FA DSCs -KRtorKO 00,000,000 WSE< + {Bor 1 itebw>s > ttortO 1,000,000,000,000 [W545 - Hor 19E (S605 + AtorAO S95 C93-Atono Ors -B KOS? -=Bor 26 EAU eS + SHor 38 SAO < +E or 4 CU~< + HH or 5B S2Ue< +o 68 BROe< + thor 7a IkoUe< + AB or 88 #w50"< -ABor 9s th: F tA =F or 25 te that there are two ways of saying the number 4 (L- and u) and two ways of saying ‘the number 7 (UL and 7272) eir use is shown in the charts relating to time, dates, and iting people and objects below. In general, the number 4 ‘pronounced L- when counting on the fingers, but otherwise K(4v) is preferred’. Numbers are expressed from greatest to least: 603 BoUe< eh 1,800 tAlsooe< 12,813 BEAM DUES LEA, COMIsE 3 ARTS Kono kuruma wa rop-pyaku san4jG-kyi-man en desu This car is six million, three hundred and ninety thousand yenl 194 | Numbers, counters, time, dates 1 Counting objects, people, animals Counting objects ‘When counting inanimate objects, there is a different set of numbers from 1 to 9 which incorporate the counter . (Although there is an alternative number 10, it is not used for counting items and so appears in brackets below.) After 10, the system of Up 34\5, U3 IC is used. The & A alternative is used for numbers over 10 which include 4, e.g. Uw 3 &Av, 14: ‘number of items ‘Kanji and pronunciation Numbers, counters, time, dates | 195 h the (\%, Ic, & Av set of numbers. The more common given below. ‘of common counters ar formations are shown with an underline, [pronunciation and other information. WBE, CEU, FARO, LAK W, CEU, SSE, BEV, 45K, ODEO, CHIEN, BEL y+ flat objects, €.g. of paper, ge stamps, plates Demon <5. @)3]e]")=]=[s]— 22 -AD- 89 9 SEOD-AD+ 99 10 (8-4) 11, ete Cw duS, ete. * CHEID#D, 29320, C0549, HED? BEN, EEO, ZAEW, EAE , CE, SSE, REL, IS5KW, SO dE, COE, Tap? ® Woih, KIzA, ZAlzh, kA [EA, clBA, Bolthy, eialth, es, pens, cigarettes | (t21tA, #® IFA, Uwoith, ANE? ‘D-aA DaPFD, KPTS, FAMF>, EADIFD, CPITI, B2MIFD, HIZIMTD, (LIDIFD, F 9 3OF 2D, Leo piFa, BADIFDl 196 | Numbers, counters, time, dates Numbers, counters, time, dates | 197 e.g. of water, beer, juice Fw Fld), Ui sikty, BAIL? Dre for number of times (once, twice, etc.) WDA, ID), FAD, kA UW, CPU, Soph, ZAPU, [LDU SHSM, Upon, FAAP WN? UN Bi for floors of a building DIP, Cl), SAM, bh DU, CDW, BID, BHU, oP, 20300), Leap WADIA? UC: BF for hours (clock time) UBL, EU, FA, £0, 50, BCU, UBL, g5U, *F ‘centimetre’, X— JL ‘metre’, pelos or ‘kilometre’, and YJ y BJU ‘litre’, and foreign Cu such as KJL, ‘dollar’, aR K, ‘pound’, etc. Japan uses Imetric system of measurement, although some traditional sures are still in use. Floor area in Japanese homes is measured ‘mats’ with the counter U5 + Sometimes single items are counted with the B&~ liernative for ‘one’: AUR Y DUK DAUTED Hito-pakku ikutsu iri desu ka | How many are there in one pack?lL 198 | Numbers, counters, time, dates | Ordinal numbers and ‘number 1’ Ordinal numbers are used to talk about the order of things (€.8. ‘first’, ‘second’, ‘tenth’ in English). In Japanese, the suffix 8 + is added to the number and counter combination WED, HED, etc. to mean ‘the first (one)’, ‘the second (one)', etc.: + BERS-SRORSEA CHAU ET Yabinkyoku wa hitotsu-me no shingé 0 migi ni magarimasu For the post office, you turn right at the first (set of) lights © COBOMFCDUTARICBLELES Futatsu-me no jiken ni tsuite hanashimasho Let’s discuss the second incident & is also added to cardinal number + counter combinations: om the first time W5IfA > HB the first (for number and (Ay, see below) [DIEU » =¥RB tthe second cup EAlzA > SHA the third bottle DEVH+—-AB ‘the first person BEV *=AB the second person © -BAORIZARK OK, SRMICSALENE Ik-kai-me no shutché wa taihen datta. Kétsijik6 ni makikomareta My first business trip was terrible. | was involved In a car accident. + KAMOMOHK, BPBA3 BOMBA ‘Mata kutsu ga torareta. Tanaka kun ga san-nin-me no higaisha da Shoes have been stolen again! Tanaka is the third victim! © RT IVAN TLE PSI AB ERAA TRIE bE iis added to hours, days, and weeks to cate a period of time. It is sometimes added to months and ss, although itis not always used, as 10 4F itself, for example, yean ‘a 10-year period’: three days 10% (fi) {ja-nen-kan —tenyears. jods of months are given with the number followed by #1F 49 BR. This suffix is often written as 4 A, but note that the acter ‘7 is an abbreviation of the kanji ffl (pronounced 4), id not the katakana 7: three months | WISMRAFICG TARRLELA “Watashi wa Tokyo Daigaku ni rok-ka-getsu ryagaku shimashita Iwas an exchange student at Tokyo University for s& months $ are expressed with the number followed by the counter + & year’: —1965% © sen kyt-hyaku roku-j0-go-nen 20008 ni-sen-nen 2000 is expressed with HMEA2ICAI- tt 2 BF AeA, + number “RA: |= camtexiia 5 3% " seirekikigenzen yon-hyaku go-ja-san-nen 453 8C 1965l 202 | Numbers, counters, time, dates Japanese era system Japan has its own system of counting years, based on the number of years of the current emperor's reign. The correspondence to Western calendar dates is shown below. Two era names in a single year show that the imperial succession changed during that year: Japanese era Western calendar BUCS RA - a 1868 | DUCEAUC 5 tA - a4 5 1912 and KWL EDS tA + KIEL EVQULDoRA + KET 5 1926 and [Ls d5dWStav - AE LxdbictA - m2 = 1927, La dbS< Ce sEARA : M6 3% | 1988 AEG tals FRE 1989 ADE ® 5 etaA : FART 2 2000 + N32 9F ‘Showa san-jo-kyO-nen year 39 of Showa (= 1964) Dates of birth and other significant events are usually given with the name of the era, especially in official documents: ° SRARIMMS 8H3A20CH Seinengappi wa ShOwa go-J0-hachi-nen san-gatsu futsuka desu My date of birth is March 2", Showa 58 (= 1985) © RORRLER? FEENTE Uchi no chonan wa Heisei nana-nen umare desu My older son was born in Heisel 7 (= 1995) HAD 2 OFFICE Cha TRF BAM EB ICBC ENE LE ‘Shdwa nij-nen ni sekai de hajimete genshibakudan ga Hiroshima nj otosaremashita ‘The first atomic bomb was dropped in ShOwa 20 (= 1945) on Hiroshima Numbers, counters, time, dates | 203 ‘names of months of the year consist of the number followed counter #82 « A. The Land L-% alternatives are used | : March | 4A: UMD April TA-ULBAD July 1A- Ce S629 November ibing duration i.e. ‘for 6 months’, see the section on stiods of time above. ates ofthe month pe dates of the month are shown below: Deb +18 ‘DP: 28 42m: 38 kom: 48 Wom: 5A bom: 6B TEOD:+ 7B +3”: 8B ccOM: 98 ¢éP-108 ter 10, the pronunciation follows that of the cardinal numbers vith the suffix IC - A. The Land < alternatives are used 17H-UwsLbc5 298 -cbed b: 60% — roku-ji pasento | Approximate numbers <5W or <1) is added to an amount to mean ‘approximately’: © 20<5t) ‘san-jQp-pun gurai about thirty minutes + GACSURSEBUETD Nan-nin gurai kuru to omoimasu ka ‘About how matty people do you think are coming? Itis common to use the adverb #£U\7£6) “more or less’ with Thuy [204.1 Numbers, counters time, dates ‘Numbers, counters, time, dates | 205 EW EAC SW | roku-ningurai about six people ely, the quantity is prefixed with P< + #9 or BLE: 30K : ku sanj0-nin_—_ approximately thirty people BLEIB ‘oyososan-ko about three (pieces) e each’ and ‘each one’ addition of $°> to a number of items means *. .. each’: MALRBOFAhLI BMT OTH ‘Sagaku to Eigo no tesuto wa ichijikan zutsu desu "The maths and English tests are one hour each MO LICH 6 KF DBUTC RE ~ Tsukue no ue ni kami roku-mai zutsu oite kudasal Please put ex pieces of paper each on the desk prefix element 2°< + # ‘each’, ‘every’ can be added to some 0g. OS GFR * BISA ‘every class’, MIC < + SH country’, etc, An English translation with ‘all’ or ‘every’ may ‘appropriate: SEROMA S y MICBMLELE ‘Kak-koku no shushd ga kankyo samitto ni sanka shimashita ‘The prime ministers of each of the countries took part in the environment summitNominalization: the nominalizer O andthe noun ‘The addition of the noun = & or the nominalizer @ to a sentence or clause transforms the whole of that sentence or clause into a noun phrase. (Other nouns can also be used to form noun phrases: see below in the section ‘Modifiers and relative clauses’.) ‘This resulting noun phrase can then be used as a subject, direct object, etc. in the same way as other noun phrases. In the following example, the nominalizer ® added to the verb phrase & #»7E%24 ‘catch fish’ produces a noun phrase: © MEHSOMFSTT Sakana o tsuru no ga sukidesu like fishing ‘The addition of the noun & &, literally “(abstract) thing’, to the phrase &.U\#8#4% ‘watch films’ produces a noun phrase ‘watching films’: ° LOMRIRBERSCETT Watashi no shumi wa eiga © miru koto desu My hobby is watching films. ‘Thenoun < & used in this way and the nominalizer both follow the plain forms of verbs and adjectives. When a nominalized phrase is based on a noun or a % adjective, itis linked to the nominalizer ® (or the noun performing a similar function) with 7: © 1 6RAOSBLT. MARBE RIT OL Ja-roku-sai na no o kakushite, seijin eiga o mini itta Hiding (the fact) that | was 16, | went to see an adult film ‘Nominalization; the nominalizer @ and thenoun < & | 207 oun phrase can then be marked as the subject, object, topic, _with the appropriate particle. In the sentence above, the noun 1 GABFZD ‘being sixteen’ is the direct object of >< F de (something), and so is marked with the particle. In the “example, the noun phrase ‘the first time Mike met a Japanese on’ is marked as the topic with [3: 4 DDT AAA ICME EOS BO 2 FE OK 1u ga hajimete Nihonjin ni deatta no wa kOk6 no ni-nen firet time Mike met a Japanese person was in the second year of high school rences between the use of and = & ye nominalizer @ and the noun = & are largely interchangeable, pt when the nominalized phrase is the predicate in a ié ~Z¢ sentence (ending with # - C3). In this case, ly < ¢ is correct. In the sentence below, the first use of & be replaced with ® but the second cannot: LUCE / OREORVEMMICRAT SOLE ;zukashii koto/no wa sono chigal o kantan ni setsumel suru oto da 1e difficulty is to explain this difference simply | ceptions that are immediate. and concrete, or emotionally and pathetically involving, tend to be marked with 0D, and abstract ess empathetic elements are marked with < & @israther more nal. In the following example, only < & is acceptable: RBScLIMBLSCE iru koto wa shinjirukoto Seeing is believing the next two examples, the second sentence is more formal and ‘emotionally involving than the first, although the translation | to show this by changing the vocabulary, where the Japanese janges the style: | U< SRA TORR SOS? 21d Ikura yonde mo keiken suru no wa yappari chigau F No matter how much you've read about it, it’s obviously different When you experience it yourselfiLl 208 | Nominalization: the nominalizer ® andthe noun <= & ‘Nominallzation: the nominalizer and the noun = | 209 © WS SRATORRTSCEPIEUBVET SA (80. AFCIFYLABEMMLEATT \kura yonde mo keiken suru koto wa yahari chigaimasu yone Hai, daigaku de Furansugo o benkyé shitan desu No matter how much you may have read about it, its somewhat ‘Yeo, (that’s because) | studied French at university different when you experience It personally! 7¢ is common in questions to confirm assumptions based on . re risible evidence: IDE - OCH + AK- ATT EDULTERECENSATHM. MPS RATIO ‘ ; Doshite mada koko ni iru n desu ka, Nan ka atta ndesu ka The MfE sentence ending (and the polite style equivalent D TY ) is a nominalized sentence plus #. The contracted form is Af, Why are you still here? Has something happened?/ls something or the polite style AC". 7 is used for explanations and ronal: connects a statement with a situation in a way that implies EDLEATIO “the fact is that . . .’ or ‘the explanation is that . . .’: Doshitandesuka — What's the matter?/What’s happened? © RM mo CHHEtA. BEMEBNEATH ‘Use of this structure can sometimes imply doubt: Osoku nate sumimasen. Densha ga okuretan desu BMICWVATHD Sorry t0 be latel The train was delayed Hont6 ni jin desu ka Ie tt really OK?Are you sue It's OK? DYRTAOMFN— MAAN THEATH BeRhety Kurisumasu no mae depito wa konde iru n desu Tibiisel yacidanss bese Urea eae ences Before Ginetta Sit hear caaiy 4S phrase A’ C$ Mis used to signal a request: ene nime he Ea hoes iiss AABCERERULATIM, BRDERTSNKAD ‘ind wa shigoto o yasumimashita. Kaze o hiita n desu Yesterday | took the day off work as |had a cold ‘Nihongo de tegami o kaita n desu ga, chotto mite kuremasen ka = Ai The written a letter in Japanese - would you check it for me? Di can be used ta. ark a Kea aatlO gO se eDanP Ia, following phrase can be omitted when the context makes the * CRRBECE DSHS MAs Bie rec abet tleats 0 wa kanja ni iwanal hé ga iin BUeLSe 4 : . BEDEMULVATIS (pe) Re hegt toe ta rel te parler Soa 4 Moshi moshi. Chotto ukagaital n desu ga @F¥ adds an emotive or emphatic element where the speaker is Hello ike some information pleaee (erally f Uke to wok, attempting to emphasize shared knowledge or an assumption from ae the context. This can sometimes be translated with tag questions (‘isn’t it’, ‘don’t you’, etc.). In the next example, the speaker is 4 = perhaps looking at Mis Kawamura's bookshelf and noting all the Modifiers and relative clauses French books: modifier is a word, sentence, or clause that describes or © WS AIL7 SY AMM MSA TID odifies’ a following noun or pronoun, as in the English Kawamura san wa Furansugo ga wakaru n desu ka terday’s newspaper’, ‘the most difficult one’, or ‘pretty S0,you understand French, do you, Mrs Kawamura? udent’. Japanese adjectives and nouns with ® can be modifiers: A response would be likely to use an explanatory ACY: BOUSudr omoshirol hito a funny person[210 tNominaation: ‘nominalizer @ and the noun = & o ania kirel-na gakusei a pretty student: © EDI ORM kind noshinbun yesterday's newspaper Japanese does not have relative pronouns (‘that”, ‘which’, ‘who’, ctc.), and so English relative clauses such as ‘the woman who is standing over there’ or ‘the textbooks that [used in university’ are conveyed in Japanese by taking the nouns ‘woman’ and ‘book’ ‘and modifying them with a descriptive phrase. This modifying phrase always precedes the modified element and is in the plain style. Verbs and adjectives in the plain style (see p. 10) or clauses with plain style forms (such as ~#4\, ~7, the dictionary form, etc.) can be used as modifiers. Literal translations of such phrases would be, for example, ‘the over-there-standing woman’ and ‘the in-university-used book’: « HETICMITNSROALSAEATI Asoko ni tatte iru onna no hito wa Kaneda san desu The woman who le standing over there is Ms Kaneda © KETRORMABT OSES MDA Daigaku de tsukatta kydkasho wa sono alo zenzen tsukawans ‘The textbooks that | used in university | never ‘used afterwards More than one modifier may be used in.a complex sentence, and it is necessary to relate them to the correct noun phrase or ‘head’ to understand the overall meaning. In the following sentence, the head & LeU, also meaning ‘go’, as the subject is, ae teacher: Misk BUBMS- DEES BULMS TBARS © BUGATS - CHICAS HATS = BODIE BECHIS = WEES receive ordinary verb honorific alternative | humble alternative verb verb. BS #5 BOEDDS + = tomect: BELDDS << VSsLeso [ens BS t0.40 BUTS + BHTCAS 0S W5olesor [BS to exist, tobe BUTTERS 3+ #S Boles: MS [SIF BF or tosay 85 LHS - BLES PS BUS |- ULE Le WEF or the humble Det: RRRIRATMRL TNS DL EUETD Kurihara sama wa Tédai de benkyé shite irasshaimasu ka Are you etudying at Tokyo University, Mre Kurihara? dee KREWE RASS cL OEMELTLTHY Sumimasen, tadaima Okumura wa chotto seki o hazushite orimasu I'm sorry but Ms Okumura is away from her desk at: the moment. For the formation and uses of the ~T form, see the chapter on jerbs (p. 38). Use of plain forms, ~ # F forms, respectful forms, and humble forms Plain forms Plain forms (e.g. (\<, (\22E4), (> 7) are used to refer to oneself and others in conversations with family and peers. ‘Typical situations are:[2201 Kee = between classmates = between work colleagues of similar age and status = senior to junior staff —- older to younger people ~#T forms ~#F forms (e.g. EEF, Wekth, Wek LA) areusedto refer to oneself and others in slightly more formal interaction with people who are not close friends or family. ‘Typical situations are: - aclass presentation = aletter to a pen pal = achat between casual acquaintances Respectful forms Respectful forms (eg. WS2LEUET, BLEMY #D are vice to refer to someone of a high social status in highly formal or professional situations, €.g-: student to lecturer or teacher in formal situations (e.g, when asking for something) ~ aformal letter ~_ talking to an older person - staff to senior management ~ staff in shops and restaurants to customers Humble forms: Humble forms (e.g. EUV EF, (ELIT A ‘7) are used to refer to oneself and one's formal or professional situations, e. ET, SOBEL in-group in highly student to lecturer or teacher in formal situations - aformal letter — talking to an older person at a formal event — staff in shops and restaurants to customers For more on these issues see the chapter on style (p. 10) of the passive form to show respect e verb forms can be used to show formality and respect: BREAILL BUM — study, studying In some cases the polite forms have become so common as to have largely replaced the basic word in everyday conversation, especially in women's speech. Some examples are given below: Keigo 1223 | BCL CEM L THURSY EHATLR O-isogashii toki ni o-negai shite moshiwake arimasen deshita Lam sorry to trouble you with this when you are so busy BRUTTA O-hayaidesune You're early! keigo forms of adjectives are used in certain set expressions: BU AIEW ‘grateful’ — BVUMEDTRWETF thankyou _1k-PUY ‘early! BRLSOLVET good morning, hello basic noun meaning. everyday polite noun | HTL) ‘auspicious’ Bek tea bbe BOTESCLWEF congratulations at ok arinking water [BaF | Tl celebration [as > BRU {Alternative vocabulary choice in keigo BW i + & uy Ps 5S 2 = FR a a Ea y bu eee Some words have polite alternatives, rather than adding a prefix: EDU RY festival BEDI - SRY | basic word ‘meaning polite version =O OK uncooked rice [#0 + 332% : pereon DEA ec: customer [BaR< eA BREA how? neat where? 5 ‘Some words have only the polite forms: | a eae Bert ie ‘a gift eowvenir MaMroMe_ |~ee can be used at the end of statements with a similar effect: SSBC Ky0waatsuidesune It’s hot.today, ien't it? BREALSORBRSTL ED. Wakaba san wa raish0 mo kuru deshd- You are coming next week a2 weil, aren't you, Me Wakaba? ‘For more information on 4a, see the chapter on particles (pp. 177-178). For more on 24 3 + CL & 3, see the chapters on & - TF (p. 15) and auxiliaries (p. 181). 1 Asking about things je word for ‘what?’ is 7 RAMELETD Ashita nani o shimasu ka What are you going to do tomorrow? wIcMAA VETO Kaban ni nanigaarimasuka What's in the bag? owever, this often becomes 4 /v in compounds, e.g. 2A: ‘what time?” %2A(ZAv ‘what number?” In some compounds ‘with counters, it can be translated as ‘how many?” or ‘which? ‘numbers and counting):[226 1 imterogatves tRWED + howmany bocke/magazines? tehIeA A howmany people? TEARS + IRE which floor? fA is also used in front of sounds from the #&, %, and 7 rows of the kana chart: + enact Sore wanandesuka What is that? © GDRTTD Nannohondesuka — What kind of book is it? | Asking about people To ask about a person’s identity (‘who?’), use E11: © BETKKOTHSAMTTD ‘Asoko ni tate iru hito wa dare desu ka Who ie that person standing over there? “To ask who something belongs to, use 221.0: + chimoReTtD Kore wa dare no jisho desu ka Whose dictionary 's this? Efzfe is used as a polite equivalent of EA: + RATHI M, EBLTIM Shitsurei desu ga, donata desu ka Excuse me, but who are you? ‘The suffix ~ & & is often attached when speaking politely on the telephone: © BLOL. ERLETHD Moshi moshi. Donata sama desu ka Hello? Who is this, please? | Asking about quantity and number To ask ‘how many?’, use b\< 2: © PAWVRoTRANAEETD DO yatte Ninone ikimasu ka How are you going to Japan? Other ways of asking “in what way", ‘how?’ are with ED 3 I= and ESWS.HIE: + FEOEBCOTEMEDLS KP DVELED Gakusei no seikatsu wa kono jd-nen-kan dono yd ni kawarimashita ka In what way has student life changed in the last ten years? 2 ESUSMICERTNENUMRD SADE DO iu fa ni henji sureba |i ka wakaranakatta | just didn't know how to respond & 5 can also be used by itself to mean ‘how’: (EDTLRD ‘Dodeshitaka Howwas it? ‘more information on & 5, see p. 186 and following pages. king about time is used to ask ‘when?’ about the time of an action or event: WORMMKTASETD Itsu kaimono niikimasuka — When are you going shopping? ask about approximate time, the suffix [4 is added: WITS RRICMUETD Itsu goro Tokyo ni kaerimasu ka About when are you returning to Tokyo? Asking about location T is used to ask where something is, or where someone is jing: ecnmeaty Dokoeikimasuka — Where are you going? 6 5 can also be used as a polite alternative to & =: S ESSENSE ILENETD Dochirae irasshaimasuka Where are you going? more information, see p. 186 and following pages. | Asking ‘Which?’ 6 5, or the more informal contraction & 3%, is used to ask ‘which’ when there are two alternatives: FIAMNLV-K-W, Er SMHS? Tenisu ka baréb6ru ka dotehi ga suki? Which do you prefer, tennis or volleyball? there are more than two choices, then E41 is used, or EO if re is a following noun:[230 Ltnterrogatves © CMFAAL—-hOPTCENMBSTID Kono chokoréto no naka de dore ga suki desu ka Which of these chocolates do you like? + EDRTTD Dono hon desuka — Which bookie it? ‘The word & Arf can be used to mean both ‘which’ and ‘what kind of: ° MASAIEABATIO Kumagaya san wa donna hito desu ka Which person is Kumagaya?/What kind of person is Kumagaya? For more information, see p. 186 and following pages. | Asking ‘How . . . 2” To say ‘how tall’, ‘how hot’, etc., the adjective can be preceded by EDK St or EOL HU: 2 ENDL SWBUNTLEID Dono kurai takai deshoka How expensive is it? erspective and pronouns jat is a pronoun? pronoun is a word that is used instead of the name of the person ‘thing concerned, i.e. in place of a noun or noun phrase. In the lowing examples, the pronouns ‘she’, ‘it’, and ‘them’ are used tead of ‘Keiko’, ‘the camera shop’, and ‘the keys’, as well as the ssive pronoun ‘her’ (instead of ‘Keiko’ "Keiko eaid ehe doesn't like her new teacher ‘You know the camera shop on the comer by the station? It's closed The keys weren't where | left them | Absence of pronouns in Japanese | Japanese, the information conveyed in English by pronouns personal and possessive) can often be conveyed by other , and it is generally unnecessary to use the equivalents ?, ‘you’, ‘she’, etc. For example, here is a message left on a iphone answering machine: P SLOL. AHTSH. MARTCEACAVELL. ML WBBBSERATCNELK. HRICMNTNSRFET $k. HHABTL AES. ECSTHLUTA- HEE 2ttm Moshi moshi, Kimura desu. Kind eki de go-shujin ni aimashita. __Atarashii denwa bango 0 oshiete kuremashita. Hij6 ni tsukarete ‘iru yOsu desu yo, Shigoto wa taihen deshd, Tokorode atarashii ‘apato wa do desu ka Hello, it’s Kimura, I met your husband yesterday atthe station. _ He told me your new phone number: He seemed reallly tired. His work must be toughl Anyway, how is your new apartment?l 232 | Perspective and pronouns The vocabulary item Lp UA, + 3A ‘husband’ has the polite prefix , and so means ‘your husband’ (see pp. 221-222). The use ofthe verb < #4 ‘give (me)’ as an addition to BLA ‘tell’ adds the meaning ‘to me’, and so gives an overall meaning of “told me’ (see pp. 94-95). It is therefore clear from these pointers and the context who is being referred to, but where the English translation requires the use of the pronouns ‘your’, ‘me’, ‘he’, and ‘his’, these are not present in the Japanese as separate words, Equivalents to many English pronouns do exist in Japanese, but pronouns are not a separate part of speech (see p. 1). English pronouns such as ‘’, ‘you’, and ‘her’ are often not represented at all in Japanese: © RLUBMHVET Atarashii kuruma ga arimasu + ECeRMORTH Totemotakakatta desu It was very expensive * THECA. KVLBVETD ‘Sumimasen. Pen wa arimasu ka Excuse me, Have you gota pen? Family words do not require pronouns: + KRAAMSTATIO Okasan wa o-genki desu ka Is your mother well?/How's your mother? © RdARETH ‘Ani wa daigakusel desu My older brother is a university student. Context is very important for deciding which English pronoun to use when translating a Japanese verb. For example, the following Japanese sentence can mean ‘I am going to London on Saturday’, “We are going to London on Saturday’, and ‘She is going to London on Saturday’, depending on the context: E€£9U OYKyA Wart - tMAOY RK DAGaeeT ‘The speaker is assumed to be referring to himself or herself unless the context indicates otherwise. If the statement is part of a discussion about family holidays, for example, then the English Thave anew car lation of (2 $F would be ‘we will go’. Ifthe conversation s about Mary's whereabouts next weekend, then the English slation would more likely be ‘she is going’. ‘The next two sentences are identical in form and have no , so only the context indicates the intended meaning: RMISI BS? is similar to the ‘self’ in such words as ‘myself’ and ‘herself’. It can also be used with the particle to mean ‘his own’, ‘their own’, etc. The English translation depends on the context: © BSABROMME 2 Ti9 TK ESL) Minasan jibun no nimotsu 0 motte itte kudasai Could everybody take their own luggage, please © FAARMRIECERI OIF [9NIERSBL EWDSRVET ‘Samu wa jibun ga tabako 0 s0 no ni kodomo ni ‘tabako 0 si na’ ‘to itsumo limasu Even though he omokes himeetf, Sam always says ‘Don't smoke!” ‘to the children © EX UCHROROMARELIMELSHEM OK Takarakujiniatatta no ga jibun da towa shinjirarenakatia I couldn't believe that | was the person who won the lottery! * WSF —-7E3AMUTEAROMEEAM SAP OK Watashi wa tépu o san-kai klite mo jibun no koe da to wakaranakatta Even though heard the tape three times, | didn't realize it was my ‘own voicel e pronoun ‘one’ pronoun can be used in a way similar to the English ” in phrases such as ‘the big one’, ‘the other one’, etc. p. 206): BVMEAHOTH. MUOSRNTH _ Aoi kaban wa takai desu. Akai no wa yasui desu ‘The blue bag ie expensive. The red one ie cheap. is no equivalent for the English pronoun ‘one’ as in ‘one feels that...”Punctuation and script terms Some of the most commonly used Japanese punctuation marks and terms used about the script are listed below. The names given are commonly used in the classroom. ES 2 This is the Japanese full stop to end a sentence. Th . ‘This is a mark to show a pause and is commonly used when sentences are joined with a conjunction or conjunctive particle: pot uy ‘These square brackets are used to mark quotations and direct speech. For examples see under & in the section on particles. BATH ? ‘The question mark is common when representing speech to show a question marked by intonation: ° WAR? Ashita hima ‘Are you free tomorrow? Punctuation and script terms | 241 -use of the small > to show the doubling of the following it as in #83 < 5 ‘school’ is commonly referred to as 54) L\ D and the effect produced as €< 45/v (42#). Words this feature are listed in a dictionary as if spelled with a size > ‘Small kana characters written above or beside kanji to show pronunciation are called 3. 8% or ILE: SRF IMU RAERITS ESL ~ Keku-kanji ni furigana o futte kudasai Please write furigana for each kanji en a kanji character is used to write the stem of a word there often a tail’ of hiragana characters (especially with verbs and ives where there are inflectional endings such as ~ > 7 in eS LPH MLM or~HRF in WHET - TeEeT (c.). Kana which follow a kanji character are called okurigana (GU KZ) and their correct use is very important in writing well.alossary of grammatical terms section explains the grammatical terms used inthis book, The list includes, terms but examples are mostly given with reference to English. is of Japanese parts of speech appears as a separate chapter and the glossary refers to particular chapter or chapters ofthe grammar. in bold letters have their own entries in the glossary. In a sentence with an active ‘Mike in “The letter was written ‘verb, the subject ofthe verb by ike i seo Fae Ba ‘Animate: Denoting something that is (subject) identified (verb) the s eetomet wiiepasive Ghats vps 7 ee eee n chasis ‘Arabic numerals: The symbols 1, 2, suspect isthe subject but is 3, etc. used for writing numbers. ‘not doing the identifying). Article: The words the (definite Cf, Passive. article) and a or an (indefinite Aword used to describe or article) used before a noun. add extra information to a noun Japanese does not have articles. -Grnoun phrase, eg. difficult in ‘a Aspect: A grammatical category of difficult job’. ‘benitifal ‘in ‘she is ‘the verb that expresses the nature beautiful’ and ‘a beautiful way to of an action or process, viewing it ook salmon’ either a continuous or habitual ): A word used to describe or (imperfective aspect), oF as ‘add extra information to a verb, an completed (perfective aspect). adjective, or another adverb, €.8. Cf. Tense. slowly, extremely. and quicy ‘Aspectual relationship: Arelationship Wewatsnwy/exened "betwen ngs in tems este | dificult’, ‘come quickly’. Some Hee techn: Mitbtive:ananattiveaiecire particular types of sentences. {s one used in front of the noun See the chapter on adverbs. ikdesrbes, expensive cenmen aaah. poet: (na-adjective) has a distinctive ‘The person who or thing form when used in this way. i Ci. Predicative.l 244 | Glossary of grammatical terms: ‘Auxiliary: In Japanese, there are suffixes called jodéshi (SAM) and the word ‘auxiliary’ is used in this book as an equivalent of that term. See the chapter on parts of speech. Cf, Jodéshi. Auxiliary suffix: = Auxiliary Auxiliary verb: A verb used in forming compound structures from other verbs, e.g. do in ‘Do you ‘know Michael?" and havein 'Thave been there before’, Cardinal Number: The sequence of ‘numbers 1, 2,3, ete, Cf. Ordinal number. Case: The function of a noun within the clause or sentence (e.g. ‘whether itis the subject or object tc.), oF the form of the noun expressing this. Japanese nouns express case by adding particles rather than by changing form. Causative: see Causative form, Causative passive. (Causative form: An English term for the Japanese ‘shiekikei (SHS) ‘This is where the auxiliary () 483 is added to a verb to give meanings relating to compulsion or permission. Causative-passive: The addition of the auxiliary (&) #16 toa verb already having the causative auxiliary (2) #, to give the idea of being made to do something. Chinese characters: An English ‘translation of the Japanese word kanji. Cf. Kana~ Clause: A sentence, or part of a sentence, consisting of a subject and a verb, e.g. Mike snores, or a structure containing some verbal forms, participles or infinitives, but no subject, e.g. ‘While waiting fora bus| fell asleep’ or‘lasked her to calla tax’. Japanese clauses do not have to contain verbs as other parts of speech can also form predicates. Colloquial: informal spoken or ‘written language. Comment: The part ofa sentence that ‘gives information about the topie. CE. Topic. ‘Comparative: ‘he form of the adjective or adverb used when comparing two or more nouns or pronouns. In English, this is usually done by putting more or less before the adjective or adverb, ‘or by adding -erto the base form. Japanese adjectives and adverbs {do not have different comparative forms. See the chapters on adjectives and adverbs. Complex sentence: A sentence made ‘up of more than one elause. Compound: A word or phrase made by putting two or more existing forms together. Compound noun: A noun made up ‘of two or more distinct pars, eg. windscreen wipers, watermelon. ‘Compound verb: A Japanese verb made up of two or more parts e.g DUAR ‘change rains’ from the verbs > ‘toride’ and 25 “to change’. The first ver is a conjunctive stem. Conditional: A conditional sentence is one in which the statement contained in the main clause can ‘only be fulfilled if the condition stated in the subordinate clause is also fulfilled, eg. Ifitis fine ‘would go to Japan if I had lots of This condition is usually introduced by ifin English. ‘Japanese hasavariety ofstructures ‘with similar functions, See the "chapters on verbs, particles, and ‘conjuctions and conjunctive ‘pantcles, and see Conditional jonal form: A form of a word that indicates its a condition in a ‘sentence or clause and expresses "what would happen (or would have happened) under certain conditions. English normally uses if with a form of would to express this notion. Japanese can use several structures to make equivalents. The most common are 25, ~I2, 25, and &. Conjugate: Changetheform ofa verb ‘according to its subject, e.g. 120" ‘but ‘She goes’, oF to indicate, for ‘example, a negative or a past ‘meaning, e.g. He didn’t go’, “Hee went’. Japanese verbs and adjectives conjugate, as do some ‘auxiliaries. See the chapters on verbs, adjectives, and parts of, speech. jugation: The process of ‘conjugating a verb (and some ‘ther pars of speech in Japanese) “Also, = Conjugation group. Conjugation group: Each of the ;patierns of conjugation changes in ‘verbs. Cf. Godan and Iehidan., Conjunction: either (i) a word like ‘and or but which is used to join ‘words or simple sentences together, or (i) a word like when. although, if where, which is used to jon clauses or sentences, thus forming a complex sentence. Glossary of grammaticalterms | 245 Conjunctive particle: 4 particte whose function is to join two clauses ot sentences together. Conjunctive (pre-masu) form: = Conjunctive (pre-masu) stem. Conjunctive (pre-masu) stem: An English equivalent for the Japanese term renyokei (FAME) =the stem of a verb that precedes the jodoshi ~#F- (among others), eg. U8 from OF. Consonant stem verb: An English term for godan verbs. Cf. Vowel stem verb. Continuous: Referring othe fact that ‘an action of state is/was currently happening or existing. English often uses the verb be with the present participle ending ~ing to express this notion, eg, Heis/was waiting’ Contracted form: A form which is a shorter alternative, e.g. haven't is ‘contracted form of have not. Counter; An English term forthe Japanese part of speech called ‘sdshi (#49) =a suffix added to numbers in Japanese when ‘counting objects, people, or animals according tothe category of thing being counted, e.g. nin (A) tor people, sats (8) for books and magazines, See the chapter on numbers and counting ‘Da’ style: = Plain style. ‘De-aru’ style: = Written style. Declension: The process of declining ‘noun, Also, each ofthe patterns of declension changes in nouns Decline: In some languages, change inthe form (usually the ending) of nouns to show ease relationships.l 246 | Glossary of grammatical terms Definite article: The word che in English. Japanese does not have articles. Cf, Indefinite article. Demonstrative: A word indicating the person or thing referred to, € this, that, these, those. ‘Desu-masu’ style: The polite style of writing and speaking which uses ‘the auxiliaries ~# ¥ (on verbs) and~T (with nouns and. adjectives). Cf, Plain style and. Written style. Dictionary form: The basic form of a Japanese verb (or adjective) Direct object: See Object. Ending: The concluding part of a word or sentence, especially one conveying grammatical information such as tense, case, or number (singular or plural), 4g, wished, books. Exclamation: A word or phrase conveying a reaction such as surprise, shock, disapproval, indignation, or amusement. In English itis usually followed by an exclamation mark; Excellent!; What nice weather! CL. Interjection. Finite verb: A verb which has a specific tense (present, past tc), number (singular or plural), and person (I, you, ete.), e.g rings in ‘She rings the doctos’. Form: One ofthe possible ways in which a word may appear, eg £0, goes, went, gone. Gender: The sex of a person or animal (male ot female) or, (in some languages) a classification of nouns (masculine, feminine, etc.). ‘This latter sense isnot found in Japanese. Godan: Verbs whose vowel changes ‘when endings are added. Examples include (EF, 4\<, ¥D. See the chapter on verbs. Group one verb: a godan verb, Group two verb: an ichidan verb, Hiragana: ‘The Japanese script used towrite many everyday words and the endings of verbs and adjectives whose stem is written in kant. ‘The hiragana chart is given at the back of the book. Cf. Katakana, ‘Kanji, and Romaji Honorific: (fa word form or verb) elevating the listener/reader relative to the speaker/vriter. See the chapter on keigo. Honorifies: Certain words and forms which elevate the lstener/reader relative to the speaker /veitr. This term is sometimes used for sonkeigo. Humble (Of word form, verb, or language) elevating the listner/ reader relative to the speaker/ ‘writer by its nuance of humility, eg. BUS and WE See the chapter on Keigo. jective: An English term for the ‘Japanese part of speech called a Keiyoshi (2). Ichidan: Verbs whose vowel does not change when endings are added. Dictionary forms of these verbs always end in an Aline kana-+ & Ceru), oran-t\ line kana+ 3, (iru). Examples inchide EAS, ‘TS, BAS, BS. Seothe ‘chapter on verbs. Idiom: A conventionally accepted ‘way of expressing an idea, especialy one where the meaning cannot be predicted from the _ to express an order, command, prohibition, or exhortation, e Come here!, Don't smoke!, Have fant inimate: Not alive, Cf, Animate. inite article: The words a and ‘an in English, Japanese does not hhave articles, Cf. Definite article irect object: see Object. Indirect passive: A passive verb used ‘na Japanese sentence to indicate the speaker's negative perception ‘of an experience. See the section ‘on the passive in the chapter on verbs. “Wn-group: The speaker's own family | orcolleagues, Cf. Out-group, | Interjection: A word used usually "insolation to express sudden emotion, e.g. alas, oops, and no, Cf. Exclamation. Interrogative: A question or a word ‘used to make a question, ¢g. who, what, where, why, when, etc. _ Interrogative pronoun: A pronoun used to form a question, e.g, which Jn Whict do you want” Intonation: The sound shape of a ‘word or phrase that can convey meaning, eg. the rise in pitch at the end of an English question such as Shall we go? - Intransitive verb: A verb not taking a direct object, eg. sleprin ‘He slept ‘well’, See the section on transitive and intransitive verbs in the chapter on verbs. Cf Transitive verb. Inregular: A word or form of a word that does not fit a standard pattern of changes tits forms. Jodashi: An auxiliary which is attached to a word or sentence and alters or augments its meaning. “Most endings on verbs and. adjectives in Japanese are joddshi. See the chapters on partsof speech ‘and auxiliary suffixes Kana: The Japanese syllabic scripts hhiragana and katakana. Cf, Kanji and Romaji, Kana chart: The script chart that provides Japanese with its ‘alphabetical’ order and which plays a part in the conjugation patterns of some words. The kana ‘charts are given at the back of the book. Kanji: The romanized form of the Japanese word 38. Kanji are Chinese characters used in ‘writing Japanese. Cf. Hiragana, Katakana, and Romaji. Katakana: The Japanese script used primarily for writing foreign names and places and words of foreign (Western) origin. The katakana chart is given atthe back of the ook. Cf. Hiragana, Kanji, and Romaji, Keigo: The romanized form ofthe ‘Tapanese word UB. Keigo isa system of showing diferences in status between individuals, and of being polite by changing the form of words, Keiyadoshi; The Japanese part of speech called 7229906) is usually referred to in English as a na-adjective.[218 | tossury of grammatical terms KeiyBshi: The Japanese part of speech called 724989 is usually referred to in English as an i-adjective Kenjogo: A subdivision of keigo which shows the speaker's ‘humility and thus exalts the listener by contrast, Cf. Sonkeigo. Literary style: A siyle of writing that features 745% in place off * TH. See the chapters on style and ECF. Main clause: In a sentence with ‘more than one elause, the clause which is not subordinate to any of the others, eg. Peter stopped in “When it got too dark to see where hhe was going, Peter stopped’. A ‘main clause can stand alone as.a sentence. Main verb: The verb contained in'a ‘main clause as opposed to one ina relative clause Modifier: word or clause placed in front of a noun or noun phrase to describe it, e.g, ‘Cavediveling animals such as these are ‘commonly blind”. Modification is very important in Japanese as this is how relative clauses are ‘constructed, Se the section on ‘modifies in the chapter on nominalization. Modify: Describe a following noun or ‘noun phrase Na-adjective: An English erm forthe Japanese part of speech called a eiyddshi (129098). See the chapters on adjectives and parts of speech. Negation: Making something negative Negative: A sentence or a form ofa ‘word that asserts that something is not the case, for example by using not in English, Negative condition: 4 condition ‘which is negative, e.g "If there is rot enough we will have to g0 10 the shop’. ‘Negative imperative: An orderto not o something, or a form/structure with that meaning, eg. "Don’topen the door!” Negative predicate: A predicate ‘with a negative form or meaning, e.g. was not very good in "The party ‘was not very good’. ‘Nominalization: Converting clause {into a noun phrase by adding a ‘noun or @). See the chapter on ‘nominalization. Nominalizer: A word the addition cof which changes a clause into a noun phrase. See the chapter ‘on nominalization. (Noun: A word used to identify a ‘person, an animal, an object, an idea, or an emotion (e.g gir, horse, book, beauty, sadness) Itean also be the name of aspecific individual, place, or institution (e.g, John, London, inland Reverie). Noun phrase: A word or group of ‘words functioning as a noun, e.g. my mother’s ttle dog in “My mother’s little dagis quite delightful’. Object: he word or group of words ‘which is immediately affected by the action indicated by the verb. In the English sentence “The child ‘broke the toy’, the word etd isthe subject, broke is the verb, and the “ toyis the object. There maybe two Kinds of object in a sentence, a direct object and an indirect ‘object, In the example above, the toyisa direct object. However. in the sentence ‘He gave the child ‘toy’, heis the subject, gave is the verb, the child is the indirect object, and a toy is the direct object. Unlike English, the objects and subject in Japanese sentences are marked with particles and ‘word order is less important. See the chapter on particles, especially the sections on # and fe. Cf. Subject. Ordinal number: The sequence of numbers 1%, 2%, 3%, etc. CE Cardinal number. ‘Out-group: People who are not close to the speaker, eg, not family members or colleagues. Cf. In-group. "Particle: A marker placed after an element in a Japanese sentence, principally to show a grammatical relationship. It can be thought of 4s similar in function to English prepositions such aso, from at, by, ec. There is also a group of particles which come at the end of sentences and whose function {s o give expressive nuances of ‘meaning and distinguish male and female speech. Some particles ean also join clauses or sentences together and are thus Partof speech: The grammatical type of a word, eg. noun, verb, adjective, etc. For Japanese parts ‘of speech (which are slightly different from those in English), see the chapter on parts of speech. Glossary of grammatical terms | 249 | Passive: In English, the form of the verb used when the subject undergoes (rather than performs) the action, eg. “The student was nominated for an award’. In Japanese, the passive has additional uses, See the section ‘on the passive in the chapter on verbs. Passive form: In Japanese, a ver ‘which has the auxiliary (5) 426 added to it to express the passive, Past: A form which indicates that ‘an event or state has already occurred, e.g went in ‘Mike went to London’. Personal pronoun: A word that stands in for a name of a person or thing, often to avoid repetition, e.g Hein ‘That's Mike. Heis astudent’ Japanese does not use pronouns inthe same way as English and people's names are preferred to ‘words like he and she. See the chapter on perspective and pronouns. Perspective: A person’s viewpoint. ‘This is important in Japanese as words and sentences can be different from different viewpoints, eg. give is either <4. 3 (gives me) or BIFS (give). See the chapter onperspective ‘and pronouns, and the section ‘on verbs of giving and receiving inthe chapter on verbs. Phrase: A group of words which function together in a clause. See ‘Noun phrase and Verb phrase. Plain style: The style of Japanese used informally which does not feature the use ofthe polite auxiliaries ~TF and ~KF.Glossary of grammatical terms | 251 J [250.1 ctossary of grammatical terms : Romaji: The Jay word = VF Pain (style) form: A form ofa Potential form: The form of Japanese estion particle: A particle used a ‘conjugating word such as a verb ‘verbs having to do with possibility a eae gual prem Hiragana, and oran adjective which does not and ability. oo Semen i feature the polite auxiliaries Potential verb: A verb in the Pout eee: ~TF and ~¥¥. This means potential form or a verb whose Reflexive pronoun: A pronoun that amanlztion: The processorsyst Particular the dictionary form, is dominantly potential j is the object of the verb but that of writing Japanese in) meaning is d pe the subject of the alphabet, or the resulting text 4a) form, and # form. such as CHS orbs. refers back to the subject clause and denotes the same Sentence: In English, a structure remove tone peconor jee, Predicate; Te part of clase Individual erst: with atleast one inte verb, and ‘more than one person or object, that contains a verb and states Sa uuaniateee piotolenaipadsnntcrbdnin eg. children, books, we, are. something about the subject, e.g. porabsrene eng alomai RauoLut ome A eee a ee Ot RRS, does not have reflexive pronouns and waited’ , “While waiting for the forma Sch chente ores, lose the door oto ve as such. See the chapter on bus, John saw an accident. forms. See the chapter on nouns. yeaa SO/HY. Of we sere Scien ot fahnianitas ee eee Relative clause: In English, clause without verbs. Peace See Sones eee introduced by arelative pronoun. Singular: 4 word or form referring to structures appropriate for use ‘See the chapter on topic, cor , Saglnsese tara celta cated ty fesahicyescichikd tA ace between adults who are not and predicate = eee exeuprenet sie ig ae familiar with one another, or Prodicative: A predicative adjective ales teououta'oortinceioa a who are in formal situations Tsone used afer the noun pele elo See a Polite prefix: An element added 2 dese € expensvein coolant: aoe Ree the beginning of a word to mal “The meal was expensive ions rama stigiie' Aes eee ‘tmore polite when it refers to Cf. Attributive, mae eter ueisel Gran: = a nate ae semnecrnciten thea tbe weak, Prefix An clement adi ie Pun ieas eakers, Prispleds (oer Regence, taal subordinate lause andrelerring in gue ee MENUS Loe ae to change its meaning, eg back to a person or thing in the OEF.CL Renjopo Polite style: The style of speech (or misunderstood, reconsider. preceding claite, € "Tanaka ae bai ace ee eee ape eae ek representation of actions, states, CREAM TRE Pre-masu form: The stem ofa verb Bought’ Thatistheman whose __feesentatlon of actions Polite (style) form: A form of a word that precedes the auxiliary % 3. daughter | was telling you about’, ae English thats used when speaking or This is also referred to as the Rene: The Japanese erm forthe _garbinaions of sounds, Eng Karten sagrumee arene ‘conjunctive (re-mas) form, Dang. and thud, but Japanese has Positive predicate: A predicate with preposition: a word such asunder, Report: The reporting of what a much richer system which has ‘positive form or meaning, e.g. beside, across, in, which is usually someone has said, using an no English equivalent. wwas very good in ‘The party was followed by @ noun or pronoun in introductory reporting ecb and 2 stem, The unchanging par ofaword very good. CI. Negative English. There is no equivalent subordinate clause, e.g He sid ited carecenen predicate, part of speech in Japanese, but ‘haat Gen hate ee Possessive pronoun: A pronoun Japanese has particles (placed Respectful form: 4 changed form of <= etre seers expressing ownership, e.g. my, a ee word to makeit appropriate for. particular situations, loreal ine Yor) her, Tee a simi way, See he chapter on ene eee ears See earn ces mae R I vert: A verb used in spoken, her, etc.) are sometimes termed Pronoun: (i)=Personal prahoun: (if) ees echoes nen kaa enous ee eee BUBB. Cl. Keigo. nticRicaceek tha mate teen (maeraioal gman) 5 deabaicatve intense, Respect language: An English by the verb. In the sentence ‘John Fry book). pelea toe ‘translation of the Japanese fed the cat’, Johns the subject term sonkeigo. Ci. Keigo. ‘of the verb fed. Unlike English,l 252 | Glossary of grammatical terms Japanese does not need tohavea —_Teineiga: The romanized form of Glossary of grammatical terms | 253 | affairs (e.g.run, buy, freeze, exist). Volitional: Referring to someone's subject expressed in a sentence the Japanese word TRH which ‘The verb is at the end of a basic Snsepaions ota aint eich ae ‘when the context makes it clear. ‘means a polite style of speaking Japanese sentence, but some within their subject's control. CE. Object and writing and features the Japanese sentences can be made Ygjitignal form: The form of 2 2 ‘~£4 auxiliary and verbs and without verbs because predicates japanese verb that expresses Subject particle: in Japanese, the eee al badhade Wit ottarsypes of ee Pave neie onalocnar a words. Japanese verbs do not Pieces havea, {s, although a grammatical ‘Tense: The tense of a verb expresses Ege te ce subject can also be marked asa ‘whether the action takes place ‘Verb of moti San Vowel stem verb: An English term topic. See the chapter on particles. _in the past, presen, future, lon: a ver for ichidan verbs. Ct. Consonant ; Japanese verbs have only a past describes movement, e.g. come, aever Serereeiunrian ate snd ecog cs pie ee ere Written style: The style of Japanese eee a sentence is determined by the Verb phrase: Either (i) a phrase eda x Pisae ude pala ‘without amainclause andisoften final yer, Continuing states or galerie roy ek eet foc rove here ee activities are shown with the ‘or of a group of verb forms oP ee ee when itrang in She answered the =e form ofa verb and WEF. functioning in the same way a2 Chapter on style. ee ee However, this is nota tense but an single-word verb, ¢.g. went, has ne aspect marker. See the chapter on been going, was forgotten, ran off, Suffix: An element that is added ‘verbs, especially the section on the or (i) = Predicate tothe end of a word or stem to ‘~T form. Japanese adjectives cchangeits meaning or grammatical also show tense; see the chapter form, e.g, understandable, on adjectives. kindness, wished, faster. sake aieraks la ta cence Cf. Prefix. ee ae indieatng uncertainty, such as ‘Superlative: The form of the ‘one ending in 2% LAE (\ or adjective or adverb used to express. The D. the highest or lowest degree. In Tentative form: A form such as TL ‘English, this is usually done by £5 or which indicates ‘putting most or least before the uncertainty or provisional adjective or adverb, or by adding judgement. “esto the base form, Japanese : , adjecvesandadverbs donot have Tople:Thepartofthegentence which ditferent supectative forms. See the commented on. See the chapter on chapter on adectves and aah tatoo asthe Sfane nC as | RRA eee ue ane topic panicle (&, marking atopic. ‘often with one or more vowels Topic particle: The particle (2. before rafterit-InJapanese,each Transitive verb: A verb taking a kana symbol represents one direct object, e.g. readin ‘She was syllable, so LAvdAy (newspaper) __readiniga book’, See the section has four syllables. cn transitive and intransitive ‘Tag eaten: x qussitsn eccitng verbs in the chapter on verbs. with a verb followed by a Sh nteaetere re) pronoun, eg. didn’t you?, Verb: A word that describes an haven't we? action, a process, or a state of“Appendices Hiragana chart Pa’ line “¥ line *u’ line ‘e'line ‘o' line bo a ow i > u & e é 2 Pika 2 ki < ku ke c ko ma le oe [Km lee TE | = sa Lb shi | F su t * 80 fie 2 ie |v mw [ee lem = ta 6 chi | su xt. we < to | Sr a (iz fe nt lo om |m ne (Ono ie ha oa hi fu Nhe 3 ho tg ba bi x bu < iivhe 1 bo (ie le [ep [Xe [ipo | = ma % mi |G mm ® me 6 mo Piya oyu s+ yo boa uv ti é mu nite 2 To b wa € o in Consonant plus small +>, , or £ ae kya zo kyu ae kyo ae sya zo syu ax ayo Le sha Le shu be sho te ja be je ve jo | be cha be chu be cho enya ke av ex ayo | a O~ byw Os byo lee bya te byw Ba byo he py te py Be pyo Ue rya ve ryu De ryo[25611 Appencices {Small > A small J has an effect similar to doubling the following consonant. For nsonant plus small +7, 1, or 3 example in the word &-> &, the & following the small > is pronounced — #2 Ave in a similar manner to the double t in ‘hot toddy’. =: ByO. sha Ya sua sho iB va Ya io ld, A, and & cree amen ee {dis read ‘ha’ when it is part of a word, but when used as the subject marker =2 nyu =3 nyo. Particle it is pronounced ‘wa’, Similarly, “ is pronounced ‘he’ when it is part Ea hyu Ea hyo of a word but e" when itis used as a particle showing the direction of travel. sy ain Matsa ‘Note that € (3) is only used to write the particle, er bya ea py ea Dye Ura Jaw va | Katakana chart ate = = “a'tine [line [wine [eine o'line Seo ene re Pa A wt 2 ue rie Fo ‘There are other possible katakana combinations (such as #4 insS—F4 Wak [eae s|> wir eS whe aS ake Fe este cs ire epee Age oe og Fg [Fg oS ogo isa y shi zm Pe pe’ J 0 oz T[P of [Xm [# we [Taz Fa ([F Yu [Fe [Ft oF da Pie Yim tate F do 7 tans [= ial 8 smu a/R ane OF ono tha SJE [a [Nhe [cho ta [eb [F bu |< be [ak bo AS pa PE pense) Ree ag Zima 2 mi A mw 2 me = mo ya yw ay 2 ra y ni wom ver a To 2 3 ol 258 | Appendices Appendices | 259 | | Finding the dictionary form ending Tow changeit back [Example rom [Exampeto toa form you can “Japanese verbs and adjectives conjugate and can sometimes end up in ong irae Chins of auxlares (se parts of speech). The resulting words" may seem very =r gna TBE ss Mami This problem's compounded bythe fact that Japanese is normaly a Tgnoveenidngandads |B 3s ‘written with the words not separated. Where words are separated (as in ee tees Be textbooks for foreigners), the auxiliaries may still be attached to the stem, Trae Beets 3 FS and particles may be attached to nouns, and verbs may directly follow a cote tomate a ~T form. For these reasons you need to look carefully at the beghaeted - trying to untangle, The following chart should provide basic help with finding a dictionary form (i.e. something that you can look up in adictionary) by ~h< ial BRK TRY BS changing some commonly found endings. ~et RRET ERS Beat bas — sess a @ changeitback | Examples et ending from ito" me cc seeead erg oo : fe Yt0 Sor # 10< lookup tte. ~Pok remove ending and add | 2G o% wou ~EtA as above EUREKA &o w ~ELK as above @eELK a SEH |removeending andadd [BRAC | BBE EUS |asabove Dees [N< = [pau Temoveendingandadd |R- yelise Ss See. Lit, UL), | section on ¥% in the ~bLe Femoveending and add | [dU et Let, chapter on verbs. Note ~Ut + eee UsttA, | that the elements in ULE >, |trontof these forms are Lr, usually nouns written trust with Chinese characters[260 | Appendices } English index adverbs of manner 113 __ adverbs of quantity 113 adverbs of time 111, 112 adverbs requiring a negative predicate 114 adverbs requiring a positive predicate 115 adversative 72 advice 64 agent 52, 71-73, 162 alternate 65 alternative forms 101 appearance 35, 102, 114, 128 approximate 173, 227, 229 aspect relationship 38 aspectual relationship 41 attempt 82 attributive 16, 99 auxiliaries 4, 15, 19-20, 36, 54, 181, 25 auxiliary 4,21, 30-31, 33, 54, 70.74, 78, 99, 181 auxiliary suffixes 15, 21, 38, 54 auxiliary verb 4 (to) be 3, 8, 11, 13, 15, 25, 29, 30, 34-35, 39, 45-48, 52, 55, 59, 61, ‘ending Thow to change itback [Example from Example to toaform youcan ook up SIE [as for ~EWV oF "| moraine DK Vet |~ ~BD 86 BUS> LMS 88 BS 87 BS -BS 88 BUS 87 BITS 47, 94-95, 216 BUS + WITS 88 BIS - EIFS 88,98 BEE 187-188 HBS 188 25 188 BIES- MES 88 BIDS - ROS 86 HE 24, 147 Bar 234 & 187, 237 BOLIM 189 ®E0 116-117 BS 24, 46, $1, 54-55, 68, 160, 216 HSE 118 BN 186, 237 Bhi 234 Bhyz 189 BhEY 116-117 W adjective 12-13, 34, 92, 96-110, 119, 130-133, 136, 181, 183 typist 223 WS 10, 46, 49, 62, 75, 79, 219 (<2 224, 226-227 W<5 27 WG 27, 59, 67 WRF 216-217 WkeeRt 77 ORETERAD 77 Japanese index WRC 48, 77, 217 WBA» SRI 24, 26-27 WBifA 106 (xD 156, 224, 229 Hoar 196 vest 103 HSsLeneF 213, 219-220 HSBsLevEt 32 WB2LeS 45, 216-217, 219 WS 24, 25, 30, 42-43, 45-46, 65, 103, 155, 160, 216, 219 Wns: Ans 88 HHS 102 (yf 199 Dit 216 3bIc 148 3B-RS 45,88 3nS- RNS 98 B 80, 128, 214-216, 221-222, 227 BUTS 216-217 BET 3,101 BBS 108 Bears 210 BEBRAS 27, 31, 40, 55, 62, 81, 83, 88 B< 24, 52 BSaA 9 BOURRS 217 BOT: RCT 88 BUSA 89 BUPETS 217 BSS + BSS 88 Boles 216 BLT- BLT 88 BRL 107 BRU< 107 BEA 234l 268 | Japanese index Japanese index | 269 | BRAS 217 PAT 201 Se 187-188 Bhs 29,71 BOLERS 216 PhEDL BE 3 = CF) 200 Shitahtas 120 Booms 216 DhEDL- Hi 3 CEES 29,74 BOLDS 217 MAIS 31, 55, 84 xB 216, 219 L 3, 21-22, 28, 31, 36, 61, 137, 191, BVT 219 CEA CFA) 200 193, 203 BUS 88 BS MX 69,89, 216 ct 176 C+ 196 BS 45, 216 23 09 LEAUTH 217 Lp 176 BSS 89 BcAS 70 Tih, > BEM 24-26, 29 CL attt mR 22 Bh 234 BRS MKS 89 <5S 188 GLA 238 BHS+ HS 89 ase 18 E38 188 LS 191, 193, 203 BST 88 BBR 234 EE 70, 126, 163, 206-207, Uige< 116 BS + HS 86 @5U Gz) 156 21-212 CRA, 235 eueu us CEMGS 24,211 LED 24, so # 62,71, 74, 81-82, 129, 169,180, 2-29, 89 CEwTHS 70,211 (Ge 18, 33, 81, 224 224-225 ans: Uns 89 EeCTS 94,211 Cebustty 15 18 4-6, 34, 51-52, 69, 87, 102, 140, Eetews 212 CeBvREATLE 15 141, 151, 153-156, 167, 211, 224 < 21, 31, 36, 39-40, 55, 61-62, 67, EO) 187, 237 Ged st my 180 71, 74, 80, 83, 92, 97, 106, 108, cMk>s% 189 Cem 15 aLy+ BL 196 119, 131, 203 Eret 89 Cemirot 15 DL RE 196 SKS 216 cians 89 mS Ltt BILE 22 DAT BT 86 -™ 197 DRB> BAB 86 <5U 105, 173, 204, 227 EES 29, 81 CadT Ga) 156 DRS+ BAS HRS- MRS CH 21-25, 28, 31, 36, 40, 46,49, coeSns 79 Ledb- Mam 202 WAS 89 68, 71, 74, 79, 81, 83 TENS 29, 68,71 Cel - OB 4 PDS 86, 89 OATS) 89 We 141 T#S DTUOISU «BOER 23 the a1 & 55, 74, 109, 124, 178, TES: BES 86 ‘ted 179 née 141 aU Fm 196 F< 109 DEST = eH 1S (Hud 131 SR 175 TEL 109, 13 PRSTLS-BFLO 4 (A= HE 196 AMS > FHS 99 FE 56 POs 235 GAC + MIRE 213 SIS + FS 89 FS 2-25, 28, 31, 36, 40, 56, 65, tri 53, 64, 72, 95, 143-145, 162, SLBUS 216 68, 71, 74, 78-79, 81, 83, 89, 91- 170, 172 = 128, 214-216, 221-222, 232, at 78 ‘94, 132-133, 157, 163, 189, 215~ BIE 153 238 SSNS 29,79 27 28% 35-36, 103 = 195 TSE 140 teh, 235-236, 238 Eu 23, 29, 83 ths 123 => 189 ify 14 DESL: man 3 iS - BbS- fthS- MbS- 5519 190 ek 226 #0 13 HS 99 E 82 tEAtEA 114-115 9523 (9M) 13 Tplus twats 43 e@ 125, 147 Kokb 16 Tr DS 64 ea =179 Hot 169 CHT 16 E= 151, 188, 223-224, 229 222 REX 117 THs 52 EFS 8 E53 190 EEA 19, 118 CHS 13,15 E55 105, 187-188, 223-224, 229 238 38 Hi 127, 144 F7W5e> WH) 13 225 105, 187-188, 229 E5TH 182-183 HEWDKE, 128, 144-145 THERE 16 ETS 111, 113, 116 £5 187 IE 3,4, 16, 26, 28-29, 55-56, 66, THRE 16 EEC + RC 90 ECD + HED 86 97, 100, 117, 129-130, 134, 135, TH3S 15 EES: BITS 90 2LT 139 49 LYE 45 tate 223,226 ED: WD 89 AY 26, 28-29, 65 TUBS + TRB 213 EO 187, 229, 237 EETH: WTS 89 Ht 151, 156, 223-224, 226 XWELE 44 ED EFS 90 Shs 138 BHIVS + HIS 99 TeeS 222 EDS - ES 90 ENT 138 Bed 51 TLRS 16 “Ete 106, 182, 229 EHTS 3,138 LED 50,51 Ehste 189, 230 nes 139 22+ 197 Ted 15, 35. 118, 185 Five 139 Dé -a< 90 CF 4, 12-13, 15, 33, 96, 97, 214 A 2, 15-18, 37, 84, 92, 98-103, 106- AITO + OA 213 Dé -H< 90 FA-22543 BD) 13 107, 109-120, 136, 144, 163, 178, EAS 27 HES 90 [EUS + HDS 86, 90 ifomU 174 [EkboF 66,133 IdA #200 (Ay 199 (fh - HE 198 Oe =F 195 we (1) 197 Bed -B 196 SRB* MAS ASU: BL 2 B30 WBE) 10 EONS 90 SOUS 90 SISK CBE) 10 ROT - MET 90 Kh $196 Bhs 196 Bh 196 AMEE FAR 202 #185 BH 185 RATS 185 AK (ia) 156 Abt. RST 90 ASRS 1 te2 a8 24 Wa< 234 FELL 104, 155 WE 105, 133, 173 EAE 116-117 (BA 195, EU 4, 112, 184 EU He 195, EWS 216-217 A a7 EAR M8 ELA 21, 32,214 ELT 32 ELaD 32-33, 81 ELadM 33,81 ‘RF 1,4, 10-11, 20-21, 26-28, 30- 433, 36, 38, 67, 74, 78, 81, 84-85, 125, 141, 145, 161, 163, 181, 183, 214, 218-220 Etta, 21, 32-33, 214 EACLE 32 FE 44, 116 ¥T 148, 170-171 KCK 148 E137 £bS- BS 87 BAS 70 BAB + BAS BAEAITU «IE 22 BR 22 BRE 22, 183-184 BROTH 22, 183-184 BONS RIMS 90 BS: RIS 90 Beth 25 BSNS 0 BS 11, 21-25, 51, 69 BS “RS 27, 31, 36, 40, 55, 69, 74, 81, 83, 90, 132-133, 217 Bate 135 BYPY 76 %-B 198 BULB 2 UU - Ma 202 DIMUMIL «ATE 23 OL 222 wore 5 ‘© 54, 57, 87, 98, 129, 142 8) 16-117 S5LBS 216 85F 216 LU 2,113,117 O5LKTS 216 SLOLRS 120 SLHTSE 120 SDE 105-106 E+ RT 87 5D 31, 47, 55, 95, 217 Fapaneseindex 1273 129, 164 ett 38 PoThi< 50 PITS 0 PB 95 £ 96,178, 179 Eu) 98 £5 22-23, 81, 128,147 £3 (E)_ 146-147, 163 45K 128 £9TH 128 kot 98 EMDES 98, 130 kSEd 183 £Y 104, 121, 171-172 EA, 193-194 SUL 4, 22, 181-182 Bhs 67,70 NB 25, 70 PARI IRIE 22 TUVROL » EE 3 PWD ORE 21 Asie 15 ‘tb S4-55, 70-71, 74, 149, 180 bat ROT 90 DMS 155 DSBS 90 PINS: BS 87 DESL 234 RL 234 DELLS 123,235 SBS 90 DNS: HNS 90 ‘bivbh 235 € 4, 34, 51-52, 69, 71-72, 77, 87, ‘91-92, 153, 157, 207 Aut 61, 208 ACT 208 ATID 208 ATH 209