Ch.

7
Force, pressure, acceleration

Weighing Instruments
Equal arm balance Spring scale Torsion balance Beam balance
Use one pan only and the beam is offset.

Force restorative load cell

The heart of an electronic balance. Principle of equal arm balance.

Vibrating cord
A cord is tensioned by the force F. The vibration frequency changes are directly proportional to the load F.
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Causes of Errors in Weighing

Imperfections in the weighing instrument Errors in the standard used Weighing method Operator -- errors arising from the skill of the experimenter Environmental factors Substitution weighing- To eliminate some of the errors introduced by the weighing device. The weighing device is used to determine the difference between the standard and the unknown.
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Strain Measurement
Stress ,

F = A

where F = applied force A = cross section Strain ,

L = L
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Strain Measurement

The relative elongation and contraction are defined as the longitudinal and transverse strains, respectively.
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Strain Measurement
Elastic material properties are defined in terms of stress and strain. Youngs modulus E is the ratio of stress to stain. Poisson's ratio is the ratio of transverse contraction strain to longitudinal extension strain in the direction of stretching force. Tensile deformation is considered positive and compressive deformation is considered negative. The definition of Poisson's ratio contains a minus sign so that normal materials have a positive ratio.

Strain Measurement

Strain Measurement
Temperature change induces strain. In most materials, thermal strain increases with temperature. Thermal expansion coefficient ,

T where T = temperature change

Strain Sensors
Piezoresistive Foil Gauges Piezoresistive Semiconducting Gauges Piezoelectric Gauges Fiber Optic Strain Gauges Birefringent Film Strain Sensing Moir Strain Sensing

Strain Gauges
Strain gauges use a length of gauge wire to produce the desired resistance in the form of a flat coil. This coil is fixed to an object to be strained. As the object is stressed, the resulting strain deforms the strain gauge and the cross-sectional area diminishes. This causes an increase in resistivity of the gauge.
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Strain Gauges

Configuration of metal-foil resistance strain gauges: (a) single element; (b) 2 elements; and (c) 3 element
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Strain Gauges
Resistance is a function of temperature. Therefore, temperature compensation is required. A Wheatstone bridge is usually used to measure this small order magnitude.

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Piezoresistive Foil Gauges

Gauge construction of a foil or wire piezoresistive gauge

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Piezoresistive Foil Gauges

Lead wiresconnect the grid to a resistance measuring circuit. The resistance change is related to the strain by a gauge factor.

R = GL L R

where R/R = Relative resistance change G = Gauge factor = Strain These gauges respond to the average strain over the area covered by the grid.
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Piezoresistive Foil Gauges

R = G L L + Gt t + GT T R

where R/R = relative resistance change GL, Gt, and GT = longitudinal, transverse, and temperature sensitivity, respectively L and t = longitudinal and transverse strain

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Piezoresistive Foil Gauges

Strain of piezoresistive materials produces a relative resistance change. Consider a single leg of the grid of a strain gauge with a rectangular cross-section.

L R= A
where R = Resistance = Resistivity L = Length A = Area of the cross-section
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Piezoresistive Foil Gauges

A single leg of a piezoresistive gauge is used to explain the source of the relative resistance change that occurs in response to strain.

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Piezoresistive Foil Gauges

A small change in resistance is given by the first-order terms of a Taylors series expansion:

R R R R = + L + A L A
Differentiating the above equation and then dividing by the initial resistance leads to:

R L A = + R0 0 L0 A0
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Piezoresistive Semiconducting Gauges

Piezoresistive Semiconducting gauges like piezoresistive foil and wire gauges, undergo a resistance change in response to strain, but with nearly an order of magnitude larger gauge factor. The coupling between resistance change and temperature is very large. They are used to manufacture transducers such as load cells.
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Piezoelectric Gauges
Piezoelectric strain gauges are, effectively, parallel plate capacitors whose dielectric changes polarization in response to strain. PVDF (Polyvinylidine Fluoride) film stain gauges are inexpensive, but not very accurate and subject to depoling by moderate temperature. They make good sensors for dynamic measurements such as frequency and logarithm decrement, but not for quantitative measurements of strain. When used for quasistatic (meaning that it doesn't change significantly on timescales comparable) measurements, the charge tends to drain through the measuring instrument. This causes the signal to decay with a time constant dependent on the input impedance of the measuring 20 instrument.

Piezoelectric Gauges

Typical gauge construction of a piezoelectric gauge

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Piezoelectric Gauges
Lead wires connect the electrodes to a charge measuring circuit. The gauge output can be described in terms of a net dipole moment per unit volume. If the net dipole moment is the total charge, Q, on the electrodes multiplied by spacing, d, between the electrodes, then the polarization is:

Qd P= V
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Piezoelectric Gauges
From the above equation, it is seen that the polarization P (approximately equal to the electric displacement D) is the charge per unit electrode area.

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Piezoelectric Gauges

A representative cross-section of a piezoelectric material formed into a parallel plate capacitor. The piezoelectric material is polarized. This results in charge on the electrodes. When the material is strained, the polarization changes and charge flows.

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Piezoelectric Gauges
P P P = V + Qd V (Qd )

Qd V P = P0 V0 V0

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Force Measurement
Strain Gauge Load Cell Piezoelectric Methods Torsional Balances Capacitive Force Transducer Force Sensing Resistors (Conductive Polymers) Magnetoresistive Force Sensors Magnetoelastic Force Sensors
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Strain Gauge Load Cell

It consists of a structure that elastically deforms when subjected to a force and a strain gauge network that produces an electrical signal proportional to this deformation. E.g. beam and ring types of load cells.

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Strain Gauges

The Wheatstone bridge

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Strain Gauges
If the 4 resistances satisfy a certain condition, no current will flow through the galvanometer (G). The condition is:
Rg R2 = R4 R3

If Rg is stretched, its resistance will increase (R+R). The potential at C will be lower than that at D by V. Therefore, there will be current 29 flowing through G and the detected voltage will

Strain Gauges
A stain gauge exhibits a resistance change R/R that is related to the stain in the direction of the grid lines :

R = S g R
where Sg is the gauge factor or calibration constant for the gauge.

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Beam-Type Load Cell

Beam-type load cells: (a) a selection of beam-type load cells (elastic element with strain gauges); and (b) gauge positions in the Wheatstone bridge
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Beam-Type Load Cell

Note that: 1 = -2 = 3 = -4 It means if the strain gauges at the top position are stretched, the strain gauges at the bottom position are compressed. Gauge 1 and 3: R + R Gauge 2 and 4: R - R At C: -2 V At D: +2 V 32 E0 = 4 V

Beam-Type Load Cell

They are commonly employed for measuring low-level loads. A simple cantilever beam with 4 stain gauges, 2 on the top surface and 2 on the bottom surface (all oriented along the axis of the beam) is used as the elastic object (sensor) for the load cell. The load P produces a moment M=Px at the gauge location (x).
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Beam-Type Load Cell

4 strain gauges are mounted on the forward and opposite sides of the vertical motor mount. These four strain gauges serve as force sensors for bending effect on a cantilever beam.
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(Tze-Liang Lees thesis, Behavior And Control Of A Rocker-Bogie Suspension Under Relatively High Speed, University of Oklahoma)

Beam-Type Load Cell

(Tze-Liang Lees thesis, Behavior And Control Of A Rocker-Bogie Suspension Under Relatively High Speed, University of Oklahoma)

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Ring-Type Load Cell

The ring is used as the elastic element. Either strain gauges or a linear variabledifferential transformer (LVDT) can be used as the sensor. The load P is linearly proportional to the output voltage E0.

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Ring-Type Load Cell

Ring-type load cells: (a) elastic element with strain-gauge sensors; (b) gauge positions in the Wheatstone bridge; and (c) elastic element with an LVDT sensor
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Compressive Load Transducer

(RS Data Sheet, Strain gauges and load cells, Issued March 1997, 232-5157)

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Compressive Load Transducer

The transducer utilizes 4 strain gauges attached to the cylinder. The gauges are connected into the bridge circuitry in such a manner as to make use of Poissons ratio, i.e. the ratio between the relative expansion in the direction of force applied and the relative contraction perpendicular to the force, to increase the effective gauge factor and thus the sensitivity.
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Tensile Load Transducer

(RS Data Sheet, Strain gauges and load cells, Issued March 1997, 232-5157) 40

Connection of Several Strain Gauges (Full bridge)

Note: The expressions are assuming that all gauges are subjected to the same strain. Some configurations produce different strain in different gauges, and allowance must be made.
(RS Data Sheet, Strain gauges and load cells, Issued March 1997, 232-5157)
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Piezoelectric Methods
These methods are based on a phenomenon called piezoelectric effect. (For description, see notes on Displacement Sensor.) The magnitude and polarity of the induced surface charges the magnitude and direction of the applied force: Q = dF where d is the charge sensitivity (a constant for a given crystal) of the crystal in C/N.
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Piezoelectric Methods

Modes of operation for a simple plate as a piezoelectric device

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Piezoelectric Methods
By adhering 2 crystals together so that their electrical axes are perpendicular, bending moments or torque can be applied to the piezoelectric transducer and a voltage output can be produced.

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Piezoelectric Methods

Curvature of twister and bender piezoelectric transducers when voltage applied

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Capacitive SensorsCapacitive Pressure Sensors

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Capacitive SensorsDifferential Capacitive Pressure Sensors

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Capacitive SensorsCapacitive Accelerometers and Force Transducers

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The Principles of Accelerometers

Accelerometers operate by measuring the inertia force generated when a mass accelerates. E.g. the inertia force might deflect a spring, whose deflection can be measured.

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The Principles of Accelerometers

Accelerometers are made up of at least 3 elements:
A mass, often called the proof mass, A suspension, which locates the mass, and A pickoff, which puts out a signal related to the acceleration.

Some instruments are servo controlled and will also need:

A forcer, an electric or magnetic force generator designed to oppose the inertia force, and An electronic servomechanism.
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All types of Accelerometers

Electromechanical Force-Balance (Servo) Accelerometers Piezoelectric Accelerometers Piezoresistive Accelerometers Strain-Gage(Gauge) Accelerometers Seismic Accelerometers Differential-Capacitance Accelerometers
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Electromechanical Force-Balance (Servo) Accelerometers

Electromechanical accelerometers, essentially servo or null-balance types, rely on the principle of feedback. An acceleration-sensitive mass is kept very close to a zero displacement point by sensing the displacement and feeding back this displacement. A magnetic force is generated to oppose the motion of the mass displaced from the neutral to restore the neutral position.
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Electromechanical Force-Balance (Servo) Accelerometers

Advantages:
Better linearity. Elimination of hysteresis effects as compared to mechanical springs. Much less sensitive to temperature variations when electric damping is provided.

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Electromechanical Force-Balance (Servo) Accelerometers

Important features of null-balance type instruments:
Capability of testing the static and dynamic performances of the devices by introducing electrically excited test forces into the system. The remote self-checking feature is convenient.

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Coil-and-Magnetic Type Accelerometers

They are based on Amperes law. A current carrying conductor disposed within a magnetic field experiences a force proportional to the current, the length of the conductor within the field, the magnetic field density, and the sine of the angle between the conductor and the field.

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A basic coil and permanent magnet Accelerometer

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Coil-and-Magnetic Type Accelerometers

The coil is supported by an arm with minimum friction bearings to form a proof mass in a magnetic field. Displacement of the coil due to acceleration induces an electric potential in the coil to be sensed and processed. A servo system maintains the coil in a null position.
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Coil-and-Magnetic Type Accelerometers

Assuming a downward acceleration with the field being radial (90o) and using Amperes law, the force experienced by the coil is:

F = ma = ilB
=>

i = ma / lB

Where B = the effective flux density l = the total effective length of the conductor in the magnetic field
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Coil-and-Magnetic Type Accelerometers

Notice:
The magnetic structure must be shielded adequately to make the system insensitive to external disturbances or Earths magnetic field. In the presence of acceleration, there will be a temperature rise due to i2R losses. Special care must be exercised in choosing the appropriate accelerometer such that the temperature rises caused by unexpected accelerations cannot affect excessively the scale factors or the bias conditions.
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A simplified version of a rotational type servo-accelerometer

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A simplified version of a rotational type servo-accelerometer

Acceleration of the instrument case causes an inertial force on the sensitive mass, tending to make it pivot in its bearings or flexure mount. The rotation from the equilibrium position is sensed by inductive sensing and amplified, demodulated, and filtered to produce a current directly proportional to the motion from the null.
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Piezoelectric Accelerometers
2 basic design configurations are used: compression types and shear stress types. They basically are motion transducers with large output signals and comparatively small sizes. They are available with very high natural frequencies and are therefore suitable for high-frequency applications and shock measurements.
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A compression-type Piezoelectric Accelerometer

The crystals are under compression at all times, either by a mass or mass and spring arrangement. Acceleration causes a deformation of the crystal, thus producing a proportional electric signal. They are small in size and widely used. They demonstrate poor performance at low frequencies.

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Piezoelectric Accelerometers
When a varying motion is applied to the accelerometer, the crystal experiences a varying force excitation (F = ma), causing a proportional electric charge q to be developed across it. q = dijF = dijma
where q = the charge developed dij = the materials piezoelectric coefficient
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Piezoelectric Accelerometers
q = d11F longitudinal, q = kd11F transverse, q = 2d11F shear,
where quartzs piezoelectric coefficient d11 = 2.3x10-12 C/N and k is a geometrical factor not very different from unity.

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Piezoresistive Accelerometers

Bonding of piezoelectric and piezoresistive elements onto an inertial system. As the inertial member vibrates, deformation of the tension and compression gauges causes the resistance to change. The change in resistance is picked up and processed further. 66

Stain-Gauge Accelerometers
They are based on resistance properties of electrical conductors. If a conductor is stretched or stressed, its resistance alters due to 2 reasons:
dimensional changes the changes in the fundamental property of material called piezoresistance.

Resistance strain gauges have different types: unbonded metal-wire gauges, bonded metalwire gauges, bonded metal-foil gauges, vacuumdeposited thin-metal-film gauges, etc.
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Stain-Gauge Accelerometers
Unbonded-strain-gauge accelerometers use the strain wires as the spring element and as the motion transducer, using similar arrangement as the picture in the slide 29.

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Seismic Accelerometers

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Seismic Accelerometers
When a mass accelerates, it experiences a force proportional to its acceleration. When a force acts upon a mass, the mass will be displaced by a distance proportional to the force acting on it and any other forces opposing it.

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Seismic Accelerometers
dk a= m
where a = acceleration in ms-2 d = displacement of the mass relative to the frame in m k = spring constant in Nm-1 m = mass in kg
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Seismic Accelerometers
In practice the displacement of the mass is measured with a device such as an LVDT, and the acceleration calculated by a computer. These accelerometers are used to measure shock and very low frequency vibrations, such as those related to earth tremors, or measuring the effect of underground detonations.
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