Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Electrical Machines Formula Sheet

1

No.1 Training center for GATE/IES/JTO/PSUs in Bangalore @ Malleshwaram & Jayanagar of Bangalore:
Ph: 0 99003 99699/ 0 97419 00225 / 080-32552008 Email : [email protected]
Site: www.onlineIES.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies


DC MACHINES : -
Lap Winding Wave Winding
(1) Coil Span :

(2) Back Pitch

(3) Commutator Pitch

= 1
for Progressive winding

= -1
for Retrogressive winding

for Progressive winding

= -

for Restrogressive winding
(

Must be integer)
(4) Front Pitch

+2
for Progressive winding

-2
for Retrogressive winding

(5) Parallel Paths A = P A = 2
(6) Conductor Current

(7) No of brushes No of brushes = A = P No of brushes = 2

- S = No of commutator segments
- P = No of poles
- U = No of coil sides / No of poles =

- C = No of coils on the rotor
- A = No of armature parallel paths
-

= Armature current

Distribution factor (

) =

Pitch factor (

) =

*100%

Armature mmf/Pole (Peak) , A

AT (Compensating Winding) =

Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Electrical Machines Formula Sheet
2

No.1 Training center for GATE/IES/JTO/PSUs in Bangalore @ Malleshwaram & Jayanagar of Bangalore:
Ph: 0 99003 99699/ 0 97419 00225 / 080-32552008 Email : [email protected]
Site: www.onlineIES.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies


AT(Inter pole) = A

Where

= Flux density in inter pole airgap

= length of inter pole airgap ,

No of turns in each interpole ,

The no of compensating conductor per pole,

/pole =

)
The Mechanical power that is converted is given by

Where T = Induced torque

= Angular speed of the machines rotor

The resulting electric power produced

The power balance equation of the DC Machine is

The induced emf in the armature is

Torque developed in Dc machine ,

Where = Flux\pole , Z = No of armature conductors , P = No of poles , N = Speed in rpm ,
A = No of armature parallel paths,

rmature current
The terminal voltage of the DC generator is given by

The terminal voltage of the DC motor is given by

Speed regulation of dc machine is given by ,SR =

* 100 % =

* 100 %
Voltage regulation , VR =

* 100 %
Shunt Generator:

For a shunt generator with armature induced voltage E
a
, armature current I
a
and
armature resistance R
a
, the terminal voltage V is:
V = E
a
- I
a
R
a

The field current I
f
for a field resistance R
f
is:
I
f
= V / R
f

Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Electrical Machines Formula Sheet
3

No.1 Training center for GATE/IES/JTO/PSUs in Bangalore @ Malleshwaram & Jayanagar of Bangalore:
Ph: 0 99003 99699/ 0 97419 00225 / 080-32552008 Email : [email protected]
Site: www.onlineIES.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies


The armature induced voltage E
a
and torque T with magnetic flux u at angular
speed e are:
E
a
= k
f
ue = k
m
e
T = k
f
uI
a
= k
m
I
a

where k
f
and k
m
are design coefficients of the machine.

Note that for a shunt generator:
- induced voltage is proportional to speed,
- torque is proportional to armature current.

The airgap power P
e
for a shunt generator is:
P
e
= eT = E
a
I
a
= k
m
e I
a


Series Generator:

For a series generator with armature induced voltage E
a
, armature current I
a
,
armature resistance R
a
and field resistance R
f
, the terminal voltage V is:
V = E
a
- ( I
a
R
a
+ I
a
R
f
)= E
a
- I
a
(R
a
+ R
f
)
The field current is equal to the armature current.
The armature induced voltage E
a
and torque T with magnetic flux u at angular
speed e are:
E
a
= k
f
ue I
a
= k
m
e I
a

T = k
f
uI
a
2
= k
m
I
a
2

where k
f
and k
m
are design coefficients of the machine.
Note that for a series generator:
- induced voltage is proportional to both speed and armature current,
- torque is proportional to the square of armature current,
- armature current is inversely proportional to speed for a constant E
a


The airgap power P
e
for a series generator is:
P
e
= eT = E
a
I
a
= k
m
e I
a
2

Cumulatively compounded DC generator : - ( long shunt)
(a)

(b)

)
(c)

= shunt field current

(d) The equivalent effective shunt field current for this machine is given by
Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Electrical Machines Formula Sheet
4

No.1 Training center for GATE/IES/JTO/PSUs in Bangalore @ Malleshwaram & Jayanagar of Bangalore:
Ph: 0 99003 99699/ 0 97419 00225 / 080-32552008 Email : [email protected]
Site: www.onlineIES.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies

- (

)
Where

= No of series field turns

= No of shunt field turns

Differentially compounded DC generator : - ( long shunt)
(a)

(b)

)
(c)

= shunt field current

(d) The equivalent effective shunt field current for this machine is given by

- (

)
Where

= No of series field turns

= No of shunt field turns

Shunt Motor:
For a shunt motor with armature induced voltage E
a
, armature current I
a
and
armature resistance R
a
, the terminal voltage V is:
V = E
a
+ I
a
R
a

The field current I
f
for a field resistance R
f
is:
I
f
= V / R
f

The armature induced voltage E
a
and torque T with magnetic flux u at angular
speed e are:
E
a
= k
f
ue = k
m
e
T = k
f
uI
a
= k
m
I
a

where k
f
and k
m
are design coefficients of the machine.
Note that for a shunt motor:
- induced voltage is proportional to speed,
- torque is proportional to armature current.

The airgap power P

e
for a shunt motor is:
P
e
= eT = E
a
I
a
= k
m
e I
a
The speed of the shunt motor , =

T
Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Electrical Machines Formula Sheet
5

No.1 Training center for GATE/IES/JTO/PSUs in Bangalore @ Malleshwaram & Jayanagar of Bangalore:
Ph: 0 99003 99699/ 0 97419 00225 / 080-32552008 Email : [email protected]
Site: www.onlineIES.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies


Where K =

Series Motor :

For a series motor with armature induced voltage E
a
, armature current I
a
,
armature resistance R
a
and field resistance R
f
, the terminal voltage V is:
V = E
a
+ I
a
R
a
+ I
a
R
f
= E
a
+ I
a
(R
a
+ R
f
)
The field current is equal to the armature current.
The armature induced voltage E
a
and torque T with magnetic flux u at angular
speed e are:
E
a
= k
f
ue I
a
= k
m
e I
a

T = k
f
uI
a
2
= k
m
I
a
2

where k
f
and k
m
are design coefficients of the machine.
Note that for a series motor:
- induced voltage is proportional to both speed and armature current,
- torque is proportional to the square of armature current,
- armature current is inversely proportional to speed for a constant E
a

The airgap power P
e
for a series motor is:
P
e
= eT = E
a
I
a
= k
m
e I
a
2

Losses:

constant losses (P
k
) = P
w f
+ P
i o
Where,

= No of load core loss

= Windage & friction loss

Variable losses (

) =

where

= Copper losses =

= Stray load loss =

= Brush Contact drop =

, Where

= Brush voltage drop

The total machine losses ,

Efficiency
Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Electrical Machines Formula Sheet
6

No.1 Training center for GATE/IES/JTO/PSUs in Bangalore @ Malleshwaram & Jayanagar of Bangalore:
Ph: 0 99003 99699/ 0 97419 00225 / 080-32552008 Email : [email protected]
Site: www.onlineIES.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies


The per-unit efficiency q of an electrical machine with input power P
in
, output
power P
out
and power loss P
loss
is:

q = P
out
/ P
in
= P
out
/ (P
out
+ P
loss
) = (P
in
- P
loss
) / P
in

Rearranging the efficiency equations:

P
in
= P
out
+ P
loss
= P
out
/ q = P
loss
/ (1 - q)

P
out
= P
in
- P
loss
= qP
in
= qP
loss
/ (1 - q)

P
loss
= P
in
- P
out
= (1 - q)P
in
= (1 - q)P
out
/ q

Temperature Rise:
The resistance of copper and aluminium windings increases with temperature,
and the relationship is quite linear over the normal range of operating
temperatures. For a linear relationship, if the winding resistance is R
1
at
temperature u
1
and R
2
at temperature u
2
, then:

R
1
/ (u
1
- u
0
) = R
2
/ (u
2
- u
0
) = (R
2
- R
1
) / (u
2
- u
1
)
where u
0
is the extrapolated temperature for zero resistance.

The ratio of resistances R
2
and R
1
is:
R
2
/ R
1
= (u
2
- u
0
) / (u
1
- u
0
)

The average temperature rise Au of a winding under load may be estimated from
measured values of the cold winding resistance R
1
at temperature u
1
(usually
ambient temperature) and the hot winding resistance R
2
at temperature u
2
, using:
Au = u
2
- u
1
= (u
1
- u
0
) (R
2
- R
1
) / R
1


Rearranging for per-unit change in resistance AR
pu
relative to R
1
:
AR
pu
= (R
2
- R
1
) / R
1
= (u
2
- u
1
) / (u
1
- u
0
) = Au / (u
1
- u
0
)
.Copper Windings:
The value of u
0
for copper is - 234.5 C, so that:
Au = u
2
- u
1
= (u
1
+ 234.5) (R
2
- R
1
) / R
1


Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Electrical Machines Formula Sheet
7

No.1 Training center for GATE/IES/JTO/PSUs in Bangalore @ Malleshwaram & Jayanagar of Bangalore:
Ph: 0 99003 99699/ 0 97419 00225 / 080-32552008 Email : [email protected]
Site: www.onlineIES.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies


If u
1
is 20 C and Au is 1 degC:
AR
pu
= (R
2
- R
1
) / R
1
= Au / (u
1
- u
0
) = 1 / 254.5 = 0.00393

The temperature coefficient of resistance of copper at 20 C is 0.00393 per
degC.
Aluminium Windings:
The value of u
0
for aluminium is - 228 C, so that:
Au = u
2
- u
1
= (u
1
+ 228) (R
2
- R
1
) / R
1


If u
1
is 20 C and Au is 1 degC:
AR
pu
= (R
2
- R
1
) / R
1
= Au / (u
1
- u
0
) = 1 / 248 = 0.00403

The temperature coefficient of resistance of aluminium at 20 C is 0.00403 per
degC.
Dielectric Dissipation Factor:
If an alternating voltage V of frequency f is applied across an insulation system
comprising capacitance C and equivalent series loss resistance R
S
, then the
voltage V
R
across R
S
and the voltage V
C
across C due to the resulting
current I are:
V
R
= IR
S

V
C
= IX
C

V = (V
R
2
+ V
C
2
)

The dielectric dissipation factor of the insulation system is the tangent of the
dielectric loss angle o between V
C
and V:
tano = V
R
/ V
C
= R
S
/ X
C
= 2tfCR
S

R
S
= X
C
tano = tano / 2tfC

The dielectric power loss P is related to the capacitive reactive power Q
C
by:
P = I
2
R
S
= I
2
X
C
tano = Q
C
tano

The power factor of the insulation system is the cosine of the phase
angle | between V
R
and V:
cos| = V
R
/ V
so that o and | are related by:
o + | = 90
Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Electrical Machines Formula Sheet
8

No.1 Training center for GATE/IES/JTO/PSUs in Bangalore @ Malleshwaram & Jayanagar of Bangalore:
Ph: 0 99003 99699/ 0 97419 00225 / 080-32552008 Email : [email protected]
Site: www.onlineIES.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies



tano and cos| are related by:
tano = 1 / tan| = cos| / sin| = cos| / (1 - cos
2
|)

so that when cos| is close to zero, tano ~ cos|
TRANSFORMERS:
Gross cross sectional area = Area occupied by magnetic material + Insulation
material.
Net cross sectional area = Area occupied by only magnetic material excluding area
of insulation material.
Hence for all calculations, net cross sectional area is taken since (flux) majorly
flows in magnetic material.

Specific weight of t/f =

Stacking/iron factor :- (

) =

is always less than 1

Gross c.s Area =

= length breadth
Net c.s Area =

Utilization factor of transformer core =

U.F of cruciform core = 0.8 to

0.85
Flux =

According to faradays second law

Transformer emf equations :-

= 4.44

(1)

= 4.44

(2)

Instantaneous value
of emf in primary

Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Electrical Machines Formula Sheet
9

No.1 Training center for GATE/IES/JTO/PSUs in Bangalore @ Malleshwaram & Jayanagar of Bangalore:
Ph: 0 99003 99699/ 0 97419 00225 / 080-32552008 Email : [email protected]
Site: www.onlineIES.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies


Emf per turn in

= 4.44

Emf per turn in

= 4.44

Emf per turn on both sides of the transformer is same

Transformation ratio = K =

Turns ratio =

For an ideal two-winding transformer with primary voltage V
1
applied
across N
1
primary turns and secondary voltage V
2
appearing across N
2
secondary
turns:
V
1
/ V
2
= N
1
/ N
2

The primary current I
1
and secondary current I
2
are related by:
I
1
/ I
2
= N
2
/ N
1
= V
2
/ V
1

For an ideal step-down auto-transformer with primary voltage V
1
applied
across (N
1
+ N
2
) primary turns and secondary voltage V
2
appearing
across N
2
secondary turns:
V
1
/ V
2
= (N
1
+ N
2
) / N
2

The primary (input) current I
1
and secondary (output) current I
2
are related by:
I
1
/ I
2
= N
2
/ (N
1
+ N
2
) = V
2
/ V
1
.

For a single-phase transformer with rated primary voltage V
1
, rated primary
current I
1
, rated secondary voltage V
2
and rated secondary current I
2
, the voltampere
rating S is:
S = V
1
I
1
= V
2
I
2


For a balanced m-phase transformer with rated primary phase voltage V
1
, rated
primary current I
1
, rated secondary phase voltage V
2
and rated secondary current I
2
,
the voltampere rating S is:
S = mV
1
I
1
= mV
2
I
2


The primary circuit impedance Z
1
referred to the secondary circuit for an ideal
transformer with N
1
primary turns and N
2
secondary turns is:
Z
12
= Z
1
(N
2
/ N
1
)
2


Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Electrical Machines Formula Sheet
10

No.1 Training center for GATE/IES/JTO/PSUs in Bangalore @ Malleshwaram & Jayanagar of Bangalore:
Ph: 0 99003 99699/ 0 97419 00225 / 080-32552008 Email : [email protected]
Site: www.onlineIES.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies


During operation of transformer :-

= constant

Equivalent ckt of t/f under N.L condition :-

No load current =

No load power =

Iron losses.

Transferring from

to

:-

From

to

:-

No load /shunt branch.

Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Electrical Machines Formula Sheet
11

No.1 Training center for GATE/IES/JTO/PSUs in Bangalore @ Malleshwaram & Jayanagar of Bangalore:
Ph: 0 99003 99699/ 0 97419 00225 / 080-32552008 Email : [email protected]
Site: www.onlineIES.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies

Total resistance ref to primary =

Total resistance ref to secondary =

Total Cu loss =

Or

Per unit resistance drops :-
P.U primary resistance drop =

P.U secondary resistance drop =

Total P.U resistance drop ref to

Total P.U resistance drop ref to

The P.U resistance drops on both sides of the t/f is same

Losses present in transformer :-

1. Cu losses in t/f:

Total Cu loss =

Rated current on

Similarly current on

Cu losses

or

. Hence there are called as variable losses.

1. Copper losses
2. Iron losses

3. Stray load losses
4. Dielectric losses
major losses
minor losses
t/f windings
t/f core
cu parts
Iron parts
insulating materials.
Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Electrical Machines Formula Sheet
12

No.1 Training center for GATE/IES/JTO/PSUs in Bangalore @ Malleshwaram & Jayanagar of Bangalore:
Ph: 0 99003 99699/ 0 97419 00225 / 080-32552008 Email : [email protected]
Site: www.onlineIES.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies


P.U Full load Cu loss =

If VA rating of t/f is taken as base then P.U Cu loss

as remaining terms are constant.

P.U Cu loss at x of FL =

FL Cu loss

P.U Resistance drop = P.U FL cu loss

% FL Cu loss = % R = % Resistance drop.

Iron (or) Core losses in t/f :-

1. Hysteresis loss :

Steinmetz formula :-

Where
= stienmetz coefficient

= max. flux density in transformer core.

f = frequency of magnetic reversal = supply freq.
v = volume of core material
x = Hysteresis coeff (or) stienmetz exponent
= 1.6 (Si or CRGo steel)
2. Eddycurrent loss:
Eddy current loss ,(

As area decreases in laminated core resistance increases as a result conductivity decreases.

Constant
Supply freq
thickness of laminations.
(it is a function of )
Area under one hysteresis loop.

. f . v

Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Electrical Machines Formula Sheet
13

No.1 Training center for GATE/IES/JTO/PSUs in Bangalore @ Malleshwaram & Jayanagar of Bangalore:
Ph: 0 99003 99699/ 0 97419 00225 / 080-32552008 Email : [email protected]
Site: www.onlineIES.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies


During operation of transformer :-

Case (i) :-

= constant,

= const.

Case (ii) :-

constant,

const.

P.U iron loss :-
P.U iron loss =

As VA rating is choosen as base then the P.U iron loss are also constant at all load conditions.

To find out constant losses :-

= Losses in t/f under no load condition

= Iron losses + Dielectric loss + no load primary loss (

)

Constant losses =

Where ,

= LV winding resistance.

To find out variable losses :-

= Loss in t/f under S.C condition

Const.

When

= const.
Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Electrical Machines Formula Sheet
14

No.1 Training center for GATE/IES/JTO/PSUs in Bangalore @ Malleshwaram & Jayanagar of Bangalore:
Ph: 0 99003 99699/ 0 97419 00225 / 080-32552008 Email : [email protected]
Site: www.onlineIES.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies


= F.L Cu loss + stray load losses (Cu and Iron) + Iron losses in both wdgs
Variable losses =

Iron losses corresponding to

O.C test :-

rated

S.C test :-

Variable losses =

Under the assumption that small amount of iron losses corresponds to

and stray load

losses are neglected the wattmeter reading in S.C test can be approximately taken as F.L
Cu losses in the transformer.

F.L Cu loss

Efficiency :-

O.C test
S.C test
Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Electrical Machines Formula Sheet
15

No.1 Training center for GATE/IES/JTO/PSUs in Bangalore @ Malleshwaram & Jayanagar of Bangalore:
Ph: 0 99003 99699/ 0 97419 00225 / 080-32552008 Email : [email protected]
Site: www.onlineIES.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies


Transformer efficiency =

Efficiency = =

Total losses in transformer =

output

Condition for maximum effieciency is, Cu losses = Iron losses
Total losses at

= 2

%load at which maximum efficiency occurs % x =

*100 %=

*100 %
KVA corresponding to

= F.L KVA

Voltage drop in t/f at a Specific load p.f =

% Voltage regulation =

100

=

+ +
P.U resistance P.U reactance
% Regulation =

100

Condition for max. regulation :-

% regulation = (% R) cos

= 0
Tan

lagging

At maximum regulation

Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Electrical Machines Formula Sheet
16

No.1 Training center for GATE/IES/JTO/PSUs in Bangalore @ Malleshwaram & Jayanagar of Bangalore:
Ph: 0 99003 99699/ 0 97419 00225 / 080-32552008 Email : [email protected]
Site: www.onlineIES.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies


=

Value of maximum regulation :-
% Regulation = (% R) cos

At max. regulation cos

Sin

max. % regulation = (% R)

max. % regn = % Z
= % of rated voltage required to produce rated short ckt current
.
Condition for zero regulation :-
If the voltage regulation in the t/f is zero, the t/f voltages are maintained at their nominal
values even under load condition
% Regn = (% R) cos

For zero regulation occurs at leading p.fs
(% R) cos

sin

= 0
Tan

leading.

At zero regulation condition :

Regulation at x of FL = x [% R cos

X sin

]
= x F.L regn
Regulation at U.P.F:-
Regulation at UPF = % R
= % F.L Cu loss
Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Electrical Machines Formula Sheet
17

No.1 Training center for GATE/IES/JTO/PSUs in Bangalore @ Malleshwaram & Jayanagar of Bangalore:
Ph: 0 99003 99699/ 0 97419 00225 / 080-32552008 Email : [email protected]
Site: www.onlineIES.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies


Scott Connection:

= 0.866

= 0.577

= 0.866

0.577

= 0.289

= 0.577

0.289

= 2 : 1
If a neutral pt is located on 3 side, such that, voltage between any terminal to that neutral
point is 0.577

then such neutral point divides the primary of teaser transformer in the ratio
of 2 : 1
Location of neutral point from top = 0.866

Location of neutral point from bottom = 0.866

Operation of Scott Connection with 2 balanced load at UPF :-

Teaser t/f :-

Let

Main t/f

86.6%
0.289
2
:
1
M
N
0.866

0.577

A
B
C

Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Electrical Machines Formula Sheet
18

No.1 Training center for GATE/IES/JTO/PSUs in Bangalore @ Malleshwaram & Jayanagar of Bangalore:
Ph: 0 99003 99699/ 0 97419 00225 / 080-32552008 Email : [email protected]
Site: www.onlineIES.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies

Let

Capacity of Scott Connection :-

Vol. rating of 1 t/f Current rating of 1 t/f

Utilization factor =

= 0.866
Utilization factor of Scott connection with 2 identical 1 t/fs is 86.6%

AUTO TRANSFORMER:
Primary applied voltage,

= Secondary voltage

referred to primary + primary leakage impedance

drop + secondary leakage impedance drop ref. to primary.

K of auto transformer =

I/P KVA =

= 1

= 1 K
(KVA) induction = (1 K) i/p KVA

(KVA) conduction = I/p KVA

I/p KVA
Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Electrical Machines Formula Sheet
19

No.1 Training center for GATE/IES/JTO/PSUs in Bangalore @ Malleshwaram & Jayanagar of Bangalore:
Ph: 0 99003 99699/ 0 97419 00225 / 080-32552008 Email : [email protected]
Site: www.onlineIES.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies



Wt. of conductor in section AB of auto t/f

Wt of conductor in section BC of auto t/f

Total wt. of conductor in auto t/f is

Total wt. of conductor in 2 wdg transformer

= 1

= 1 K
Wt. of conductor in auto t/f = (1 K) (wt. of conductor in 2 wdg t/f)
Thus saving of conductor material if auto t/f is used} = K {conductor wt in 2 wdg transformer.

.

SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES:
Principle of operation :-
Whenever a conductor cuts the magnetic flux, an emf is induced in that conductor
Faradays law of electromagnetic induction.
Coil span (|) :- It is the distance between two sides of the coil. It is expressed in terms of
degrees, pole pitch, no. of slots / pole etc
Pole pitch :- It is the distance between two identical points on two adjacent poles.
Pole pitch is always 180 e = slots / pole.

Slot pitch or slot angle :- (T)Slot angle is the angle for each slot.
For a machine with P poles and s no. of slots, the slot angle = =

Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Electrical Machines Formula Sheet
20

No.1 Training center for GATE/IES/JTO/PSUs in Bangalore @ Malleshwaram & Jayanagar of Bangalore:
Ph: 0 99003 99699/ 0 97419 00225 / 080-32552008 Email : [email protected]
Site: www.onlineIES.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies


Pitch factor or coil span factor or chording factor :- (

Pitch factor for

harmonic i.e,

chording angle to eliminate

harmonics ()=

coil spam to eliminate

harmonics ,(|) = 180

Distribution factor | spread factor | belt factor | breadth factor(kd) :-

Kd =

The distribution factor for uniformly distributed winding is




For

harmonic,

To eliminate

harmonics ,phase spread (m) =

Generally, KVA rating, power output kd and

(induce emf)

= 1.15

= cos /2

Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Electrical Machines Formula Sheet
21

No.1 Training center for GATE/IES/JTO/PSUs in Bangalore @ Malleshwaram & Jayanagar of Bangalore:
Ph: 0 99003 99699/ 0 97419 00225 / 080-32552008 Email : [email protected]
Site: www.onlineIES.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies

= 1.06

= 1.5

1.414

Speed of space harmonics of order (6k 1) is

where

= synchronous speed =

The order of slot harmonics is

where S = no. of slots , P = no. of poles
Slot harmonics can be eliminated by skewing the armature slots and fractional slot winding.
The angle of skew =

= (slot angle)
= 2 harmonic pole pitches
= 1 slot pitch.
Distribution factor for slot harmonics,

Is

i.e., same that of fundamental

Pith factor for slot harmonics,

The synchronous speed N
s
and synchronous angular speed
s
of a machine with p pole
pairs running on a supply of frequency f
s
are:

e
s
= 2tf
s
/ p

Slip S =

Where

= synchronous speed
The magnitude of voltage induced in a given stator phase is

Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Electrical Machines Formula Sheet
22

No.1 Training center for GATE/IES/JTO/PSUs in Bangalore @ Malleshwaram & Jayanagar of Bangalore:
Ph: 0 99003 99699/ 0 97419 00225 / 080-32552008 Email : [email protected]
Site: www.onlineIES.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies


Where K = constant
The output power P
m
for a load torque T
m
is:
P
m
= e
s
T
m

The rated load torque T
M
for a rated output power P
M
is:
T
M
= P
M
/ e
s
= P
M
p/ 2tf
s
= 120P
M
/ 2tN
s

Synchronous Generator:
For a synchronous generator with stator induced voltage E
s
, stator current I
s
and
synchronous impedance Z
s
, the terminal voltage V is:
V = E - I
s
Z
s
= E
s
- I
s
(R
s
+ jX
s
)
where R
s
is the stator resistance and X
s
is the synchronous reactance
E =

+ lag p.f
leading p.f.

Synchronous Motor:
For a synchronous motor with stator induced voltage E
s
, stator current I
s
and synchronous
impedance Z
s
, the terminal voltage V is:
V = E
s
+ I
s
Z
s
= E
s
+ I
s
(R
s
+ jX
s
)
where R
s
is the stator resistance and X
s
is the synchronous reactance
Voltage regulation :
% regulation =

100
E V =

% regulation =

Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Electrical Machines Formula Sheet
23

No.1 Training center for GATE/IES/JTO/PSUs in Bangalore @ Malleshwaram & Jayanagar of Bangalore:
Ph: 0 99003 99699/ 0 97419 00225 / 080-32552008 Email : [email protected]
Site: www.onlineIES.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies


=

100
regulation

As

increases, voltages regulation increases.

Condition for zero | min. voltage regulation is, Cos ( + ) =

Condition for max. Voltage regulation is, =
Short circuit ratio (SCR) =

SCR

Voltage regulation Armature reaction
SCR

Small value of SCR represent poor regulation.

But reluctance Air gap

Armature reaction

SCR

Airgap length



machine size SCR.
Cost SCR
Power =

SCR
Air gap length SCR
Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Electrical Machines Formula Sheet
24

No.1 Training center for GATE/IES/JTO/PSUs in Bangalore @ Malleshwaram & Jayanagar of Bangalore:
Ph: 0 99003 99699/ 0 97419 00225 / 080-32552008 Email : [email protected]
Site: www.onlineIES.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies




Large value of SCR represent more power output.
Synchronizing power coefficient or stability factor

is given as

is a measure of stability
stability

But

SCR


Stability SCR Air gap length


When the stator mmf is aligned with the d axis of field poles then flux

perpole is set up
and the effective reactance offered by the alternator is

= Direct axis reactance

When the stator mmf is aligned with the q axis of field poles then flux

per pole is set up

and the effective reactance offered by the alternator is

= Quadrature axis reactance

Cylindrical rotor Synchronous machine ,
The per phase power delivered to the infinite bus is given by P =

sin
Salient pole synchronous machine ,
The per phase power delivered to the infinite bus is given by
P =

Power SCR
Stability SCR
Stability Air gap length
Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Electrical Machines Formula Sheet
25

No.1 Training center for GATE/IES/JTO/PSUs in Bangalore @ Malleshwaram & Jayanagar of Bangalore:
Ph: 0 99003 99699/ 0 97419 00225 / 080-32552008 Email : [email protected]
Site: www.onlineIES.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies


Condition for max. power:-
For cylindrical rotor machine :-
At constant

and

, the condition for max. power is obtained by putting

= 0

= 0
Cos = 0
= 90
Hence maximum power occurs at = 90

For salient pole synchronous machine :-

= 0

= 0
Cos =

The value of load angle is seed to be less than 90.
max. power occurs at < 90
Synchronizing power =

. .
=

.
Synchronizing torque =

.

Power flow in Alternator :-
Complex power = S = P + jQ = V

Where Active power flow (P) =

;
Reactive power flow (Q) =

;
Condition for max. power output :-
P =

= 0 for max power condition

ie = 0


=
Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Electrical Machines Formula Sheet
26

No.1 Training center for GATE/IES/JTO/PSUs in Bangalore @ Malleshwaram & Jayanagar of Bangalore:
Ph: 0 99003 99699/ 0 97419 00225 / 080-32552008 Email : [email protected]
Site: www.onlineIES.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies


If

= 0; = = 90 ; then max power is given by

SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS:

Speed regulation =

= 0%
Slip S =

= 0%

The speed can be controlled by varying the frequency
+
|
|

ratio control is preferred for rated torque operation

Power flow in synchronous motor is given by
complex power i/p s = p + jQ = V

where P = Resl power flow , Q = Reactive power flow

:

:
If

= 0 ;

Condition for max power :-

= 0 0 +

Sin ( + ) = 0 = sin 180

cos

Q =

8 0
P =

Q =

Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Electrical Machines Formula Sheet
27

No.1 Training center for GATE/IES/JTO/PSUs in Bangalore @ Malleshwaram & Jayanagar of Bangalore:
Ph: 0 99003 99699/ 0 97419 00225 / 080-32552008 Email : [email protected]
Site: www.onlineIES.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies






Expression for mechanical power developed :-
Mechanical power developed =

= active component +

Condition for max. mechanical power developed :-

= 0
Sin ( ) = 0 = sin 0
=



This is the expression for the mechanical power developed interms of load angle and the
internal machine angle , for constant voltage

and constant E i.e., excitation

Gross Torque =

synchronous speed in r.p.m

Tg =

Condition for excitation when motor develops

:-
For max power developed is

= 0

Condition for excitation when motor develops

is

The corresponding value of max. power is

Power flow in synchronous motors :-

Tg =

Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Electrical Machines Formula Sheet
28

No.1 Training center for GATE/IES/JTO/PSUs in Bangalore @ Malleshwaram & Jayanagar of Bangalore:
Ph: 0 99003 99699/ 0 97419 00225 / 080-32552008 Email : [email protected]
Site: www.onlineIES.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies



For leading p.f

tan =

The mechanical power developed per phase is given by,
s

INDUCTION MACHINES:
The power flow diagram of 3 induction motor is

The slip of induction machine is (S) =

Mechanical power
developed,

Rotor i/p power
= airgap power
Power i/p to stator
from mains
Power of
rotor shaft
Windage
loss
Friction loss
at bearings
and sliprings
of (if any)
Rotor core loss
(negligible for
small slips)
Rotor

R
loss
Stator
core
loss
Stator

R
loss

(input)
Stator
copper loss
3

Mechanical power
developed in armature

= 3

cos
( )
+ ve lead
ve for lag

2 Ns
60.

output
Friction
and Iron
losses

2 Ns
60
Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Electrical Machines Formula Sheet
29

No.1 Training center for GATE/IES/JTO/PSUs in Bangalore @ Malleshwaram & Jayanagar of Bangalore:
Ph: 0 99003 99699/ 0 97419 00225 / 080-32552008 Email : [email protected]
Site: www.onlineIES.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies


=

Where

is synchronous speed in rpm

is synchronous speed in rps

= S

Rotor frequency,

For an induction machine with rotor resistance R
r
and locked rotor leakage reactance X
r
, the
rotor impedance Z
r
at slip s is:Z
r
= R
r
+ jsX
r

The stator circuit equivalent impedance Z
rf
for a rotor / stator frequency ratio s is:
Z
rf
= R
rs
/ s + jX
rs

For an induction motor with synchronous angular speed e
s
running at angular speed e
m
and
slip s, the airgap transfer power P
t
, rotor copper loss P
r
and gross output power P
m
for a
gross output torque T
m
are related by:
P
t
= e
s
T
m
= P
r
/ s = P
m
/ (1 - s)
P
r
= sP
t
= sP
m
/ (1 - s)
P
m
= e
m
T
m
= (1 - s)P
t

The power ratios are:
P
t
: P
r
: P
m
= 1 : s : (1 - s)
The gross motor efficiency q
m
(neglecting stator and mechanical losses) is:
q
m
= P
m
/ P
t
= 1 - s
Rotor emf, Current Power :-
At stand still, the relative speed between rotating magnetic field and rotor conductors is
synchronous speed

; under this condition let the per phase generated emf in rotor circuit
be

= 4.44

= 4.44

= Rotor winding factor

But during running conditions the frequency of the rotor becomes, running with speed

Emf under running conditions is
E =

= S

Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Electrical Machines Formula Sheet
30

No.1 Training center for GATE/IES/JTO/PSUs in Bangalore @ Malleshwaram & Jayanagar of Bangalore:
Ph: 0 99003 99699/ 0 97419 00225 / 080-32552008 Email : [email protected]
Site: www.onlineIES.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies



Rotor leakage reactance = 2 (Rotor frequency)
(Rotor leakage Inductance)
Rotor leakage reactance at stand still = 2

Rotor leakage reactance at any slips = 2

Rotor leakage impedance at stand still

=

At any slip s, rotor


Per phase rotor current at stand still

=

Per phase rotor current at any slip s is given by

The rotor current

lags the rotor voltage

by rotor power factor angle

given by

Per phase power input to rotor is

= s

Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Electrical Machines Formula Sheet
31

No.1 Training center for GATE/IES/JTO/PSUs in Bangalore @ Malleshwaram & Jayanagar of Bangalore:
Ph: 0 99003 99699/ 0 97419 00225 / 080-32552008 Email : [email protected]
Site: www.onlineIES.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies

`
=

is the power transferred from stator to rotor across the air gap. There fore

is called air
gap power

= (Rotor ohmic loss) + Internal mechanical power developed in rotor (

)
= S

Rotor ohmic loss =

= S

Internal (or gross) torque developed per phase is given by

Electromagnetic torque

can also be expressed as

Power available at the shaft can be obtained from

as follows.
Output or shaft power,

Mechanical losses

Mechanical losses implies frication and windage losses

Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Electrical Machines Formula Sheet
32

No.1 Training center for GATE/IES/JTO/PSUs in Bangalore @ Malleshwaram & Jayanagar of Bangalore:
Ph: 0 99003 99699/ 0 97419 00225 / 080-32552008 Email : [email protected]
Site: www.onlineIES.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies

Rotor ohmic loss Friction and windage losses

= Net mechanical power output or net power output
Output or shaft torque

If the stator input is known. Then air gap power

is given by

stator power input stator

loss stator core loss.

Ratio of Rotor input power, rotor copper losses and gross mechanical output is

Rotor copper losses = S Rotor input
Gross mechanical output =(1 S) Rotor input.
Rotor copper losses = (Gross Mechanical output)

Efficiency of the rotor is approximately
Equal to

= 1 S
= 1

Total torque is

m is the number of stator phases.
Torque equation can be written as

rotor input per phase.

Thus the slip

at which maximum torque occurs is given by

Substituting the value of maximum slip in the torque equation, gives maximum torque
1 : S : (1 S)

Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Electrical Machines Formula Sheet
33

No.1 Training center for GATE/IES/JTO/PSUs in Bangalore @ Malleshwaram & Jayanagar of Bangalore:
Ph: 0 99003 99699/ 0 97419 00225 / 080-32552008 Email : [email protected]
Site: www.onlineIES.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies





If stator parameters are neglected then applying maximum transfer theorem to

then

Slip corresponding to maximum torque is

(Breakdown slip)

is the stalling speed at the maximum torque

Starting torque:-
At starting, slip S = 1.00, starting torque is given by
Test =

Motor torque in terms of

:
The torque expression of an induction motor can also be expressed in terms of maximum
torque

and dimension less ratio

. In order to get a simple and approximate

expression, stator resistance

, or the stator equivalent resistance

, is neglected.

Since r
1
or R
e
is neglected

The slip at which maximum torque occurs is

Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Electrical Machines Formula Sheet
34

No.1 Training center for GATE/IES/JTO/PSUs in Bangalore @ Malleshwaram & Jayanagar of Bangalore:
Ph: 0 99003 99699/ 0 97419 00225 / 080-32552008 Email : [email protected]
Site: www.onlineIES.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies




Power slip characteristics :-
The total internal mechanical power developed is

Maximum power transfer theorem is invoked again to obtain maximum value of internal
mechanical power developed. Since

per phase is the power delivered to

, internal
mechanical power developed is maximum, when

In order to get maximum power

,substitute

, in place of

in power equation

In order to get maximum power output from an induction generator, the rotor must be deiven
at a speed given by

Losses and efficiency :-
There are three cases in iron losses.
Case (i) : If the ratio of voltage to frequency is constant and flux is also constant then
Iron loss = Hysteresis loss + eddy current loss

Given

is constant. As

is constant

and

Case (ii) : If the ratio of voltage to frequency is not constant and flux is also not constant

const

Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Electrical Machines Formula Sheet
35

No.1 Training center for GATE/IES/JTO/PSUs in Bangalore @ Malleshwaram & Jayanagar of Bangalore:
Ph: 0 99003 99699/ 0 97419 00225 / 080-32552008 Email : [email protected]
Site: www.onlineIES.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies





Case (iii) : If frequency is constant and voltage is variable then

Short circuit current with normal voltage applied to stator is


I = short circuit current with normal voltage

= short circuit current with voltage

.
Power factor on short circuit is found from

As

is approximately equal to full load copper losses

The blocked rotor impedance is


Blocked rotor reactance =

Efficiency of Induction machines :-
Generally efficiency =

Efficiency of Induction motor =

Efficiency of Induction generator =

Squirrel cage rotor:
Stator Cu loss = 3

I =

Cos

Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Electrical Machines Formula Sheet
36

No.1 Training center for GATE/IES/JTO/PSUs in Bangalore @ Malleshwaram & Jayanagar of Bangalore:
Ph: 0 99003 99699/ 0 97419 00225 / 080-32552008 Email : [email protected]
Site: www.onlineIES.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies


Rotor Cu loss =

Wound rotor

Direct on line (across the line) starting :-
The relation between starting torque and full load torque is

The above equation valids of rotor resistance remains constant.



Where

Per phase short circuit current at stand still (or at starting) is,


Where

Here shunt branch parameters of equivalent circuit are neglected.
Therefore, for direct switching,

.

Stator resistor (or reactor) starting :-
Since per phase voltage is reduced to xv, the per phase starting current

is given by

As be fore

In an induction motor, torque

Institute of Engineering Studies (IES,Bangalore) Electrical Machines Formula Sheet
37

No.1 Training center for GATE/IES/JTO/PSUs in Bangalore @ Malleshwaram & Jayanagar of Bangalore:
Ph: 0 99003 99699/ 0 97419 00225 / 080-32552008 Email : [email protected]
Site: www.onlineIES.com Google+: www.gplus.to/onlineies FB: www.facebook.com/onlineies







Auto transformer starting :-
Per phase starting current from the supply mains is

Star delta method of starting :

star delta starter also reduces the starting torque to one third of that produced by direct switching
in delta.
With star delta starter, a motor behaves as if it were started by an auto transformer starter with x =

= 0.58 i.e with 58% tapping.