The Environment: Some Thoughts On Layout

Chapter 3 THE ENVIRONMENT
Some thoughts on layout

The environment you are trying to create is
a woven tapestry with its individual identity
The Environment and the many factors intermingling to create

a unique, sustainable, living piece of work.
Some factors are external influences, such as
the weather, the influence of the moon and
To create the right environment on your farm you need
to spend some time thinking about layout. Setting up
an organic farm is no different to a conventional farm
for most operations on the farm, as most activities are
the planets, regulations as laid out by the law similar. Further considerations would be:
makers, and previous inputs into the farm. • A large enough quarantine paddock, handy for transfer of
Other factors that enable your farm to be animals for milking
unique, and may take some time to achieve, • An area set up for stirring, mixing and loading up for
are planting of trees, diverse species in your applying liquid fertiliser, biodynamic preparations, and
pasture, crops, and a farm that enables ease of effluent (sometimes called the farm kitchen)
operation and minimum stress for the animals • A system for putting effluent on the land
and the people who work there. This in turn, • Good wide races to reduce lameness and ease cow flow
will create a diverse, balanced environment • Paddocks, races, yards and dairies that minimise handling
with bees, birds, healthy animals and happy and encourage natural herd behaviour
humans. All materials on farm should be used
• Retiring marginal lands and planting pocket forests on it
and minimum external inputs should be the
• Establish shade where the animals loaf, or stand in the
organic farmer’s goal. The final piece on the
heat
tapestry shows neighbours chatting and being
• Buffering natural waterways and wetlands
helpful to one another simply because they all
understand and respect one another’s prefer- • Ensuring animals have access to good clean water.
ence of farming methods. There are many organisations and government bodies coming
out with rules and regulations. They are different for each area.
Whether you are organic or not, it is important to keep informed
of these, and any changes that occur. The trick is to be ahead of
the game by keeping yourself informed, and working positively
and proactively on your farm.
Moon and planets

The moon and the planets have a big influence on the earth and
touch all living beings (e.g. the tide going in and out, more rain
near the new moon, days when the air feels damp despite full
sun, vice versa). Planets move across and are present in our sky
on a regular basis. They affect nature and influence our plants.
The moon has the biggest influence, however. It is a fascinating
topic and can become a lifelong passion when you start
observing and finding patterns and effects.
Calendars: Sources of information

Fortunately, there are several calendars available:
Biodynamic Farming and Planting Calendar.
Based on modern research, it is printed annually for May–May,
and is a very informative calendar. There are instructions and
guidelines included. Available from NZ Biodynamic Farming
108 109
Organic Pastoral RESOURCE GUIDE Chapter 3 THE ENVIRONMENT
and Gardening Assn (NZ), P O Box 39 045, Wellington Mail • The rate of change expected over the next 100 years is Wellington and is strongly reliant on satellite and computer • Regional authorities monitor effluent disposal more so
Centre. www.biodynamics.org.nz unprecedented due to the build–up of greenhouse gases. technology. The forecasts provided on the evening news or than the dairy companies, although there is a cross–over
The Maori Planting and Fishing Calendar There is often confusion between climate change and climate in the daily paper are sufficient for most farmers. However, in terms of effluent management, particularly around the
variability. Climate variability can refer to the weather patterns as the observant farmer knows, the weather can often be dairy surrounds.
Easy 2 See Calendars predicted through accumulated experience and wisdom and
and events that we experience. There are also fluctuations such • Fonterra has developed an Environmental and Animal
as El Ni˜no and La Ni˜na events and a 20–30 year cycle called keen observation. Welfare policy statement.
the Interdecadal Pacific Oscillation, which leads to patterns of • Each regional authority may have slightly different inter-
Climate and weather higher or lower rainfall in New Zealand. pretations on permitted activities and consented activities
Climate refers to the long–term average of rainfall,

How is this global issue of relevance to practical organic
farmers, and farmers in general? Government and dairy (one size does not fit all), so please check with your own
regional council.
temperature, sunshine hours, wind and so on that we

experience over time. Climate can refer to monthly,
It is important in two main ways:
1) Methane emissions from livestock from around regulations • Some regional councils allow organic farms to be classed
as ‘commercially sensitive areas’ and are registered with
them as such. They also allow ‘spray free’ signs to be put up
seasonal or annual averages. For longer–term record the world are making a major contribution to global These are increasing as we become more regulated. Be on road frontages. There are simple procedures you must
keeping the World Meteorological Organisation use a greenhouse gases, leading to climate change. Farmers aware of your obligations under law. Keep up to date go through to achieve that.
standard 30–year climate period, which New Zealand in New Zealand are being asked to take some respon- with them.
conforms to. Weather is what we experience on a sibility for methane emissions from their livestock. The • Farm Dairy Code of Practice 3rd Edition by NZ Dairy Board
day–to–day basis, or even within a day – we’ve all heard Global Livestock Group (www.theglg.com ) say that proven Some important regulatory authorities are 1998. ISBN 0–9–908946–00–7. Contact your milk Co–op
the expression ‘four seasons in one day’. The weather in reductions can be obtained through natural genetic • MAF/NZFSA: Hygiene, animal health and welfare, disease, for this.
New Zealand can be unpredictable, but its effects can be improvements and improved nutrition. This is where registration of food processing plants, collection of • The Animal Welfare Regulations can be found on the
managed to some degree within the farm environment. organic farming could play a role, particularly through seaweed, national minimum standards for organic produc- website: www.maf.govt.nz/biosecurity/animal–welfare
There are pros and cons for the organic farmer in dealing with improved feed quality which many experienced organic tion
farmers achieve. Stocking rates are also generally lower • The Agricultural Compounds and Veterinary Medicines
the vagaries of climate. On the positive side, with increased soil • Dairy Companies: (the largest being Fonterra but there is a
on organic farms, which would lead to lower total emis- Act, administered by the Food Safety NZ Authority.
organic matter, and increased plant and animal diversity, the number of other small ones) Milk standards, effluent, dairy
sions from the farm. www.nzfsa.govt.nz/acvm/legislation/acvm–act/index/htm
organic farm develops a greater ability to buffer against climatic regulations, Clean Streams Accord
extremes over time. Through increased diversification coupled 2) Observed changes are already happening, • A summary of organic certification regulations can be
• Regional Council: Noxious weeds, drains, pollution, erosion, found in Appendix 4.
with good management and planning, including applying the which may be a result of a warming climate, such as
spray drift, effluent disposal etc.
age–old wisdom of using times of abundance to set store for the increased prevalence of the tropical webworm in
times of shortage, the organic farm has the potential to be Northland. Issues like biosecurity, availability of water, • Local Council: Roadside maintenance, rubbish, conserva-
developed as a very resilient farming system. However, on the and the need for on–farm biodiversity are going to be tion
negative side the organic farmer has fewer options for dealing
Pasture
increasingly prevalent. This points to an increasing need • Accident Compensation Corporation: Accidents, injury,
with shortages than the conventional farmer, who is able to for sustainable and resilient farming systems, and organic lepto, disease
change grazing patterns, bring in feed or graze animals off the farmers are at the forefront in developing farms and
• The Health and Safety Act: Stress in the workplace, illness,
farm, or use strategic applications of fertilisers for short–term farming systems for the future.
milk contaminants
shortages.
• Organic certifying
agencies.
Sources of information Food Safety Authority:
Climate change
•
Setting rules for food
One thing that farmers are increasingly aware of is global Climate data production and export of
The National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Science (NIWA organic produce.
warming or climate change, partly through the media but also
through on–farm observation and record keeping. Our climate Ltd) manage a national database of climate data. Data are
can change naturally over timescales ranging from decades to available at nominal cost.
millennia. However, we’re interested here in climate change
resulting from human activities (burning of fossil fuels and so
For more information visit www.niwa.co.nz/services/clidb/ or Some
on) over the last 100 years or so and continuing through the
email climate–[email protected] .
information:
21st century. Climate summaries
• Cooling water standards:
NIWA also produce Climate Update, which is a monthly MAF D104 paper
We know that:
summary of New Zealand’s climate, including soil moisture
• Greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, methane and • Milking Animal Health
and river flows. You can access free electronic copies of this at
nitrous oxide have increased in the earth’s atmosphere and Standard: MAF D105
www.niwa.co.nz , look under Media & Publications.
are continuing to increase due to human activities. paper
• Global temperatures have risen (up to 0.7°C in New Weather forecasts • Farm Dairy Water standard:
Zealand over the last 100 years) and are continuing to rise. Weather forecasting in New Zealand is now centred in MAF 106 paper
110 111
What is pasture? Pasture is the collective term we use health in a positive way. Try over– sowing some chicory and mobilisation of other minerals from deeper layers in the soil. which tolerate different conditions from rotational grazing to
to mean the grass–based plant communities, which plantain when conditions would suit seed establishment Many so–called weeds are also herbs and provide benefits set–stocking. They provide good feed quality without the risks
grow in the soil matrix. When we refer to pasture we • Use a mixture of predominant pasture and deep rooting to the whole farm system (see Weeds and Their Management of endophyte.
are not only talking about the aerial parts of the grass- plants. Certain weeds could be beneficial – check before section). • Matua (Erect Brome, Bromus willdenowii) grows actively in
land plant species which we see above ground, but also winter and has two peaks of production, one late summer
eliminating Even if you are still only deciding whether to convert to organic and early autumn and the other in late winter and early
their extensive roots networks and associations in the farming or not, there is certainly a lot to be gained from incor- spring, so this plant can fill deficits when the rye and clover
soil, the whole thing is ‘the pasture system’ and the soil, • No genetically modified or treated seed is permitted to be
porating additional plant (herb/weed) species into your pasture are producing very little. It is the only certified cultivar
plant and animal life within it are inextricably linked. sown available.
renovation programme. Not all of the species listed below will
Another term that we tend to use in pastoral farming is • Older varieties can be a better choice than newer hybrids. • Matua is highly palatable – even the seed heads
establish on your farm. You will have to do a bit of experi- (no topping required!).
the ‘sward’, and this is when we are generally referring mentation to determine which ones work best in your area or
• Quarantine paddocks need deep rooting and specific • There are some disadvantages. If this plant is grazed hard in
just to the stem, leaves and flowering parts above the consult with an agronomist who is familiar with these plant summer it will die out.
herbal plants added to pasture mix, enabling stock to
ground. In organic farming we are aiming to enhance species in your area. Here are some things to consider: Matua is also very low in magnesium and iodine so if clover
recover from illness. •
the whole pasture system. is not a high proportion of the sward then stock grazing can
Within any naturally occurring grassland system there is • Some of the species will not establish in very fertile soil and suffer infertility and grass tetany (staggers). Lucerne does
In many countries of the world pasture was a relatively rare type some actually require low fertility soil. not combine with Matua as Matua is too competitive. This
normally a high diversity of plant species where there are
of plant community prior to the development of pastoral agri- grass is troubled by the Hessian fly which can be found in
grazing animals. This is because their grazing pressure prevents • Grazing pressure will also determine if these species persist the areas north of Taupo.
culture, because most of the land was cloaked in forests. At that
the domination of the sward by the larger, faster growing or in your pasture.
time grasslands were restricted to areas where trees couldn’t When to sow? Early autumn. Sowing mixtures should be
more woody/fibrous species. That is, it prevents the natural
grow for some reason, either because it was too dry, cold, wet • Sourcing seed may be a problem if you want to obtain the simple – short-term ryegrass cultivars can be included plus
succession of the community back towards forest, as we have
or windy, or a combination of these climatic features, and/or the seed before it is chemically treated. white and red clover, but not lucerne.
already observed previously. This is to the advantage of the
soil was not sufficiently developed to allow trees to grow. In Sowing rate: 30kg/ha through a drill or 40kg/ha when
grazing animals since it provides them with a more varied o Get in early when the seed crop is being harvested.
New Zealand this includes our native tussock grasslands, which broadcast. The seed can be de–awned which will make it go
diet. o Work in with other organic farmers for bulk orders to
have become an essential element of our pastoral farming in the through the drill better.
South Island. The majority of New Zealand farmers, however, Organic pastoral farmers seek to mimic the balance and appease the seed merchants and save costs.
diversity of natural grassland systems. This is achieved through Depth: no more than 2 cm deep.
are dealing with situations where the forest cover has been o You must ensure that the seed is not GM or GE (geneti-
artificially removed and we are using our domesticated grazing an emphasis on providing pasture that is a mixture of many cally modified or genetically engineered) and is not treated Management: grazing should only be for 1–3 days with a
animals to maintain these enlarged ‘clearings’ by applying different species of grasses, legumes and other herbs. This is seed (hasn’t been coated with fungicide or insecticide period of 4 to 6 weeks between grazing.
constant grazing pressure. Many farmers still find themselves often referred to as a herbal ley, but strictly speaking it may not etc.)
in a constant battle with manuka and gorse, heralding the be a ley as it is often likely to be permanent pasture whereas the Cocksfoot (Dactylis glomerata)
term ley is normally used to refer to a temporary pasture which o New varieties are being added to the list of pasture
return of the forest, if the grazing pressure is too light or the This is a summer active perennial with a deep root system.
gets ploughed up and reseeded. Interestingly, the dictionary species that can be grown on a farm. Many of these newer
land is left ungrazed for any length of time, providing there is It grows well in poor fertility soils where it is dry. Generally
definition for the term pasture is ‘herbage’, indicating that it varieties will have been grown and selected under conven-
still a local seed source. Good organic management, which is slow to establish and has a lower digestibility than most other
has always contained herbs, until very recently. tional farming systems, so do not be surprised if the seed
consistent with a farm forestry approach, is about achieving grasses. Cocksfoot has limited winter growth but is very useful
grows or behaves differently, or is not up to expectation
the right balance between trees and pasture on the farm. as a component of permanent pasture in summer dry areas
Increasing numbers of farmers are now seeing the value of So what then is a herb? under an organic system. You will have to do your own
experimentation on your own farm. There are some seed for its persistence and drought tolerance. Historically a very
retiring marginal land to trees (natives or exotic timber species) A herb is a flowering plant that has a stem comprised of soft, important element in the famous ‘Clifton Park’ humus–building
companies now in the UK that are growing seed varieties
and paying increased attention to improved management of the non–woody tissue which dies down and grows again each year and drought–resistant mixture for organic farms.
especially for organic farms, some of which is even organi-
pasture system on their good land. from the ground. This, as we have seen, enables it to withstand
cally grown, but this is not yet available in New Zealand. Seeding rates should be kept low as cocksfoot can dominate
grazing and distinguishes it from trees and shrubs which
It is the consideration of how to enable our grasslands to work Demand and pressure from organic pastoral farmers here a pasture, reducing clover levels and digestibility. The strain
grow continually from their stem tips each year, getting taller
best for us that we will be dealing with in this chapter, under our would persuade our own seed companies to follow suit. Wana tends to grow in clumps. Kara, Ella Tekapo are other
and taller. Herbs may be annual (grow from seed each year),
recurring theme of balance. Thus we shall be examining what strains that tend not to do this.
biannual (take two years to grow and seed), or perennial (grow
constitutes a natural, balanced grassland which enables our
again each year from the same rootstock), and these character- Cocksfoot needs to be kept well–grazed so that it stays short
grazing animals to thrive; how to manage our grazing regime
to keep the livestock and grassland in balance; as well as, how
istics often affect their persistence or otherwise in the sward.
What plant species and leafy to maintain feed value and prevent clump develop-
ment.
to manage our views on what we have traditionally regarded as
pastoral weed species and turn them to our advantage.
Clovers and the other leguminous pasture species with which
we are familiar are also herbs, but we tend to separate them
should I consider? Sowing rate: 1–3kg/ha.
out into a category of their own since they are nitrogen–fixing Let’s consider the predominant pasture species: first the grasses,
herbs and so are add fertility to our soils. They do this by virtue then the clovers and other legumes, and then the additional Ryegrass (Lolium species)
of a nitrogen–fixing bacteria, called Rhizobium which they host herb species. Ryegrasses, especially the modern highly–bred cultivars,
Pasture species in special nodules on their roots. Up to 70 to 90% of all the have become the grasses of choice for the modern pastoral
• A mixture of species in pasture is important for grazing

nitrogen required by the pasture can be taken directly from the
air by this plant/bacterial association. Much of this, plus other
Grasses farmer because they respond so readily to the application of
artificial nitrogenous fertiliser. However, this response may be
animals to access a wide range of minerals, vitamins and nutrients, is returned to the soil under grazing systems in the Brome (Bromus species) largely in bulk of fibrous and watery material rather than in
other nutrients. dung and urine of the grazing animals. This is indeed why the
Brome grasses are perennial species, which have excellent quality nutritional material. In organic regimes, where there
• Make it a priority to add extra species to your pastures, grass/clover ley was always the fertility–building phase in the is an emphasis on organic, low–nitrogen fertilisers and the
winter growth in fertile, free draining soil, but do not tolerate
as these changes will quickly start affecting your animal’s classical organic rotation between arable crops and pastoral use of clover as the nitrogen source, ryegrasses may not be
poorly drained soils. There are several cultivars available,
farming, the deeper rooting pastoral herbs also enabling
112 113
so appropriate, and should certainly not be the only pastoral endophyte which produces peramine for Argentine stem weevil Tall fescue is slow to establish so it cannot be sown with Clovers and other legumes
species used. resistance but low levels of lolitrem B which means it has less ryegrass. There are so many benefits to be had by including
Ryegrasses are especially suited for medium soil–types and risk of ryegrass staggers. The Endofree version has none of a fescue plant in some of your paddocks as the predominant Red clover (Trifolium pretense)
good fertility, other grass species like Fescues, Bromes, and the endophyte and therefore no resistance to Argentine Stem grass with clovers and herbs added for conventional and These plants like the warmer temperatures and of course can
Timothy are more suited to extremes of soil type like free– Weevil and none of the toxins, which cause ryegrass staggers organic farmer alike. fix nitrogen, which is so important for organic pasture–based
draining or water–logged soils, and low–fertility. The older or heat stress and is suited for cool, summer wet areas where Variety options: Roa and Au Triumph are the older types, which systems. Red clover is a tap root perennial legume and is
naturally occurring species like perennial ryegrass (Lolium Argentine Stem Weevil is not a problem. have now been superseded by Vulcan, Torpedo, Quantum, drought tolerant. Red clover performs best under low stocking
perenne) may be more suitable for organic farms than the This plant gives excellent winter and spring growth. Better Advance and Dovey. Dovey originally came from French rates if grazed, but is of particular use in silage production due
newly developed modern hybrids. suited to the South Island. plant material bred in the UK. Reports from trials show that to its high yields, with crude protein analysis around 20%.
this fescue is fastest establishing, with a high yield, excellent Red clover is a short lived, high feed value plant. It has good
Do not plant together with fescue.
Endophytes (in ryegrasses) rust resistance and for those summer dry areas there is good summer growth but little winter growth.
Sowing rate: As a pure sward 28kg/ha. As a mixed sward summer growth and good palatability.
Ryegrass endophyte is a fungus called Neotyphodium lolii found It would also pay to consider growing red clover strains that
14kg/ha.
only in perennial, long rotation and some hybrid ryegrasses. The When to sow? Fescue must be sown when the soil is warm have low phyto–oestrogen levels. Sheep are especially prone
endophyte dies out in seed stored for longer than 15 months. Tetraploid ryegrasses – above 12 degrees. to oestrogenic effects of clovers (low fertility, prolapsed anus
There are three types of endophyte that affect ryegrasses. etc.). If you are having problems with oestrogen then consider
These have 4 sets of chromosomes per cell (instead of 2 sets as You will have to order the seed early as this one gets treated
Each produces a different phytotoxin. You can now purchase G27 red clover marketed by Agricom which is a re–selec-
in diploids). They are very palatable and are often less persis- with fungicide and insecticide as it is slow to establish.
ryegrasses infected with the right type of endophyte to provide tion of Pawera, has a good yield and persistence and a low
tent. Endophyte has now been bred into some of them, which Sowing rate: Bare seed 25–30kg/ha plus clovers (coated seed
itself with protection from insect attack but avoiding the knock– formononetin (phyto–oestrogen) level. This plant is a smaller
gives better persistence than when tetraploids were first tried 20–25kg/ha plus clovers).
on grass staggers and super–heat effects in dairy cattle. plant than Pawera, with smaller leaves, shorter stem and a
in NZ. Tetraploids are sown at 30 to 40 % higher sowing rates
prostrate growth form. Colenso has improved cool season
There has been a huge advance by researchers, which is of as they have larger seeds. Timothy (Pleum pretense) production and has greater tolerance to grazing and contains
benefit to all warm area farmers. Previously the only endo- There are now perennial tetraploid ryegrasses such as Quartet This plant is better suited to summer wet areas and particularly low–medium phyto–oestrogens.
phyte available in ryegrasses was the wild type endophyte. and Nevis, and long rotation tetraploids such as Banquet, heavy soils. It also needs cooler temperatures to persist; which
Unfortunately as well as the peramine and ergovaline which Sowing rate: 2–3kg/ha (coated seed rates are 1–2kg/ha
Horizon, Greenstone and Sterling, as well as short rotation or is a great shame for the Northern areas. It is usually a minor
give resistance to Argentine Stem weevil and Black beetle higher). Depth 5–10mm.
annual tetraploids such as Feast II, Andy, and Archie. component in a seed mix. This plant has a higher feed value
respectively, this endophyte also produces Lolitrem B which can than compared to ryegrass. Slow to establish and performs
cause ryegrass staggers. Endophyte research has led to new Perennial ryegrasses White clover (Trifolium repens)
better under low grazing pressure. Poor during winter and
or ‘novel’ endophytes becoming available which have lower This plant is the mainstay of organic pastoral systems and
These include mainly diploids but also the 2 tetraploids spring growth but peaks in summer.
levels of toxins affecting animals (that is no/very low ryegrass mentioned above. The diploids are generally more persistent must be present in your pasture as it is the most important
staggers). These are AR1 and NEA2. Kahu is a high forage quality grass especially on moist sites. nitrogen fixing plant, making a substantial contribution to the
than the tetraploids but are less palatable. However they
usually grow more DM and this can be of very good quality, Sowing rate: 1–2kg/ha. The seed is very tiny. growth of companion grasses. Unlike red clover it is creeping
The AR1 endophyte produces peramine so gives resistance to
especially if a later flowering type which is easier to manage and prostrate in growth habit, and it is also tolerant of and
Australian Stem weevil but can be susceptible to Black beetle. This grass is being promoted in a mixture with meadow fescue
such as Aries, and Tolosa. persists under a wide range of management systems and soil
The NEA2 endophyte produces peramine and ergovaline so (Festuca pratensis) and clovers as a non–ryegrass ley more
and climatic conditions. It is highly resistant to heavy grazing
gives resistance to ASW and Black beetle. Ergovaline is the suited to cold, wet soils. These two grasses are considered to
Tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea) pressure, making it suitable for sheep as well as cattle grazing,
toxin, which can cause heat stress in very warm weather. be the most palatable of the permanent grasses, preferred by
and is highly drought resistant with a high feed value. The aim
In the North Island there is a swing away from ryegrass to stock over ryegrass, and when in a mix with clover highly nutri-
Hybrid ryegrasses is for a sward of between 30–50% legume content in spring/
fescue type pasture. These new variety fescue type pastures tious and digestible. Unlike ryegrass they persist in this type of
early summer and possibly autumn with an interval of about
Hybrid ryegrasses are bred from annual or short rotation do have significant health benefits for stock as spore counts heavy, clay soils.
35 days between defoliation (grazing) to allow adequate time
ryegrasses with perennial ryegrasses and are in between in (for facial eczema) tends to be significantly lower and there is
Yorkshire fog (Holcus lanatus) for nitrogen fixation. Dry matter yields can be in the region of
terms of growth and persistence. Some are closer in type to no ryegrass staggers on this type of pasture.
10–13t/ha in such a high clover sward, thus without the appli-
annuals (Italian type hybrids) and include the cultivars Maverick Clover tends to establish reasonably well with Fescue if grazing Prefers low fertility acidic soils. This is a perennial grass that cation of any additional nitrogen these clover/grass systems can
Gold, Geyser, Manawa, and Galaxy (a tetraploid). Some are controls the growth of this plant. There are quite a number of can handle very wet soil. Yorkshire fog is an alternative grass achieve the same production more cheaply than conventional
closer in type to perennials (perennial–type hybrids or long fescue varieties and each has its own benefits so you will have species to plant for areas where perennial ryegrass production chemical systems.
rotation ryegrasses) and include Greenstone and Horizon (both to research which type is best for your area. Palatability can is poor and is often planted with Lotus.
tetraploids) and Marsden, Supreme and Impact. certainly be an issue if you let the sward go rank. It is slower to grow in spring than ryegrass and is susceptible
Massey basyn is a standard cultivar – Melita is a newer to shading so spring management should be geared to keeping
Some cultivars contain the endophyte which gives resistance to This grass grows fast so you will have to have a quicker grazing cultivar. pastures short and leafy to maintain good clover content and
ASW but causes ryegrass staggers and some do not. round when using this plant. Heat stress was also a feature
Sowing rate: 5–8kg/ha. Sow seed at 5–10mm deep in a to capitalise on the good growth in summer.
of the old type Fescue strains and now there are strains with no
good seedbed. There are many varieties available. Pitau is a variety that
‘Greenstone’ endotoxin (which caused heat stress in cows especially in the
north of the North Island). Fescue plants are deeper rooting Grazing: must be well grazed in mid–spring otherwise it will adapted to a wide range of environments and was first released
This hybrid rye is extremely palatable and is hybrid. It is an
compared to ryegrass with good drought tolerance but in the become less palatable in late spring and summer. in 1975. This clover has a creeping prostrate habit with a
upright erect plant, which encourages a high legume content
cold of winter, growth rates for fescue are very low. Also very network of spreading stolons. However, newer strains have
and makes an ideal companion in a pasture mix with a more Has been shown to have important vermifuge properties in
useful in waterlogged and saline soil conditions where again improved characteristics like greater stolon density, a variation in
densely tillered ryegrass plant. This plant will persist only mixtures with chicory and other herbs, especially for newly
ryegrass does poorly. leaf size – like large, medium and small – some have resistance
under rotational grazing. Endosafe Grasslands Greenstone has weaned lambs.
to clover diseases like nematode and rot. Smaller leaf clovers
114 115
like Tahora and Prop are best suited to sheep farms. Large leaf Greater birdsfoot trefoil (Lotus uliginosus/pedunculatus) lucerne) in all our pasture mixes and still have it as a permanent pasture.
clover like Aran and Kopu and medium large leaf clover like persisting in ten year old mixes. This is probably
Sulla is a useful plant for stabilising soil on slips, gully banks
A more luxuriant and larger cousin of the species above which
Sustain, Challenge and Pitau suit dairy farm grazing. because it gets a chance when everything else gives
and roadsides. The large root system is left in the soil when the
thrives on moist soils.
up in the extreme summers. We believe this legume plant dies and a thick mat of herbage on top of the soil provides
A mix of Aran and Sustain is an idea for then you have the
Cultivar Maku contains condensed tannins making it non– is very underrated for our drought prone area. Watch
benefit of persistence and disease resistance and also high ideal conditions for the next generation of seeds to establish
bloating and giving protein protection in the rumen of stock. boron levels in lucerne.
winter yields and improved tolerance to intense grazing. and the nitrogen content left behind the Sulla plant grows the
Maku can grow on lower levels of phosphate than white clover,
When to sow? Lucerne can be sown in either autumn or spring: next set of germinating seeds.
Sowing rate: 2kg/ha Aran and 2kg/ha Sustain however it still responds to fertiliser.
in the warmer areas of NZ autumn establishment is preferred The stems of Sulla are totally unpalatable to stock and so
Sow shallow at 5–10mm sowing depth. Sunrise is another cultivar similar to Maku but tolerates grazing and in the cooler areas, spring establishment is best. management for quality forage, silage or hay means that
pressure though has better autumn growth and poorer summer yields are lower than if left to grow tall before harvesting.
Common birdsfoot trefoil (Lotus corniculatus) Depth: No deeper than 25mm in sandy soils, and clay and ash
growth. Crops should be harvested before growth turns reproductive
no deeper than 12mm.
Birdsfoot trefoil is a non–bloating perennial legume similar to Sowing rate: 1–2kg/ha. (stemmy).
lucerne in its fertility requirements, but it thrives on dry–land Sowing rate: 15kg/ha and the seed must be inoculated with
Sow in early autumn. Seed must be inoculated with the a Rhizobium. When to sow? Autumn or spring.
soils too acidic for lucerne. This plant is an erect–growing,
recommended strain of rhizobia. Can sow Maku and Sunrise Sowing rate: for seed in the hull 10–20kg/ha; de–hulled seed
tap–rooted plant so can offer good yields of high quality forage
during spring, summer and autumn in dry regions.
together. Drill or over–sow Strawberry clover (Trifolium fragiferum) should be sown at 5–10kg/ha. These rates should be increased
Grasslands Onward (Agricom NZ) is a clover (legume), which if the seed is broadcast. Sulla will not grow unless the seed is
This plant contains condensed tannins, which prevent bloat in Lucerne (Medicago sativa) inoculated with a special Rhizobium strain.
can suffer poor fertility, wet roots (waterlogged soils) and
ruminants and also protect forage proteins from degradation to
This plant requires high fertility soil with a high calcium base even saline conditions. It can also handle hard grazing. This Grazing management. This plant is best not grazed lower than
ammonia gas in the rumen so there is better amino acid diges-
saturation percentage – a minimum of 68%. It does not fare plant has low phyto–oestrogen levels, a small leaf size, is a 15cm from the ground otherwise re–growth will be reduced
tion and greater growth rates for ruminants.
well under the dairy grazing rotational system but can still be tetraploid and can spread by stolons and by re–seeding. This and the plants may die. Grazing by cattle should be very light
Photosensitisation (eczema) has been reported on odd occai- planted along tree lanes or in the quarantine paddock or can be plant is ideal for areas where white clover does not thrive due to prevent excessive damage to the plant crowns.
sions in animals grazing Lotus corniculatus. planted as a crop, and is often grown for silage or hay. This is a to waterlogged or saline soils, low phosphate or a soil with a
This plant is very acceptable to all livestock types and deer legume so can fix nitrogen and can have a high protein wide pH range. Herbs
especially so. It also makes excellent quality hay. content (18–22%), which makes a good plant to
Sowing rate: 3 kg/ha. Chicory (Cichorium intybus)
balance maize feeding (which is low in protein),
Trefoil is more resistant to pests and diseases compared to
but only if there is enough calcium present in the This is a broad leafed, tap–rooted drought tolerant herb and the
lucerne in dry areas. Subterranean clover (Trifolium subterraneum)
soil. This plant has a deep tap root so makes most common herb recommended for organic and conventional
There are some disadvantages with birdsfoot trefoil. It is slow the plant drought tolerant. This is an annual which creeps along the ground, so is low systems alike. This plant has a high nutritive value (high
to establish. This plant is not compatible with the common growing. Grows well in areas of poor soil fertility. It is a metabolisable energy), highly digestible,
It is recommended that lucerne is not grazed
pasture species so ideally it should be sown alone and in a vigourous re–seeder and survives dry summers and must be is high in minerals such as calcium,
if reasonable persistence is wanted. Best
way so that weeds do not compete as this plant is not aggres- allowed to re–seed to persist. Will reseed in good autumn sulphur, potassium, sodium, boron
production occurs when it is harvested by
sive and does not spread vegetatively or readily re–seed itself. rains. and zinc, and gives high stock perfor-
machine for silage. Five to six harvests are
Trefoil can be planted with lucerne where there is paddock expected over the growing season with dry Some of these clovers can cause oestrogenic effects in heifers mance and appears to be unpalatable
fertility variability. Another option is to plant it with brome (udder development). to rabbits and hares.
matter yields of about 14t/ha if plenty of
grasses but these are not really an option in the upper North potassium and phosphorus are available and Sow shallow. Chicory grows well in summer and on
Island. Birdsfoot trefoil must not be over grazed. It is sown pH over 6.0. If grazing lucerne, allow 6 weeks dairy farms supplies a continuous summer
Sowing rate: 1.5 – 2kg/ha.
with fescue in South America, and this could be worth a try between grazings. feed and due to the protein content will
especially up North. maintain milk production and milk protein
Growing lucerne successfully as a crop Sulla
content.
When making hay from this plant care needs to be exercised to depends upon a rapidly growing, dense stand. This is a short-lived perennial legume that provides forage
prevent the loss of dry leaves. Best production results in the North Island As a pure crop chicory can produce up to 18
for livestock and can be used for erosion control and soil
appear to be highest when lucerne is planted tonnes of dry matter per hectare between early
Grasslands Goldie is the local cultivar bred in New Zealand. fertilisation. It is a Mediterranean plant. The foliage contains
immediately after a crop rather than pasture. spring and late autumn.
condensed tannins, which increase the efficiency with which
When to sow? Best sown in spring as this plant is winter
Lucerne is susceptible to a wide variety of diseases and pests the grazing animal uses the forage protein. These tannins Puna and Chico are strains that have established quite well
dormant but will establish from early autumn plantings if a
especially when grown in poor soil conditions, but there are can make up 4 to 8% of the dry matter of the plant and also in dairy pastures especially under organic and biodynamic
good cover grows before winter onset. farming where herbicide spraying has ceased. Best suited
many lucerne varieties with varying disease and pest resistance. enables stock to reduce the effects of intestinal parasites. Sulla
Sowing rate: 5–10kg/ha and the seed must be inoculated with Consult with an agronomist who is familiar with the disease produces non–bloating forage. The highest nutritional value to free draining, highly fertile soils (not so good on clay soils
a specific Rhizobium strain for effective nitrogen fixation (which and pest problems in your area so that you can select a variety peaks before flowering and is similar to lucerne and red clover due to fungal diseases of the crown and tap–root). Chico
is not present in most NZ soils). at this time. has been selected for improved winter activity and has upright
best suited to your area if you are considering growing a pure
standing leaves.
Depth: drill at 2cm depth in a well prepared bed and when the crop. It may grow to 1.5m tall, has a deep branched root system.
soil temperature is above 12 degrees Celsius. Doesn’t grow well on sands and needs reasonably fertile a Disadvantages. As chicory can grow rapidly stock can be
An observation from a Marlborough farmer:
soil like lucerne does. Will not tolerate temperatures below 4 poisoned by nitrate/nitrite and there have been instances of
Management: Avoid grazing below 8cm. Should be rotation- We find in our very dry summers, chicory and clovers degrees Celsius. Needs rainfall of 500 to 2000mm per year. bloat. Milk taint is another potential problem and if grazing
ally grazed. will shrivel away to nothing but lucerne will get its Sulla can be grown alone as hay, silage or forage crop; or it can pure crops then graze for only 2 hours after the morning milking
chance in a pasture mix. We use lucerne (Wairua be sown with tall–growing grasses like Phalaris or prairie grass (only if the crop is safe from nitrate). Lambs are also prone to
116 117
Seeds sourcing and Herbal ley mixtures

pulpy kidney. Website: http://www.specseed.co.nz
Sowing rate As a minor species 0.5–2kg/ha in a grass/clover
Taranaki Farmers, P O Box 544, New Plymouth
selection
mix in spring or if sown in autumn then use a 1–1.5kg/ha. Will
Ph: 06 759 0971 Contributed by Beverley Trowbridge
persist for 2 to 5 years. (see Anderson, 2001, p 83) Email: [email protected]
When planning pasture species mixtures it is useful to
For a chicory dominant pasture sow at 5–6kg/ha with a 4kg/ha
As farmers’ change to biological farming it is possible consider what we are trying to achieve. On an organic
clover mix of a 50:50 mixture of large–leaved and medium Wrightson Seeds Ltd.
that conventional seed sources may become a problem For a commercially available herbal ley mixture containing 17 farm we are trying to fairly closely mimic nature in
leaved white clover. Red clover could also be added at
(apart from the fact that it is treated with chemicals). species of grasses, legumes and herbs suited to NZ providing a wide range of plant species for our live-
4–5kg/ha or more for large–seeded tetraploid cultivars.
Farmers who have well balanced soils on biological conditions. stock to graze on, as there would be in a natural grassy
Ribwort plantain (Plantago lanceolata) mineralisation programmes may find crop failures using P O Box 939, Christchurch. clearing. This is because we are aiming to provide our
the readily available hybrid seeds. Ph: 03 344 2843 stock with the whole range of minerals and other micro-
This is a deep rooted, drought tolerant, mineral rich plant suited nutrients, as well as proteins, sugars and fibre, i.e. a
to rotational grazing, and an important element of organic These hybrid seeds have been grown and performance selected Sources of herb seeds: complete healthy diet, from the plants that they graze,
systems, believed to have vermifuge properties on NPK soluble salt–type fertilisers. Ideally farmers would
Biodynamic Seed Bank without having to provide any supplementary feed. This
and high nutritional value. There is rapid want to source seed that is open pollinated and from plants or Hohepa Homes, c/– Chris Hull, R D 2, Poraiti, Napier is the most cost–effective way to farm livestock, for milk
establishment and good winter growth. crops grown on similar biological fertilisation programmes to
production or live weight gains.
Strains available are Ceres Tonic and achieve maximum efficiency. Many farmers find that the older Herb Federation of New Zealand
varieties perform better in organic systems. Mrs Bunny Rathbone, 107 Glenelg St, Bradford, The goal is to be able to provide natural forage all the year
Lancelot. Tonic is the preferred strain
Dunedin. round, or for as much of the year as possible, to take into
for dairy pasture and Lancelot for
(Have a seed bank for members – membership of a consideration climatic extremes and soil type. This will enable
sheep pasture. Most herbicides
local affiliated herb society accesses the seed bank.) optimal growth and production rates of our stock, without
used on conventional farms
remove these plants and yet Seed Sources Kings Herbs (NZ) Ltd.
causing stress or illness. You should strive to create a pasture
they are so beneficial for stock. mix that will allow your stock to self–medicate. At the same
Agricom NZ Ltd, PO Box 539, Ashburton PO Box 283 Katikati 3063, Bay of Plenty time we want to build soil fertility.
They offer a wide range of minerals to
Ph: 03 308 8772 Email: [email protected]
stock, notably iron, calcium, copper, zinc and Here are some mixtures that could help you achieve your
sodium. They are quite palatable for stock. Agriseeds Koanga Gardens goals:
Sowing rate: 3–4kg/ha in a mixture with grasses, 2547 Old West Road, RD 1 Christchurch 8021 RD 2 Maungaturoto Northland
legumes and other herbs. Freeph: 0800 352 6537 Phone: 09 431 2145 Fax: 09 431 2745
Email: [email protected] ; Website: www.koanga.org.nz
Other plant species to consider Website: www.agriseeds.co.nz In–conversion ley mixtures
Mt Tiger Gardens
Reed grass (Phalaris arundinacea) Farmlands RD 1, Onerahi, Whangarei. The first consideration is to rebuild the humus in our soils
1010 Southampton St, Hastings Website: www.mounttiger.co.nz to supply carbon. The most important plant to get into your
Commonly recommended as an autumn/winter growing species Ph: 06 873 1090 Fax: 06 873 8190 pasture mix is white clover. This is the powerhouse plant for
it is dormant in summer but is drought tolerant. Depending Website: www.farmslands.co.nz Sources of additional information biologically–based pastures. Fortunately most conventionally
on the soil type it can spread though reseeding and rhizomes. Crop and Food Research farmed pastures do have clover, often in conjunction with
Check with your seed merchant re management of this species. Genetic Technologies Ltd. Private Bag 4704, Christchurch ryegrass, but usually not at a high enough density being
It can also be toxic, especially to sheep. 48 Entican Ave, Auckland 5 Ph: 03 325 6400 Fax: 03 325 2074
around 20% of the sward. To optimise productivity the white
Freeph: 0800 73 7333 Website: www.crop.cri.nz
Pink Serradella clover content needs to be a minimum of 30% of the sward,
Mr J. McKenzie SFF Project aiming for up to 50%. Also you may like to consider using a mix
Grasslands Koha a deep rooted winter annual tolerant of acid of different cultivars of clover, as different ones suit different
Belfield, R.D. Kurow Evaluating organic seed and organic seed production
soils. A legume. soil conditions and types of grazing stock, also some are more
Phone: 03 436 0685 systems in NZ and informing growers of outcomes.
Contact person: persistent and disease resistant than others.
Yarrow (Achillea millefolium) Pacific Seeds Colin Walker
The other important consideration is the main grass species
This perennial plant is rich in minerals and was PO Box 8715 Homestead Gardens Trust, RD1,
Fax: 07 575 3056 that your sward is based upon. As discussed in the
once sown as a pasture species because of its Coromandel
individual plant section, ryegrasses have been bred
ability to survive the summer dry and due to its Email: [email protected]
Pioneer Seed, for use in modern, chemical farming systems and
mineral content being higher than clover and
P O Box 105 303, Auckland. they are designed to grow fast and aggressively and
ryegrass. This plant does have a rhizome
Freeph: 0800 PIONEER Fax: 09 307 3300 therefore can shade out clover and limit its usefulness
system and if it dominates a pasture is difficult
to get rid of. Tolerates grazing. in the pasture. There are several other types of grasses
Pyne Gould Guinness Ltd. like bromes, fescues, timothy and cocksfoot that are worth
P O Box 3100, Christchurch considering as the main grass species in your final mix, instead
Sheeps/salad burnett (Sanguisorba minor) Ph: 03 308 2181
of, or as well as, ryegrass.
A fast establishing perennial for summer
feed. It withstands cold winters and Specialty Grains and Seeds If you have the luxury of being able to set aside some of your
performs in dry, low fertility areas. 11 Halkett Street, Riccarton, Christchurch pasture for a while to grow a fertility building ley which you
Freeph: 0800 727 8873 Freefax: 0800 365 6663 then plough in and re–seed with your final mix, it is well worth
Email: [email protected]
118 119
doing. In that case you might consider a mix like red and white
clovers with ryegrass. Another mix to consider if humus building Heavy land mixture Other herbal plantings planted too deep. The pasture should then be lightly grazed
until the new seedlings germinate, but then the stock removed
is your main issue would be red clover, perennial rye, cocksfoot On cold, waterlogged, clay soils we need species which can These can be planted in areas where cows have selected access and left ungrazed for 3–4 weeks to allow the seedlings to
and chicory, as these are all deep–rooting species. tolerate and thrive in these conditions and again ryegrasses do to it. This enables the plant to continue to grow. If the animals develop good strong root systems. However, the grass shouldn’t
not perform well here. Under these circumstances grasses like have free access to these herbs, they tend to graze it so much be allowed to overtop the new seedlings, if there is a risk of this
fescues and timothy should be the grasses of choice as they that it refuses to grow. a high cut or quick mob grazing may be required. The sward
should only be lightly grazed and not conserved for forage in
All–purpose herbal ley mix produce a highly palatable sward which is highly digestible
when grown in association with red and white clovers. Other
A corner of your sacrifice paddock or in the hedgerows is a
good area to plant these. Put a fence between them and the
its first year, to allow the new plants to establish and catch up
legumes and herbs tolerant of wet ground can also be added to to the already established plants.
If you are farming on land of good fertility which is not animal at a height that allows the animal to reach under and
the mix. This sward should not be over–grazed, allowing plenty nibble at it. Deep rooting plants are beneficial and will give the Preparing and planting into a seedbed by ploughing and cultiva-
drought–prone or seasonally waterlogged, then a good
of time for recovery between rotations, and it can be used for plants all the nutrients needed to keep well. tion is the most certain way to get a good result, but obviously
general purpose herbal ley mix can be a mixture of perennial
good quality hay if cut before flowering. cannot be done in every circumstance. The seedbed needs to be
ryegrass varieties suited to your soil type and situation, with a The animals will eat them when they have a need, and they will very firm, the age old test being that a bicycle should be able
range of white clover types plus other legumes like red clover instinctively know this and what they need. to be ridden across it prior to sowing! Again, a shallow surface
and greater birdsfoot trefoil, plantain (ribgrass) and perhaps
As well as these suggestions you can speed up the changes by sowing method is required for the small seed, especially the
chicory, plus other grass species suited to the site like cocksfoot
on lighter land, or timothy on heavier land. This was the original Forage production trying to oversow some species such as chicory and plantain clover, and care needs to be taken during establishment of the
when conditions are good into existing pastures. Experiment to sward for best results.
mixture called ‘Pochon’ developed by a Breton farmer (Andre Many species of legumes and other herbs make excellent
Pochon) for rotational grazing and forage production. It is espe- see what suits your conditions and which doesn’t. Grazing should not be started until there is sufficient root
forage, either in conjunction with grasses, or when grown alone
cially suited for dairy farmers for use as high quality grazing or Some varieties are: establishment to prevent the plants being pulled out by grazing
or in mixtures. Red clover is a particularly good choice for silage
silage production. It can be adapted for use on good quality stock; a ‘tug–test’ will determine this. After the first grazing the
production with high yields and feed quality, with up to 20% Chicory, red clover, plantain, yarrow, sheep’s burnet, trefoil,
beef and sheep land by the use of some of the smaller–leaved sward should be topped to control weed species before they
crude protein, without the need for nitrogenous fertilisers. It is fennel, timothy, borage, comfrey, cleavers, chickweed,
white clover types which are more persistent and tolerant of have a chance to set seed. This may need to be done more
highly palatable to stock and results in higher milk yields and dock, shepherd’s purse, dandelion, chamomile, nastur-
closer grazing. Other herbs can be added to this basic mix but than once in the first year of establishment. Ideally, the new ley
liveweight gains than ryegrass alone silage. When grown as a tium, alfalfa, self–heal, melilot, sheep’s sorrel, sow thistle
they may not persist long in the vigourous sward. Persistent should be grazed lightly in autumn and the following spring,
forage crop it can be grown with Italian and hybrid ryegrasses, (puha), and watercress.
perennial ‘weeds’ like dandelion and dock (sorrel) should not be and then shut up for conserved forage, to help the plants get
providing them with all the nitrogen they need for maximum There are lots more. Use a herb book to identify some you may
eliminated from these established swards as they are relished fully established. It can be beneficial the allow the sward to
production. need to plant.
by stock and contribute to stock health and nutrition – they are set seed in its first year to boost plant density if most of the
herbs for free! Vetches and other winter hardy legumes can also be used as plants you want have established and it’s not too weedy. Heavy
a companion crop in a mix with cereals like maize, sorghum or grazing in the first autumn will delay spring growth, but this
oats to be cut for silage. could be beneficial if the grass is getting away better than the
Other species to consider either alone or in mixtures include, Techniques for sowing and clovers, as it will allow the clovers to catch up. If planting in the
Drought–resistant, humus– ribwort plantain, chicory, lucerne, sainfoin, phacelia and establishment of herbal leys spring then the sward can be grazed and conserved for forage
building ley mixture comfrey.
There are basically two techniques for establishing a herbal
in its first year.
If under-sowing pasture species into companion plantings like
Many farmers in New Zealand don’t have the luxury of farming ley, depending on what you want to achieve: either you have
cereals it is often best to plant the under-storey plants like the
on such good soils, especially the sheep and beef farmers to plough up and reseed your existing pasture, or you can
legumes first in the spring and allow them to establish before
amongst us, and we are often trying to do our best on more Green manures over–sow the seed mix into an already established pasture. If
there are essential elements of your existing pasture that you
planting in the main crop, especially if growing a winter cereal.
marginal pastoral land. We need a mix of pasture species, which Then the fertility–building mixture can be cut or grazed just prior
can tolerate the very dry summer conditions and still provide Green manuring is a technique which has gone out of vogue in want to keep and it is really only a matter of enhancing it by
to planting the main crop. The timing of companion plantings
our stock with reasonable feed, as well as continue to build modern intensive farming, but is a technique for adding fertility adding species or boosting the clover content, then the latter is
is crucial to get a good result and can vary widely depending
up the humus in the soil so that it gradually becomes more and drought resistance to the soil in between crops without the the best option, but it needs careful management to get a good
upon season, care being needed so that the under-storey plants
water retentive and fertility improves. The original ley mixture need for fertilisers. It uses the dynamic interchange of nutrients result. It is best to use this technique on very open or damaged
don’t end up swamping the over-storey. However, it can be a
designed to do this was developed over 100 years ago by like nitrogen between the clover legumes and the grasses, the pastures where there is plenty of space for new seedlings to
cost–effective way of getting the herbal ley sward established
Robert Elliot, a Scot, and is known as the ‘Clifton Park’ mix, ‘fixers’ and the ‘lifters’, to increase and capture the nutrients, establish. It doesn’t work very well on dense swards unless the
and ready to be grazed once the crop is harvested.
after his estate. It has been used with great effect by organic which are then ploughed back into the soil for use by the next sward is harrowed hard first, to expose the soil.
crop, which may be a grass ley. In highly fertile pastures where it is difficult to get the herb
and conventional farmers alike ever since. The best time to do over-sowing is when the ground is warm
species to persist in the sward due to competition by vigourous
These leys are not based on ryegrasses but on a mix of other The advantage of green manure crops is that they maintain and moist to give maximum chance for germination and growth
grasses, then it may be appropriate to plant shelter belts of
grass species; cocksfoot, fescue and timothy in particular, soil cover during the winter or summer when the soil may be for the seedlings to get away and compete successfully with the
mixed herb species, where the stock only have limited access
with white and red clovers and a mix of herbs including prone to leaching or parching, and they build humus which is existing sward. This is usually late spring, but also autumn may
and where competition from grasses is reduced. Examples of
plantain. Under dry conditions these pastures out–perform often severely depleted after an arable crop has been grown. be more favourable in the north. The existing sward must be
potentially suitable locations would be alongside/underneath a
ryegrass swards and produce high quality feed which can be Using this technique soil structure, fertility and water retention closely cut or heavily grazed immediately prior to sowing, and
hedge line or tree–line, or on erosion spots in your paddocks,
cut or grazed. Other grass species can be added to the mix are significantly improved after just two green manure crops the seed mixture broadcast and lightly harrowed into the soil,
or on steeper slopes, beside dams or water courses, or in your
and Yorkshire fog is well worth considering, as well as other in your rotation. A variety of different pasture species can be followed by rolling.
quarantine paddock, or orchard.
legumes, which are tolerant of dry conditions like birdsfoot used depending on whether winter or summer sown, and your The seed can be surface drilled but only just below the surface
trefoil. soil type. as most of the seeds are very small and do not germinate if
120 121
Availability of Seed our conditions over a long period of time and are possibly more
suited to organic/biological systems. There is also a seed saving
achieved by using artificial nitrogenous fertilisers as the soil
needs to warm up sufficiently for biological activity to kick in.
grazed ahead of dairy heifers or beef followers, or weaned
lambs ahead of ewes. The sheep and beef organic system takes
bank and network freely available in New Zealand to preserve This is not such an issue in the north but in the south after a advantage of this technique as part of pasture optimisation
There are few seed merchants in New Zealand who specialise
these seeds. Ask one of the people named in Seed Sourcing. colder winter some allowance may need to be made for this in and parasite control, allowing beef cattle onto the pastures
in seed mixes designed specifically for organic pastoral
terms of amounts of conserved forage or fodder crops put aside first to graze the longer sward, followed immediately by sheep
farmers. At present there is only one commercially available
for this time, and equally the same in the autumn. However, and then rested. In this system parasite control is achieved by
source of herbal ley mix in New Zealand. It was developed
the benefit of biological farming will become apparent during each mopping up of the worm eggs and larvae of the preceding
by AgResearch Grasslands division for New Zealand condi-
tions and is available through Wrightson’s Seeds (at a cost Management of the the summer dry period when organic pastures will continue to stock type, so cross–contamination does not occur. This can be
of $18.90/kg and a sowing rate of 20–30kg per hectare), herbal ley pasture perform long after conventional pastures have slowed down
and dried up. This is due to clover being very active during the
an important part of livestock health control for a successful
organic sheep operation, especially if there are not enough
although supplies are usually limited and it is best to order
To get optimum results, the basic grass/clover sward of an summer when grasses are often setting seed and resting, as paddocks where weaned lambs can be given ‘clean’ pasture,
well in advance. It contains a mix of 17 grass, legume and herb
organic farm does need a rather different management well as the greater humus content of organic pastures giving that is pasture that has not been grazed by sheep for suffi-
species including cocksfoot, timothy, italian and hybrid ryegrass, them higher water retentive ability. Under New Zealand’s cient duration for risk of contamination to be minimal (usually
browntop, tall fescue, brome and phalaris grasses; white clover, approach to that of the mainly grass–based swards of conven-
strongly bimodal seasonal pasture growth curve, this will make considered to be about a year), or land that has been cut for hay
red clover, birdsfoot trefoil, lucerne, subterranean clover, sulla tional farms. Currently, farmers rely heavily on the performance
a significant difference to overall productivity. or forage, or land reseeded after a crop rotation.
and pink serradella; as well as chicory and salad burnett. It is of clovers for soil fertility, and so our management needs to
a very generic mixture, being designed mainly for a medium keep them in mind, over and above our grasses. The techniques Additional management techniques to get the most from By adopting a biological approach to the management of your
that we use to manage them are exactly the same as for your herbal ley pastures will be the usual chain harrowing, pastures, it won’t be long before you notice that those bare
fertility, dry site, to provide summer feed with some cooler
conventional pastures, although the timings may vary and we in spring–time especially, to break up matted vegetation and patches between the plants, that are such a common feature
winter growth species too. However, not all of the species will
may need to be more in tune with what is happening. aerate the soil, and spread any dung pats lying around after the of conventionally managed pasture in New Zealand, start to
establish or perform on every site where it is sown as some will
winter. However, chain harrowing through the season is likely to close up, and the sward becomes denser and thicker at the base
be lost if the site is too fertile, some if the site is too dry etc. It Our main management tool is obviously our grazing livestock,
be needed much less than on conventional pasture as there is a with increased biological activity in the soil. As well as being a
is a difficult mix to establish into an already established sward and these act as our mobile mowers and fertilisers. Judicious
much quicker turnover and incorporation of dung back into the healthier and more productive and more nutritious pasture, this
and so ploughing and reseeding would be the best option. Not management of our grazing density, duration and rotation, soil, and likewise dead vegetation decays and disappears very closing of the soil canopy will protect that essential soil life as
all of the species will persist over time. can limit the need for any other pasture intervention, but of rapidly and does not tend to build up and cause problems like well as holding more nutrients in the sward to prevent leaching
Apart from this commercially available herbal ley mix it is a course our grazing is always a delicate balancing act and life facial eczema. A mid–season topping of the pasture can some- and loss to water courses or to the air. Also the soil will start
matter of buying up the individual plant seeds and making is far from perfect, so there is always some tweaking required times be beneficial, though especially if grass growth is getting to grow in depth and its structure will improve. Thus, there are
your own mixtures, adjusting the sowing rates according to on our part. Rotational grazing is by far the most successful away and setting seed, or there are a lot of weeds which could positive feedback loops, which mean that the pastures become
the percentage of each you want in the final sward. Your seed grazing technique on organic pastures as it allows the clovers usefully be de–headed before seeding. This type of manage- even more productive, which is why after the first few years
merchants will help you with this and those who stock some the essential time they need to recover after defoliation, as well ment can be especially useful if there are perennial weed of converting from conventional chemically farmed pasture,
of the varieties and species mentioned here are included in the as which it allows time for intestinal parasite eggs dropped in problems like creeping thistle, as they cannot tolerate frequent organic farmers find that their pastures regain productivity.
Sources section. dung to hatch and be exposed to the elements and die before cutting. For weed control it is useful to rotate your pastures
re–infestation. The optimum time between grazing should be between ones which are grazed only and ones which are cut
Another technique for establishing an herbal ley is to use hay
around 5 weeks for each of these processes, although this will for winter forage. For pastures to be shut up for hay or silage an
cut from an already established pasture, especially one from an
organic farm. The hay would obviously need to be cut after the
vary depending on the growing season. Clovers can recover early rolling is beneficial while the ground is still moist but not Kikuyu information
very quickly in spring and rotations sped up to keep on top of wet, as this levels the soil surface after any winter pugging and
main sward species have flowered and set seed. The method Kikuyu pastures, which are such a feature of livestock farms in
the growth. Set–stocking will tend to favour the grasses over encourages tillering of the grasses for a thicker sward.
to use then is to scatter the hay across your paddock, thinly the north, have particular management needs to enable them to
the clover so that over time the proportion of clover and hence Biologically–managed pastures need plenty of aeration of the
enough to allow germination of the seed. This can be a very be used to best advantage, many of which differ from the general
fertility of the sward will decline, also causing a worm problem soil to maximize biological activity and so occasional subsoil
successful and cost effective technique and often the only way pasture management described previously. Biological management
in your young stock, especially lambs. conditioning like mole ploughing can significantly increase their
to get the species you want. It has the added advantage of is in fact a much more suitable way to optimise the feed value of
providing extra humus to the soil at the same time. A crucial aspect of grazing management is sward height. performance, especially if they have been heavily pugged or this grass, since under chemical management it becomes long and
Over–grazing should be avoided and stock moved on before damaged by heavy machinery. Some farmers swear by various rank very quickly, shading out other desirable pasture species like
A much more time consuming and labour intensive technique ‘spiking’ techniques, like those used to condition lawns, sports
the sward gets below about 3–5cm, as below this there is little clover, and it also becomes particularly deficient in vital minerals,
is to collect your own seed from field margins and waste places fields and golf courses. The best time for these treatments is
leaf area available for photosynthesis and so pasture recovery causing problems like staggers in stock grazed on kikuyu dominant
around your farm and the local neighbourhood, especially road early in the season while the soil is still moist, but only once
is significantly delayed. Equally swards should not be allowed to pastures. Under a biological system kikuyu can be managed as a
verges. This is only really a viable option if you are sowing small it is dry enough not to cause further damage to the soil struc-
get too tall and rank as this will inhibit the activity of the clovers balanced and beneficial constituent of your pasture, providing nutri-
areas of your farm like shelter belts and quarantine paddocks, ture. Equally, it is important that activities like fertilising/slurry tious grazing even during the driest summers when other pasture
and reduce productivity. Optimum sward heights vary between
as the quantity of seed you need is quite daunting! It does spreading are only carried out when the ground is firm enough species have shrivelled up.
6cm for sheep up to about 10cm for dairy cattle, the aim
have the benefit, however, of giving you locally adapted species not to be damaged by the machinery, and so storage arrange-
being to keep the grazing period as short as possible, moving Kikuyu is a subtropical grass, originating from South Africa. It was
and varieties which you know will flourish on your farm, and ments need to be adequate to tide over wet times. Pugging and
the stock on at the optimum stubble height for rapid sward introduced to New Zealand in the 1920s for erosion control. It is
for nothing (well, in cash anyway). Perhaps one to get the kids damage to the sward and soil structure also need to be taken
regrowth. If under-grazing or above average growth occurs still available for sale but is now quite expensive. It is dominant
onto? into account when considering strip grazing to ration forage or
the sward can be topped, if conditions allow, maintaining the in 40% of Northland farms, and has also spread down the coast
Another source of seed is from organically grown plants for use optimum sward height. If the pasture becomes over-grazed, try ensure an even graze.
as far south as the Bay of Plenty and Taranaki. Due to our climate
in small areas like orchard or quarantine paddock herbal leys, to give it a longer recovery time before the next grazing. Wait Best utilisation of the pasture can be achieved by adopting changes it is creeping into other areas. It is considered by many to
and there a few places specialising in this. Some also specialise until the favoured plants have recovered, or allow these plants leader–follower grazing patterns, where stock that require the be an undesirable pasture constituent due to its ability to thrive and
in Heritage Seeds, that is older varieties of seed which are to reseed next year if it knocked too hard. most nutrition are given access to the new–growth in advance smother out other pasture species.
long–established in New Zealand and are therefore adapted to of other stock. For example, high yielding dairy cows might be
In biological systems spring growth may be delayed over that
122 123
Features:
• It has roots that spread from stolon growth, both over and
Kikuyu management Cropping Crops currently being grown
organically throughout NZ
The fertility and biological activity of the soil should be (This list is not complete and there is further information. We recommend
underground. It can send new roots down from the nodes on Because organic farmers cannot use chemical sprays to you contact your seed supplier or do some research.)
its overground stolons eliminate kikuyu, it is best to make the best of its usefulness maintained or increased where appropriate by cultivation
by managing it. of legumes and deep rooting plants and incorporation of Sorghum A native grass of the tropics, can be green fed
• Grows best when ground temperatures are above 15 degrees. soil organic material. (AgriQuality Organic Standard (2002) 4.2.1.) or made into silage. Plant when ground temperatures are 18
The warmer and more humid, the more prolific the growth. It This is done by:
• Crops are viable on organic farms degrees and rising. Seeds are imported and therefore coated
will also grow in lower temperatures • Keeping it in a growing and leafy state. This also increases and will need washing. Enquire about volumes needed for
its food value • Because organic farmers cannot spray out, the aim is to
• There is little or no growth in winter and spring. – you also need importing uncoated seed. Needs supplemental fertiliser (liquid
keep the soil structure as intact as possible while using
other grasses • Control through topping or mulching to get rid of the and solid) for best yields.
sustainable methods to work the soil.
• Frosts do not kill the roots of the plant but do put it into in a matted kikuyu. Usually this is done in autumn. This also
• Plan your strategy for cropping. Look at what you need,
Maize Silage You will need a certificate indicating GM
dormant mode. The green growth deteriorates in quality and allows the other grasses to come though for adequate feed and coating status. It is part of some organic farms, annual
why you are cropping, and the benefits as well as the
burns off. It then has very low feed value. It is important to have in winter and spring management plan. Needs nitrogen.
disadvantages
other grass species underneath the plant • Graze your non–productive older animals (dry cows) on Sunflower Provides energy and protein, tolerant to lower
• Research how you are going to prepare your land, what
• The army caterpillar prefers kikuyu and will eat it in autumn. it hard. You may need a lick as a mineral supplement. temperatures, can be greenfed, makes silage, can be grown and
crop you are going to use, how you are going to maintain
There is a toxin that can affect the kikuyu at the same time. Molasses sprayed on makes it more palatable and adds harvested with maize or sorghum. Use a corn planter or preci-
fertility for the crop and the paddock, and how you are
Web worm will also eat it energy through the molasses sion drill at ground temperatures of 10 degrees and rising.
going to return it back to pasture
• Shades out other species • Keep your stocking rates high and paddock sizes appro- • One example is to shallow cut no greater than 2cm to Millet Can be grown if ground temperatures are too low
priate to ensure the kikuyu is eaten out properly on each break up the top sward if it is too thick, then use disks, for maize or sorghum. Grows on less fertile soil. Can be green
• Forms a dry fibrous mat as it gets older
rotation power harrows, spring tine cultivators to work the soil fed or made into silage.
• Good fibre source but very low in energy and carbohydrates
when fibrous
• The maximum grazing rotation should be 4 weeks. During • Using the Biodynamic Farming and Gardening Calendar, Oats Good winter/spring feed. Can be greenfed or made
growth spurts of kikuyu it should be reduced to 2–3 weeks work the soil on fire/seed days during a descending phase into silage.
• Only needs a sprinkle of rain to grow and then topped to 2.5cm to allow regrowth over a period of time to reduce your weeds. Plant your seed Lucerne A three year crop. More sensitive to molybdenum
• Is very efficient at taking up nitrogen when in a growing state. • Old fibrous kikuyu can take 3 weeks to digest. For on the appropriate day (e.g. root crops on a root day, leaf deficiencies than clovers. See Pasture section.
maximum production, feed your springers young leafy on a water/leaf day)
• The plant is a natrophobe, which means it has low sodium Turnips Greenfeed crop. Needs good cobalt levels. Sensitive
levels. Sodium containing fertilisers will not increase the sodium kikuyu in the 3 weeks prior to calving • Ploughing, in the absence of spraying, is a good way to
to molybdenum deficiencies. Plan a crop rotation with turnips
content of natrophobic plants. • In summer/autumn be mindful of the risk of facial eczema remove cover and control weed numbers while the crop
and be very careful about adding molybdenum as an excess
by not allowing a litter mass to accumulate is establishing. The key is the depth of any ploughing or
can induce a copper deficiency. Also some RPRs have significant
Plant species according to their sodium content; working up of the soil
amounts of molybdenum – it always pays to check with the
• Ensure there is minimum mat left before any chance of
• Some farmers start cultivating 2 to 3 weeks earlier than fertiliser company, especially if you are in a marginal copper
frosts – you can be left with no grass
Sodium Accumulation in with using sprays, where possible, to allow grasses time area.
• Broadcast or over–sowing before mulching in Autumn is to die off and weeds a chance to germinate before getting
Leaf Stubble Others Brassicas, red clover, chicory
recommended to improve sward diversity disturbed again at planting time
Sodium rich plants – natrophiles
• Free–range pigs can help control kikuyu by rooting up and • Cultivating at night will result in less weeds germinating,
Ryegrass White clover Sub clover eating the juicy stolons, creating bare patches which allow because some seeds are germinated by the spark of light
Cocksfoot Chou moellier/Kale Barley
the germination and spread of the other pasture species. • A good density of crop will reduce your weeds Sources of information
There is a new organically certified weed killer available called • Use liquid fertilisers and effluent, at appropriate times, to
Lotus Yorkshire fog Oats
Interceptor, which is made from pine tree needles, that will Most seed firms have information on different crops or can
strengthen your plants and the soil
Phalaris knock back kikuyu, but permission must be sought for its use access the information needed. The following, among others,
• Biodynamic preparation 500 helps the soil and preparation. have specialists for crops and research data at their fingertips.
Sodium poor plants – natrophobes which must be around areas that cannot be grazed, depending
501 will strengthen the plants
on the certifying agency. Pacific Seeds, Fax: 07 575 3056
Browntop Alsike clover Kikuyu Lucerne • Choose crops that do well on low inputs rather than new Pioneer Seed, Ph: 07 839 6626
There has been recent research done on trial farms in cultivars that are dependent on high NPK and inputs Crop and Food Research, Private Bag 4704, Christchurch
Poa trivialis Millet Paspalum Maize Ph: 03 325 6400 Fax: 03 325 2074
Northland by the Kikuyu Action Group. • Plough or hoe in the stubble and remains of the crop for
Tall Fescue Rape Desmodium Sudax Website: www.crop.cri.nz
An article on kikuyu was written in Dexcel Link – Winter mulch
Timothy Soya bean Lupin There is much research and literature on organic cropping in
2002, pp 13. www.dexcel.co.nz • Watch your crop rotations. Plan what you are going to New Zealand, and trials are currently underway.
Red Clover grow in succession to avoid depletion of minerals and the
The group have gathered a lot of valuable information.
Contact:
health of the soil Websites:
Table sourced from ‘Fertiliser Recommendations for Pastures and Crops in NZ’ MAF 1982
Helen Moodie • Allow fallow periods when cropping an area intensively www.guidetoorganics.com This website is being developed by
NZ LANDCARE TRUST Crop and Food Research to provide information on pest, disease and weed
Waikaraka, R D 4, Whangarei
• Any crop can be grown, however they may need different management for ‘organic’ arable and vegetable crops in New Zealand.
Ph: 09 436 3170 • Email: [email protected]
management to conventional crops, with an emphasis on
www.crop.cri.nz Use the search engine at this site to find relevant
maintaining fertility. information on organic cropping
124 125
www.organicsnewzealand.org.nz This website contains a The important point here is that we are the agents of change on Many persistent plants which are taking up too much space and • How long will the seed stay viable in the soil? If so,
free library and directory where you can access information on the farm, and it is our management practices which, to a great adversely affecting our target crop or pasture can be managed should the plants be destroyed at pre–flowering?
organics
extent, determine what conditions are available and suitable for by topping at the appropriate time before they set seed. This • What can I do about it?
www.organicpathways.co.nz what plants. So–called weed species are often providing us with is particularly relevant in newly sown pasture leys or crops, or
www.soil–health.org.nz/organicnz/proceedings an indicator of something that we are doing wrong, or could for persistent pasture species like creeping thistle. Most cannot Some plants and their properties and indications of
www.ecan.govt.nz do differently, to make conditions less suitable for the undesired tolerate cutting and will not persist, especially if cut more than soil deficiencies:
www.organics.org.nz plants. Just blasting them with herbicides is not actually going once. The other main method of control is rotations of crop and Dock – trying to open up soil with deep tap root, poorly
www.biodynamic.org.nz there is a research report on to solve the problem, and as we haven’t changed the conditions pasture, and rotations between different crop types, so that drained soil, lime indicator.
cropping with possible websites and papers. they are still tipped in favour of the ‘weeds’. A good example weed species do not get a hold and become dominant.
Plantain, Hawke’s beard – phosphorous (plantain is now
www.landcareresearch.co.nz of this is a high incidence of dock around gateways and water For pastures where mechanical cutting cultivation techniques regarded as a beneficial pasture plant)
www.ruralni.govt.uk/bussys/organic/organic_cropping troughs, and other areas of high traffic. This is where the ground are not practicable, which would be the case for many sheep
is highly compacted and drainage impeded, and dock is one of Chamomile, willow weed, willow, speedwell, chamomile
www.attra.ncat.org has a 75 page document on cropping. and beef farmers in New Zealand, the presence of dominant
the few plants able to tolerate these conditions, and it does – lime, calcium
www.bhu.co.nz a SFF project evaluating organic technolo- and persistent weeds may be telling us something important
gies and disseminating protocols to growers. Co–ordinator Tim so by means of a very deep and vigourous taproot, which about our grazing management which could be changed. Set Sorrel – calcium, phosphorous
Jenkins. penetrates the soil increasing aeration and pulling up nutrients stocking for example often leads to widespread problems of Buttercup – cobalt, low pH, poor drainage
from the subsoil. So the plant is actually working in your favour, over–grazing, compaction and selective grazing, which favours Nettle – iron and shallow pan (has 27 other minerals as
improving the soil. Large areas of dock infestation through your certain weed species. Changing to a rotational grazing system well)
paddocks are likely to be an indication of a wider compaction
Weeds and their

and by rotational cross–grazing between different stocktypes
problem and the solution may be to do some sub–soil aeration, All thistles – nitrogen, copper, silica
can significantly improve the quality and vigour of the pasture,
not shoot the messenger. Ragwort – copper
Management
and get a more balanced sward, eventually eliminating some of
On the biological farm it pays to get to know and understand the weed species altogether. Couch, dandelion – silica
your weeds, and to learn to live with them in an attitude of There are many books, which look at weeds and their ecological Chickweed, cleaver, fumitory – copper, boron, zinc, phos-
Weeds! The word instantly conjures up an enemy to be mutual respect and tolerance. Many of them are our friends, niches, which are well worth reading to get to know your allies phorous, iron
conquered. and the others can usually be managed at tolerable levels by and enemies, and to help you develop more long–term, lateral Bracken Fern and Inkweed – potassium
understanding the problem that they are indicating and dealing strategies in your farm management to make use of what they
Weeds, along with animal health issues, are the most Blackberry – iron
with that. As we have already discussed above, many of them are telling you. Below are just some examples.
often given reason by farmers for why they believe they Fennel – copper, potassium, sulphur
like plantain, dandelion, chickweed, and a whole host of other
can’t go organic. They believe they will be swamped by
herbs are relished by the stock, and are important elements in Gorse – nitrogen
the enemy.
the pasture for providing the minerals they need for full health. Willow weed – poor drainage
But let’s consider for a second exactly what a weed is, as
the problem may be more in our heads than real.
So it pays to think of them as natural substitutes for vet bills,
then their financial contribution is valued and they are not seen
Tips for dealing with weeds There are many more.
as just taking up valuable space for other plants like grasses. Weed control can be the greatest stumbling block to The formation of and degree of colour the plants have can also
A weed only exists in relation to human activities. It is our term
changing to organics. give you an indication of missing key elements. For example
for a plant growing where we don’t want it, and where we In our crops or on areas of bare ground weeds are acting as a
plants lying flat instead of reaching indicates a lack of silica. This
believe it is interfering with what we do want there. So the green manure, protecting the soil from erosion or leaching, and
An excellent document on a website is: is done through skilful observations. A good soil science book
whole perception we have is of lack of value to us. contributing to soil fertility in areas where other plants cannot
would also give you information you need.
In nature there is no such thing as a weed. All plants have a grow. Weeds also act as refuges for beneficial predator species www.organicsnewzealand.org.nz – publications: Organic
function in the communities of which they are a part. Many of of insects and other wildlife that keep a natural balance and Management of Weeds
the plants which we call weeds are nature’s colonisers. They are protect us against pests and diseases in our target crops and
• One option is to deal with any major weed problems you
adapted to taking advantage of bare ground and germinating,
getting established and setting seed quickly so that they are
pastures. So weeds do make a very important financial contribu-
tion to the successful functioning of our farms.
may have before converting to organics. Ways of reducing/eliminating weeds
• Another is to go for partial certification and continue to
ready with dispersed seed for the next After assessing why the weed is growing there, choose the
deal with it
patch of bare ground to move into. So appropriate way or ways of dealing with it. It may need a two
they are highly mobile, but they do not • Another is to look at the land use for that area and change or three–pronged approach.
persist for long as they quickly make your farming practices on it (e.g. retire to trees, develop a
Keep a good thick sward of grass at all times to prevent weed
conditions unsuitable for themselves wetland).
seeds from germinating
by providing ground cover where other Be observant:
more persistent species like grasses Through fertilisers
establish. This is the process of succes- Look at it and ask yourself questions:
Through identifying your weeds and their indications, getting
sion that we talked about earlier in the • Where is the weed growing?
a soil and herbage test done, you will know what element is
introduction to this chapter. It is only if • What are the conditions? The soil condition? needed to be addressed. Address your fertiliser applications
we continue to provide suitable condi- • Why is it growing there? appropriately. Also continue to apply your liquid fertilisers
tions for them by pushing the succession
• Is it a problem? regularly to encourage a balance in the soil. If it is an issue (e.g.
stage back to bare ground, that they can
• What elements is that weed bringing to the soil? What boron) talk with your certifying agency rather than do nothing
persist.
is its purpose? about it.
126 127
Biological control
Specific weed problems Plants that can be grown in hedgerows/herbal leys and their properties
The list of available products is constantly growing. Contact
your local regional council.
Gorse Common name Botanical name Uses Mineral sources
NZ Landcare Trust has a range of free fact sheets on the As mentioned before, gorse will grow where fertility is low and
biological control of weeds such as alligator weed, broom, there is a shortage of nitrogen. It establishes well on disturbed Acmena Pigeon food
Californian thistle, gorse, hawkweeds, mist flower, nodding areas. It hinders stock grazing, competes with trees seedlings
thistle, old man’s beard, blackberry, scotch thistle and ragwort. Anise Digestion and colic Phosphorus
and is a fire hazard. It fixes nitrogen through rhizobium and is
For more information, contact [email protected] a nurse species for regenerating native trees.
Asparagus Kidney, bladder problems Iodine, Iron, Phosphorous, Silicon
Cultivation The seed spreads up to 6 metres when it explodes from its pod
on a hot day and stays viable for over thirty years. Increases milk supply,
Opening up ground can help poorly drained, pugged soils.
Borage Borago officinalis good for respiratory Potassium
It can also eliminate bad weeds in a paddock that has been
Control methods system
cropped. You will need to cultivate more than once for this,
however. These types of areas will need nurturing and liming. • Control can be considered for eradication, temporary Caraway Carum carvi Increases milk supply
It will take time. Biodynamic methods and liquid fertilisers will suppression, or control on property boundaries. There
should also be a long term plan for management. Chickweed Stellaria medic Good for stomach Copper, Phosphorous
also help this.
• Prevention is best, ensuring a thick sward of grass to not Chicory Cichorium intybus Calcium, Copper, Iron
Slashing allow the seed to germinate.
Slashing and topping at the appropriate time can stop weeds Cleavers Galium aparine Rich in minerals Calcium, Copper, Iodine, Silicon, Sodium
• Digging out isolated plants will also help reduce the area
from germinating, usually pre flowering. Be aware that it can
affected. Clover Sodium
turn certain plants into perennial from annuals (e.g. ragwort).
Grubbing and pulling plants out is another alternative. • Many insects are controlling gorse biologically, and your
Plant Pest Officer at the regional council can help with Comfrey Symphytum officinale Fodder, good for bones Chlorine, Iron, Potassium, Sodium
Teas this.
Calcium, Copper, Iron, Magnesium, Silicon,
Because these plants are high in particular minerals that are • Rotary Slasher (with chains possibly), mulcher, bulldozer Dandelion Taraxacum officinale Especially for goats
Potassium
missing from the soil, it is prudent to return it to the land and blade or rake, or roller crusher are some mechanical
through spraying teas. ways to reduce the gorse. This needs to be followed with
Dill Increases milk Phosphorous, Sodium
Method: regrassing and fertilising.
Dock Rumex sp. Calcium, Magnesium
Gather the whole plant and put it in a drum. Top it up with Ragwort
water and allow it to steep. Biodynamic compost preparations Increases milk supply,
Ragwort is a problem for cattle, but can be managed with
(2 sets per 200 litres) added will be beneficial. Let the plants Fennel Foeniculum vulgare Good for worms, colic. Copper, Potassium, Sodium, Sulphur
sheep. It is toxic to cattle.
steep for at least six weeks. Spray on to the affected area. (don’t let cattle gorge)
Ragwort can be biennial or perennial. It produces plants from
Flax Phormium tenax Shelter, worms
Potentisation the roots, seeds and the crown. It can multiply rapidly. It grows
Potentisation is a process where a small piece of every stage to 60 cm in height and produces yellow clusters of flowers. Honeysuckle Goat tonic, wormer Potassium
of the plant growth is taken – root, new growth, old growth, One plant can produce up to 250,000 seeds that are easily
Increases milk supply,
flower, berry. It is then potentised (usually 6x) and sprayed on to transported by wind, water, vehicles and animals. A single root Lemon Balm Melissa officinalis
calming effect
the area once a month. It is said it stops any further spreading can also produce a new plant. Interference by humans through
of the weed and suppresses growth. cutting, digging and grazing seems to encourage it to grow Rich in nitrates and
from what roots are left in the ground. Lucerne
vitamins, cleanses kidneys
Peppering Marigold Tagetes sp. Good for the heart Phosphorus, sulphur
Control methods
This is used to eliminate the weed completely.
• Grazing to ensure a vigourous, dense pasture. Nasturtium Tropaeolum majus Worms
Collect ripe seed off your own property. Dry, then burn on as hot
a fire as possible – there is some debate as to whether to burn • Grazing 3 stock units of sheep per hectare can control Plantain Plantago sp. Calcium, potassium, sulphur
on the full moon or the new moon. This then becomes ash. This ragwort. Mob stock (stock pasture with a whole mob of
sheep) 4 times between spring and autumn for maximum Sorrel Rumex acetosella Calcium, phosphorus, copper
ash is then sprinkled over the weed infestation area.
control. Sow thistle Sonchus arvensis Calcium
It can be bulked out with lime or rock dust,or sand, and then
spread. • Grubbing. Best done at the full to late flowering stage. Be Wormwood Artemisia absinthum Worms Iron, potassium
aware root fragments left in the soil will regrow. Burn any
If there are insufficient seeds, they can be bulked out with roots Yarrow Achilea millefolium Copper
flower heads.
and whole plants.
• Mowing is not a good option – it produces multi-crowned Contributed by Ian Buckingham from various sources
The key, however is the seed or the ripe reproductive organ.
plants which are harder to get rid of.
The ash can also be potentised to 6c by a homoeopath.
• Biological control. There is the ragwort flea.
128 129
Pest control
Trees
Control methods for organic farmers are: Our forests also have role to play in building and conserving our
soils, in retaining minerals and other nutrients in the soil, as well
• Night shooting
as in storing them in their own tissues. Trees are major carbon
Pest control is a major problem in New Zealand – confirmed • Trapping
Before humans arrived on Aoteoroa most of the land stores, which is a vital function with current concern about
by the attention placed on biosecurity by regional councils and • Fumigation (check this with your certifying agency)
was cloaked in forest, although large areas in the dry global warming (see the earlier section on Climate Change).
MAF. Pests are generally indicators of an imbalance in the • Repellents on trees
environment, and they are there to try and balance it up. The east were regularly burned by natural fire (Grant, 1996). In Another vital function of forests is to provide homes and food
• Egg based the south, the forests were mainly dominated by species
difficulty in New Zealand is that many of our major pests were for a myriad of other forms of life, and thus they contribute
• Mutton fat and kerosene of southern beech (Nothofagus sp.) which are adapted significantly to biodiversity. Trees are structurally very diverse,
introduced and do not have natural enemies to control them.
The challenge for the organic farmer is to seek as much balance • Fish fertiliser to high rainfall and low temperature conditions. In the and so provide lots of nooks and crannies, and feeding opportu-
The recipes for these are available through your local regional north there was a predominance of podocarp (totara, nities for other creatures and plants to take advantage of. Thus
as possible in the farm environment, as well as using appro- council or the Northland regional council brochure no 6 Animal
priate control measures. If you consider the possible effects of Pests. rimu, matai, miro, and kahikatea) and broadleaf species, we find that each individual tree in a forest tends to be a little
climate change, covered briefly at the beginning of this chapter, and further north, on the poorer soils of higher rainfall mini–ecosystem all of its own, rather like a high–rise building in
• Fencing
this challenge is likely to increase as time goes by. areas, the kauri was king. a city. Thus when trees are present we also tend to get beneficial
Should be 1m high and netting no more than 4–5cm mesh. insects and birds, which help maintain a balance by providing
Peg it or stretch it tightly to the ground. Do not allow gaps
Try: at gateways.
• Observing and assessing the situation • Electric fences 8–10 cm above the ground and 8–10 cm
• Introducing predators – contact an expert/your regional apart.
council is a good start. • Protective devices around trees and seedlings.
• Create a diverse environment to encourage the predators: • Long wet and green grass, will increase the mortality rate
lots of bird life, beneficial plants and insects of the rabbits.
• Potentise the problem and spray back (a homoeopathic
technique, ask others if you’re not sure about how to go Possums
about this). This is a long term strategy, and you may not Possums are a problem where there are trees. They feed at night
see instant results and sleep during the day. They find dark, dry, sheltered places
• Use natural insecticides to sleep. They feed on new growth and can do a lot of damage.
Possums, being creatures of habit, follow the same path each
• Use animal hooves to crush ground born pests
night. It can be seen as a narrow path.
• Peppering can also be used. This a method used in biody-
Control methods
namics, but often only as a last resort. It is recommended
• Trapping using the Timms Trap, live trap
that you contact the Bio Dynamic Association if you are
interested to know more about this technique • Shooting
• Repellents (as for rabbits)
A useful website for information on organic pest management
is www.organicsnewzealand.org.nz – look in their publications • Some sprays are available from Bettacrop/Earthwise Box
directory for: Organic Pest and Disease Management 9128 Hamilton Web: home.xtra.co.nz/hosts/earthwise
Tel: (07) 824 4881
You will need to contact your regional council if you do not
want to be part of any poisoning programme, and they will tell
you what your obligations are.
Specific pest problems

Two common animal pests in New Zealand are rabbits and
Fallowing Our forests, like forests all over the world had, and still have,
vital ecosystem functions to perform. Two very important
the predators for potential pest species. On the negative side,
in New Zealand, trees also provide a home for major pests such
possum. Some brief information on these is given below. Of Fallowing is a term used to describe the process of functions of relevance to the farmer are the regulation of air as possums, which have to be constantly managed.
course there are many pests throughout New Zealand. Your leaving land untilled or unsowed after ploughing; usually and water flows. When you walk into a forested environment
regional council is a good source of information on those that for a season, a year or more. A summer fallow was a from exposed farmland one of the first things that you notice
are most relevant to you. method used to destroy weeds. is shelter from wind. An important influence of forests is the
It was not uncommon to leave one seventh of a farm in a fallow moderation of wind speed within the forest canopy and on the Trees on farms
Rabbits state but is seldom done now. lee side of the forest. Forests also moderate the amount of
water reaching the ground from rain, dissipating its force, and On the farm you’ll be looking at the multiple benefits that trees
Rabbits can eat a lot of the best grass available. They dig holes Farmers of today are experimenting with leaving paddocks or by water uptake hold much of it in their trunks, branches and provide as part of your whole farm environment picture. Here
which expose the soil and cause erosion. They also damage certain areas of the farm to self seed. (This may end up being leaves as well as in the soil around their roots, which is why are some things to consider when looking at planting trees
your seedling trees and herbal leys. They live in colonies known
a method of attempting to keep a farm free of GM content water run–off from forests is far less than from land cleared (use this as a starting point to make your own list of the pros
as warrens in areas where the countryside is open, and gener-
though will probably not be entirely successful). They are not of trees. This water is released slowly, and the shade from the and cons of where you might want to plant trees and for what
ally are more of a problem in areas with lighter soils and a
tilling the land, just leaving it ungrazed, letting it seed, letting branches keeps the air under the canopy cool, reducing evapo- purpose):
rainfall of 1000mm or less. They are nocturnal. Rabbits are
it lie down and then waiting for it to grow again. This is not ration, and so more water is retained in the soil around trees
territorial. Their territories are defined by their faeces heaps and 1. Look at your farm landscape to identify areas suitable for
fallowing in the true definition but is a method that is being during dry periods.
scratching of the dirt. trees:
trialled by organic farmers.
130 131
• Erosion prone areas Checklist to assist in identifying the trees that you want so the lines are outside the falling distance of the trees. • Alternative is weed mat
• Bush remnants on your farm This includes a mature tree. Remember, trees do grow • Put tyres down – one or two if there are problems with
• Areas where scrub persists (e.g. gorse, manuka) and wind does blow! rabbits and hares (will hold the paper down). This will
provide up to 6 months protection from pasture invasion.
• Exposed sites where shelter and shade would be
beneficial
√ What do I want to plant trees for?
Because of this, quick growing trees are not recom-
mended as they become brittle. Slower growing trees • Apply rabbit deterrent paste (see later section)
• Areas of low productivity such as natives are better. • Put up tree guard – electric fence or posts and rails, or wire
Shade – important with increased skin cancers on
2. Think about what you can afford: Anyone needing to work within 4 metres of a power line frame, plastic shield etc.
farm animals
• How much land are you willing to convert to trees (trimmers, forestry workers etc) need a permit from the • If you have Kikuyu, be sure to trim or, if you are allowed,
(some NZ farm foresters have up to 20% of their Agro–forestry or forestry local power line company. spray the grass on a regular basis until the tree is high
farms in trees with no loss in production and the Another future consideration will be anyone felling trees enough to outgrow the Kikuyu, even with newspapers and
Tree cropping – orchard or nut trees tyres around the trees
added benefit of potential income from harvestable near power lines will need a unit standard in Forestry
trees) Fodder trees – for browsing by livestock or Advanced Felling Trees or the like. • If necessary, protect it from the wind using wind breaks and
pollarding during a drought stakes
• Consider the costs involved, which include fencing If a tree or branch lands on the line, you are liable for
costs, cost of trees, the cost of your time to plant and costs incurred. • If using stakes, attach them low so the stem can still flex,
Firewood – coppicing otherwise there is a risk of atrophy of the stem, leading to
manage the trees
later problems
• What are the likely returns on your investment? To Aesthetics and well–being Site preparation
identify the likely returns you need to consider the • The root to stem ratio of 1:2 is the ideal nursery presenta-
If your site has impeded drainage or compaction problems and tion for high chances of survival and rapid establishment.
tree species you intend planting and the benefits they Protection of waterways and riparian zones –
machines can access the site, it pays to have it ripped first, then
will provide. Note: Many of the benefits of trees may protection of water quality from excess sediment
plant at the intersection of the two cuts.
not be immediately apparent. The best thing to do and animal waste
is to spend some time talking with experienced farm If planting into a grass sward this will need to be removed or
foresters, and visiting their farms.
Improving soil structure and fertility checked in some way, either over the entire site or around each What are the choices?
tree.
Use the information from your checklist to make up a long–term Shelter to reducing wind velocity and therefore The following information might help you in your
programme. Here are some things to think about in setting heat and moisture loss Around the tree will also need to be mulched or treated to
decisions as to what trees to plant, for what purpose
your goals and developing a long–term programme: reduce competition from weed growth once planted.
and where.
Erosion and run–off control
• Maintaining your existing bush and planting trees Keep stock out. It is usually wise to fence before planting rather
are important considerations when thinking about Providing a habitat for native birds and other pest than leaving it until afterwards and leaving the trees exposed Protecting and enhancing existing bush
sustainability and organics. predators and food for birds, bees and other to possible attack. The first thing to consider is whether there are any areas of
• Identify what you want to plant trees for (see pollinators Put up any wind–cloth or other shelter that you intend to use native bush or manuka/kanuka scrub existing on the property,
the checklist below) – keep in mind that trees for the site. in gullies, or on steep slopes, that could be retired without any
Provide corridors to encourage wildlife diversity
can support all parts of your farming system (e.g. significant loss of grazing. Very often, the amount of grazing
fodder, compost, firewood) they stop erosion Protection from spray drift Planting tips achieved from these areas is negligible, especially if it is
and pollution, provide shelter and shade, and • Tree roots should never be permitted to dry out compared to the overall and long–term economic benefits to
biodiversity • Plant at the appropriate time of the year when the ground the health of the farm, as already described above.
• Plan your tree cover for maximum animal and is moist. The ideal time to plant evergreens is in the autumn A small reduction in stocking density may be required in the
human comfort. and bare rooted deciduous trees should be planted in the short term, but it is likely to be more than compensated for
• One of your considerations should be for
How to plant? winter by the overall improvement in stock health and performance,
protection from spray drift if spray drift is a • Frost tender trees need to be planted after the danger of as well as a reduction in other costs on the farm. One of the
When planting in a farm situation, techniques need to be rela-
problem. frost is over. They should be protected from frost for at least most significant losses when considering retiring land to forest
tively simple and cost effective, but they do also need to be able
the first two to three years regeneration can be loss of sheltered winter holding areas,
• Protect your trees as they are growing. They are to withstand considerable rigours, (e.g. browsing). Envisage the
• Ensure they are protected against stock especially on exposed beef and sheep farms. This can be taken
expensive, and will become a valuable asset long– conditions in which they can thrive, and recreate those as best
into consideration by retaining part of the bush area for this
term. you can. Trees need shelter, they generally need a reasonable • Remove the pasture
depth of soil, they need adequate water, and they need to be use and retiring the rest, until such time as alternative shelter
Keep things simple to start with so that you get a good • Plant the tree carefully – can dip or spray the roots with the can be provided.
protected from being eaten. Bach remedy called Rescue Remedy and/or seaweed
sense of what you can cope with. Begin planting and
The other thing to bear in mind longer term is adequate space Excluding stock from existing areas of bush or scrub is the
persist with your goals. Once you starting seeing the • Water/fertilise if necessary
for the roots to grow (the roots spread as far underground as cheapest, easiest, and fastest way to re–establish and maintain
trees grow and the benefits they provide your enthu- • Put down open wads of newspaper for mulch/weed control
the canopy does above), and the height and width the branches tree–cover. Although it may seem that the presence of the
siasm is likely to grow. You will find that tree growers – four sections – overlapping slightly with the tree in the
are going to spread to. stock isn’t affecting the existing tree–cover, what it is doing
learn along the way, and adopt and adapt to new centre where the corners of the four sections meet. Plain is preventing any tree seedlings from getting established, so
technology to their own advantage. It is probably a uncoloured cardboard boxes may be opened out and used that once those trees die, the forest dies. It also reduces the
good idea to join the local Farm Forestry Association Warning when planting near power lines: as an alternative. forest biodiversity significantly by the action of grazing the
branch. There is a wealth of information amongst their
The Horticultural Regulations of 1986 are quite specific: • Moisten the paper/cardboard – always use a wet mulch. Do under-storey tree, shrub and herb species. In areas of teatree,
membership, which can help you greatly in avoiding the
Trees should be planted far enough away from the lines not use magazines (toxins) the manuka and kanuka have already done all the hard work
mistakes of others.
132 133
for you of colonising the bare ground, and they are the natural Totara Cypress lusitanica/torulosa Trees for timber and erosion control • Plant trees and shrubs only between the bottom of the bank
precursor trees for our native bush. and the fence
Erislima littoralis Callistemon This is a vast topic. The aims generally are to retire areas with
To minimise the cost of fencing look for areas that can be cut poor grazing ability, e.g. steep slopes or unstable land. The • Do not plant species that like water and may invade the
Akeake Feijoa
actual pond (e.g. reeds, flaxes). These belong in wetland areas
off easily by just a short connecting fence: triangular shapes are Farm Forestry Association has a variety of skills and knowledge
Oleria Acacia instead
often the most cost–effective, cutting off corners of scrubby or in this area, as well as all the topics covered in the tree section.
Note: All confers can cause abortions. They have branches and keen members all over the country. • Leave access for future cleaning of ponds and dams
marginal land or existing bush. Just do a little bit each year.
Their details are: • If animals are going to graze the banks for grass control, make
Trees for shelter Trees for shade NZ Farm Forestry Association
sure there is a fence at the edge of the pond and before the
tree plantings
• Essential if paddocks are exposed • Many trees that grow high with a large canopy can be Box 1122, Wellington
planted individually for shade. Ph: 04 472 0432 Fax: 04 473 6904 • Choose plants for what you wish to achieve. Plants with berries
• Allow for wind velocity and lift. Email: [email protected] and flowers will attract the birds, shrubs and low bushes will
• Deciduous trees are ideal, as they give the shade when you also attract insects, birds and ducks. High trees will provide
• Aim to lift or reduce the wind rather than block it Website with details of branches: www.nzffa.org.nz
need it and allow the sun when it is needed in winter shade and shelter. Some could be fodder for the animals
Most regional councils in New Zealand have erosion control
• Look at your prevailing wind and layout of the land (hills, • They can be planted in the form of shelter belts or as indi- • Plant in clumps of either mixed species or group of similar
programmes and are a useful source of information and
valleys) and imagine being a bird gliding on the airwaves. vidual trees. species to create special environments
support. Many have schemes to help with the cost of estab-
Where would they take you?
• Check your sites out before planting, by standing in the lishing trees for erosion control and for protection of waterways • Plant the hardy, vigorous ones first and then the more delicate,
• If you planted a hedge at this spot, how would that affect area and seeing what direction your shadow leans, to work (see below). special ones when the former can provide protection
your wind patterns? Will it lift the wind straight up and out where they are best planted, so the animal gets the • Keep the area free of weeds and pests. Possums and rabbits
down or on a long curve? The preference is the latter shade at the right time of the day Trees for protection of waterways are territorial. A coloured trip wire 15cm above the ground and
15cm out from the fenceline on outriggers will deter them
• That will also give you ventilation to avoid fungus build • Planting deciduous trees on the western sides of races with Trees, along with shrubs, grasses and herbs, should be planted
spaces for the wind to get through, provides some comfort along waterways and the riparian strip, in conjunction with • Blackberry, gorse and ragwort will be a problem. Get on top
up
fencing off to keep stock and effluent and runoff out of water- of it before the problem becomes bigger. Keep the plantings
for the milker and cows on the way to the shed
• Look at the direction of the sun and don’t shade the races ways. Environment Waikato have excellent information packs as weed free, especially when they are trying to establish
or tracks during afternoon sun. They need to be dry • Putting trees next to a fence between paddocks enables
well as funding; currently up to 35% of cost of fencing plants, • Do not plant deciduous trees in a position where the leaves
shade in two paddocks. It also does not interfere with will fall into the pond, as this will pollute the water.
• Choose tree varieties that grow well in your area. Seed weed and pest control and advice available to farmers to assist
topping and cropping
from that area will be acclimatised to your area and have with their Clean Streams project. This is all part of farmers’
better survival • If near a fence use 2 waratahs to make a square out from responsibilities to protect and improve the environment and Effluent pond planting plan
the fence. Then attach wires so the animals can only lean provide access for maintenance. This section is on planting around effluent ponds. There are
• Plant with fast growing shelter, interplanting with slower under to graze the grass around the tree, but cannot reach some principles here that can also be applied to dams and
growing species Other regional councils will have similar schemes and help
the tree itself. This keeps the weeds down as well water ponds.
available.
• Consider planting in a T shape to allow shelter for 2 • Tree protectors are another option
paddocks and from different wind quarters. This way you We will discuss this topic more fully under the Wetlands The aims of the plantings
• Trees must be spaced far enough apart to give them to section.
do not have to plant a shelterbelt the whole length of the Wind
room to spread out their leaves, branches and roots
paddock For the aerobic pond: To keep the surface clean and for oxidisation.
• Clearing the trunk of branches allows shade to move in an Tree planting around ponds, dams, and effluent ponds
• Interplant with flax to give the animals a medicinal plant For the anaerobic pond: To protect it from strong winds.
arc during the day, away from the base. Trees and shrubs around ponds, dams, and effluent ponds
and reduce chill factors Sunlight
improve appearance, pond performance, reduce the smell for For the aerobic pond: To provide heat and promote oxygen–producing
• Consider an evergreen shelter running north to south and Protection from spray drift neighbours, reduce water pollution, and attract wildlife. algae.
deciduous shelter running east to west. • Contact your regional council for any suggestions. Ideally any pond not used for animals to drink directly from How is this achieved using trees and shrubs?
More information is available in Appendix 1 ‘Trees for Shelter Incorporate this into your initial plans for planting. should be fenced off and this will maintain clean water with • Provide wind protection for the anaerobic pond
and Profit’ by Alan Thatcher. • A thick canopy of trees will stop, or at least slow down, any minimum pollutants. Allowing animals to drink from dams is • Do not plant tall species on the northern side to assist
accidental spray drift often the only way to provide water for them. However, it can sunlight penetration
Some Species to Use:
• Plant trees around the perimeter of your boundary. Then create problems of its own with their dung in the water and • Do not plant deciduous trees where the leaves will fall
Natives Non–natives cross contamination of worms and other parasites. It is best to into the aerobic pond
look at planting so the wind continues to move upwards
have an alternative, if at all possible. • Plant trees and shrubs between the bank base and the
Cabbage tree Banksia integrofolia
• If spray drift is going to be a problem choose quick growing fence. Grass the banks
Flax Casuarina (warm climates) trees with thick foliage, growing successfully in your area By planting around these ponds it will enhance things greatly. Stabilise them with a vigorous sward of phlaris, rye,
There are some things to be aware of, however: timothy, and clover
Kanuka Leyland cypress • When necessary, keep them pruned/trimmed to be effec-
Sheep can be used to control this, but be sure to fence
Karaka Norfolk Island hibiscus tive • Do not plant tall species on the northern side to assist sunlight
the pond and the tree plantings off
penetration
Karamu (Coprosma) Norfolk Island pine • You may need to consider lower growing plants such as • Do not plant water tolerant plants, such as reeds,
• Allow spacing to enable some wind flow over the pond for flaxes, willows. They will spread to the dam and wreck
Koromiko (Hebe) Poplar flax etc. to keep it blocked
oxygenation the banks
Manuka Radiata pine • Be aware of power lines. Trees must be planted at least 6 • Leave room for maintenance, probably the north facing
• Avoid trees that have roots that grow sideways to reach for
metres away water (e.g. willow) side where there should be no tall plantings
Pittosporum sp Southern mahogany
• Regardless, always keep good communications with your • Other suggestions can be found in the previous list for
Pohutukawa Tagasaste • Grass the banks with grasses such as phalaris, rye, clover, ponds and dams
neighbours. timothy to hold the banks. • Duck weed could be introduced to take up excess N
Puka Cedrus deodara
and P.
134 135
Fodder trees prefer. These are available in autumn and winter. Can be slow
to establish and is not a great timber tree. It breaks in strong
Fodder trees are defined as those that provide part of the tree,
winds. Get good healthy seedlings. Select species now don’t
which is palatable to stock – and this can be foliage, seed pods
have the needles! This tree grows well in some parts of the
or fruit.
North Island but it did not adapt to the climate further south.
Needs 700mm plus rainfall area and warmth.
Alders (Alnus):
Has potential as bee fodder (honey).
A nitrogen fixer, has been used quite extensively for hedging
as it grows quickly. The roots are not invasive. The timber can
be useful but many trees show bad ‘fluting’. The Andian alder
Paulownia (Paulownia):
is showing promise as a variety for timber and is also a quick Avoid planting in soils with a high water table. Likes free
growing tree. draining soil. Deep rooting.
Extremely wind tender. Leaves palatable to sheep but cattle
Ash (Fraxinus): seem indifferent to them.Leaves contain a lot of nitrogen so
A deep rooting shade tree with palatable foliage.Great timber will aid the soil if not eaten by livestock.These trees can grow
– strong tree. Many different types, so choose carefully. extremely fast – 5m in the first year. A good bee tree and the
white eye love the seed in winter.
Black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia)
Poplars (Populus)
This tree fixes nitrogen and has a light canopy and so can have
quite a bit of grass under it! A very common tree to plant – especially in the lower North
Island. These trees can be coppiced or pollarded (i.e. chopped
Tough hard timber which is very durable. Excellent tree for
Suggested species: nectar and pollen for bees but flowers (white or pink) for only
down to feed stock during droughts and they will grow again
from the stump). The foliage is very palatable for stock. Some
These are only a suggestion. There will be many more. a short period in early summer. Has two problems: thorns and
There are many more plant options species of poplar are high in minerals such as zinc (e.g. Populus
Area A (on drawing) sometimes can sucker and make a nuisance of itself but stock
and there are many organisations yunnanensis) and so can be useful in the facial eczema period
find these as palatable as clover. The young tree is susceptible
Aim: Northern side, no plant higher than the tops of the banks; could provide that are willing to give you help in the North Island. One disadvantage of these trees is that
to hare and rabbit damage. Use rabbit repellent and/or rubber
nectar and berries and advice on plantings, especially they tend to be shallow rooted so can rob the surrounding
tires placed one upon the other.
if it is going to be of benefit to the pasture .
Suggestions: Coastal flax (Phormium cookianum), Coprosma sp. – low shrubs up
to 2m, Crimson bottle brush (Caliesteon citrinus splendens var), Grey’s groundsel environment. Sweet chestnut (Castanea sativa):
(Senecio greyii), Hebes (Hebe sp), Native broom Plane (Platanus):
Some of these are: This is a wide spreading tree that is tough and takes the wind
Area B (on drawing) This is a well known and popular tree in New Zealand. It grows
• Your local regional council can help with all well. The timber is ground durable but care is needed if used in
quickly and with age develops into an imposing and impressive,
Aim: Partial sunscreen up to 5m plantings and the do’s and don’ts of effluent. the furniture or building trades. The nuts are highly nutritious.
wide spreading tree. Its timber is heavy and solid but not used
Suggestions: Crab apple (Malus gorgeous), Chatham akeake (Oleria traversii),
They are most helpful. It is an excellent shade tree. This tree can be coppiced and be
as much as it should be as these trees are too attractive to cut
Tagasate (Chamaecytisus palmerisis), Karamu (Coprosma robusta), Tupelo (Nyssa • NZ Landcare Trust www.landcare.org.nz
used for poles and posts. Grows fast compared to oak. Very
down. The leaves are large and are slow to break down. Do
sylvatica), Golden totara (Podocarpus tatara aureus) email [email protected]
susceptible to bark damage by animals.
not plant these trees close to houses with gutters and drains.
Ground Cover suggestions: Toetoe and pampas grass (Cortaderia sp.) (Check • The Ministry for the Environment recently Fruit trees – plum, pear and apple. The bark in mature plane trees is not palatable to stock – even
pampas is not a noxious weed in your area), NZ lowland flax (Phormium tenax) published ‘The Lake Manager’s Handbook.’ goats. Horses are an exception. The leaves are high in zinc.
These are fruit trees rather than fodder but these trees can
Area C (on drawing) For a copy, e–mail MfE at publications@
still be used as shade trees and food for livestock. It is not Tree lucerne or Tagasaste (Cytisus palmensis) – a nitrogen fixer.
mfe.govt.nz or PO Box 10362, Wellington,
Aim: Semi–permeable windscreen of narrow trees for the SW to slow the wind for uncommon to see cattle under a pear tree laden with ripe
New Zealand or 04 917 7400. Copies This tree suits the drier east coast areas. Is suitable for dry
the aerobic pond. pears waiting for the next one to drop. It is best to get these
can also be downloaded from the web at windy areas. Doesn’t like shade. It tolerates a wide pH range
Shelter suggestions: Cabbage Trees (Cordyline australis), Swamp sheoak (Casurina fruit trees grown on more vigorous root stock rather than the
www.mfe.govt.nz/publications/water in soil. It is not suitable for wet areas. It doesn’t like persistent
glauca), Deodar cedar (Cedrus deodara) traditional semi–dwarfing root stock. Timber from these trees
makes excellent firewood but has a traditional use for furniture wet feet – better planted on ridges and faces. It doesn’t like
Nectar suggestions: Kanuka (Leptospermum ericodes), Kowhai (Sophora tetraptera the freezer either – especially when young so don’t select frost
and ornamental objects.
& S.microphylla) Other sources of information prone gullies. Mature trees are a little hardier when it comes
for this article:
Area D (on drawing) Honey locust (Gleditsia tricanthos – American, to frosts but the flowers will be frosted at –10 Celsius.
An old Ministry of Agriculture and
Aim: Taller species on the SE and SW area of the anaerobic pond. No planting or Gleditsia japonia – Japanese): It is a good windbreak tree and has bee forage. It produces
Fisheries Farm Production and Practice
limitations, taller trees, dense lower area with shrubs, you can use your imagination Gives good shade. Fixes nitrogen. A smallish rounded tree white flowers over a long period with a peak in spring. This
Info Sheet called ‘Effluent Ponds
here. that is quite attractive. tree supplies an invaluable source of nectar for apiaries in
– Tree Surrounds – Benefits and
Shade, Shelter and Nesting suggestions: Liquidambar, Miro (Podocarpus winter and early spring when other sources are scarce. It also
Establishment.’ Large pods are very nutritious to stock and keenly sought after
ferrugineus), Lacebarks (Hoheria sp.), Norfolk Island honeysuckle (Banksia produces abundant pollen for both honey and bumblebees
Northland regional council, Whangarei by them but there are reports (from Gisborne) that by the time alike. As one of the few rural sources of winter nectar and
Intergrofolia), Pin oak (Quercus palustris), Pohutukawa (Metrosideros excelsa),
and Dargaville. Ph: 09 438 4639 these fall on the ground they are not as digestible as stock pollen, bee populations can be kept higher than normal through
Puriri (Vitex lucens), Karaka (Corynocarpus laevigatus).
136 137
winter and spring with a supply of a natural food source instead Other trees for fodder St John’s wort (Hypericum japonicum & H. gramineum) of the gorse and ragwort has diminished which used to nourish
of a very poor (refined white sugar) substitute supplied by the bees. A huge amount of bee fodder has been removed
Elms (very palatable to stock), lime, hornbeam, liriodendron and These species have been suspected of causing photosensitivity
bee–keepers, and could be of considerable benefit for boosting nation–wide. Large scale planting of bee forage trees to
cherry are other options, but not a lot is known about these in mainly to sheep on South Island High Country sheep farms,
cross–pollination of spring–flowering crops such as apples, compensate for this loss of food did not occur during this
New Zealand. and also to a small number of cattle and horses throughout the
pears or blueberries. period of ‘weed’ removal so there is a huge amount of sugar
The non-invasive willows are beneficial for their medicinal value country. Signs of the disease include mummification of the skin,
Tagasaste leaves have a similar nutritive value to silage but fed to bees to keep the hives alive over the period of nectar
and browsing. This is due to the aspirin contained in the bark loss of wool down the midline of the pelt, with scabbing and
lower than of intensively managed pasture, and these leaves shortfall. This substitute is a poor quality food (just a simple
and green leaves (relief from facial excema symptoms) and rawness from animals rubbing the affected areas.
are extremely palatable to cattle. It is excellent for providing sugar – not even raw sugar – it is usually a processed white
emergency feed supply for stock in periods of drought. The feed value of green leaves when pollarded during dry periods sugar) compared to that provided by nature and so the bees
and drought for stock to browse. The matsudana willow is Kowhai (Sophora species)
native wood pigeon is attracted to this tree especially when are not getting the required minerals needed for their health
this tree is flowering, as are the bellbirds, tuis and silvereyes. excellent for shade, shelter and stock food. It is highly palatable Possibly poisonous but not known for sure. nor for their immune systems. It would appear now that bees
They also love the foliage all year round. This tree makes and produces large quantities of food. The pollarded trees also are very susceptible to infections, such as the newly arrived
good firewood although it is difficult to split or cut up. The rapidly regrow for the next harvest. Rock Fern (Cheilanthus sieberi) Varroa mite.
firewood burns with great intensity and leftover branches from Coastal to montane fern found throughout New Zealand. Has
Stock, and Native Plants (that could be poisonous) It is a fact that bees will work in flowers whose nectar has a
stock feeding make great kindling when dry too. However, it
been reported to have caused livestock deaths in Australia; Brix reading of 7 or higher (see section on Brix). If the reading
its green growing state this tree is difficult to burn so should Some farmers may hesitate to plant natives in areas that stock however, no reports of this have been made in New Zealand. is below 7 the bee expends more energy than it can possibly
be considered as a suitable tree for firebreaks or to be used as might access because they are unsure if any are poisonous to
recover from the nectar. So it is so important to grow good
inter–plantings amongst other more valuable timber trees. stock – fortunately, very few New Zealand native species are. Of
Pigeonwood (Hedycarya arborea) quality trees, legumes and pasture with flowers available for
Planting tagasaste amongst timber seedlings can mean the approximately 2,000 native plant species in New Zealand,
Abundant in bush and around bush edges from North Cape to bee fodder for most of the year so the best quality nectar is
increased soil fertility (nitrogen effect), an alternative source of only around five could be considered dangerous to stock.
Banks Peninsula and to Milford Sound in the West. Though not available to keep the bees well fed.
firewood as it will grow faster than other trees, and can also From Poisonous Native Plants may cause death. Prepared
cause the timber trees to grow straight and tall. This tree is by James Dommisse for the Landcare Trust (sourced from Connor, thought to be poisonous, loss in health of both sheep and cows What are the choices of trees for bees?
1977). can result if large enough quantities are consumed.
also palatable to possums and hares, which may draw these
animals away from the more valuable timber crops. If you need Evergreens
Tutu (Coriaria species which include C. angustissma, C. arborea, C. kingiana, C.
to protect these trees from rabbits and hares you can achieve plumosa, C. pteridoides, C.sarmentosa, C. pottsiana, C. lurida)
Pukatea (Laurelia novae–zelandiae) Kowhai (Sophora microphylla)
this by putting 2 old tyres, one on top of the other, around the Tree up to 35m, abundant in swamp forest in the North Island
Poisonous to cattle sheep and a prominent killer in the early Moderately cold hardy, good spring bee forage, yellow flowers
seedling. and found in localised patches in the South. Can be lethal to
days of settlement where some farmers reported losses of 25– are out for 3 weeks, is an ornamental. Bees have been reported
This tree grows rapidly up to 2 metres per year, and yet it’s frogs and rats but has never been reported to affect livestock. to get ‘drunk’ on kowhai nectar.
75%. Horses and pigs not affected. Modern estimate of cattle
maximum height is 4– 8 metres. Using this tree offers a quick
losses to tutu in the South Island high country are 5–10%. Tagasaste – Tree lucerne (Cytisus palmensis)
solution for stock shelter and shade. Tagasaste is high in dry Centella (Centella uniflora)
matter content and digestibility if you compare it to hay, willow Firewood, bees, Kereru (wood pigeon) and other birds, nitrogen
Ngaio (Myoporum laetum) One report of killing a sheep but otherwise not known to be fixation, fodder (see Animal Fodder section).
or poplar foliage. The protein content is comparable to grass.
a problem.
Periodically ‘hedging’ rows of trees and cutting re–growth for Small tree up to 10m found throughout New Zealand in coastal Tree medick (Medicago arboea)
fodder can provide a planned forage supplement. and lowland forest. Ngaio deaths are most common in cattle
(in 1945, 73 cattle died on Banks Peninsula), though pig deaths Karaka (Corynocarpus laevigatus) Cold hardy, survives the dry, animal forage, bee forage, long
Tagasaste can outgrow or suppress gorse, broom and manuka. period of flowers.
It is an ideal tree for those drier, difficult to get to places, which have also been reported, and on one occasion a horse was Probably not poisonous, but may possibly affect livestock.
are not very fertile and is a real magnet for the native wood thought to have been poisoned by this plant. Ngaio leaves Wattles
pigeon. From the crops of these birds come other native seeds, are the most poisonous part of this plant with livestock being Poroporo (Solanum laciniatum & S. aviculare) Ornamental, bee forage for spring.
which get deposited in dung around the tree so that a seedling most at risk after storms when branches and leaves are blown
Probably not poisonous, at worst may make livestock unwell. Choices: Silver wattle (Acacia dealbata)
nursery is established! An understorey of natives! to the ground.
Trees and shrubs for honey Green wattle (Acacia decurrens)
This tree is very sensitive to herbicides so spray drift from neigh-
bours may be an issue. Bracken fern (Pteridium aquilinum) Australian blackwood (Acacia melanoxylon)
For those who want to encourage bees to your farm, or to
Tagasaste leaves are excellent in the dry or green form for birds Poisoning of cattle is frequent in New Zealand and occasionally harvest honey from hives, then some consideration to the These are all bee forage plus windbreak trees with blackwood a
– hens, emus and ostrich. sheep deaths have also been reported. However bracken must quantities and quality of bee forage in relation to site condi- timber tree. They are not so good in cold dry areas.
be taken in large amounts over a few weeks to cause death. tions is needed. Also, the time of the year the nectar is secreted Deciduous:
Planting: is important, as you will need to have major sources of nectar
• Black locust (See above)
If sowing seed then get fresh seed and plant immediately in a Strathmore weed (Pimelea prostrata) available in sequence and you must avoid undue competition
free-draining seed mix in a warm sunny location, but not too with pollination of pasture, legumes and fruit trees as you will • Honey locust (See above)
Found in grassland and shrubland throughout New Zealand.
hot initially. Do not over-water at any stage. Plant out in In the past many horses have died from this plant, but today still want these parts of your farm pollinated! • Siberian pea tree (Caragana arborescens)
autumn or winter. poisoning of cattle is most common, and ten have reportedly Fruit trees, vegetables and many useful plants rely on honey- Windbreak, high honey yields, yellow flowers mid spring.
died from this plant (sheep are unaffected). bees or bumblebees to pollinate flowers. Pasture, legumes and
Spacing: weeds provide the bulk of nectar and pollen for bees from early Traditional non–legumes
Space at 2–metre intervals in small groups, as in most cases Tree nettle (Urtica ferox) summer (November) to early autumn (March). Australian Honeysuckle (Banksia integrofolia)
the area to be planted is too big for the number of trees avail-
Can kill horses, dogs (and humans) that blunder into a patch. It is a sad fact that the widespread use of herbicides has Flowers out of season, likes hot dry climates, all are windbreaks,
able. Clumps provide ample shade and shelter and suppress
May cause ill health, probably not death. removed most of the herbs from dairy pastures and also a lot used for soil conservation, are ornamentals.
light–demanding weeds.
138 139
Gums (Eucalyptus spp) African (Abelia floribunda) some nitrogen–fixing species in the coppice mix, like Robinia Sycamore (Acer platanoides)
650+ different species, for all types of sites. Flowering at all Flowering barberry (Berberis sp.) and Alder, so that fertility never needs to be added in this Wattles (Acacia sp.)
times of the year. self–sustaining system. A few larger trees can also be grown in
Flowering currant (Ribes sanguineum) Willow (Salix sp.)
the mix for retention as timber species, and at certain stages in
Mexican hawthorn (Crataegus pubescens) Hawthorns (Craetagus sp.) Plane (Platinus)
the coppice cycle livestock like sheep or pigs can be allowed to
Needs deep, moist well–drained soils. Needs rainfall of at least Heaths (Erica sp.) forage through, again adding fertility, so the system is incredibly Some species of Eucalypt will coppice, as will some conifers
760mm. Needs cool winters – tree is frost hardy. Can fruit to Irish strawberry tree (Arbutus unedo) versatile and functional. in the right conditions, but these trees do not have fertility
one quarter of a tonne per tree at 15 years of age. Fruit is rich enhancing leaf litter, rather they tend to deplete the soil, and so
Ornamental fuchsias (Fuchsia sp.) For those interested and who live near, there is a coppice
in vitamin A and C. Can grow to 12 metres. A potential source cannot be used in self–sustaining systems except in very small
woodland at Lincoln University which was planted in 1985
of food for animals Ulmo and Tasmanian leatherwood (Eucryphia sp.)
by Bill Brandenburg in which he trialled various species for NZ numbers in a mix with the broad–leaved species given above.
Oaks (Quercus sp.) Tulip tree (Liriodendron tulipifera) conditions. See his article ‘Brandenburg’s Concerto’ in Growing
No nectar for bees but a little honey dew. There are 450 species, Rosemary grevellia (Grevellia rosmarini–folia) Today September 1996 for a fuller account. Sources of trees:
19 produce sweet acorns edible to man and animals. Beware, Russian olive (Elaeagnus augustifolia) There are many throughout the country. Check your newspaper,
acorns and in the spring, oak buds, can cause stock poisoning Trees to use for firewood coppice:– Growing Today, Regional Council, local Farm Forestry and Tree
(a tannic acid causes damage to kidneys). Prevent cattle gaining Trees for firewood Natives: Crops Associations and ask who grows trees in your region.
access to spring buds – allow leaves to mature first. Too many Now that all the pine, gum and macrocarpa trees that were Lacebark (Hoheria populnea)
acorns can be toxic too. planted by the first settlers are starting to die and disappear
Red beech (Nothofagus fusca)
Oak trees are a real asset, as they are beautiful and give
great shelter, but please put a decent fence around them to
from the landscape, we need to be thinking about the next
generation of firewood trees. Also, we shouldn’t be continuing Non–Natives: Water
prevent stock poisoning at certain times of the year. Acorns are to raid our teatree scrub for firewood as these areas are the Alder species (Alnus sp.) • Good water is the key to happy, healthy, productive
reported to be half the nutritive value of maize. nurseries for our native trees and forests of the future. Ash (Fraxinus excelsior) animals
Poplars (Populus) On our farms, we need to start planting out special areas Red beech (Nothofagus fusca) • Access to clean, cool water is essential
Willows (Salix)
for our firewood crops and these can be our hedgerows and
Beech (Fagus sylvatica) • Cows can drink up to 100 litres a day each
shelterbelts as well as larger woodlots. The shift in our thinking
Egyptian willow – S. medemei (good for bee pollen July and here needs to be away from a one–off crop which is planted, Black locust (Robinia psuedo–acacia) • Water is necessary for body function, milk production and
August) matures, gets cut down and another one planted, like an Elm (Ulmus sp.) avoiding heat stress
arable crop, towards a more sustainable way of managing our Hornbeam (Carpinus betulus)
Native non–legumes for bees • If necessary, treat water to remove surplus elements
firewood trees by continual cropping, like our pastures. To do
Horse chestnut (Aesculus hippocastanum) (e.g. iron)
Cabbage trees (Cordyline australis) this we need to adopt a technique that humans have been
Flax (nectar – bellbirds/tuis, fodder) using for millennia to sustainably crop trees without killing Oak (Quercus sp.) • Chlorinated water eliminates iodine from their bodies.
them, but which we have forgotten only in the last 50 years or Silver birch (Betula pendula) Water is often one of the least considered in relation to cow
Hebes (Hebe sp.)–butterflies
so. It is a technique called coppicing.
Lacebarks (Hoherea)
Manuka (Leptospermum ericoides) What is coppicing?
Pohutukawa (Metrosideros excelsa) Coppicing is the term for the rotationally felling of trees and
Rata (Metrosideros robusta) shrubs, allowing the root bole or stool to regrow from the base.
Depending on the tree species, rainfall, fertility of the site, and
Rewarewa (Knightia excelsa)
what the cut wood is being used for, the tree can be recut on a
Manuka (Leptospermum scoparium) rotation of 1 to 20 years or more. Annual cutting is for species
like willow for basket making or poplar for fuel biomass;cutting
Non–traditional exotic trees for bees
of species like hazel every 5 years or so produces pliable
Black tupelo (Nyssa sylvatica) branches for weaving into whicker fences; and cutting bigger
Limes (Tilia sp.): Honey producer species like ash, oak and chestnut every 5–10 years produces
Northern catalpa (Catalpa speciosa): All are ornamental bee ideal sized round–wood for firewood. Not all species of tree
forage, none of these will survive in dry areas coppice. Most of our native trees don’t, but some of the
broad-leaved species do. The best coppicing species, and those
Ornamental maples: Spring source of nectar
which yield the best dense wood for burning, are the northern
Sugar maple: Timber and maple sugar temperate deciduous species, which grow fast and well in most
Sycamores (Acer pseudoplanatus): Spring source of nectar situations in New Zealand, except for very exposed locations.
It is surprising how much firewood can be grown on a relatively
All of the below are attractive to bees.
small area using this system, especially if shelterbelts are also
Apple blossum (Weigelia florida, Escallonia sp) regularly regenerated by this method, prolonging their function
Bee bee trees (Evodia sp.) indefinitely. The leaf litter and brush from the felling continually
Buddleias Himalayan (Duddleia salviifolia and B. colvelei), South restores the fertility of the soil, and this can be aided by planting
140 141
Wetlands and Waterways

requirements on a dairy farm. It is all too common on the in her quench for thirst. If trough size is small, water flow low, Water requirements for sheep, beef and replacements
traditional dairy farm to have an inadequate supply of this herd size large and a hot day you will have many thirsty stressed
Water requirements for beef, sheep and dairy replacements are
vital solution available to every cow every day. With the lack cows in the herd with the larger dominant cows controlling the
no different to those required for dairy cows. The ultimate is to
of shade on most dairy farms, the cow during a hot summer’s trough from as far as 30 metres away. Contributed by Beverley Trowbridge
provide good running water in troughs, and have it available at
day is a huge heat sink (especially more so when she is of black ‘The ideal for a dairy cattle using a circular trough is that each Wetlands tend to be very much the poor cousin in
all times. Sometimes, however, this is not possible. This may be
skin colouring). These cows have to rely on dissipating this heat animal has a minimum of 600mm space, and enough troughs terms of habitats and areas that we appreciate and
due to physical barriers or the costs involved providing a system
energy at night and if the night temperatures are high and/or to allow them to drink a minimum of three times daily for cherish. They are not imposing in stature like forests,
involving troughs. It still is important to have water available
there is high humidity then the cow is not able to return to her five minutes each time. Lactating cows should not have to nor constantly moving and changing like the sea; every-
at all times.
normal temperature of 38.5 degrees Celsius by morning. She walk more than 100 metres to a trough each time to drink’ thing is on a micro–scale, too small for the human eye.
will then start the next day at an elevated temperature and Several options of water sources are underground water, To us wetlands tend to look dull and lifeless, nothing
(Bentley, 2003). It is also important that there is no electric wires
ultimately suffers heat stress or hyperthermia. These cows are communal water schemes, town water supplies, natural springs, moving, nothing happening, all very uninteresting. And
anywhere near a trough. Heifers will be last in the pecking
extremely stressed, will mouth breathe, with tongue protruding. artesian bores, drains, and streams and rivers. so we have tended to use them over the ages as places
order. It is thought that half the herd should be able to drink
Cows have died of this. at any one time. All present their own individual advantages and challenges and to dump our rubbish, or infill, or drain to ‘improve’ the
Milking cows need free access to clean, cool water. It is a need to be dealt with appropriately. land, or plant up with trees to make them more visually
If there are problems with adequate water supply on your farm
requirement by law to provide stock with water and in the case Natural streams and rivers are abundant in New Zealand and attractive.
this must be corrected, as apart from being an animal welfare
of our bovine species she should never have a day (even when issue the lack of water will be costing you dearly in lost produc- can be a good source of water. It is best if these are fenced off It is only relatively recently that we have realised that we have
dried off) that she doesn’t have access to water. An indicator tion (milk volume less, higher somatic cells counts from stressed and water piped from them to troughs or been doing our wetlands a
of good water is when the cows drink heartily rather than sip cows, poor condition score). receptacles that animals can drink from. grave injustice, and begun
at the water. You need to check the flow in summer to appreciate them for what
Having access to a water trough near the milking parlour or From the Code of Recommendations and
In the ideal world this water should just be water. Not water to ensure there is a constant source of Minimum Standards: they do, and even to see their
even in the milking parlour is another option as is having a
plus a whole lot of mineral elements or salts added to it. A cow water for your stock. There are small, cheap subtle beauty. For wetlands are
trough halfway along the farm race if there is more than 1.5km For the Welfare of Sheep:
likes to quench a thirst with plain water – not to try and get water rams available for pumping if gravity the half–way house between
walk from the back of the farm. Take care to avoid crowding or 4.2 Water
the water from all the additives (salts, chlorine, fluoride, bloat feed is impractical. Quality needs also to dry land and our waterways.
congestion in raceways or yards where a steady flow of animals
products) that are commonly put in. To contaminate it with be checked, especially if there is activity ‘Sheep shall be given sufficient good quality They act as natural sponges
is important.
‘minerals’ makes no sense. Water is closely linked with all of upstream. water to maintain body weight within the and filters in the water cycle,
the body’s internal reactions. It is necessary for the solution of An extra note about heat stress: make sure cows have access normal physiological range for their type, cleaning our water of any
Dams and ponds can be made, using
all food materials and the waste products, plus their passage in to a salt block on the race or in the paddock. Do not put salt in age and sex.’ impurities and delivering it
natural water courses and catchments.
and out of the tissues of the body. Its physical properties make the drinking water. into the waterways as fresh
‘Studies at Massey Making them summer safe, when the ‘Sheep shall not be deprived of water for
it an important factor in the transfer of heat in the body and Keeping your troughs clean University confirm animals need the water most, has to be and clean for wildlife and
more than 48 hours, and in hot weather for
thus in the regulation of body temperature. is also important. This can overseas research factored in. These are a relatively cheap human consumption alike.
no more than 24 hours.’
showing an increase Wetlands soak up the surface
An indication of the importance of water in these functions is be done several ways. There option and once again, the ultimate is to ‘Water sources should be reliable and the
in milk volume up to water run–off from the land
the fact that the volume of water passing in and out of the body are covers available. You can half a litre per cow per fence these off and try to pipe the water water clean...’
pump them out regularly, from them by gravity feeding, or pumping and hold it in their highly
stream every minute is larger than the volume of water normally day, improved food For the Welfare of Cattle:
or you could put goldfish conversion efficiency of the water to troughs. absorbent peaty soils. Wetland
maintained in the fluid portion of the body. When water is
in them, but make sure you around 8 per cent, and 3.1 General Requirements plants are specially adapted
‘contaminated’ with additives, it loses much of its ability to up to 23 per cent extra Animals moving in and around, have the
don’t use a species that to be able to grow in these
perform these functions. potential to contaminate the water you are ‘At all times dairy cattle should receive food
weight gain on beef and cold, waterlogged soils, and
could establish in a nearby sheep, when animals are and water which is adequate to maintain
Trough size, herd size, diameter of the alkathene pipes and expecting them to drink. Worms, bacteria, so they are able to utilise the
stream, and don’t let the given ready access to health, vigour and satisfactory growth and
water pressure dictate the ease with which a cow can partake and other diseases spread by animals and nutrients brought in by the
trough run dry. good water’. production.’
vermin can be further spread through water, so that wetlands can
(from Bentley, 2003.)
this medium. Regular water tests will be 3.5 Adult and Growing Cattle be highly productive ecosys-
A note about chlorine and fluoride in water needed to monitor your water quality. This
‘Fresh water should be provided at all times. tems. This holding of surface
The affect of chlorinated water and the The clinical activity of any of these four bacteria killed, but it does cause the body to lose will also monitor the minerals in your water.
Water consumption may rise markedly during water run–off at the top of
well–known law of halogen displacement halogens is in inverse proportion to the much needed iodine. Some are good for health, others, such as
weight of its atom. The significance of this heat–waves or become unavailable due to the water catchment, followed
If your cows are drinking town water, monitor it iron and manganese in only small doses
has to be mentioned here as well. The being frozen in the winter. Troughs should be by its slow release, prevents
is that any one of the four halogens can and the animal’s health. If there is a choice, then
halogen displacement law influences the displace the element with a higher atomic and may need treatment. flash flooding lower down the
supply water free of chemicals to your animals. cleaned and maintained regularly.’
way in which a cow can get access to the weight but cannot displace an element with Our grazing animals also obtain fluoride through If you do find yourself with a problem of catchment, and also retains
a lesser atomic weight. Looking at this list Source: www.maf.govt.nz/biosecurity/animal–welfare
mineral elements in group 7 of the periodic phosphate type fertilisers and probably do not quality, then you will need to explore your more water in the system
table. fluorine can displace chlorine, bromine, and need the extra added via a town water supply. It is available in booklet form free from:
iodine. Chlorine can displace bromine and options as to how to overcome this. There so that there is a reduced
The halogen group of elements includes the If this is a problem, explore your options. There Animal Welfare Advisory Committee
iodine; and bromine can displace iodine but are many people around with experience and sell are many options. This may include finding C/– Ministry of Agriculture tendency for water courses
following:
the reverse order is not possible. If you are water dispensers . Alternatively explore other another source of water, reorganising your P O Box 2526, Wellington to dry out during periods of
Halogen Relative atomic weight putting iodine in your water to boost your water sources. Ph: 04 474 4129 Fax: 04 498 9888 little rain.
(weight of the atom) system, putting a filter system in. There are
cows’ intake, this may be unsuccessful if you
Fluorine 19 professionals around who will also be able This Animal Welfare Codes have many recom- While the water is slowly
have the presence of fluorine, chlorine or
Chlorine 35.5 bromine. Drinking chlorinated water does to help you if it is a major problem. mendations and is the one to be referred to at percolating through the
Bromine 80
provide us with water with the harmful all times for animal requirements. wetland system, any pollut-
Iodine 127
142 143
ants and excess nutrients are taken up by the wetland plants ability of wetlands. Some of our centralised reticulated human Toetoe (Cortaderia sp.) Trees:
and metabolised, thus removing them from the system and waste processing systems even use this natural technology Shrubs: Akeake (Dodonaea sp.)
preventing them from running off into the water courses where and are known to produce the cleanest processed effluent, Coprosmas (Coprosma sp.) Cabbage Tree (Cordyline australis)
Griselinias (Broadleaf, Puka) Houpara (Pseudopanax lessonii)
they can cause the death of wildlife and pollution of the water. (e.g.Whangarei).
Korokio (Corokia sp.) Kanuka (Kunzea ericoides)
Excess nutrients in the water is a state called ‘eutrophica- Also farmers are increasingly recognising the advantages of Karaka (Corynocarpus laevigatus)
Koromiko (Hebe stricta)
tion’, and is often noticeable by blooms of algae which are fencing stock out of wetlands, as well as fencing off buffer Kohekohe (Dysoxylum spectabile)
Karaka (Corynocarpus laevigatus)
reproducing rapidly, and a consequent death of fish and other strips along water courses, and providing stock with reticu- Mapou/ Red matipou (Myrsine australis) Mahoe/Whiteywood (Melicytus ramiflorus)
wildlife caused by a depletion of oxygen and imbalance in the lated drinking water instead of using natural water courses Tree Daisies (Olearias) Manuka (Leptospermum scoparium)
system. Wetlands also act as a filter for soil and other particles, Pittosporums (Pittosporum sp.) Mapou/Red matipou (Myrsine australis)
to water stock. These buffer strips need to be a minimum of Ngaio (Myoporum laetum)
holding them in the tightly bound roots of the wetland plants Poroporo (Solanum sp.)
3m wide from the edge of the water course, and should be Pohutakawa (Metrosideros excelsa)
and preventing them from entering the water where they would Shore Fuchsia (Fuchsia procumbens)
allowed to regenerate with natural vegetation which can be Puriri (Vitex lucens)
cause sedimentation and turbidity, which also has a negative enhanced by planting wetland species including shrubs and Trees: Wharangi (Melicope ternata)
impact on water quality and wildlife. trees. Suggestions of what to plant are given in our Wetland
Akeake (Dodonaea sp.) Whau (Entelea arborescens)
Cabbage Tree (Cordyline australis)
One of the other vital function of wetlands is actually the same Planting Guide below. Kanuka (Kunzea ericoides) Additional plants for sheltered wetland margins
as we have already been discussing with our forests and trees, This taller, ungrazed vegetation along the banks of water Lacebarks (Hoheria sp.) Shrubs:
for like wood the waterlogged, peaty soils of wetlands repre- courses and in wetlands maintains a micro–climate of shade Manuka (Leptospermum scoparium) Brooms – native (Carmichaelia sp.)
sent a store of carbon in the terrestrial ecosystem which does and high humidity, preventing any excessive rise in temperature
Ngaio (Myoporum laetum) Five finger (Pseudopanax arboreus)
not get released into the atmosphere as CO2. When we drain Pohutakawa (Metrosideros excelsa) Rangiora (Brachyglottis repanda)
or drying out, which keeps the water cool and saturated with Ribbonwoods (Plagianthus sp.)
our wetlands and the soils dry out, this stored carbon becomes Tutu (Coriaria arboria)
oxygen, as required by the wetland wildlife like invertebrates Totara (Podocarpus totara) Wineberry (Aristotelia serrata)
available and is metabolised by soil microflora and fauna to and fish. The vegetation also provides food for the system in
form carbohydrates, but much is also lost to the atmosphere as the form of leaves, seeds and insects, which fall into the water Plants for waterlogged sites Trees:
gaseous carbon dioxide in this breakdown process, thus adding Tall herbaceous species: Kowhai (Sophora sp.)
and are consumed. They also provide essential food and nesting
to our problem of global warming. Baumea reeds Lancewood (Pseudopanax crassifolius)
sites for other wetland wildlife like birds, which are again part Matai (Prumnopitys taxifolia)
Carex sedges
So, even in this brief introduction to the role of wetlands, we of the foodchain and the essential balance of the system. Spikerush (Eleocharis sphacelata) Miro (Prumnopitys ferruginea)
can see how invaluable they are to us in the functioning of Non–wetland plant species, like many of our agricultural Flax (Phormium tenax) Putaputaweta (Carpodetus serratus)
our water supplies. They provide us with a natural and free grasses, cannot grow nearly so well as wetland species can in Juncus rushes Rimu (Dacrydium cupressinum)
processing service which is very costly to rectify if it is removed, cold waterlogged soils, and so they are unable to process the Lake clubrush (Schoenoplectus validus) Tawa (Beilschmiedia tawa)
Raupo (Typha orientalis) Taraire (Beilschmiedia tarairi)
and they can also be very attractive and interesting places if we nutrient run–off from adjacent farmland which therefore flows
Scirpus clubrushes Tree ferns (Cyathea and Dicksonia sp.)
look a little closer and learn to appreciate their subtle colours on into our waterways. Tree fuchsia (Fuchsia excorticata)
Toetoe (Cortaderia fulvida)
and placid pace. Your local regional council is an excellent source of advice and Shrubs:
information about the wetland species which are local to your Other plants:
Karamu (Coprosma robusta)
Eleocharis sphacelata: Native, excellent filter
area, and for suggestions of nurseries which specialize in these Mingimingi (Coprosma propinqua)
Reed sweet grass Glayceria maxima previously Poa Aquatica:
Wetlands on the farm plants. Many regional councils also have grants and other help Pate (Schefflera digitata)
Restrict for grazing, can cause cyanide poisoning.
available for fencing, some even offer free trees, so it is defi- Trees:
Reed canary grass Phlaris arundacea: Summer fodder. Can cause
nitely worth giving them a call. Wetlands and waterways have Cabbage Tree (Cordyline australis) poisoning.
Wetlands on the farm have tended to be partially drained and Kahikatea (Dacrycarpus dacrydioides)
become a major concern to regional councils in recent years in Duckweed Lemma Sp: Can be harvested without disturbing
used as dry weather extra grazing, or sacrifice areas where we Maire (Syzygium maire)
their efforts to keep our drinking water clean, so they will be remaining wetland system.
put the bulls or other stock not in the normal paddock circula- Manuka (Leptospermum scoparium)
delighted to hear from farmers who are interested in working
tion. Or else we have planted them up with wet–loving trees Pukatea (Laurelia novae–zelandiae) Avoid:
with them. Ribbonwood (Plagianthus regius)
like willows, or dumped all our clapped out cars and washing Toetoe or pampas grass, Alligator Weed Alternanthera
machines into them. Thus our wetlands are badly degraded philoxeroides, Manchurian Wild Rice Zinzania Iantifolia, Water
Plants for estuarine margins Hyacinth Eichornia crassipes, Water Fern Salvania spp
and have become invaded by non–native dry land species, Tall herbaceous species:
and do not function as they should. The concentration of
dung from grazing stock actually contributes substantially to Wetland planting guide – Carex testacea sedge
Carex trifida sedge
See also the Effluent section for more information.
the eutrophication of our waterways, and the trampling and what are the choices? Juncus rushes A Word of Warning!
pugging of the soil causes sedimentation of the water as well Flax (Phormium sp.)
Toetoe (Cortaderia toetoe) Pukekos can wreck havoc in your newly planted
as severe erosion of the banks. Our waterways are much more Plants for exposed sites wetland sites!
prone to flash flooding, known only too well by people living Tall herbaceous species: Shrubs:
further downstream in the flood plains, with consequent costs Reeds (Baumea) Coprosmas (Coprosma sp.) They love to pull up the plants and chew the stalks.
to livestock and property. Sedges (Carex) Griselinias (Broadleaf, Puka)
Karo (Pittosporum crassifolium) Contact your local DOC office or Fish and Game Dept.
Spike–rushes (Eleocharis)
But increasingly we are seeing the benefits of restoring our Kawakawa (Macropiper excelsum) for ways of discouraging them.
Flaxes (Phormium sp.)
wetlands and they are now even being recreated in order to Juncus rushes Korokia (Corokia cotoneaster)
process our dairy effluent before it is returned to the land, Lake clubrush (Schoenoplectus validus) Koromiko (Hebe stricta)
and also in human septic processing systems in semi–rural Raupo (Typha orientalis) Olearias (some of the tree daisies)
Clubrushes (Scirpus) Shore fuchsia (Fuchsia procumbens)
locations where there is space to use the natural processing
Shore ribbonwood (Plagianthus divaricatus)
144 145
Reusing dairy effluent

Avoid feeding molasses or meal in the shed. push the air through it. Other Tips:
Watch your dog and workers. • Wind movement • Check the area has healthy plants throughout
– some methods and tips Remedy slippery surfaces

Work the cows positively and gently.
• Circulating the pond contents through flowforms
• Using a stirrer from time to time.
•
•
Avoid bare areas.
Avoid invasive plants, and those unpalatable to stock
There are many ways we can treat dairy effluent and Let them drop their cowpats in the paddock. Wait at the gate • The use of clay products, such as bentonite and zeolite will • Monitor for pests – pukekos and rodents – they destroy the
there will be factors which will influence the one you for them to get up, empty themselves, and move towards the help bind free nitrogen and make it available. plants.
choose. gate in their own time. This will spread the fertility all over the • 85% of weeds and seeds are killed through temperatures • Consider vegetation harvesting to ensure 75% is main-
Three main goals should be: paddock, without you having to respread it. of 8 degrees C tained in healthy plant growth.
• To return it to the land in some form at a rate that • Covering the pond with straw, hay, old compost, sawdust • Fence it off
delivers no more than 150kg nitrogen per hectare (ensure it is not treated) will increase the carbon to
per year.
Systems for treating effluent nitrogen ratio, reducing the loss of nutrients through
evaporation, and it keeps the rain out.
Compost and vermicast
• To prevent runoff of waste and effluent, including This is not common practice in New Zealand, but is currently
detergents etc into the waterways until treated
Holding Ponds being explored by some farmers here. Scrapings from the yard
adequately.
Advanced Pond Systems (APS) or stand off pad are collected and gathered into heaps and
This is the system the majority of farmers have been operating, These are being trialed in New Zealand, where environmental
• To allow effluent to stay in any treatment pond
composted.
although most new dairies are now installing a pumping system restrictions do not allow land application. It is a four stage
60–90 days to allow solids to settle and microbes directly onto the pasture. The traditional system (this process • Worms can be added to inoculate the heap.
system:
to breakdown organic material. should take 60–90 days before the end product is moved to • Biodynamic compost preparations can also be added to
another system or returned to the land) consists of: 1. Anaerobic pond.
• To monitor bacterial levels through soil and water keep it aerobic.
tests, to ensure there is no risk to animal, human (a) Anaerobic pond: It settles solids and breaks them down. 2. High rate pond
• Your site should be carefully chosen to avoid runoff to
and water health. This pond is usually 4 metres deep and it should bubble 3. Algae settling pond waterways and sensitive areas.
Failure to do these will result in a breakdown of soil health, and be active. 4. Maturation pond • Covering it will enable it to be heated and would minimise
water quality and it will affect any plant, fish and insect life in (b) Aerobic pond (oxidisation pond): The oxidisation breaks the risk of runoff.
For more details contact Dr Chris Tanner, NIWA, P O Box 11–115
the water. down the organic material and changes mineral to a more Hamilton. There is information on the website www.niwa.co.nz/rc/ • Allow it to work for at least 6 weeks.
Whatever system you choose, minimise the amount of effluent readily available form for the plants. It needs sunlight and pollution/pubs/no8/dairywaste2/dairywaste2–treatment
and runoff you have to deal with. This avoids overflows and wind flow to help this process. It should be 2 metres deep. • When spreading, spread in thin layers to allow sunlight
extra pumping, enables enough capacity to hold it longer and This is the pond from which we irrigate to the land. Barrier ditches/blind drains through to the plants and to kill any bacteria.
get more benefit from it. It also reduces the amount you need It can then be transferred to a wetland, or sprayed onto This is the same principle as the two pond system, except they
to spread.
Some Suppliers:
pastures, put in a third holding tank for further treatment are elongated, or drains with no outlet. It is important there is
Tigercast Worms
depending on its composition. enough space to hold 60–90 days of effluent. There must be at Specialise in Waste Management Solutions.
least 2, with a baffle between. The first is the anaerobic system Suppliers of tigerworms, commercial and residential worm farms
(There is a diagram of this system in the Tree section under
and the second the aerobic. You can have as many ditches as Nicole Masters
How do I achieve this? Pond/Dam/Effluent pond plantings, page 136.)
you like. A 150 cow herd needs 6 x 930 cubic metre ditches at Ph: 07 552 0034
1.5m deep and 300m long. The first sections will need cleaning Email: [email protected]
• Ensure there is no runoff of water from tanks, spouting, Other information on this system:
frequently to avoid runoff. Integrated Systems Processing Plant
yards or surrounding hills going into your holding ponds. • Check the pH of the ponds. It should be above 6.5. If not,
This is new on the market, patented, designed and distributed by
Have a diversion drain around the ponds and shut off the correct using lime – 1.6 kg/1000 cubic metre of volume Wetlands Integrated Systems Engineers Ltd,
access to your pond at the fill pipe, enabling that water to daily until the pH is 6.5–9.0. PO Box 5565, Hamilton.
Wetlands use plants, air, sunlight, insects and birds to filter
go to the diversion drain instead. Ph: 07 847 6222
• Poorer quality pasture eaten by the herd (kikuyu, out and remove the nasties before going into the waterways.
• Repair hose leaks Email: ise–[email protected].
paspalum etc) can create excessive crusting. This will need This can be used after a pond system to further treat effluent. It is a complex, environmentally friendly, self-contained unit that
• Pre wet the yard before milking – this speeds hosing down removing. It should take 7–10 days to go through the wetland under converts effluent and waste into fertiliser and energy.
and reduces water used • Pumping oxygen can help reduce the nitrogen losses and this system. It is a good place to treat chemicals used (e.g.
increase available N to crops. Aeration can be enhanced detergents, zinc and copper sulphates from foot baths etc).
• Scrape the yard before hosing down
by: Constructed wetlands must not be part of a natural wetland,
• Use a chain on the backing gate to break down the cow as the latter is classified as natural water and part of a natural
pats • Using effluent pond conditioners commercially
aqua system. There has been a lot of work done on this by
available
• Reuse cooling water and store it for washing down Dr Chris Tanner and his colleagues at NIWA in Hamilton. This
• Adding biodynamic compost preparations and/or can be accessed through their website: www.niwa.co.nz/rc/
• Keep cows as calm as possible and they will be less likely
cowpat pits pollution/pubs/no8/dairywaste2/dairywaste2–treatment
to mess the yard
• Pumping air through the pond. This can be expensive. Check also the Wetlands section for more tips.
Stick to a routine
• One cheap way is to coil pvc pipe with 0.05mm
Avoid stray electricity
holes at the base of the pond. Use a compressor to
146 147
Applying fertiliser to the land

Breeding:
Advantages: • Soil test regularly to check these are not too high or
Can be spread every day, and very little other fertiliser is needed building up.
dairy, beef and sheep

on that area. It requires minimum labour input. Too much too often will destroy soil structure.
Northland regional council rules 16.1 Disadvantages: • Recommendation, apply three times a year.
(These are similar throughout NZ) It is restricted to one part of the farm only. It is tempting to Applying at the wrong time of the year. Contributed by Beverley Trowbridge
use effluent that is fresh, which has not had time to remove all
Permitted activities (disposal to land): the bacteria. There is possible ponding and leaching through • Do not apply
constant spraying. when soils are
Disposal of farm dairy effluent to land is permitted waterlogged.
provided that there is:
On areas where the maximum 150kg N/ha is applied, • Rule of thumb:
• No discharge directly to ‘water’ When rainfall
1 Tonne lime per ha every 4 years may be required.
• No application within 20 metres of ‘water’ This is why specific soil tests are so important. does not
• No overland flow of sludge exceed evapo-
ration.
• No application within the streamside management Travelling irrigators
area • It needs
This can be mixed with water irrigation. The same principles as
sunlight to kill
• No runoff to ‘water’ sprinklers apply with this system.
faecal bacteria.
• No discharge within 20 metres of the property Another disadvantage with this system is possible air pollu-
Other Tips:
boundary tion.
• Take care
And that there are:
Direct land application with personal
• Contingency measures in place to ensure that hygiene.
This is where a suitable area is irrigated with effluent direct
there is no discharge to water due to equipment from the dairy on a daily basis. • Apply to
failure, overflow or prolonged wet weather. recently grazed
Advantages:
There is good use of nutrients and no need for ponds.
grass and do not graze until 10 days have passed, or rain Breed selection
has washed it off the grass. This allows contaminants
such as ecoli, salmonella to be killed off or removed. Many farmers feel that they do not have the option of buying in
How? Disadvantages:
It is a high maintenance system. It needs management to avoid • Mix sludge with water to avoid plant damage.
the most suitable livestock to start their organic farming enter-
prise, but have to work with what they have already.
contamination of pastures and waterways. It produces odour. • Never empty out the pond. Leave one third full to keep the
Effluent Cart: Over the generations the breeds and individual animals
Constant testing for soil and water is important here too. process going.
This can be your own, or contractors can come in to spread it. adapted to particular environments and systems of manage-
Ensure the contractor’s gear is washed out before starting on • Use a stirrer prior to emptying. This will mix the layers. ment. There are breeds that have been developed for the New
your property. • Late summer, early autumn is best for the sunlight and Zealand environment. There are still conventional stud breeders
around on harder country who have continued to breed a more
Advantages:
Risks with applying effluent temperature breakdown of any disease–causing microor-
ganisms. moderate frame type of animal. You want to work with these
Reduces the animal and plant health risk because you can spray
wherever you want, whenever, on your farm.
to the land • Spray at least six weeks prior to cutting hay or silage and
breeds (unless you are keen to try something different), but
towards the traits that are more suitable to an organic system.
Disadvantages: With long term application, increased potassium levels in soil use older manure to avoid contamination. Talk to stock agents to help find out who has a reputation for
It can become a ‘round–to–it’ job and not applied at the best and pasture in winter and spring can increase potential for • Frequent spreading with thin layers is more beneficial than hardy animals. You also need to like the type of animal you are
times. It also means the effluent could be sitting around for a metabolic problems. heavy dressings. handling. This is a motivator to make things work.
long time, losing nutrients. • Avoid grazing effluent paddocks with springing cows and • Avoid damage to the soil if spreading effluent with a cart. Current breeding tends to focus on producing animals for quick
those recently calved return traits like high milk yields at first lactation, high weight
Sprinkler system: • Avoid loss to the air and evaporation.
• Have pasture analysed regularly gains at early maturing, and good early fleece growth. These
This is a system using sprinklers either direct from a holding • Keep a record of where you applied the effluent, how much characteristics have often been emphasised at the cost of other
tank at your dairy, or from a pond. It using only a certain specific • Increase your area or choose where you spread your and when. factors like longevity, fertility, and robustness. Some of our
area of the farm and the sprinklers are either fixed in position, effluent using muck spreaders
• Treat effluent areas separate when doing soil and herbage animals are culled from the system due to illness, poor perfor-
or can be shifted. The effluent is generally very fresh, and Contaminating waterways through surface runoff, leaching or tests. mance or injury before they have reached peak performance.
modern dairies have storage for as little as two days. spraying where there are tile drains
• Avoid spraying at night. What we are looking for under an organic system is a way
The rule of thumb for this system is that you need 12–15% of • High BOD’s (Biological Oxygen demands) and spread of to build on positive animal traits. We are aiming for profit-
• Think of your neighbours when spraying and spreading.
your farm under this system to meet the 150kg/ha/yr restriction diseases, such as salmonella, and release of faecal coli- able system of farming with healthy, well–fed and contented
(i.e. 370 square metres per cow or 4Ha/100cows). forms destroy waterways and life in it animals. All animals need to have robust constitutions, high
Sources of information
It is also important to do regular soil and water tests for bacteria Contamination of soil through worms, coliforms etc. affect natural immunity and vigour to manage pests and disease, be
All regional councils in NZ are helpful – contact your local
levels for sprayed areas specifically, to ensure there is no build animal and human health. thrifty to grow and reproduce with high fertility and few health
one.
up of toxins and to check fertility, especially potassium levels. problems.
148 149
Livestock selection
Breeding and livestock
more organic animals are available, it may be possible to begin the mother’s body has tried to respond to the threat. Natural
buying in. immunity in our stock is one of our main allies. However,
management
It is unlikely that the animals you source will have been reared As a result, you want animals that have good stamina, fertility sometimes the opposite will occur and an ailing dam will
and managed under an organic regime. It pays to think long– and can live longer. Each farmer has their own theories on the produce ailing offspring. This tells us that there is something
term when making livestock selection choices, not just for the traits you should look for when choosing bulls. Animals do missing in the genetics of that line and we don’t want it in our
conversion period. Stock that are already managed organically, Contributed by Beverley Trowbridge adapt to certain areas and situations as time and generations organic flock/herd. It is very much a matter of close observation,
and especially if they have been bred from organically–reared While there is a shortage of organic stock available go by, and many breeds that have been farmed in New Zealand keeping an open mind, and acting accordingly.
stock, will be able to cope with your conversion to organics very for rearing on, we may need to consider developing a and bred here for some time have adapted well to local condi-
Comments from farmers

much better than conventional stock (it seems to be the second system with a closed herd or flock. This means a herd or tions. Talk with your artificial insemination representative or
generation that makes the difference). flock which is self–sustaining in terms of numbers and local stud breeders and they should be able to help.
into which we do not normally introduce other animals
and practioners
The other important factors to bear in mind when selecting
except under occasional circumstances. Animals bred
stock is the environment they have been born and reared in,
and reared on the property tend to be more adapted. By
and also the environment that their parents came from. Animals
adapt very rapidly to their local environmental conditions. They
selecting the best animals for breeding, you will improve Cross–breeding and grading–up
your stock and their genetic fitness in relation to your
learn to adapt directly from their parents, particularly the dam.
particular circumstances. If you are farming at a commercial scale you may need a
They learn how to forage and develop preferences for plants
based on the environment in which they live. They also learn Occasionally we may want or need to bring in new herd/flock
cross–breeding programme, utilizing the traits of more than one
breed and the hybrid vigour of your terminal sires for increased
A comment on dairy cattle
how to adapt to the physical environment in which they are sires to introduce or improve particular traits or to prevent
size and vigour in your calves and lambs. This approach can Forty years of artificial breeding with the
living (e.g. weather patterns, ground conditions and wind). continued close in–breeding. Although the sire’s contribution
still work well in an organic system since different breeds emphasis on milk production has resulted in
to the adaptedness of the offspring is certainly less than that
Young stock also acquires immunity provide access to other traits. Remember that hybrid vigour a very different dairy animal. The modern
of the dam’s, it still plays a significant
during lactation. This is particularly dilutes very rapidly after the first cross and then you are left cow will lose an awful lot of body weight to
part.
true for ruminants, which need to get with a highly variable gene pool. You will need to be regularly continue milking if she is inadequately fed. Her
the appropriate rumen biota (bacteria Organic pastoral farmers have found bringing in new purebred sires, and often replacement dams
A hypothesis udder is like a huge parasite in this respect.
and so forth) from their mothers to that it is also beneficial to allow too, to maintain the genetic consistency and traits you want. In
This was largely not the case up until the
be able to do well on the particular It is preferable to keep the herd/flock sire young stock to wean themselves doing this you can lose some benefit of the stock adapting to
1970s where if starved beyond a certain
local vegetation, as well as acquiring with the breeding group if at all possible rather than imposing a weaning their specific environment. An alternative is to run a commercial
point, cows would tend to dry off rather than
immunity. and to maintain mixed age groups rather regime at a certain age (obviously crossbred herd/flock and a small purebred group, specifically for
lose too much condition. They were possibly
than separating them out according to this doesn’t apply to dairy farmers). replacements.
So when selecting stock we also need more ‘robust’ (they certainly got in calf easier
age cohorts. This reduces the psycho- This again greatly increases the
to choose animals which have come Due to the lack of availability of organic stock you will probably than today’s cows probably because of this
logical stress on the animals as they are natural immunity of the young stock,
from conditions as close as possible need to compromise and buy in some replacement stock self–preserving characteristic). However, these
much more content in this more natural as it does not expose them to that
to those on our own farm, that for your organic conversion, but being left with the task of cows were not particularly efficient due to the
grouping, and it also reduces the rate of dangerous post–weaning period
means farming and environmental grading–up with your existing animals to achieve the livestock relatively high proportion of feed they needed
re–infestation of the young stock from the when they can become susceptible
conditions. Animals which have come genetics you are looking for a little way down the track. Your for maintenance.
environment of pathogens like intestinal to parasite loading and loss of condi-
from very harsh environmental condi- carefully selected bought–in animals will make this task much
parasites, since the older immune animals tion. It is important to provide plenty Today’s dairy cows are very efficient at
tions will usually adapt fairly well to easier, as they will bring in much of the genetics that you are
act as pasture cleaners. of feed to the weaned calves to avoid converting grass to milk. It is possible to
conditions that are easier. Animals aiming for, and then it is a matter of planning your breeding
worm burdens. Dams wean their fully feed cows on a conventional farm but
raised in a fertile environment will programme to make best use of this and spread it through the
offspring when needed. not sustainably. Organic farming has the
not perhaps adapt very well to a flock/herd. At the same time you will also be able to select the
harsher environment, certainly not genetic traits in your existing stock that enables stock to thrive opportunity to provide cows with a balanced
for a few generations. If possible choose animals which have under the new organic system. This is obviously not a simple diet in a sustainable fashion - it’s a matter
been managed least intensively as possible (i.e. farms with a
minimal drenching policy and who use RPR rather than super-
Animal longevity or quick task, it takes time and you will have set–backs and
failures. However, that is to be expected and so don’t let it put
of adjusting stocking rates to ensure they
can be fully–fed all year round. Having big,
phosphate), so that their natural immunity and constitution will This is a feature of long term organic farms and is encouraged. you off your overall goals. high producing cows and less of them is one
be least compromised.
Longevity is important in that, to a certain degree, the farm Some of your existing animals won’t be able to cope under the way of maximising productive, economic
You may need to make significant compromises when selecting does become a closed system. Only 10% of animals can be new regime. If they are ailing under an organic regime they and ecological efficiency, although there
and breeding the stock for your organic farming enterprise, as brought in each year and they have a time lag of 12 months may need to be culled depending on their ailments. However, if are aspects of management which need
there are limited organic livestock resources to source from. (depending on certification) before being granted organic status. a dam is failing due to a lack of adaptation rather than to any consideration with this approach (e.g. possible
However, if we bear in mind the fundamental principles of what Consequently, it is best at this point in time to look after what predominantly congenital defects, then it pays to keep their difficulties in controlling pasture quality in a
we need and why, we can at least make an informed and hope- you already have and raise all your own replacements. Feed and offspring. The young animal will have full exposure to the new
good season and controlling pasture damage
fully, wise decision. treat your entire herd well, especially your young stock. environment from birth and so will have a much better chance
in a bad one).
of doing well. A good example of this is intestinal parasites in
Some farms struggle during transition because of the
sheep. While a dam may not be able to cope with exposure to • Contributed by: Alan Thatcher
elimination, through death and culling, of those who haven’t
a higher worm burden and start to ail, her offspring will have
coped with the change to organics. Have a strategy plan in
been getting antibodies passed to them through her milk as
case this happens. When more farms become organic, and
150 151
Conversion issues for

livestock management
for parasites all year round, as at lambing they become
A comment on sheep Comments on beef cattle increasingly susceptible to internal parasites and act as
infective agents on the pasture, causing a double–dose
The selection of the right breed of As with sheep, cattle have evolved over many thousands Contributed by Beverley Trowbridge effect when the lambs are starting to graze. Preferably
sheep for the conditions is very impor- of years, and since having been domesticated they have they need to be cross–grazed with cattle, particularly
tant. Sheep have evolved over many been bred especially for beef, dairy or draught. at this time and when the lambs are weaned, so that
thousands of years, and many different When keeping beef cattle, a true beef breed to suit the cattle can help to clean the pasture. Sheep can be
breeds have become established to suit
different environments and conditions.
the conditions must be selected. These will be efficient Beef: kept organically successfully without cross–grazing with
converters of pasture to good tender beef. They must cattle but there needs to be a plentiful range of clean
There is also a large variation of types also be very quiet to handle. Dairy breeds produce Suckler beef systems are probably the easiest of all live- grazing available to keep moving the sheep on to, and
or strains within the breeds. Some have more milk and draught breed, develop coarse heavy stock systems to convert to an organic regime as we are a good range of natural herbs in the pasture to allow
the ability to withstand varied seasonal muscling to pull implements etc, but these are not making use of the unrivalled abilities of the dam to look the sheep to self–medicate. Preferably the lambs should
conditions, with good resistance to para- suitable for top quality beef production. after her offspring. Mature cattle have a much higher be kept on the ewes as long as possible to get the best
sites and diseases, but some don’t. resistance to parasites and disease than sheep on organic start as the larger more thrifty lambs are much less prone
Cattle thrive best on fertile, wetter soils, with reason- farms, as it is much closer to their natural environment of to problems from worms. If possible allow the lambs to
Unfortunately a lot of the hardiness has able drainage. They like quite tall pastures, with a lot wet, lowland grasslands and woodland edge. self–wean, especially during the conversion period
been bred out of some sheep now, and of roughage, so they can wrap their tongue around it
Beef systems also tend to be some of the least intensive when your pastures won’t yet be fully mineralised and
these cannot be kept under an organic when grazing. Sheep, on the other hand, like shorter,
systems in farming. The main requirements of the organic beef balanced, and your stock’s immunity will be being tested
situation, but can survive quite well more succulent pastures with less roughage, as they
enterprise are that they are based mainly on natural pasture to the full in trying to adapt to the new regime.
under a chemical farming situation, with tend to nibble when grazing. Beef cattle are quite
drenches, dips, vaccines, antibiotics etc. hardy, and if given a bit of shelter and plenty of good grazing. Calves should be left on their dam for a minimum of Plants with a high tannin content have been shown to reduce
Question whether you should keep these organic grazing will have very few health problems at 3 months, and preferably much longer, with natural weaning worm burdens. Research has shown that pasture species can
lines. all. being the ideal. The time of weaning is the main danger time also have a significant affect on the infective larvae burden,
for organic beef as this is when the young calf is exposed for with animals being fed species like chicory, white clover and
Some hardy strains are still available so • Contributed by David Johnstone the first time to its environment without any support from its Yorkshire fog having a much lower incidence of parasites (Niezen
these are the ones to keep. Parasite-and- mother. Weaned calves should be given an organic drench to 1999). Niezen’s work found that biologically–managed farms
facial-eczema-resistant rams are now boost their immunity and put on to abundant, clean pasture.
Beef cattle in some parts of the country have had little carried a lower infective worm larvae burden on their pastures
available in some common breeds. This treatment may need to be repeated if they show signs of
or no serious breeding for generations. If you want a than conventionally managed farms. This was due to the faster
The best way to prevent worms and lack of thrift, and their grazing rotation needs to ensure they are turnover of livestock dung back into the soil.
robust, adaptable animal, it would be difficult to go always moving onto clean, fresh pasture.
fly strike in sheep is to have a good
past the Angus cattle of the steep North Island papa So there are a number of ways of keeping your lambs healthy
varied mixture of grasses and herbs in The first winter is usually a critical time for weaned calves. They
country, encompassing eastern Taranaki, Wanganui and growing well. If you do decide to wean it pays to use an
your pastures, and to not overstock. need to be going into it in the best possible condition, so early
and southern King Country. These cows only get to organic drench at weaning, and at 3–4 weekly intervals there-
Remember, all livestock need plenty of calving and/or late weaning are ideal, and their quality of feed after if there is scouring or noticeable lack of thrift. After each
clean fresh water too. see real grass for about 3 months of the year if they’re intake needs to be kept high through the bad weather. This is drench they should be moved to clean grazing.
• Contributed by: David Johnstone lucky, the rest of the time their diet seems to consist the time when any worm burden will take its toll as feed quality
largely of thistles, fern, rushes and pasture the sheep drops and temperatures and wind chill increase body mainte- It often pays to give the ewes an organic drench just prior to
have left behind. Despite this, they maintain good nance needs. Good preparation and planning are essential. For lambing to boost their immunity, especially during the conver-
condition and, as long as they get a bit of copper (papa this reason some farmers switch to late spring or late summer sion period. Having a good balanced mineral lick available for
calving so that calves are still on their dams over–winter. the flock at all times during conversion can reap dividends. This
is severely copper deficient), they get in calf easily. If
Natural weaning may assist in this process. is where it pays to have had your soil and pasture tested so you
yearlings are well fed after weaning, they can be calved
know what is lacking and can supply it in a lick as compensa-
as 2 year olds. However, autumn weaned calves can be successfully brought tion.
These cows are run in a virtually chemical–free system, through the winter with some care. Good shelter from the
elements is essential, and a balanced mineral lick can also be During conversion your flock will also be exposed to the other
many of the farms having had little or no fertiliser on common ailments of sheep like fly strike, lice, facial eczema
very beneficial in the conversion years when the pasture may
the hills for 20 years. Economic circumstances mean and pulpy kidney. Treatments for these as well as other sheep
not yet be fully mineralised. Lack of adequate food and minerals
that little in the way of animal remedies are used. Adult ailments are given in the Animal Health Chapter.
is very often the cause of illness or ill thrift in the conversion
stock are only ever likely to receive a copper injection period. Pulpy kidney is triggered by excessively lush pastures and a
and the odd liver fluke drench. This means they have sudden change in diet. Not vaccinating for pulpy kidney needs
become well adapted to a harsh environment. permission from certifying agencies. Ewes can become immune
• Contributed by: Alan Thatcher to the local strains of Clostridium pathogen over time. Facial
Sheep: eczema also seems to be virtually absent from organic farms.
You may have a problem in the first few years which you can
Sheep are native to dry habitats in Asia and so they are deal with by supplementing with zinc.
the most difficult to keep healthy and thriving under
Fly strike also seems to be more a phenomenon of modern
organic systems in our wet pastures here in New Zealand.
intensive farming. Once the pastures are fully active and
Unlike mature cows, ewes do not act as pasture hoovers
balanced with the use of slow–release organic fertilisers and
152 153
the animal’s health is in tune, then fly strike seems to become

a rarer problem with only sickly animals being susceptible. This
adding cider vinegar to your drinking troughs. Cider vinegar is
also an effective pick–me–up drench for ailing stock, especially
certainly worthwhile developing a good relationship with your
nearest abattoir and persuading them to become certified to Dairy cow condition scoring
seems to be strongly determined by the fact that a naturally in combination with other ingredients like garlic and kelp. handle your slaughtering, as distance to slaughter is one of There are a number of cow condition scoring systems and the
healthy animal does not give off an odour that blowflies are the important considerations in organic meat quality. Years of one mentioned here is presently used by consultants, veterinar-
attracted to. One exception is that lice tend to accentuate the good handling and management on the farm can be undone ians and farmers alike. The Waikato Polytechnic has a excellent
fly problem as the fleece smells, particularly when it is damp. by animals highly stressed by a long travel distance to slaughter
Another important factor is faecal staining of wool around Animal handling and intervention and bad treatment prior to killing. This is a whole area that
printed card complete with a diagram that is ideal to refer to if
you are not familiar with the method.
the crutch caused by parasites and excessively lush pasture. needs more attention for the organic meat industry to expand
Keeping lambs wool short and clean around the crutch is the We must ensure that our animals are stress–free and live as in New Zealand, and can perhaps be addressed by organic meat You really do have to know some basic anatomy of the cow
main thing for them. contented lives as we can possibly give them. It also means producers banding together to ensure adequate throughput for to do condition scoring. The backbone is rather obvious and
they are likely to be healthier, do better, and live longer, and abattoirs to justify the cost of certification. doesn’t need explanation. The hips are the bones protruding
Sheep are certainly a challenge in organic farming, but once out from the backbone and are the ones that can get knocked if
that their meat, milk or fibre will taste better or be of better
converted it is a joy to see such healthy and self–supporting Collaborative marketing ventures would also help to ensure cows rush through a narrow gap. The ‘pins’ refer to the points
quality.
animals. continuity of supply vital for the development of imaginative either side of the tail arch. The ‘side of the pin’ refers to the
Most mutilations of stock are prohibited under organic certifi- sales strategies. area to the side of this area (to the lateral side of the cow or
cation, except for de–horning of cattle, docking of sheep, and
outside) and the ‘rear of the pin’ refers to the area below the
castration at a young age of bulls or rams. Docking of dairy Suppliers of Certified Organic Older Breeds in NZ:
Feeding cows is prohibited. Tim Gow
Mangapiri Downs Stud, Blackmount, R D 2, Otautau
pin on the back end or rear side of the cow as opposed to the
side of the cow.
Even permitted mutilations should be reviewed in the context
Under an organic system animals must be fed on their Southland. To score a cow one follows the following order. There are seven
of your own operation to evaluate whether or not they are Ph (03) 225 5283
natural foods, which for cattle and sheep is basically pasture. possible positions to feel depending upon how thin the cow is.
actually necessary. Tail docking of sheep is a good example. It Website: www.organicstud.com
Supplementary feed can be given as a minor proportion of the The best way to learn is to find a friendly cow and practice by
tends to be carried out as a routine practice without regard to Bio–Gro certified, Highland Cattle, White–headed Marsh sheep,
diet, which should be checked with your certifier as the permis- Wiltipoll (modern breed from old Wiltshire Horn) placing your hands on each of these ‘positions’ and get familiar
its implications for the animals. Anyone watching tailed sheep
sible amount can vary. There is a permitted daily percentage as with this order and then look at the chart to determine what
will soon realize that their tails have some important functions
well as permitted annual amount. All ruminants need a diet Beverly Trowbridge the condition score is.
to perform, which is presumably why they were given them. Murivall Stud & Heritage Breeds, Muriwai Valley Farm,
that is high in fibre. This is because of the particular workings During dunging sheep use their tails to disperse the droppings First position – feel the hips and pins – are they flat? (Put your
194 Muriwai Valle Rd, R D 1, Waimauku, Auckland.
of the rumen. The rumen contains a rich and diverse cocktail away from their back ends, to keep themselves clean. If the tail Ph 09 411 8557 hands on these two points and actually feel them).
of bacteria and other micro flora and fauna, which permit the becomes soiled, it is attractive to flies, and is a nuisance to the Website: lifestylelivestock.co.nz
animal to digest the cellulose of the plants it ingests. It is simi- Bio–Gro certified, Red Devon Cattle, Wiltshire Horn Sheep Second position – feel along the backbone in the middle of the
shearer trying to cut away the soiled wool. The tail can be left back – is it bumpy or smooth?
larly a finely balanced system and needs to be looked after in on to perform its essential functions for the sheep, which also References on older breeds
the same way as we look after our soils. include acting as a fly swat and keeping the vulva warm and Third position – feel the side of the pins – is it concave?
Have a browse through the following websites for information
Only certain friendly microbes contain the enzyme cellulase, clean. Another part of the solution may be to use the Wiltshire (Deviates inwards?)
on different breeds to see what could be most suitable for your
which is required, and they work best at a pH around 6.5. They Horn as a terminal sire to eliminate unwanted wool in the needs:– Fourth position – feel the rear of the pins – is it concave?
produce simple organic acids, called volatile fatty acids (VFAs), crutch area and on the tail. (Below the pin bone and on the rear surface of the cow).
NZ Rare Breeds Society: www.rarebreeds.co.nz
which provide energy for the animal. Inadequate fibre in the All handling of livestock should be done with the minimum Fifth position – feel behind the shoulder – is there a prominent
Australian Rare Breeds Trust: www.rbta.org
diet can lead to difficulties in achieving a stable pH in the rumen of stress for animals and humans. Animals should be moved ridge?
British Rare Breeds Survival Trust: www.rbst.org.uk /
during late winter and early spring when there is insufficient quietly and calmly and in an unhurried manner, using an under- www.rare–breeds.com Sixth position – feel this ridge again – can you feel the sides of
fibre in the pasture. This can be corrected by feeding small standing of their natural behaviour to anticipate their reactions Canadian Rare Breeds: www.trentu.cararebreedscanada the bony vertebrae?
amounts of hay or straw (up to 1kg dry matter per cow per and working with them to achieve the desired result. They American Livestock Breeds Conservancy: www.albc–usa.org
day). Feeding high levels of concentrates like cereals or maize should be handled firmly but gently to avoid injury to either Seventh position – feel the valley between the hip and the
without adequate fibre gives rise to problems in the rumen them or to the handler. All handling should be of minimal backbone – do you bump into a sharp ridge?
Further information can be obtained from the
caused by low pH (acidosis), which in turn can affect the liver duration, and at all times there should be adequate shade and Rare Breeds Survival Trust, National Agricultural Centre You have to memorise this order. Once you have done this
and leads to gut torsion and lameness in dairy cows. Barley beef shelter, especially over yards or where animals are held for any Stoneleigh Park, Warwickshire, CV8 2LG, England then you look at the following number system and decide
systems can have similar animal health problems. length of time, and fresh water should always be available. It Tel: 024 7669 6551, Fax: 024 7669 6706 whether you stop at that condition score described or go up
The other major dietary consideration for pastoral organic can get to the point on an organic stock rearing farm where the E–mail: [email protected] or down from it.
farming is adequate minerals; none of the biological systems only handling that becomes necessary is annual tagging, with
It is common to start at the condition score of 5 (C.S. 5) and
can work without the correct mineral balance as they play vital possibly also drenching and weighing at weaning time. Apart Some Examples of Older Breeds that are Available in NZ:– work downwards as it is rare to find dairy cows over this condi-
roles in producing vitamins, enzymes and physiological precur- from that it’s just a matter of standing and admiring them! It
Dairy: Guernsey, Ayrshire, Brown Swiss tion.
sors. Minerals should be balanced in the long term through must be remembered though, the less you handle them, the
the pasture, but in the meantime they must be supplied in a wilder and more stressed they will be when you do. Moving Beef: Welsh Black, Galloway, Red Devon, Red Poll,
supplementary lick form, either as a bought in, approved lick, amongst them every day, talking to them, helps them to get Sussex
or as a home–made mix formulated to your own particular used to you, and they learn to trust you. Wool sheep: Leicester and Lincoln Longwools, White–headed
pastoral needs. Spraying your pastures with liquid seaweed All stock transportation needs to be done again with minimum Marsh
will certainly help the process, as will supplying kelp in the stress. Each certifier will have their own specific restrictions, Meat sheep: WiltshireHorn (no wool), Ryeland, Dorset Horn
mineral lick. Supplementary molasses can help make the lick but basically they are there to ensure consideration and high
more palatable and add other important trace elements, as can welfare for the livestock. For organic meat production it is
154 155
Behaviour: cattle, deer

and goats
limited because the eyes are situated in the side of the head. plus, a lot of on heat activity occurs in the early evening.
C.S. 5 They have a much greater field of vision than we have. Cattle ’Nymphomaniac’ behaviour, if she’s on heat for several
If rounded on hips and pins – go above C.S. 5 (see below) have adequate hearing (cattle ears are anatomically similar to days (see your vet), can be caused by an ovarian cyst.
• Cattle have a social hierarchy and prefer to stay with man’s). There is a difference however in the frequencies cattle Another sign is more than one cycle every 21 days.
If not rounded on hips and pins – go below C.S. 5
groups with minimal swapping. can hear. Caution, an ‘over friendly’ heifer/cow may try to ride you!
Smell: Cattle’s social, nutritional and reproductive behav-
• Calm and quiet handling is best The bull:
C.S. 4.5 If the backbone is flat and smooth (not bumpy) – go iour revolves around their very efficient ability to recognise
above 4.5 • Always be wary – animals can become unpredictable odours. He can tell, by smell, 2 days prior to a cow coming on heat (he
If the backbone is bumpy – go below 4.5 • Their most efficient sense is smell, followed by vision and Deer: Their survival in the wild depends of their very good may even guard her to keep her to himself). He may sample
C.S. 4 If the area is flat around the pins – not scooped inwards hearing sense of smell. her urine for pheromones by licking her vulva. He may put
or concave – go above 4 Cattle Blood: Cattle go ‘quite silly’ when they smell his chin on her back to test if she will arch her back slightly
• Behaviour during mating is described. blood. They’ll sniff away at the source, ‘moo’ frequently, and
If the area is concave around the outside of the pins – go (getting ready to take his weight). You can place your hand
below 4 Cattle are social animals and as a stockperson you become the behave in an agitated or excited manner (beware if there are in this position and press down as a heat detection method).
C.S. 3.5 If the area below the pin is flat – go above 3.5 ‘dominant animal’ the ‘boss animal’ in the herd. Cattle actually any blood smells following a vet’s visit). It is said that in the Two working bulls will compete with each other. If buying a
If the area below the pin is concave or scooped inwards respond best to the farmer who is confident, and consistent days prior to ‘internal protection’ cows could sniff out the bull, make sure he’s fertile and a good worker (a ‘proven’ bull).
– go below 3.5 when handling them. They appreciate the stockperson talking menstruating milker. Caution: If he observes that the cows on the neighbour’s farm
C.S. 3 If the backbone has no prominent ridge behind the to them, petting them, and stroking them (particularly around need him, your boundary fence may not be a great obstacle
shoulder blades – go above 3 the neck and head). (i.e. keep him well out of sight from the on heat ‘girls’). It’s a lot
If there is a prominent ridge behind the shoulder blade easier if your neighbours are farming deer, goat or sheep!
(you can feel the vertebrae – go below 3
Keep calm (when working with stock and deer): Evidence
suggests that unstressed cattle grow faster. Never move cattle or Reproduction and smell
C.S. 2.5 If you can feel the side and base of the vertebrae behind deer when you are in a hurry. With deer you can use ‘a rattle’: a Young bulls:
the shoulder – this is 2.5
continual gentle noise that lets them know where you are. With Some definitions: Bulls raised without females may not know ‘what to do’ when
C.S. 2 If the connective tissue (band of tissue) between the cattle you can move them by placing your hand firmly on the put in with a group of on heat cows (personally I haven’t had
hipbone and the spine (backbone) has a slight cover
pelvic area of the last animal, the animal responds by moving Flehman:
– go above 2 any problems. I separate them from the heifers at 8 months of
forward, his/her movement and direction, gets the rest of the The characteristic flehman expression is where the head age. During winter (our non–milking period) they go in with
If this band of tissue is extremely prominent – go below
2. group moving forward. Be very, very calm when dealing with is held upwards, with the mouth partly open. The tongue the precalvers). Young, keen, yearling bulls will stand on the
deer. Be calm when handling cattle. Avoid stress by preparing is flat and the lips curled back (the animal has an attitude tips of their hooves to mate with a cow (and can injure the tips
If you have an obese cow start at the position 5 condition score
and work up. gates prior to moving cattle, and particularly deer. If bringing of ‘studying’). This is ‘odour sampling in ruminants’ of their hooves).
cattle and deer to areas that are unfamiliar to them (e.g. and it allows air to flow over the roof of the mouth (it Contributed by [email protected], who has an interesting
C.S. 6 If the back is rounded across the loin, or if you cannot feel
the ends of the short ribs – go above 6 perhaps the yards) let them, at ease, wander around and calmly also has uses as a deliberate non–threatening display). website www.2farm.co.nz
If the two positions are negative (i.e. you can feel or see
check out the new environment well before beginning ‘work’. Pheromones: Are a group of chemical attractants, produced by
them) – go to below 6 Separation from group causes stress: Cattle, deer and sheep animals to attract other animals. They are present in all body
are herd/flock animals. Isolation from group causes stress. If an fluids (milk, urine, sweat). The specific oestrus pheromones
Be nice to your cows

C.S. 7 If the back is flat across the loin. The backbone can only
be felt by pressing down very firmly. animal has become separated from the group, send in a herd (smells) are particularly released from the genital region and
C.S. 8 The tail–head has large folds of fat on either side or the mate or two. Then together move them back to the original group. the hindquarters of the cow, plus her body.
tail–head is covered by a thick layer of fat and cannot be Deer management: Avoid handling deer on a windy, or very hot
Do you talk quietly to your cows, pat them in the
felt. day. Deer have a keen sense of smell. Stress rapidly dehydrates Oestrus behaviour in cattle:
paddock and use the alkathene to guide them rather
deer (have water available). True oestrus is characterised by the cow allowing
Note: If a cow is between the half scores then you will have to decide than hit them? If not, the results of a major 6 year study
which end she is nearest too. For example, if she is below 4 but When handling bulls: Always take a stick with you and never turn other cattle (male or female) to mount her. Her into human/animal interactions carried out in Australia
better than a 3.5 then you may score her at 3.7 or 3.8. You can
your back on a bull (hand reared bulls lose their fear of man). An back will arch (to take the extra weight) and she suggest you should. Endearing yourself to your cows can
become very accurate and be highly repeatable too.
overprotective cow with calf may threaten you. Be cautious, she won’t move if ‘on heat’ (a lot of ‘trialling’ goes on!) improve production by up to 10% and the report also
If you read all this and still need help, get someone to show you can mean business (observe her for signs of hypomagnesaemia) You’ll notice a trail of mucus from the vaginal concluded that fear of humans accounted for up to 20%
the system, as it can be learnt in 15 minutes. If you’re threatened by an animal: Give the offending animal a area plus her vulva may be reddened and swollen. of the variation in milk yield between farms.
hefty ‘THWACK’ across the nose with your stick. They’ll draw Her appearance, if she’s had a ‘busy’ night, her flanks may
During the first stage of the study, farmers were asked to answer
back and reconsider. It is suggested that by stretching out your be ‘dirty’ from being ridden by herd mates. The skin may
a questionnaire on their attitudes towards cows and how they
arms you will appear wider to a charging bull. be worn from the bony prominences either side of the
handled their animals. This was combined with direct observa-
top of the tail (hair may have gone from the top of her
tion of stock handling and standard tests of avoidance used to
tail and ‘tail–painting’ the head of the tail is painted a
assess fear. The researchers were able to establish that:
bright colour. If the paint has been rubbed off you know
The senses she has been ‘ridden’ overnight, and is ready for mating). • Negative attitudes to patting or talking to cows correlated
Herd mates will sniff her perennial area, frequently using with more pushes, slaps and hits
Hearing and Vision: Cattle have adequate vision flehmen. She’ll urinate frequently to spread the pheromones • The more often slaps and hits were used, the more fearful
including colour vision. Not as ‘fine tuned’ as sheep, who around. If isolated, she’ll ‘Moooo’ a lot. She may even go the cows
are supposed to be able to distinguish between lighter and searching for the bull, to get his attention. Older, heavier
darker shades of grass when grazing. Binocular vision is cows have a more dramatic ‘heat’ than younger cows. • Fear of humans was associated with lower productivity.
156 157
The second part of the study involved 94 Victoria dairy farms

and set out to see if a change in farmer behaviour would result Bio–Gro rules state:
in a change in production. Half the farmers were put through An area must be clearly designated on the farm map that can
a training course which emphasized that while slaps and hits be used as a quarantine area if required. This is a designated
may sometimes be necessary, they should be greatly outnum- area of the property where any treated stock and any incoming
bered by positive behaviours – patting not hitting, talking not conventional stock can be run for the duration of the required
shouting. The course was followed up with booklets, newslet- quarantine period. If the designated area has been used for
ters and regular visits. By the end of the trial period most quarantining in the last 12 months men it is classed as ‘the
farmers reported a marked improvement in cow behaviour and quarantine area’. After 12 months has elapsed since the last
a change in their own beliefs about how much force is needed. use of the quarantine area for quarantining, the quarantine
There was a significant production increase at zero cost to area regains the certification status of the lowest certification
farmers which, it was pointed out, also fits neatly with the new status land on the farm.
industry emphasis on animal welfare and quality assurance.
The quarantine area cannot be used for the production of certi-
A similar scheme is now being tried out on pig farms. fied crops. It can only be grazed by animals, which will not be
Contributed by: Alan Thatcher, Massey University sold for meat for at least 12 months, or will not be producing They may declare you a sensitive area
any certified progeny or products for at least 6 months (e.g. • Drain and refill, circulate a 1% solution of household
Source: Australian Publication The Veterinarian 2001.
They will advise you on procedures ammonia and then leave to stand for 24 hours before
breeding sires, heifers, replacement ewe lambs). The quarantine
area can be used to make supplementary feed such as hay and Write and send letters to neighbours, contractors. flushing out with clean water.
silage, provided the feeding of this complies with the maximum • Drain and refill, circulate a 1% solution of chlorine bleach
Quarantine paddocks
Make a pact with your neighbour:
allowances specified in the 10% rule. containing 3% sodium hypochlorite then flush out with
Ask them to refrain from spraying 10 to 15m from the boundary
clean water.
(buffer zone) and you will grub/pull out the weeds and thistles
The quarantine paddock (sometime known as sacrifice in that area. The buffer zone is then worked organically but no Flushings must not be disposed of in accordance with the local
Minimise contamination
paddock) is an area for animals to expel prohibited product comes off it. District Plan.
medications they have been given. Flushings should not be disposed of:
Grow trees around the perimeter to slow the spray drift (see
It is essential it is big enough to hold any animal or animals you Tree section) • Anywhere on any certified property
may have treated with a prohibited substance. They must stay With organic certification it is very important to
• Anywhere where it is likely to contaminate surface or
there for double the withholding period for meat (check the minimise contamination to your property and crop. Most important: groundwater
details with your own certifying agency – they change). It must This is the key issue that consumers are looking for.
Keep positive communications with neighbours. On any natural and/or un–farmed areas. .
be a paddock where it is easy enough to transfer the animal to It is best to identify the risks and deal with them •
the milking parlour to be milked each day. before contamination happens. Possible sources of
contamination, and a potential threat to your organic
No other organic animal can graze this at any time. You can
apply to have it converted back after 12 months of having no
certification, are: your neighbours, old spray tanks,
seed, contractors.
Cleaning old spray tanks Seed contamination
animals on it.
If you are using spray tanks that have had chemical sprays Ensure you are not purchasing genetically modified or coated
in them the following is the proceedure for cleaning it out seed
What does this mean? Neighbours according to Bio–Gro rules:

Annex 3 s3.3.2 Spray equipment (no matter who owns it)
Try to get organic or uncoated seed.
that has had prohibited materials used in it at any time, must be Do your homework before buying and look at your options
• It will probably be an area that will never be classed as Identify areas of risk: approved and cleaned out using the cleaning directions given Don’t pick up the seed without a letter from the supplier stating
organic. prior to use on a certified property.
Run off it is clean!
• You have to have one
If the only alternative is coated seed you must wash it and take
• At times the grass will get away on you and you will need Contact the council and neighbours and work out how to Clean down directions:
manage this. the washings to your local toxic dump (usually the regional
to top it, or sell it as hay or silage and introduce it to the Spray equipment that has had prohibited materials in it, and council) Avoid this scenario if at all possible!
farm as part of 10% brought-in feed. Alternatively, it can Have ‘No Spraying’ signs which is to be used on certified property, must go through the
be sold on to a conventional farmer. You may need plan B following steps:
Offer to maintain the areas where contamination comes from
for emergencies only – an area large enough to hold the
e.g. roadside. • Fill tank with cold tap water and with the hose continuing
whole mob if you have to blanket drench for worms or lice.
Remember it will be 12 months plus before you can apply to run, activate the sprayer and leave running for 10 Contractors
Drains that contaminants travel down minutes
to use that land again for organics.
The only contamination is from equipment and tractors. Point
• It is prudent to make quarantine paddocks smaller as it is Fence off • Drain, refill with tap water and add alkaline detergent at out to the contractor their equipment must be cleaned before
easier to expand them rather than decrease them. Allow for room to put drain cleanings in fenced off area. 500g/100 litres (or with the addition of washing soda that entering your property. You may need a letter stating this
• You need yards to hold animals off for 48 hours before has been dissolved in hot water, at lOOg/100 litres final for certification. It is your responsibility to identify possible
entering an organic property. This is to enable them to Spray drift concentration), circulate for 10 minutes, then flush with contamination to your property or crop.
empty out. clean tap water
Contact your regional council
158 159
References
Once you have identified all possible types and sources Pests Certification Issues:
of contamination, you must then decide if it can be elimi- Bio Dynamic Farming and Gardening Association of New Zealand. www.biodynamics.org.nz
nated, or reduced to an acceptable or manageable level Biodynamic Perspectives. by NZ Biodynamic Association. ISBN 1
www.bio–gro.co.nz
and the steps you are going to take for this to happen. 86941 460 8.
Breeding Environment Bay of Plenty. Sustainable Options Plant Pest Control www.agriquality.co.nz
Often the biggest obstacle is your neighbours or people who Coleby, P. 2000. Healthy Sheep Naturally. Landlinks Press, Fact Sheets.*
are unaware of your status and this can be overcome with good Collingwood, Vic. 2nd Ed. Northland Regional Council. Pest Fact Sheets and Animal Fact Suppliers of organic products and services:
public relations and signs to informing people you are organic. de Bairacli Levy, J. 1984. The Complete Herbal Handbook for Farm Sheets*.
www.bio–gro.co.nz
and Stable. Faber and Faber, London. 3rd. Ed. OPENZ. www.organicsnewzealand.org.nz Look in their publications
Lampkin, N., 1990. Organic Farming. Farming Press, Ipswich, UK. directory for weed and pest management information. www.organicpathways.co.nz
Lampkin, N. and Padel, S. 1994. The Economics of Organic Farming: Pfeiffer, E.E. Weeds and what they tell you. Pub Biodynamic Farming www.organic–register.com
Radionics An International Perspective. CAB International, Wallingford, UK. and Gardening Assn USA Inc ISBN 0 938250–04–3.
* Note: Your regional council will have similar information specific
home.xtra.co.nz/hosts/earthwise
Since the introduction of the Ag–Enviro Radionic device to

Climate and weather to your region.
Earthwise and Bettacrop, Box 9128 Hamilton Ph: 07 824 4881
Kenny, G., Robertson, F. and Fisher, M, 2003. The view from the
NZ in the mid 1990s, there has been a significant number of
ground: a farmer perspective on climate change and adaptation. Trees
practitioners and farmers treating farms and animals with this Published by Earthwise Consulting Limited and the Hawke’s Bay Biodynamics New Directions for Farming and Gardening in New
frequency modality. It has been in use in many countries since Climate Change Adaptation Group. Zealand by NZ Biodynamic Association. Pub Random House 1989
the 1940s, particularly the USA, UK, Europe, and Australia. It NIWA, 2003. The Greenhouse Effect: a New Zealand perspective on reprinted 1993 – currently out of print but available through libraries.
was even used by the Mayans 2000 years ago to increase soil climate change. NIWA Information Series No. 29. ISBN 1 86954001 8 It has a good list of trees on pp 103 – 105.
fertility and control pests and weeds. The Global Livestock Group, 2001. Frequently Asked Questions. Connor, H.E. 1977. The poisonous plants in New Zealand. 2nd rev.
Web: www.theglg.com ed. Bulletin 99. New Zealand Department of Scientific and Industrial
To explain how radionics works is beyond the scope of this Research, Christchurch, New Zealand. Printed by E.C. Keating, Gov’t
Printer, Wellington, New Zealand. p. 247.
Resource Guide. The reference work at the end of this section Cropping
will give you an understanding and the history of its develop- Crowe, A. Native Edible Plants of New Zealand. 1990 ISBN 0–340–
Gita Henderson Biodynamic Perspectives Farming and Gardening. by
50830–2F.
ment. Suffice to say that radionics identifies the frequency at NZ Biodynamic Assn pub Random House. IBSN 1 86941 460 8
Hamblett, A. ‘Protecting Bush Remnants’ NZ Growing Today. July
which any life form (or part thereof) vibrate at, and if it is out of Pearce, N. A Biodynamic Farmer’s Handbook. by IBSN 0 473 01894 2
2003.
balance, generate the required frequency to correct that vibra- Shepherd, T.G., Ross, C.W., Bashar, L.R. and Saggar, S., 2000. Soil
Mortimer,J & B. Trees for the New Zealand Countryside: a Planter’s
tion and bring it into balance. Management Guidelines for Sustainable Cropping. Available from
Guide. Butterworth of New Zealand, Wellington.
Touchwood Books. Web: touchwoodbooks.co.nz
Treating a farm and herd with a radionic device requires Mortimer, K. Trees for the Land – Growing Trees in Northland for
Protection, Production, and Pleasure. ISBN 0–909006–03–2
constant vigilance and much time. The treatments (frequen- Effluent available from Northland regional council, Private Bag 9021,
cies) available are only those given to the practioner/farmer Dexcel. 2003 A Guide to managing Farm Dairy Effluent. Farm 4 Whangarei. Ph: 09 438 4639. Fax: 09 438 0012.
when he/she buys their machine. Using radionics as a tool on Tomorrow – environment and animal welfare. Version 1 pub 2003,
New Zealand Tree Crops Association Directory. 2001. Homepage http:
constantly being updated. A very valuable resource.
your farm is no excuse to forgo physical inputs. It is there to //www.purangi.co.nz/tree/index.htmlNew Zealand Growing Today.
Farm Dairy Effluent. Published by the Dairying and Environment
assist these inputs. Sept. 1996, pages 50– 61.
Committee. Available through Fonterra
New Zealand Growing Today. Jan 2002, pages 24 – 35.Soil and
Farm Dairy Management. Published by the Dairying and Environment
Resources and Suggested Reading: Health. Feb/Mar 1980 Pages 37 – 39.
Committee. Available through Fonterra
Peeles Plant Propagation – Tree planting on farmlands. Jim and
Russell, E. Report on Radionics ISBN 85435–002–0 Farm Production and Practice – Effluent Ponds , Tree Surrounds.
Coralie Peele. Te Aroha. Ph: 07 884 9963 Fax: 07 884 9972 Email:
- MAF Information sheet
Byrd & Tompkins Secrets of the Soil [email protected]
Lampkin, N. 1990. Organic Farming. Farming Press, Ipswich UK
Siegmund, O.H. et al The Merck Veterinary Manual. Fifth Edition 1979.
Byrd & Tompkins. Secret Life of Plants Ravensdown Fertiliser Newsletter. Aug 2002. Where there’s Muck ISBN 0076–6542.
Lyle, H. Enlivened Rock Powders there’s…grass.
The Tree Cropper Issue 25 Spring 2000 – Natives, pages 13 – 15.
Tanner, C. Research done on APS and wetland systems for effluent.
Moore, A. Stone Age Farming Your local regional council or Landcare Trust will have lots of
NIWA. P O Box 11–115, Hamilton. Web: www.niwa.co.nz information to draw from.
Callahan, P. Paramagnetism
The Findhorn Community Gardens published by the Findhorn Livestock Water
Press.
Niezen, J.H. Effect of Pasture Species on Parasitism in Lambs. Report Bentley, R. ‘A Thirst for Knowledge’ Growing Today. July 2003 pp 66
to MRDC on Project 91 MT 25/1.1, reported in the Bio-Gro Newsletter and 67.
Suppliers: 25 February 1999.
(there are others – check the internet – type in radionics) Wetlands
Aquarius Technologies Ltd Pasture Regional Councils. Dairying and the Environment Committee 1996
Box 11–525, Ellerslie, Auckland Anderson, A.B. 2000 Science in Agriculture. Available from Available from regional councils.
Ph/fax: 09 579 4551 www.touchwoodbooks.co.nz
Email: [email protected] Agriseeds, 2002. The New Zealand Pasture Guide – Dairy General
Anchormart, 2002. Seed Guide. www.organicsnewzealand.co.nz
Farmlands, 2002. Farmlands Pasture Guide.
www.2farm.co.nz
Specialty Grains and Seeds NZ Ltd. Seed Data – Spring Autumn
– Seed sowing catalogue.
Wrightson Seeds, 2002. Dairy Pasture Guide.
160 161
Organic Pastoral RESOURCE GUIDE APPENDICES
Appendix 1
Trees for shelter & profit Benefits for animals like it dry. Neither withstand salt particularly well. In a natural
forest young native trees grow with all light excluded from the
• Poplar. Fast growing. Excellent for soil stabilisation and
for bringing deep minerals to the surface. You need to
On higher altitude farms wind chill factors of –10º to –15º sides, a difficult situation to replicate in a shelterbelt. If they are plant one of the possum–resistant varieties. Deciduous,
Contributed by Alan Thatcher
are not uncommon in exposed areas. The effect on animal planted in the open, they straggle and develop multiple leaders so it casts less of a shadow in winter but also a less effec-
health and production is well known by those who regularly which may cause the tree to eventually split down the middle. tive wind–break. Once mature, poplars can be prone to
Taranaki, Manawatu and Canterbury are traditionally the
experience it. What may not be appreciated by those at lower Tall natives are much more suited to a woodlot – that scrubby wind throw. There is a small but not particularly consistent
windiest areas of the country, although anywhere near
altitudes is the less dramatic but still very significant stress hillside or gorse–filled gully is perfect – just plant them in light market for the timber. Difficult to mill.
the coast can also be tough. This article is written with
placed on animals by adverse conditions, especially the combi- wells and watch them go. • Eucalypts. There are so many varieties adapted to different
cold wet winds in mind, although the principles can also
be applied to hot dry conditions as experienced in the nation of cold and wet Smaller natives, however, are the best for under-storey planting. environments, there is one for your farm. 30–35 year
South Island. Check out what grows easily in your area but mahoe (whit- rotation. Require careful pruning. Prone to wind throw
eywood), karamu, five finger, makomako (wineberry), tarata in areas with a high water table. May be prone to new
The value of a good shelterbelt for the protection of animals
(lemonwood) and other pittosporums do well just about diseases suddenly introduced from Australia. Excellent
from wintery winds has long been recognised. What has not
been generally realised are the likely positive effects on pasture
Benefits for pasture anywhere. They grow fast, self–seed, attract birds and act as timber varieties are available but milling requires expertise.
wildlife corridors. Mahoe in particular makes a good emergency There is an established and growing market in high value
growth. Unfortunately, many dairy farmers have been slow to Less pugging due to: cattle feed and purportedly accumulates selenium. You can fill grades. Timber is generally insect resistant, some varieties
appreciate the benefits and most existing shelter is inadequate.
• Less cows walking and gathering in one spot gaps with flaxes and toe toe (not pampas). The cows will keep are ground–hardy. Eucalyptus are great, but not for the
Hedges typically cut wind speed for only 2–3 metres into the
it trimmed but if it all starts to straggle over the fences out of faint hearted, as great disasters must be expected from
paddock. Cows bunching together and walking along hedge- • Better stabilisation of soil moisture (trees suck moisture out
reach of the cows, it can be controlled using standard hedge time to time.
rows create a mudbath. Over–mature trees that have not been of the soil when it’s wet and slow winds down when it’s
cutting equipment. Stay away from karaka, ngaio, rangiora and • Cedrus deodara. The ultimate shelter tree for windy and
looked after are wet underneath, shade races and cause fertility dry)
possibly kowhai unless you can be sure that they or their fruits dry conditions. It does not like salt wind, however.
transfer due to animals camping under them. In high winds they • Warmer soil temperatures in spring cannot be reached by the cows.
represent an injury risk to animals, a damage risk to fences and,
in the case of macrocarpa, an abortion risk to in–calf cows. A preliminary study carried out in South Taranaki a The classic tall shelter tree is radiata and it does a very good job
few years ago suggested improved pasture growth in a wide range of environments. It’s relatively easy to maintain,
rates in the middle of sheltered paddocks more has a short rotation (around 28 years) and there’s a large estab- Seedling selection
than compensated for reduced growth on lished market for a timber crop. However, if you really can’t
Characteristics the south (shaded) side of well designed stand the thought of planting them on your property, consider When planting timber trees in a belt, you don’t have the luxury
of thinning to the extent you do in a woodlot so good seedling
of a good shelter belt shelter belts. some alternatives:
selection is critical. If aged cuttings are available in the species
• Norfolk Pines will flourish despite the most salt–laden of
you want to plant then that’s the way to go. Cuttings have a
The idea is not to form a solid barrier to the wind as this creates winds and may be the tree of choice in coastal areas. The
better survival rate and grow much more evenly.
turbulence and down–draughts on the lee side – the belts must
be permeable. Properly planted and maintained shelter growing Design timber is very good (although subject to insect attack) and
there is a small market for it. Pohutukawa makes a good
to a height of say, 15 metres, should cut wind speeds to toler- A well-designed belt consists under-storey where there’s a lot of salt.
able levels (where cows will not actively seek shelter in all but
gale force winds) for at least 4 times the height of the shelter
of tall trees pruned to 6–8 • Cyprusses (lusitanica, lawsoniana, torulosa) all produce Maintenance
metres, growing to 15–20 a top quality, easy milling insect–resistant timber with an
– in this case 60 metres into the paddock. metres in height at 4 to 6 Protection of seedlings from pests (hares, possums) may be
established market. Rotation length is around 35 years.
metre spacings. Around the base is an Pruning can be hard work. Canker–prone varieties, such as necessary. There is an organic repellant available, originally
understorey of smaller trees and shrubs. C. macrocarpa or avosomana, should be avoided. Canker developed by the Forest Research Institute. Releasing and
The tall trees may eventually be felled for a disease kills or deforms most trees in most of New Zealand pruning the timber crop trees are tasks that must absolutely
Airflow over an timber crop so a variation may be to plant be done on time if you want to gain maximum value from the
today.
impermeable object a second lot of seedlings half way through trees both in terms of timber and shelter. If you’ve got extensive
(a hedge): the rotation between the more mature plantings and minimal time, consider employing a contractor,
All American conifers produce a toxin in their leaves
ones and set back 11⁄2 metres. The diagram called isocupressic acid which can cause abortion especially for the higher pruning lifts.
(above) illustrates an example using radiata. in cattle during the last 3 months of pregnancy. On Not only birds will love your shelterbelts – possums and stoats
This allows periodic harvesting without all average, macrocarpa leaves tend to contain higher will move in too. Control is particularly important if you are in
the shelter suddenly disappearing. levels than other species, but there is a lot of variation a TB endemic area.
between different varieties and even individual trees. It will occasionally be necessary to trim overgrowth away from
Airflow through a It should be relatively easy to breed an ‘abortion–free’ electric fences, although the cows will mostly do it for you if the
permeable shelter
belt. Wind is slowed,
Natives vs exotics cypress sp but as yet, no one has done it. The risk
should be put in perspective. Considering the number
bottom wire is high enough.
of grossly over–mature macrocarpa still growing on This is a brief summary of things to consider when planting
turbulence occurs Unfortunately, most tall native trees do
dairy farms around the country, the number of attribut- shelter. For more detailed information and to find out what
well above ground not handle wind very well until mature.
able abortions is quite small. You can reduce the risk works best in your area, contact your local branch of the NZ
level. The exceptions in some places may be
further by pruning on time and taking care the cows Farm Forestry Association.
kahikatea or totara, but totara needs an
cannot reach the prunings.
awful lot of work and kahikatea does not
162 163
Appendix 2
Certification & sources Things to be aware of Fertilisers:
with certification Typically agencies have on their permitted lists materials
of information This information has been taken from three certifying

such as:
Low Cadmium natural rock, salt or minerals that are Bio–
agencies, Demeter, Bio–Gro and AgriQuality and so is Gro approved. All fertilisers must have minimal heavy metal
generalised information. It is a general guide so you content. A certificate is required confirming this. RPR, lime is
know what you have to think about and be aware the most commonly used. On dairy farms RPR, lime etc. can
There are currently three of. Please read the rules of the certifying agency you be brought in and spread in the normal procedure. Before
recognised certifying agencies: Support groups: are planning to work with and get details of their
particular requirements.
the first application, check with your certifier. Fertilisers
should be bought from certified/approved suppliers where
Bio–Gro, administered by the NZ Biological Producers Assn Organic Dairy Producers Group All agencies allow for a transition/conversion period known available.
Inc NZ Russell Simmons as ‘In Transition to…’ or ‘In Conversion’, and after you have Restricted fertilisers:
Further information: Private Box 69 proved you are able to farm organically full certification will
Bio–Gro Te Aroha. Other approved forms of trace elements, elemental sulphur,
Ph: 07 884 9797 be granted. Each certifying agency has different time spans for
P O Box 9693 potassium sulphate, Epsom salts, wood ash (free from
Marion Square Fax: 07 884 9797 Transition/Conversion.
contaminants). Get permission first.
Wellington. Mobile: 025 206 6196
Important: When seriously considering certification, please
Ph: 04 801 9241 Email: [email protected] The above is an illustration only. No reliance should be placed
check the details with your own particular certifier.
Fax: 04 801 9242 on this list matching the requirements of any particular
Email: info@bio–gro.co.nz Ray & Jenny Ridings, certification agency. Consult the relevant standards and/or the
15 Ridings Rd, RD 1 Record keeping:
Web: www.bio–gro.co.nz
Paeroa, certification agency in every case before making any decisions.
1. Keep good records. Buy yourself a diary and fill it out every
Ph: 07 867 6809
AgriQuality, administered by AgriQuality New Zealand Fax: 07 867 6899 day. Trivial details will become important, so keep a record General:
Further information: Mobile: 025 290 8109 of everything, how you used it, what for, how much, at
1. Weeds and pests must be dealt with through preventa-
David Brown, Organic Service Manager Email: [email protected] what rate, where it came from.
tive methods, through habitation, cultivation and rotation,
P O Box 307 2. Read and keep all labels. Ask questions before making grazing, mechanical or biological methods.
Pukekohe Massey University Organic Unit
Auckland
purchases or using a product. Once you are registered
Organic /Convention Dairy Systems Trial 2. Brought in conventional materials for compost are to be
Ph: 09 237 1807 with the certifier, you must have proof from them of their
Agricultural Services hot composted before applying. Composts can be made
Fax: 09 238 3757 Massey University approval for all products you use. Don’t accept salespeo-
and must be heated, aerated, mixed and matured. Demeter
Email: [email protected] Private Bag 11222 ples’ words, ask for written approval (certificates etc).
Web: www.AgriQuality.com (biodynamic) certification also requires the use of the
Palmerston North
Ph: 06 350 4499 3. Gather up letters and certificates, especially for brought–in compost preparations to aid the fermentation of all liquid
Demeter, administered by the Bio Dynamic Farming and Fax: 06 350 5646 materials, animals and feed as you go, giving details of the manures and composts.
Gardening Association in New Zealand Inc. Email:[email protected] source, any treatments and if so, when, and ensuring that
3. Milking plant and parlours must be kept up to the stan-
Further information: it is free from GE.
Dexcel dards required by NZ Dairy Regulations and MAF approved
Bio Dynamic Farming and Gardening sanitisers and cleaners can be used.
Association in NZ Private Bag 3221, Hamilton Care of the soil:
P O Box 39 045 Ph: 07 858 3750 4. A soil test for contaminants will be required. A minimum
Fax: 07 858 3751
1. You must aim to sustain and enhance the fertility and life
Wellington Mail Centre of 10% of the level permitted under the food and safety
Ph: 04 589 5366 Email: [email protected]
supporting ability of the soil.
regulations. The main concerns seem to be DDT (max
Fax: 04 589 5365 Web: www.dexcel.co.nz 2. Demeter certification (biodynamic) requires you to enhance 0.2mg/kg).
Email: [email protected] this by a minimum of one application of preparation 500,
Web: www.biodynamic.org.nz NZ Biodynamic Consultancy Society (Inc) one of preparation 501 over the whole farm per year. Animal requirements:
Secretary: B Gillatt
3. This all means you must endeavour to be as self–contained 1. Have appropriate breeds of animals that can adapt to your
Redhill Rd, R D 1
There is also a new small grower certification scheme for as is practically possible. local conditions and breed the ones that are resistant to
Dargaville
national certification of produce: Ph: 09 439 5904 4. Aim to minimise damage to the soil structure through disease and illness.
Organic Farm NZ Fax: 09 439 5906
sensible grazing regimes or crop rotations. 2. Stocking rate must be considered. Each certifier is different,
Soil and Health Association of NZ Inc. Email: [email protected]
P O Box 36–170 5. Each standard has lists of permitted and restricted and may specify maximum allowed such as 16 SU/HA or 2
Web: www.organicconsultants.co.nz
Northcote fertilisers and animal remedies. A permitted material, fresian cows per HA. This enables animals to produce no
Auckland Other contacts can be found in: A Review of New Zealand and generally speaking, is one that may be used as of right. more than 170kg nitrogen/HA.
Ph: 09 419 4536
International Organic Land Management Research Relevant to 3. Have a good uncontaminated water source for animals and
Fax: 09 419 4556 6. A restricted material, generally speaking, is one that the
Soil Dairy Pasture and Orchard Management in New Zealand dairy shed. A test may be required for this.
Email: [email protected] certifying agency wants eventually not to be used at all.
by The Research and Development Group of the Biodynamic
Web: www.organicnz.org However, different agencies have different procedures 4. Animals must have free access to grazing with a wide
Farming and Gardening Assn in NZ, 2002. It has articles,
associated with such lists and such materials, and may range of species, so they can perform their natural feeding
summaries, and a wealth of resources and contacts. Available
have additional specific requirements. behaviour.
from the Bio Dynamic Farming and Gardening Association in NZ
(On website: www.biodynamics.org.nz) or Dexcel
164 165
5. No intensive livestock farming transplants, oestrus synchronisation or routine inductions. period it is more likely to be on the agency’s permitted list. Anaesthetics with nil withholding
6. Feeding pads and barns can be used for short periods of 2. Surgical practices are discouraged. However the following Important: Ensure you check the rules of the certi- Injections and drenches for trace element and vitamin
time. are permitted for animal health and safety reasons: fying agencies to ensure they are allowed before deficiencies (covered earlier)
administering them. If in doubt phone or fax
• Dock lambs under 6 weeks (check your methods) The above is an illustration only. No reliance should
Brought–in materials/animal movement/grazing off: someone to make sure.
be placed on this list matching the requirements
• Castration under 6 weeks
1. Supplementary feed: Brought–in feed is to be used Each standard has lists of permitted and restricted fertilisers of any particular certification agency. Consult the
in times of feed shortages only and is not generally • Nose rings and animal remedies. A permitted material, generally speaking, relevant standards and/or the certification agency in
permitted as routine practice. Where possible plan ahead • Dehorning up to 6 weeks (debudding) and any older is one that may be used as of right. every case before making any decisions.
to avoid these. No GMO’s allowed and always check on dehorning standards under animal welfare rules. A restricted material, generally speaking, is one that the certi- Demeter certification rules allow, on farms In Conversion to
this – don’t assume! If you chose to buy in certified meal Anaesthetics are involved and a withholding period fying agency wants eventually not to be used at all. However, Demeter only:
or get it made up especially, ensure there are no disallowed also. No animal is to be tethered. different agencies have different procedures associated with For internal parasites, one annual drench that had a with-
additives which may mean no materials such as: meat meal
3. The minimum standards of the Animal Welfare Advisory such lists and such materials, and may have additional specific holding period less than 14 days.
or blood and bone, preservatives, pure amino acids, antibi-
Committee (AWAC) must be adhered to. requirements.
otics, synthetic appetisers, growth promotants, stimulants, For flystrike, one annual treatment using a cyromazine prepara-
urea etc. Check with your certifying agency before commit- tion.
Seeds: Typically agencies have on their permitted lists materials such as:
ting yourself. Keep the labels with the ingredients and get
Seed should be from a certified organic source. If not, ensure Permitted Materials: Animals must be identified, quarantined and lose certification
a letter from your supplier. Hay and silage can also be
brought and treated the same as above. A certificate of the seed is not treated (with fungicide or insecticide) and has Zinc sulphate* for life for meat and 1 year from the end of quarantine for milk.
all treatments to the land and crop will be required. Total no GE. All certifying agencies are different in the procedures you The land will not lose certification under these conditions, as it
Vegetable and paraffin oils would if it were full Demeter and the whole herd were similarly
maximum allowed: 10% total dry matter requirements for must go through, so check with your certifying agency before
year for stock carried. proceeding. Treated seed must have prior written approval, it Electrolytes* drenched.
must be proven to be the only available seed and is neces- Zinc oxide
In cases such as natural disasters or short–term shortages
sary for your operation. This seed must be then cleaned, the
the 10% can be reviewed; however permission must be Iodine
washings sent to a toxic waste agent. Suggestion is to explore
granted first. Total allowed to be fed each day: 10% to
25% of total daily allowance of dry matter (different certi-
your options carefully. Always get a letter or certificate from the Stockholm tar Forbidden practices:
supplier giving the status of the seed regardless (even clean Natural prostoglandins
fications have different rates – please check) Any drug not listed in the rules are generally forbidden.
seed). Also keep the labels from the bags.
2. Animals brought in from conventional farms are not imme- Dextrose* Any drug that has a withholding period for meat including anti-
diately certified for milk and fibre or meat. The length of Calves: Magnesium chloride biotics, long acting penicillin, chemically–synthesised allopathic
time depends on your certifying agency’s ruling. Exception: Calves must receive natural organic milk for a minimum of medicines, hormones, anaesthetics etc.
Natural vitamin D
calves up to 7 days old can be brought from conventional 3 months. It is preferable you use milk from your own cows.
Teat spray: glycerine, iodine, plant oils Bolus treatments.
farms and reared, gaining organic status after 12 months, Lambs 45 days.
provided they have not been treated with antibiotics or Elemental sulphur Hormones or growth promotants.
other drugs before coming onto your property. Letters Animal health remedies: Neem oil Blanket or routine vaccinations unless required by law.
declaring treatments at the previous property, any bolus
treatments, and identification of the animals must be Animal health and restricted remedies: Pyrethrum
provided. All animals must be quarantined or held in yards Use prevention methods through feed supply, herbal remedies Herbal remedies
for 48 hours to empty them out, and any animal that has and homoeopathy. Homoeopathy
been treated or has bolus treatment must continue to stay
It is important to remember an animal is not allowed to suffer. Cider vinegar
in your quarantine paddock for double the withholding
If this means administering an allopathic remedy, then it must
period for meat. Make sure your quarantine paddock is an Calcined magnesite, chalk, dolomite
be done. The animal will no longer be organic and must be put
adequate size, as the animals are in there for many weeks if
into the quarantine paddock, as described below. Diatomaceous earth
they need to be treated. 10% of uncertified animals can be
brought in each year. In special circumstances, like droughts If it is an on–going problem, a documented health plan must be Petroleum jelly
or infertility, this can be increased. However application submitted to address it.
Disinfectant for wounds
must be made to the certifying agency before actioning. There is to be no routine or scheduled use of interim animal
Copper sulphate (foot bath)*
3. Grazing off is allowed on certified land. There are limits health remedies or drugs.
*Depending on certification these can be restricted. Please check.
as to grazing off on non organic–certified pasture (called All animals treated must be held in the quarantine paddock for
conventional) depending on the certifier. Grazing beyond Restricted Materials:
double the withholding period for meat and lose their organic
the specified limits means the animals concerned lose their status for a certain period. Check the standards for your certi- Vaccinations for known diseases on farm
organic status. fying agency for details. Vaccinations required by law
Animal welfare: Each certifying agency has slight variations on what is Magnesium sulphate (Epsom salts)
permitted, restricted and not allowed. This is a general list to
1. Natural mating is encouraged. Artificial Insemination is Electrolytes (all forms)
give you some idea of the type of remedies you can use. It is
permitted for herd improvement. Definitely no embryo
not complete. The basic rule of thumb is if it has no withholding Propylene glycol, choline and dextrose preparations
166 167
Appendix 3
Research & Case Studies
Appendix
Milli–eqivalents
4 Appendix
Parts Per Million
5
(PPM or Pounds Per Acre or Kilograms per Hectare)
Milli–equivalents is designed to represent the amount of
colloidal energy required to absorb and hold to the soil’s One acre of topsoil weighs about 2,000,000lbs therefore one
Visit the Sustainable Farming Fund website www.maf.govt.nz.sff Case Study of New Zealand Dairy Farms in Transition by Dr negatively charged holding sites certain specific amounts PPM = 2 pounds per acre
for information on other organic projects. Organic projects A Neil Macgregor, Institute of Natural Resources, Massey of the various positively charged cations as governed by
currently listed on the SFF website (September 2003) are: University, Palmerston North. This can be found at the above their each element’s individual specific atomic weight. 1 PPM = 2lb/acre
02/103 Evaluating organic seed and organic seed production websites and in the review report mentioned above. 1 PPM = 2.24kg/hectare
So 1 ME of total (base) exchange capacity equals the energy to
systems in NZ and informing growers of the outcomes hold the soil’s colloidal system in the top 15 to 17.5 cm of 1 ha
L02/017 Organic control of downy mildew (Peronospora sparsa A financial study of organic dairy farms in New Zealand by Hella of soil of will have approximately:
• to convert PPM to lb/acre X2
Berk) in boysenberries Bauer–Eden. 400kg of the element calcium
• to convert lb/acre to kg/hectare X 1.12
01/225 Organic management of internal parasites This can be found on the Soil and Health Association website: 240kg of the element magnesium
Reason is that you have to divide by 2.2 and to convert
01/179 Development of technical information resources and an www.organicnz.org/organic2020.htm
780kg of the element potassium lb to kg and divide by 2.47 to convert the lb to hectares
advisory capability for organic and biodynamic producers (2.47/2.2 = 1.12)
440kg of the element sodium
01/172 Development of a commercially viable system for There is much research and information gathering currently
20kg of the element hydrogen
organic strawberry–runner production happening in New Zealand, mainly through Massey and Lincoln
Lets take two soils – one is a sandy soil with a CEC of 5 me/ • to convert PPM to kg/hectare X 2.24
01/021 Evaluating organic technologies and disseminating Universities. Lincoln University has done much, especially on
cropping. See Appendix 2 for Massey contact details. 100g the other is a peat soil and has a CEC of 40 me/100g. Reason is that you have to multiply PPM by 2 to get lb/acre then
protocols to growers
Let’s look at the colloidal energy difference between these two multiply this answer by 1.12 to convert lb/acre to kg/hectare
00/355 Canterbury Organic Growers Technology Transfer The work being done at Massey, as of March 2003, includes:
soil assuming that they were only going to hold the element (2 X 1.12 = 2.24)
Project 1. Organic/Conventional Dairy Systems Trial. In addition there
calcium.
00/220 Enhanced skill and knowledge for organic pipfruit is a number of other Massey Organic Dairy Projects.
The 5 ME soil would be able to hold 5 X 400kg of Note: for rough calculations it is close enough to consider that
growers 2. AGMARDT Animal Health project to collate best practice
calcium = 2000 kg 1 PPM = 2 lb/acre is the same as 1PPM = 2 kg/hectare.
00/211 Enhancing NZ organic exports by providing informa- from existing organic dairy farmers.
The 40 ME soil would be able to hold 40 X 400kg
tion . 3. Organic Dairy Extension Service – Fonterra funded and
of calcium = 16,000kg
established to run specialist field–days and one day work-
A review of New Zealand and International Organic Land

shops followed by monthly specialist discussion groups
supporting farmers interested in conversion.
The ME can be likened to the capacity of the soil. It is very
important to understand this concept of total exchange Volume weight
Management Research – relevant to soil dairy pasture and capacity. (was called Bulk Density)
orchard management in New Zealand by the Research and This is the weight of a known volume of air–dried and ground
Development Group of the Bio Dynamic Farming and Gardening Here is another table that can be used to convert some of the soil. This figure gives and idea of the soil’s physical character-
Association in New Zealand 2002. Funded by the Sustainable units in soil test reports istics. It also allows for the conversion of test results to other
Management Fund. to convert me/100g to ug/ml for units if necessary.
This is available in hard copy for the cost of postage and Guidelines
potassium me/100g X 391 X VW = ug/ml
handling.
calcium me/100g X 200 X VW = ug/ml Soil type V W (g/ml)
The full report is also available online at www.biodynamic.org.nz
magnesium me/100g X 122 X VW = ug/ml Sandy 1.0
Soil quality and financial performance of biodynamic and sodium me/100g X 230 X VW = ug/ml Clay 0.8
conventional farms in New Zealand. Science 260: 344–349. to convert me/100g to MAF units Peat 0.5
Also known as ‘The Reganold Report’ can be found on the
OPENZ website: www.organicsnewzealand.org.nz potassium me/100g X 20.8 X VW = MAF K
calcium me/100g X 1.29 X VW = MAF Ca
magnesium me/100g X 23.3 X VW = MAF Mg
sodium me/100g X 53 X VW = MAF Na
Note:
• for results on a weight basis ug/g = mg/kg = PPM
• for results on a volume basis ug/ml = mg/L = PPM
• for results on a per hectare basis (7.5cm sample) ug/mL X
0.75 =kg/ha
• VW = volume weight (used to be referred to as bulk
density)
168 169
Appendix 6
Observing your clovers
Appendix
General Resources
7 Suppliers (this list is not complete and may change)
Product:
and legumes: Most resources are found in their specific topics www.organicvalley.com
Earthwise and Bettacrop
Box 9128 Hamilton
Ph: 07 824 4881
throughout the document. www.meat.co.nz
Deficiency indicators Acres USA Acres USA (magazine). There is also a bookstore. www.koanga.org.nz Soil Foodweb contact:
Touchwood Books in Hastings has access to the Bookstore www.qconz.co.nz Richard and Cherryle Prew
Yellowing especially in the older leaves catalogue. www.acresusa.com 982 Kaipaki Rd, R D 3 Cambridge
Nitrogen Research/certification: Ph: 07 827 6682 Fax: 07 827 3787
which die and drop off. Dairying and Environment Committee, Farm Dairy Management
published by the Available through Fonterra or Dairy Insight Email: [email protected]
www.organicsnewzealand.org
Web: www.compost–tea.co.nz
Blue–green colour, stiff stunted and erect Davies Peter MJ 1988 Organic Farming in New Zealand, The Farmer www.biodynamics.org.nz
Phosphorus growth. Small dark green to purplish and His Environment. Pub by Tokoroa Printers, NZ Available from Fertiliser
Touchwood Books. hwww.bio–gro.co.nz
curled leaves. Ocean Organics Ltd
de Bairacli Levy Juliette. 1991 The Complete Herbal Handbook for hwww.agriquality.co.nz
4 Fraser St, Paeroa, New Zealand
Farm and Stable Faber. ISBN 0–571–13205–7 www.eartheal.org.nz : (permaculture) Ph: 07 862 8424 Fax: 07 862 8404
White spots in an even pattern around
du Faur Ralph 1981 Dairy Herd Husbandry. Dairy Exporter ISBN Web: www.oceanorganics.co.nz.
Potassium leaf margins. Yellowing and death of www.soilandhealth.org.nz
0–908596–11–1
leaves. www.organic–research.com Sieber NZ Ltd (Biophos and Moana Chelates)
Fisk T, 2003, Practical Organics for New Zealand farmers. Pub NZ P O Box 405, Waiuku
www.environment.org.nz/ccog
Stalks collapse on youngest fully devel- Lampkin N, 1990 Organic Farming. Pub Farming Press, Ipswich UK Ph: 09 239 0210
www.agresearch.cri.nz
Calcium oped leaves. Impaired root growth or Organic Broadcaster (newsletter) www.mosesorganic.org Agrissentials NZ Ltd (fertiliser)
www.hortreasearch.cri.nz
rotting. Pearce. Norrie 1993 A Biodynamic Farmer’s Handbook. Pub by 126 Lochead Rd, P O Box 16 091, Tauranga
Norrie Pearce, NZ. ISBN 0–473–01894–2 Soil: Ph: 07 552 4343 Fax: 07 552 4383
Yellowing of lower leaves, margins initially Freeph: 0800 843 539
Magnesium Proctor Peter and Cole Gillian 1997 Grasp the Nettle. Random House, www.soilfoodweb.com Email: [email protected]
remain green. NZ ISBN 1–86941–318–0 Web: www.agrissentials.com
www.compost–tea.co.nz
Vet Science Faculty Massey University 1992 The Farmers’ Veterinary
Dwarfed plants with red–purple discol- Guide. Dairy Exporter Books ,NZ Books
USA organic sites:
Boron ouration of lower leaves and yellow top Zimmer Gary Dairy Nutrition. Available from Touchwood Books
www.acresusa.com Box 610, Hastings.
foliage. www.midweternbioag.com
www.mosesorganic.org Ph: 06 874 2872
Zimmer Gary The Biological Farmer.Available from Web: www.touchwoodbooks.co.nz
Yellowing of youngest leaves, bleached www.midweternbioag.com
www.midwesternbioag.com
Iron
appearance. Source of refractometers
Lists of suppliers giving sources of
organic products and services: Bell Technology – John Butler
Yellowing of leaves and growth reduc- 0–18% Brix model RES Series
Manganese
tion. Websites: www.bio–gro.co.nz
www.organicpathways.co.nz
Ph: 09 525 1875 or Fax: 09 525 1874
Probitas Ltd
Reduced leaf size and upward curling of www.touchwoodbooks.co.nz Woodland Rd, R D 2, Waihi
Zinc Consultants/general information:
youngest leaves. www.organic–register.com Ph: 07 863 7981 Fax: 07 863 7989
www.organicconsultants.co.nz
Youngest leaves are bent back with pale
home.xtra.co.nz/hosts/earthwise Homoeopathy for Animals
www.lifestyleblock.co.nz/
Copper www.soilandhealth.org/index.html Seasonal Solutions Ltd
grey to white spots. www.2farm.co.nz Heather Stewart
www.dexcel.co.nz/ Welcome Bay, Tauranga
Pale green stunted as with nitrogen Freeph: 0800 926462
Molybdenum www.farmwise.co.nz/
deficiency.
www.caprine.co.nz/ HFS (Homoeopathic Farm Support)
P O Box 9025, Hamilton
www.qconz.co.nz
Source: Taranaki Farmers Maize Silage Club Newsletter Aug Edition 2002. with permission
Ph: 07 858 4233 Fax: 07 858 4234
Email: [email protected]
from Taranaki Farmers.
Animal health: Web: www.farmsupport.co.nz
www.searchnz.co.nz/mastitis
www.dreamland.co.nz/haurakihomeopathics Cider vinegar and animal remedies
(Email: [email protected])
Coral Tree Organic Products Ltd
www.farmsupport.co.nz/ 44 Waihou Rd, P O Box 660, Levin.
www.maf.govt.nz/MAFnet/links/organiclnk.html Ph: 06 368 0833 Fax: 06 368 7888
Email [email protected]
www.guardian.co.uk/Archive/Article/0,4273,4152521,00.html Web: www.organically-nz.co.nz
(homoeopathy research)
170 171
Organic Pastoral RESOURCE GUIDE INDEX
Appendix
Paramagnetic values8of various elements found in rock Index
Element uCGS. The composition of igneous rock (that which comes from larva or magma - volcanic rock) is listed below. Symbols H
Aluminium (Al) . . . . . . . . 16.5 Element . . . . . . . . . . . . PPM. (part per million) Element . . . . . . . . . . . . PPM. (part per million) Chicory 83, 117, 121, 122, 125, 129 herbal ley 112, 119, 120, 121, 122, 123
16 elements 18, 39
Americium (Am) . . . . 1000.0 chlorine 18, 20, 29, 81, 142, 159 Herbs 69, 117
Ac Actinium . . . . . . . . . . . . N Nitrogen . . . . . . . . 20
Cerium (Ce) . . . . . . . . 2420.0 - 6230.0 Herb teas 81
Cesium (Cs) . . . . . . . . 29.0
0.0000000000000005.5 Na Sodium .... 23600 A Cider vinegar 66, 73, 78, 81, 87, 91, 99,
Humates 33
Ag Silver . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.07 Nb Niobium . . . . . . . . 20 100, 101, 106, 154, 167, 171
CsO2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4504.0 abortion 99, 106, 162, 163 Clay 169 humic acids 33, 56, 61
Al Aluminum . . . . . . . . 5000 Nd Neodymium . . . . 28
Chromium (Cr) . . . . . . . . 180.0 aerobic 33, 35, 44, 47, 59, 135, 147 Clovers 115 Humus 12, 16, 24, 48
Ar Argon . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 5 Ne Neon . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.005
Cr(SO4)2*8H20 . . . . 12700.0 Air 11 Cobalt 36, 58, 64, 71, 79, 81, 98 hydrogen 18, 19, 20, 25, 28, 30, 53, 59,
As Arsenic ........ 1-8 Ni Nickel . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Cobalt (Co) (ferro) Algae 15 Cocksfoot 113, 119, 122, 124 169
Au Gold . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.004 O Oxygen . . . . 464000
CoBr2 ........ 13000.0 Alterative 71 Compost 33, 35, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 54,
B Boron . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Os Osmium ........ 0.0015
Co(PO4)2 . . . . . . . . 28110.0
Ba Barium . . . . . . . . 425 P Phosphorus . . . . . . . . 1050 Aluminium 23, 24, 25 61, 147 I
Copper (Cu) ........ -5.5 (diamagnetic) Analgesic 71, 100 Compost Preparations 44
Be Beryllium . . . . . . . . 2 - 8 Pa Protoactinium . . . . 0.000001.4
Cu(NO3)2*6H2O . . . . 1625.0 Animal Remedies Act 67 Compost tea 50 infections. See Antiseptic
Bi Bismuth ........ 0.17 Pb Lead . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.5
Dysprosium (Dy) 103500.0 Animal requirements 165 Copper 16, 18, 23, 27, 37, 55, 58, 64, 71, infection of the uterus 101
Br Bromium . . . . . . . . 3 - 5 Pd Palladium . . . . . . . . 0.01
Dy2(SO4)2 . . . . . . . . 91400.0 Animal Welfare Act 7 79, 82, 83, 85, 129, 167, 170 Infertility 96, 107
C Carbon . . . . . . . . 200 Po Polonium . . . . . . . . 0.0000000002
Erbium (Er) .... 44300.0 Anoestrus 96, 97, 98 Coppicing 140 initiate labour 99
Ca Calcium .... 41500 Pr Praseodymium . . . . 8.2
Er2S3 ........ 77200.0 anti-fungal. See Antimicrobial cow condition scoring 155 Iodine 64, 79, 83, 87, 129, 142, 167
Cd Cadmium . . . . . . . . 0.2 Pt Platinum ........ 0.005
Europium (Eu) . . . . 34000.0 Anti-spasmodic 71 cow manure composts. See cow pat pits Iron 16, 18, 23, 37, 55, 58, 71, 79, 82, 83,
Ce Cerium . . . . . . . . 60 Ra Radium ........ 0.0000009
Gadolinium (Gd) 755000.0 Anti- inflammatory 71 cow pat pits 44 129, 170
Cl Chlorine . . . . . . . . 130 Rb Rubidium . . . . . . . . 90
Holmium (Ho) - Antimicrobial 71 Cow Pox 105
Cm Curium ........ 0.001 Re Rhenium . . . . . . . . 0.005
Ho2(SO4)2 . . . . . . . . 91700.0
Co Cobalt . . . . . . . . 25 Rh Rhodium . . . . . . . . 0.001 Antiseptic 71 Cracks 105 L
Iron (Fe) (ferro) Arthropods 17 Crop nutrients 19
Cr Chromium . . . . . . . . 100 Rn Radon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
FeCl3*6H2O .... 15250.0 Crop rotation 41 lameness 65, 84, 101, 102, 109, 154
Cs Cesium ........ 1 0.0000000000004
Manganese (Mn) . . . . 529.0 Land Management Research 164, 168
MnSO4*5 H2O . . . . 14700.0
Cu Copper . . . . . . . . 55 Ru Ruthenium . . . . . . . . 0.001 B Cud chewing 65
legumes 36, 38, 49, 56, 79, 81, 112, 113,
Dy Dysprosium .... 3 S Sulfur . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Molybdennum (Mo) . . . . 108.0
MoCl4 . . . . . . . . . . . . 1750.0
Er Erbium ........ 2.8 Sb Antimony . . . . . . . . 0.2 Bacteria 14 D 115, 118, 119, 120, 121, 125, 139,
Eu Europium . . . . . . . . 1 - 2 basalt 45, 58, 59 170
Sc Scandium . . . . . . . . 22
Neodymium (Nd) . . . . 5628.0 base exchange 20 Demulcent 71 liquid fertilisers 44, 45, 79, 80, 125, 127,
F Florine . . . . . . . . . . . . 625 Se Selenium . . . . . . . . 0.05
Nd2O3 ........ 10200.0 base saturation 24, 27, 28, 29, 116 digestive. See Carminative 128
Fe Iron . . . . . . . . 56300 Si Silicon . . . . . . . . 281500
Nickel (Ni) (ferro) beef 79, 120, 123, 127, 133, 142, 143, drench gun, 106 liquid teas, 44
Ga Gallium . . . . . . . . 15 Sm Samarium . . . . . . . . 6
NiCl2 . . . . . . . . . . . . 6145.0 149, 153, 154 Drying off 105 Liver samples 64, 79
Gd Gadolium . . . . . . . . 5.4 Sn Tin ............ 2
Niobium (Nb) . . . . . . . . 195.0 behaviour 29, 60, 63, 88, 97, 109, 154, Lucerne 113, 116, 117, 122, 124, 125,
Ge Germanium .... 5.4 Sr Strontium . . . . . . . . 375
Palladium (Pd) . . . . . . . . 567.4 157, 158, 165 E 129, 139
H Hydrogen . . . . . . . . 1000 Ta Tantalum . . . . . . . . 2
PdF3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1760.0 Biodynamic 47, 60 lungs. See Pectoral
He Helium ........ 0.008 Tb Terbium ........ 0.9
Potassium (K) . . . . . . . . 20.0 biological control 41, 61 Earthworms 15
Hf Hafnium ........ 3 Te Tellurium . . . . . . . . 0.001
(most compounds are diamagnetic)
Hg Mercury ........ 0.08 Th Thorium ........ 6-9 Birdsfoot Trefoil 116, 122 earthworms 43 M
K2 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3230.0 Black leg 103 effluent 44, 45, 52, 53, 61, 81, 109, 111,
Ho Holmium . . . . . . . . 1.2 Ti Titanium . . . . . . . . 5700
(with this exception) bleeding. See Syptic 125, 135, 136, 144, 146, 147, 148, MAF 23
I Iodine . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.5 Tl Thallium ........ 0.45
Praseodymium (Pr) . . . . 5010.0 blood purifier. See Alterative 149, 160 Magnesium 16, 18, 24, 25, 28, 170, 172
In Indium ........ 0.05 - 1.0 Tm Thullium . . . . . . . . 0.48
Pr2S3 . . . . . . . . . . . . 10770.0 Blood tests 64 elemental sulphur 32, 89, 165 Mandersonís Mixture 93
Ir Iridium . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.001 U Uranium ........ 2.7
Rhenium (Re) . . . . . . . . 67.6 boron 18, 24, 27, 36 endophyte 113, 114 manganese 18, 19, 20, 27, 37, 143
K Potassium . . . . 20000 V Vanadium . . . . . . . . 135
ReCl5 . . . . . . . . . . . . 1225.0 bray 31 excessive element 18 Manuka Honey 106
Kr Krypton ........ 0.001 W Tungsten . . . . . . . . 1.5
Rhodium (Rh) . . . . . . . . 111.0 breeding 77, 90, 95, 96, 102, 149, 151, Existing Bush 133 Mastitis 86, 107
La Lanthanum . . . . . . . . 30 Xe Xenon . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.00003
Rh2O3 . . . . . . . . . . . . 500.0 158 extracts or oils 71 mating 80, 81, 96, 97, 98, 156, 157, 166
Li Lithium . . . . . . . . 20 Y Yttrium . . . . . . . . 33
Rubidium (Rb) . . . . . . . . 17.0 Brix 18, 51, 52, 60, 61, 139, 171 Matua 113
Lu Lutecium . . . . . . . . 0.5 Yb Ytterbium . . . . . . . . 3
RbO2
Ruthenium (Ru)
. . . . . . . . . . . . 1527.0
. . . . 43.2
Mg Magnesium 23300 Zn Zinc . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 Brome. See Matua F mechanical 41
Mn Manganese . . . . 950 Brought-in feed 166 mercury 18
Zr Zirconium . . . . . . . . 165
RuCl3 . . . . . . . . . . . . 1998.0 Bulk Density). See Volume Weight Fibre 65 micro-organisms 46
Mo Molybdenum .... 1.5
Samarium (Sm) . . . . 1860.0 bulls 73, 98, 144, 151, 154, 156, 157 financial study 168 milk production. See Galactorue
SmBr2 . . . . . . . . . . . . 5337.0 burns. See Demulcent fish 6, 31, 35, 49, 53, 54, 64, 144, 146 Mineral 11
Scandium (Sc) . . . . . . . . 315.0 Hence the reason for adding volcanic rock to soils in a finely ground form! five freedoms 63. See Animal Welfare Act Molasses 94
Tantalum (Ta) . . . . . . . . 154.0 molybdenum 18, 19, 20, 36, 37, 38, 82,
TaF3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 795.0
C Fly strike 153
125
Fodder trees 137
Technetium (Tc) . . . . 250.0 cadmium 18 Footbaths 102 mutilations 154, 166
Terbium (Tb) . . . . 146000.0 Calcium 16, 18, 23, 24, 27, 33, 57, 60, 71, Fungi 14 mycorrhizal fungi 21, 56
Thulium (Tm) . . . . 25500.0 79, 83, 129 fungi 20, 31, 34, 50
TmO3 ........ 51444.0 calves 32, 76, 77 N
Titanium (Ti) . . . . . . . . 153.0
TiF2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1790.0
Carbohydrates 33 G
Carbon 18, 33, 34, 47, 49, 79 Navel Ill 78
Tungsten (W) . . . . . . . . 59.0 Carminative 71 Gorse 127, 128 Neem oil 89, 90, 167
WO3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5850.0 Case Study 168 granite 58, 59 Nematodes 15
Uranium (U) . . . . . . . . 395.0 cation balance 22 Grasses 113 nematodes 34, 50
UH3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9306.0 Cation exchange capacity (CEC) 24 Grass staggers 95 nerves. See Sedative; See Sedative
Vanadium (V) . . . . . . . . 255.0 Certification 45, 161, 164 grazing off 65, 166 Nitrogen 16, 18, 33, 34, 35, 47, 52, 58,
VBr3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8540.0 Chaffing 105 Green manures 35, 120 79, 170
Ytterbium (Yb) . . . . . . . . 249.0 nitrogen cycle 28, 33, 34
Yb2S3 ........ 18300.0
172 173
Organic Pastoral RESOURCE GUIDE
nourishes. See Nutritive S U

Nutrient uptake by roots 20
Nutritive 71 sacrifice paddock). See quarantine paddock Udder treatments 87
salt 19, 25, 27, 29, 36, 49, 59, 60 Ulcers 105
O Salt fertilisers 59 uterine contractions. See Oxytocic
salt lick 94
Oats 31, 70, 71, 124, 125 Sand 20 V
Oestrus 97, 98, 157, 166 Sandy 169
Ointments 72, 87 Scours 76, 78 Vaccination 76
Olsen P 23, 30 seaweed 41, 44, 49, 53, 54, 64, 80, 81, Vermicast 54, 55, 56, 147
Organic matter 11, 24 93, 94, 98, 99, 100, 104, 106, 111, vitamin C 82, 93, 99
Oxygen 18, 47, 58, 172 133, 154 Volume weight 23, 169
Oxytocic 71 Sedative 71
Selenium 38, 64, 71, 79, 81, 85, 98 W
P Sheep 107, 115, 135, 143, 149, 153, 154,
155, 160 Warts 105
pain relief. See Analgesic Sheeps/Salad Burnett 118 Water 11, 141
Paralysis 100 shelter belt 162 Water requirements 143
paramagnetic 41, 57, 58, 59, 60 Shock 105 Water uptake 19
Peat 169 Silicon 38, 79, 129 Weeds 79, 107, 113, 126, 127, 161, 165
Pectoral 71 Sodium 16, 23, 24, 29, 30, 55, 60, 79, 83, Welfare 63, 67, 75, 111, 143, 166
Peppering 128, 130 90, 124, 129 Wetlands 53, 135, 143, 144, 147, 161
Permitted Materials 167 sodium content 124 White Clover 115
Pest control 130 Soil and plant interaction 18 White line disease 101, 102
pH 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 25, 27, 30, 37, 38, soil food web 20, 47, 52 Woody tongue 104
47, 49, 52 Soil nutrient reserves 17 Worms 75, 76, 77, 106, 129, 143, 147
Phalaris 117, 118, 122, 124 soil testing 22 Wounds 104
Phosphate retention 31 Somatic cell counts 84
phosphorus 18, 20, 23, 28, 30, 31, 83, soothing. See Demulcent Y
116, 129 Sore Teats 105
Poisonous Native Plants 138 spray drift 50, 57, 111, 132, 134, 138, 159 Yorkshire Fog 115
Possums 130, 135 Spray equipment. See spray tanks
potassium 17, 18, 19, 20, 22, 24, 25, 27, spray tanks 158, 159 Z
28, 29, 30, 36, 39, 40, 44, 53, 54, steam cleaning 76
57, 169 Stocking rate 165 Zinc 16, 18, 23, 39, 55, 64, 79, 82, 85,
Potassium chloride 29, 60 stock management 63, 64 102, 167, 170
Potassium sulphate 28, 40, 60 stock transportation 154
Potentisation 68, 128 Straw 8, 29, 66
Power Lines 132 Strawberry clover 117
Preparation 500 43 Subterranean Clover 117
Preparation 501 44 Sulla 117, 122
Protozoa 15 sulphur 24, 27, 28, 29, 32, 33, 43, 44,
protozoa 34, 50 49, 57
Pulpy kidney 153 superphosphate 30, 31, 32, 60, 64
Syptic 71
Q
T
quarantine paddock 109, 116, 121, 122,
158, 166 Tail docking 154
Tall Fescue 114, 115, 122, 124
R Teas 61, 72, 128
Teatree oil 101
Rabbits 130 Teat sprays 87
Ragwort 127, 128 The Senses 156
Rearing calves 75 Timothy 114, 115, 119, 122, 124
Record keeping 165 Tonic 71, 73, 106
Red Clover 71, 82, 115, 117, 124, 125 transpiration 19
refractometer 18, 30, 51, 52, 60 treating effluent 146
Reserve Potassium 29 Trees and shrubs for honey 139
Resin P 23, 30, 31 Trees for Firewood 140
Restricted fertilisers 165 Trees for protection of waterways 135
Restricted Materials 167 Trees for shade 134
Retained membranes 100 Trees for shelter 134
Ribwort Plantain 118 Trees for timber and erosion control 135
Ringworm 89, 105 Tree Planting around ponds, dams, and
rock dust 57, 128 effluent ponds 135
Rotavirus 76
Ryegrass 113, 114, 122, 124
174

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Chapter 3 THE ENVIRONMENT

Some thoughts on layout

The Environment and the many factors intermingling to create

Moon and planets

Calendars: Sources of information

Climate refers to the long–term average of rainfall,

temperature, sunshine hours, wind and so on that we

• A mixture of species in pasture is important for grazing

Seeds sourcing and Herbal ley mixtures

Weeds and their

Specific pest problems

Wetlands and Waterways

Reusing dairy effluent

– some methods and tips Remedy slippery surfaces

Applying fertiliser to the land

dairy, beef and sheep

Comments from farmers

Conversion issues for

the animal’s health is in tune, then fly strike seems to become

Behaviour: cattle, deer

Be nice to your cows

The second part of the study involved 94 Victoria dairy farms

What does this mean? Neighbours according to Bio–Gro rules:

Since the introduction of the Ag–Enviro Radionic device to

of information This information has been taken from three certifying

A review of New Zealand and International Organic Land

nourishes. See Nutritive S U

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