Chapter 3
Chapter 3
Chapter 3
dt
Then,
(3.64)
(3.65)
(3.66a)
(3.66b)
dM _ 8M
rot
- M (3.67)
dt - at + W X rot
Clearly, based on the definitions in Eq. (3.66), df! is the rate of change of M
as observed in the laboratory frame, while is the rate of change of Mas
observed in the rotating frame. Therefore,
(3.68)
Section 3.2 RF Excitations 75
76 Chapter 3 Signal Generation and Detection
'ii' Example3;5
Given that
. BI(t) .. '
we '.
Since ..": ' [ '. ..... .
. the Bi frame, -accordingtOEq; (3:63), is:
.given by : -.',.,. . ,.,. '.
.
In vector notation,
, . . ": .,;;'
,:.' BI,rot(t) =:= Bli _
. Therefore, the given a -pointing aiongthe' <
x' -axis in the wrf-rotating frame. . ., . ;''
.- - ';-
3.2.4 TheBlochEquation
The time-dependent behavior of if in the presence of an applied magnetic field
B
I
(t) is described quantitatively by the Bloch equation. In the context of MRI,
the Bloch equation takes the following general form:"
(3.69)
where M2 is the thermal equilibrium value for if in the presence of Bo only,
which can be calculated from Eq. (3.39) or (3.40); T
I
and T
2
are time constants
characterizing the relaxation process of a spin system after it has been disturbed
from its thermal equilibrium state, a topic to be further discussed in Section 3.3
and in Chapter 7. For the present discussion, we drop the last two terms in
Eq. (3.69) because we are interested only in the behavior of if during the RF
excitation period. This treatment is acceptable if the duration of an RF pulse is
short compared to T
I
and T
2
, as is often the case in practice.
6A moregeneral formof the Blochequationwas givenby Torrey [256).
Section 3.2 RF Excitations
Under this assumption, the Bloch equation takes a simpler form:
dM ......
-='Y
M x B
dt
77
(3.70)
One may recognize that this Bloch equation is identical to the equation of motion
for a free spin in Eq. (3.15) if Mis replaced by ji. We next express the equation
in the rotating frame. Substituting Eq. (3.67) into Eq. (3.70), we get
We may rewrite Eq. (3.71) as
(
... )
... ... w
="YMrot x s.; + :;
(3.71)
where
(3.72)
...
... ... w
Beff = B
rot
+ - (3.73)
'Y
is the effective magnetic field that the bulk magnetization vector "experiences"
in the rotating frame. The second term in Eq. (3.73) represents a fictitious field
component for Simplified behavior of M
rot
. To see this more clearly, let jj = Bok
and W=-'-yBok. Then,
... ... '-yBok ... ...
Beff =B
rot
- -- = Bok - Bok = 0
'Y
(3.74)
Therefore, the apparent longitudinal field vanishes and M
rot
appears to be sta-
tionary in the rotating frame.
Following the same analysis, the general Bloch equation in Eq. (3.69) can be
expressed in the rotating frame as
(3.75)
3.2.5 On-Resonance Excitations
We now look into the effects of an RF pulse on a spin system by examining the
time-dependent behavior of Mduring the excitation period. We first consider
the simple case in which a spin system has a single isochromat resonating at
Wo = 'YBo. For simplicity, we further assume that the initial phase angle cp is
78 Chapter 3 Signal Generationand Detection
zero for the genericRF pulse definedin Eq. (3.50). Using the transformation rule
specified by Eq. (3.63), we have
B1,rot =
The effectivefieldthat the nuclear spins see in the rotatingframe is
Beff =Bok' + BHt)f + Wrf
'Y
= (Bo - ) k' + BHt)f
Invoking the on-resonanceexcitationconditionthat
Wrf = Wo = 'YBo
(3.76)
(3.77)
(3.78)
we immediately get
Beff = (3.79)
Substitutingthe aboveresult into the Bloch equation in Eq. (3.72) yields the fol-
lowingequationof motionfor the bulk magnetization vector M:
In scalar form, we have
8M
rot
M,- B
e
(
rot
X
(3.80)
(3.81)
dMx'
dt=O
dM
y
' e( )
dt = 'YBI t u;
dMz' e( )
--;It =-'YBI t My'
A closed-form solution to Eq. (3.81) under the initial conditions Mx'(O) =
My' (0) = 0 and M
z
' (0) = is as follows:
Mx,(t) =0
My,(t) =M2sin (it /,BHi)di)
Mz,(t) =M2cos (it /,BHi)di)
(3.82)
These equations indicate that the effect of the on-resonanceexcitation B
1
field,
as observed in the RF-rotating frame, is a precessionof the bulk magnetization
Section 3.2 RF Excitations 79
about the x'-axis. This is not surprising since the effective field Beff points along
the x' -axis. As an example, consider the case where
Then, Eq. (3.82) becomes
BHt) =BIll (t -;;/2) (3.83)
(3.84)
where WI =fBI. It is now apparent that the bulk magnetization vector precesses
about the x' -axis with angular velocity
(3.85)
as shown in Fig. 3.8. The precession of Mabout the B
1
field is called forced
precession. Equation (3.85) can be derived directly from the Larmor relationship,
since the effective field that the spins see in the rotating frame is Bl i'.
x'
--------.. y'
(a)
z
(b)
Figure 3.8 Motionof thebulkmagnetization vectorin the presence of a rotatingRF field
as observed in (a) the RF-rotating frame, and(b) the laboratory frame.
3.2.5.1 Flip Angle
As a result of the forced precession, the bulk magnetization is tipped away from
the zl-axis, creating a measurable transverse component MZlyl. The flip angle
80 Chapter 3 Signal Generation and Detection
a is defined as the smaller angle between Mand the z-axis. Clearly, based on
Eq. (3.82), the value of a at the end of an RF pulse is given by
r: r:
a =1
0
WI (t)dt =1
0
"'{Bl(t)dt
In the case of a rectangular pulse,
(3.86)
(3.87)
As a numerical example, let T
p
=0.1 ms and B
I
= 0.6 G. We then have a = j
for protons.
It is obvious from Eqs. (3.86) and (3.87) that the flip angle depends on both
the magnitude of the .8
1
(t) field and the duration of exposure. Normally, the pulse
width is chosen based on the frequency selectivity desired, and we can adjust the
excitation power to vary the flip angle. For example, for a given T
p,
increasing
the pulse intensity by a factor of 2 (namely, setting B
I
to 2B
I
) , will double the
flip angle according to Eq. (3.87). Another important point to note here is that
the shape and form of the pulse envelope function are unimportant as long as
the area under Bj(t) is the same. In other words, for different Bj(t), Mtravels
in different trajectories during the excitation period but will end up in the same
spatial location if the area under Bj (t) is the same.
3.2.5.2 Calculation of Mafter an a Pulse
Before we describe how to calculate the effect of an RF pulse through the use of
a rotation operator, it is useful to make clear several notations.
(a) If an RF pulse rotates Mabout the .8
1
field in the rotating frame by an angle
a, we commonly call the pulse an a pulse. Clearly, a 90 or pulse rotates
Mby 90; likewise, a 180 or 1r pulse rotates Mby 180. Sometimes, it
is necessary to make the axis of rotation explicit. Assume that the B
I
field
in the rotating frame points in a direction specified by (C{J, 0), as shown in
Fig. 3.9; we call the corresponding .8
1
field an 0('1',6) pulse. In practice, it
is usually assumed that () = 0 and the pulse is simply written as 0'1'. Two
popular choices of C{J are 0 or 90, corresponding to a ox' pulse and. a 0y'
pulse, respectively.
(b) We use t = 0_ and t = 0+ to represent the time instants immediately before
and after a pulse, respectively.
(c) We will use --t as a general spin processing operator. For example,
(3.88)
Section 3.2 RF Excitations
z'
81
y'
(3.89)
(3.90)
Figure 3.9 A tilted RF field with an initial phase angle f{J and a tilt angle 8.
With these clarifications, let us first consider the effect of an a
z
, pulse. Based
on Eq. (3.82), we have
{
Mz'(O+) =
My'(O+) =M2sina
Mz'(O+) =M2cosa
if the spin system was at thermal equilibrium before the pulse. Under a more
general prepulse condition, the postpulse magnetization is given by
{
Mz'(O+) = Mx'(O_)
My'(O+) = My'(O_) cos a + Mz,(O_) sin a
Mz'(O+) =-My' (0_) sin a + Mz,(O_) cos a
Similarly to Eq. (3.20), we define a rotation operator about the x'-, y'-, and
z'-axis, respectively, as
Rz,(a) =
o -s sin e cos o
(3.91)
[
cos o
Ry,(a) = .0
sin a
o cos a
(3.92)
and
[
cos o
sin a
cos a
o
]
(3.93)
82 Chapter 3 Signal Generation and Detection
As illustrated in Fig. 3.10, R
x
" R
y
" and R
z
' specify a clockwise rotation as
observed against the x' -, y' -, and z' -axis, respectively.
x'
,
z
;.----.. y'
(a)
x'
z'
(b)
x'
z'
I----.. y'
(c)
Figure 3.10 Graphical representation of (a) R
x
" (b) R
y
" and (c) R,
With the matrix operators defined in Eqs. (3.91), (3.92), and (3.93), the effect
of an 0 pulse applied along the x'- or y' -axis can be calculated as follows:
Mrot(O+)
Rx,(o)Mrot(O_) (3.94a)
Mrot(O+)
Q-:l:'
R-x,(o)Mrot(O_) = R
x
' (-o)Mrot(O_) (3.94b) --t
Mrot(O+) R
y
' (0 )M
rot
(0_) (3.94c)
Mrot(O+)
R_y,(o)Mrot(O_) = R
y
' ( -o)Mrot(O_) (3.94d)
where it is understood that M
rot
= [M
x
' , My" Mz,]T.
The effect of an of() pulse can be represented by three cascaded spin rotations:
-epz,ox,epz'. Or in terms of the rotation matrices, we have"
which gives the following postpulse magnetizations:
Mx'(O+) = Mx'(O_)(cosa sin
2
cp + cos
2
cp) + My'(O_) sin
2
isin2cp
-MZI(O_) sino sin ep (3.96a)
My' (0+) = u;(0_ ) sin
2
i sin 2cp + My' (0_ )( cos a cos
2
cp + sin
2
cp)
+Mz,(O_)sinocosep (3.96b)
Mz'(O+) = MXI(O_)sinosinep - My'(O_) sino cos ip
+Mz'(O_) coso (3.96c)
7Notethat the operatorprecedence is fromright to left.
Section 3.2 RF Excitations 83
The effect of an o( ep,8) pulse can be calculated in an analogous manner.
Specifically, it can be shown that
M
rot
(0+) = RZI (ep)Ryl(O)Rxl (0)Ryl(-O)Rzl (-ep)M
rot
(0_) (3.97)
where 0= - + 9. The resulting magnetization is given by
MXI(O+) = MXI(O_)[coso(sin
2
ep + cos
2
epcos
2
9) + cos
2
epsin
2
8]
+Myl (0- )[sin
2
sin 2<p sin
2
0 + sin a cos 0]
+MZI (0- )[sin
2
sin 20 cos <p - sin a sin <p sin 0] (3.98a)
Myl(0+) = M.,,(O_ )[sin
2
sin 2<p sin
2
0 - sin a cos 0]
+Myl(0_) [coso( cos
2
ep + sin
2
ep cos
2
8) + sin
2
ep sin
2
8]
+M
z
/(0_)[sin
2
sin 20 sin <p + sin a cos <p sinO] (3.98b)
MZ/(O+) = Mo:l (O_)[sin a sin <p sin 0 + sin
2
cos<psin20]
+Myl(O_)[- sin a cos <psinO + sin
2
sin ip sin 20]
+MZI (0_) [cos0 sin
2
8 + cos
2
9] (3.98c)
The postpulse magnetization can also be expressed in the laboratory frame.
According to Eq. (3.60), we have
by noting that
sinWOTp
COSWQT
p
(3.99)
-sinWQT
p
COSWQT
p
[
- slnwQT
p
0,
COSWQT
p
]
(3.100)
where T
p
is the pulse duration and it is assumed that the rotating reference frame
was set in motion immediately before the pulse is applied.
3.2.5.3
Through the next three examples, we show how to use the formulas in the preced-
ing section for calculating the excitation effects.
84 Chapter 3 Signal Generation and Detection
Section 3.2 RF Excitations 85
86 Chapter 3 Signal Generation and Detection
Section 3.2 RF Excitations
3.2.6 Ott-Resonance Excitations
87
Most excitations are assumed to be on-resonance. However, in practice, if mag-
netic field inhomogeneities and chemical-shift effects are not negligible, excita-
tions rarely are exactly on-resonance for all the isochromats. When the excitation
field is off-resonance for a certain isochromat, the effective magnetic field that the
isochromat sees in the rotating frame is
B
eff
= (B
o
- W;f) k' + BHt)i'
= k' + BHt)i'
,
(3.105)
where = Wo - Wrf measures the degree of off-resonance.
Equation (3.105) suggests that the effective field has two components: the
usual B
1
component pointing along the x'-axis and a residual component
pointing along the z' -axis, as shown in Fig. 3.lla. Intuitively, based on the above
discussion one can predict a precession of M
rot
about Beff. A more rigorous
analysis can be obtained by directly solving the following Bloch equation:
(3.106)
which governs the motion of Mduring the RF pulse. Unfortunately, a closed-
form solution to the above equations is not available for an arbitrary envelope
function Bj (t). To illustrate the difference between on-resonance and off-resonance
excitations, we consider a simple case with a rectangular pulse for which Bi (t) =
B1II( t-T
p
/ 2). For this pulse, a closed-form solution to the Bloch equation indeed
T
p
exists, which is given by
where
and
{
Mx,(t) = sin9cos9[1 - COS(Wefft)]
My,(t) = sin 9 sin(wefft)
Mz,(t) = 9 + sin
2
ocos (Wefft)]
Wef = J +
o=arctan
(3.107)
(3.108)
(3.109)
88 Chapter 3 Signal Generation and Detection
The magnetization components along each axis immediately after the pulse
are given by
{
Mx'(O+) =Mx'(T
p
) = M2sin9cos9(1- cos a)
My'(O+) = My' (T
p
) =M2sin9sina
Mz'(O+) = Mz'(T
p
) =M2(cos
2
9 + sin
2
9cosa)
(3.110)
where a = WeffTp is now the flip angle about the axis of the effective magnetic
field.
Note that the transverse magnetization immediately after the pulse is no
longer along the y' -axis as in the case of on-resonance excitation but has a phase
shift CPo from the y' -axis toward the x' -axis, which is given by
Mx(O+) sinOcos9(1 - cos a)
tan 'Po = = --------
My(O+) sin osin a
(1 - cos a) a
= =tan---
sin a Weff 2 Weft'
(3.111)
It is evident from Eq. (3.111) that the phase shift 'Po increases almost linearly
with the frequency shift This phase shift can be problematic for some MRI
applications. In addition, the magnitude of the transverse magnetization given by
Mx'y'(O+) = VM;,(O+) + M;,(O+)
= sin Ovsin
2
a + (1 - cos a)2 cos
2
0
decreases as the frequency offset increases.
3.2.7 Frequency Selectivityof an RF Pulse
(3.112)
From the discussion in Section 3.2.6, we know that for a spin system with more
than one resonance frequency, an RF pulse of the form B}e-iwrft for 0 t "
will excite not only !VI(Wrf) but other isochromats as well. An important question
that one often encounters is: How will a pulse of the general form Bi(t)e-iwrrt
affect the various isochromats of a spin system? To give an exact answer to this
question, we need to resort to the Bloch equation. However, a closed-form so-
lution to the Bloch equation is not available under this general situation. In this
section, we describe an approximate approach based on Fourier analysis.
It is well known that Fourier analysis of a time function reveals its spectral
content. Specifically, let
(3.113)
Section 3.2 RF Excitations
z'
..'
H
e ff
J---- y'
(a)
(b)
z'
y'
89
Figure 3.11 Off-resonance excitation: (a) effective field in the rotating frame.
and (b) precession of M
rot
about the effective field.
We have
(3.114)
(3.115)
and
Bt(t) = -.!... /00 {FBn(w)e-i(W+Wrf)tdw
211" -00
In signal processing, {F (w) is interpreted as the frequency spectrum
of the pulse envelope function. It is more insightful here to view it as the am-
plitude of a clockwise rotating vector specified by e-i(W+Wrf)t. In other words,
Eq. (3.115) decomposes B
t
(t) into a continuum of clockwise-rotating microvec-
tors with amplitudes in the complex plane. Similarly. we can de-
compose the bulk magnetization vectors in terms of its isochromats as
M= [: M(w)dw
(3.116)
To establish a link between the isochromats and the micro-Bj vectors, we
further assume that the spin system behaves like a linear system;8 namely, the
excitation effect of B
1
(t) is equal to the sum of the excitation effects of indi-
vidual component Since is
a fictitious pulse of infinite length but of infinitesimal strength. it will, in steady
8Thelinearsystem assumption is not validfor a nuclearspinsystemduring excitation. Therefore.
the excitation property of an RFpulsederived fromFourieranalysis is not accurate.
90 Chapter 3 Signal Generation and Detection
state, excite only the on-resonance isochromat M(w + Wrf) if the relaxation ef-
fects can be ignored." Therefore, the frequency excitation property of an RF pulse
of the form Bi(t)e-
i wrf t
is fully characterized by {FBi}(w) under conditions of
Fourier analysis. To be more specific, {:FBi} (w)dwis the excitation field that
acts on M(w + Wrf). Since {FBi}(w) is a complex-valued function, we can
rewrite it as {FBi}(w) = /{:FBi}(w)/eicp(w). Therefore, the on-resonance mag-
netic field that each isochromat sees has a phase shift cp(w) from the x'-axis. 10 As
a result, there is a phase dispersal among the isochromats when they flip down to
the transverse plane, as expected from the discussion in Section 3.2.6. In addition,
the flip angle is different for different isochromats. According to Eq. (3.86), the
flip angle for the M(Wrf) isochromat is given by
r
0:(0) = "I1
0
BHr)dr
(3.117)
Based on the linearity assumption, the flip angle for other isochromats is given by
I{:FBi}(w) I
o:(w) = I{FBf}(O) IO:(Wrf)
(3.118)
Knowing a:(w) and cp(w), we can calculate the resulting postpulse magnetization
for each isochromat according to Eq. (3.96).
As an example, let us examine the excitation property of a rectangular pulse
whose envelope function is Bi(t) = B
1
II(t- T
p
/ 2). From the results in Exam-
T
p
ple 2.3, we have
(3.119)
Therefore, the frequency excitation property is characterized by the following
equations:
a:(w) =
0(0)
cp(w) =
sine
(3. 120a)
(3. 120b)
Note that we allow flip angle a to take negative values instead of advancing ip by
180
0
Clearly, the two ways are equivalent for describing the spin motion.
Before concluding this section, an observation from Eq. (3.120a) is in or-
der. If we treat the sine function to be zero beyond the first zero crossing on both
9This is a validassumption if the durationof Br(t) is short relativeto the spin relaxation times.
For those pulses, the Fourierprediction is rather accurate. For longerpulses, the Fourierprediction is
less accuratebecause the relaxationeffects cannot be ignored; consequently, the spin systemcannot
be treatedas a linear systemdue to spin interactions.
lOSince <p(0) =0, M(Wrf) will alwaysfliparoundthe x' -axis.
Section 3.3 Free Precession and Relaxation 91
sides, a rectangular pulse of the above form will excite nuclear spins resonating
over a frequency range Iw - wrfl < 21r/T
p
. Therefore, a short rectangular pulse
of T = 1 us will excite nuclei resonating over a frequency bandwidth of 10
3
kHz
centered around the excitation frequency Wrf' These short rectangular pulses (ap-
proximating a 8-function) are called hard or nonselective pulses, since they are
designed to excite "everything" in the spin system. On the other hand, a rectan-
gular RF pulse of T
p
= 10 ms will produce excitation over a narrow frequency
bandwidth of 100 Hz. Such long pulses are called selective pulses because they
selectively excite nuclei resonating in the selected frequency range. In practice,
based on the asymptotic property of the Fourier transform, better frequency selec-
tivity can be achieved by utilizing smoother pulses, such as the Gaussian or sine
pulses, rather than the rectangular pulse. For this reason, long selective pulses are
often called soft pulses. The design of an RF pulse with good frequency selectiv-
ity is an important subject of MRI and is still an active area of research. We will
return to this topic when we discuss the signal localization in Chapter 5.
3.3 Free Precessionand Relaxation
After a magnetized spin system has been perturbed from its thermal equilibrium
state by an RF pulse, it will, according to the laws of thermodynamics, return
to this state, provided the external force is removed and sufficient time is given.
This process is characterized by a precession of 1\1 about the B
o
field, calledfree
precession; a recovery of the longitudinal magnetization M
z
, called longitudinal
relaxation; and the destruction of the transverse magnetization M
x y
, called trans-
verse relaxation. Both relaxation processes are often ascribed to the existence of
time-dependent microscopic magnetic fields that surround a nucleus as a result
of the random thermal motions present in an object. But the exact mechanisms
by which these relaxation events occur for an arbitrary spin system are far too di-
verse and complex to be properly covered here. The interested reader is referred
to the text by Abragam [1]. In this section, we give only a phenomenological'
description of the relaxation process using the Bloch equation. The effect of spin
relaxations on image appearance (contrast) is dependent on the excitation scheme
used for data acquisition, an important topic to be discussed in Chapter 7.
Phenomenologically, the transverse and longitudinal relaxations are described
by a first-order process. Specifically, in the Larmor-rotating frame, we have
(3.121)
These equations are directly derived from the rotating frame Bloch equation in
Eq. (3.75) in which the first term drops out because Beff = (B
o
- wo/,)k' =o.
92 Chapter 3 Signal Generation and Detection
Solving Eq. (3.121), we obtain the following time evolution for the transverse and
longitudinal magnetization components:
{
MX'y,(t) = M
X
' y,(0+)e-
t
/
T2
Mz,(t) = (1 - e-
t
/
T1
) + Mz,(O+)e-
t
/
Tl
(3.122)
(3.123)
where Mx'y'(O+) and Mz'(O+) are the magnetizations on the transverse plane
and along the z-axis immediately after an RF pulse, and is, as before, the
longitudinal magnetization at thermal equilibrium.
An important point about this phenomenological description is that both the
decay of the transverse magnetization and the recovery of the longitudinal mag-
netization after an RF perturbation follow an exponential function. This expo-
nential description, especially for the transverse relaxation, applies only to spin
systems with weak spin-spin interactions, as is 'the case with spins residing in
liquid state molecules. For solids and macromolecules, the mechanisms for trans-
verse relaxation are more complicated. For many biological applications of MRI,
however, we deal almost exclusively with "slowly" relaxing spins for which the
phenomenological description is often appropriate.
Another point worth noting is that T
I
and T
2
are not defined as the times
at which longitudinal and transverse relaxations are completed. To see this point
more clearly, consider the T
I
and T
2
relaxations after a 90 pulse, which produces
Mx'y'(O+) = M2 and Mz'(O+) =0. By some simple arithmetic, we can easily
verify, based on Eq. (3.122), that '
{
Mz,(TI) 63%M2
M
X
' y,(T2) 37%M
x
' y' (O+)
Therefore, M
z
' will regain 63% of its thermal equilibrium value after a time in-
terval T
I
, but Mx'y' will lose 63% of its initial value after a time interval T
2
, as
illustrated in Fig. 3.12. The values of T
I
and T
2
depend on the tissue composi-
tion, structure, and surroundings. For a given spin system, T
1
is always longer
than T
2
As an example, T
1
is about 300 to 2000 ms, and T
2
is about 30 to 150 ms
in biological tissues.
The combined effect of free precession and relaxation can be seen by putting
the magnetization vector back to the laboratory frame. Specifically, applying the
transformation rule in Eq. (3.64) to Eq. (3.122), we obtain
where
Mxy(t) = MXy(0+)e-t/T2e-iwot
Mz(t) = M2 (1 - e-
t
/
T1
) + Mz(O+)e-
t
/
Tl
(3. 124a)
(3. 124b)
(3.125)
Section 3.3 Free Precession and Relaxation
M (t)=M (O)e -tIT2
xy xy
93
37J'oM (0) - - - - - - - -
xy
(a)
--------------------------------
(b)
Figure 3.12 Relaxation curves.
is the "initial" transverse magnetization observed in the laboratory frame by the
signal detection system. The time delay term is included because we reset the
time to zero at the end of the pulse (t = T
p
) to describe the relaxation effects.
Equation (3.124) gives an "exact" phenomenological description of how
transverse and longitudinal magnetization evolves after an RF pulse as time pro-
gresses. Specifically, it is clear from Eq. (3.124a) that in the laboratory frame
the evolution of the transverse magnetization is characterized by an exponential
decay e-
t
/
T2
and a precession about the B
o
field e-
iwot
. The length of the free
precession period is dependent on the T
2
value. For biological tissues, T2 is on
the order of tens of milliseconds, which enables detection of MR signals during
this period. It is also worth noting that while 1\1 spirals back to the z-axis, its
magnitude is not preserved because of the relaxation processes, as illustrated in
Fig. 3.13. This behavior is different from that of 1\1 during the excitation period,
when 1\1 spirals down from the z-axis with a fixed magnitude. II
11 Relaxation is normally ignoredduringthe excitation periodfor most RFpulses.
94 Chapter 3 Signal Generation and Detection
z
x y
Figure 3.13 The trajectory of the tip of Mduring the relax-
ation period as observed in the laboratory frame.
3.4 Signal Detection
We know from the foregoing discussion that by placing an object in an exter-
nal magnetic field Eo and stimulating it with another alternating or oscillating
magnetic field E
I
(t). we can induce a macroscopic magnetism in the form of a
rotating magnetization in the object . This is the so-called NMR phenomenon.
The next question is how to detect this magnetism. or more specifically. how to
convert this rotating magnetization to electrical signals. We address this question
in this section. We begin with a brief review of the basic physical principles of
signal detection and then describe the concept of signal demodulation and quadra-
ture detection. Emphasis is placed on deriving mathematical expressions of the
activated signal in terms of various variables characterizing the spin system and
the excitation conditions.
3.4.1 Basic DetectionPrinciples
MR signal detection is based on the well-known Faraday law of electromagnetic
induction and the principle of reciprocity. The Faraday law of induction states
that time-varying magnetic flux through a conducting loop (a receiver coil) will
induce in the coil an electromagnetic force (or voltage) that is equal to the rate at
which the magnetic flux through the coil is changing. There are many daily-life
examples of this law in action. That the power generators convert mechanical
rotation of a permanent magnet into household electricity is one such example.
Section 3.4 Signal Detection 9S
In MRI, the bulk magnetization is precessing at a radio frequency and any
conducting loop resonating at the frequency can be used as a receiver coil. In
fact, in many circumstances, the same RF coil used for excitation is also used for
detection. The detection sensitivity of a receiver coil is determined through the
principle of reciprocity [13]. Specifically, assume that B
r
(r) is the laboratory
frame magnetic field at location r produced by a hypothetical unit direct current
flowing in the coil. Then, the magnetic flux through the coil by M(r, t) is given
by
4l(t) = r Br(r) M(r, t)dr (3.126)
}object
Then, according to the Faraday law of induction, the voltage V(t) induced in the
coil is
8t1l(t) 81
V(t) =--8- =--8 Br(r). M(r,t)dr
t t object
(3.127)
The voltage V(t) induced in the receiver coil is often regarded as the raw NMR
signal. Therefore, Eq. (3.127) is the most basic formula of MR signal detection,
which embodies the Faraday law of induction and the principle of reciprocity.
From this formula we can quantitatively determine how various factors in an NMR
experiment affect the received MR signal. In the ensuing section, we use this
formula to derive some commonly used signal expressions.
3.4.2 Signal Expressions
The term signal can mean various things in MRI. It refers sometimes to the trans-
verse magnetization, sometimes to the induced voltage signal, and sometimes to
the induced voltage after some processing. This section shows what form the
signal takes at different stages of the signal detection module.
Let us begin by rewriting Eq. (3.127) in scalar form as
V(t) =- r. [Br,:t (r)M:t (r, t) + Br,y(r)My(r, t)
JobJect
+ Br,z(r)Mz(r, t)]dr
where the following vector decomposition is assumed:
B
r
=e. xi + s, yJ"-t + B
r
zk
, , ,
(3.128)
(3.129)
Since Mz(r, t) is a slowly varying function compared to the free precession of
the M
x
and My components, the last term in Eq. (3.128) can be ignored, yielding
V(t) = -1 [B (r) 8M
x(r,
t) B (r)8M
y(r,t)]
dr
. r,x 8t + r,y 8t
object
(3.130)
96 Chapter 3 Signal Generation and Detection
Equation (3.130) indicates that the induced voltage is a function of only M
x
and
My. This is why it is normally known that MR signals are dependent on the
transverse magnetization.
To develop this expression further, we rewrite Br,x and Br,y as
{
Br,x. = IBr,xy(r)1 C.OS<Pr(r)
(3.131)
Br,y,,= IBr,xy(r)1 SIn <Pr(r)
where <Pr (r) is the reception phase angle. If the reception field at location r points
along the z-axis, then <Pr (r) =o. On the other hand, if the field points along the
y-axis, <Pr (r) = 1r /2. For other cases, rPr (r) takes a value between 0 and 21r.
To evaluate the time derivative of M
x
and My as required by Eq. (3.130), we
invoke the free precession equation, Eq. (3.124), from which we can obtain
Mx{r, t) = IMxy{r, O)le-
t
/
T2
(r ) cos[-w{r)t + <Pe{r)] (3.132a)
= w{r)/Mxy{r, 0)/e-
t
/
T2
(r ) sin[-w(r)t + rPe(r)]
1
- T
2(
r) IM",y(r, O)le-
t
/
T2
(r ) cos[-w(r)t + e(r)]
(3.133a)
= -w(r)/Mxy(r, 0)le-
t
/
T2
(r ) cos[-w{r)t + <Pe{r)]
- IM",y(r, O)le-
t
/
T2
(r ) sin[-w(r)t + e(r)]
(3.133b)
oMy(r,t)
at
My{r, t) = /Mxy(r, O)le-
t
/
T2
(r ) sin[-w(r)t + rPe(r)] (3. 132b)
where rPe (r) is the initial phase shift introduced by RF excitation. Similarly
to rPr (r ), rPe (r) takes a value between and 21r depending on the direction
of Mxy{r, 0). Specifically, <Pe(r) = if Mxy{r, O) lies along the z-axis, or
rPe(r) = 1r /2 if Mxy(r, 0) lies along the y-axis.
From Eq. (3.132), one immediately obtains
8M
x
(r ,t )
at
For most applications, free precession is at a much faster rate than relaxation,
namely,
w{r) 1/T
2
{r ) (3.134)
Hence, the second terms in the equations above can be ignored, yielding
t) = w(r)IM",y(r, O)le-
t
/
T2
(r ) sin(-w(r)t + e(r)]
(3.135a)
t) = -w(r)IM",y(r, O)le-
t
/
T2
(r ) cos(-w(r)t + e(r)]
(3.135b)
Section 3.4 Signal Detection 97
Substituting Eqs. (3.131) and (3.135) into Eq. (3.130) with some simplifica-
tions, we obtain
or
V(t) = - ( w(r)\Br,xy(r)IIMxy(r,O)le-t/T2(r)
Jobject
sin[-w(r)t + cPe(r) - cPr(r)]dr
V(t) = ( w(r)IBr,xy(r)IIMxy(r,O)le-t/T2(r)
Jobject
cos [-w(r)t + <Pe(r) - <Pr(r) + iJ dr
(3.136)
(3.137)
Equation (3.136) or (3.137) is a basic signal expression that explicitly shows the
dependence of a detected voltage signal on the laboratory frame transverse mag-
netization Mxy(r, 0), the free precession frequency w(r), and the detection sen-
sitivity of the receiver coil Br,xy(r ).
The voltage signal V(t) is a high-frequency signal because the transverse
magnetization vector precesses at the Larmor frequency, as observed at the lab-
oratory frame. This can pose unnecessary problems for electronic circuitries in
later processing stages. In practice, V(t) is moved to a low-frequency band using
what is known as the phase-sensitive detection (PSD) method, or signal demodu-
lation method. Signal demodulation consists of multiplying V(t) by a reference
sinusoidal signal and then low-pass-filtering it to remove the high-frequency com-
ponent. Referring to Fig. 3.14a and assuming that the reference signal is 2 cos wot,
we have
2V(t) coswot =2 ( w(r)IBr,xy(r)IIMxy(r,O)le-t/T2(r)
i-:
cos [-w(r)t + <Pe(r) - <Pr(r) + iJ cos
wotdr
= ( w(r)IBr,xy(r)IIMxy(r,O)le-t/T2(r)
}object
cos [-w(r)t - wot + <Pe(r) - <Pr(r) + iJ dr
+ ( w(r)IBr,xy(r)IIMxy(r,O)le-t/T2(r)
}object
cos [-w(r)t + wot + <Pe(r) - <Pr(r) + iJ dr
(3.138)
Removing the first component by low-pass filtering will result in a low-
frequency signal, which is the output of the PSD system. Denoting this signal
98 Chapter 3 Signal Generation and Detection
(a)
Input
Low-Pass Filter
Output
PSD
Referencesignal
2coscoot
V(t)
(b)
2sincoot
Figure 3.14 Phase-sensitive detection.
as Vpsd (t), we have
Vpsd(t) =1 w(r)JBr,xy(r)IIMxy(r,O)/e-t/T2(r)
object
COS [-w(r)t + wot + tPe(r) - tPr(r) + iJ dr
(3.139)
It is often convenient to express w(r) as
w(r) =Wo +
(3.140)
where r) is the spatially dependent resonance frequency in the rotating frame.
Then, we have
(3.142)
Vpsd(t) = r [wo +
}object
cos + tPe(r) - tPr(r) + iJ dr (3.141)
In practice, wo, and Eq. (3.141) can be further simplified to
Vpsd(t) = Wo 1 /Br,xy(r)IIMxy(r,O)le-t/T2(r)
object
cos + tPe(r) - tPr(r) + i"J dr
Section 3.4 Signal Detection 99
which is a general expressionfor signals from a single PSD. Since t1w( r) is the
precessionfrequencyin the rotatingframe, Vpsd(t) is often regarded as the signal
detected in the rotating frame. A notable drawback of this detection scheme is
that we cannot determine from the signal whether the isochromat is precessing
clockwise(t1w > 0) or counterclockwise(t1w < 0). Toovercomethis problem, a
secondPSDsystemis used withreferencesignal 2sin wot, whichhas a 90 phase
shift relative to the first. It is easy to show that the output from this detection
systemis
Vpsd(t) = Wo 1 IBr,xy(r)IIMxy(r,0)le-t/T2(")
object
sin + 4>e(r) - 4>r(r) + dr
(3.143)
In this way, we are detectingthe rotatingmagnetizationwithtwo"detectors,"
whichare orthogonal to each other. This detection scheme, known as quadrature
detection, is commonlyused in modernMRIsystems. The two outputs fromsuch
a systemare often put in a complexform, as shownin Fig. 3.14b, withone output
being treated as the real part and the other as the imaginarypart.
Specifically, let
S(t) =SR(t) + iSI(t) (3.144)
with SR(t) being the output from the first PSD given in Eq. (3.142) and SI(t)
being the output fromthe secondPSD givenin Eq. (3.143). Then,
S(t) =Wo { IB
r
,xy(r )IIM
xy
(r , O)!e-
i
[a w(r )t - 4> e(r )+t/>..(r)-1I'/2)dr
}object
(3.145)
Invokingthe earlier-establishedcomplex notationthat
{
Br,xy =s.; iBr,y
Mxy = Mx+'tMy
we have
I
B (r)le-i4>r(") =B* (r)
r,xy r,xy
IM
xy
(r , O)le
i
4>e(" } =Mxy(r,O)
(3.146)
(3.147a)
(3.147b)
where B;,xy is the complexconjugateof Br,xy. WithEq. (3.147), Eq. (3.145) can
be writtenas
S(t) = <"! B;,xy(r)Mxy(r,O)e-idW(,.}tdr (3.148)
object
The scalingconstant woe
i
1l'/ 2 in Eq. (3.148) is often omitted, resulting in the fol-
lowingpopular signal expression:
S(t) = 1 B;,xy(r)Mxy(r,O)e-iAW(,.)tdr (3.149)
object
100 Chapter 3 Signal Generation and Detection
Furthermore, if the receiver coil has a homogeneous reception field over the
region of interest, as is often assumed, the signal expression in Eq. (3.149) can be
further simplified to
S(t) =1 MXy(r,O)e-idw(r)tdr (3.150)
object
Note that in the preceding derivation, it is implicitly assumed that the object
sees a static inhomogeneous magnetic field during the free precession period..
Expressing the field distribution as
we have
B(r) = B
o
+
=,LlB(r)
(3.151)
(3.152)
(3.154)
(3.153)
and Eq. (3.150) becomes
S(t) =1 Mxy(r,O)e-i'"YdB(r)tdr
object
If the inhomogeneous field is time-varying, that is, is a function of
both space and time, then all the foregoing signal expressions need to be mod-
ified accordingly. Specifically, denoting the inhomogeneous field component
as t), should be replaced by , r)dr. For example,
Eq. (3.148) should be rewritten as
S(t) = w e
i 1r
/
2
1 B* (r)M (r O)e-i'"Y udB(r,r)dTdr
o r,xy xy,
object
Example 3.9
We calculate the signal generated by an a pulse in this example.
Assume thatthe.objecthas. athermal. equilibriummagnetization (r)..
The.transverse magnetization generated. by.thepulse is
Mzy{r,t =0+) =M2(r)sinae
i cPe
(r )
Substituting the-result .intoEq. .yields
S(t) =sina 1...
object
whichisthe.desiredexpression for the signal generated. by an arbitrary a
pulse in thepresenceof an inhomogeneous static field.
Exercises
Exercises
101
3.1 For the following nuclei, does their spin quantum number take an integral,
half-integral, or zero value? For each case, discuss whether the nucleus is
NMR-active.
(a) IH,2H
(b)
16
0 ,
17
0
(c) 12C,13C
(d) 31P,23Na
3.2 In the absence of an external magnetic field, a bulk object exhibits no net
nuclear magnetism because:
(a) Nuclear magnetic moments for all nuclei are zero.
(b) Nuclear magnetic moments cancel out each other.
(c) The bulk magnetization vector is too small to be detected.
(d) All of the above.
3.3 What are the primary functions of the static magnetic field Eo in MR imag-
ing?
3.4 What is the Zeeman splitting phenomenon?
3.5 Why is MRI known as a low-sensitivity imaging technique?
3.6 What is the primary function of the oscillating B1( t) field?
3.7 What is the resonance condition?
3.8 Why does a spin system often have more than one resonance frequency?
If you place a cup of water in a perfectly homogeneous magnetic field, do
you expect to detect more than one resonance frequency from the protons?
Why?
3.9 What is an isochromat?
3.10 Justify the last two equations in Eq. (3.57).
3.11 Given a fixed flip angle, the larger the Mthe stronger the E
l
needed be-
cause a stronger force is required to flip a larger M. True or false?
102 Chapter 3 Signal Generation and Detection
3.12 Briefly discuss how one can selectively elicit the NMR phenomenon from
one spin system of a biological sample (such as protons) without affecting
the others (such as 31P)?
3.13 Justify that the two representations of nuclear precession in Eq. (3.25) and
Eq. (3.16) are equivalent.
3.14 Prove the following relationships for the rotation matrices RXI (a), Ryl (a),
and RZI (a):
(a) R;,1(a) = Rx,(-a) =R_xl(a)
(b) R;/
1
( a) = Ryl (- a) = R_v' (a )
(c) =Rzl(-a) =R_z,(a)
3.15 In which plane does the receiver coil pick up the activated MR signal?
Is the received signal dependent on the time evolution of the longitudinal
component after an RF pulse? Why?
3.16 Calculate and sketch B1,rot(t) assuming that
3.17 The bulk magnetization of a proton spin system is flipped 90 by a rectan-
gular RF pulse of width 1.0 ms.
(a) What is the magnitude of the B, field required?
(b) How many precession cycles take place in the laboratory frame dur-
ing the pulse, assuming B
o
= 0.5, 1.0, and 1.5 T, respectively.
3.18 Assume that Bl(t) =B
l
coswrfti - B
l
sinwrftJ is a stationary vector in
the wrf-rotating frame, namely, Bl,rot(t) = Blf. Derive an expression
for .8
1
(t) such that
(a) Bl,rot (t) = BlJ'
(b) Bl,rot(t) =Bli' + BlI'
3.19 Derive the closed-form solution given in Eq. (3.82) for the Bloch equation
for on-resonance excitation with an arbitrary pulse.
3.20 Calculate and depict the bulk magnetization vector of a spin system rel-
ative to the prepulse reference frame after a pulse. Assume that the
Exercises 103
Larmor frequency of the spin system is 10 MHz, the pulse lasts 1.0 ms, and
the prepulse condition is M
x
' (0_) = My' (0_) =0 and M
z
' (0_) =
3.21 Calculate the resulting magnetization in the laboratory frame immediately
after a pulse with duration of T and 2r, respectively.
3.22 Assume that a spin system with a single resonance component was at ther-
mal equilibrium. Calculate the transverse magnetization resulting from the
following excitation sequences:
(a)
(b) - r - 90;,
(c)
(d) (
3.23 Calculate the effects of the following excitation sequences on a spin sys-
tem with two isochromats at resonance frequencies Wo and Wo - c5wo. It is
assumed that the spin system is at thermal equilibrium and T = j.
(a) - r - 180;,
(b) - r/2 - 90;,
3.24 Derive the closed-form solution given in Eq. (3.107) for the Bloch equation
for off-resonance excitation with a rectangular pulse.
3.25 Prove the relationships given in Eq. (3.57).
3.26 Prove the result in Eq. (3.60).
3.27 Assume that a known RF pulse B1(t) = B
1
cos(wot)i - B
1
sin(wot)]
flips the bulk magnetization vector onto the y' -axis (of the rotating frame)
immediately after the pulse. Modify this :8
1
field such that the bulk mag-
netization vector ends up in the following positions immediately after the
pulse:
(a) Lying along the -y'-axis
(b) Lying along the x'-axis
(c) Lying along the - x' -axis
(d) Lying along a vector 45 away from the y'-axis toward the a' in the
transverse plane
104 Chapter 3 Signal Generation and Detection
3.28 Specify two pulses that will convert Mx'y' to M;,y' and -M;,y" respec-
tively.
3.29 Use a vector model to schematically show the effects of a
90;" 180;, pulse on the bulk magnetization vector originally
pointing along the z'-axis.
3.30 The excitation property of an RF pulse is derived from the inverse Fourier
transform of its envelope function. How is it related to the forward trans-
form?
3.31 An RF pulse applied along the x' -axis for 100 us flips an "on-resonance"
magnetization by 90 onto the y' -axis. How much magnetization is tipped
onto the (x', y')-plane if the excitation is "off-resonance" by 10kHz?
3.32 Describe what is meant by "hard" and "soft" pulses.
3.33 The frequency distribution of an RF pulse can presumably be calculated
from its Fourier transform. Compare the situation pertaining to Prob-
lem 3.31 with the result you expect from the Fourier transform.
3.34 A spin system has three isochromats with resonance frequencies at wo,
Wo + and Wo - where Wo =42 MHz and =0.25 kHz. We next as-
sume that an RF pulse defined by B
1
(t) =Bi(t)e-
iwot,
where the Fourier
transform of Bi (t) is given in the following figure, will flip the isochro-
mats by 90, 67.5, and 67.5, respectively. Calculate the flip angles of all
the isochromats for the following pulses based on the Fourier theory.
(a) Bi(2t)e-
iwot
(b)
2Bi(2t)e-iwot
(c) (t /2)e-
iwot
(d) !Bi(t/2)e-
iwot
(e)
2Bi (2t)e-
i
(W
o+A)t
(f)
(2t)e-
i
(W
o-A)t
(g)
!Bi(t/2)e-
i
(w
o+A)t
(h)
!Bi (t / 2)e- i (wo- A)t
Exercises
{FBi}(f)
1
__"-- ---L f
lOS
-1 kHz 1 kHz
3.35 Design an RF pulse that will selectively excite a 10 kHz wide frequency
band centered at 42 MHz with 45
0
flip angle for a spin system of protons.
3.36 After an RF pulse, M
x y
decays to zero and M
z
returns to M2. During this
relaxation process, the amount of M
x y
lost is equal to the amount of M
z
that is gained. True or false?
3.37 During the excitation period, the magnitude of M(t) stays constant while
M(t) spirals down. Give an example to demonstrate that this statement is
not true during the relaxation period when M(t) spirals up.
3.38 How long does it take for the longitudinal magnetization M
z
of a spin
system with longitudinal relaxation time constant T
1
to recover 63% of its
thermal equilibrium value after (a) a 90
0
pulse and (b) a 75
0
pulse?
3.39 A spin system is excited by a - r - sequence with r rv 2T
1
.
(a) Plot the time evolution of the MZIcomponent in the r time interval.
(b) Calculate the magnitude of Mx'y' immediately after the pulse
and plot its time evolution after this pulse.
3.40 An imaging sequence often involves a series of excitation pulses to gen-
erate signals to cover k-space. Since a 90
0
pulse completely rotates any
available M
z
component onto the transverse plane, magnetization along
the z-axis is always zero immediately after a 90
0
pulse in any imaging
sequence with 90
0
excitation pulses. True or false?
3.41 Why is forced precession much slower than free precession?