C Examples

Goals of this Lecture

•  Help you learn about:
•  The fundamentals of C
•  Overall program structure, control statements,
character I/O functions
•  Deterministic finite state automata (DFA)
•  Expectations for programming assignments
•  Why?
•  The fundamentals of C provide a foundation for the
systematic coverage of C that will follow
•  A power programmer knows the fundamentals of C well
•  DFA are useful in many contexts (e.g. Assignment 1)
•  How?
•  Through some examples…
2

1
Overview of this Lecture

•  C programming examples
•  Echo input to output
•  Convert all lowercase letters to uppercase
•  Convert first letter of each word to uppercase

•  Glossing over some details related to “pointers”

•  … which will be covered subsequently in the course

Example #1: Echo

•  Problem: Echo input directly to output
•  Program design

•  Include the Standard Input/Output header file (stdio.h)

#include <stdio.h>
•  Make declarations of I/O functions available to compiler
•  Allow compiler to check your calls of I/O functions

•  Define main() function

int main(void) { … }
int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { … }
•  Starting point of the program, a standard boilerplate
•  Hand-waving: argc and argv are for input arguments

2
Example #1: Echo (cont.)

•  Program design (cont.)

•  Read a single character

c = getchar();
•  Read a single character from the “standard input
stream” (stdin) and return it

•  Write a single character

putchar(c);
•  Write a single character to the “standard output
stream” (stdout)

Putting it All Together

#include <stdio.h>

int main(void) {
int c; Why int instead
of char?
c = getchar();
putchar(c);
Why return a
value?
return 0;
}

3
Read and Write Ten Characters
•  Loop to repeat a set (block) of statements (e.g., for loop)
•  Three expressions: initialization, condition, and increment
•  E.g., start at 0, test for less than 10, and increment per iteration

#include <stdio.h>
Why not this instead:
int main(void) { for (i = 1; i <= 10; i++)
int c, i;

for (i=0; i<10; i++) {

c = getchar();
putchar(c);
}
return 0;
} 7

Read and Write Forever

•  Infinite for loop
•  Simply leave the expressions blank
•  E.g., for ( ; ; )

#include <stdio.h>
int main(void) {
int c;

for ( ; ; ) { When will this

c = getchar(); be executed?

putchar(c);
}
How would you terminate
return 0; this program?
} 8

4
Read and Write Until End-Of-File
•  Test for end-of-file
•  EOF is a global constant, defined in stdio.h
•  The break statement jumps out of the innermost enclosing loop

#include <stdio.h> before the loop

int main(void) {
int c; do some stuff
for ( ; ; ) {
c = getchar(); done yet?
if (c == EOF)
break; do more stuff
putchar(c);
} after the loop
return 0;
} 9

Many Ways to Do the Same Job

for (c=getchar(); c!=EOF; c=getchar())
putchar(c); Which approach
is best?

while ((c=getchar())!=EOF) Typical idiom in C, but

messy side-effect in
putchar(c); loop test
for (;;) { c = getchar();
c = getchar();
while (c!=EOF) {
if (c == EOF)
break; putchar(c);
putchar(c); c = getchar();
} } 10

5
Review of Example #1
•  Character I/O
•  Including stdio.h
•  Functions getchar() and putchar()
•  Representation of a character as an integer
•  Predefined constant EOF

•  Program control flow

•  The for and while statements
•  The break statement
•  The return statement

•  Operators
•  Assignment operator: =
•  Increment operator: ++
•  Relational operator to compare for equality: ==
•  Relational operator to compare for inequality: !=
11

Example #2: Convert Uppercase

•  Problem: Write a program to convert a file to all uppercase
•  Leave non-alphabetic characters alone

•  Program design:

repeat
Read a character
If unsuccessful, break out of loop
If the character is lower-case, convert to upper-
case
Write the character

12

6
ASCII
American Standard Code for Information Interchange
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
0 NUL SOH STX ETX EOT ENQ ACK BEL BS HT LF VT FF CR SO SI
16 DLE DC1 DC2 DC3 DC4 NAK SYN ETB CAN EM SUB ESC FS GS RS US
32 SP ! " # $ % & ' ( ) * + , - . /
48 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 : ; < = > ?
64 @ A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O
80 P Q R S T U V W X Y Z [ \ ] ^ _
96 ` a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o
112 p q r s t u v w x y z { | } ~ DEL

Lower case: 97-122 and upper case: 65-90

E.g., ʻaʼ is 97 and ʻAʼ is 65 (i.e., 32 apart)
13

Implementation in C
#include <stdio.h>
int main(void) {
int c;
for ( ; ; ) {
c = getchar();
if (c == EOF) break;
if ((c >= 97) && (c < 123))
c -= 32;
putchar(c);
}
return 0;
}
14

7
That works great. Your grade is …

B- 15

Why a B-minus?

•  A good program is:

•  Clean
•  Readable
•  Maintainable

•  Itʼs not enough that your program works!

•  We take this seriously in this class

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8
Avoid Mysterious Numbers
#include <stdio.h>
int main(void) {
int c; Ugly;
ASCII only
for ( ; ; ) {
c = getchar();
if (c == EOF) break;
if ((c >= 97) && (c < 123))
c -= 32;
putchar(c);
}
return 0;
} 17

Improvement: Character Constants

#include <stdio.h>
Better; but
int main(void) { assumes that
int c; alphabetic
for ( ; ; ) { character codes
are contiguous;
c = getchar(); not true in
if (c == EOF) break; EBCDIC
if ((c >= ’a’) && (c <= ’z’))
c += ’A’ - ’a’;
putchar(c);
}
return 0;
} 18

9
Improvement: Existing Functions
Standard C Library Functions ctype(3C)

NAME
ctype, isdigit, isxdigit, islower, isupper, isalpha, isalnum, isspace, iscntrl, ispunct, isprint,
isgraph, isascii - character handling

SYNOPSIS
#include <ctype.h> DESCRIPTION
int isalpha(int c);
These macros classify character-
int isupper(int c); coded integer values. Each is a
int islower(int c); predicate returning non-zero for true, 0
int isdigit(int c); for false...
int isalnum(int c); The toupper() function has as a
int isspace(int c); domain a type int, the value of which is
int ispunct(int c); representable as an unsigned char or
int isprint(int c); the value of EOF.... If the argument of
toupper() represents a lower-case
int isgraph(int c); letter ... the result is the corresponding
int iscntrl(int c); upper-case letter. All other arguments
int toupper(int c); in the domain are returned unchanged.
int tolower(int c); 19

Using the ctype Functions

#include <stdio.h>
#include <ctype.h>
int main(void) {
int c;
for ( ; ; ) {
c = getchar();
if (c == EOF) break;
if (islower(c)) Returns non-zero
c = toupper(c); (true) iff c is a lowercase
putchar(c); character
}
return 0;
} 20

10
Building and Running
% ls
upper.c
% gcc217 upper.c –o upper
% ls
upper upper.c
% upper
We’ll be on time today!
WE’LL BE ON TIME TODAY!
^D
% 21

Run the Code on Itself

% upper < upper.c
#INCLUDE <STDIO.H>
#INCLUDE <CTYPE.H>
INT MAIN(VOID) {
INT C;
FOR ( ; ; ) {
C = GETCHAR();
IF (C == EOF) BREAK;
IF (ISLOWER(C))
C = TOUPPER(C);
PUTCHAR(C);
}
RETURN 0;
}

22

11
Output Redirection
% upper < upper.c > junk.c
% gcc217 junk.c –o junk
test.c:1:2: invalid preprocessing directive #INCLUDE
test.c:2:2: invalid preprocessing directive #INCLUDE
test.c:3: syntax error before "MAIN"
etc...

23

Review of Example #2
•  Representing characters
•  ASCII character set
•  Character constants (e.g., ʻAʼ or ʻaʼ)

•  Manipulating characters
•  Arithmetic on characters
•  Functions like islower() and toupper()

•  Compiling and running C code

•  Compile to generate executable file
•  Invoke executable to run program
•  Can redirect stdin and/or stdout

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12
Example #3: Capitalize First Letter
•  Capitalize the first letter of each word
•  “cos 217 rocks”  “Cos 217 Rocks”

•  Sequence through the string, one letter at a time

•  Print either the character, or the uppercase version

•  Challenge: need to remember where you are

•  Capitalize “c” in “cos”, but not “o” in “cos” or “c” in “rocks”

•  Solution: keep some extra information around

•  Whether youʼve encountered the first letter in the word

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Deterministic Finite Automaton

Deterministic Finite Automaton (DFA)

letter
(print uppercase equivalent)

1 not-letter 2
(print) letter
not-letter (print)
(print)
•  States
•  Transitions labeled by characters (or categories)
•  Optionally, transitions labeled by actions 26

13
Implementation Skeleton
#include <stdio.h>
#include <ctype.h>
int main (void) {
int c;
for ( ; ; ) {
c = getchar();
if (c == EOF) break;
<process one character>
}
return 0;
} 27

not-letter letter
letter
Implementation 1 2
not-letter
<process one character> =
switch (state) {
case 1:
<state 1 action> if (isalpha(c)) {
putchar(toupper(c));
break; state = 2;
case 2: }
else putchar(c);
<state 2 action>
if (!isalpha(c))
break;
state = 1;
default: putchar(c);
<this should never happen>
}
28

14
Complete Implementation
#include <stdio.h>
#include <ctype.h>
int main(void) {
int c; int state=1;
for ( ; ; ) {
c = getchar();
if (c == EOF) break;
switch (state) {
case 1:
if (isalpha(c)) {
putchar(toupper(c));
state = 2;
} else putchar(c);
break;
case 2:
if (!isalpha(c)) state = 1;
putchar(c);
break;
}
}
return 0;
}
29

Running Code on Itself

% gcc217 upper1.c -o upper1

% upper1 < upper1.c
#Include <Stdio.H>
#Include <Ctype.H>
Int Main(Void) {
Int C; Int State=1;
For ( ; ; ) {
C = Getchar();
If (C == EOF) Break;
Switch (State) {
Case 1:
If (Isalpha(C)) {
Putchar(Toupper(C));
State = 2;
} Else Putchar(C);
Break;
Case 2:
If (!Isalpha(C)) State = 1;
Putchar(C);
Break;
}
}
Return 0;
}
30

15
Much better. Your grade is …

B 31

Why a B?

•  Works correctly, but

•  Mysterious integer constants (“magic numbers”)

•  What now?
•  States should have names, not just 1, 2

32

16
Improvement: Names for States

•  Define your own named constants

enum Statetype {NORMAL,INWORD};

•  Define an enumeration type

enum Statetype state;

•  Define a variable of that type

33

Improvement: Names for States

#include <stdio.h>
#include <ctype.h>
enum Statetype {NORMAL,INWORD};
int main(void) {
int c; enum Statetype state = NORMAL;
for ( ; ; ) {
c = getchar();
if (c == EOF) break;
switch (state) {
case NORMAL:
if (isalpha(c)) {
putchar(toupper(c));
state = INWORD;
} else putchar(c);
break;
case INWORD:
if (!isalpha(c)) state = NORMAL;
putchar(c);
break;
}
}
return 0; 34
}

17
OK, Thatʼs a B+

•  Works correctly, but

•  No modularity

•  What now?
•  Should handle each state in a separate function

35

Improvement: Modularity
#include <stdio.h>
#include <ctype.h>
enum Statetype {NORMAL,INWORD};
enum Statetype handleNormalState(int c) {...}
enum Statetype handleInwordState(int c) {...}
int main(void) {
int c;
enum Statetype state = NORMAL;
for ( ; ; ) {
c = getchar();
if (c == EOF) break;
switch (state) {
case NORMAL:
state = handleNormalState(c);
break;
case INWORD:
state = handleInwordState(c);
break;
}
}
return 0;
}
36

18
Improvement: Modularity
enum Statetype handleNormalState(int c) {
enum Statetype state;
if (isalpha(c)) {
putchar(toupper(c));
state = INWORD;
}
else {
putchar(c);
state = NORMAL;
}
return state;
}

37

Improvement: Modularity
enum Statetype handleInwordState(int c) {
enum Statetype state;
putchar(c);
if (!isalpha(c))
state = NORMAL;
else
state = INWORD;
return state;
}

38

19
OK, Thatʼs an A-

•  Works correctly, but

•  No comments

•  What now?
•  Should add (at least) function-level comments

39

Function Comments

•  A function’s comment should:

•  Describe what the function does
•  Describe input to the function
•  Parameters, input streams
•  Describe output from the function
•  Return value, output streams, (call-by-reference
parameters)
•  Not describe how the function works

40

20
Function Comment Examples
•  Bad main() function comment
Read a character from stdin. Depending upon the
current DFA state, pass the character to an
appropriate state-handling function. The value
returned by the state-handling function is the
next DFA state. Repeat until end-of-file.
•  Describes how the function works

•  Good main() function comment

Read text from stdin. Convert the first
character of each "word" to uppercase, where a
word is a sequence of letters. Write the result
to stdout. Return 0.
•  Describes what the function does from callerʼs point of view

41

An “A” Effort
#include <stdio.h>
#include <ctype.h>

enum Statetype {NORMAL, INWORD};

/*------------------------------------------------------------*/
/* handleNormalState: Implement the NORMAL state of the DFA. */
/* c is the current DFA character. Return the next state. */
/*------------------------------------------------------------*/
enum Statetype handleNormalState(int c) {
enum Statetype state;
if (isalpha(c)) {
putchar(toupper(c));
state = INWORD;
}
else {
putchar(c);
state = NORMAL;
}
return state;
}

42

21
An “A” Effort

/*------------------------------------------------------------*/
/* handleInwordState: Implement the INWORD state of the DFA. */
/* c is the current DFA character. Return the next state. */
/*------------------------------------------------------------*/
enum Statetype handleInwordState(int c) {
enum Statetype state;
putchar(c);
if (!isalpha(c))
state = NORMAL;
else
state = INWORD;
return state;
}

43

An “A” Effort
/*------------------------------------------------------------*/
/* main: Read text from stdin. Convert the first character */
/* of each "word" to uppercase, where a word is a sequence of */
/* letters. Write the result to stdout. Return 0. */
/*------------------------------------------------------------*/
int main(void) {
int c;
enum Statetype state = NORMAL;
/* Use a DFA approach. state indicates the state of the DFA. */
for ( ; ; ) {
c = getchar();
if (c == EOF) break;
switch (state) {
case NORMAL:
state = handleNormalState(c);
break;
case INWORD:
state = handleInwordState(c);
break;
}
}
return 0;
} 44

22
Review of Example #3
•  Deterministic finite state automaton
•  Two or more states
•  Transitions between states
•  Next state is a function of current state and current character
•  Actions can occur during transitions

•  Expectations for COS 217 assignments

•  Readable
•  Meaningful names for variables and values
•  Modular
•  Multiple functions, each of which does one well-defined job
•  Function-level comments
•  Should describe what function does
•  See K&P book for style guidelines specification

45

Another DFA Example

•  Does the string have “nano” in it?
•  “banano”  yes
•  “nnnnnnnanofff”  yes
•  “banananonano”  yes
•  “bananananashanana”  no
‘n’
‘n’

‘n’ ‘a’ ‘n’ ‘o’

S 1 2 3 F

‘a’

46

23
Yet Another DFA Example
Question #4 from fall 2005 midterm
Identify whether or not a string is a floating-point number

•  Valid numbers •  Invalid numbers

•  “-34” •  “abc”
•  “78.1” •  “-e9”
•  “+298.3” •  “1e”
•  “-34.7e-1” •  “+”
•  “34.7E-1” •  “17.9A”
•  “7.” •  “0.38+”
•  “.7” •  “.”
•  “999.99e99” •  “38.38f9”

47

Summary
•  Examples illustrating C
•  Overall program structure
•  Control statements (if, while, for, and switch)
•  Character input/output (getchar() and putchar())

•  Deterministic finite state automata (i.e., state

machines)
•  Expectations for programming assignments

48

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