Numerical Modelling of Groundwater Basins

Numerical modelling of groundwater basins
Numerical modelling of groundwater basins

A user-oriented manual
J. Boonstra N. A. de Ridder
International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement/l LRI P.O. Box 45,6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands 1981.
First edition 1981 Second edition 1990 @International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement ILRI, Wageningen, The Netherlands, 1990. This book or any part thereof must not be reproduced in any form without the written permission of ILRI. ISBN 9070260697 Printed in The Netherlands.
CONTENTS
PREFACE
1 1.1
INTRODUCTION
General . The model Scope of t h e book

7 7
1.2 1.3
2 2.1 2.2 2.2.1 2.2.2
DATA REQUIRED TO DEVELOP A GROUNDWATER MODEL
Introduction P h y s i c a l framework Topography Geology
9
9
IO II
13 16 17 22 22 25 26 30 32 32 36 42 43 45
Geomorphozogy Subsurface geoZogy

2.2.3 2.2.4 2.2.5
Types o f a q u i f e r s A q u i f e r t h i c k n e s s and l a t e r a l e x t e n t Aquifer boundaries

,
Zero-fZow boundary Head-controZZed boundary FZow-controZZed boundary

2.2.6 2.2.7
Lithological variations within the aquifer Aquifer c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
Estimating KD or K from in-situ test data Estimating K from grain size. FZow net method Other methods / Hy&auZic conductivity map
V
Estimating specific yield Estimating storage coefficient

2.3 2.3.1 2.3.2 2.3.3
45 47 48 49 52
Hydrological s t r e s s Watertable elevation Type and e x t e n t of r e c h a r g e a r e a s Rate of r e c h a r g e
55
55 55 56 58 58 58 58 59 59 59 60 62 65
Groundwater flow Rainfall-watertable relation Runoff hydrograph Lysimeters Tensiometers Isotopes Strem flow
2.3.4 2.3.5
Type and e x t e n t of d i s c h a r g e a r e a s R a t e of d i s c h a r g e
Springs Stream-base-f low/watertable relation Evapotranspiration Upward seepage Horizontal flow Groundwater abstraction
2.4
66
66 67 70 71 73
Groundwater b a l a n c e
Estimating unknown components Estimating aquifer characteristics Final remarks

3 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.5.1 3.5.2 3.5.3
DESCRIPTION OF THE MODEL General P h y s i c a l background Numerical approaches Design of nodal network
75 75 76 79 84 90 90 91 91
Data r e q u i r e d f o r t h e model
Nodal c o o r d i n a t e s Hydraulic,conductivity Aquifer t h i c k n e s s
vi
S p e c i f i c y i e l d and s t o r a g e c o e f f i c i e n t Hydraulic head N e t recharge
95 96 97
4 4.1 4.2 4.2.1
PROGRAM DETAILS
99 99
102
Package d e s c r i p t i o n S t r u c t u r e of d a t a s e t s Data Set I
102 102 112

1 I3 1 I4 1 I6 1 I7 1I7
D e f i n i t i o n s of input variables Sequence of cards and data formats

4.2.2
Data S e t I1

4.2.3
Data S e t 111
Definitions of input variables Sequence of cards and data formats Definitions of output variables
4.2.4
Data S e t I V
1 I8
118
121
122 125 125 127 127 128 128 129 131

4.2.5
Data S e t V
D e f i n i t i o n s of input variables Sequence of cards and. data formats

4.3 4.3.1 4.3.2 4.4
Program a d a p t a t i o n s A d a p t a t i o n s t o n o d a l network A d a p t a t i o n s t o computer systems Some r e m a r k s f o r t h e s y s t e m manager
SAMPLE RUN Introduction D e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e area Data p r e p a r a t i o n P a r a m e t e r s f o r t h e c o n f i g u r a t i o n of t h e n e t w o r k Parameters of dimensions
135 135 135
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.3.1
5.3.2
138
138
139
140
5.3.3
Parameters o f time d i s c r e t i z a t i o n
vii
5.3.4 5.3.5 5.3.6 5.3.7 5.3.8 5.3.9 5.3.10 5.4 5.4.1 5.4.2 5.4.3 5.4.4 5.4.5 5.4.6 6 6.1
6.1.1
Geohydrological parameters Topographical parameters I n i t i a 1 cond i t i o n s Boundary c o n d i t i o n s Historical watertable elevations Groundwater b a l a n c e Other input d a t a T r a n s f e r of d a t a P r e p a r a t i o n o f Data S e t I S e q u e n c e of c a r d s and d a t a f o r m a t s i n Data S e t I P r e p a r a t i o n of Data S e t I1 S e q u e n c e of c a r d s and d a t a f o r m a t s i n Data S e t I1 P r e p a r a t i o n o f Data S e t I11 P r e p a r a t i o n of Data S e t I V
140 142 144 145 147 148 148 149 149 152 154
159
I6 I I6 1 169 169 169 171 172 172 174 175 176

181
CALIBRATION AND PRODUCTION RUNS Calibration General S o u r c e s of e r r o r
6.1.2
Transmissivity Storage coefficient (or specified yield) Watertable elevation Percolation or abstraction
6.1.3 6.2 6.2.1 6.2.2 6.2.3 6.2.4
APPENDIX. 1 C a l i b r a t i o n procedure Production runs General
181 182 185 186 187 209 213
Data r e q u i r e m e n t s
Sensitivity analysis Network m o d i f i c a t i o n
LISTING OF SOURCE PROGRAMS
APPENDIX 2
DATA FORMATS
APPENDIX 3
SEPARATION OF THE COMPONENTS OF THE NET RECHARGE
viii
REFERENCES
217
S U B J E C T INDEX
22 1
AUTHOR INDEX
225
ix
PREFACE
With t h e advance of high-speed e l e c t r o n i c c o m p u t e r s , n u m e r i c a l models a r e b e i n g e x t e n s i v e l y used i n a n a l y s i n g groundwater f l o w problems. Y e t , conf u s i o n and m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g s t i l l surround t h e i r a p p l i c a t i o n , even though such famous o l d - t i m e r s
as Laplace and Newton were l o n g ago a p p l y i n g numer-
i c a l t e c h n i q u e s t o s o l v e p h y s i c a l problems. It c a n n o t be d e n i e d t h a t t h e r e s u l t s o f some groundwater models have proved e r r o n e o u s . T h i s h a s l e d a number of h y d r o l o g i s t s t o o v e r r e a c t by c o n c l u d i n g t h a t groundwater m o d e l l i n g i s w o r t h l e s s . A t t h e o t h e r extreme we f i n d t h e a d m i r e r s of models, who u n c o n d i t i o n a l l y a c c e p t any computer r e s u l t , even i f
i t makes no h y d r o l o g i c a l s e n s e . Between t h e s e two e x t r e m e s t h e r e i s t h e

s i l e n t m a j o r i t y of h y d r o l o g i s t s , who r e g a r d computerized groundwater modell i n g as a n e s o t e r i c t e c h n i q u e p r a c t i s e d o n l y by t h e happy few of i n i t i a t e s . It i s p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r t h i s c a t e g o r y of c o l l e a g u e s , and f o r s t u d e n t s as
w e l l , t h a t w e have w r i t t e n t h i s book. For t h o s e who b e l o n g i n t h e two extreme c a t e g o r i e s , w e hope t h a t we can a l l e v i a t e a t l e a s t some of t h e i r m i s c o n c e p t i o n s about groundwater models. And y e t , one should n o t e x p e c t
miracles from models, which a r e , and cannot be a n y t h i n g more t h a n , s i m p l i f i c a t i o n s of t h e complex c o n d i t i o n s t h a t we f a c e i n n a t u r e .

A w e a l t h of p a p e r s have been w r i t t e n on n u m e r i c a l groundwater models; b u t
i f a g e o l o g i s t o r h y d r o l o g i s t wants t o a p p l y t h e t e c h n i q u e d e s c r i b e d i n them, h e s c a r c e l y knows how t o proceed. I f a manual i s a v a i l a b l e , i t w i l l
v e r y l i k e l y d e s c r i b e how t h e model w a s developed b u t n o t how i t should be used. Groundwater m o d e l l i n g i s a m u l t i d i s c i p l i n a r y s c i e n c e , i n v o l v i n g

X
geology, c l i m a t o l o g y , s u r f a c e water h y d r o l o g y , groundwater h y d r a u l i c s , and computer l a n g u a g e . A p e r s o n f a m i l i a r w i t h a l l t h e s e d i s c i p l i n e s i s a r a r e p e r s o n indeed. N e v e r t h e l e s s , w e hope t o g u i d e a p o t e n t i a l u s e r t h r o u g h t h e maze of t h e s e d i s c i p l i n e s and show him how t o d e v e l o p and c a l i b r a t e a model and p u t i t i n t o o p e r a t i o n a l u s e .
A s a s e r v i c e t o o u r r e a d e r s , we a r e o f f e r i n g a copy o f t h e computer programs
i n t h e form of a complete set of punched computer c a r d s . These c a n be o r d e r e d from I L R I ; t h e o n l y c o s t s i n v o l v e d a r e t h o s e o f copying t h e programs and of m a i l i n g t h e c a r d s . Also a v a i l a b l e i s a t e s t example, which a l l o w s t h e u s e r t o check whether h e i s h a n d l i n g t h e model c o r r e c t l y . W e a r e g r a t e f u l f o r comments and s u g g e s t i o n s r e c e i v e d from c o l l e a g u e s and s t u d e n t s who r e a d t h e m a n u s c r i p t c a r e f u l l y and drew o u r a t t e n t i o n t o shortcomings and u n c l e a r s e n t e n c e s . I n p a r t i c u l a r , w e wish t o t h a n k M r .
I.M.
Goodwill, Department of C i v i l E n g i n e e r i n g , U n i v e r s i t y of Leeds, M r . D.

D.N.
MacTavish, B i n n i e and P a r t n e r s , London, M r .
L e r n e r , London, D r . J.J. Kruseman, I n t e r n a t i o n a l
d e V r i e s , F r e e U n i v e r s i t y o f Amsterdam, D r . G.P.
A g r i c u l t u r a l C e n t r e , Wageningen, M r . W. Boehmer, E u r o c o n s u l t , Arnhem, and
M r . A. Bosscher, I n t e r n a t i o n a l I n s t i t u t e f o r E a r t h S c i e n c e s , Enschede, f o r
t h e i r most v a l u a b l e comments. Thanks a r e a l s o due t o M s . M. Wiersma-Roche f o r e d i t i n g and c o r r e c t i n g o u r E n g l i s h , M s . M. Beerens f o r t y p i n g t h e m a n u s c r i p t , and M r . J . van D i j k f o r the drafting. I n p r e s e n t i n g t h i s book, w e hope t o have made a c o n t r i b u t i o n t o a b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of what a groundwater model i s , what i t c a n d o , a n d , what i s p r o b a b l y more i m p o r t a n t , what i t c a n n o t do. I f w e have a i d e d i n e l i m i n a t i n g some of t h e c o n f u s i o n s u r r o u n d i n g groundwater m o d e l l i n g , we have a c h i e v e d our goal.
J. Boonstra N.A.
de Ridder
xi
xii
INTRODUCTION
1.1
General
The groundwater i n a b a s i n i s n o t a t r e s t b u t i s i n a s t a t e of c o n t i n u o u s movement. I t s volume i s i n c r e a s i n g by t h e downward p e r c o l a t i o n of r a i n and s u r f a c e w a t e r , c a u s i n g t h e w a t e r t a b l e t o r i s e . A t t h e same time i t s volume
i s d e c r e a s i n g by e v a p o t r a n s p i r a t i o n , by d i s c h a r g e t o s p r i n g s , and by o u t flow i n t o streams and o t h e r n a t u r a l d r a i n a g e c h a n n e l s , c a u s i n g t h e watert a b l e t o f a l l . When c o n s i d e r e d over a l o n g p e r i o d , t h e a v e r a g e r e c h a r g e e q u a l s t h e average d i s c h a r g e and a s t a t e of h y d r o l o g i c a l e q u i l i b r i u m e x i s t s The w a t e r t a b l e is v i r t u a l l y s t a t i o n a r y , w i t h mere s e a s o n a l f l u c t u a t i o n s around t h e average l e v e l . I f man i n t e r f e r e s i n t h i s h y d r o l o g i c a l e q u i l i b r i u m , he may c r e a t e u n d e s i r able side-effects. The a b s t r a c t i o n of groundwater from w e l l s , f o r example,
w i l l lower t h e w a t e r t a b l e , a l l o w t h e n a t u r a l r e c h a r g e t o i n c r e a s e , and
cause the n a t u r a l discharge t o decrease. I f t h e a b s t r a c t i o n i s kept w i t h i n c e r t a i n l i m i t s , t h e i n c r e a s e i n r e c h a r g e and t h e d e c r e a s e i n d i s c h a r g e w i l l balance t h e a b s t r a c t i o n and a new h y d r o l o g i c a l e q u i l i b r i u m w i l l be e s t a b l i s h e d . The w a t e r t a b l e w i l l a g a i n b e almost s t a t i o n a r y , a l t h o u g h a t a deeper l e v e l than b e f o r e . I f t h i s l e v e l i s t o o deep, i t may a f f e c t a g r i c u l t u r e and t h e eco-systems i n t h e a r e a . E x c e s s i v e a b s t r a c t i o n from w e l l s can cause a continuous d e c l i n e i n t h e w a t e r t a b l e , which means t h a t t h e groundwater r e s e r v e s are b e i n g d e p l e t e d .
Man's i n t e r f e r e n c e can a l s o c a u s e w a t e r t a b l e s t o r i s e . When i r r i g a t i o n i s i n t r o d u c e d i n t o a n a r e a , f o r example, m i l l i o n s o f c u b i c m e t r e s of water a r e t r a n s p o r t e d t o and d i s t r i b u t e d o v e r a r e a s which b e f o r e o n l y r e c e i v e d s c a n t y r a i n . Some of t h i s w a t e r s e e p s t o t h e underground from t h e c a n a l s and more o f i t p e r c o l a t e s downward from t h e i r r i g a t e d f i e l d s . These w a t e r l o s s e s c a u s e t h e w a t e r t a b l e t o r i s e , b e c a u s e t h e r e c h a r g e exceeds t h e n a t u r a l d i s c h a r g e . T h i s may e v e n t u a l l y l e a d t o w a t e r l o g g i n g u s u a l l y accompanied by s a l i n i z a t i o n of t h e s o i l - i n arid areas which can r e n d e r once
f e r t i l e l a n d i n t o waste l a n d , t o t h e d e t r i m e n t o f l o c a l f a r m e r s and even o f n a t i o n a l economies. Groundwater and t h e l a w s t h a t govern i t s f l o w h a v e been a s u b j e c t of i n t e r e s t t o many s c i e n t i s t s , w i t h most o f t h e i r r e s e a r c h focus'sed on f i n d i n g s o l u t i o n s t o s p e c i f i c problems o f groundwater f l o w . For i d e a l s i t u a t i o n s , s o l u t i o n s are o b t a i n e d by combining D a r c y ' s e q u a t i o n and t h e e q u a t i o n of c o n t i n u i t y . The r e s u l t i n g d i f f e r e n t i a l e q u a t i o n , o r s e t of d i f f e r e n t i a l e q u a t i o n s , d e s c r i b e s t h e h y d r a u l i c r e l a t i o n s w i t h i n an aquif e r . To s o l v e t h e e q u a t i o n ( s ) , t h e a q u i f e r ' s geometry, h y d r a u l i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , and i n i t i a l and boundary c o n d i t i o n s must b e known. Only i f t h e e q u a t i o n s , c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , and c o n d i t i o n s a r e s i m p l e c a n an e x a c t a n a l y t -
i c a l s o l u t i o n be o b t a i n e d .
U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h e r e a r e many groundwater f l o w problems f o r which a n a l y t i c a l s o l u t i o n s are d i f f i c u l t , i f n o t i m p o s s i b l e , t o o b t a i n . The reason i s t h a t t h e s e problems are complex, p o s s e s s i n g n o n - l i n e a r b e i n c l u d e d i n a n a l y t i c a l s o l u t i o n s . Such n o n - l i n e a r f e a t u r e s t h a t cannot
f e a t u r e s involve
v a r i a t i o n s i n an a q u i f e r ' s h y d r a u l i c c o n d u c t i v i t y , boundary c o n d i t i o n s t h a t change w i t h t i m e , and o t h e r long-term time-dependent e f f e c t s . Sometimes
a n a l y t i c a l s o l u t i o n s are y e t a p p l i e d t o such problems by o v e r s i m p l i f y i n g t h e complex h y d r o g e o l o g i c a l s i t u a t i o n . S i n c e t h e assumptions u n d e r l y i n g t h e s o l u t i o n a r e u n t r u e , it i s obvious t h a t t h e r e s u l t s w i l l be i n a c c u r a t e o r even t o t a l l y erroneous. Owing t o t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s 0.f o b t a i n i n g a n a l y t i c a l s o l u t i o n s t o complex groundwater f l o w problems, t h e r e h a s l o n g been a need f o r t e c h n i q u e s t h a t e n a b l e meaningful s o l u t i o n s t o be found. Such t e c h n i q u e s e x i s t nowadays i n t h e form of m a t h e m a t i c a l o r n u m e r i c a l m o d e l l i n g . Although t h e technique of
s o l v i n g g r o u n d w a t e r f l o w p r o b l e m s n u m e r i c a l l y i s n o t , new, i t i s o n l y s i n c e t h e development o f high-speed w i d e l y used. Of t h e g r e a t v a r i e t y of n u m e r i c a l t e c h n i q u e s , a l l o f them h a v e i n common t h a t a n a p p r o x i m a t e s o l u t i o n i s o b t a i n e d by r e p l a c i n g t h e b a s i c d i f f e r e n c o m p u t e r s t h a t t h e t e c h n i q u e has become
t i a l e q u a t i o n s t h a t d e s c r i b e t h e f l o w s y s t e m by a n o t h e r s e t o f e q u a t i o n s
t h a t c a n e a s i l y b e s o l v e d by a d i g i t a l c o m p u t e r . The model w e p r e s e n t i n t h i s book i s b a s e d on o n e o f t h e s e t e c h n i q u e s ; t h e f i n i t e d i f f e r e n c e method. The f i n i t e d i f f e r e n c e method o f a p p r o x i m a t i n g t h e s o l u t i o n o f d i f f e r e n t i a l e q u a t i o n s i s f a i r l y simple. It r e p l a c e s t h e p a r t i a l d i f f e r e n t i a l e q u a t i o n s f o r t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l f l o w i n a n a q u i f e r by a n e q u i v a l e n t s y s t e m o f f i n i t e d i f f e r e n c e e q u a t i o n s which are s o l v e d by t h e c o m p u t e r . U n l i k e t h e a n a l y t i c a l method, w h i c h g i v e s a s o l u t i o n t o a c o n t i n u o u s b o u n d a r y - v a l u e problem,
t h e f i n i t e d i f f e r e n c e method p r o v i d e s a s e t o f w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n s a t a f i n i t e number o f p o i n t s i n t h e a q u i f e r .
1.2
The model
The model w e p r e s e n t i n t h i s book c a n b e u s e d t o p r e d i c t t h e i m p a c t o f man's i n t e r f e r e n c e i n t h e h y d r o l o g i c a l e q u i l i b r i u m o f a groundwater b a s i n . It c a n s i m u l a t e t h e e f f e c t s o f new i r r i g a t i o n s c h e m e s , new p a t t e r n s and
r a t e s of g r o u n d w a t e r a b s t r a c t i o n , and a r t i f i c a l r e c h a r g e of t h e b a s i n , and
c a n do so f o r a n y d e s i r e d l e n g t h o f t i m e . The model c a n b e a p p l i e d t o a n u n c o n f i n e d a q u i f e r , a s e m i - c o n f i n e d a q u i f e r , o r a c o n f i n e d a q u i f e r , o r t o any c o m b i n a t i o n of t h e s e , p r o v i d e d t h a t one t y p e p a s s e s l a t e r a l l y i n t o t h e o t h e r . The model c a n n o t be u s e d f o r m u l t i a q u i f e r s y s t e m s , i . e . a q u i f e r s o v e r l y i n g o n e a n o t h e r and s e p a r a t e d by impermeable o r s l i g h t l y p e r m e a b l e l a y e r s . T h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l c a n n o t be s t u d i e d by t h e model. The model a l l o w s w i d e v a r i a t i o n s i n s u c h a q u i f e r p a r a m e t e r s as h y d r a u l i c c o n d u c t i v i t y and s t o r a g e c o e f f i c i e n t t o b e t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t and i n c l u d e d f l o w problems
i n t h e model. T r a n s i e n t ( u n s t e a d y ) f l o w p r o b l e m s can a l s o b e s t u d i e d ,
3
p r o v i d e d t h a t t h e f l o w i s laminar and D a r c y ' s l a w t h u s a p p l i e s . T u r b u l e n t f l o w , a s may o c c u r i n k a r s t i f i e d l i m e s t o n e s , cannot be s t u d i e d . The model i s d e v i s e d f o r s a t u r a t e d flow o n l y . T h i s means t h a t t h e p r o c e s s e s of i n f i l t r a t i o n , p e r c o l a t i o n , and e v a p o r a t i o n , which o c c u r i n t h e u n s a t u r a t e d zone of u n c o n f i n e d a q u i f e r s and t h e c o v e r i n g l a y e r of semi-confined a q u i f e r s , cannot be s i m u l a t e d . They must be c a l c u l a t e d by hand and t h e i r a l g e b r a i c sum p r e s c r i b e d t o t h e model. The method used by t h e model t o s o l v e t h e f i n i t e - d i f f e r e n c e e q u a t i o n s i s e s s e n t i a l l y t h a t of Gauss-Seidel, which i s u n c o n d i t i o n a l l y s t a b l e . It i s an
i t e r a t i v e c a l c u l a t i o n p r o c e s s t h a t i s c o n t i n u e d as l o n g as i s n e c e s s a r y t o o b t a i n w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n s t h a t a r e s u f f i c i e n t l y a c c u r a t e . A p a r t from t h e a d v a n t a g e of a v o i d i n g s t a b i l i t y problems, t h i s method r e q u i r e s l i t t l e computer memory.
A s a n a l t e r n a t i v e t o t h e i t e r a t i o n method, w e have i n c l u d e d i n t h e model

t h e Gauss-Jordan e l i m i n a t i o n method, which i s a m o d i f i c a t i o n of t h e Gaussian e l i m i n a t i o n method. T h i s method r e q u i r e s more computer memory t h a n t h e i t e r a t i o n method, b u t t h e s o l u t i o n i s e x a c t w i t h i n t h e accuracy of .the computer used. The model a l s o c o n t a i n s a p l o t program, by which t h e computer p l o t s o u t t h e c a l c u l a t e d w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n s a t t h e v a r i o u s p o i n t s of t h e f l o w r e g i o n a t t h e end of a p r e s c r i b e d t i m e . T h i s a l l o w s a v i s u a l e v a l u a t i o n of t h e w a t e r t a b l e b e h a v i o u r f o r any p e r i o d of t i m e . Although our model h a s g r e a t f l e x i b i l i t y , i t cannot h a n d l e a l l s p e c i f i c h y d r o g e o l o g i c a l c o n d i t i o n s t h a t may be e n c o u n t e r e d i n p r a c t i c e . E n l a r g i n g t h e a p p l i c a b i l i t y of t h e model t o cover such c o n d i t i o n s a s , f o r example, multi-aquifer systems o r d e l a y e d y i e l d a q u i f e r s would mean t h a t t h e u s e r
must make c e r t a i n a d j u s t m e n t s i n t h e computer programs. H e can o n l y do s o , however, i f h e i s e x p e r i e n c e d i n computer programming. But, a s we have
w r i t t e n t h i s book w i t h t h e b a s i c i d e a t h a t o u r r e a d e r s need have no p r e v i o u s e x p e r i e n c e w i t h computers o r computer programming, we have o m i t t e d any e admit t h a t t h i s can be a i n s t r u c t i o n s f o r adjustments of t h i s kind. W d i s a d v a n t a g e f o r a more e x p e r i e n c e d u s e r .
1.3
Scope of the 'book
The primary aim of t h i s book i s t o p r o v i d e a p r a c t i c a l g u i d e f o r t h o s e i n v o l v e d i n groundwater b a s i n m o d e l l i n g , whether t h e i r t r a i n i n g be i n geology, hydrogeology, e n g i n e e r i n g , p h y s i c s , o r mathematics. It was n o t o u r i n t e n t i o n t o reproduce text-book material from any of t h e s e s c i e n c e s b u t , where we deemed i t u s e f u l , w e have summarized c e r t a i n c o n c e p t s , c a l c u l a t i o n methods, o r even f i e l d t e c h n i q u e s , assuming t h a t t h i s would enhance t h e p r a c t i c a l v a l u e of t h e book. Before a n u m e r i c a l model of a groundwater b a s i n can be d e v e l o p e d , a conc e p t u a l model of t h e b a s i n i s r e q u i r e d . T h i s means t h a t thorough hydrog e o l o g i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s must be conducted. I f t h e c o n c e p t u a l model t h a t
emerges from t h e s e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s r e v e a l s t h e p r e s e n c e o f an unconfined a q u i f e r , a c o n f i n e d a q u i f e r , a semi-confined a q u i f e r , o r any l a t e r a l
combination of t h e s e , t h e n u m e r i c a l model can be developed. Chapter 2 d e s c r i b e s i n some d e t a i l t h e h y d r o g e o l o g i c a l s t u d i e s r e q u i r e d f o r t h e c o n c e p t u a l model, and a l s o c o n t a i n s a l l t h e items t o be s t u d i e d and q u a n t i f i e d f o r t h e n u m e r i c a l model. T h i s q u a n t i f i c a t i o n of g e o l o g i c a l and h y d r o l o g i c a l d a t a i s u s u a l l y done i n t h e form o f maps. A f t e r r e a d i n g Chapter 2 , t h e u s e r w i l l be a b l e t o answer t h e q u e s t i o n : what k i n d of maps must be p r e p a r e d ? Chapter 3 c o v e r s t h e f e a t u r e s and r e s t r i c t i o n s of t h e model, i t s p h y s i c , a l background, and t h e n u m e r i c a l methods t h a t are used t o s o l v e t h e f i n i t e -
'i
1
d i f f e r e n c e e q u a t i o n s . It a l s o e x p l a i n s how t o d i v i d e an a q u i f e r i n t o
smaller u n i t s and t h u s d e v e l o p a n a p p r o p r i a t e f i n i t e - d i f f e r e n c e network.

T h i s network w i l l depend on t h e h y d r o g e o l o g i c a l c o n d i t i o n s , t h e a c c u r a c y r e q u i r e d i n t h e p r e d i c t e d w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n s , and t h e e x p e r i e n c e of t h e u s e r i n m o d e l l i n g a q u i f e r s . The c h a p t e r c o n c l u d e s w i t h a d e s c r i p t i o n o f what d a t a must b e p r e p a r e d and how t h i s i s done. Chapter 4 e x p l a i n s t h e u s e of t h e computer program, which h a s been decomposed i n t o f o u r p a r t s so t h a t i t c a n be run even on a s m a l l computer w i t h l i m i t e d c o r e memory. The c h a p t e r a l s o c o n t a i n s t h e s t r u c t u r e of t h e v a r i o u s d a t a s e t s r e q u i r e d , d e f i n i t i o n s of t h e i n p u t v a r i a b l e s and o t h e r symbols u s e d , and t h e a d a p t a t i o n s t o be made t o run t h e model on t h e computer
system a v a i l a b l e t o t h e u s e r . A h y p o t h e t i c a l example of p a r t o f a graben v a l l e y i s used t o i l l u s t r a t e t h e process of t r a n s f e r r i n g geological and h y d r o l o g i c a l d a t a from maps t o t h e f i n i t e - d i f f e r e n c e network, from the network t o t a b l e s , and from t h e t a b l e s t o computer c a r d s . I n a step-by-step procedure, Chapter 5 d e s c r i b e s t h i s p r o c e s s . Any model must be c a l i b r a t e d t o ensure t h a t t h e p r e d i c t e d w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n s a r e s u f f i c i e n t l y a c c u r a t e . This i s done by " h i s t o r y matching", which means t h a t a set of computed w a t e r t a b l e s i s compared with a s e t of a c t u a l l y measured w a t e r t a b l e s . Chapter 6 d e s c r i b e s t h e c a l i b r a t i o n process and e x p l a i n s t h e sources of e r r o r s and how t h e y can be d e t e c t e d and corr e c t e d . It concludes with i n s t r u c t i o n s on how t o put t h e c a l i b r a t e d model i n t o o p e r a t i o n a l use.
DATA REQUIRED TO DEVELOP A GROUNDWATER MODEL
2.1
Introduction
The first phase of a groundwater model study consists of collecting all

'
existing geological and hydrological data on the groundwater basin in question. This will include information on surface and subsurface geology, watertables, precipitation, evapotranspiration, pumped abstractions, stream flows, soils, land use, vegetation, irrigation, aquifer characteristics and boundaries, and groundwater quality. If such data do not exist or are very scanty, a program of field work must first be undertaken, for no model whatsoever makes any hydrological sense if it is not based on a rational hydrogeological conception of the basin. A l l the old and newly-found information is then used to develop a conceptual model o f the basin, with its various inflow and outflow components.
A conceptual model is based on a number of assumptions that must be ver-
I1
ified in a later phase of the study. In an early phase, however, it should provide an answer to the important question: does the groundwater basin consist of one single aquifer (or any lateral combination of aquifers) bounded below by an impermeable base? I f the answer is yes, one can then proceed to the next phase: developing the numerical model. This model is first used to synthesize the various data and then to test the assumptions made in the conceptual model. Developing and testing the numerical model requires a set of quantitative hydrogeological data that fall into two categories:
7
d a t a t h a t d e f i n e t h e p h y s i c a l framework of t h e groundwater b a s i n data that describe i t s hydrological stress These two s e t s of d a t a are t h e n used t o a s s e s s a groundwater b a l a n c e of t h e b a s i n . The s e p a r a t e i t e m s o f e a c h set a r e l i s t e d i n Table 2 . 1 .
Table 2 . 1 Data r e q u i r e d t o d e v e l o p a groundwater model
P h y s i c a l framework
Hydrological stress
I . Topography
I . Watertable e l e v a t i o n
2 . Geology
2 . Type and e x t e n t o f r e c h a r g e a r e a s
3 . Types of a q u i f e r s
3. Rate o f r e c h a r g e
4 . A q u i f e r t h i c k n e s s and
lateral extent
5. A q u i f e r b o u n d a r i e s
4 . Type and e x t e n t of d i s c h a r g e a r e a s 5 . Rate o f d i s c h a r g e

,
6. L i t h o l o g i c a l v a r i a t i o n s
within the aquifer
7. Aquifer c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
, I t i s common p r a c t i c e t o p r e s e n t t h e r e s u l t s of h y d r o g e o l o g i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s i n t h e form of maps, g e o l o g i c a l s e c t i o n s , and t a b l e s - a procedure
t h a t i s a l s o f o l l o w e d when d e v e l o p i n g t h e n u m e r i c a l model. The o n l y d i f f e r ence i s t h a t f o r t h e model a s p e c i f i c s e t of maps must be p r e p a r e d . These are: c o n t o u r maps o f t h e a q u i f e r ' s upper and lower b o u n d a r i e s maps of t h e a q u i f e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
watert ab le-con t o u r maps

maps of t h e a q u i f e r ' s n e t r e c h a r g e Some o f t h e s e maps c a n n o t b e p r e p a r e d w i t h o u t f i r s t making a number of a u x i l i a r y maps. A map o f t h e n e t r e c h a r g e , f o r i n s t a n c e , can o n l y be made a f t e r t o p o g r a p h i c a l , g e o l o g i c a l , s o i l , land u s e , c r o p p i n g p a t t e r n , r a i n f a l l , and e v a p o r a t i o n maps have been made. In t h i s c h a p t e r i t w i l l be e x p l a i n e d what d a t a s h o u l d be c o l l e c t e d , what t e c h n i q u e s c a n be a p p l i e d t o c o l l e c t t h e d a t a , and how t h e s e d a t a should b e p r o c e s s e d and p r e s e n t e d i n t h e r e q u i r e d form o f maps. 8
2.2
2.2.1
Physical framework
Topography
A n a c c u r a t e t o p o g r a p h i c a l map of t h e groundwater b a s i n t o b e modelled i s a

b a s i c r e q u i r e m e n t . Tne s c a l e of t h e map depends on t h e s i z e o f t h e b a s i n and t h e aim of t h e s t u d y . I f t h e a i m i s t o make a r e c o n n a i s s a n c e s t u d y of a l a r g e b a s i n , a s c a l e of 1:500,000, 1:250,000, o r 1:100,000
w i l l suffice. I f
t h e b a s i n i s s m a l l o r i f a more d e t a i l e d s t u d y o f a l o c a l problem i s t o be made, t h e s c a l e should be 1:50,000,

1:25,000,
, o r even 1:10,000.
Whatever t h e s i z e of t h e b a s i n o r t h e purpose of t h e s t u d y , t h e topographi c a l map should show a l l s u r f a c e w a t e r b o d i e s , s t r e a m s , and o t h e r n a t u r a l o r man-made water c o u r s e s . I t s h o u l d a l s o show c o n t o u r l i n e s o f t h e l a n d surface elevation.
An i n v e n t o r y should be made o f a l l t h e w e l l s i n t h e a r e a : pumped w e l l s t h a t
withdraw s u b s t a n t i a l q u a n t i t i e s o f groundwater, o b s e r v a t i o n w e l l s t h a t a r e used f o r measuring w a t e r t a b l e s , and w e l l s o r b o r e s t h a t were made f o r e x p l o r a t i o n of t h e s u b s u r f a c e geology. The l o c a t i o n o f t h e w e l l s and b o r e s s h o u l d be i n d i c a t e d on t h e t o p o g r a p h i c a l map. To d i s t i n g u i s h t h e d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f w e l l s , t h e y s h o u l d be g i v e n d i f f e r e n t s i g n s and t h e y should be numbered. To number t h e w e l l s and b o r e h o l e s , some s o r t of s q u a r e g r i d c a n b e imposed on t h e map. The s q u a r e s t h u s formed a r e g i v e n a c o n s e c u t i v e number i n h o r i z o n t a l d i r e c t i o n and a c o n s e c u t i v e l e t t e r i n v e r t i c a l d i r e c t i o n . The w e l l s i n a p a r t i c u l a r s q u a r e a r e numbered c o n s e c u t i v e l y . Well
1-B-3,
f o r example, means Well No. 3 i n Square I-B
(Fig. 2 . 1 ) .
The w a t e r l e v e l i n o b s e r v a t i o n w e l l s i s u s u a l l y measured from a c e r t a i n r e f e r e n c e p o i n t , which c a n be t h e r i m of t h e p i p e o r , i f t h e w e l l s a r e hand-dug, any mark o r p o i n t f i x e d i n t h e w a l l o f t h e w e l l . The measured w a t e r l e v e l s must be c o n v e r t e d i n t o w a t e r l e v e l s above ( o r below) a datum p l a n e , e . g . mean s e a l e v e l . To do s o , a l e v e l l i n g s u r v e y of t h e w e l l s must be made. T h i s r e q u i r e s a p r o p e r s y s t e m of bench marks. The l e v e l l i n g s u r v e y s h o u l d b e performed i n c l o s e d c i r c u i t s t o e n s u r e t h a t t h e measured w e l l e l e v a t i o n s a r e c o r r e c t . I n l a r g e b a s i n s , one can u s e a n e r r o r t o l e r a n c e of 20
fi mm,
where D i s t h e d i s t a n c e t r a v e r s e d w h i l e l e v e l l i n g , i n k i l o m e t r e s ;
i n areas w i t h a f l a t w a t e r t a b l e , g r e a t e r p r e c i s i o n may be r e q u i r e d .
The t o p o g r a p h i c a l map should show t h e l o c a t i o n of t h e bench marks w i t h t h e i r elevations.
A'
O '
02
01
61
hond-dug well wotertable observation well 4 pumped deep well 6 a r t e s i a n well n deep exploration well A bench mark ---closed levelling circuit
O
Fig. 2.1
Example of s q u a r e g r i d f o r numbering w e l l s and bore h o l e s
2.2.2
Geology
I n t e n s i v e geomorphological and g e o l o g i c a l s t u d i e s of t h e groundwater b a s i n

w i l l be r e q u i r e d t o d e l i n e a t e i t s geomorphological f e a t u r e s o r land forms
and t o e v a l u a t e t h e manner and d e g r e e i n which t h e y c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e b a s i n ' s hydrology. Of , s p e c i a l importance are t h e areas open t o deep percol a t i o n , t h e s u b s u r f a c e a r e a s where i n f l o w o r o u t f l o w t o o r from t h e a q u i f e r o c c u r s , t h e t y p e of material forming t h e a q u i f e r system, i n c l u d i n g i t s
permeable and less permeable c o n f i n i n g f o r m a t i o n s , t h e l o c a t i o n and n a t u r e o f t h e a q u i f e r ' s impermeable b a s e , t h e h y d r a u l i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e a q u i f e r , and t h e l o c a t i o n of any s t r u c t u r e s a f f e c t i n g groundwater movement.
GeomorphoZogy
Land forms a r e t h e most common f e a t u r e s encountered' by anyone engaged i n groundwater i n v e s t i g a t i o n s . P r o p e r l y i n t e r p r e t e d , l a n d forms throw l i g h t upon a groundwater b a s i n ' s g e o l o g i c a l h i s t o r y , l i t h o l o g y , and hydrology. For a proper u n d e r s t a n d i n g of a b a s i n ' s g e o l o g i c a l h i s t o r y and l i t h o l o g i c a l v a r i a t i o n s , one must c o n s i d e r t h e f o l l o w i n g f a c t o r s : t h e n a t u r e of t h e s o u r c e rock t h e t o p o g r a p h i c a l e x p r e s s i o n and r e l i e f of t h e s o u r c e a r e a t h e t e c t o n i c e l e m e n t s i n t h e s o u r c e and d e p o s i t i o n a l areas t h e i n t e n s i t y of t e c t o n i s m i n each of t h e s e areas t h e t r a n s p o r t i n g a g e n t s t h a t c a r r y t h e d e t r i t u s t o t h e s i t e s of deposition t h e d e p o s i t i o n a l environment t h e climate I f t h e s o u r c e area i s a s t r o n g l y d i s s e c t e d mountain r a n g e c h i e f l y made of weathered g r a n i t e , t h e sediment i n t h e b a s i n w i l l b e d i f f e r e n t from t h e sediment t h a t would be found i f t h e s o u r c e a r e a i s a mountainous a r e a predominantly made of s h a l e , mudstones, and e a s i l y e r o d a b l e marl. S i m i l a r l y , i f water i s t h e t r a n s p o r t i n g a g e n t , a d i f f e r e n t k i n d o f sediment w i l l b e produced t h a n i f wind i s t h e t r a n s p o r t i n g a g e n t . Tectonism may s t r o n g l y a f f e c t t h e n a t u r e of a groundwater b a s i n . The s o u r c e
area may be u p l i f t e d w h i l e t h e d e p o s i t i o n a l a r e a i s downwarped. The t h i c k n e s s of t h e b a s i n f i l l may then be v e r y g r e a t , r a n g i n g from s e v e r a l hundred m e t r e s t o two o r t h r e e thousand metres. Downwarping i s o f t e n accompanied by
f a u l t i n g ; t h i s n o t only o f f s e t s t h e sediment beds i n t h e b a s i n but a l s o c a u s e s a b r u p t changes i n t h e t h i c k n e s s of t h e b a s i n f i l l . The p a s t and p r e s e n t environment i n a d e p o s i t i o n a l area l a r g e l y d e t e r m i n e s t h e l i t h o l o g i c a l v a r i a t i o n s of i t s f i l l . Within a b a s i n , s e v e r a l d e p o s i -
t i o n a l e n v i r o n m e n t s can u s u a l l y be r e c o g n i z e d , each o f which h a s g i v e n r i s e t o t h e f o r m a t i o n of a s p e c i f i c sediment t y p e . Groundwater b a s i n s , which are u s a l l y d e f i n e d a s "hydrogeological u n i t s c o n t a i n i n g one l a r g e a q u i f e r o r s e v e r a l connected and i n t e r r e l a t e d a q u i f e r s " (Todd 1980), may be c l a s s i f i e d on t h e b a s i s of t h e i r main d e p o s i t i o n a l e n v i r o n m e n t . B a s i n s may t h u s be f l u v i a l , l a c u s t r i n e , g l a c i a l , v o l c a n i c , o r a e o l i a n . Some b a s i n s do indeed c o n t a i n one l a r g e a q u i f e r formed i n a s i n g l e d e p o s i t i o n a l environment. O t h e r s , e s p e c i a l l y t h e d e e p l y downwarped o n e s , show s e v e r a l a q u i f e r s formed i n d i f f e r e n t e n v i r o n m e n t s , s t a r t i n g f o r example w i t h a marine environment, followed by a f l u v i a l , and t e r m i n a t i n g w i t h a g l a c i a l a n d / o r a e o l i a n environment. Most groundwater b a s i n s f o r which a model i s t o be developed w i l l have been g e o m o r p h o l o g i c a l l y and g e o l o g i c a l l y e x p l o r e d , a t l e a s t t o some e x t e n t . I f n o t , a s t u d y o f t h e s o u r c e a r e a , o r a n e x a m i n a t i o n of a g e o l o g i c a l map of t h e s o u r c e a r e a , i f a v a i l a b l e , w i l l be needed t o g a i n an i n s i g h t i n t o t h e k i n d of d e t r i t u s s u p p l i e d t o t h e b a s i n . Most groundwater b a s i n s , even t h e v e r y f l a t o n e s , show minor r e l i e f f e a t u r e s , o r i g i n a t i n g from c o n s t r u c t i v e and d e s t r u c t i v e f o r c e s a c t i n g on them. Each t y p e of b a s i n i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by s p e c i f i c t o p o g r a p h i c a l and morphol o g i c a l f e a t u r e s . T y p i c a l f e a t u r e s of a r i v e r v a l l e y b a s i n , f o r example,
a r e a d j a c e n t m o u n t a i n s , r i v e r t e r r a c e s , and f l o o d p l a i n . Common f e a t u r e s of
t h e f l o o d p l a i n are: n a t u r a l l e v e e s , p o i n t b a r s , back swamps, p a r t l y o r wholly s i l t e d - u p former stream c h a n n e l s , and oxbow l a k e s (Fig. 2 . 2 ) . For
t h e m o r p h o l o g i c a l f e a t u r e s of o t h e r t y p e s o f b a s i n s , w e r e f e r t h e r e a d e r t o Thornbury 1969, Davis and d e Wiest 1966, and Reading 1978. F o r a p r o p e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e b a s i n ' s h y d r o l o g y , one must be a b l e t o r e c o g n i z e t h e s e m o r p h o l o g i c a l f e a t u r e s . G e n e r a l l y t h e y can be grouped i n t o t o p o g r a p h i c a l h i g h l a n d s and t o p o g r a p h i c a l lowlands. The h i g h l a n d s a r e u s u a l l y t h e r e c h a r g e a r e a s , c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a downward flow of water; t h e lowlands are t h e d i s c h a r g e a r e a s , c h a r a c t e r i z e d by an upward f l o w of water.
I n F i g u r e 2 . 2 , f o r example, t h e r e c h a r g e a r e a s a r e t h e p r e s e n t and former

n a t u r a l levees, p o i n t b a r s , and r i v e r t e r r a c e s ; t h e d i s c h a r g e areas are t h e backswamps and t h e f o r m e r , p a r t l y s i l t e d - u p s t r e a m c h a n n e l s .
12
F i g . 2 . 2 Morphological f e a t u r e s and s e d i m e n t s t y p i c a l of broad r i v e r v a l l e y basins
,
I
S i n c e t h e groundwater model r e q u i r e s q u a n t i t a t i v e d a t a of t h e r a t e of f l o w i n t h e s e a r e a s , t h e t o p o g r a p h i c a l h i g h l a n d s and lowlands should b e d e l i n e a t e d and i n d i c a t e d on a map, t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e n a t u r a l d r a i n a g e system. These t o p o g r a p h i c a l f e a t u r e s c a n be d e t e c t e d from t o p o g r a p h i c a l maps w i t h c o n t o u r l i n e s of t h e land s u r f a c e a t s m a l l i n t e r v a l s and from a e r i a l photographs. F i e l d work i s needed t o d e t e r m i n e t h e t y p e o f rock o r sediment i n these areas.
Subsurface geoZogy
I n any groundwater s t u d y , t h e g e o l o g i c a l h i s t o r y of t h e b a s i n must be known, as t h e r e s u l t i n g g e o l o g i c a l s t r u c t u r e l a r g e l y c o n t r o l s t h e occurr e n c e and movement of groundwater. The number and t y p e of w a t e r - b e a r i n g f o r m a t i o n s , t h e i r d e p t h , i n t e r c o n n e c t i o n s , h y d r a u l i c p r o p e r t i e s , and o u t c r o p p a t t e r n s a r e a l l t h e r e s u l t of t h e b a s i n ' s g e o l o g i c a l h i s t o r y .
A s t u d y of t h e s u b s u r f a c e geology i s r e q u i r e d t o f i n d o u t t h e t y p e of m a t -
e r i a l s t h a t make up t h e groundwater b a s i n , t h e i r d e p o s i t i o n a l environment and a g e , and t h e i r s t r u c t u r a l d e f o r m a t i o n , i f any. The d e p o s i t i o n a l e n v i r o n ment, being t h e complex o f p h y s i c a l , c h e m i c a l , and b i o l o g i c a l c o n d i t i o n s
13
under which a sediment accumulates, largely determines the properties of sediments. Each environment tends to develop its own sediments. In many groundwater basins, especially the deep ones, one finds systematic transitions from one environment to another. A complicating factor is that considerable variations can occur within a single environment; for example, grain size in fluvial or glacial environments can vary widely. Conversely, two different environments can produce the same kind of sediment.
To unravel the sedimentary environment of a groundwater basin, one begins
by examining well-driller's logs and bore samples. Characteristics that shed light on the environment in which the sediments accumulated are the texture, size and shape of the mineral particles, their degree of sorting, colour, organic-matter content, lime content, clay and gravel content, microfossils, and mineral composition. Originally, in accumulation areas, the sediments were deposited in nearly horizontal layers. In large, deep groundwater basins the sediments have accumulated over a long span of time. During this period, clear breaks in the sedimentation may have occurred, erosion may have taken place, and tectonic events may have caused structural deformation of the original horizontal layers (Fig. 2 . 3 ) . Driller's logs can reveal key beds, also called marker beds, which possess a recognizable lithology or fossil content that differs from the beds above and below them. Typical key beds are a thin limestone bed, a coal or lignite bed, a pebble zone, an insoluble zone, and a horizon with a typical faunal assemblage. If such beds occur, they can often be traced from one well to another and are thus most useful for stratigraphic correlation. Geophysical methods may be useful in exploring the subsurface geology, but the methods are often inexact and their results difficult to interpret. They should therefore only be regarded as 'supplementary to an exploratory
\
drilling program. Stratigraphic correlation requires that a number of cross-sections be drawn in different directions over the basin. These cross-sections show both the vertical and horizontal relationships between the various sediment bodies as well as the stratigraphic boundaries that either prevent or allow groundwater flow (Fig. 2 . 4 ) . The cross-sections also show whether the
14
I ,
-11
F i g . 2 . 3 E r o s i o n , f o l d i n g , and f a u l t i n g phenomena. a: E r r a t i c t h i n n i n g of Bed 3 i n d i c a t e s e r o s i o n . b : Bed 1 h a s a c o n s t a n t t h i c k n e s s and w a s f o l d e d d u r i n g o r b e f o r e d e p o s i t i o n of Bed 2 . c : Bed 2 was d e p o s i t e d a f t e r e r o s i o n of Bed 1. d : Bed 2 was d e p o s i t e d a f t e r and d u r i n g f a u l t i n g of Bed 1 .
15
bedrock and all or part of the sedimentary basin fill underwent any structural deformation such as downwarping, uplifting, folding, or faulting and whether accumulation was continuous or alternated by erosion (Fig. 2 . 3 ) .
Fig. 2 . 4 Hypothetical cross-section through a river valley showing the vertical and horizontal relationships between sediments. In the middle of the valley, the lower body of clay forms the impermeable base; toward the valley walls bedrock forms the impermeable base
2.2.3
Types of aquifers
The geological information provided by the geologist has no meaning if it is not related to the occurrence and movement of the groundwater. This means that the geological knowledge must be translated into terms of waterbearing formations (aquifers), non-water-bearing or cosfining layers (impermeable layers), and slightly confining or semipermeable layers (layers with a low, but not zero hydraulic conductivity). This will often require a certain schematization of the subsurface geology. Consecutive geological formations, different in age or origin but similar in watertransmitting properties, should be grouped into a single aquifer system. Consecutive layers of sandy clay, silty clay, clay, compacted peat, silty clay loam, etc., although different in age and depositional environment, should also be grouped into a single layer of hydraulic resistance to the
16
f l o w of groundwater. S i m i l a r l y , c o n s e c u t i v e impermeable l a y e r s and h a r d r o c k , d i f f e r e n t i n a g e and o r i g i n , should be t a k e n t o g e t h e r as one u n i t t h a t o b s t r u c t s t h e p a s s a g e of water. The impermeable b a s e i n F i g u r e 2 . 4 , f o r example, c o n s i s t s p a r t l y of bedrock and p a r t l y of t h i c k c l a y .
An a q u i f e r c a n t h e r e f o r e be d e f i n e d as a f o r m a t i o n , group of f o r m a t i o n s , o r
p a r t of a f o r m a t i o n t h a t c o n t a i n s s u f f i c i e n t s a t u r a t e d permeable material t o y i e l d s i g n i f i c a n t q u a n t i t i e s o f w a t e r t o a w e l l o r s p r i n g . The most common and most p r o d u c t i v e a q u i f e r s are unconso i d a t e d sand and g r a v e l . Sandstone i s a cemented form of sand b u t can b e a p r o d u c t i v e a q u i f e r i f i t
i s j o i n t e d . Other p r o d u c t i v e a q u i f e r s a r e k a r s t f i e d l i m e s t o n e s t h a t
c o n t a i n l a r g e s o l u t i o n c a v e r n s and c h a n n e l s ; as t h e f l o w i n such a q u i f e r s i s u s u a l l y t u r b u l e n t , however, o u r model i s n o t a p p l i c a b l e t o them. It c a n o n l y be a p p l i e d t o a q u i f e r s i n which t h e flow i s l a m i n a r and i n which D a r c y ' s law t h u s a p p l i e s . The t y p e s of a q u i f e r t h a t c a n be m o d e l l e d , p r o v i d e d t h a t t h e f l o w i n them i s l a m i n a r , are t h e f o l l o w i n g : unconfined ( o r w a t e r t a b l e ) a q u i f e r confined (or a r t e s i a n ) a q u i f e r semi-confined ( o r leaky) a q u i f e r
F i g u r e 2 . 5 shows t h e s e a q u i f e r t y p e s w i t h t h e i r w a t e r t a b l e p o s i t i o n s and t h e symbols d e n o t i n g t h e i r h y d r a u l i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . I n n a t u r e , one c a n f i n d d i f f e r e n t combinations o f a q u i f e r s , e . g . a n unconfined a q u i f e r (Type
A) o v e r l y i n g a c o n f i n e d a q u i f e r (Type B) o r a semi-confined a q u i f e r (Type
C ) . When s e v e r a l a q u i f e r s o c c u r , s e p a r a t e d by impermeable o r s l i g h t l y
permeable l a y e r s , w e speak of a m u l t i - a q u i f e r system. Our model i s pro-
grammed f o r o n l y one s i n g l e a q u i f e r , i . e . Type A , B , o r C , o r any l a t e r a l t r a n s i t i o n from one t y p e t o a n o t h e r .
2.2.4
A q u i f e r t h i c k n e s s and l a t e r a l e x t e n t
For a v a r i e t y of r e a s o n s , t h e l a t e r a l e x t e n t and t h e t h i c k n e s s and d e p t h of an a q u i f e r may v a r y from one p l a c e t o a n o t h e r . I n some b a s i n s , as i n t h o s e
of a l a c u s t r i n e environment, sandy a q u i f e r s formed where r i v e r s e n t e r e d t h e l a k e w i l l show a d i s t a l f i n i n g of sediment away from t h e r i v e r mouth i n a way s i m i l a r t o t h a t i n some marine d e l t a s ( F i g . 2 . 6 ) . I n fluvial basins the
17
reverse may be found: thick sandy aquifers may thin toward the rim of the basin. Some basins show structural deformation due to downwarping and faulting.
Fig. 2.5
Different aquifer types.
A: unconfined , B: confined, C: semi-confined.
18
F i g . 2 . 6 L i t h o l o g i c s e c t i o n through a former l a k e . D e l t a i c sand and g r a v e l a t t h e r i m of t h e b a s i n ; l a k e c l a y and marl i n t h e c e n t r e . Bore h o l e s I , 2 , I O , and 1 1 c o n t a i n 100 p e r c e n t sand; b o r e h o l e 6 c o n t a i n s 100 p e r c e n t c l a y ; t h e o t h e r bore h o l e s have d i f f e r i n g p e r c e n t a g e s of sand and c l a y
The l a t e r a l e x t e n t of t h e a q u i f e r , as found from w e l l and b o r e l o g s , and g e o p h y s i c a l d a t a should b e i n d i c a t e d on a map. From t h e same d a t a s o u r c e s , a n i s o p a c h ( t h i c k n e s s ) map of t h e a q u i f e r c a n be made. An i s o p a c h map r e q u i r e s two h o r i z o n s , one a t t h e t o p of t h e a q u i f e r and one a t t h e bottom. I f t h e a q u i f e r i s u n c o n f i n e d , t h e two h o r i z o n s a r e t h e impermeable b a s e and t h e l a n d s u r f a c e . The n e t t h i c k n e s s o f t h e a q u i f e r c a n be c a l c u l a t e d from t h e e l e v a t i o n s of t h e two h o r i z o n s ; l o c a l c l a y l e n s e s w i t h i n t h e a q u i f e r , i f any, are s u b t r a c t e d from t h e t o t a l t h i c k n e s s . The r e s u l t s a t e a c h c o n t r p l p o i n t a r e p l o t t e d on a map and l i n e s of e q u a l t h i c k n e s s a r e drawn (Fig. 2.7). B e s i d e s an i s o p a c h map of t h e a q u i f e r , t h e n u m e r i c a l model r e q u i r e s a s t r u c t u r a l map of t h e a q u i f e r ' s impermeable b a s e . Such a map shows t h e c o n f i g u r a t i o n and e l e v a t i o n o f t h e s u r f a c e of t h a t b a s e . To c o n s t r u c t i t , one u s e s t h e l o g s of a l l w e l l s and b o r e h o l e s t h a t s t r u c k t h e impermeable b a s e . I f t h e e l e v a t i o n of t h e land s u r f a c e a t t h e s e w e l l s and b o r e h o l e s i s n o t known from a p r e v i o u s l e v e l l i n g s u r v e y ( S e c t i o n 2 . 1 of t h i s C h a p t e r ) ,
19
Fig. 2.7 Example of an isopach map showing the net thickness of a riverbasin aquifer. The lower figure shows a cross-section of the valley
20
elevation
1600,-
Fig. 2.8 Structural map of the impermeable base of an aquifer. A vertical dip-slip fault crosses the basin. PR = stratigraphic throw: 1100-900 = 200 m
21
i t ca'n be e s t i m a t e d by i n t e r p o l a t i o n from a t o p o g r a p h i c a l map w i t h c o n t o u r l i n e s of t h e l a n d s u r f a c e . F o r e a c h c o n t r o l p o i n t , t h e d e p t h t o t h e i m p e r m e a b l e b a s e i n d i c a t e d i n t h e w e l l o r b o r e h o l e l o g i s s u b t r a c t e d from t h e s u r f a c e e l e v a t i o n . The e l e v a t i o n a t e a c h c o n t r o l p o i n t t h u s found i s p l o t t e d on a map and c o n t o u r l i n e s are drawn (Fig. 2 . 8 ) . d e t a i l s , see Chap. 2 Sect. 2 . 5 and Chap. 3 S e c t . 5 . 3 . For f u r t h e r
2.2.5
Aquifer boundaries
The c o n d i t i o n s a t t h e b o u n d a r i e s of t h e a q u i f e r must b e p r o p e r l y d e f i n e d . D i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f b o u n d a r i e s e x i s t , which may o r may n o t be a f u n c t i o n o f
t i m e . They a r e :
zero-flow b o u n d a r i e s head-controlled boundaries flow-controlled boundaries To t h i s c a n be added t h e f r e e - s u r f a c e boundary, b u t as t h i s i s t h e boundary t o be determined by t h e model, i t w i l l n o t be d i s c u s s e d h e r e .
Zero-flow boundary
A zero-flow boundary i s a boundary t h r o u g h which no f l o w o c c u r s . Examples
o f zero-flow b o u n d a r i e s are t h i c k t i g h t compacted c l a y l a y e r s , unweathered m a s s i v e r o c k , a f a u l t t h a t i s o l a t e s t h e a q u i f e r from o t h e r permeable
s t r a t a , o r a groundwater d i v i d e . I n p r a c t i c e , zero-flow b o u n d a r i e s can be

d e f i n e d as t h o s e p l a c e s where flows are i n s i g n i f i c a n t compared w i t h t h e f l o w s i n t h e main a q u i f e r s . Zero-flow b o u n d a r i e s can b e d i f f e r e n t i a t e d i n t o i n t e r n a l and e x t e r n a l b o u n d a r i e s . A l o c a l o u t c r o p of massive r o c k i n s i d e a n a l l u v i a l b a s i n and a n a q u i f e r ' s impermeable b a s e are i n t e r n a l zero-flow b o u n d a r i e s . Impermeable
m a t e r i a l s o c c u r r i n g a l o n g t h e o u t e r l i m i t s of an a q u i f e r a r e c a l l e d e x t e r n -
a l zero-f low boundaries.
22
Many groundwater b a s i n s a r e e r o s i o n v a l l e y s , ( F i g s . 2 . 4 and 2 . 7 ) ; o t h e r s a r e bowl-shaped
( p a r t l y ) f i l l e d w i t h sediments s t r u c t u r a l b a s i n s formed b y
downwarping ( F i g . 2.3b) o r g r a b e n s formed by f a u l t i n g ( F i g . 2 . 9 ) .
7
V V
V river
V V
V V
V
V
V
\,
v
V
Gneiss
V
I
F i g . 2.9 T e c t o n i c graben v a l l e y . The f a u l t p l a n e s a r e e x t e r n a l g e o l o g i c b o u n d a r i e s t h r o u g h which no l a t e r a l f l o w of groundwater o c c u r s . The s l i g h t l y d i p p i n g s u r f a c e of t h e downfaulted bedrock u n d e r l y i n g t h e body of g r a v e l , sand, and c l a y i s an impermeable i n t e r n a l g e o l o g i c boundary
A s F i g u r e 2 . 9 shows, t h e sand and g r a v e l a q u i f e r t e r m i n a t e s a b r u p t l y
a g a i n s t t h e impermeable f a c e of t h e r a i s e d b l o c k s . Such a rock w a l l p r e v e n t s any h o r i z o n t a l f l o w t o o r from t h e a q u i f e r and t h u s r e p r e s e n t s a n e x t e r n a l zero-flow boundary. I t should be n o t e d t h a t t h i s i s o n l y t r u e f o r massive unweathered r o c k . When weathered o r h e a v i l y f r a c t u r e d , t h e r o c k may t r a n s m i t a p p r e c i a b l e q u a n t i t i e s of groundwater. I n many i n s t a n c e s , t h e upper 10 t o 30 m o f 23
g r a n i t i c bedrock u n d e r l y i n g a l l u v i a l sediments i s w e a t h e r e d , and t h u s a c t s a s an a q u i f e r . Major f a u l t s , a s shown i n F i g u r e 2 . 9 , are often the s i t e of
s p r i n g s t h a t y i e l d warm, h i g h l y m i n e r a l i z e d groundwater from g r e a t d e p t h s . Although such a f a u l t d o e s n o t a l l o w t h e h o r i z o n t a l p a s s a g e of g r o u n d w a t e r , i t d o e s a l l o w t h e v e r t i c a l p a s s a g e . A t p l a c e s where such deep s i t e d s p r i n g s o c c u r , t h e f a u l t must ( l o c a l l y ) b e t r e a t e d a s a f l o w - c o n t r o l l e d boundary
(see below).
The model of t h e b a s i n r e q u i r e s t h a t e x t e r n a l zero-flow b o u n d a r i e s be d e l i n e a t e d and i n d i c a t e d on a map. I t a l s o r e q u i r e s t h a t t h e c o n f i g u r a t i o n and a b s o l u t e e l e v a t i o n of t h e impermeable b a s e , which i s an i n t e r n a l z e r o f l o w boundary, be d e t e r m i n e d . T h i s i s n o t always an e a s y t a s k . I n some groundwater b a s i n s t h e impermeable b a s e l i e s a t r e l a t i v e l y s h a l l o w d e p t h and i t s s u r f a c e i s f l a t , n e a r l y h o r i z o n t a l , o r s l i g h t l y d i p p i n g . I n o t h e r b a s i n s , however, i t o c c u r s a t s u c h g r e a t d e p t h s t h a t i t i s n o t reached by o r d i n a r y b o r e h o l e s , and i t s s u r f a c e may be uneven b e c a u s e of e r o s i o n o r s t r u c t u r a l d e f o r m a t i o n . In some p a r t s of t h e b a s i n t h e impermeable base may c o n s i s t of massive r o c k , whereas i n o t h e r s i t i s a t h i c k t i g h t c l a y l a y e r of much younger g e o l o g i c a l age. Major s t r u c t u r a l b a s i n s a r e v e r y deep, s a y
2000 t o 3000 m, and are f i l l e d w i t h a l t e r n a t i n g l a y e r s of sand and c l a y .

The q u e s t i o n t h e n a r i s e s : What and where i s t h e impermeable b a s e ? In some i n s t a n c e s . t h e lower s e c t i o n of t h e b a s i n - f i l l
i s p r e d o m i n a n t l y c l a y which
i s s o compacted by t h e t h i c k overburden t h a t i t can b e r e g a r d e d as t h e

impermeable base. I n o t h e r i n s t a n c e s one must r e s o r t t o a f i c t i t i o u s d e p t h f o r t h e impermeable b a s e . A s a f i r s t approximation one can t a k e o n e - f o u r t h t o o n e - e i g h t h o f t h e a v e r a g e d i s t a n c e between t h e m a j o r streams d r a i n i n g t h e b a s i n and n e g l e c t t h e flow below t h i s d e p t h . I f such s t r e a m s do n o t o c c u r , one can e s t i m a t e t h e t h i c k n e s s of t h e a q u i f e r by u s i n g Hantush's method of a n a l y z i n g a q u i f e r - t e s t d a t a o b t a i n e d from p a r t i a l l y p e n e t r a t i n g w e l l s ( s e e Kruseman and d e Ridder 1 9 7 0 ) . F i n a l l y , a groundwater d i v i d e , by d e f i n i t i o n , i s a zero-flow boundary a s n o f l o w o c c u r s a c r o s s t h e s t r e a m l i n e r u n n i n g o v e r t h e t o p of t h e d i v i d e . I n m a t h e m a t i c a l terms, t h e c o n d i t i o n a t a zero-flow boundary i s a h / h = O , where h i s t h e groundwater p o t e n t i a l and n i s t h e d i r e c t i o n normal t o t h e
24
boundary. I n t h e groundwater model, z e r o flow i s s i m u l a t e d by s e t t i n g t h e h y d r a u l i c c o n d u c t i v i t y a t t h e boundary e q u a l t o z e r o (K = O ) .
Head-controZZed boundary
A head-controlled
boundary i s a boundary with a known p o t e n t i a l o r hydrau-
l i c head, which may o r may n o t be a f u n c t i o n of t i m e . Examples are l a r g e water bodies l i k e l a k e s and o c e a n s whose water l e v e l s a r e n o t a f f e c t e d by e v e n t s w i t h i n t h e groundwater b a s i n . Other examples a r e w a t e r c o u r s e s and i r r i g a t i o n c a n a l s w i t h f i x e d w a t e r l e v e l s . I f t h e s e water l e v e l s indeed remain unchanged w i t h t i m e , a s t e a d y s t a t e of flow w i l l e x i s t . For most p r a c t i c a l p u r p o s e s , t h e water l e v e l s of l a k e s and some s e a s , e . g . t h e Mediterranean, can be r e g a r d e d a s c o n s t a n t , b u t t h o s e of o t h e r water b o d i e s and water c o u r s e s may change a p p r e c i a b l y w i t h t i m e ( F i g . 2 . 1 0 ) . Examples a r e streams t h a t c a r r y heavy f l o o d w a t e r s i n t h e r a i n y s e a s o n and f a l l (almost) d r y i n t h e d r y s e a s o n , and e s t u a r i e s and oceans w i t h l a r g e
t ida
movements.
F i g . 2.10 River w a t e r l e v e l changing w i t h time. A t Levels 1 and 2 t h e r i v e r i s g a i n i n g w a t e r , a t Level 3 i t i s l o s i n g water
Mathematically, a h e a d - c o n t r o l l e d expressed a s h = f ( x , y , t ) , i.e.
boundary t h a t changes w i t h t i m e i s
t h e head i s a f u n c t i o n of b o t h p l a c e and the
time. A f i x e d head a t t h e boundary i s e x p r e s s e d a s h = f ( x , y ) , i . e . head i s a f u n c t i o n of p l a c e o n l y .
25
L i k e zero-flow b o u n d a r i e s , h e a d - c o n t r o l l e d
b o u n d a r i e s c a n be d i f f e r e n t i a t e d
i n t o i n t e r n a l and e x t e r n a l b o u n d a r i e s . A s t r e a m c r o s s i n g a groundwater b a s i n and ( p a r t l y ) i n h y d r a u l i c c o n t a c t w i t h t h e a q u i f e r i s an i n t e r n a l h e a d - c o n t r o l l e d boundary. F o r a c o a s t a l a q u i f e r i n d i r e c t c o n t a c t w i t h t h e o c e a n , t h e ocean i s an e x t e r n a l h e a d - c o n t r o l l e d boundary.
Flow-controlled boundary
A f l o w - c o n t r o l l e d boundary, a l s o c a l l e d r e c h a r g e boundary, i s a boundary
t h r o u g h which a c e r t a i n volume of groundwater e n t e r s t h e a q u i f e r p e r u n i t o f t i m e from a d j a c e n t s t r a t a whose h y d r a u l i c head a n d / o r t r a n s m i s s i v i t y a r e n o t known. The q u a n t i t y of w a t e r t r a n s f e r r e d i n t h i s way u s u a l l y h a s t o be e s t i m a t e d from r a i n f a l l and r u n o f f d a t a . The boundary i t s e l f may be one o f z e r o - f l o w , f o r example a mountain f r o n t
a g a i n s t which t h e a q u i f e r t e r m i n a t e s , b u t which i s o v e r l a i n by c o l l u v i u m , a t h i n s o i l cover o r pediment ( F i g . 2 . 1 1 ) . Runoff from r a i n f a l l may ( p a r t l y )
p e r c o l a t e i n t o t h e c o l l u v i u m and c r o s s t h e boundary a s groundwater f l o w i n t o the aquifer.

A s i m i l a r s i t u a t i o n o c c u r s where a s t r e a m f l o w i n g through mountainous a r e a s
debouches i n t o a p l a i n where it h a s formed an a l l u v i a l f a n (Fig. 2 . 1 2 ) . F a n s a r e commonly developed a l o n g a c t i v e f a u l t s c a r p s , so t h a t they f r e q u e n t l y g i v e t h i c k sequences o f s y n t e c t o n i c s e d i m e n t s on t h e downthrown s i d e o f major f a u l t s . Downstream of t h e p o i n t of debouchment, t h e v a l l e y widens a n d deepens and i s p a r t l y f i l l e d w i t h b o u l d e r s , g r a v e l , and v e r y c o a r s e s a n d . The t h i c k n e s s of t h e s e c o a r s e m a t e r i a l s i n c r e a s e s i n downstream d i r e c t i o n . I n t h e proximal f a n t h e r i v e r may s p l i t i n t o numerous b r a i d e d
. c h a n n e l s which d o n o t a l l o w p r o p e r f l o w measurements t o be t a k e n . Considera b l e q u a n t i t i e s o f t h e r i v e r flow p e r c o l a t e i n t h i s p a r t of t h e f a n and e n t e r t h e mid-fan a t B a s u n d e r f l o w ( F i g . 2 . 1 2 ) . U s u a l l y t h i s underflow c a n
o n l y be e s t i m a t e d . I t s v a l u e , which e n t e r s t h e model as a r e c h a r g e , can be checked when t h e model i s c a l i b r a t e d (Chap. 6 ) .
26
rain
,,'&surface
runoff
canal
v v
v
Gneiss
\!
v
v
F i g . 2 . 1 1 D i f f e r e n t t y p e s of groundwater b a s i n b o u n d a r i e s . 1 : f l o w - c o n t r o l l e d boundary 2 : e x t e r n a l zero-flow boundary 3: i n t e r n a l zero-flow boundary 4 and 5: i n t e r n a l h e a d - c o n t r o l l e d b o u n d a r i e s 6 : e x t e r n a l h e a d - c o n t r o l l e d boundary 7 : f r e e s u r f a c e boundary
Another example of a f l o w - c o n t r o l l e d boundary i s t h e s h a r p c o n t a c t w i t h a n o t h e r g e o l o g i c a l f o r m a t i o n of low t r a n s m i s s i v i t y . nonconformity o r a f a u l t ( F i g . 2 . 1 3 ) . Such a c o n t a c t can b e a
The w a t e r b a l a n c e of t h e a d j a c e n t
s t r a t a and t h e i r r e l a t i v e t r a n s m i s s i v i t y may g i v e an i n d i c a t i o n of t h e l i k e l y magnitude of t h e flow.
27
Fig. 2.12 Example of an alluvial fan and cross-section, with braided channels in the proximal part. Percolation in the proximal part enters the mid-fan at B as underflow.
28
Fig. 2.13 Flow-controlled
boundaries.
A: Boundary a t a n o n - c o n f o r m i t y B : Boundary a t a f a u l t
Flow-controlled
b o u n d a r i e s are s i m u l a t e d by s e t t i n g t h e h y d r a u l i c c o n d u c t -
i v i t y a t t h e b o u n d a r y e q u a l t o z e r o (K = O ) , and e n t e r i n g t h e u n d e r f l o w ' i n t o t h e model as a r e c h a r g e t e r m . M a t h e m a t i c a l l y , t h e f l o w i s r e p r e s e n t e d , f o r s t e a d y s t a t e , by t h e n o r m a l g r a d i e n t a h f a n , t a k i n g a s p e c i f i e d v a l u e ahfan =
( v e l o c i t y normal t o boundary t p e r m e a b i l i t y normal t o b o u n d a r y ) .
When m o d e l l i n g a g r o u n d w a t e r b a s i n , i t i s a d v i s a b l e t o l e t t h e e x t e r n a l b o u n d a r i e s of t h e model c o i n c i d e w i t h h e a d - c o n t r o l l e d a n d / o r z e r o - f l o w b o u n d a r i e s . Q u i t e o f t e n , h o w e v e r , a model i s r e q u e s t e d f o r o n l y a p o r t i o n o f t h e b a s i n , i n w h i c h case i t may n o t be p o s s i b l e t o l e t t h e b o u n d a r i e s c o i n c i d e b e c a u s e t h e n e a r e s t stream o r impermeable v a l l e y w a l l i s t o o f a r away. I n such cases a n a r b i t r a r y , t h o u g h c o n v e n i e n t , b o u n d a r y must be c h o s e n . Groundwater may f l o w a c r o s s s u c h a b o u n d a r y e i t h e r i n t o o r o u t o f t h e a q u i f e r , d e p e n d i n g o n t h e h y d r a u l i c h e a d s on e i t h e r s i d e o f t h e bounda r y . I f , f o r e x a m p l e , t h e area beyond t h e a r b i t r a r y b o u n d a r y i s a s e e p a g e zone w i t h a p e r m a n e n t l y h i g h w a t e r t a b l e , t h e head i n t h i s zone i s f i x e d and t h e f l o w t h r o u g h t h e b o u n d a r y i s c o n t r o l l e d by t h e h e a d i n t h e s e e p a g e zone. To c a l c u l a t e t h e f l o w a c r o s s h e a d - c o n t r o l l e d b o u n d a r i e s , d a t a on t h e h y d r a u l i c c o n d u c t i v i t y a t t h e boundary should be a v a i l a b l e .
,
29
2.2.6
Lithological variations within the aquifer
No a q u i f e r i s l i t h o l o g i c a l l y u n i f o r m o v e r i t s e n t i r e e x t e n t . Both l a t e r a l
and v e r t i c a l v a r i a t i o n s o c c u r , which c a n be r e c o g n i z e d a s f a c i e s changes.
In one p a r t of t h e b a s i n t h e a q u i f e r may be predominantly sand and g r a v e l ,

whereas i n o t h e r p a r t s f i n e sand o r even s i l t and c l a y may predominate (Reading 1978). S i n c e g r a i n s i z e h a s a g r e a t b e a r i n g on h y d r a u l i c conducti v i t y and p o r o s i t y , and t h u s on t h e f l o w and s t o r a g e of groundwater, a s t u d y of f a c i e s changes forms a n i n t r i n s i c p a r t o f groundwater b a s i n m o d e l l i n g . F a c i e s changes can be s t u d i e d i n s t r a t i g r a p h i c u n i t s known t o b e contemporaneous o r i n g r o u p i n g s o f s t r a t a w i t h o u t r e s p e c t t o s t r a t i g r a p h i c b o u n d a r i e s o r l i m i t s . The c r o s s - s e c t i o n s d i s c u s s e d e a r l i e r can be used t o d e t e r m i n e s a t i s f a c t o r y b o u n d a r i e s f o r f a c i e s mapping. I f a s t r a t i g r a p h i c u n i t w i t h c l e a r l y d e f i n e d upper and lower b o u n d a r i e s i s s e l e c t e d , one c a n c a l c u l a t e t h e p e r c e n t a g e of sand i n t h e t o t a l t h i c k n e s s of t h a t u n i t . When t h e s e p e r c e n t a g e s a r e p l o t t e d a t e a c h c o n t r o l p o i n t of a map, l i n e s of e q u a l sand p e r c e n t a g e can be drawn ( F g. 2 . 1 4 ) .
F i g . 2 . 1 4 Sand p e r c e n t a g e map o f a Q u a t e r n a r y f o r m a t i o n w i t h r e l a t i v e l y constant thickness
30
Another u s e f u l t y p e of f a c i e s map i s t h e l i t h o l o g i c r a t i o map. It i s made by c a l c u l a t i n g t h e r a t i o of sand ( o r s a n d s t o n e ) t o a l l o t h e r sediments i n a s t r a t i g r a p h i c u n i t , p l o t t i n g t h e s e r a t i o s on a map, and drawing l i n e s of e q u a l r a t i o . Such a map shows t h e r e l a t i v e importance of sand ( o r sands t o n e ) i n t h e u n i t . The r a t i o v a l u e s r a n g e from i n f i n i t y ( a s e c t i o n composed e n t i r e l y of sand) t o z e r o (no s a n d ) . A r a t i o of 1.0 means t h e amount of sand i n t h e u n i t i s e q u a l t o t h e sum o f t h e o t h e r s e d i m e n t s . I f t h e u n i t c o n s i s t s of o n l y sand and c l a y , one can p r e p a r e a sand-clay r a t i o map ( F i g .
2.15).
F i g . 2. 15 Example of a sand-clay r a t i o map
Because of t h e wide range from z e r o t o i n f i n i t y , i t i s recommended t h a t t h e c o n t o u r l i n e of v a l u e 1.0 be drawn f i r s t , followed by c o n t o u r l i n e s o f 2 ,
4 , 8, e t c . , on one s i d e , and 112, 114, 118, e t c . , on t h e o t h e r . For a

c o r r e c t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e map, an i s o p a c h map of t h e s t r a t i g r a p h i c u n i t should a l s o be a v a i l a b l e o r t h e two maps should be combined.
31
2.2.7
Aquifer c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
The magnitude and s p a t i a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e a q u i f e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s must b e s p e c i f i e d . Depending on t h e t y p e of a q u i f e r ( F i g . 2 . 5 1 , t h e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s may be: h y d r a u l i c c o n d u c t i v i t y , K ( f o r a l l t y p e s of a q u i f e r s ) s t o r a g e c o e f f i c i e n t , S ( f o r c o n f i n e d and semi-confined a q u i f e r s ) s p e c i f i c y i e l d , li ( f o r unconfined a q u i f e r s ) hydraulic conductivity, K' confined a q u i f e r ) . s p e c i f i c y i e l d , p' aquifer) V a r i o u s f i e l d , l a b o r a t o r y , and n u m e r i c a l methods a r e a v a i l a b l e t o d e t e r m i n e o r estimate these characteristics. ( f o r t h e c o n f i n i n g l a y e r o v e r l y i n g a semi-confined ( f o r t h e c o n f i n i n g l a y e r o v e r l y i n g a semi-
Estimating K D or K from i n - s i t u t e s t data

Without any d o u b t , a q u i f e r t e s t s a r e t h e most r e l i a b l e methods of determining aquifer characteristics. W e s h a l l assume t h a t t h e r e a d e r i s f a m i l i a r w i t h t h e s e t e s t s . I f n o t , w e r e f e r him t o Kruseman and de Ridder (1970).
A d i s a d v a n t a g e of a q u i f e r t e s t s i s t h e i r h i g h c o s t . I n r e g i o n a l groundwater
s t u d i e s u s u a l l y o n l y a few such t e s t s can be performed and t h e d a t a t h e y p r o v i d e are n o t s u f f i c i e n t t o compile t h e maps of h y d r a u l i c c o n d u c t i v i t y , s t o r a g e c o e f f i c i e n t , o r s p e c i f i c y i e l d t h a t a r e needed f o r p r o p e r a q u i f e r m o d e l l i n g . Supplementary d a t a t h u s have t o be c o l l e c t e d by o t h e r , p e r h a p s
l e s s a c c u r a t e , methods. An advantage of some of t h e s e methods, however, i s

t h a t t h e y can b e used on e x i s t i n g w e l l s o r b o r e h o l e s . Examples a r e :
w e l l test
slug test point test
A w e l l t e s t c o n s i s t s of pumping'an e x i s t i n g small-diameter
well at a
c o n s t a n t r a t e and m e a s u r i n g t h e drawdown i n t h e w e l l . When, a f t e r some t i m e , t h e water l e v e l h a s a p p r o x i m a t e l y s t a b i l i z e d , s t e a d y flow c o n d i t i o n s
32
can b e assumed and a m o d i f i c a t i o n of t h e Thiem e q u a t i o n c a n b e used t o calculate the transmissivity:
1.22 Q KD = ___
W
where
Q
= the, constant w e l l discharge i n m3/d,
W
= t h e s t a b i l i z e d drawdown i n s i d e t h e
w e l l a t s t e a d y f l o w i n m,
= t h e h y d r a u l i c c o n d u c t i v i t y of t h e a q u i f e r f o r h o r i z o n t a l f l o w i n
m/d
D
,
m.
= t h e t h i c k n e s s of t h e a q u i f e r i n
T h i s e q u a t i o n e x p r e s s e s t h a t t h e t r a n s m i s s i v i t y , KD, a p p r o x i m a t e l y e q u a l s t h e s p e c i f i c c a p a c i t y of t h e w e l l , i . e . t h e y i e l d of t h e w e l l p e r metre drawdown. A w e l l t e s t can be a p p l i e d t o b o t h c o n f i n e d and u n c o n f i n e d a q u i f e r s , a l t h o u g h f o r unconfined a q u i f e r s , t h e drawdown s

W
must be c o r -
r e c t e d : s ' = s - ( s 2 / 2 D ) , where D i s t h e s a t u r a t e d a q u i f e r t h i c k n e s s i n m. w w W Note: Appreciable e r r o r s can be made i n c a l c u l a t i n g t h e t r a n s m i s s i v i t y i n t h i s way, e s p e c i a l l y when i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e w e l l c o n s t r u c t i o n i s n o t a v a i l a b l e , o r when t h e w e l l s c r e e n i s p a r t l y c l o g g e d . Reasonable e s t i m a t e s o f KD can a l s o be made by a p p l y i n g J a c o b ' s method t o t h e time-drawdown and time-recovery d a t a from a pumped w e l l ( s e e Kruseman and d e Ridder 1 9 7 0 ) .
A slug
t e s t c o n s i s t s o f a b r u p t l y removing a c e r t a i n volume o f w a t e r from a
w e l l , e i t h e r w i t h a h i g h - c a p a c i t y pump o r w i t h a b u c k e t o r b a i l e r , and measuring t h e r a t e of r i s e of t h e w a t e r l e v e l i n t h e w e l l . The s l u g of w a t e r removed must be l a r g e enough t o lower t h e w a t e r l e v e l by some 10 t o
50 cm. F e r r i s e t a l .
(1962) and Cooper e t a l .
(1967) presented formulas f o r
c a l c u l a t i n g t h e t r a n s m i s s i v i t y and s p e c i f i c y i e l d of a n unconfined a q u i f e r i f t h e well f u l l y p e n e t r a t e s t h e a q u i f e r . Bouwer and Rice ( 1 9 7 6 ) , s e e a l s o Bouwer (1978), gave t h e f o l l o w i n g e q u a t i o n s f o r p a r t i a l l y - and f u l l y -
p e n e t r a t i n g w e l l s i n an unconfined a q u i f e r ( F i g . 2 . 1 6 ) :
33
r2 ln(Re/rw)
K =
- In Le
Yt
Y,
(2.2)
If L
= D ( f u l l y p e n e t r a t i n g well) then
(2.3)
111
O O
__
2r,
I I<
Re
>
F i g . 2 . 1 6 S l u g t e s t i n unconfined a q u i f e r
V a l u e s of y
f o r d i f f e r e n t t i m e s f a l l on a s t r a i g h t l i n e when p l o t t e d on t s e m i - l o g a r i t h m i c p a p e r . For a g i v e n v a l u e o f L / r t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g v a l u e e w o f C must b e r e a d from a graph.
34
p o i n t t e s t i s a p e r m e a b i l i t y t e s t made w h i l e d r i l l i n g a n e x p l o r a t o r y b o r e
After t h e casing has
h o l e . When t h e h o l e h a s r e a c h e d t h e r e q u i r e d d e p t h , a s m a l l s c r e e n , whose l e n g t h e q u a l s i t s d i a m e t e r , i s lowered i n t o t h e h o l e .
b e e n p u l l e d up o v e r a c e r t a i n d i s t a n c e a n d a p a c k e r h a s b e e n p l a c e d t o c l o s e t h e a n n u l a r s p a c e , t h e water l e v e l i n t h e p i p e i s l o w e r e d by a c o m p r e s s o r . When t h e water l e v e l i n t h e p i p e h a s s t a b i l i z e d , t h e p r e s s u r e
i s r e l e a s e d and t h e r a t e of r i s e o f t h e water l e v e l i n t h e p i p e i s m e a s u r e d .
Bruggeman ( 1 9 7 6 ) g a v e t h e f o l l o w i n g e q u a t i o n f o r t h e c h a n g e i n water l e v e l :
= h e
-4Ktr r 2 b c
(2.4)
o
where
s
h
t
= drawdown a t = height
t i m e t w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e i n i t i a - water l e v e l (m)
of t h e d e p r e s s e d w a t e r column (m)
= t i m e since the air pressure was released (days)

= hydraulic conductivity
(m/d)
r
r
= r a d i u s of t h e s c r e e n (m) = r a d i u s of t h e pipe
(m)
The measured water l e v e l s are p l o t t e d a g a i n s t t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g t i m e on s e m i - l o g a r i t h m i c p a p e r ( t h e t i m e on t h e a r i t h m e t i c s c a l e ) . The p o i n t s f a l l

on a s t r a i g h t l i n e , t h e s l o p e o f which c a n be d e t e r m i n e d . The h y d r a u l i c
c o n d u c t i v i t y of t h e a q u i f e r m a t e r i a l a t t h e d e p t h o f t h e screen i s t h e n f o u n d from
K = 0.575
I C I r At
I f t h e water
e v e l i s lowered
y pumping, s t e a d y f l o w i s r e a c h e d w i h i n a
f e w minutes. F o r t h i s f l o w c o n d i t i o n , t h e f o l l o w i n g e q u a t i o n c a n b e used t o calculate the hydraulic conductivity:
= A 4nsr b 35
When a p p l y i n g t h e s e f o r m u l a s , one should t a k e i n t o account t h e s k i n f a c t o r ( r e s i s t a n c e of t h e s c r e e n ) , t h e s t o r a g e o f w a t e r i n t h e p i p e , and t h e i n e r t i a f o r c e s o f t h e w a t e r i n t h e p i p e ( U f f i n k 1 9 7 9 ) . While d r i l l i n g a b o r e h o l e , one c a n make t h i s t e s t a t d i f f e r e n t d e p t h s of t h e a q u i f e r and c a n t h e n c a l c u l a t e a weighted mean h y d r a u l i c c o n d u c t i v i t y f o r t h e whole a q u i fer.
Estimating K Jrom grain s i z e

S i n c e i n r e g i o n a l groundwater s t u d i e s one i s more i n t e r e s t e d
a
n obtaining he b a s i n ,
t h e o r d e r of magnitude of K a t a s many p l a c e s a s p o s s i b l e i n
r a t h e r t h a n v e r y a c c u ' r a t e v a l u e s a t o n l y a few p l a c e s , t h e method o f e s t i m a t i n g K f r o m g r a i n s i z e c a n be a v a l u a b l e a d d i t i o n t o more a c c u r a t e , but costly, aquifer t e s t s . G r a i n s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n i s commonly e x p r e s s e d by a s i n g l e p a r a m e t e r : median
(M),
o r s p e c i f i c s u r f a c e of t h e sand f r a c t i o n (U). The s p e c i f i c s u r f a c e (U)
i s d e f i n e d a s t h e r a t i o of t h e t o t a l s u r f a c e a r e a o f t h e p a r t i c l e s t o t h e
s u r f a c e a r e a of a n e q u a l q u a n t i t y , by w e i g h t , of s p h e r i c a l p a r t i c l e s o f t h e same m a t e r i a l w i t h a d i a m e t e r of 1 cm. Assume w gram of m a t e r i a l whose p a r t i c l e s are s p h e r e s w i t h a d i a m e t e r of d cm and a mass d e n s i t y p ; t h e number of p a r t i c l e s i n w gram m a t e r i a l i s then :
and t h e t o t a l s u r f a c e a r e a of t h e s e p a r t i c l e s i s :
The t o t a l s u r f a c e area of w gram of t h e p a r t i c l e s w i t h a d i a m e t e r of 1 c m
i s t h e r e f o r e 6 w / p cm'.
The s p e c i f i c s u r f a c e of t h e m a t e r i a l i s
36
A q u i f e r m a t e r i a l s d o n o t g e n e r a l l y c o n s i s t of u n i f o r m p a r t i c l e s o f one s i n g l e d i a m e t e r b u t o f p a r t i c l e s of d i f f e r e n t s i z e s t o b e grouped i n f r a c t i o n s , e a c h w i t h c e r t a i n l i m i t s of p a r t i c l e s i z e . T h i s g r o u p i n g i s u s e d t o c l a s s i f y t h e sands. Table 2 . 2 gives t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n system, t h e p a r t i c l e s i z e l i m i t s , and c o r r e s p o n d i n g v a l u e of U.
T a b l e 2 . 2 C l a s s i f i c a t i o n of s a n d y m a t e r i a l s , g r a i n s i z e l i m i t s , and c o r r e s p o n d i n g s p e c i f i c s u r f a c e (U)
o
De s c r i p t i o n
Particle size
1 = 2 ? ( -d
1
1 ) +x
2
l i m i t s (micron)
d
1
d
2
d i n cm
Silt
16 63 83 125 200 333 500
63 83 125 200 333 500 1,000 2,000
i(625 + 160) = 390 i(160 + 120) = 140 ;(I20 + 80) = 100 50) = 30) = 20) =
IO) =
Very f i n e sand F i n e sand Moderately f i n e sand M o d e r a t e l y c o a r s e sand C o a r s e sand Very c o a r s e sand
E x t r e m e l y c o a r s e sand
1,000
i( i( i( i( i(
80 + 50 +
65
40
25 15 7.5
30 +
20 +
IO +
5) =
The s p e c i f i c s u r f a c e (U) o f sand samples of d i f f e r e n t f r a c t i o n s i s u s u a l l y d e t e r m i n e d from t h e r e s u l t s of a m e c h a n i c a l a n a l y s i s o f t h e s a m p l e s f o r which a s e t of s t a n d a r d s i e v e s i s u s e d . A f t e r s i e v i n g t h e s a m p l e , one w e i g h s t h e m a t e r i a l l e f t b e h i n d on e a c h s i e v e and m u l t i p l i e s t h e w e i g h t w i t h t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g U-values.

To f i n d t h e U-value,
the results are
summed and d i v i d e d by t h e t o t a l w e i g h t of t h e s a m p l e :
U.W. -- 1 1 "sample - wtot
37
The r e l a t i o n between t h e h y d r a u l i c c o n d u c t i v i t y and g r a i n s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f sandy m a t e r i a l s h a s been t h e s u b j e c t o f numerous i n v e s t i g a t i o n s . U-value If the
i s chosen a s - a parameter f o r t h e g r a i n s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n , it
appears t h a t i n a l l t h e formulas t h e h y d r a u l i c c o n d u c t i v i t y i s i n v e r s e l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o U 2 . F o r homogeneous s a n d s , f r e e o f c l a y , t h e f o l l o w i n g equation applies :
where p = p o r o s i t y of t h e sand
C = a f a c t o r r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e i n f l u e n c e of t h e shape of t h e p a r t i c l e s
and t h e v o i d s
V a r i o u s i n v e s t i g a t i o n s have shown t h a t t h e p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y f a c t o r between K ( i n m/d) a n d ] / U 2 , o r t h e p r o d u c t K U 2 , v a r i e s f r o m 31 x I O 3 t o 71 x I O 3
a t a p o r o s i t y of t h e sand p = 0.40. Most v a l u e s r a n g e from 31 x I O 3 t o
45 x I O 3 ( d e R i d d e r and W i t 1965).
F o r c o n d i t i o n s i n The N e t h e r l a n d s , E r n s t ( u n p u b l i s h e d r e s e a r c h ) found t h a t t h e f o l l o w i n g e m p i r i c a l e q u a t i o n g a v e t h e b e s t r e s u l t s when compared w i t h aquifer tests:
54,000 U-
CsoCclCgr
(2. IO)
where
K
U
Cso Ccl
= h y d r a u l i c c o n d u c t i v i t y , m/d
= s p e c i f i c s u r f a c e of t h e main sand f r a c t i o n = c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r f o r t h e s o r t i n g o f t h e sand = c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r f o r t h e p r e s e n c e of p a r t i c l e s s m a l l e r t h a n
16 m i c r o n s
gr
= c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r f o r the presence of gravel
F i g u r e 2 . 1 7 shows a g r a p h i c a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e s e c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r s . 38
sorting percentage in 3 top-fractions

O/O
90
80
70
60
50
LO
0.L
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2 1.L 1.6 correction factor , C ,
particles < 0.016 mm

010
6 5 L 3 2 1
\
n .
\
O
0.2 0.L 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 correction factor C I,
grovel >2mm
010
60 50
LO
30
20 10
~~
'1.0
1.2
1.L
1.6
1.8 2.0 2.2 correction foctor C g r
Fig. 2.17 Correction factors for estimating hydraulic conductivity of sands from grain-size distribution expressed in specific surface (U)
39
The f a c t o r s C s o t a k e s i n t o account t h e s o r t i n g of t h e s a n d , t a k e n a s t h e t o t a l p e r c e n t a g e by weight of t h e t h r e e n e i g h b o u r i n g s u b f r a c t i o n s i n which t h e abundance of g r a i n s i s g r e a t e s t . For a s o r t i n g of 70 per c e n t , t h e c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r i s 1 ; f o r a h i g h e r s o r t i n g i t i s g r e a t e r t h a n 1 , and f o r a l o w e r s o r t i n g i t i s l e s s t h a n 1. Clay r e d u c e s t h e h y d r a u l i c c o n d u c t i v i t y of a sand. I f t h e sand sample c o n t a i n s more t h a n 6 p e r c e n t p a r t i c l e s s m a l l e r t h a n 16 microns, t h e method c a n n o t be u s e d . I f g r a v e l o c c u r s i n t e r m i x e d w i t h s a n d , i t o b s t r u c t s t h e flow of w a t e r and c o n s e q u e n t l y d e c r e a s e s h y d r a u l i c c o n d u c t i v i t y . Normally, however, g r a v e l o c c u r s a s s e p a r a t e l a y e r s whose h y d r a u l i c c o n d u c t i v i t y i s h i g h . I n t h e graph f o r t h e C g r e a t e r than I . To g i v e an example, suppose a sample i s c l a s s i f i e d a s f i n e sand, w i t h a s o r t i n g of 60 p e r c e n t of t h e g r a i n s i n t h e t o p t h r e e f r a c t i o n s , approxi m a t e l y 2 p e r c e n t p a r t i c l e s s m a l l e r t h a n 16 m i c r o n s , and no g r a v e l . The h y d r a u l i c c o n d u c t i v i t y of t h e sand i s (Eq. 2 . 1 0 ) : gr f a c t o r , o n l y t h i s e f f e c t i s c o n s i d e r e d . The f a c t o r C gr is
K = 54,000
loo-*
x 0.76
0 . 5 8 x 1.0 = 2 . 4 m/d
The g r a i n - s i z e method can b e used t o e s t i m a t e t h e h y d r a u l i c c o n d u c t i v i t y of s a n d y m a t e r i a l s found i n o l d and new b o r e h o l e s , p r o v i d e d t h a t t h e i r l o g s a r e a v a i l a b l e and t h a t t h e l o g s g i v e s u f f i c i e n t d e t a i l s on t h e g r a i n s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n and on t h e c l a y and g r a v e l c o n t e n t s of t h e l a y e r s p i e r c e d . The p r o c e d u r e of e s t i m a t i n g a n a q u i f e r ' s t r a n s m i s s i v i t y and weighted mean h y d r a u l i c c o n d u c t i v i t y from g r a i n s i z e d a t a i s a s f o l l o w s ( F i g . 2 . 1 8 ) . Using t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of T a b l e 2.2 and Eq. 2 . 1 0 , one c a l c u l a t e s t h e
h y d r a u l i c c o n d u c t i v i t y of t h e m a t e r i a l s d e s c r i b e d f o r each l a y e r . These Kv a l u e s a r e m u l t i p l i e d by t h e t h i c k n e s s of t h e i n d i v i d u a l l a y e r s . The sum o f t h e s e KD v a l u e s i s t h e t r a n s m i s s i v i t y of t h e a q u i f e r . D i v i d i n g t h e sum by t h e t o t a l t h i c k n e s s of t h e a q u i f e r g i v e s t h e weighted mean h y d r a u l i c conductivity,
E,
of t h e a q u i f e r .
40
K (m/d) very fine sand (loamy) U=140 moderately fine sand, U=65, poorly sorted coarse sand, U=26 well sorted 0.8
D (m) 3
KD (m2/d)
2.4
6.5
26.0
. . ........ .. 9: ...... ':
90.4
180.8
...-. ........... ........... ........... ........... ........... ........... moderately fine ........... ........... ........... ........... ........... to fine sand, U=80, ........... ........... ........... ,7 ........... ........... well sorted
13
:+
..... ..... very coarse sand, ..... . . . . . U=20 some clay
81.O
324.0
9.5
38.0
___ _ ____ --__ __ -
-+
transmissivity 570.0
clay
K' = 570117 = 34 m/d
F i g . 2 . 1 8 E s t i m a t i n g t r a n s m i s s i v i t y from g r a i n s i z e s d e s c r i b e d i n a b o r e log Analyzing g r a i n - s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n of l a r g e numbers of samples i n t h e l a b o r a t o r y and c a l c u l a t i n g U-values
i s time-consuming and c o s t l y . Exper-
ienced f i e l d staff, u s i n g o n l y a magnifying g l a s s with b u i l t - i n measuring s c a l e o r a sand r u l e r t h a t c o n t a i n s small q u a n t i t i e s of t h e s u b f r a c t i o n s given i n Table 2 . 2 , are o f t e n c a p a b l e of making f a i r l y good e s t i m a t e s of
t h e average g r a i n s i z e ( U ) o f d r i e d samples, t h e i r s o r t i n g , and t h e i r c l a y and g r a v e l c o n t e n t s . The g r a i n - s i z e method can a l s o be a p p l i e d t o t h e s e e s t i m a t e s t o o b t a i n a n average K and KD of an a q u i f e r . Experience h a s shown, however, t h a t t h e g r e a t e s t e r r o r s i n e s t i m a t i n g U a r e made i n t h e two extreme g r a i n s i z e c l a s s e s : s i l t s t o v e r y f i n e s a n d s , and very c o a r s e t o extremely c o a r s e s a n d s . I t i s obvious t h a t e s t i m a t e s of K and KD made i n t h i s way g i v e o n l y an o r d e r of magnitude of t h e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and t h a t a p p r e c i a b l e e r r o r s c a n b e made.
41
I t s h o u l d a l s o b e n o t e d t h a t t h e p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y f a c t o r o f 54,000 i n Eq.
2 . 1 0 may n o t b e v a l i d f o r a l l d e p o s i t i o n a l e n v i r o n m e n t s . W e would t h e r e f o r e
s u g g e s t t h a t t h e method f i r s t b e a p p l i e d a t a q u i f e r t e s t s i t e s and t h a t a v e r a g e KD v a l u e s b e o b t a i n e d f r o m s a m p l e s a n d / o r w e l l l o g s o f t h e o b s e r v a t i o n w e l l s . I E t h e a v e r a g e o f t h e s e e s t i m a t e s c o m p a r e s w e l l w i t h t h e KD v a l u e f o u n d from t h e a q u i f e r t e s t , t h e method can b e a p p l i e d . I f t h e c o m p a r i s o n i s n o t good, t h e p r o c e d u r e s h o u l d b e r e p e a t e d u s i n g a n a d j u s t e d proportionality factor.
Flow n e t method
I n t h o s e p a r t s of a b a s i n where n o a q u i f e r t e s t s h a v e b e e n c o n d u c t e d and w h e r e no w e l l o r b o r e l o g s are a v a i l a b l e , and i n d i r e c t method o f e s t i m a t i n g t h e a q u i f e r t r a n s m i s s i v i t y can b e u s e d . F o r t h i s p u r p o s e one n e e d s an a c c u r a t e w a t e r t a b l e - c o n t o u r map o n which one s k e t c h e s s t r e a m l i n e s o r t h o g o n a l l y t o t h e c o n t o u r l i n e s so t h a t a f l o w n e t i s o b t a i n e d ( F i g . 2 . 1 9 ) . I f KD i s known f o r one segment o f a stream t u b e , f o r example because an
a q u i f e r t e s t h a s b e e n made t h e r e , KD o f t h e o t h e r s e g m e n t s i n t h e s t r e a m t u b e can be c a l c u l a t e d by u s i n g D a r c y ' s f o r m u l a i n e a c h segment i n s u c -
cess i o n .
I f (KD)
i s known, t h e n
i n t h e n e x t segment i s found from
(2.11)
where qA
WA
= f l o w i n segment A(m3/d)
=
a v e r a g e w i d t h o f Segment A
LA
= a v e r a g e l e n g t h o f Segment A
AhA = p o t e n t i a l d r o p a c r o s s Segment A
42
F i g . 2.19 Flow n e t f o r c a l c u l a t i n g t h e t r a n s m i s s i v i t y KD i n c o n s e c u t i v e segments of a stream t u b e
I n t h i s way, one can o b t a i n t h e s a a t i a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of KD f o r t h e whole l e n g t h of t h e s t r e a m t u b e . The r a t i o q / q r e p r e s e n t s t h e r e l a t i v e change B A i n flow i n t h e stream t u b e due t o r e c h a r g e and d i s c h a r g e of groundwater. I f q can be r e g a r d e d a s a c o n s t a n t , t h e r a t i o can be t a k e n a s one, o t h e r w i s e t h e v a r i o u s r e c h a r g e and d i s c h a r g e terms must be known t o d e t e r m i n e t h e
~ ~
qB/qA r a t i o .
Other methods
S e v e r a l o t h e r t e c h n i q u e s of d e t e r m i n i n g a q u i f e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s e x i s t , b u t t h e i r application i s r e s t r i c t e d t o s p e c i f i c hydrogeological conditions. In c o a s t a l a q u i f e r s i n d i r e c t contact with t h e ocean, f o r instance, t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n of t i d a l waves i n t h e a q u i f e r can be measured i n a few o b s e r v a t i o n w e l l s p l a c e d on a l i n e p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e c o a s t . The w a t e r l e v e l d a t a can t h e n be used t o c a l c u l a t e t h e a q u i f e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s (Todd 1980; Wesseling 1959, 1973; d e Ridder and W i t 1965; van d e r Kamp 1973).
43
I n a r i v e r i n e a r e a r e c e i v i n g s t e a d y seepage from a r i v e r , t h e leakage f a c t o r o f a semi-confined a q u i f e r can be d e t e r m i n e d i n a s i m i l a r way, i . e .
b y u s i n g w a t e r l e v e l d a t a from a few o b s e r v a t i o n w e l l s placed on a l i n e p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e r i v e r (Wesseling 1973). Observing t h e change i n w a t e r t a b l e a f t e r a n i n s t a n t a n e o u s change i n t h e w a t e r l e v e l of a ( s t r a i g h t ) r i v e r t r a c t o r c a n a l a l l o w s t h e v a l u e of

I
(KD/p)'
of an u n c o n f i n e d a q u i f e r t o be c a l c u l a t e d (Edelman 1947, 1972;
S t a l l m a n 1962; Huisman 1972). F i n a l l y , t h e w a t e r b a l a n c e method c a n be u s e d t o c a l c u l a t e t h e h y d r a u l i c r e s i s t a n c e of t h e c o n f i n i n g l a y e r o v e r l y i n g a semi-confined a q u i f e r ( s e e S e c t i o n 4 of t h i s C h a p t e r ) .
F i g . 2.20 A q u i f e r t r a n s m i s s i v i t y of a h y p o t h e t i c a l b a s i n i n m2/d
44
HydrauZic conductivity map

The model r e q u i r e s q u a n t i t a t i v e d a t a of t h e a q u i f e r ' s h y d r a u l i c c o n d u c t i v ity For t h i s p u r p o s e t h e t r a n s m i s s i v i t y d a t a o b t a i n e d from a q u i f e r t e s t s ,
t e s t s , s l u g t e s t s , p o i n t t e s t s , and e s t i m a t e s from w e l l o r b o r e l o g s
wel
and flow-net c a l c u l a t i o n s s h o u l d a l l be used t o compile a ( p r e l i m i n a r y ) t r a n s m i s s i v i t y map ( F i g . 2 . 2 0 ) .

A h y d r a u l i c c o n d u c t i v i t y map can t h e n b e
compiled. To do s o , one superimposes t h e t r a n s m i s s i v i t y map on t h e i s o p a c h map (Fig. 2 . 1 7 ) and r e a d s t h e t h i c k n e s s and t h e t r a n s m i s s i v i t y a t t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n s . One f i n d s t h e h y d r a u l i c c o n d u c t i v i t y K a t t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n s by d i v i d i n g KD by D. These K-values a r e p l o t t e d on a s e p a r a t e map and l i n e s of e q u a l h y d r a u l i c c o n d u c t i v i t y a r e drawn.
Estimating s p e c i f i c yieZd
The s p e c i f i c y i e l d , p, i s a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c p r o p e r t y of unconfined a q u i f e r s . It i s a dimensionless parameter t h a t c h a r a c t e r i z e s t h e s t o r a g e c a p a c i t y of such a q u i f e r s and i s u s u a l l y d e f i n e d as t h e r a t i o of t h e d r a i n a b l e volume t o t h e b u l k volume of t h e a q u i f e r , o r t h e d i f f e r e n c e between t h e p o r o s i t y and t h e s p e c i f i c r e t e n t i o n , a l s o known as f i e l d c a p a c i t y o r w a t e r - h o l d i n g capacity
The s p e c i f i c y i e l d can be d e t e r m i n e d from t h e d a t a of an a q u i f e r t e s t . Such t e s t s , however, must l a s t s e v e r a l days o r even weeks t o e n s u r e t h a t t h e c a l c u l a t e d v a l u e of p i s r e l i a b l e . S p e c i f i c y i e l d can be measured by a v a r i e t y of o t h e r t e c h n i q u e s . One c a n , f o r example, t a k e s o i l samples and d e t e r m i n e i n t h e l a b o r a t o r y t h e d i f f e r e n c e between t h e v o l u m e t r i c - w a t e r c o n t e n t a t s a t u r a t i o n and t h e w a t e r c o n t e n t when most of t h e w a t e r h a s d r a i n e d from t h e p o r e s ( w a t e r c o n t e n t a t f i e l d c a p a c i t y ) . Another t e c h n i q u e , o f t e n used i n e x p e r i m e n t a l f i e l d s , c o n s i s t s of m e a s u r i n g t h e drop i n w a t e r t a b l e , Ah, and t h e amount of water d r a i n e d from t h e f i e l d ,
Q. The s p e c i f i c y i e l d i s found by d i v i d i n g t h e q u a n t i t y of d r a i n a g e water
by t h e drop i n w a t e r t a b l e
(u
= (Q/A)/Ah,
where A i s t h e a r e a ) .
45
I n l a r g e g r o u n d w a t e r b a s i n s , any of t h e s e t e c h n i q u e s a r e time-consuming t h e r e f o r e c o s t l y , s o t h e i r u s e w i l l p r o b a b l y be l i m i t e d t o j u s t a few
and
s i t e s . T h i s p r o d u c e s a f a r from r e l i a b l e p i c t u r e o f t h e areal d i s t r i b u t i o n
o f t h e s p e c i f i c y i e l d . An e x p e r i e n c e d h y d r o g e o l o g i s t may be a b l e t o e s t i m a t e t h e s p e c i f i c y i e l d from d a t a on g r a i n s i z e . I f s o , t h e s e e s t i m a t e s c a n
b e v a l u a b l e a d d i t i o n s t o t h e few, more p r e c i s e , d a t a c o l l e c t e d by o t h e r means. To e s t i m a t e t h e s p e c i f i c y i e l d of a n u n c o n f i n e d a q u i f e r ( o r a c o v e r i n g c o n f i n i n g l a y e r ) f r o m a v a i l a b l e b o r e o r w e l l l o g s , one f o l l o w s t h e same p r o c e d u r e a s o u t l i n e d i n F i g u r e 2.18. Orders of magnitude f o r s p e c i f i c y i e l d
o f d i f f e r e n t m a t e r i a l s a r e (Table 2.3):
T a b l e 2.3 O r d e r s of m a g n i t u d e and r a n g e s f o r s p e c i f i c y i e l d of d i f f e r e n t m a t e r i a l s ( a f t e r M o r r i s and Johnson 1 9 6 7 )
Type of m a t e r i a l Range Coarse g r a v e l Medium g r a v e l Fine gravel C o a r s e sand Medium sand F i n e sand Silt
13 17 13
Specific yield (per cent) M ea n

~~
25
21 24 28
44 40
18 - 4 3
30
32 33
20
16 - 46
1 - 46
1 - 39
C 1a y
Loess E o l i a n sand Tuff Sandstone ( f i n e ) S a n d s t o n e (medium) S i 1t s t o n e
14
32 2 2
18 22
6
18 38 21 21 27 12
47 47 40
12 - 41 1 - 33
Note t h a t f o r a l l t h e c o n t r o l p o i n t s i n t h e area a w e i g h t e d mean s p e c i f i c y i e l d s h o u l d be c a l c u l a t e d f o r t h e zone i n which t h e w a t e r t a b l e f l u c t u a t e s
46
o r i s expected t o f l u c t u a t e i n t h e f u t u r e . To b e on t h e s a f e s i d e , one s h o u l d make t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s from t h e l a n d s u r f a c e down t o some IO t o 15 m below t h e p r e s e n t mean w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n .
Estimating storage coefficient

The s t o r a g e c o e f f i c i e n t of a c o n f i n e d o r semi-confined a q u i f e r cannot be
d e r i v e d from g r a i n s i z e d a t a , b u t i s u s u a l l y d e t e r m i n e d .from f i e l d t e s t d a t a ( a q u i f e r t e s t s ) . S i n c e t h e s t o r a g e c o e f f i c i e n t i s a f u n c t i o n of t h e d e p t h and t h i c k n e s s of t h e a q u i f e r , i t s o r d e r of magnitude c a n a l s o be estimated, using t h e following equation:
S = 1.8 x 10-6(d -d
2 1
) + 8.6 x 1 0 - 4 ( d 0 ' 3 - d 0 ' 31

2
(2.12)
where d
1
and d
2
a r e t h e d e p t h s of t h e upper and lower s u r f a c e of t h e
a q u i f e r below ground s u r f a c e , r e s p e c t i v e l y (van d e r Gun 1 9 7 9 ) . S can be e s t i m a t e d from F i g u r e 2 . 2 1 . The l o g s of a l l e x i s t i n g , f u l l y p e n e t r a t i n g w e l l s and b o r e s can t h u s be used t o e s t i m a t e t h e s t o r a g e c o e f f i c i e n t o f c o n f i n e d and semi-confined a q u i f e r s . These d a t a , t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e d a t a on s t o r a g e c o e f f i c i e n t s d e r i v e d from a q u i f e r t e s t s , a r e p l o t t e d on a map and l i n e s of e q u a l s t o r a g e coefficient are dram.
Note: I n t h e above d i s c u s s i o n w e have emphasized t h e e f f o r t s t h a t should be made t o o b t a i n a s complete a p i c t u r e o f t h e magnitude and s p a t i a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e a q u i f e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s as p o s s i b l e . Owing t o t h e g e o l o g i c a l complexity o f . most a q u i f e r s and t o t h e i n a c c u r a c i e s involved when a p p l y i n g t h e methods we have d e s c r i b e d , t h e p i c t u r e w i l l n e v e r be c o m p l e t e , n o r can t h e v a l u e s of t h e a q u i f e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s be p r e c i s e . One should t h e r e f o r e n o t be s u r p r i s e d , when c a l i b r a t i n g t h e model, t o f i n d t h a t even t h e b e s t maps of h y d r a u l i c c o n d u c t i v i t y , s t o r a g e c o e f f i c i e n t , and s p e c i f i c y i e l d need a d j u s t m e n t . The h y d r o g e o l o g i s t ' s main t a s k i s t h e r e f o r e , t o d e t e r m i n e t h e o r d e r of magnitude of t h e s e p a r a m e t e r s i n d i f f e r e n t p a r t s of t h e b a s i n
47
a n d , on t h e b a s i s of a p r o p e r knowledge o f t h e l i t h o l o g i c a l v a r i a t i o n s w i t h i n a n a q u i f e r and i t s c o n f i n i n g l a y e r , i f p r e s e n t , t o i n d i c a t e t h e r a n g e w i t h i n which t h e p a r a m e t e r v a l u e s may v a r y . A s shown i n T a b l e 2 . 3 , t h e r a n g e f o r s p e c i f i c y i e l d of d i f f e r e n t g r a n u l a r m a t e r i a l s i s f a i r l y wide.
S 0.01
0.001
0.0001
0.00001
1
10
1O0
1000 Dim)
F i g . 2.21 C o e f f i c i e n t of e l a s t i c s t o r a g e a s a f u n c t i o n of a q u i f e r t h i c k n e s s ( D ) a n d d e p t h ( d l ) b e l o w t h e a q u i f e r s u r f a c e . Nomograph b a s e d on Eq. 2 . 1 2 ( a f t e r van d e r Gun 1979)
2.3
Hydrological stress
from t h e i n f i l t r a t i o n
H y d r o l o g i c a l s t r e s s e x e r t e d on a g r o u n d w a t e r b a s i n
of r a i n f a l l a n d / o r i r r i g a t i o n w a t e r , from stream-bed p e r c o l a t i o n , evapotranspiration, g r o u n d w a t e r d i s c h a r g e by s t r e a m s and s p r i n g s , and pumping 48
from w e l l s
i s r e f l e c t e d i n t h e c o n f i g u r a t i o n and f l u c t u a t i o n of t h e
w a t e r t a b l e i n t h e b a s i n . A s p a r t of t h e h y d r o g e o l o g i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s , a w a t e r t a b l e s u r v e y should t h e r e f o r e be made. The development of a groundwater b a s i n model r e q u i r e s t h a t s u f f i c i e n t and r e l i a b l e d a t a on t h e w a t e r t a b l e b e a v a i l a b l e because t h e model i s c a l i b r a t e d by " h i s t o r y matching". T h i s means t h a t computed w a t e r t a b l e e l e v -
a t i o n s a r e compared w i t h a c t u a l l y measured ones. The c o l l e c t i o n and e v a l u a t i o n of w a t e r t a b l e d a t a i s t h e r e f o r e a n important p a r t of groundwater b a s i n modelling.
2.3. I
Watertable e l e v a t i o n
To s t u d y t h e magnitude and d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e h y d r a u l i c head i n a b a s i n ,
an a p p r o p r i a t e network of o b s e r v a t i o n w e l l s a n d / o r p i e z o m e t e r s must be e s t a b l i s h e d throughout t h e b a s i n and a l o n g i t s b o u n d a r i e s . The number and s p a c i n g of t h e w e l l s and p i e z o m e t e r s depends on t h e s i z e and hydrogeol o g i c a l c o n d i t i o n s of t h e b a s i n , and on t h e t y p e of problem t h a t i s t o b e studied. For confined and unconfined a q u i f e r s , s e t s of s i n g l e o b s e r v a t i o n w e l l s w i l l s u f f i c e , b u t f o r semi-confined a q u i f e r s , s e t s of double o b s e r v a t i o n w e l l s o r piezometers are needed: one s e t i n t h e a q u i f e r and one s e t i n t h e c o v e r i n g p o o r l y permeable l a y e r . I n s e l e c t i n g p r o p e r s i t e s f o r o b s e r v a t i o n w e l l s , one m u s t c o n s i d e r v a r i a t i o n s i n a q u i f e r t h i c k n e s s , l a t e r a l and v e r t i c a l v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e a q u i f e r ' s l i t h o l o g y , and t h e s t r u c t u r a l d e f o r m a t i o n of t h e a q u i f e r , if any. More o b s e r v a t i o n w e l l s t h a n e l s e w h e r e are needed i n l o c a l r e c h a r g e a r e a s ( e . g . i r r i g a t e d a r e a s ) , i n l o c a l d i s c h a r g e a r e a s ( e . g . a r e a s where groundw a t e r i s a b s t r a c t e d from w e l l s ) , and i n a r e a s where a b r u p t changes i n h y d r a u l i c g r a d i e n t occur ( e . g . n e a r a f a u l t ) . S p e c i a l o b s e r v a t i o n w e l l s a r e needed t o s p e c i f y t h e c o n d i t i o n s a t t h e a q u i f e r ' s b o u n d a r i e s . Gauging s t a t i o n s i n s u r f a c e water c o u r s e s and s u r f a c e w a t e r b o d i e s ( l a k e s , s e a s , and oceans) s h o u l d be e s t a b l i s h e d and i n c l u d e d 'in t h e network.
49
Once t h e network of o b s e r v a t i o n w e l l s h a s been e s t a b l i s h e d , t h e water l e v e l s i n a l l t h e w e l l s s h o u l d be measured a t l e a s t once a month and f o r a t l e a s t one y e a r . P r e f e r a b l y t h e measurements should e x t e n d over two o r more y e a r s . F o r s p e c i f i c , l o c a l problems, more f r e q u e n t water l e v e l r e a d i n g s may b e r e q u i r e d , s a y weekly o r even d a i l y . The w a t e r l e v e l d a t a a r e u s e d t o draw t h e f o l l o w i n g maps: w a t e r t a b l e - c o n t o u r map depth-to-watertablemap w a t e r t ab l e - c hange map head-difference map ( i f a p p l i c a b l e ) .
To s t a r t t h e computer c a l c u l a t i o n s , one must know t h e i n i t i a l w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n s throughout t h e b a s i n . For t h i s purpose a w a t e r t a b l e - c o n t o u r map

a t t h e s t a r t i n g d a t e of t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s must be made. To c a l i b r a t e t h e
model, such maps a r e a l s o needed f o r each s u c c e s s i v e t i m e u n i t chosen f o r m o d e l l i n g . I f t h e time u n i t i s a month, monthly w a t e r t a b l e - c o n t o u r maps o v e r t h e whole c a l c u l a t i o n p e r i o d are needed. To e x p l a i n any anomalies i n h y d r a u l i c g r a d i e n t s and any groundwater mounds and d e p r e s s i o n s , t h e w a t e r t a b l e c o n t o u r map should be s t u d i e d i n combinat i o n w i t h t h e g e o l o g i c a l d a t a . Any human a c t i v i t i e s t h a t may a f f e c t t h e w a t e r t a b l e should a l s o be t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t . F o r a semi-confined a q u i f e r , two w a t e r t a b l e - c o n t o u r maps must be drawn: one
f o r t h e a q u i f e r , and one f o r t h e c o v e r i n g l a y e r . Although n o t r e q u i r e d f o r t h e model, maps of t h e d e p t h - t o - w a t e r t a b l e , w a t e r t a b l e f l u c t u a t i o n s , and h e a d - d i f f e r e n c e s can p r o v i d e a v a l u a b l e i n s i g h t i n t o t h e h y d r o g e o l o g i c a l c o n d i t i o n s of t h e b a s i n and i t s groundw a t e r regime.
Note. Our model i s based on t h e assumption t h a t t h e a q u i f e r t o be modelled c o n t a i n s f r e s h water whose mass d e n s i t y i s a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h e same througho u t t h e a q u i f e r . V a r i a t i o n s i n mass d e n s i t y , which may occur i n b o t h h o r i z o n t a l and v e r t i c a l d i r e c t i o n s cannot be s i m u l a t e d by t h e model. Groundwater d e n s i t y i s a f u n c t i o n of s a l i n i t y and t e m p e r a t u r e . To d e t e r m i n e t h e s a l i n i t y of t h e groundwater, water samples a r e t a k e n i n a number of
50
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o b s e r v a t i o n w e l l s and p i e z o m e t e r s p l a c e d a t d i f f e r e n t d e p t h s , and t h e i r t o t a l d i s s o l v e d s o l i d s c o n t e n t o r e l e c t r i c a l c o n d u c t i v i t y
i s determined. Geoelectrical prospecting can be a valuable a d d i t i o n t o

t h e s e f i n d i n g s . The r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d s h o u l d b e p l o t t e d on a map, and l i n e s o f e q u a l t o t a l d i s s o l v e d s o l i d s c o n t e n t o r e l e c t r i c a l c o n d u c t i v i t y are t h e n drawn. I f t h e s e maps r e v e a l g r e a t v a r i a t i o n s i n s a l i n i t y , i t w i l l n o t b e p o s s i b l e t o d e v e l o p t h e model. It may happen, however, t h a t t h e g r o u n d w a t e r i n t h e m a j o r p a r t o f t h e b a s i n
i s f r e s h , b u t s a l t y i n a minor p a r t o r a l o n g t h e boundary. To c o m p i l e a
c o n t o u r map o f t h e w a t e r t a b l e o r p o t e n t i o m e t r i c s u r f a c e , t h e w a t e r l e v e l r e a d i n g s from o b s e r v a t i o n w e l l s and p i e z o m e t e r s p l a c e d i n t h e s a l t y g r o u n d w a t e r must be c o r r e c t e d f o r t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n m a s s d e n s i t y . For h o r i z o n t a l f l o w t h e p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n i n t h e water i s h y d r o s t a t i c . I f the inter-
f a c e between f r e s h and s a l t water i s s h a r p and we assume a h o r i z o n t a l r e f e r e n c e l e v e l c o i n c i d i n g with t h e bottom of t h e piezometers (z = O ) , w e can convert t h e water l e v e l h
2
of t h e p i e z o m e t e r i n t h e s a l t y g r o u n d w a t e r
w i t h a mass d e n s i t y p density p
1
,
h
i n t o a water l e v e l f o r t h e f r e s h water w i t h mass
using the following equation (Fig. 2 . 2 2 ) :
( f r e s h water) = h
p2 -
(2.13)
PI
'1P1
d,d
Ii
II
F i g . 2 . 2 2 A q u i f e r w i t h f r e s h and s a l t g r o u n d w a t e r w i t h a s h a r p i n t e r f a c e 51
2.3.2
Type and e x t e n t of r e c h a r g e a r e a s
E s t i m a t i n g t h e r e c h a r g e of an a q u i f e r forms a b a s i c p a r t of any groundwater s t u d y , and it i s n o t t h e e a s i e s t p a r t . T h e . d i f f i c u l t y i s t h a t t h e p r o c e s s
.-
by which r a i n f a l l o r s u r f a c e w a t e r i n f i l t r a t e s i n t o t h e s o i l , moves downward t h r o u g h t h e u n s a t u r a t e d zone, and e v e n t u a l l y j o i n s t h e groundwater a s "deep p e r c o l a t i o n " i s n o t w e l l u n d e r s t o o d . I n a r i d z o n e s , where r a i n f a l l i s s c a n t y and i r r e g u l a r l y d i s t r i b u t e d i n space and t i m e , t h e problem t a k e s on even l a r g e r dimensions t h a n i n humid zones. The t y p e and e x t e n t o f r e c h a r g e a r e a s and t h e s o u r c e s of r e c h a r g e should f i r s t be d e t e r m i n e d . Although t h e y w i l l d i f f e r f o r d i f f e r e n t t y p e s of a q u i f e r s , t h e main f a c t o r s g o v e r n i n g t h e r e c h a r g e of a l l a q u i f e r s are topography, s u r f a c e geology, and c l i m a t e .
Confined a q u i f e r s , a s o c c u r i n deep downwarped b a s i n s , a r e u s u a l l y r e c h a r g e d

a l o n g t h e r i m o f t h e b a s i n where t h e f o r m a t i o n s c o n t a i n i n g t h e a q u i f e r o u t c r o p on t h e s u r f a c e . A p o r t i o n of t h e r a i n t h a t f a l l s on t h e s e o u t c r o p s i n f i l t r a t e s and j o i n s t h e groundwater. A e r i a l photographs can be used t o del i n e a t e t h e s e o u t c r o p s and t o d e t e r m i n e t h e i r a r e a l e x t e n t . A f i e l d s u r v e y
i s needed t o s p e c i f y t h e t y p e s of r o c k o r sediments t h a t make up t h e o u t c r o p s . B e s i d e s p e r c o l a t i o n of r a i n f a l l , o t h e r s o u r c e s of r e c h a r g e can b e stream-bed p e r c o l a t i o n and s u r f a c e r u n o f f from a d j a c e n t h i l l y t e r r a i n . The amounts of deep p e r c o l a t i o n of e a c h component should be s p e c i f i e d e i t h e r by t a k i n g d i r e c t measurements o r - as i s u s u a l l y done
by d e t e r m i n i n g t h e
d e e p p e r c o l a t i o n as t h e r e s i d u a l of t h e amounts of s u r f a c e w a t e r s u p p l y , u s e , and d i s c h a r g e . R e l a t i v e l y s m a l l e r r o r s i n t h e s e amounts, however, may c a u s e l a r g e e r r o r s i n t h e e s t i m a t e d deep p e r c o l a t i o n b e c a u s e deep p e r c o l a t i o n c o n s t i t u t e s o n l y a s m a l l p r o p o r t i o n of t h e s u r f a c e w a t e r s u p p l y , u s e , and d i s c h a r g e . Another s o u r c e of r e c h a r g e t o c o n f i n e d a q u i f e r s may be water m i g r a t i n g t h r o u g h c o n f i n i n g l a y e r s w i t h i n t h e b a s i n . Few c o n f i n i n g l a y e r s a r e t r u l y impermeable, u n l e s s t h e y l i e a t g r e a t d e p t h and a r e t h i c k and s t r o n g l y comp a c t e d by a t h i c k overburden. O t h e r r e c h a r g e zones o c c u r i n t h e v i c i n i t y of p o s i t i v e r e l i e f f e a t u r e s ( i n t e r f l u v e s , h i g h g r o u n d s , mountain f o r m a t i o n s ) . These zones are c h a r a c t e r -
52
i z e d by a c o n v e x i t y of t h e a q u i f e r ' s p i e z o m e t r i c s u r f a c e and by water p r e s s u r e s t h a t d i m i n i s h w i t h d e p t h , t h e r e b y i n d i c a t i n g t h e e x i s t e n c e of downward flow through u n d e r l y i n g p o o r l y permeable c o n f i n i n g l a y e r s . Hence,-..to d e l i n e a t e a n d , s p e c i f , y r e c h a r g e zones , n o t o n l y a e r i a l p h o t o g r a p h s should be s t u d i e d , b u t a l s o t h e p i e z o m e t r i c s u r f a c e i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e rel i e f and t h e exchange of water through c o n f i n i n g l a y e r s . I f such an exchange of w a t e r o c c u r s , t h e a q u i f e r i s n o t t r u l y c o n f i n e d , b u t i s confined. n s t e a d semi-
Unconfined a q u i f e r s with a deep w a t e r t a b l e a r e r e c h a r g e d by r a i n f a l l p e r c o l a t i o n , stream-bed p e r c o l a t i o n and, i n i r r i g a t e d a r e a s , i r r g a t i o n p e r c o l a t i o n ( p e r c o l a t i o n from t h e c a n a l system and from t h e f i e l d s ) . Here t o o , t h e c o n v e x i t y of t h e w a t e r t a b l e under stream c h a n n e l s , main i r r i g a t i o n c a n a l s , and i r r i g a t e d f i e l d s i s proof of such r e c h a r g e (Fig. 2 . 2 3 ) .
height
I-
F i g . 2 . 2 3 Example of a l o s i n g stream. Watertable-contour map. Cross-section o v e r stream v a l l e y ; convex w a t e r t a b l e under s t r e a m c h a n n e l due t o p e r c o l a t i o n from s t r e a m bed.
The s u r f a c e o f an unconfined a q u i f e r i s seldom e n t i r e l y f l a t . I n s t e a d i t shows minor and sometimes major r e l i e f f e a t u r e s such a s i n t e r f l u v e s , sand r i d g e s , and sand h i l l s . I n unconfined a q u i f e r s w i t h r e l a t i v e l y s h a l l o w w a t e r t a b l e s , t h e s e high grounds a r e t h e r e c h a r g e a r e a s .
53
C h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e s e r e c h a r g e a r e a s a r e t h e c o n v e x i t y o f t h e w a t e r t a b l e and r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e w a t e r t a b l e f l u c t u a t i o n s ( F i g . 2 . 2 4 ) , and a l s o a low
s a l t c o n t e n t of t h e groundwater and a n anomalous t e m p e r a t u r e g r a d i e n t i n

t h e groundwater. I n t h e t e m p e r a t e zones w i t h e x c e s s r a i n i n t h e c o o l s e a s o n s , f o r example, r e c h a r g e a r e a s a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by "too low" a t e m p e r a t u r e i n t h e zone where t h e a n n u a l t e m p e r a t u r e wave i s n e g l i g i b l e , i.e. below a d e p t h o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 5 m.
19 -
water level
w
( 3
Z J
In
18
17 -
- -_______16 -
----.
15 -
F i g . 2 . 2 4 S e c t i o n through an u n d u l a t i n g sandy a r e a showing a v e r a g e summer and w i n t e r w a t e r t a b l e s and t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g w a t e r l e v e l s i n brooks and r i v u l e t s (Ernst e t a l . 1970). Curve 1 : December 1965 Curve 2 : Average w i n t e r l e v e l Curve 3 : September 1965 Curve 4 : Average summer l e v e l
54
2.3.3
Rate of recharge
S e v e r a l methods c a n b e used t o e s t i m a t e t h e r e c h a r g e of u n c o n f i n e d a q u i fers. (Some of t h e s e methods c a n a l s o b e u s e d on t h e o u t c r o p s o f c o n f i n e d
aquifers. )
Groundwater flow
The f i r s t method i n v o l v e s a s t u d y o f t h e g r o u n d w a t e r f l o w . Some a q u i f e r s a r e d r a i n e d by s p r i n g s . Measuring t h e d i s c h a r g e o f t h e s p r i n g s g i v e s a n i n d i c a t i o n of t h e r e c h a r g e . I f most o f t h e r e c h a r g e o c c u r s j u s t u p s t r e a m of a n a q u i f e r , D a r c y ' s f o r m u l a can b e u s e d t o c a l c u l a t e t h e g r o u n d w a t e r f l o w t h r o u g h a s e c t i o n of t h e a q u i f e r downstream o f t h e r e c h a r g e a r e a :
Q = KD
dh B dx
(2.14)
where
Q
B
= t h e flow over a period of n days
dh/dx = t h e h y d r a u l i c gradient
= t h e w i d t h of
the section
A n a d v a n t a g e of t h i s method i s t h a t i t c o v e r s a l l r e c h a r g e f r o m r a i n f a l l
and p e r c o l a t i n g s u r f a c e water from streams and water c o u r s e s and can b e used f o r b o t h c o n f i n e d and u n c o n f i n e d a q u i f e r s . S e a s o n a l v a r i a t i o n s i n Q a r e i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h s e a s o n a l v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e h y d r a u l i c g r a d i e n t . Of c o u r s e , t o a p p l y t h i s method one must h a v e a n a c c u r a t e w a t e r t a b l e - c o n t o u r map and a c c u r a t e d a t a on t h e t r a n s m i s s i v i t y o f t h e a q u i f e r .
Rainfall-watertable relation
The second method i n v o l v e s t h e e l a b o r a t i o n of d a t a on r a i n f a l l a n d / o r i r r i g a t i o n w a t e r s u p p l y , and d a t a on t h e s e a s o n a l v a r i a t i o n s i n w a t e r t a b l e .
55
AS
t h i s method r e f e r s t o r e c h a r g e a t t h e s u r f a c e o n l y , it c a n n o t be u s e d
f o r t r u l y confined a q u i f e r s , except a t t h e i r outcrops along t h e r i m of t h e b a s i n . I f t h e w a t e r t a b l e i s r e l a t i v e l y deep and t h e r e i s a s e a s o n a l rec h a r g e from r a i n f a l l ( o r i r r i g a t i o n ) , t h e w a t e r t a b l e w i l l f l u c t u a t e as shown i n F i g u r e 2 . 2 5 .
/
"
i
)
y,
dL
\L
losses
recharge
P t
F i g . 2 . 2 5 Computation o f a n n u a l r e c h a r g e from s e a s o n a l v a r i a t i o n s i n w a t e r t a b l e due t o r a i n f a l l o r i r r i g a t i o n
The a n n u a l r i s e i n w a t e r t a b l e ( r ) i s p l o t t e d a g a i n s t t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g ann u a l r a i n f a l l ( P ) , so t h a t an a v e r a g e r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e two quan-
t i t i e s is established. Extrapolating the s t r a i g h t l i n e u n t i l i t i n t e r s e c t s

t h e a b s c i s g i v e s t h e amount of r a i n f a l l ( o r i r r i g a t i o n w a t e r ) below w h i c h t h e r e i s no recharge. Any q u a n t i t y l e s s t h a n t h i s amoupt i f l o s t by e v a p o -
t r a n s p i r a t i o n and r u n o f f .
Runoff hydrograph
A t h i r d method i n v o l v e s t h e e l a b o r a t i o n o f d a t a on d i s c h a r g e measurements
of streams. A g r a p h showing t h e d i s c h a r g e w i t h r e s p e c t t o t i m e i s c a l l e d a h y d r o g r a p h . Any h y d r o g r a p h c a n be r e g a r d e d a s a h y d r o g r a p h o f s u r f a c e r u n o f f s u p e r p o s e d o n a h y d r o g r a p h o f g r o u n d w a t e r f l o w . To s e p a r a t e t h e t w o , Gray (1970) d e s c r i b e s s e v e r a l methods. Although s u c h s e p a r a t i o n s are somewhat a r b i t r a r y and a r t i f i c i a l , t h e i r r e s u l t s are more r e l i a b l e t h a n
56
o t h e r w i s e when a p p l i e d t o f l o w r e g i o n s w i t h d i s t i n c t l y a l t e r n a t i n g w e t and d r y p e r i o d s . F i g u r e 2.26 shows such a s i t u a t i o n .
I
d rY wet period
I
Ip.
dry period,
n\
wet
F i g . 2 . 2 6 The u s e of stream f l o w - d e p l e t i o n curves i n a s s e s s i n g groundwater storage
The d o t t e d area r e p r e s e n t s t h e groundwater o u t f l o w o r i g i n a t i n g from t h e p r e v i o u s wet p e r i o d ; t h i s f l o w slowly d e c r e a s e s , b e i n g Q t h e n e x t w e t p e r i o d and Q

1
a t t h e s t a r t of
a t t h e end of t h a t p e r i o d . Because of t h e 2b groundwater r e c h a r g e i n t h e w e t p e r i o d , t h e groundwater o u t f l o w i n c r e a s e s . The amount of r e c h a r g e i s e q u a l t o t h e sum of t h e d o u b l e h a t c h e d a r e a ( r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e a d d i t i o n a l groundwater outflow d u r i n g t h e w e t p e r i o d ) and t h e s i n g l e h a t c h e d a r e a ( r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e a d d i t i o n a l groundwater o u t f l o w i n t h e n e x t d r y p e r i o d ) . The a d d i t i o n a l o u t f l o w i n t h i s d r y p e r i o d i s caused by t h e i n c r e a s e i n groundwater s t o r a g e d u r i n g t h e wet p e r i o d . I f a l i n e a r r e l a t i o n between groundwater o u t f l o w and groundwater s t o r a g e i s assumed, e x p r e s s e d by:
Q=aS
t h e i n c r e a s e i n groundwater s t o r a g e can b e i n d i c a t e d by Q
(2.15)
l a . The v a l u e of za a c a n be d e r i v e d from t h e s l o p e of t h e d e p l e t i o n c u r v e (which i s t h e t a i l

end of a hydrograph) drawn on s e m i - l o g a r i t h m e t i c p a p e r . The r e c h a r g e o f t h e groundwater t h u s e q u a l s t h e d o u b l e h a t c h e d a r e a p l u s Q
za
la.
57
Lysimeters
A f o u r t h method i n v o l v e s l y s i m e t e r s t u d i e s . A d i s a d v a n t a g e of l y s i m e t e r s i s
t h a t t h e y r e q u i r e n a t u r a l s o i l b l o c k s t o be c o l l e c t e d from d i f f e r e n t r e c h a r g e areas. Moreover, t h e r e c h a r g e measured from l y s i m e t e r s r e f e r s o n l y t o t h e r e c h a r g e from r a i n f a 1 on t h e s o i l s u r f a c e . Any o t h e r s o u r c e of recharge, e.g. i n t o account. from l a t e r a l o r upward i n f l o w of groundwater, i s n o t t a k e n
1
I
Tensiometers
A f i f t h method measures r e c h a r g e s by t e n s i o m e t e r s i n s t a l l e d i n t h e upper 1
~
t o 2 m of t h e s o i l p r o f i l e . A s t h e r e s u t s o b t a i n e d i n t h s way a P P Y o n l y t o a s m a l l a r e a , many i n s t a l l a t i o n s are r e q u i r e d t o c o v e r an e n t i r e r e charge area.
Is0topes
A s i x t h method i n c l u d e s t h e t r tium t a g g i n g method. T r tium i s i n j e c t e d , a t
a d e p t h of about 70 cm, b e f o r e t h e commencement of t h e r a i n y season. The i n j e c t i o n s i t e s are s e l e c t e d on t h e b a s i s of geology, topography, d r a i n a g e p a t t e r n , and s o i l t y p e . A f t e r t h e r a i n y s e a s o n , s o i l c o r e samples a r e t a k e n and t h e v a r i a t i o n i n t r i t i u m a c t i v i t y and m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t with depth are measured. T h i s a l l o w s t h e t r a c e r movement t o be e s t i m a t e d and t h e r e c h a r g e t o b e c a l c u l a t e d (Athavale e t a l .
1980).
Stream fZow
I n s t r e a m s and w a t e r c o u r s e s whose w a t e r l e v e l s a r e h i g h e r than t h e watert a b l e i n t h e a d j a c e n t l a n d , one can o b t a i n an i d e a of t h e amount of water t h a t t h e s e streams l o s e t o t h e underground by measuring t h e flow i n d i f f e r e n t s e c t i o n s of t h e stream. The d i f f e r e n c e i n flow between two measuring
58
p o i n t s i n d i c a t e s t h e amount o f water l o s t i n t h e t r a c t between t h o s e two points.
2.3.4
Type and e x t e n t of d i s c h a r g e areas
D i s c h a r g e a r e a s are a r e a s where t h e a q u i f e r l o s e s w a t e r by o v e r f l o w , e v a p o r a t i o n , d i v e r s i o n , m i g r a t i o n t h r o u g h c o n f i n i n g l a y e r s , and pumpage. A s t u d y o f t o p o g r a p h i c a l maps and a e r i a l p h o t o g r a p h s , in addition t o f i e l d
s u r v e y s , w i l l b e of g r e a t h e l p i n d e t e r m i n i n g t h e t y p e of d i s c h a r g e a r e a s and i n d e l i n e a t i n g them. The o v e r f l o w may a p p e a r a s s p r i n g s o r as g e n e r a l g r o u n d w a t e r o u t f l o w t h a t c o n t r i b u t e s t o t h e f l o w of s t r e a m s and o t h e r n a t u r a l o r a r t i f i c i a l water c o u r s e s ( F i g s . 2 . 2 7 and 2 . 2 8 ) .
F i g . 2 . 2 7 Two t y p e s o f s p r i n g s . The f a u l t a c t s a s a b a r r i e r t o g r o u n d w a t e r flow
2.3.5
R a t e of d i s c h a r g e
Springs
S p r i n g s a r e t h e most o b v i o u s form o f g r o u n d w a t e r d i s c h a r g e . They o c c u r i n a l l s i z e s , from small t r i c k l e s t o l a r g e s t r e a m s . T h e i r o c c u r r e n c e i s
59
g o v e r n e d by l o c a l h y d r o g e o l o g i c a l c o n d i t i o n s . Some s p r i n g s h a v e a f a i r l y c o n s t a n t d i s c h a r g e , b u t most o f them h a v e v a r i a b l e d i s c h a r g e s : h i g h d u r i n g a n d a f t e r r a i n , low o r n i l i n t h e d r y s e a s o n . Some a q u i f e r s l o s e w a t e r through l a r g e off-shore springs, e.g. a q u i f e r s o n t h e i s l a n d o f C r e t e and
o t h e r c o a s t a l a q u i f e r s a l o n g t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n S e a . To d e t e r m i n e t h e t o t a l q u a n t i t y o f g r o u n d w a t e r d i s c h a r g e d by s p r i n g s , r e g u l a r m e a s u r e m e n t s o f t h e i r f l o w s must be t a k e n , s a y m o n t h l y o r s e a s o n a l l y .
Stream-base-fZow/watertabZe relation
I n s h a l l o w w a t e r t a b l e a r e a s c o n s i d e r a b l e q u a n t i t i e s of g r o u n d w a t e r a r e d i s c h a r g e d by s e e p a g e i n t o streams and smaller n a t u r a l d r a i n a g e c h a n n e l s ( F i g .
2 . 2 8 ) . S e e p a g e o f g r o u n d w a t e r i n t o a s t r e a m o c c u r s when t h e w a t e r t a b l e a d j a c e n t t o t h e stream i s h i g h e r t h a n t h e water l e v e l i n t h e stream. The g r o u n d w a t e r d i s c h a r g e t o w a r d s stream c h a n n e l s c a n a l s o b e e s t i m a t e d f r o m t h e s e p a r a t i o n o f h y d r o g r a p h s ( S e c t i o n 3 . 3 ) . Here o n e f o c u s e s n o t o n f l o o d h y d r o g r a p h s , w h i c h show s h o r t h i g h - i n t e n s i t y r a i n f a l l s , b u t on t h e d e p l e t i o n curve of hydrographs during fair-weather p e r i o d s when a l l f l o w t o
streams i s c o n t r i b u t e d by g r o u n d w a t e r d i s c h a r g e . C u r v e s are t h e n p r e p a r e d
b y p l o t t i n g t h e mean w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n s w i t h i n a b a s i n a g a i n s t t h e corresponding groundwater d i s c h a r g e s (Fig. 2 . 2 9 ) .
+ 7
, , ,
/
F i g . 2 . 2 8 U n c o n f i n e d a q u i f e r d r a i n i n g i n t o a stream 60
meon wotertable depth ( m below surface)
-for period when ETis low

for period when ETis great
base flow (m3/sJ
F i g . 2.29 R a t i n g c u r v e o f mean w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n compared w i t h b a s e f l o w
'
I n areas w i t h d i s t i n c t h o t and c o l d s e a s o n s two c u r v e s w i l l be o b t a i n e d ,

o n e f o r t h e h o t s e a s o n when e v a p o t r a n s p i r a t i o n from g r o u n d w a t e r i s h i g h , and one f o r t h e c o l d s e a s o n when e v a p o t r a n s p i r a t i o n i s s o low t h a t i t c a n b e n e g l e c t e d . With t h e s e r a t i n g c u r v e s and t h e mean w a t e r t a b l e d e p t h s f o r
'
'
one y e a r , s u r f a c e r u n o f f and b a s e f l o w c a n be s e p a r a t e d from a s t r e a m hydrograph (Fig. 2.30).
stream flow discharge ( m 3 / s J
time
F i g . 2 . 3 0 S t r e a m f l o w h y d r o g r a p h i n which s u r f a c e r u n o f f and b a s e f l o w comp o n e n t s have been s e p a r a t e d 61
Evapotranspiration
E v a p o t r a n s p i r a t i o n i s t h e combined e f f e c t o f t h e e v a p o r a t i o n of w a t e r from m o i s t s o i l and t h e t r a n s p i r a t i o n of w a t e r by n a t u r a l v e g e t a t i o n and c u l t i v a t e d c r o p s . D e t e r m i n i n g t h e s e w a t e r l o s s e s t o t h e a t m o s p h e r e i s n o t an e a s y t a s k ; c o o p e r a t i o n w i t h a n a g r o n o m i s t s p e c i a l i z e d i n t h e s u b j e c t may b e n e c e s s a r y t o o b t a i n r e l i a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n on t h i s d i s c h a r g e . F i r s t o f a l l it s h o u l d be r e c o g n i z e d t h a t many f a c t o r s p l a y a r o l e i n t h e e v a p o t r a n s p i r a t i o n from a g r o u n d w a t e r b a s i n : c l i m a t e , s o i l s , s o i l water availability, s o i l f e r t i l i t y , c r o p s , c r o p p i n g p a t t e r n and i n t e n s i t y ,
e n v i r o n m e n t and e x p o s u r e , c u l t i v a t i o n p r a c t i c e s and i r r i g a t i o n methods. One m u s t t h e r e f o r e c o m p i l e a l a n d u s e map i n d i c a t i n g t h e a r e a s c o v e r e d w i t h n a t u r a l v e g e t a t i o n and c u l t i v a t e d c r o p s , w a s t e areas, b a r e s o i l s , u r b a n
a r e a s , s u r f a c e water b o d i e s , e t c . S i n c e t h e w a t e r consumption of v a r i o u s
c r o p s d i f f e r , a c r o p s u r v e y must be made and a map compiled o f t h e c r o p p i n g p a t t e r n . A s o i l s map and d e p t h - t o - w a t e r t a b l e maps f o r t h e growing s e a s o n
'
s h o u l d a l s o be made, i f t h e y are n o t y e t a v a i l a b l e . E x i s t i n g c l i m a t o l o g i c a l d a t a s h o u l d be c o l l e c t e d and e v a l u a t e d . B e c a u s e o f t h e d i f f i c u l t and time-consuming procedures involved i n obtain-
i n g d i r e c t measurements o f water u s e by c r o p s and n a t u r a l v e g e t a t i o n , a l a r g e number of methods (more t h a n 30) h a v e b e e n d e v e l o p e d t o c a l c u l a t e t h e s e v a l u e s . Among t h e s e m e t h o d s , t h e f o u r most w i d e l y used a r e t h o s e of Blaney-Criddle, Penman, and t h e r a d i a t i o n and pan e v a p o r a t i o n methods. The
c h o i c e of method d e p e n d s p r i m a r i l y on t h e t y p e of c l i m a t i c d a t a a v a i l a b l e .
I t i s beyond t h e scope of t h i s book t o d e s c r i b e t h e s e methods and we r e f e r
t h e r e a d e r t o Doorenbos and P r u i t t ( 1 9 7 7 ) who g i v e a n e x c e l l e n t r e v i e w of them. I n s h a l l o w w a t e r t a b l e areas, t h e g r o u n d w a t e r c o n t r i b u t e s t o e v a p o t r a n s p i r a t i o n t h r o u g h c a p i l l a r y r i s e . T h i s d i s c h a r g e i s d e t e r m i n e d by t h e d e p t h o f t h e g r o u n d w a t e r below t h e r o o t zone, t h e c a p i l l a r y and c o n d u c t i v e prop-
e r t i e s o f t h e s o i l , and t h e s o i l water c o n t e n t o r s o i l water t e n s i o n i n t h e

r o o t zone. A t c e r t a i n d e p t h s below t h e r o o t z o n e , d e p e n d i n g on t h e t y p e of s o i l and p r o v i d e d t h a t impermeable l a y e r s d o n o t o c c u r , t h e g r o u n d w a t e r
w i l l c o n t r i b u t e l e s s t h a n 1 mm/d t o t h e r o o t zone. These d e p t h s may be
62
groundwater depth cm below root zone
1 2-
50
100
15(
201
2 51
301
1 s i l t y cloy 2 loamy sond 3 clay L peat 5 clay 6 humous loamy sond 7 sandy loom
8 fine sandy loom

9 v e r y fine sandy loom
35 1
LO( upward flow rote, "/day
F i g . 2 . 3 1 C o n t r i b u t i o n of g r o u n d w a t e r t o t h e r o o t zone i n mm/d f o r d i f f e r e n t d e p t h s o f t h e w a t e r t a b l e b e l o w t h e r o o t zone a n d f o r d i f f e r e n t s o i l t y p e s u n d e r m o i s t c o n d i t i o n s ( s o i l water t e n s i o n o f r o o t z o n e a p p r o x i m a t e l y 0 . 5 a t m . ) ( a f t e r Doorenbos and P r u i t t 1 9 7 7 )
63
t a k e n a t a p p r o x i m a t e l y 50 t o 90 c m f o r c o a r s e and h e a v y t e x t u r e d s o i l s a n d a b o u t 120 t o 200 c m f o r most medium t e x t u r e d s o i l s ( o p . c i t . ) . F i g u r e 2.31
shows t h e upward r a t e o f g r o u n d w a t e r f l o w i n mm/d f o r d i f f e r e n t d e p t h s o f g r o u n d w a t e r b e l o w t h e r o o t zone a n d f o r d i f f e r e n t s o i l t y p e s , u n d e r t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t t h e s o i l i n t h e r o o t zone i s r e l a t i v e l y m o i s t , i . e . soil
water t e n s i o n e q u a l s about 0.5 a t m .
In p r a c t i c e , p o t e n t i a l e v a p o t r a n s p i r a t i o n i s o f t e n e s t i m a t e d f r o m a m e a s u r e d
o r c a l c u l a t e d e v a p o r a t i o n r a t e f r o m a f r e e water s u r f a c e . A s i m p l e c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e two i s t h e n assumed t o e x i s t :
= f E
(2.16)
where
E E P
= the potential evapotranspiration = t h e e v a p o r a t i o n from
rate
a f r e e water s u r f a c e
The e m p i r i c a l c o n v e r s i o n f a c t o r f d e p e n d s o n t h e r e f l e c t i v i t y o f t h e c r o p , o n t h e s e a s o n , t h e c l i m a t e , and t h e s i z e o f t h e c r o p p e d area. I f d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e f a c t o r f r e s u l t i n g from p h y s i o l o g i c a l v a r i a t i o n of t h e c r o p d u r i n g t h e g r o w i n g s e a s o n are d i s r e g a r d e d , T a b l e 2 . 4 c a n b e u s e d a s a f i r s t approximation.
T a b l e 2.4 V a l u e s of f , i n E
= f
E ( a f t e r v a n d e r Molen 1 9 7 1 )
Values of t h e f a c t o r f , i n E Humid Crop temperate tropical
= f
Arid o r semi-arid l a r g e area w i n t e r summer

1 .o
small ( l e s s than 1 h a ) summer 1.5
w i n t e r summer Wet, a f t e r r a i n or irrigation

Short g r a s s
0.9 0.7
0.8
1.0
1.0
1.2
0.8
1.0
0.8
1 .o
0.8
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.2
1.3
1.2
1.5 1.6
Tall c r o p (wheat, sugar cane)

Rice
1.0
1.0
1.2
64
On an annual b a s i s , e v a p o t r a n s p i r a t i o n c a n be e s t i m a t e d as b e i n g t h e
d i f f e r e n c e between r a i n f a l l and t o t a l o u t f l o w from t h e a r e a ( s u r f a c e w a t e r o u t f l o w , s u b s u r f a c e water o u t f l o w , and e x p o r t e d w a t e r , i f a n y ) . Any c h a n g e s i n s o i l water s t o r a g e , groundwater s t o r a g e , and s u r f a c e water s t o r a g e are n e g l e c t e d b e c a u s e a l o n g p e r i o d i s t a k e n . Such changes cannot b e n e g l e c t e d i f s h o r t e r p e r i o d s o f , s a y , one d a y , one week, o r one month are c o n s i d e r e d , which are p r e c i s e l y t h o s e u s e d i n groundwater m o d e l l i n g . To make a f a i r e s t i m a t e of t h e monthly e v a p o t r a n s p i r a t i o n l o s s e s , one must t h e r e f o r e conduct t h e e x t e n s i v e f i e l d s u r v e y s mentioned above, and use one o r more of t h e a p p r o p r i a t e c a l c u l a t i o n methods. The n u m e r i c a l model r e q u i r e s t h a t t h e a r e a l v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e monthly e v a p o t r a n s p i r a t i o n l o s s e s b e s p e c i f i e d .
upward seepage
An a q u i f e r can l o s e w a t e r by upward s e e p a g e t h r o u g h an o v e r l y i n g s l i g h t l y permeable l a y e r . Whether t h i s happens can be determined by p l a c i n g , p i e z o m e t e r s i n t h e a q u i f e r and i n t h e o v e r l y i n g l a y e r (Fig. 2.5C). I f t h e head
(h) i n t h e a q u i f e r i s h i g h e r t h a n t h e head of t h e f r e e w a t e r t a b l e i n t h e c o v e r i n g l a y e r ( h ' ) , t h e a q u i f e r l o s e s w a t e r by upward seepage. Consequentl y the watertable i n t h e covering l a y e r w i l l rise t o , o r c l o s e t o , t h e ground s u r f a c e . Areas where such upward seepage o c c u r s a r e u s u a l l y m o i s t o r swampy and a r e r e a l d i s c h a r g e areas. The w a t e r d i s c h a r g e s by e v a p o t r a n s p i r a t i o n of t h e r i c h n a t u r a l v e g e t a t i o n a n d / o r by small n a t u r a l d r a i n a g e channels. The t o t a l d i s c h a r g e from such areas c a n be e s t i m a t e d by measuring t h e s u r f a c e water o u t f l o w , i f any, and by e s t i m a t i n g t h e e v a p o t r a n s p i r a t i o n , as d i s c u s s e d above. It c a n a l s o be c a l c u l a t e d w i t h D a r c y ' s e q u a t i o n :
q = K' h
- h' D'
(2.17)
where q
= r a t e of upward s e e p a g e (m/d)
K' = hydraulic c o n d u c t i v i t y of the covering l a y e r f o r v e r t i c a l flow
(m/d)
65
D ' = s a t u r a t e d t h i c k n e s s of t h e c o v e r i n g l a y e r (m)
= h y d r a u l i c head i n t h e a q u i f e r
(m)
h' = h y d r a u l i c head i n t h e c o v e r i n g l a y e r (m), s e e F i g . 2.5C

Note: K ' / D '
= I / c , where c i s t h e h y d r a u l i c r e s i s t a n c e of t h e ( s a t u r a t e d )
c o v e r i n g l a y e r , a s i s commonly d e t e r m i n e d from a q u i f e r t e s t d a t a . I f t h e head d i f f e r e n c e (h - h ' ) i s n e g a t i v e , as i s o f t e n found i n i r r i g a t e d a r e a s , t h e a q u i f e r w i l l g a i n water by v e r t i c a l downward seepage through t h e covering layer. Although o u r model c a n n o t h a n d l e m u l t i - a q u i f e r s y s t e m s , we must p o i n t o u t may i n f a c t
t h a t t h e "impermeable" l a y e r u n d e r l y i n g t h e a q u i f e r (Fig. 2.5C)
n o t b e impermeable. Depending on t h e head d i f f e r e n c e s above and below t h a t l a y e r , t h e a q u i f e r may l o s e o r g a i n water t h r o u g h i t . To f i n d o u t whether t h i s o c c u r s , one must p l a c e d o u b l e p i e z o m e t e r s above and below t h e l a y e r and d e t e r m i n e i t s h y d r a u l i c r e s i s t a n c e . The v e r t i c a l exchange of ground-
water through t h e l a y e r can t h e n be e s t i m a t e d .
Horizontal outflow
A l l t y p e s of a q u i f e r s may l o s e groundwater by l a t e r a l s u b s u r f a c e o u t f l o w
t h r o u g h n a t u r a l o r imposed b o u n d a r i e s . The o u t f l o w r a t e must be determined o r e s t i m a t e d , u s i n g t h e methods d i s c u s s e d e a r l i e r .
Groundwater abstraction
F i n a l l y , t u b e w e l l s and pumping s t a t i o n s t h a t a b s t r a c t groundwater f o r d o m e s t i c , i n d u s t r i a l , o r i r r i g a t i o n water s u p p l i e s can be regarded as d i s c h a r g e areas. To e s t i m a t e t h e t o t a l a b s t r a c t i o n from t h e a q u i f e r , an i n v e n t o r y of a l l pumped w e l l s s h o u l d be made. I f pump r e c o r d s are n o t a v a i l a b l e , t h e y i e l d of t h e w e l l s c a n b e measured and i n q u i r i e s made a b o u t t h e i r time of o p e r a t i o n ( h o u r s p e r d a y , d a y s p e r week, weeks p e r months, and months p e r y e a r t h a t t h e w e l l s are pumped). I f a v a i l a b l e , d a t a on f u e l o r e l e c t r i c i t y consumption can be used t o estimate t h e d a i l y o r monthly a b s t r a c t i o n of t h e wells.
66
2.4
Groundwater balance
The c o n t i n u i t y concept r e q u i r e s t h a t a b a l a n c e must e x i s t between t h e t o t a l q u a n t i t y of water e n t e r i n g a b a s i n and t h e t o t a l amount l e a v i n g t h e b a s i n . I n i t s most g e n e r a l form, t h e water b a l a n c e e q u a t i o n ( o r t h e e q u a t i o n o f hydrologic equilibrium) reads: surface inflow + subsurface inflow + p r e c i p i t a t i o n + imported water
surface outflow + subsurface outflow + evapotranspiration + exported water + increase i n surface storage
ii n c r e a s e
+ decrease i n surface storage + d e c r e a s e i n groundwater s t o r a g e
i n groundwater s t o r a g e
The groundwater b a l a n c e e q u a t i o n can be e x p r e s s e d a s :
Perc
= p e r c o l a t i o n of w a t e r from p r e c i p i t a t i o n through t h e u n s a t u r a t e d
zone t o t h e w a t e r t a b l e ( e f f e c t i v e p r e c i p i t a t i o n ) Qper
= p e r c o l a t i o n of w a t e r through
stream b e d s , o t h e r w a t e r c o u r s e s ,
and s u r f a c e w a t e r b o d i e s which h a v e water l e v e l s h i g h e r t h a n the watertable i n the adjacent land

= upward v e r t i c a l seepage e n t e r i n g t h e a q u i f e r through a n underQUP
l y i n g s l i g h t l y permeable c o n f i n i n g l a y e r
Q1 si
Et
= l a t e r a l s u b s u r f a c e i n f l o w from a d j a c e n t a r e a s which have a
higher watertable than t h a t i n t h e a q u i f e r

= e v a p o t r a n s p i r a t i o n from s h a l l o w w a t e r t a b l e a r e a s
(capillary
r i s e from t h e s h a l l o w groundwater i n t o t h e u n s a t u r a t e d zone and evapo t r an s p i r a t i o n ) Qdr

= o u t f l o w of groundwater i n t o streams, open w a t e r c o u r s e s , and
o t h e r w a t e r b o d i e s which have water l e v e l s lower than t h e watertable i n t h e adjacent land do

= downward v e r t i c a l seepage l e a v i n g t h e a q u i f e r through a n
u n d e r l y i n g s l i g h t l y permeable c o n f i n i n g l a y e r
67
Ql so
AS
l a t e r a l s u b s u r f a c e o u t f l o w i n t o a d j a c e n t a r e a s which h a v e a lower w a t e r t a b l e than t h a t i n t h e a q u i f e r
grw
change i n groundwater s t o r a g e
boundary
I
Pr
Et
boundary
I
---c--I
l
'
I I
I 1 Qfsi
-------A
------ ----+----xI
I
Qko
I
I
I
I
F i g . 2 . 3 2 Flow components f o r a s s e s s i n g a g r o u n d w a t e r b a l a n c e
S i m i l a r l y , t h e water b a l a n c e of t h e u n s a t u r a t e d zone c a n be w r i t t e n :
(Pr + Irr - R.off)
Et
W = AS
sm
(2.19)
where ( F i g . 2 . 3 3 ) : Pr
= precipitation
=
Irr
Et
i r r i g a t i o n water s u p p l y
R. o f f = s u r f a c e r u n o f f
= evapotranspiration
=
(Perc
C a p ) , f l o w a c r o s s t h e lower b o u n d a r y o f t h e s o i l water
z o n e , where P e r c i s p e r c o l a t i o n and Cap i s c a p i l l a r y r i s e . W c a n be p o s i t i v e o r n e g a t i v e 68
ASsm
= change i n s o i l
water s t o r a g e , where s o i l w a t e r s t o r a g e i s t h e
amount of water r e t a i n e d by t h e s o i l up t o a maximum of f i e l d capacity
When t h e h y d r o g e o l o g i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s have been completed and t h e i n f l o w and outflow components of t h e a q u i f e r have been q u a n t i f i e d , an o v e r a l l groundwater b a l a n c e of t h e b a s i n must b e a s s e s s e d . T h i s i s needed b e c a u s e t h e model c a l c u l a t i o n s i n c l u d e t h e computation o f i n d i v i d u a l groundwater b a l a n c e s of t h e sub-areas i n t o which t h e b a s i n w i l l be d i v i d e d . On an
annual b a s i s , t h e sum of a l l t h e s e i n d i v i d u a l groundwater b a l a n c e s should a g r e e with t h e b a s i n ' s o v e r a l l annual groundwater b a l a n c e . The groundwater balance i s t h u s one of t h e means of v e r i f y i n g t h e groundwater model, provided t h a t a l l t h e i n f l o w and o u t f l o w components have been c o r r e c t l y determined and t h a t t h e e q u i l i b r i u m e q u a t i o n indeed b a l a n c e s . T h i s w i l l seldom happen, however, because some of i t s components a r e s u b j e c t t o minor o r major e r r o r s . These e r r o r s m u s t f i r s t be c o r r e c t e d by r e c o n s i d e r i n g t h e a v a i l a b l e d a t a and t h e methods t h a t had been used t o q u a n t i f y t h e compone n t s i n question.
F i g . 2.33 Flow components f o r a s s e s s i n g a water b a l a n c e of t h e u n s a t u r a t e d zone
69
E s t i m a t i n g unknown components
The w a t e r b a l a n c e t e c h n i q u e i t s e l f i s a v a l u a b l e t o o l f o r q u a n t i f y i n g c e r t a i n components of t h e e q u a t i o n t h a t a r e o t h e r w i s e d i f f i c u l t t o d e t e r m i n e .
A w a t e r b a l a n c e i s commonly a s s e s s e d f o r a c e r t a i n p e r i o d , which i s chosen
i n such a way t h a t a l l t h e v a l u e s of t h e v a r i o u s components of t h e e q u a t i o n
a r e known, with t h e e x c e p t i o n of one. Under c o n t r o l l e d c o n d i t i o n s , a s i n

l y s i m e t e r s f o r example, where t h e q u a n t i t i e s of r a i n , i r r i g a t i o n w a t e r , and w a t e r d r a i n e d from t h e l y s i m e t e r have been measured, t h e unknown q u a n t i t y o f w a t e r l o s t by e v a p o t r a n s p i r a t i o n can be c a l c u l a t e d : E t = P r + Irr
Dr.
When a p p l y i n g th-is approach, one must know t h e numerical v a l u e s of t h e components w i t h g r e a t p r e c i s i o n , o t h e r w i s e t h e r e s u l t may be m i s l e a d i n g ; i n a c c u r a c i e s i n one o r more of t h e known q u a n t i t i e s may exceed t h e magnit u d e of t h e unknown q u a n t i t y . I n a c c u r a c i e s i n t h e major components s t r o n g l y a f f e c t t h e v a l u e of a minor component; e r r o r s of a few hundred p e r c e n t are possible. I t i s o f t e n p o s s i b l e t o s i m p l i f y t h e groundwater b a l a n c e e q u a t i o n . I f , f o r example, t h e p e r i o d i s chosen a s t h e t i m e between two i r r i g a t i o n a p p l i c a t i o n s , t h e s o i l water s t o r a g e a t t h e b e g i n n i n g and t h e end of t h e p e r i o d i s
a t f i e l d c a p a c i t y . T h i s means t h a t t h e change i n s o i l water s t o r a g e o v e r

t h i s p e r i o d i s z e r o and can t h u s b e e l i m i n a t e d from t h e e q u a t i o n . Another s i m p l i f i c a t i o n i s t o choose a p e r i o d w i t h o u t r a i n (Prec = O ) o r a p e r i o d a t t h e b e g i n n i n g and t h e end of which t h e w a t e r t a b l e i s at t h e same e l e v a t i o n so t h a t t h e r e i s no change i n groundwater s t o r a g e (AS
= O). grw One can a l s o choose an a p p r o p r i a t e area, f o r i n s t a n c e a p o r t i o n of t h e
a q u i f e r where no s u r f a c e i n f l o w and o u t f l o w o c c u r s (Q where t h e w a t e r t a b l e i s deep (Cap = O ) .
= O) o r per - Qdr
I n an a q u i f e r w i t h a s h a l l o w w a t e r t a b l e where t h e o n l y d i s c h a r g e i s by d r a i n a g e t o s t r e a m s and water c o u r s e s (Q ) , where no s u r f a c e water i s i m dr p o r t e d o r e x p o r t e d , and where t h e change i n groundwater s t o r a g e can be negl e c t e d b e c a u s e a l o n g p e r i o d of time i s c o n s i d e r e d , t h e b a l a n c e e q u a t i o n s imp 1i f i e s t o :
70
R = - Qdr A
(Pr - E t )
(2.20)
where
R = t h e n e t r e c h a r g e of t h e a q u i f e r
A = the horizontal surface area
and t h e o t h e r symbols are a s d e f i n e d e a r l i e r .
T h i s e q u a t i o n shows t h e p r a c t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e of t h e n e t s u b s u r f a c e i n f l o w t o t h e a q u i f e r . The q u a n t i t y RA r e p r e s e n t s t h e d i f f e r e n c e between t h e a v e r a g e amount of water d r a i n e d by streams and w a t e r c o u r s e s and t h e a v e r a g e s u p p l y (Pr - Et)A. Obviously, t h e n e t r e c h a r g e (R) can be e i t h e r p o s i t i v e o r n e g a t i v e . Negative v a l u e s of R i n d i c a t e r e c h a r g e a r e a s , i . e . a r e a s where t h e n e t supply ( P r
Et)A e x c e e d s t h e d i s c h a r g e (Qdr), and p o s i t i v e v a l u e s
i n d i c a t e d i s c h a r g e a r e a s where t h e o p p o s i t e i s t r u e .
Estimating aquifer characteristics

The water b a l a n c e t e c h n i q u e can even be used t o e s t i m a t e a v e r a g e s of c e r t a i n a q u i f e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . Determining t h e h y d r a u l i c r e s i s t a n c e of t h e c o n f i n i n g l a y e r c o v e r i n g a semi-confined a q u i f e r , f o r i n s t a n c e , o f t e n p o s e s a problem, because i t would r e q u i r e s e v e r a l a q u i f e r t e s t s a t approp r i a t e p l a c e s i n t h e b a s i n . I f such t e s t s c a n n o t be made, t h e o r d e r of magnitude of t h i s a q u i f e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c can be o b t a i n e d by a s s e s s i n g a groundwater b a l a n c e . The procedure i s as f o l l o w s . One s e l e c t s a month, s a y
a month i n t h e r a i n y season d u r i n g which t h e r a i n f a l l h a s been measured. I n
t h i s month of r a i n y weather and cloudy s k i e s , t h e e v a p o t r a n s p i r a t i o n i s s o s l i g h t t h a t , as a f i r s t a p p r o x i m a t i o n , it i s n e g l e c t e d . Double p i e z o m e t e r s , o n e s e t placed i n t h e a q u i f e r and one s e t i n t h e c o v e r i n g l a y e r , show a w a t e r t a b l e r i s e i n t h e c o v e r i n g l a y e r . A s o i l s u r v e y h a s enabled a f a i r e s t i m a t e of t h e s p e c i f i c y i e l d of t h e c o v e r i n g l a y e r t o be made. The w a t e r
l e v e l r e a d i n g s from t h e p i e z o m e t e r s show a d i f f e r e n c e i n head between t h e

s h a l l o w and t h e deep piezometers. The a v e r a g e head d i f f e r e n c e f o r t h e month c a n be determined. I f t h e r e i s no i n f l o w o r o u t f l o w of s u r f a c e water i n t h e
71
a r e a , n o r any pumpage from w e l l s , n o r a r t i f i c i a l r e c h a r g e , t h e groundwater balance equation then reads :
(2.2
The h y d r a u l i c r e s i s t a n c e , c , of t h e c o n f i n i n g l a y e r i s t h e only unknown i n t h i s e q u a t i o n and can b e s o l v e d from t h e e q u a t i o n . U n c e r t a i n t y e x i s t s , of c o u r s e , i n t h e e s t i m a t e d v a l u e of U ' , which can be h i g h e r o r lower t h a n t h e
assumed v a l u e . The c a l c u l a t i o n s can t h e r e f o r e be r e p e a t e d f o r , s a y , a v a l u e o f p' two t i m e s h i g h e r and two times lower than t h e v a l u e assumed. New v a l u e s of c are t h e n found and from them an average v a l u e can be c a l c u l a t e d . I f a n e g a t i v e v a l u e of c i s found, t h e assumed f a c t o r of two was e r r o n e o u s , and t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s should b e r e p e a t e d f o r a lower v a l u e . I n t h i s way i t i s p o s s i b l e t o f i n d t h e maximum v a l u e t h a t 1-1' can assume f o r g i v e n d a t a on r a i n f a l l , head d i f f e r e n c e , and r i s e i n w a t e r t a b l e . Another month c a n b e s e l e c t e d , f o r example one i n which t h e r e w a s no r a i n f a l l (Pr = O ) . The e v a p o t r a n s p i r a t i o n i s e s t i m a t e d from c l i m a t o l o g i c a l
d a t a . During t h e month a w a t e r t a b l e r i s e i n t h e c o v e r i n g l a y e r w a s obs e r v e d , and t h e water l e v e l s i n t h e deep piezometers were, on t h e a v e r a g e ,
a given h e i g h t above t h o s e of t h e s h a l l o w p i e z o m e t e r s . The s p e c i f i c y i e l d

of t h e c o v e r i n g l a y e r i s n o t known b u t c a n be e s t i m a t e d from s o i l survey d a t a . T h i s i n f o r m a t i o n a l l o w s t h e o r d e r of magnitude of t h e h y d r a u l i c r e s i s t a n c e of t h e c o v e r i n g l a y e r t o b e determined. h - h' E t + ~-AS
C
Pr
grw
Ah' =u 'F
(2.22)
The v a l u e of c can be solved from t h i s e q u a t i o n , b u t i t may be e r r o n e o u s , b e c a u s e u n c e r t a i n t i e s e x i s t i n both t h e e v a p o t r a n s p i r a t i o n and t h e s p e c i f i c y i e l d . The e f f e c t of t h e s e u n c e r t a i n t i e s on t h e v a l u e of c should t h e r e f o r e b e examined. F i r s t l y a h i g h e r and a lower v a l u e of 1-1' t h e range t h a t seems r e a s o n a b l e , e . g .
i s assumed, w i t h i n
two times h i g h e r and two t i m e s lower
t h a n had p r e v i o u s l y been assumed. New v a l u e s of c a r e t h e n found. Next, p o s s i b l e e r r o r s i n t h e e v a p o t r a n s p i r a t i o n a r e examined, f o r example by t a k i n g a h i g h e r and a lower v a l u e of E t . F i n a l l y , t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s a r e
72
c
i
1
r e p e a t e d on t h e assumption t h a t e r r o r s i n both e v a p o t r a n s p i r a t i o n and s p e c i f i c y i e l d o c c u r s i m u l t a n e o u s l y . T h i s r e s u l t s i n two v a l u e s of c. The mean of t h e s e two v a l u e s c a n be determined, a l t h o u g h one must b e aware t h a t t h e r e a l v a l u e of c can b e a f a c t o r x h i g h e r o r lower t h a n t h e c a l c u l a t e d value.
Final remarks
The w a t e r b a l a n c e approach o r any of t h e o t h e r above approximate methods of e s t i m a t i n g a q u i f e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s should n o t be regarded as a s u b s t i t u t e f o r t h e more a c c u r a t e methods of a q u i f e r t e s t s o r f i e l d e x p e r i m e n t s . Approximate methods are n o t a p p r o p r i a t e i n t h e s t u d y of l o c a l problems such a s t h e p l a n n i n g of a new pumping s t a t i o n f o r d r i n k i n g water s u p p l y . For such problems, whether b e i n g solved a n a l y t i c a l l y o r n u m e r i c a l l y , i t i s w i s e t o conduct one o r more a q u i f e r t e s t s t o f i n d r e l i a b l e v a l u e s f o r t h e aquifer characteristics. Things a r e d i f f e r e n t when one i s working i n l a r g e groundwater b a s i n s , e x t e n d i n g o v e r hundreds o r even thousands of s q u a r e k i l o m e t r e s . In such b a s i n s one cannot conduct a q u i f e r t e s t s i n u n l i m i t e d numbers because t h e c o s t s would be p r o h i b i t i v e . Less c o s t l y methods, a p p r o x i m a t i n g t h e a q u i -
f e r ' s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , are t h e n a v a l u a b l e a d d i t i o n t o t h e more a c c u r a t e methods. The e x p e r i e n c e d groundwater g e o l o g i s t , however, w i l l know t h a t even a q u i f e r t e s t s do n o t y i e l d p r e c i s e v a l u e s , t h e r e a s o n s b e i n g t h e h e t e r o g e n e i t y of t h e a q u i f e r m a t e r i a l and c o n f i n i n g b e d s , t h e l i m i t e d number of o b s e r v a t i o n w e l l s and/or p i e z o m e t e r s , and t h e g r a p h i c a l methods f r e q u e n t l y used t o d e r i v e t h e a q u i f e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . With o n l y one o r two o b s e r v a t i o n w e l l s o r p i e z o m e t e r s , t h e flow p a t t e r n around a pumped w e l l cannot be p r o p e r l y a n a l y z e d , s o t h e assumptions made as t o t h e flow s y s t e m provoked by t h e pumping are p r o b a b l y e r r o n e o u s . Determining a q u i f e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s by g r a p h i c a l methods i s n o t p r e c i s e because more o f t e n t h a n n o t , when t r y i n g t o f i t f i e l d d a t a p l o t s w i t h s t a n d a r d c u r v e s , one f i n d s t h a t d i f f e r e n t matching p o s i t i o n s a r e p o s s i b l e . P a r t i c u l a r l y s e n s i t i v e i n t h i s r e s p e c t i s t h e v a l u e of t h e h y d r a u l i c r e s i s t a n c e of a c o n f i n i n g l a y e r .
73
There is no justification in stressing the high accuracy of aquifer characteristics derived from aquifer tests unless the tests have been properly conducted, unless anomalies in the flow regime during the tests were not observed, and unless the assumptions underlying the formulas were satisfied. This ideal situation is rare indeed. Recent developments in finding the best set of aquifer characteristics have been the introduction of various automatic and semi-automatic statistical and optimization techniques. The statistical techniques are based on an iterative trial-and-error procedure that attempts to improve an existing estimate of the characteristics. The optimization techniques try to achieve
a detailed adjustment of the characteristics. Applying these techniques,
one's primary aim is to use the computer to find a set of aquifer characteristics that give the best model response. The experienced user will know that more than one set of aquifer transmissivities will usually give equally good results. These techniques will frequently work and, in special situations, may be the only alternative left to the investigator. But the danger inherent in them is that the computer may come to be regarded as a substitute for field observations. For this reason we have emphasized the geomorphological and geological field work needed to arrive at reliable models. Estimates made without an understanding of the basin's geology and of the range of values that aquifer characteristics may assume in different parts of the basin will almost always be erroneous. On the other hand, once the geologist has formed his conclusions on the physical characteristics of the formations and structures controlling the flow of groundwater, he should not overlook the best possible check on the accuracy of his findings by testing them against an analysis of engineering measurements. Groundwater basin modelling is, in essence, the art and science of applying various investigatory methods, checking their results against one another, and representing the complexity of nature in a simplified form that allows mathematical treatment, and all this within the constraints of morality and laws goveming science.
74
DESCRIPTION OF THE MODEL
3.1
Gener a l
The model t h a t w i l l be d e s c r i b e d i n t h i s book i s l a r g e l y based on t h e programming i d e a s of Tyson and Weber (1963) and a l s o i n c l u d e s some o f t h e i d e a s developed by Goodwill ( s e e D i e t r i c h and Goodwill 1972). I n c o r p o r a t e d i n t h e model are t h e f o l l o w i n g f e a t u r e s and r e s t r i c t i o n s : The a q u i f e r i s t r e a t e d as a two-dimensional f l o w system;
Both u n s t e a d y and s t e a d y s t a t e c o n d i t i o n s c a n b e s i m u l a t e d ;
Only one a q u i f e r system can be modelled w i t h one s t o r a g e c o e f f i c i e n t

i n vertical direction; The a q u i f e r i s bounded a t t h e bottom by a n impermeable l a y e r ; The upper boundary of t h e a q u i f e r i s a n impermeable l a y e r ( c o n f i n e d a q u i f e r ) , a s l i g h t l y permeable l a y e r (semi-confined f r e e w a t e r t a b l e ( p h r e a t i c o r unconfined a q u i f e r ) ; D a r c y ' s l a w ( l i n e a r r e s i s t a n c e t o l a m i n a r f l o w ) and D u p u i t ' s assumpt i o n s ( v e r t i c a l f l o w c a n be n e g l e c t e d ) are a p p l i c a b l e i n t h e a q u i f e r ; The a q u i f e r h a s h e a d - c o n t r o l l e d , flow-controlled, a n d / o r zero-flow layer), or the
b o u n d a r i e s ; t h e f i r s t two may v a r y w i t h t i m e ; For unconfined a q u i f e r s t h e t r a n s m i s s i v i t y v a r i e s w i t h t i m e ; t h e model a d j u s t s t h e saturated thickness according t o t h e calculated watertable e l e v a t i o n ( n o n - l i n e a r c o n d i t i o n s ) ; o n l y t h e h y d r a u l i c c o n d u c t i v i t y and t h e bottom o f t h e a q u i f e r must be p r e s c r i b e d . The same a p p l i e s f o r t h e s l i g h t l y permeable t o p l a y e r of a semi-confined a q u i f e r ; 75
I n semi-confined a q u i f e r s h o r i z o n t a l flow i n t h e t o p l a y e r i s negl e c t e d ; t h e w a t e r t a b l e i n t h i s l a y e r may v a r y a c c o r d i n g t o r e c h a r g e and seepage r a t e s o r can be taken c o n s t a n t ; L i m i t s , i n between which t h e w a t e r t a b l e i n t h e a q u i f e r i s allowed t o v a r y , c a n be p r e s c r i b e d . I f the watertable exceeds a c e r t a i n l i m i t ,
t h e model i n t r o d u c e s an a r t i f i c i a l f l o w r a t e t h a t w i l l keep t h e c a l c u l a t e d watertable within that l i m i t ; The p r o c e s s e s of t h e i n f i l t r a t i o n and p e r c o l a t i o n of r a i n and s u r f a c e w a t e r and of c a p i l l a r y r i s e and e v a p o t r a n s p i r a t i o n , t a k i n g p l a c e i n t h e u n s a t u r a t e d zone of an a q u i f e r (above t h e w a t e r t a b l e ) , cannot be s i m u l a t e d . T h i s means t h a t t h e n e t r e c h a r g e t o t h e a q u i f e r must be c a l c u l a t e d manually and p r e s c r i b e d t o t h e model. The model cannot s i m u l a t e s p a t i a l and t i m e v a r i a t i o n s of groundwater q u a l it y.
3.2
Physical background
The model i s based on t h e two well-known e q u a t i o n s : Darcy's law and t h e e q u a t i o n of c o n s e r v a t i o n of mass. The combination of t h e s e two e q u a t i o n s r e s u l t s i n a p a r t i a l d i f f e r e n t i a l e q u a t i o n f o r u n s t e a d y flow:
a (KD ax) ah a ah ax + - (KD -) aY aY
= - N
(3.11
where K(x,y)
= h y d r a u l i c c o n d u c t i v i t y of t h e a q u i f e r f o r h o r i z o n t a l flow
(L T-')
D(x,y,t) h(x,y,t) N(x,y,t)
= s a t u r a t e d t h i c k n e s s of t h e a q u i f e r a t time t (L)
= h y d r a u l i c head i n t h e a q u i f e r
a t t i m e t (L)
= s o u r c e o r s i n k term a t t i m e t (L T-')
The l e f t - h a n d
s i d e of Eq. 3.1 r e p r e s e n t s t h e h o r i z o n t a l flow i n t h e a q u i -
f e r , t h e r i g h t - h a n d s i d e t h e v e r t i c a l flow. Vertical f l o w (N) c o n s i s t s of d i f f e r e n t f l o w components, depending on t h e type of a q u i f e r .
76
where R ( x , y , t ) = t h e n e t r a t e of r e c h a r g e (L T-) P ( x , y , t ) = t h e n e t rate of a b s t r a c t i o n (L T-) p(x,y) h(x,y)

t
=
s p e c i f i c y i e l d of t h e a q u i f e r ( d i m e n s i o n l e s s )
= h y d r a u l i c head i n t h e a q u i f e r (L) = t i m e (T)
The term p
h / a t i s r e l a t e d t o t h e movement of t h e f r e e w a t e r t a b l e i n c a s e
of unsteady f l o w . When t h e w a t e r t a b l e moves downwards o r upwards, water i s r e l e a s e d from o r t a k e n i n t o s t o r a g e , r e s p e c t i v e l y . The s p e c i f i c y i e l d p i s d e f i n e d a s t h e volume o f water r e l e a s e d o r s t o r e d p e r u n i t s u r f a c e a r e a o f t h e a q u i f e r p e r u n i t change i n t h e component of head normal t o t h a t s u r f a c e . I n p r a c t i c e it may be c o n s i d e r e d t o e q u a l t h e e f f e c t i v e p o r o s i t y o r d r a i n a b l e pore s p a c e b e c a u s e i n unconfined a q u i f e r s t h e e f f e c t s of e l a s t i c i t y o f a q u i f e r m a t e r i a l and f l u i d a r e g e n e r a l l y s o small t h a t t h e y c a n b e negl e c t e d . I t w i l l be assumed t h a t t h e v a l u e s of p f o r upward and downward movement of t h e w a t e r t a b l e are e q u a l and t h a t t h e g r a v i t y y i e l d i s i n s t a n taneous. T h i s i s t h e c l a s s i c a l , s i m p l e assumption u s u a l l y made. I n unconfined a q u i f e r s t h e s a t u r a t e d t h i c k n e s s D i s n o t a c o n s t a n t , b u t i s a f u n c t i o n of t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e f r e e w a t e r t a b l e a t time t . For confined aquifers N i s t h e sum of o n l y two t e r m s :
N = - P - S - ah
at
(3.3)
where
S = t h e s t o r a g e c o e f f i c i e n t of t h e a q u i f e r ( d i m e n s i o n l e s s )
The impermeable c o v e r i n g l a y e r a l l o w s n e i t h e r r e c h a r g e from p e r c o l a t i o n n o r t h e f o r m a t i o n o f a f r e e w a t e r t a b l e i n t h i s l a y e r . The s t o r a g e c o e f f i c i e n t S 77
i n Eq. 3.3 i s t h e r e f o r e n o t r e l a t e d t o t h e e f f e c t i v e p o r o s i t y o r d r a i n a b l e p o r e space, b u t t o t h e e l a s t i c i t y of t h e g r a i n material and t h a t of t h e
water. For confined a q u i f e r s S i s c a l l e d t h e s t o r a g e c o e f f i c i e n t and i s

d e f i n e d i n t h e same way a s t h e s p e c i f i c y i e l d f o r unconfined a q u i f e r s (Chap. 2 Sect. 2 . 7 ) . constant. F o r semi-confined aquifers t h e flow through t h e c o v e r i n g , s l i g h t l y permeable l a y e r h a s t o be c o n s i d e r e d . The p h y s i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h i s l a y e r w i l l b e i n d i c a t e d w i t h primes t o d i s t i n g u i s h them from t h e corresponding c h a r a c The s a t u r a t e d t h i c k n e s s D of c o n f i n e d a q u i f e r s i s
t e r i s t i c s of t h e u n d e r l y i n g a q u i f e r . I t w i l l b e assumed t h a t t h e t h i c k n e s s
D' of t h e water body i n t h e c o v e r i n g l a y e r i s l e s s t h a n t h e t h i c k n e s s D of
t h e a q u i f e r , and moreover, t h a t i t s h y d r a u l i c c o n d u c t i v i t y K ' i s low comp a r e d w i t h t h e h y d r a u l i c c o n d u c t i v i t y K of t h e a q u i f e r , though i t i s n o t z e r o . Consequently, h o r i z o n t a l flow through t h e c o v e r i n g l a y e r can be negl e c t e d . T h i s assumption can be regarded as a n e x a c t f o r m u l a t i o n when t h e c o v e r i n g l a y e r c o n s i s t s of a n i s o t r o p i c m a t e r i a l w i t h a h y d r a u l i c conductivi t y K' i n v e r t i c a l d i r e c t i o n and z e r o h y d r a u l i c c o n d u c t i v i t y i n a l l h o r i z o n -
tal directions.
F o r semi-confined aquifers t h e r e are two d i f f e r e n t i a l e q u a t i o n s , one f o r t h e a q u i f e r and t h e o t h e r f o r t h e covering l a y e r . For t h e a q u i f e r , N i s t h e sum of t h r e e terms:
= -
P - S
-ah a+ t
K' D
(h'
h)
(3.4)
where
K ' = t h e c o v e r i n g l a y e r ' s h y d r a u l i c c o n d u c t i v i t y f o r v e r t i c a l flow ( L T-l) D ' = s a t u r a t e d t h i c k n e s s of t h e c o v e r i n g l a y e r (L)

h ' = h y d r a u l i c head i n t h e c o v e r i n g l a y e r (L) and t h e o t h e r symbols as d e f i n e d e a r l i e r .
U n l i k e confined a q u i f e r s , semi-confined a q u i f e r s are given one a d d i t i o n a l
t e r m r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e v e r t i c a l flow through t h e c o v e r i n g l a y e r . This f l o w
i s caused by t h e head d i f f e r e n c e between t h e w a t e r i n t h e covering l a y e r

78
and t h a t i n t h e u n d e r l y i n g a q u i f e r . The s a t u r a t e d t h i c k n e s s D of t h e aquifer i s constant. For t h e c o v e r i n g l a y e r t h e r e i s a l s o a one-dimensional d i f f e r e n t i a l equat i o n . Since b o t h t h e water r e c e i v e d from p e r c o l a t i o n and t h a t r e l e a s e d by t h e f a l l i n g w a t e r t a b l e p e r c o l a t e through t h e c o v e r i n g l a y e r b e f o r e r e a c h i n g the aquifer, the following equation applies:
(3.5)
where
1-1'
= s p e c i f i c y i e l d of
the covering layer (dimensionless)
W e s h a l l assume t h a t t h e c o v e r i n g l a y e r h a s a f r e e w a t e r t a b l e , s o t h a t i t s s a t u r a t e d t h i c k n e s s D ' i s n o t c o n s t a n t b u t may v a r y w i t h t i m e . Owing t o i t s low p e r m e a b i l i t y w e a l s o assume t h a t no pumping w i l l occur i n t h i s l a y e r . S i n c e E q . 3.1 c a n n o t be s o l v e d e x p l i c i t y , a n u m e r i c a l approach c a n b e followed, a l l o w i n g an approximate s o l u t i o n t o be o b t a i n e d .
3.3
Numerical approaches
The s o l u t i o n of a p a r t i a l d i f f e r e n t i a l e q u a t i o n can b e o b t a i n e d by u s i n g a f i n i t e d i f f e r e n c e s method. T h i s method r e q u i r e s t h a t space be d i v i d e d i n t o
small b u t f i n i t e i n t e r v a l s . The sub-areas t h u s formed a r e c a l l e d n o d a l

a r e a s , s i n c e t h e y e a c h have a node which i s u s e d t o connect each area m a t h e m a t i c a l l y w i t h i t s n e i g h b o u r s . I t i s assumed t h a t a l l r e c h a r g e and a b s t r a c t i o n i n a n o d a l a r e a o c c u r a t t h e node; i n o t h e r words, e a c h node i s c o n s i d e r e d t o b e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of i t s n o d a l a r e a . To each node a c e r t a i n s t o r a g e c o e f f i c i e n t o r s p e c i f i c y i e l d i s a s s i g n e d , which i s c o n s t a n t and representative f o r t h a t nodal area. A c e r t a i n hydraulic conductivity i s a s s i g n e d t o t h e b o u n d a r i e s between nodal a r e a s , t h u s a l l o w i n g d i r e c t i o n a l anisotropic conditions.
An approximate s o l u t i o n t o Eq. 3 . 1 can b e o b t a i n e d b y r e p l a c i n g i t w i t h an
e q u i v a l e n t system of d i f f e r e n c e - d i f f e r e n t i a l e q u a t i o n s , t h e s i m u l t a n e o u s 79
s o l u t i o n of which g i v e s t h e f u n c t i o n of h a t a f i n i t e number of nodes. To i l l u s t r a t e t h i s we s h a l l e l a b o r a t e t h e d i f f e r e n c e - d i f f e r e n t i a l e q u a t i o n f o r a semi-confined a q u i f e r . For t h e two o t h e r t y p e s of a q u i f e r s , analogous
d i f f e r e n c e - d i f f e r e n t i a l e q u a t i o n s can be d e r i v e d . F o r an a r b i t r a r y node b of a nodal network (Fig. 3 . 1 ) t h e e q u a t i o n f o r a semi-confined a q u i f e r i s o b t a i n e d by combining Eqs. 3.1 and 3 . 4 . yields: This
where 'i,b Li,b

= l e n g t h of s i d e between nodes i and b (L) = d i s t a n c e between nodes i and b (L) = area a s s o c i a t e d w i t h node b (L'),
and t h e o t h e r symbols as d e f i n e d e a r l i e r .
F i g . 3.1
Nodal geometry 80
Since t h e w a t e r t a b l e s a t t h e nodes change with t i m e owing t o changes i n r e c h a r g e and a b s t r a c t i o n , t h e model a l s o r e q u i r e s a d i s c r e t i z a t i o n of t i m e . Hence a number of s u c c e s s i v e t i m e i n t e r v a l s have t o be chosen. F o r e a c h
t i m e i n t e r v a l t h e w a t e r t a b l e s are computed and t h e c a l c u l a t i o n i s r e p e a t e d
a t s u c c e s s i v e t i m e s . D i s c r e t i z i n g t h e time p e r i o d r e q u i r e s t h a t a l l Eqs.
3 . 6 be r e p l a c e d by:
1
i
[hi(t+l) - % ( t + l ) j
'i,b
D i,b i,b
%Pb(t+l) +
Li,b
i -A
%sb t
[%(t+l)
- %(t)]
[hi(t+l) - hb(t+l)
(3.7)
with t + 1 = t + A t
A l l Eqs. 3.7 a r e s o l v e d by an i m p l i c i t numerical i n t e g r a t i o n t e c h n i q u e
(Richtmeyer and Morton 1967). T h i s method of i n t e g r a t i o n h a s t h e a d v a n t a g e t h a t t h e magnitude of t h e time s t e p A t d o e s n o t depend on a s t a b i l i t y criterion. The c a l c u l a t i o n p r o c e d u r e i s as f o l l o w s : I n i t i a l w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n s are p r e s c r i b e d t o a l l t h e nodes. A t t h e end of t h e f i r s t time s t e p , A t , t h e components of t h e water b a l a n c e of a l l Eqs. 3.7 a r e c a l c u l a t e d f o r e a c h n o d a l a r e a a c c o r d i n g t o t h e g i v e n set o f v a r i a b l e s K i , b ' D i , b 7 'b' L i , b ' t h e i n i t i a l w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n s , and t h e r e c h a r g e a n d / o r a b s t r a c t i o n
r a t e s d u r i n g t h e a c t u a l t i m e s t e p . T h i s r e s u l t s i n a change i n t h e water b a l a n c e f o r e a c h n o d a l area. A l l flows a r e balanced a t e a c h node by s e t t i n g t h e i r sum e q u a l t o a r e s i d u a l t e r m . The new w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n s a t e a c h node a r e then a d j u s t e d by t h e magnitude of t h e s e r e s i d u a l s , a s f o l l o w s :
hb(t+l) = hb(t) +
r e s i d u a l f o r nodal area b K D ]'i,b i , b i , b + -%' +bAt i Li,b D b
%%
(3.8)
81
These changes i n w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n s , however, i n f l u e n c e t h e l a t e r a l groundwater flow from one n o d a l area t o a n o t h e r . I f t h e a q u i f e r i s semic o n f i n e d , t h e changes a l s o i n f l u e n c e t h e v e r t i c a l f l o w through t h e conf i n i n g l a y e r . T h i s means t h a t l a b o r i o u s i t e r a t i v e c a l c u l a t i o n s a r e r e q u i r e d t o f i n d t h e proper water b a l a n c e s f o r each n o d a l area and t h e i r correspondi n g w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n s . A f t e r e a c h i t e r a t i o n t h e sum of a l l t h e r e s i d u a l v a l u e s of t h e water b a l a n c e s over a l l t h e n o d a l a r e a s i s c a l c u l a t e d and t h i s sum
which i n f a c t must be z e r o
i s compared w i t h a t h r e s h o l d
v a l u e . T h i s v a l u e must be p r e s c r i b e d and i s s p e c i f i e d a s t h e maximum t o l e r a b l e e r r o r i n t h e r e g i o n a l water b a l a n c e . The i t e r a t i v e procedure w i t h i n t h e f i r s t t i m e s t e p i s r e p e a t e d as many times as are needed t o reduce t h e sum of a l l t h e r e s i d u a l v a l u e s t o a v a l u e t h a t i s e q u a l t o o r l e s s t h a n t h e p r e s c r i b e d t h r e s h o l d v a l u e . The smaller t h e t h r e s h o l d v a l u e chosen, t h e b e t t e r t h e r e s u l t s w i l l be, b u t t h e more i t e r a t i o n s w i l l be r e q u i r e d i n e a c h t i m e s t e p . The w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n s a t t h e end of t h e f i r s t t i m e s t e p s e r v e as t h e s t a r t i n g c o n d i t i o n s f o r t h e n e x t time s t e p , a f t e r which t h e whole p r o c e s s i s r e p e a t e d . The method of s o l v i n g Eqs. 3.7 s i m u l t a n e o u s l y , as o u t l i n e d above, i s e s s e n t i a l l y t h a t of Gauss-Seidel ( R a l s t o n 1961). Some of t h e p r i n c i p l e s used i n
o u r model can a l s o be found i n Thomas (1973). Another .way of s o l v i n g Eqs. 3.7 i s by u s i n g a n e l i m i n a t i o n method, by which t h e e q u a t i o n s a r e solved d i r e c t l y i n s t e a d of i t e r a t i v e l y . R e a r r a n g i n g t h e t e r m s of Eqs. 3.7 y i e l d s : .
I w i , bK i , b D i , b
'i,bKi,bDi,b
%(t+l)
L
Li,b
At
J
Li,b
(3.9)
Assuming t h a t t h e f r e e w a t e r t a b l e i n t h e c o v e r i g c o n f i n i n g l a y e r remains c o n s t a n t , t h e right-hand s i d e of Eqs. 3.9 h a s a known v a l u e a t time t + 1 .
The l e f t - h a n d s i d e of t h e e q u a t i o n r e p r e s e n t s t h e unknown v a l u e of h b , t h e unknown v a l u e s of h . of t h e s u r r o u n d i n g n o d e s , and t h e known v a l u e s of

1
82
i
I
t h e i r c o e f f i c i e n t s , provided t h a t t h e v a l u e s of D a r e kept constant i,b d u r i n g each t i m e s t e p . I f t h e r e are n nodes i n t h e network, t h e r e a r e n Eqs. 3.9 w i t h n unknown v a l u e s of h,,. By i n t r o d u c i n g new v a r i a b l e s f o r t h e
1 known v a l u e s , Eqs. 3.9 become:
I
I
I I
I
I
( 3 . IO)
h + C a . h nn n nj nj j
fn
I n m a t r i x n o t a t i o n , Eq. 3.10 can b e w r i t t e n a s
A h = f
where
(3.1 I )
I n Eq. 3.11 t h e d i a g o n a l of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t m a t r i x A i s formed by t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of t h e unknown v a l u e s o f hb. To s o l v e t h e l i n e a r system of a l g e b r a i c e q u a t i o n s (3.11) t h e Gauss e l i m i n a t i o n method i s used (McCracken and Dorn 1964). B a s i c a l l y i t i s t h e e l e m e n t a r y procedure by which t h e " f i r s t " equat i o n i s used t o e l i m i n a t e t h e f i r s t " v a r i a b l e " from t h e l a s t n
1 equations.
Then t h e new "second" e q u a t i o n i s used t o e l i m i n a t e t h e "second" v a r i a b l e from t h e l a s t n
2 e q u a t i o n s , and s o on. I f n
1 eliminations a r e per'
formed, t h e r e s u l t i n g l i n e a r system, which i s e q u i v a l e n t t o &he o r i g i n a l can e a s i l y b e solved by b back s u b s t i t u t i o n . I n t h e program a m o d i f i c a t i o n of t h e Gaussian e l i m i n a t i o n method, known as t h e ' Gauss-Jordan approach, h a s been used. In t h i s system, i s t r i a n g u l a r and t h e unknown v a l u e s of h
83
approach t h e back s u b s t i t u t i o n i s i n t e g r a t e d i n t h e e l i m i n a t i o n procedure ( I s a a c s o n and K e l l e r 1966). The advantage of t h i s method i s t h a t t h e s o l u t i o n i s e x a c t w i t h i n t h e accur a c y of t h e computer used. A d i s a d v a n t a g e i s t h a t t h e method r e q u i r e s subs t a n t i a l l y more computer memory t h a n t h e i t e r a t i o n method. Mu.tually exchangeable computer programs are p r e s e n t e d f o r both methods. The u s e r can choose which method b e s t s u i t s h i s purpose.
3.4
Design of nodal network
To d i s c r e t i z e a groundwater b a s i n i n t o n o d a l areas, a networ- of r e c t a n g l e s , s q u a r e s , o r polygons i s superimposed upon i t . It i s i m p o s s i b l e t o g i v e any h a r d and f a s t r u l e s on what network t o apply and how t o d e s i g n i t . Because of d i f f e r e n t g e o l o g i c a l and h y d r o g e o l o g i c a l c o n d i t i o n s , a network t h a t i s a p p r o p r i a t e i n one b a s i n w i l l be i n a p p r o p r i a t e i n a n o t h e r ; s i m i l a r l y , a network a p p r o p r i a t e o r one problem w i l l be i n a p p r o p r i a t e f o r a n o t h e r . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e r e i s a c e r t a i n g e n e r a l procedure t o be followed i n d e s i g n i n g a network and t h i s w i l l now b e e x p l a i n e d . I n d e s i g n i n g a n o d a l network, one b e g i n s by c o n s i d e r i n g t h e f o l l o w i n g f a c tors: (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) t h e t y p e of problems t o be s o l v e d ; t h e r e q u i r e d a c c u r a c y of t h e r e s u l t s ; t h e homogeneity o r h e t e r o g e n e i t y of t h e a q u i f e r ; t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y of d a t a ; t h e s h a p e of t h e b o u n d a r i e s ; t h e number of nodes
(a)
The problem t o b e s o l v e d can be r e g i o n a l o r l o c a l , r e c o n n a i s s a n c e o r
d e t a i l e d , simple o r complex. A r e c o n n a i s s a n c e s t u d y of a l a r g e groundwater b a s i n w i l l r e q u i r e a network w i t h a l a r g e mesh; a d e t a i l e d l o c a l problem
w i l l r e q u i r e a network w i t h a small mesh.

(b) The a c c u r a c y of t h e r e s u l t s g e n e r a t e d by t h e computer l a r g e l y depends
on t h e mesh s i z e . Where a c c u r a t e r e s u l t s are r e q u i r e d and r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e
84
changes of t h e w a t e r t a b l e occur ( o r may b e e x p e c t e d ) , t h e mesh s i z e must be s m a l l ; where no such accuracy i s r e q u i r e d and o n l y minor w a t e r t a b l e changes occur ( o r may b e e x p e c t e d ) , t h e mesh s i z e s can b e l a r g e r . (c) Few a q u i f e r s are homogeneous o v e r t h e i r whole l a t e r a l e x t e n t . I n a q u i -
f e r s t h a t show a c l e a r t r a n s i t i o n from unconfined t o p a r t l y c o n f i n e d o r c o n f i n e d , t h e network should be adapted a c c o r d i n g l y . (d) I n l a r g e groundwater b a s i n s , d a t a may n o t be a v a i l a b l e w i t h t h e same
c o n s i s t e n c y i n a l l p a r t s of t h e b a s i n . I n remote p a r t s of i t , d a t a are l i k e l y t o be s c a r c e . I f s o , i t makes no s e n s e t o u s e small mesh s i z e s t h e r e . S m a l l mesh sizes r e q u i r e numerous d a t a , b u t s i n c e t h e s e a r e n o t a v a i l a b l e , a v e r a g e v a l u e s o r e s t i m a t e s would have t o be s u b s t i t u t e d ; t h e computer r e s u l t s would then s u g g e s t an a c c u r a c y t h a t does n o t e x i s t . (e) I f t h e groundwater b a s i n t o b e modelled i s bounded by s t r a i g h t l i n e s
t h a t a r e p a r a l l e l t o t h e c o o r d i n a t e a x e s of a r e g u l a r network ( s q u a r e s o r r e c t a n g l e s ) , t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of t h e c o n d i t i o n s a t t h e b o u n d a r i e s p r e s e n t s no problem. Few groundwater b a s i n s , however, (or f l o w domains of p r a c t i c a l i n t e r e s t ) have s t r a i g h t boundaries. U s u a l l y , some of t h e b o u n d a r i e s , o r
even a l l of them, a r e i r r e g u l a r o r curved. The u s e of a r e g u l a r network then p o s e s problems because t h e b o u n d a r i e s . d o n o t c o i n c i d e everywhere w i t h t h e nodes of t h e network. The m o d i f i c a t i o n s t h a t must be made t o r e p r e s e n t such i r r e g u l a r and curved b o u n d a r i e s w i l l b e e x p l a i n e d l a t e r i n t h i s section.
(f)
On t h e number of nodes r e q u i r e d t o model an a q u i f e r , o p i n i o n s d i f f e r .
Rushton and Redshaw (1979) recommend t h a t between 500 and 2000 nodes b e used. When one i s modelling f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e , however, i t i s b e t t e r t o f o l l o w t h e a d v i c e of Thomas (1973) and r e s t r i c t t h e number of nodes t o IO o r 15. A s one g a i n s e x p e r i e n c e , one can u s e networks w i t h more nodes. The a v a i l a b l e funds may a l s o r e s t r i c t t h e number of nodes. Having given due c o n s i d e r a t i o n t o t h e s e f a c t o r s one w i l l b e g i n t o h a v e some i d e a of t h e network t h a t w i l l b e needed t o s u i t o n e ' s p a r t i c u l a r groundw a t e r b a s i n o r p a r t i c u l a r problem. The n e x t s t e p i s t o t a k e a map of t h e groundwater b a s i n , o r problem a r e a , and mark on i t t h e e x t e r n a l b o u n d a r i e s .
85
It should be s p e c i f i e d whether t h e s e boundaries are zero-flow,
head-control-
l e d , o r flow-controlled.
I f any i n t e r n a l b o u n d a r i e s e x i s t ( a d r a i n a g e o r a
b a r r i e r boundary), they s h o u l d a l s o be marked on t h e map ( s e e Chap. 2 S e c t . 2.5). I f t h e b a s i n c o n t a i n s more t h a n one t y p e of a q u i f e r , t h e s e should be d e l i n e a t e d on t h e map. F o r example, i t must be shown where an unconfined a q u i f e r p a s s e s i n t o a semi-confined o r confined a q u i f e r .
It would be i d e a l i f e a c h sub-area of t h e network ( s q u a r e , r e c t a n g l e , o r
polygon) r e p r e s e n t e d a homogeneous h y d r o l o g i c a l u n i t . I n s i d e each such u n i t t h e a q u i f e r would r e a c t t o r e c h a r g e and d i s c h a r g e c o n d i t i o n s i n t h e same way everywhere. T h i s would g r e a t l y improve t h e r e l i a b i l i t y of t h e n o d a l w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n s g e n e r a t e d by t h e computer. Few a q u i f e r s , however, a r e homogeneous o r have a c o n s t a n t t h i c k n e s s everywhere. N e v e r t h e l e s s , one s h o u l d s t u d y t h e geology, aquifer.characteristics, and e s p e c i a l l y w e l l hydrographs because t h e s e w i l l reveal a r e a s t h a t can b e r e g a r d e d , a t l e a s t t o some e x t e n t , as h y d r o l o g i c a l u n i t s . By a d j u s t i n g t h e network t o t h e s e u n i t s , one can approximate t h e i d e a l s i t u a t i o n .
A w a t e r t a b l e - c o n t o u r map i s a b a s i c map i n t h e d e s i g n of a n o d a l network.
It shows t h e magnitude of t h e h y d r a u l i c g r a d i e n t and i t s s p a t i a l v a r i a t i o n s .
S t e e p g r a d i e n t s o c c u r i n zones of c o n c e n t r a t e d r e c h a r g e and d i s c h a r g e , o r n e a r f a u l t s t h a t form a b a r r i e r t o groundwater f l o w , Zones of s t e e p hydrau-
l i c g r a d i e n t s r e q u i r e f i n e meshes, i f t h e w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n s g e n e r a t e d
by t h e computer are t o have any meaning (Fig. 3 . 2 ) . A r e g u l a r network i s c o n s t r u c t e d by a p p l y i n g t h e T h i e s s e n method. A s e r i e s o f p a r a l l e l l i n e s are drawn p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o a n o t h e r series of p a r a l l e l l i n e s . The p o i n t s of i n t e r s e c t i o n , which are t h e c o n t r o l p o i n t s of t h e f l o w r e g i o n , are t h e nodes. P e r p e n d i c u l a r b i s e c t o r s of t h e l i n e s c o n n e c t i n g t h e nodes are t h e n drawn t o o b t a i n t h e s q u a r e s o r r e c t a n g l e s . S p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n must be given t o curved b o u n d a r i e s n o t p a s s i n g through t h e nodes of a r e g u l a r network. I f t h e r e a r e g r e a t d i s t a n c e s between t h e boundary and t h e a d j a c e n t n o d e s , s p e c i a l d i f f e r e n c e e q u a t i o n s would have t o b e developed f o r p o i n t s near t h e boundary (Remson e t a l . 1 9 7 1 ) and a d j u s t ments would have t o be made i n t h e computer programs. A u s e r can o n l y make t h e s e a d j u s t m e n t s , however, i f h e i s experienced i n computer programming,
86
13
/-=O
O
Fig. 3.2 Graded network superimposed on a watertable-contour map showing different hydraulic gradients. In the area with steep gradients a smaller mesh size is used than in areas with slight gradients
87
b u t as we assumed t h a t our r e a d e r s have no such e x p e r i e n c e , t h e y w i l l b e u n a b l e t o make t h e s e a d j u s t m e n t s . F o r t h i s r e a s o n a n o t h e r approach i s f o l l o w e d . It c o n s i s t s of a p p r o x i m a t i n g t h e t r u e curved boundary w i t h a n e a r b y curve t h a t p a s s e s through t h e n o d e s o f t h e g r i d (Ax = Ay) o r t h e network of r e c t a n g l e s (Ax # Ay). I f t h e boundary i s s t r o n g l y c u r v e d , s m a l l mesh s i z e s are r e q u i r e d t o approximate i t . F i g u r e 3.3 shows a g r i d - p o i n t a p p r o x i m a t i o n of a curved boundary.
. . . . .
F i g . 3.3
Typical grid-point
a p p r o x i m a t i o n of a curved boundary
The e r r o r i n t r o d u c e d by such a p p r o x i m a t i o n s i s n e g l i g i b l e provided t h e mesh s i z e i s s m a l l enough. It should be n o t e d , however, t h a t a p p r e c i a b l e e r r o r s c a n be i n t r o d u c e d i f t h e boundary i s s t r o n g l y c u r v e d and i f an a c c u r a t e s o l u t i o n t o t h e f l o w problem n e a r such a boundary i s d e s i r e d . W,ith a r e g u l a r network t h e p o s i t i o n of o b s e r v a t i o n w e l i s w i l l n e v e r c o i n c i d e w i t h t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e nodes. T h i s means t h a t t h e h i s t o r i c w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n s r e q u i r e d f o r t h e model c a n n o t simply b e r e a d from t h e r e c o r d s of t h e s e w e l l s . I n s t e a d , t h e r e q u i r e d w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n s of t h e nodes m u s t b e d e t e r m i n e d by i n t e r p o l a t i o n from w a t e r t a b l e - c o n t o u r maps on which t h e n e t w o r k i s superimposed.
88
With an i r r e g u l a r n e t w o r k , much o f t h i s t e d i o u s i n t e r p o l a t i o n work c a n be avoided. An i r r e g u l a r network i s a l s o c o n s t r u c t e d by t h e T h i e s s e n method. One s e l e c t s a p p r o p r i a t e ' e x i s t i n g w a t e r t a b l e o b s e r v a t i o n w e l l s and cons t r u c t s a system of t r i a n g l e s whose i n t e r n a l a n g l e s must a l l b e l e s s t h a n
90'.
P e r p e n d i c u l a r b i s e c t o r s a r e t h e n drawn t o a l l t h e s i d e s of t h e t r i -
a n g l e s t o o b t a i n polygons. A s t h e nodes of t h e polygons r e p r e s e n t observat i o n w e l l s , t h e i r d a t a c a n be r e a d from t h e r e c o r d s , provided t h a t t h e w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n s a r e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of t h e p o l y g o n a l a r e a . It w i l l n o t always be p o s s i b l e t o f o l l o w t h i s p r o c e d u r e b e c a u s e t h e number and s p a c i n g of t h e o b s e r v a t i o n s w e l l s w i l l n o t always be a p p r o p r i a t e . Where f i n e meshes are r e q u i r e d , f o r i n s t a n c e , t h e w e l l s p a c i n g s may b e t o o l a r g e . Under t h e s e c i r c u m s t a n c e s , a number of a r b i t r a r y nodes must be s e l e c t e d t o o b t a i n t h e r e q u i r e d mesh. The w a t e r t a b l e d a t a of t h e a r b i t r a r y nodes t h e n h a s t o be found by i n t e r p o l a t i o n from t h e w a t e r t a b l e - c o n t o u r map. The polygons c a n be made s m a l l e r o r l a r g e r t o approximate an i r r e g u l a r boundary by r e p l a c i n g i t w i t h s t r a i g h t l i n e segments. A d i s a d v a n t a g e of an i r r e g u l a r network i s t h a t t h e speed of convergence of t h e s o l u t i o n i s l e s s t h a n w i t h a r e g u l a r n e t w o r k ; t h i s means t h a t more i t e r a t i o n s a r e needed i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n p r o c e s s . For t h i s r e a s o n , Rushton and Redshaw (1979) recommend t h a t a r e g u l a r g r i d be used wherever p o s s i b l e . F i g u r e 3 . 4 shows two examples of networks. Note t h a t i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e i r i n t e r n a l nodes, t h e s e networks a l s o have e x t e r n a l n o d e s ; t h e s e are p r i m a r i l y needed t o c o n s t r u c t t h e network n e a r t h e b o u n d a r i e s . Such b o u n d a r i e s c a n be e i t h e r h e a d - c o n t r o l l e d ( t h e head a t t h e e x t e r n a l nodes o p p o s i t e t h e ( t h e head a t t h e e x t e r n a l nodes i s
boundary i s known) o r f l o w - c o n t r o l l e d
unknown, b u t t h e flow i s known o r c a n b e e s t i m a t e d ) . The c o n s t r u c t i o n of a n o d a l network i s o f t e n a m a t t e r of t r i a l and e r r o r . S e v e r a l t r i a l s , followed by a d j u s t m e n t s , may b e needed t o o b t a i n a network t h a t s u i t s t h e problem and a v o i d s l a r g e numbers of nodes f o r which t h e n e c e s s a r y d a t a are m i s s i n g
Qr
f o r which p r e c i s e r e s u l t s are n o t r e q u i r e d .
89
Fig. 3.4
Examples of nodal networks (Thomas 1973)
3.5
3.5.1
Data r e q u i r e d f o r t h e model
Nodal c o o r d i n a t e s
To e n a b l e t h e computer t o c a l c u l a t e t h e d i f f e r e n t f l o w r a t e s a c r o s s t h e b o u n d a r i e s of t h e n o d a l a r e a s and t h e changes i n s t o r a g e i n s i d e t h e s e
areas, d a t a must be provided on t h e l e n g t h of flow p a t h between a d j a c e n t

n o d e s , on t h e width of c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l area of flow, and on t h e s u r f a c e
area of e a c h n o d a l a r e a . These t e d i o u s measurements and c a l c u l a t i o n s c a n be

performed by t h e computer. T h i s r e q u i r e s t h e u s e of a C a r t e s i a n c o o r d i n a t e system, which i s drawn on t h e map of t h e n o d a l network. The c o o r d i n a t e v a l u e s of a l l t h e nodes must be r e a d and p r e s e n t e d i n a t a b l e .
90
3.5.2
Hydraulic conductivity
To c a l c u l a t e t h e groundwater f l o w a c r o s s t h e b o u n d a r i e s o f t h e n o d a l a r e a s , t h e weighted mean h y d r a u l i c c o n d u c t i v i t y v a l u e s midway between a l l t h e nodes have t o be d e t e r m i n e d . T h i s i s done by s u p e r i m p o s i n g t h e network map
on t h e h y d r a u l i c c o n d u c t i v i t y map, which shows l i n e s of e q u a l mean hydraul i c c o n d u c t i v i t y . The h y d r a u l i c c o n d u c t i v i t y of t h e s i d e s of e a c h n o d a l a r e a i s then found by i n t e r p o l a t i o n o r , i f two o r more i s o p e r m s c r o s s a s i d e , t h e weighted mean h y d r a u l i c c o n d u c t i v i t y i s c a l c u l a t e d . The r e s u l t s
are p r e s e n t e d on a s e p a r a t e , c l e a n network map.

It should be n o t e d t h a t , u n l i k e c o n f i n e d and semi-confined a q u i f e r s , a n un-
c o n f i n e d a q u i f e r i s o n l y p a r t l y s a t u r a t e d . The mean h y d r a u l i c c o n d u c t i v i t y o f such an a q u i f e r u s u a l l y r e f e r s t o t h e s a t u r a t e d p a r t o n l y . I f t h e a q u i f e r i s t h i c k and i t s w a t e r t a b l e s h a l l o w , t h i s v a l u e c a n be used w i t h o u t any g r e a t e r r o r s . I f t h e w a t e r t a b l e i s deep, however, t h e mean h y d r a u l i c

'
c o n d u c t i v i t y should b e c a l c u l a t e d f o r t h e whole a q u i f e r , b o t h i t s s a t u r a t e d and u n s a t u r a t e d p a r t s . I n p r a c t i c e t h e weighted mean h y d r a u l i c c o n d u c t i v i t y
o f t h e u n s a t u r a t e d p a r t i s e s t i m a t e d from w e l l l o g s , a s w a s d i s c u s s e d i n Chap. 2 Sect. 2 . 7 . I f t h e a q u i f e r i s semi-confined, v a l u e s of t h e h y d r a u l i c c o n d u c t i v i t y of Since t h e flow
t h e s l i g h t l y permeable c o v e r i n g l a y e r a r e a l s o needed.
t h r o u g h t h i s l a y e r i s v e r t i c a l ( e i t h e r upward o r downward), t h e mean weighted h y d r a u l i c c o n d u c t i v i t y f o r v e r t i c a l f l o w of e a c h n o d a l area s h o u l d b e c a l c u l a t e d and t h e r e s u l t s p r e s e n t e d on a s e p a r a t e , c l e a n network map.
3.5.3
Aquifer thickness
The model r e q u i r e s t h a t v a l u e s of t h e a q u i f e r t h i c k n e s s b e s u p p l i e d , o r more s p e c i f i c a l l y , i t r e q u i r e s t h e s e v a l u e s midway between a d j a c e n t n o d e s . S i n c e t h e upper and lower l i m i t s o f t h e a q u i f e r may v a r y t h r o u g h o u t t h e b a s i n and a l s o t h e t y p e s of a q u i f e r may d i f f e r , t h e f o l l o w i n g p r o c e d u r e i s used.
91
Unconfined aquifers a r e o n l y p a r t l y s a t u r a t e d . To f i n d t h e s a t u r a t e d
t h i c k n e s s , t h e network i s superimposed on a c o n t o u r map of t h e impermeable b a s e and a weighted mean bottom l e v e l e l e v a t i o n f o r each nodal area (BLv a l u e ) i s determined. The r e s u l t s are p l o t t e d on a s e p a r a t e , c l e a n network map.
side o f jol area
node
side of nodal area
node
side of nodal area
I
IHi
I
I
I
1
Saturated thickness
1 "
Hi,j
F i g . 3.5 Unconfined a q u i f e r . Determination of t h e a r i t h m e t i c mean watert a b l e e l e v a t i o n ( e q u a l t o s a t u r a t e d a q u i f e r t h i c k n e s s ) midway between two a d j a c e n t nodes. BL. i s weighted mean e l e v a t i o n of a q u i f e r bottom a t node i
F o r an unconfined a q u i f e r , t h e computer i s programmed t o c a l c u l a t e t h e a r i t h m e t i c mean e l e v a t i o n of t h e a q u i f e r bottom between two a d j a c e n t nodes ( F i g . 3 . 5 ) . The B L i j v a l u e i n t h e f i g u r e i s assumed t o r e p r e s e n t t h e a v e r a g e a q u i f e r bottom e l e v a t i o n a l o n g t h e s i d e s h a r e d by two a d j o i n i n g n o d a l areas. A t e a c h i t e r a t i o n t h e computer c a l c u l a t e s a new w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n f o r e a c h node ( i n Fig. 3.5: H . and H . ) .
-1
For two a d j a c e n t nodes
92
t h e a r i t h m e t i c mean of t h e w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n s i s then c a l c u l a t e d , and i t
i s assumed t h a t t h i s v a l u e r e p r e s e n t s t h e average w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n
along t h e a d j o i n i n g s i d e of t h e two nodal areas. The computer then c a l c u l a t e s t h e d i f f e r e n c e between t h e average w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n and t h e average a q u i f e r bottom e l e v a t i o n midway between t h e two nodes. The r e s u l t r e p r e s e n t s t h e s a t u r a t e d t h i c k n e s s a l o n g t h e s i d e of t h e two nodal areas.
Confined aquifers are f u l l y s a t u r a t e d . To f i n d t h e weighted mean a q u i f e r

t h i c k n e s s f o r each nodal area, t h e network i s superimposed on t h e isopach map of t h e a q u i f e r , which shows l i n e s o f equal t h i c k n e s s . The weighted mean a q u i f e r t h i c k n e s s can then be determined a t each node (Fig. 3.6) and p l o t t e d on a s e p a r a t e , c l e a n network map.
side o f nodal area
node
side of nodal area
node
side of nodal area
F i g . 3.6 Confined a q u i f e r . Determination of t h e c o n s t a n t a q u i f e r t h i c k n e s s midway between two a d j a c e n t nodes
93
The computer c a l c u l a t e s t h e a r i t h m e t i c mean a q u i f e r t h i c k n e s s midway between two a d j a c e n t nodes and t h i s v a l u e i s t a k e n as b e i n g r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of t h e average t h i c k n e s s a l o n g t h e s i d e s h a r e d by t h e two nodal a r e a s .
Semi-confined a q u i f e r s a r e a l s o f u l l y s a t u r a t e d . T h e i r c o n s t a n t t h i c k n e s s
a l o n g t h e s i d e s of a d j o i n i n g n o d a l areas i s determined i n t h e same way as f o r c o n f i n e d a q u i f e r s . A semi-confined a q u i f e r , however, h a s a c o n f i n i n g
c o v e r i n g l a y e r w i t h a f r e e w a t e r t a b l e t h a t changes w i t h t i m e . The s a t u r a t e d t h i c k n e s s of t h e u n d e r l y i n g a q u i f e r t h u s remains c o n s t a n t , b u t t h a t of t h e c o n f i n i n g c o v e r i n g l a y e r v a r i e s . To f i n d t h e weighted mean e l e v a t i o n of t h e lower boundary of t h e c o n f i n i n g l a y e r f o r each nodal a r e a , t h e network i s superimposed on t h e c o n t o u r map of t h e impermeable base and on t h e i s o p a c h map of t h e a q u i f e r . The weighted bottom l e v e l e l e v a t i o n (BL.-value) weighted mean a q u i f e r t h i c k n e s s (D.-value) and t h e
can t h e n be determined and
p l o t t e d on two s e p a r a t e , c l e a n network maps. The computer c a l c u l a t e s t h e weighted mean e l e v a t i o n of t h e lower boundary of t h e c o n f i n i n g l a y e r by t a k i n g t h e sum of t h e BL. and Di v a l u e s a t each node ( F i g . 3 . 7 ) .
side of nodal area side of nodal area side o f nodal area
node
node
F i g . 3 . 7 Semi-confined a q u i f e r . D e t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e c o n s t a n t t h i c k n e s s of t h e a q u i f e r and of t h e s a t u r a t e d t h i c k n e s s of t h e c o n f i n i n g c o v e r i n g l a y e r midway between two a d j a c e n t nodes 94
A t e a c h i t e r a t i o n t h e computer c a l c u l a t e s t h e new n o d a l w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a -
t i o n i n the confining covering layer. It then c a l c u l a t e s t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n e l e v a t i o n between t h i s w a t e r t a b l e and t h e lower boundary o f t h e c o n f i n i n g covering l a y e r . This d i f f e r e n c e r e p r e s e n t s t h e s a t u r a t e d thickness of t h e c o v e r i n g l a y e r f o r t h e t i m e s t e p under c o n s i d e r a t i o n . B e s i d e s t h e i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e s a t u r a t e d t h i c k n e s s o f t h e a q u i f e r , t h e computer a l s o r e q u i r e s i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e e l e v a t i o n of t h e l a n d s u r f a c e b e c a u s e a l l d a t a on e l e v a t i o n s - watertable e l e v a t i o n s included
are
r e l a t e d t o a r e f e r e n c e datum. The e l e v a t i o n o f t h e l a n d s u r f a c e i s found by superimposing t h e network on a t o p o g r a p h i c a l map showing c o n t o u r l i n e s of t h e l a n d s u r f a c e . The weighted mean land s u r f a c e e l e v a t i o n of e a c h n o d a l a r e a i s determined and t h e r e s u l t s a r e p l o t t e d on a s e p a r a t e , c l e a n network
Note: Although t h e mean bottom l e v e l e l e v a t i o n (BL.) i s n o t r e q u i r e d f o r

1
t h e c a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e s a t u r a t e d t h i c k n e s s of c o n f i n e d a q u i f e r s , i t i s
,
n e v e r t h e l e s s p r e s c r i b e d b e c a u s e i n a l l a q u i f e r t y p e s t h e lower a q u i f e r b o u n d a r i e s s e r v e as a c o n t r o l l e v e l below which t h e w a t e r t a b l e c a n n o t f a l l .
3.5.4
S p e c i f i c y i e l d and s t o r a g e c o e f f i c i e n t
-.
For unconfined aquifers t h e c a l c u l a t i o n o f any changes i n s t o r a g e o f groundwater r e q u i r e s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e v a l u e s of t h e a q u i f e r ' s s p e c i f i c y i e l d i n each nodal area. These v a l u e s can be found by superimposing t h e network on a map showing l i n e s of e q u a l s p e c i f i c y i e l d and d e t e r m i n i n g a weighted mean s p e c i f i c y i e l d f o r e a c h n o d a l a r e a . The r e s u l t s a r e p l o t t e d on a s e p a r a t e , c l e a n network map.
Note: t h a t f o r unconfined a q u i f e r s t h e s p e c i f i c - y i e l d map should r e f e r t o t h e zone i n which t h e w a t e r t a b l e f l u c t u a t e s o r i s e x p e c t e d t o f l u c t u a t e i n t h e f u t u r e . I f t h e groundwater i n t h e b a s i n i s t o be pumped by w e l l s o r i f s u r f a c e water i r r i g a t i o n i s t o be i n t r o d u c e d , t h e w a t e r t a b l e may f a l l f a r e t h e r e f o r e recommend t h a t t h e below o r r i s e f a r above i t s i n i t i a l l e v e l . W weighted mean s p e c i f i c y i e l d a t e a c h c o n t r o l p o i n t be determined from t h e
95
l a n d s u r f a c e t o some 10 t o 20 m below t h e d e e p e s t l e v e l t o which t h e w a t e r t a b l e d r o p s under n a t u r a l c o n d i t i o n s . I n a r e a s w i t h a r e l a t i v e l y d e e p w a t e r t a b l e , t h e weighted mean s p e c i f i c y i e l d a t e a c h c o n t r o l p o i n t ( w e l l s , b o r e s ) s h o u l d b e determined f o r b o t h t h e u n s a t u r a t e d zone and ( p a r t o f ) t h e s a t u r a t e d zone (Chap. 2 S e c t . 2 . 7 ) . M o d e l l i n g a confined aquifer r e q u i r e s a weighted mean s t o r a g e c o e f f i c i e n t f o r e a c h n o d a l area. The same a p p l i e s f o r a semi-confined
aquifer; i n a d d i -
t i o n , i f t h e f r e e w a t e r t a b l e i n i t s o v e r l y i n g c o n f i n i n g l a y e r changes w i t h
t i m e , a weighted mean s p e c i f i c y i e l d of t h i s l a y e r should be determined.

Hence, f o r a semi-confined a q u i f e r , two maps must b e p r e p a r e d : a s t o r a g e c o e f f i c i e n t map o f t h e a q u i f e r and a s p e c i f i c y i e l d map of t h e o v e r l y i n g c o n f i n i n g l a y e r . To d e t e r m i n e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e v a l u e s of t h e s e p a r a m e t e r s , o n e f o l l o w s t h e same p r o c e d u r e as o u t l i n e d above.
3.5.5
H y d r a u l i c head
The c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e groundwater f l o w from one n o d a l a r e a t o a n o t h e r req u i r e s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e d a t a on t h e h y d r a u l i c head i n a l l t h e nodes of t h e network. A c t u a l l y , f o r t h i s c a l c u l a t i o n , o n l y t h e i n i t i a l h y d r a u l i c heads
a r e needed. These can be found by superimposing t h e network on t h e watert a b l e - c o n t o u r map p r e p a r e d f o r t = O , i . e . t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e h i s t o r i c a l p e r i o d f o r which t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s w i l l be made. A r e p r e s e n t a t i v e h y d r a u l i c h e a d i s t h e n determined f o r each node by i n t e r p o l a t i o n and t h e v a l u e s a r e p l o t t e d on a s e p a r a t e c l e a n network map. I f t h e node of a p a r t i c u l a r n o d a l
a r e a l i e s e c c e n t r i c and i f s e v e r a l w a t e r t a b l e - c o n t o u r l i n e s p a s s through
t h e n o d a l area, one may have t o choose a head t h a t i s more r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h e area t h a n t h e one o f t h e a c t u a l node. " H i s t o r y matching" i s used t o c a l i b r a t e t h e model. T h i s means t h a t computed n o d a l h y d r a u l i c heads a r e compared w i t h o b s e r v e d n o d a l h y d r a u l i c heads. TO make such a comparison, one needs n o t o n l y t h e i n i t i a l nodal h e a d s , b u t a l s o t h e . c o n s e c u t i v e observed nodal heads f o r t h e whole c a l c u l a t i o n p e r i o d . I f t h i s p e r i o d i s , s a y , a y e a r , one can p r e p a r e monthly h y d r a u l i c h e a d s , u s i n g t h e same p r o c e d u r e as o u t l i n e d above.
96
Modelling a semi-confined a q u i f e r r e q u i r e s i n i t i a l n o d a l h y d r a u l i c h e a d s , not only f o r the a q u i f e r , but a l s o f o r t h e overlying confining layer. So, f o r t = O , two w a t e r t a b l e - c o n t o u r maps must b e compiled: one f o r t h e a q u i f e r and t h e o t h e r f o r t h e c o n f i n i n g l a y e r . The procedure o f f i n d i n g r e p r e s e n t a t i v e i n i t i a l n o d a l heads f o r t h e two l a y e r s i s t h e same a s o u t l i n e d above.
3.5.6
Net r e c h a r g e
Net r e c h a r g e d a t a f o r a l l t h e n o d a l a r e a s must be prepared. The n e t recharge i s t h e a l g e b r a i c sum of t h e f o l l o w i n g e x t e r n a l f l o w s : r a i n f a l l , e v a p o t r a n s p i r a t i o n , s u r f a c e r u n o f f , seepage from w a t e r c o u r s e s , seepage t o w a t e r c o u r s e s , i r r i g a t i o n l o s s e s , c a p i l l a r y r i s e from shallow w a t e r t a b l e s , a b s t r a c t i o n by pumped w e l l s , s u b s u r f a c e flow a c r o s s f l o w - c o n t r o l l e d bounda r i e s , and a r t i f i c i a l r e c h a r g e , i f any. Obviously, n o t a l l of t h e s e f l o w s w i l l occur everywhere and a t t h e same time i n a b a s i n . For t h i s r e a s o n , i n
o u r computer programs w e have n o t a l l o c a t e d a s p e c i f i c v a r i a b l e t o e a c h of

t h e s e flows; i n s t e a d , w e have d i v i d e d them i n t o two c a t e g o r i e s : e x t e r n a l flows t h a t are measured o r c a l c u l a t e d as a depth p e r t i m e (e.g. rainfall
and e v a p o t r a n s p i r a t i o n ) and e x t e r n a l f l o w s t h a t a r e measured o r c a l c u l a t e d a s a volume p e r t i m e (e.g. a b s t r a c t i o n by pumped w e l l s and s u b s u r f a c e f l o w
a c r o s s a f l o w - c o n t r o l l e d boundary). To each of t h e s e c a t e g o r i e s , w e have a l l o c a t e d one v a r i a b l e : RECH(K) t o t h e f i r s t and FLWCON(K) t o t h e second. The v a l u e s of t h e s e v a r i a b l e s t h u s r e p r e s e n t t h e a l g e b r a i c sum of a number e admit t h a t t h i s can be a d i s a d v a n t a g e b u t i t a l l o w s of e x t e r n a l flows. W us t o keep t h e model s i m p l e s o t h a t i t c a n be r u n on s m a l l computers.
Note: Nodal n e t r e c h a r g e v a l u e s c a n o n l y be p r e p a r e d a f t e r t h e u n i t t i m e f o r which t h e model i s t o be developed h a s been chosen (Chap. 4 S e c t . 2 . 1 ) . I f t h a t u n i t time i s , s a y , one month, t h e two s e t s of monthly n e t r e c h a r g e v a l u e s f o r each n o d a l a r e a must b e p r e p a r e d f o r t h e e n t i r e h i s t o r i c a l period being modelled. Usually t h e i n d i v i d u a l components of t h e s e two lump terms a r e n o t known p r e c i s e l y . For i n s t a n c e , t h e stream f l o w e n t e r i n g and l e a v i n g a nodal a r e a
97
i s n o t known, and n e i t h e r i s t h e i r r i g a t i o n w a t e r s u p p l i e d t o a nodal area.

I r r i g a t i o n water l o s s e s i n t h e w a t e r d i s t r i b u t i o n system and on t h e f i e l d s a r e seldom known p e r n o d a l a r e a . A t b e s t , o n l y an e s t i m a t e of t h e s e compon e n t s can be made, based on whatever i n f o r m a t i o n i s a v a i l a b l e . For t h e e x t e r n a l f l o w s measured o r c a l c u l a t e d .as a d e p t h per t i n e , t h e n o d a l network i s superimposed c o n s e c u t i v e l y on maps showing t h e s e flow r a t e s (Chap. 2 S e c t . 3 ) . Each f l o w r a t e i s t h e n e s t i m a t e d i n each nodal a r e a and combined i n t o one s i n g l e v a l u e f o r e a c h n o d a l a r e a . These v a l u e s a r e brought t o g e t h e r i n a t a b l e and e x p r e s s e d as a depth p e r t i n e . The computer i s programmed t o m u l t i p l y each v a l u e of RECH(K) by t h e a r e a of each nodal area t o o b t a i n a volume rate of f l o w p e r time. For t h e e x t e r n a l f l o w s measured o r c a l c u l a t e d as a volume p e r time, t h e n o d a l network i s superimposed on maps showing t h e s e flow r a t e s (Chap. 2 S e c t . 3 ) . Each flow r a t e i s t h e n e s t i m a t e d i n e a c h nodal a r e a and combined i n t o one s i n g l e v a l u e f o r e a c h n o d a l area. F i n a l l y , a l l t h e s e v a l u e s are b r o u g h t t o g e t h e r i n a n o t h e r t a b l e and e x p r e s s e d as a volume p e r t i m e .
98
PROGRAM DETAILS
4.1
Package d e s c r i p t i o n
i n which t h e c a l c u l a t i o n
A l l computer programs c o n s i s t o f a s o u r c e program,
p r o c e s s e s a r e r e c o r d e d , and a d a t a s e t , which c o n t a i n s t h e a c t u a l d a t a needed t o p e r f o r m t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s .
To make o u r model s u i t a b l e t o be r u n on e v e n small c o m p u t e r s , which would

o t h e r w i s e n o t h a v e s u f f i c i e n t memory c a p a c i t y t o c o p e , we h a v e decomposed o u r computer program i n t o f o u r p a r t s . T h e s e f o u r p a r t s t o g e t h e r form o u r "Standard Groundwater Model Program" (SMGP) SGMP 1 SMGP 2 + Data S e t I
, which
consists of:
( r e a d i n g of i n p u t d a t a l n o d a l network) ( c a l c u l a t i o n : i t e r a t i o n technique)
+ Data S e t I1
SGMP 3a + D a t a S e t 111 ( p r i n t - o u t of r e s u l t s ) b SGMP 3 + ' D a t a S e t I V ( p l o t - o u t o f r e s u l t s ) . I n p r i n c i p l e , t h i s p a c k a g e can b e used f o r e i t h e r r e g i o n a l o r l o c a l groundw a t e r f l o w s t u d i e s . ' F o r c e r t a i n s p e c i f i c c o n d i t i o n s , however, two o p t i o n a l programs a r e a v a i l a b l e : OPRO 1 + Data S e t V (which r e p l a c e s SGMP 1 + D a t a S e t I ) : ( c a l c u l a t i o n of input d a t a l r e g u l a r network) OPRO 2 (which r e p l a c e s SGMP 2 ) : ( c a l c u l a t i o n : e l i m i n a t i o n t e c h n i q u e ) .
OPRO I h a s b e e n s p e c i a l l y d e v e l o p e d f o r u s e i n l o c a l g r o u n d w a t e r f l o w
s t u d i e s (e.g. a q u i f e r t e s t s ) i n a q u i f e r s t h a t are assumed t o b e homogene-
o u s . Such s t u d i e s r e q u i r e a r more a c c u r a t e w a t e r t a b l e c a l c u l a t i o n s t h a n
99
r e g i o n a l s t u d i e s and c o n s e q u e n t l y a dense network w i t h a g r e a t number of n o d e s . For t h e s e s t u d i e s , i t i s p r e f e r a b l e t o u s e a r e g u l a r network of r e c t a n g l e s o r s q u a r e s r a t h e r than an i r r e g u l a r network. Although, i n p r i n ciple, S G M P 1 can a l s o be used f o r a r e g u l a r network, t h e r e s u l t i n g i n p u t d a t a h a n d l i n g i s time-consuming; When i t i s d e s i r e d t o r u n OPRO I , t h e use of OPRO 1 overcomes t h i s problem. S G M P 1 and Data S e t I a r e removed from
t h e package and OPRO 1 and D a t a S e t V a r e i n s e r t e d i n t h e i r p l a c e ; t h e o t h e r s o u r c e programs and d a t a s e t s remain t h e same.
OPRO 2 r e p l a c e s t h e i t e r a t i o n t e c h n i q u e of SGMP 2 w i t h an e l i m i n a t i o n t e c h n i q u e . I n r e g i o n a l s t u d i e s , when t h e a r e a i n c l u d e s semi-conf ined and/ o r c o n f i n e d a q u i f e r s , many i t e r a t i o n s may be needed t o g e t a c c u r a t e r e s u l t s ; t h e same a p p l i e s i n l o c a l s t u d i e s when r e c h a r g e o r a b s t r a c t i o n r a t e s a r e h i g h i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e s i z e of t h e nodal a r e a s . By u s i n g an e l i m i n a t i o n t e c h n i q u e i n such s i t u a t i o n s , one can avoid numerous i t e r a t i o n s without end a n g e r i n g t h e a c c u r a c y of t h e r e s u l t s . A d m i t t e d l y , an e l i m i n a t i o n t e c h n i q u e consumes f a r more memory, b u t i t can mean g r e a t s a v i n g s i n computer t i m e .
OPRO 2 u s e s t h e same d a t a s e t as S G M P 2 : Data S e t 11. When i t i s d e s i r e d t o
u s e an e l i m i n a t i o n t e c h n i q u e , S G M P 2 i s removed from t h e package and i s rep l a c e d by OPRO 2 ; t h e o t h e r s o u r c e programs and d a t a s e t s remain t h e same. The u s e r should b e aware t h a t when h e runs OPRO 2 , t h e f o l l o w i n g a d d i t i o n a l r e s t r i c t i o n s apply: I f t h e a q u i f e r i s semi-confined, the w a t e r t a b l e i n the confining l a y e r
i s Sized a t the i n i t i a l input level.

L i m i t s f o r t h e f l u c t u a t i o n s of t h e groundwater l e v e l cannot be p r e s c r i b e d f o r t h e upper and lower boundary of t h e a q u i f e r 'system; t h e program w i l l t h u s n o t i n t e r f e r e t o keep t h e groundwater l e v e l s w i t h i n
l i m i t s . The c a l c u l a t e d water l e v e l s must t h e r e f o r e be checked i n t h i s

respect. F o r unconfined a q u i f e r s t h e e l i m i n a t i o n t e c h n i q u e i n t r o d u c e s an e r r o r i n t h e s e n s e t h a t t h e v a r i a b l e s a t u r a t e d t h i c k n e s s of such a q u i f e r s i s n o t c o r r e c t l y s i m u l a t e d . Because t h i s t e c h n i q u e i s a d i r e c t one, i t means t h a t f o r a c e r t a i n time s t e p t h e program u s e s t h e s a t u r a t e d t h i c k n e s s v a l u e s as t h e y have been c a l c u l a t e d f o r t h e previous t i m e step.
1O0
I r r e s p e c t i v e of whether t h e o p t i o n a l programs o r SGMP 1 o r SGMP 2 a r e r u n , one c a n choose t o have t h e r e s u l t s of t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s e i t h e r p r i n t e d o u t w i t h SGMP 3a o r p l o t t e d o u t w i t h SGMF' 3 b ; i f so d e s i r e d , t h e r e s u l t s c a n be b o t h p r i n t e d and p l o t t e d . With p r i n t - o u t s one o b t a i n s t h e groundwater b a l a n c e s of each n o d a l area. With p l o t - o u t s , one c a n compare t h e c a l c u l a t e d
w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n s w i t h t h e h i s t o r i c a l o n e s ; i n a d d i t i o n , p l o t - o u t s are most u s e f u l i n i n d i c a t i n g t h e long-term b e h a v i o u r of t h e w a t e r t a b l e . The t o t a l package t h u s c o n s i s t s of s i x s o u r c e programs and f i v e d a t a s e t s . F i g u r e 4.1 shows t h e p o s s i b l e c o m b i n a t i o n s .
OPTIONAL PACKAGE
SGMP
DATA SET V INPUT I I-----RUN OPRO 2 DATA SET II
DATA SET I INPUT
RUN SGMP 2 DATA SET I I CALCU LATlON
I
RUN SGMP 3a DATA SET I I I OUTPUT
I
RUN SGMP 3a DATA SET I I I OUTPUT
RUN SGMP 3b DATA SET I V OUTPUT
RUN SGMP 3b DATA SET I V OUTPUT
Fig. 4.1
P o s s i b l e c o m b i n a t i o n s of s o u r c e programs and d a t a s e t s
I n S e c t i o n 4 . 2 below, i t w i l l be e x p l a i n e d how t h e v a r i o u s d a t a s e t s a r e t o be prepared. S e c t i o n 4 . 3 w i l l d e s c r i b e how t h e s o u r c e programs can be a d a p t e d t o a p a r t i c u l a r network o r p a r t i c u l a r computer, i f n e c e s s a r y . S e c t i o n 4 . 4 i s i n t e n d e d f o r t h e systems manager; i t informs him of t h e s p e c i f i c demands p l a c e d on h i s computer system by t h e program package.
101
4.2
4.2.1
Structure of data s e t s
Data S e t I
The d a t a r e q u i r e d f o r SGMP 1 are t h e d a t a of t h e n o d a l n e t w o r k , and t h o s e of t h e h y d r o g e o l o g i c a l p a r a m e t e r s and o t h e r v a r i a b l e s . For t h e d e s i g n of a n o d a l n e t w o r k , see Chap. 3 S e c t . 4 ; f o r t e c h n i q u e s t o produce t h e d a t a on hydrogeological parameters,
see Chap. 2 S e c t . 2 , and Chap. 3 S e c t s . 5 . 2 ,

The
5 . 3 , and 5 . 4 . The d a t a are p r o c e s s e d and s t o r e d i n t h e memory (FILE I ) .
o u t p u t of SGMP 1 c o n s i s t s of a r e f o r m a t t e d p l a y b a c k of t h e i n p u t d a t a . T h i s e n a b l e s t h e u s e r t o c h e c k w h e t h e r any m i s t a k e s w e r e made when t h e c a r d s
were b e i n g punched.
Definitions o f input variables

The i n p u t v a r i a b l e s h a v e b e e n d i v i d e d i n t o e i g h t g r o u p s , which, f o r t h e s a k e of c o n v e n i e n c e , are p r e s e n t e d i n t h e form of a t a b l e ( T a b l e 4 . 1 ) . Exp l a n a t i o n s of t h e v a r i o u s items f o l l o w t h e t a b l e .
T a b l e 4.1 I n p u t v a r . i a b l e s o f SGMP 1
Group 1
TITLE
Group 2
NN
NSCONF NCONF NEXTN NSIDE(K) , K = l ,NN C O ( I , J ) , J = l ,2, 1 = 1 ,TNN
Group 3
TMBAS DMTIM T SCALE LSWl
102
Group 4
DELTA MINOR MAJOR LIST
Group 5
ERROR COEFFA
Group 6
PERM ( J ) , J=1,7 C O ( K , 1 ) , K = l ,NN P C O N F ( I) , I=1 ,NSCONF ASC ( I ), I=1 ,NSCONF

SL(K), K=I,NN B L ( K ) , K = l ,TNN CO(I,2), I = l , N C O N F
I
I
Group 7
Group 8
UL(K) OL(K) LSW2 DELQ
, K = l ,NN , K = l ,NN
Group I . TITLE
Identification
= name of b a s i n , o r any s p e c i f i c a t i o n . t h e u s e r w i s h e s f o r i d e n -
tification.
Group 2.
NN
P a r a m e t e r s f o r t h e network c o n f i g u r a t i o n
= number of
i n t e r n a l nodes. A s h a s been e x p l a i n e d , t h e a r e a i s
s p l i t up i n t o n o d a l a r e a s , t h e nodes of which r e p r e s e n t t h e s p e c i f i c a q u i f e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n e a c h a r e a . NN i s f u r t h e r s u b d i v i d e d i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e t y p e s of a q u i f e r :
NSCONF
= number of i n t e r n a l n o d e s t h a t r e p r e s e n t a s e m i - c o n f i n e d
aquifer.
T h e s e nodes ( i f any) are numbered c o n s e c u t i v e l y , s t a r t i n g w i t h I .

N CONF
= number of i n t e r n a l nodes t h a t r e p r e s e n t a c o n f i n e d a q u i f e r .
T h e s e nodes ( i f a n y ) are a l s o numbered c o n s e c u t i v e l y s t a r t i n g w i t h NSCONF + I .
103
The r e m a i n i n g i n t e r n a l nodes a r e assumed t o r e p r e s e n t an unconfined a q u i f e r . No s p e c i f i c v a r i a b l e i s a t t a c h e d t o t h e s e nodes. They t o o are numbered c o n s e c u t i v e l y , s t a r t i n g from NCONF + 1 and c o n c l u d i n g w i t h NN. NEXTN
= number of e x t e r n a l nodes.
These nodes r e p r e s e n t t h e boundary
c o n d i t i o n s of t h e area; each n o d a l a r e a l y i n g a t t h e f r i n g e of t h e a r e a must have one o r more e x t e r n a l nodes. They a r e numbered from NN + 1 t o TNN which i s a n i n t e r m e d i a t e v a l u e s i g n i f y i n g t h e t o t a l number of nodes (NN + NEXTN).
NSIDE (K)
= number of
s i d e s of e a c h i n t e r n a l n o d a l a r e a . I n t h e program t h e
maximum number of s i d e s t h a t e a c h n o d a l a r e a can p o s s e s s i s r e s t r i c t e d t o seven.

C O ( 1 , J)
= x and y c o o r d i n a t e s o f a l l t h e n o d e s , b o t h i n t e r n a l and e x t e r n a l .
They a r e measured i n em w i t h r e g a r d t o an a r b i t r a r i l y chosen C a r t e s i a n c o o r d i n a t e system l a i d on t h e map of t h e network c o n f i g u r a t i o n . When a t r i a n g l e formed by t h r e e nodes p o s s e s s e s an a n g l e g r e a t e r t h a n 90 d e g r e e s , a message i s p r i n t e d i n d i c a t i n g which of t h e nodes t h i s i s .
Group 3 .
TMBAS
P a r a m e t e r s c o n c e r n i n e dimensions
= unit
t i m e of t i m e s t e p and boundary c o n d i t i o n s . It i s ' e x p r e s s e d
a s a word: week, month, e t c . DMT I M

T
= number of days i n t h e u n i t t i m e TMBAS.
= actual
t i m e a t t h e b e g i n n i n g - of t h e c a l c u l a t i o n p r o c e s s ,
e x p r e s s e d as a numeric i n t h e dimension TMBAS. I f t h e computat i o n s s t a r t on 15 August and TMBAS h a s t h e dimension MONTH, T i s e q u a l t o 7.5. SCALE
= s c a l e of
t h e map used f o r t h e n o d a l network and from which t h e
c o o r d i n a t e s of t h e nodes a r e r e a d .
LSWI
= a n e x t e r n a l s w i t c h t h a t can b e g i v e n two v a l u e s .
I f t h e s c a l e of t h e map i s v e r y l a r g e , t h e n o d a l a r e a s become v e r y l a r g e when e x p r e s s e d i n s q u a r e metres; t h e same a p p l i e s t o pumping r a t e s e x p r e s s e d i n c u b i c metres. These l a r g e v a l u e s c a n b e avoided by u s i n g LSWI. S e t t i n g LSWl e q u a l t o 1 means:
104
u n i t a r e a = 1,000,000 square metres u n i t volume = 1,000,000 c u b i c metres S e t t i n g LSWl equal t o 2 means: u n i t area = 1 s q u a r e metre u n i t volume = 1 c u b i c metre.
Note: The , u n i t l e n g t h i s always f i x e d (metre); it i s used i n t h e h y d r a u l i c conduct v i t y v a l u e s (metre/day) and i n t h e e l e v a t i o n v a l u e s (metres above a c e r t a i n r e f e r e n c e datum).
Group 4
P a r a m e t e r s of time d i s c r e t i z a t i o n
In modelling a groundwater b a s i n , two t i m e parameters are i n d i s p e n s a b l e . The f i r s t i s t h e t i m e s t e p , which i s i m p l i c i t t o t h e f i n i t e d i f f e r e n c e method; i t s magnitude must be determined by making a number of t r i a l r u n s .
T h e second i s t h e t o t a l time p e r i o d f o r which t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s are t o be

made. Two o t h e r parameters a r e a l s o used i n t h e program package. They can be r e g a r d e d a s accumulation l e v e l s of t h e time s t e p . The r e a s o n s why t h e s e parameters a r e included a r e two-fold: They a l l o w t h e boundary c o n d i t i o n s t o be p r e s c r i b e d a t t i m e i n t e r v a l s t h a t a r e d i f f e r e n t from t h e t i m e s t e p ; f o r example, e a c h week o r e a c h month, depending on t h e a v a i l a b l e d a t a ; The s a m e a p p l i e s f o r t h e r e s u l t s of t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s ; f o r example, i t
i s p o s s i b l e t o p r i n t t h e w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n s f o r e a c h month and t h e
w a t e r b a l a n c e components f o r each y e a r , even though t h e a c t u a l t i m e s t e p i s a week.
DELTA
= time.
The c h o i c e of t h e time-step
size is initially arbitrary,
a l t h o u g h it i s i n f l u e n c e d by two f a c t o r s :
I f t h e time s t e p i s chosen t o o l a r g e , t h e approximation of f i n i t e d i f f e r e n c e s t o d i f f e r e n t i a l s w i l l c e a s e t o be v a l i d and t h e r e s u l t s w i l l be i n e r r o r ;
An i n t e r a c t i o n e x i s t s between t h e amount of d a t a f o r t h e
boundary c o n d i t i o n s and t h e s i z e of t h e time s t e p chosen;

105
i f , f o r example, t h e boundary c o n d i t i o n s a r e known on a weekly b a s i s , one w i l l n o t t a k e a time s t e p of one month and v i c e v e r s a . For any p a r t i c u l a r s e t of d a t a , i t i s a d v i s a b l e t o run t h e program w i t h v a r i o u s DELTA v a l u e s . When t h e r e s u l t s - are compared, i t can r e a d i l y be seen f o r what maximum v a l u e of DELTA the r e s u l t s do n o t a p p r e c i a b l y change. Common t i m e s t e p s a r e a week, a f o r t n i g h t , o r a month f o r r e g i o n a l s t u d i e s and a day f o r l o c a l s t u d i e s l i k e a q u i f e r t e s t s . The dimension of DELTA i s t h e u n i t t i m e TMBAS.
MINOR MAJOR
= =
t h e number of DELTA p e r i o d s i n t h e f i r s t accumulation l e v e l . t h e number of f i r s t accumulation l e v e l p e r i o d s i n t h e second
accumulation l e v e l .
LIST
= t h e number of second accumulation l e v e l p e r i o d s i n t h e t o t a l
t i m e p e r i o d considered. To summarize t h e use of t h e parameters of time d i s c r e t i z a t i o n , t h e v a l u e s o f t h e t i m e s t e p DELTA and t h e t o t a l t i m e p e r i o d must f i r s t be determined, a f t e r which t h e v a l u e s of t h e o t h e r two parameters can be chosen. For example, computations made f o r a t o t a l period of f i v e y e a r s may have t h e f o l l o w i n g parameters: u n i t t i m e : one month t i m e s t e p : one f o r t n i g h t f i r s t accumulation l e v e l : one month second accumulation l e v e l : one y e a r The r e l a t i o n s h i p s between t h e d i f f e r e n t t i m e u n i t s as they are used i n t h i s c o n t e x t are: 1 year = 1 2 months = 2 4 f o r t n i g h t s = 48 weeks = 366 days. The v a l u e s of t h e v a r i o u s parameters and t h e i r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n are:
Parameter
TMBAS
Value
MONTH
Interpretation month number of days i n a month fortnight number of f o r t n i g h t s i n a month number of months i n a y e a r number of y e a r s i n t o t a l time period 106
DMT I M
DELTA MINOR MAJOR
30.5
0.5
2
12
LIST
To check whether t h e p a r a m e t e r v a l u e s have been determined c o r r e c t l y , t h e a l g e b r a i c p r o d u c t of t h e v a l u e s of DELTA, MINOR, MAJOR, and LIST should b e c a l c u l a t e d ; t h e r e s u l t should e q u a l t h e t o t a l t i m e p e r i o d b e i n g c o n s i d e r e d , e x p r e s s e d i n t h e u n i t TMBAS.
Group 5. ERROR
Parameters f o r t h e c a l c u l a t i o n process
= a tolerance l e v e l t h a t d i r e c t l y a f f e c t s t h e accuracy
of t h e
final results. I n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n p r o c e s s t h e v a r i o u s components of t h e w a t e r b a l a n c e o f t h e n o d a l a r e a s a r e c a l c u l a t e d . For e a c h nodal a r e a t h e a l g e b r a i c sum o f t h e s e components i s found and set e q u a l t o RES (= r e s i d u a l ) . The w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n a t each node i s t h e n a d j u s t e d by t h e magnitude of t h e r e s i d u a l , a t t e n u a t e d by a r e l a x a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t . F i n a l l y , t h e sum of t h e a b s o l u t e v a l u e s of a l l t h e r e s i d u a l s i s c a l c u l a t e d . I f t h i s sum i s l e s s t h a n o r e q u a l t o t h e v a l u e of ERROR, t h e c a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e n o d a l w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n s i s completed f o r t h a t t i m e s t e p . I f n o t , t h e c a l c u l a t i o n i s r e p e a t e d
a s many times a s are r e q u i r e d t o r e d u c e t h e sum t o a v a l u e l e s s t h a n o r

e q u a l t o t h e value of ERROR. Obviously, t h e s m a l l e r one c h o o s e s t h e v a l u e o f ERROR, t h e more a c c u r a t e t h e c a l c u l a t e d n o d a l w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n s w i l l be. Small v a l u e s of ERROR, however, mean more i t e r a t i o n s p e r t i m e s t e p and t h u s more computer t i m e . Running t h e program f o r v a r i o u s v a l u e s of ERROR
and comparing t h e computer c o s t s a g a i n s t t h e a c c u r a c y w i l l i n d i c a t e a s u i t a b l e v a l u e of ERROR. I f a small v a l u e of ERROR d o e s n o t a p p r e c i a b l y i n -
c r e a s e t h e accuracy o f t h e c a l c u l a t e d w a t e r t a b l e s , a h i g h e r v a l u e of ERROR should be chosen t o r e d u c e computer c o s t s .

A check h a s been i n c l u d e d i n t h e program: i f , a f t e r 50 i t e r a t i o n s , t h e sum
of t h e a b s o l u t e v a l u e s of a l l t h e r e s i d u a l s i s s t i l l g r e a t e r t h a n t h e v a l u e o f ERROR, t h e i t e r a t i o n s are t e r m i n a t e d : a message "RELAXATION FAILS TO

CONVERGE" i s p r i n t e d , and t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s a r e s t a r t e d f o r t h e n e x t t i m e
step. The dimension of ERROR i s t h e same as f o r t h e o t h e r components o f t h e w a t e r b a l a n c e : a volume p e r t i m e . The u n i t o f volume depends on t h e v a l u e of t h e s w i t c h LSWl ( 1 m 3 o r 1,000,000 m3) and t h e u n i t time i s e q u a l t o TMBAS.
107
An e s t i m a t e of t h e v a l u e of ERROR could b e a c e r t a i n p e r c e n t a g e
per cent
s a y 10
of t h e average a b s o l u t e v a l u e s of RECH(K) o r FLWCON(K). I n t h e
program t h e s e two v a r i a b l e s r e p r e s e n t t h e net r e c h a r g e v a l u e s f o r e a c h n o d a l a r e a ( s e e Chap. 3 S e c t . 5 . 6 ) . These a v e r a g e s a r e c a l c u l a t e d a s f o l l o w s : t h e v a l u e s of FLWCON(K) i n t h e v a r i o u s nodal areas are t o t a l l e d o v e r t h e t o t a l t i m e p e r i o d and an a v e r a g e i s c a l c u l a t e d by d i v i d i n g t h e t o t a l v a l u e of FLWCON(K) by t h e number of n o d a l a r e a s , t a k i n g i n t o account o n l y t h o s e n o d a l a r e a s where t h e v a l u e s of FLWCON(K) a r e n o t e q u a l t o z e r o . F o r t h e v a l u e s of RECH(K) t h e same p r o c e d u r e i s f o l l o w e d , b u t t h e a v e r a g e
i s m u l t i p l i e d by t h e a r i t h m e t i c mean s u r f a c e a r e a of t h e nodal a r e a s .
Which average, e i t h e r t h a t based on RECH(K) o r on FLWCON(K), should be t a k e n depends on t h e s i t u a t i o n . Suppose t h a t t h e s m a l l e s t o f t h e two i s c h o s e n ; i t must t h e n b e c o n v e r t e d t o t h e dimensions of ERROR, i . e . b o t h t h e u n i t volume and t h e u n i t t i m e i n which t h e a v e r a g e i s e x p r e s s e d should be c o n v e r t e d i n t o t h e u n i t volume and t h e u n i t time used f o r ERROR. The r e s u l t
i s t h e n m u l t i p l i e d by 0.1 (10%) t o o b t a i n a f i r s t e s t i m a t e o f t h e v a l u e of
ERROR
.
= relaxation coefficient.
COEFFA
Tyson and Weber (1963) have s u g g e s t e d
t h a t such a c o e f f i c i e n t can i n c r e a s e t h e speed of convergence. An optimum v a l u e f o r i t can be o b t a i n e d i n t h e same way a s f o r
DELTA. The range of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t i s between 0 . 8 and 1 . 2 .
Group 6.
Geohydrological p a r a m e t e r s
= mean h o r i z o n t a l h y d r a u l i c c o n d u c t i v i t y of t h e a q u i f e r a t e a c h
J) PERM(
n o d a l s i d e , weighted over t h e l e n g t h of the s i d e . The dimension
i s f i x e d : m/day.
I n t h e program t h e h y d r a u l i c c o n d u c t i v i t y f o r
e a c h nodal s i d e i s r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e p a i r of node numbers i n between which t h e s i d e l i e s . I f b o t h nodes are i n t e r n a l n o d e s , t h e v a l u e of t h e h y d r a u l i c c o n d u c t i v i t y of t h e s i d e must be p r e s c r i b e d t w i c e : once f o r one node and once f o r t h e o t h e r ( s e e Chap. 5 S e c t . 4 . 1 , T a b l e 5.10). When t h e s e two v a l u e s a r e n o t t h e
same, a message i s p r i n t e d i n d i c a t i n g f o r which p a i r of nodes

t h i s i s so.
108
CO(K,I)
= mean s t o r a g e c o e f f i c i e n t o r s p e c i f i c y i e l d of t h e a q u i f e r i n
each n o d a l a r e a , weighted over t h e nodal area ( d i m e n s i o n l e s s ) . The a r r a y CO(K,I) h a s been used e a r l i e r f o r t h e x - c o o r d i n a t e s ; save memory r e q u i r e m e n t s , i t i s now used a g a i n f o r t h e s t o r a g e c o e f f i c i e n t o r s p e c i f i c y i e l d of t h e a q u i f e r . These two g e o h y d r o l o g i c a l p a r a m e t e r s a r e needed f o r a l l t y p e s of a q u i f e r . I f t h e a q u i f e r i s semi-conf i n e d , two a d d i t i o n a l g e o h y d r o l o g i c a l p a r a m e t e r s
~
to
a r e needed: PCONF(1)
= mean
v e r t i c a l h y d r a u l i c c o n d u c t i v i t y of t h e c o n f i n i n g l a y e r i n
weighted o v e r t h e
t h o s e n o d a l areas denoted as semi-confined, n o d a l area (mfday). ASC(1)
= mean s p e c i f i c y i e l d of t h e c o n f i n i n g l a y e r i n t h o s e n o d a l a r e a s
denoted as semi-confined, less).
weighted over t h e n o d a l a r e a (dimension-
Group 7 .
Topographical p a r a m e t e r s
Topographical p a r a m e t e r s d e f i n e t h e h o r i z o n t a l b o u n d a r i e s of t h e a q u i f e r system. Included i n t h e program package a r e t h r e e t y p e s of a q u i f e r ( F i g . 4.2).
SLIK1
SL(K1 DL
SL (K)
BL(K1
BL (KI
unconfined
semi-confined
confined
Fig. 4.2
D i f f e r e n t t y p e s of a q u i f e r
I o9
S L (K)
= e l e v a t i o n of
t h e land s u r f a c e i n each n o d a l a r e a , weighted o v e r
t h e nodal a r e a (m above a r e f e r e n c e l e v e l ) .
BL(K)
= bottom boundary of t h e a q u i f e r system,
i n each n o d a l a r e a ,
weighted over t h e nodal area and a t each e x t e r n a l node t h a t r e p r e s e n t s a head-controlled boundary (m above a r e f e r e n c e l e v e l ) .
CO(K,2)
= t h i c k n e s s of t h e a q u i f e r i f t h e nodes a r e ' d e n o t e d a s semi-
c o n f i n e d o r c o n f i n e d , weighted over t h e n o d a l a r e a . The a r r a y CO(K,2) has been used e a r l i e r f o r t h e y - c o o r d i n a t e s ; t o save
memory r e q u i r e m e n t s , i t i s now used a g a i n f o r t h e t h i c k n e s s of a semi-confined o r confined a q u i f e r .
Group 8 .
Parameters f o r v a r i a t i o n s i n w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n
I f changes are t o be introduced i n t h e groundwater b a s i n , f o r example i f t h e a q u i f e r i s t o be pumped f o r i r r i g a t i o n purposes o r recharged a r t i f i c i a l l y , one w i l l want t o f o r e c a s t t h e w a t e r t a b l e behaviour under t h e new regime. W a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n s may be r e q u i r e d t o remain w i t h i n c e r t a i n
l i m i t s , f o r i n s t a n c e i f t h e r e i s a r i s k of s o i l s a l i n i z a t i o n due t o s h a l l o w
w a t e r t a b l e s , o r a r i s k of t h e w a t e r t a b l e dropping below t h e w e l l s c r e e n s i n
areas of heavy pumping.

UL (KI
= upper
l i m i t t o which t h e w a t e r t a b l e i n each nodal a r e a i s

l i m i t t o which t h e w a t e r t a b l e i n each nodal a r e a i s
allowed t o r i s e . The dimension i s i n m above a r e f e r e n c e l e v e l .
OL (KI
= lower
allowed t o f a l l . The dimension i s i n m above a r e f e r e n c e l e v e l . LSW2

= an e x t e r n a l switch t h a t can be given two v a l u e s .
S e t t i n g LSW2 e q u a l t o 2 means t h a t no s p e c i f i c i n p u t v a l u e s f o r
U L ( K ) and O L ( K ) a r e needed, The program a u t o m a t i c a l l y a t t a c h e s

t h e v a l u e s of SL(K) and B L ( K ) t o r e s p e c t i v e l y UL(K) and O L ( K ) .
S e t t i n g LSW2 e q u a l t o 1 means t h a t t h e w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n s are p r e s c r i b e d w i t h i n c e r t a i n l i m i t s and t h a t s p e c i f i c i n p u t v a l u e s f o r t h e s e l i m i t s must be g i v e n f o r some o r a l l of t h e nodal
areas. For o t h e r nodal areas w i t h o u t p r e s c r i b e d l i m i t s , one must

g i v e UL(K) and OL(K) t h e v a l u e s of r e s p e c t i v e l y SL(K) and B L ( K ) .
110
For each t i m e s t e p , t e s t s are made t o see whether t h e g e n e r a t e d w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n s exceed t h e UL(K) and OL(K) l e v e l s . I f t h e s e l e v e l s a r e exceeded i n one o r more nodal areas, t h e program i n t r o d u c e s a new component i n t o t h e water b a l a n c e of t h o s e n o d a l areas and a s s i g n s a v a l u e t o it t h a t e n s u r e s t h a t t h e newly g e n e r a t e d w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n s remain w i t h i n t h e g i v e n
l i m i t s . T h i s new component can b e s e e n as an a d d i t i o n a l p e r c o l a t i o n o r

a b . s t r a c t i o n , depending on whether t h e w a t e r t a b l e exceeds t h e lower o r u p p e r l i m i t of t h e a q u i f e r . For nodal areas denoted as semi-confined o r c o n f i n e d , t h e program o v e r r u l e s any t e s t s on upper l i m i t s f o r w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n s , p r e s c r i b i n g o n l y t e s t s
on lower l i m i t s .
DELQ
=
c o e f f i c i e n t t h a t d e t e r m i n e s t h e speed of r e a c h i n g t h e f i n a l
v a l u e of t h e a d d i t i o n a l p e r c o l a t i o n o r a b s t r a c t i o n rate t h a t w i l l keep t h e w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n s between t h e p r e s c r i b e d l i m i t s . The procedure by which one d e t e r m i n e s a proper v a l u e of t h e r e q u i r e d a d d i t i o n a l p e r c o l a t i o n o r a b t r a c t i o n r a t e i s as f o l l o w s . I f , a f t e r a c e r t a i n t i m e s t e p , t h e w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n exceeds t h e p r e s c r i b e d l i m i t , t h e maximum v a l u e of t h e a b s o l u t e v a l u e s of RECH(K) and FLWCON(K) d u r i n g t h a t t i m e s t e p i s determined. T h i s v a l u e i s t h e n m u l t i p l i e d by DELQ. The p r o d u c t e n t e r s t h e water b a l a n c e as t h e new component w i t h a p l u s o r minus s i g n , depending on which l i m i t i s exceeded. The c a l c u l a t i o n i s t h e n r e s t a r t e d f o r t h e same t i m e s t e p and t h e new w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n s are t e s t e d . I f t h e w a t e r t a b l e s t i l l exceeds t h e l i m i t , t h e a d d i t i o n a l p e r c o l a t i o n o r a b s t r a c t i o n r a t e i s i n c r e a s e d by i t s own v a l u e . T h i s procedure i s r e p e a t e d as many times as are needed t o p r e v e n t t h e w a t e r t a b l e from exceeding t h e p a r t i c u l a r l i m i t . Thus, t h e f i n a l v a l u e of t h e a d d i t i o n a l p e r c o l a t i o n o r a b s t r a c t i o n r a t e i s
a m u l t i p l e of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t DELQ m u l t i p l i e d by t h e maximum v a l u e of t h e
a b s o l u t e v a l u e of RECH(K) and FLWCON(K) which were i n p u t d a t a f o r t h a t t i m e step. Determining t h e v a l u e of DELQ i s a m a t t e r of t r i a l and e r r o r . When t o o h i g h a v a l u e is used, t h e w a t e r t a b l e w i l l remain f a r from t h e p r e s c r i b e d l i m i t . I f i t i s t o o low, t o o many i t e r a t i o n s w i l l be needed b e f o r e t h e w a t e r t a b l e remains w i t h i n t h e l i m i t .
111
The maximum number o f i t e r a t i o n s i n t h e p r o g r a m i s r e s t r i c t e d t o 50. When more i t e r a t i o n s are r e q u i r e d , a m e s s a g e "DELQ I S TOO SMALL" i s p r i n t e d . When t h e g e n e r a t e d w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n i n a n o d a l area e x c e e d s a l i m i t a l t h o u g h b o t h t h e v a l u e s of RECH(K) and FLWCON(K) are e q u a l t o z e r o d u r i n g t h a t t i m e s t e p , t h e same m e s s a g e "DELQ I S TOO SMALL" w i l l b e p r i n t e d . Here h o w e v e r , it makes no sense t o e n l a r g e DELQ, b u t i n s t e a d , one must i n t r o d u c
a dummy v a l u e f o r e i t h e r RECH(K) o r FLWCON(K).

A v a l u e of 0.1 f o r DELQ h a s b e e n found t o work s a t i s f a c t o r i l y .
Sequence of c a r d s and data formats

T a b l e 4 . 2 shows t h e i n p u t s e q u e n c e and d a t a f o r m a t s f o r d i r e c t k e y p u n c h i n
of t h e d a t a c a r d s o f Data S e t I . I f t h e r e a d e r i s n o t f a m i l i a r w i t h d a t a
f o r m a t s h e c a n f i n d a b r i e f e x p l a n a t i o n i n Appendix 2. T a b l e 4.2 Card s t r u c t u r e o f Data S e t I
Card No.
1
Name
Format 20A4f 20A4 414 4012
TITLE
N N , NSCONF, NCONF, NEXTN
3
4
NSIDE (K) , K = l ,NN (CO(1,J)
J=1,2)
I=l,TNN
16F5.2 2A4,2F4.1 , F 8 . 0 , I 4 F4.2 ,314 2F8.2 20F4. O 1 3 , 7 x 7 7 ( 1 3 , F5.2, 2x) llF7.5 10F8.4
1 lF7.5
5
6
7
TMBAS, DMTIM, T , SCALE, LSWl DELTA, M I N O R , MAJOR, LIST ERROR, COEFFA BL(K)
K,
8
9 IO
11
, K=l
,TNN
( N S ( J ) , PERM(J), .J=I,.T2)
, 1 = 1 ,NN PCONF (K) , K= 1 ,NSCONF

CO(1,I) ASC(I), 1 = 1 ,NSCONF SL(K) , K= 1 ,NN
CO (I,2)
12
13
14
15 16
20F4. O 20F4. O I4,F4.1 10F8.4 10F8.4 112
I=1 ,NCONF
LSW2, DELQ UL(K)
17
, K = l ,NN OL(K) , K= 1 ,NN
No t e t h a t :
,
I f NSCONF i s e q u a l t o z e r o , C a r d s 1 1 and 12 are s k i p p e d ; I f b o t h NSCONF and NCONF are e q u a l t o z e r o , Card 14 i s s k i p p e d ; I f LSW2 i s e q u a l t o 2 , C a r d s 16 and 1 7 are s k i p p e d .
4.2.2
Data S e t I1
I n SGMF' 2 t h e w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n s a t t h e n o d e s and t h e water b a l a n c e s o f t h e n o d a l areas are c a l c u l a t e d f o r e a c h t i m e s t e p and t h e r e s u l t s are s t o r e d on a f i l e (FILE 2 ) . A p a r t from t h e d a t a r e a d f r o m FILE 1 ( S e c t i o n 4 . 2 . 1 ; SGMF' I ) , i n i t i a l and
b o u n d a r y c o n d i t i o n s and f o u r e x t e r n a l s w i t c h e s are p r e s c r i b e d f o r t h i s program. ( F o r i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e t e c h n i q u e s t h a t can b e a p p l i e d t o r e p r e -
s e n t i n i t i a l and b o u n d a r y c o n d i t i o n s , see Chap. 2 S e c t . 3 , and Chap. 3 S e c t s . 5.5 and 5 . 6 ) .

1
A s t h e r e s u l t s are s t o r e d on t a p e , t h e o n l y o u t p u t i s t h e h e a d i n g a n d t h e
v a l u e s of t h e f o u r e x t e r n a l s w i t c h e s . I n c l u d e d i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n p r o c e s s
i s a check a g a i n s t c e r t a i n s i t u a t i o n s . I f t h e y o c c u r , one of t h e f o l l o w i n g
messages w i l l b e p r i n t e d . "RELAXATION FAILS TO CONVERGE" (Section 4.2.1; d e f i n i t i o n of ERROR) d e f i n i t i o n o f DELQ)
"DELQ I S TOO SMALL" ( S e c t i o n 4 . 2 . 1 ;
"WATERTABLE I N CONFINING LAYER I S ABOVE SURFACE LEVEL" T h i s c a n h a p p e n when t h e p o s i t i v e n e t r e c h a r g e e x c e e d s t h e downward

1
s e e p a g e o r when t h e r e i s a n upward s e e p a g e . P h y s i c a l l y t h i s means t h a t t h e area i s w a t e r l o g g e d . "PIEZOMETER LEVEL IN AQUIFER IS BELOW BOTTOM TOP LAYER" T h i s can happen when by a b s t r a c t i o n f r o m pumped w e l l s t h e p i e z o m e t r i c l e v e l d r o p s below t h e b o t t o m of t h e t o p l a y e r . I t means t h a t t h e a q u i f e r i s no longer e i t h e r confined o r semi-confined. When t h i s
I
h a p p e n s , t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s must b e r e s t a r t e d a t t h a t t i m e s t e p w i t h other values f o r t h e hydrogeological parameters.
1 I3
Definitions of input variables

Group 1. External switches
= a n e x t e r n a l s w i t c h t h a t can be g i v e n t h r e e v a l u e s .
LSW3
S e t t i n g LSW3 e q u a l t o 3 means t h a t f o r e v e r y time s t e p DELTA t h e boundary c o n d i t i o n s must b e s p e c i f i e d . S e t t i n g LSW3 e q u a l

EO
2 means t h a t f o r e v e r y f i r s t accumulation
l e v e l (MINOR t i m e s t e p s DELTA) t h e boundary c o n d i t i o n s must be speci f ied
S e t t i n g LSW3 e q u a l t o 1 means t h a t f o r e v e r y second accumulation l e v e l (MAJOR x MINOR t i m e s t e p s DELTA) t h e boundary c o n d i t i o n s must be s p e c i f i e d . The a c t u a l v a l u e of LSW3 depends on t h e chosen time s t e p DELTA and on t h e time b a s i s f o r which t h e boundary c o n d i t i o n s are available.
LSW4
an e x t e r n a l s w i t c h t h a t can b e g i v e n two v a l u e s .
S e t t i n g LSW4 e q u a l t o 2 means t h a t t h e boundary c o n d i t i o n s a r e r e a d f o r e a c h DELTA, f i r s t o r second accumulation l e v e l depending
on t h e v a l u e of LSW3. LSW4 i s e q u a l t o 2 i n t h e c a l i b r a t i o n
process.
I n o p e r a t i o n a l r u n s t h e boundary c o n d i t i o n s a r e u s u a l l y prepared
on a monthly b a s i s f o r one y e a r . For each y e a r i n t h e t o t a l t i m e p e r i o d , t h e same i n p u t d a t a as given f o r t h e f i r s t y e a r a r e used.
LSW4 i s t h e n s e t e q u a l t o 1 and LSW3 t o 2. L I S T then h a s t h e

dimension y e a r and MAJOR t h e dimension month.
LSW5
= a n e x t e r n a l s w i t c h t h a t can b e g i v e n two v a l u e s .
S e t t i n g LSW5 e q u a l t o 1 means t h a t a f i x e d t i m e s t e p DELTA i s used i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n p r o c e s s . I t s v a l u e i s read i n t h e f i r s t program SGMP 1. S e t t i n g LSW5 e q u a l t o 2 means t h a t a v a r i a b l e time s t e p i s used. For each t i m e s t e p t h e v a l u e of DELTA must now b e p r e s c r i b e d , s t a r t i n g w i t h the f i r s t t i m e s t e p , a t the same time o v e r r u l i n g t h e v a l u e of DELTA given i n t h e f i r s t program S G b P 1.
A v a r i a b l e t i m e s t e p i s o f t e n used i n s i m u l a t i n g a q u i f e r t e s t s
( l o g a r i t h m i c t i m e s t e p ) , b u t f o r r e g i o n a l groundwater flow problems a f i x e d t i m e s t e p i s p r e f e r r e d .
1 I4
LSW6
= an e x t e r n a l s w i t c h t h a t can b e g i v e n two v a l u e s .
S e t t i n g LSW6 e q u a l t o 1 means t h a t i n a semi-confined
aquifer the
w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n i n t h e t o p l a y e r i s v a r i a b l e and i s c a l c u l a t e d from t h e water b a l a n c e o f t h a t l a y e r . S e t t i n g LSW6 e q u a l t o 2 means t h a t t h e w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n i n t h e t o p l a y e r i s f i x e d and i s e q u a l t o t h e v a l u e of HCONF(K). T h i s i s v a l i d when t h e program package i s used t o s i m u l a t e a q u i f e r t e s t s a s it i s t h e n assumed t h a t t h e w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n i n t h e t o p l a y e r remains c o n s t a n t d u r i n g t h e t e s t . For r e g i o n a l groundwater f l o w problems, LSW6 must be given t h e v a l u e I .
Group 2 . H(K)
I n i t i a l conditions a t t i m e T
= i n i t i a l w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n s of
the aquifer f o r a l l internal
and e x t e r n a l nodes, measured a t t h e nodes themselves ( m above a reference l e v e l ) . HCONF(K)

= i n i t i a l w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n s of t h e t o p l a y e r f o r t h o s e
i n t e r n a l nodes which are denoted as semi-confined reference level).
(m above
Group 3 .
Boundary c o n d i t i o n s a t t i m e >T we have d i v i d e d t h e n e t r e c h a r g e d a t a
A s explained i n Chap. 3 S e c t . 5 . 6 ,
i n t o two c a t e g o r i e s , v i z . e x t e r n a l flows with t h e dimension of d e p t h p e r
t i m e , and e x t e r n a l flows with t h e dimension of volume p e r time. For e a c h

c a t e g o r y w e have i n t r o d u c e d one v a r i a b l e i n t h e program. The v a l u e s of t h e s e v a r i a b l e s r e p r e s e n t t h e a l g e b r a i c sum of s e v e r a l e x t e r n a l flows ( r a i n f a l l , evapotranspiration, c a p i l l a r y rise, i r r i g a t i o n percolation l o s s e s ) . I f t h e u s e r p r e f e r s t o s e p a r a t e t h e s e flow components, a new v a r i a b l e f o r each of them must be i n t r o d u c e d i n t h e program. Appendix 3 p r e s e n t s g u i d e l i n e s on how t h i s should be done. RECH(K)
= n e t r e c h a r g e i n each i n t e r n a l n o d a l a r e a , b e i n g t h e sum o f a
number of e x t e r n a l flows with dimension depth p e r t i m e . The u n i t l e n g t h i s f i x e d a t one metre and t h e u n i t t i m e i s TMBAS. The
115
program m u l t i p l i e s t h e v a l u e o f RECH(K) w i t h t h e a r e a of t h e p a r t i c u l a r n o d a l area. A p o s i t i v e s i g n means r e c h a r g e t o t h e a q u i f e r , o r i f t h e a q u i f e r is semi-confined, confining layer. FLWCON(K) = n e t r e c h a r g e r a t e i n e a c h i n t e r n a l n o d a l area, b e i n g t h e sum of
a number of e x t e r n a l f l o w s w i t h d i m e n s i o n volume p e r t i m e . The
recharge t o t h e
u n i t o'f volume d e p e n d s o n t h e v a l u e of t h e s w i t c h LSWl ( 1 m 3 o r
1,000,000 m3); t h e u n i t o f t i m e i s TMBAS. A p o s i t i v e s i g n means

recharge t o the aquifer.
H (K)
=
w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n s i n t h e e x t e r n a l n o d e s t h a t s i m u l a t e head-
c o n t r o l l e d b o u n d a r i e s . For t h e o t h e r e x t e r n a l nodes ( f l o w - c o n t r o l l e d ) no s p e c i f i c v a l u e of H(K) i s r e q u i r e d . The d i m e n s i o n i s m above a r e f e r e n c e l e v e l . DELTA

= t i m e s t e p , i f LSW5 e q u a l s 2 ; see d e f i n i t i o n i n S e c t i o n 4 . 2 . 1 .
N o t e : F o r u n c o n f i n e d a q u i f e r s b o t h RECH(K) and FLWCON(K) c a n be u s e d ; f o r c o n f i n e d a q u i f e r s o n l y FLWCON(K) c a n b e u s e d , f o r semi-confined aquifers
RECH(K) c a n b e u s e d f o r t h e c o n f i n i n g l a y e r and FLWCON(K) f o r t h e a q u i f e r itself.
Sequence of cards and data formats

T a b l e 4 . 3 shows t h e i n p u t s e q u e n c e a n d d a t a f o r m a t s f o r d i r e c t key p u n c h i n g o f t h e d a t a c a r d s of Data S e t 11. T a b l e 4 . 3 Card s t r u c t u r e of d a t a S e t I1
Card No.
1
Name
Format 414 10F8.2 10F8.2 8 x , 14F5.3 8 x , 7F10.4
LSW3, LSW4, LSW5, LSW6 H(K)
K = l ,TNN
HCONF (K)
K= 1 ,NSCONF
4
5 6
RECH(K), K = l ,NN FLWCON(K) , K = l ,NN H(K) , K=NO,TNN DELTA

1 I6
8x, 9F8.2
F6.4
Note t h e following: I f NSCONF i s e q u a l t o z e r o , Card 3 i s skipped. The set of Cards 4 , 5 , and 6 are r e p e a t e d : LIST t i m e s i f LSW3=I LIST
LIST
X X
MAJOR times i f LSW3=2

MAJOR
X
MINOR times i f LSW3=3
T h i s i s t h e c a s e f o r LSW4=2; f o r t h e combination of LSW4=I and LSW3=2, t h e s e t of Cards 4 , 5 , and 6 a r e r e p e a t e d MAJOR t i m e s . I f LSW5 i s equal t o 1, Card 7 i s skipped.
4.2.3
Data S e t I11
'
SGMP 3a p r i n t s t h e r e s u l t s of t h e c a l c u l a t i o n i n t a b u l a r form. P r e s c r i b e d
f o r SGMP 3a
along with t h e c a l c u l a t e d w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n s and water
b a l a n c e components, which a r e read from a f i l e (FILE 2)
are v a l u e s f o r
t h e t h r e e e x t e r n a l switches. These provide t h e u s e r with o p t i o n s f o r t h e output.

LSW7
=
an e x t e r n a l switch t h a t can be given t h r e e v a l u e s .
S e t t i n g LSW7 equal t o 1 means t h a t t h e w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n s are p r i n t e d a t each t i m e s t e p DELTA. S e t t i n g LSW7 e q u a l t o 2 means t h a t t h e w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n s a r e p r i n t e d a t each f i r s t accumulation l e v e l (MINOR time s t e p s DELTA). S e t t i n g LSW7 e q u a l t o 3 means t h a t t h e w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n s a r e p r i n t e d a t each second accumulation l e v e l (MAJOR x MINOR t i m e s t e p s DELTA). LSW8
=
an e x t e r n a l switch t h a t can be given t h r e e v a l u e s .
The meanings of t h e v a l u e s 1, 2, and 3 f o r t h i s switch a r e analogue t o those f o r LSW7. I n s t e a d of p r i n t i n g w a t e r t a b l e eleva t i o n s a t v a r i o u s , t i m e l e v e l s , t h e components of t h e w a t e r
117
b a l a n c e of t h e n o d a l a r e a s a r e c a l c u l a t e d over t h e v a r i o u s time l e v e l s and p r i n t e d a f t e r each p a r t i c u l a r t i m e l e v e l . LSW9

= a n e x t e r n a l s w i t c h t h a t can be given two v a l u e s .
S e t t i n g LSW9 e q u a l t o 1 means t h a t o n l y t h e w a t e r levels of t h e i n t e r n a l nodes a r e p r i n t e d . S e t t i n g LSW9 e q u a l t o 2 means t h a t t h e water l e v e l s of b o t h i n t e r n a l and e x t e r n a l nodes are p r i n t e d . T h i s i s u s u a l l y done o n l y once t o check t h e h e a d - c o n t r o l l e d b o u n d a r i e s n u m e r i c a l l y . With t h e a i d of t h e s e s w i t c h e s , t h e u s e r c a n choose t h e i n t e r v a l f o r which h e wants t h e r e s u l t s p r i n t e d . For example, t h e w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n s c a n be p r i n t e d e a c h month and t h e w a t e r b a l a n c e each y e a r .

A s t h e r e q u i r e d d a t a are r e a d from a f i l e (FILE 2 ) , t h e t h r e e e x t e r n a l
s w i t c h e s are t h e o n l y i n p u t d a t a f o r SGMF' 3a (Table 4.4
T a b l e 4.4 Card s t r u c t u r e o\f Data S e t I11
Card No.
1
Name LSW7, LSW8, LSW9
Format 314
Definitions of output variabZes

H SEMICONF
= w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n of
the aquifer i f it is semi-
confined.
H CONFINED
= w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n of t h e a q u i f e r i f i t i s
confined.
H UNCONF
= watertable elevation
of t h e a q u i f e r i f i t i s
unconfined.
H'
= w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n of t h e conf k i n g
ayer i f t h e
a q u i f e r i s semi-confined.
118
= a c t u a l time e x p r e s s e d
as a numeric i n t h e dimension
TMBAS
NO. OF I T E M T I O N S
.
t h e Gauss-Seidel
= number of i t e r a t i o n s r e q u i r e d i n
t e c h n i q u e (SGMP2) t o reduce t h e sum of a l l r e s i d u a l values t o a value t h a t i s equal t o o r l e s s than t h e p r e s c r i b e d t h r e s h o l d v a l u e ERROR. When u s i n g t h e e l i m i n a t i o n t e c h n i q u e (OPR02), t h e p r i n t - o u t
"NO.
w i l l show
OF ITERATIONS = O".
NO. OF SUBITERATIONS = number of i t e r a t i o n s r e q u i r e d t o b r i n g one o r more

of t h e c a l c u l a t e d w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n s w i t h i n t h e p r e s c r i b e d l i m i t s UL(K) o r OL(K)
(see Chap. 3 S e c t .
2.1).
To d i s t i n g u i s h t h i s p r o c e s s from t h e convergence
p r o c e s s , t h e s e i t e r a t i o n s are denoted as s u b i t e r a t i o n s . When t h e number of s u b i t e r a t i o n s i s n o t e q u a l t o z e r o , t h e p r i n t - o u t w i l l show, under t h e h e a d i n g DRAINAGE
FLOW, t h e amount(s) of a r t i f i c i a l p e r c o l a t i o n a n d / o r
a b s t r a c t i o n n e c e s s a r y t o keep one o r more of t h e calculated watertable elevations within the prescribed limits.
RE CHARGE
=
'
a r e f o r m a t t e d playback of t h e r e c h a r g e i n p u t d a t a .
T h i s i s t h e lumped sum of t h e r e c h a r g e components t h a t i n i t i a l l y had t h e dimension of a d e p t h p e r t i m e . I n t h e program t h i s lumped sum i s m u l t i p l i e d by t h e a r e a of t h e nodal a r e a concerned, so t h e p r i n t e d v a l u e s have t h e dimension o f a volume per t i m e . A p o s i t i v e s i g n means p e r c o l a t i o n t o t h e a q u i f e r , o r i f i t i s n o t unconfined, p e r c o l a t i o n t o t h e c o n f i n i n g l a y e r ; a n e g a t i v e s i g n means a b s t r a c t i o n from t h e a q u i f e r o r confining layer.
CHANGE I N STORAGE
I N TOP LAYER
= t h e c a l c u l a t e d amount o f
water s t o r e d i n o r r e l e a s e d
from t h e c o n f i n i n g l a y e r . T h i s v a l u e i s t h e a l g e b r a i c product of t h e change i n head i n t h e c o n f i n i n g l a y e r , t h e s t o r a g e c o e f f i c i e n t of t h a t l a y e r , and t h e a r e a of t h e nodal a r e a concerned. A p o s i t i v e s i g n means t h a t
water i s r e l e a s e d from t h e l a y e r and a n e g a t i v e s i g n

means t h a t water i s s t o r e d i n t h e l a y e r .
119
SEEPAGE F L O W
= t h e c a l c u l a t e d amount of water s t o r e d i n o r r e l e a s e d
from t h e a q u i f e r . T h i s v a l u e i s t h e a l g e b r a i c product of t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n head between t h e a q u i f e r and i t s confining layer, the v e r t i c a l hydraulic conductivity of t h e c o n f i n i n g l a y e r , and t h e area of t h e n o d a l a r e a concerned, d i v i d e d by t h e s a t u r a t e d t h i c k n e s s of t h e c o n f i n i n g l a y e r . A p o s i t i v e s i g n means t h a t t h e flow d i r e c t i o n i s from t h e c o n f i n i n g l a y e r t o t h e a q u i f e r and a n e g a t i v e s i g n t h a t t h e f l o w d i r e c t i o n i s from the a q u i f e r t o the confining l a y e r . CHANGE I N STORAGE I N AQUIFER
= t h e c a l c u l a t e d amount of w a t e r s t o r e d i n o r r e l e a s e d
from t h e a q u i f e r i t s e l f . T h i s v a l u e i s c a l c u l a t e d i n t h e same way a s t h a t f o r t h e change i n s t o r a g e i n t h e confining layer.
TOTAL SUBSURFACE
= t h e c a l c u l a t e d amount of
water s t o r e d i n o r r e l e a s e d
FLOW
from t h e nodal a r e a concerned. T h i s v a l u e i s t h e n e t sum of t h e s u b s u r f a c e f l o w s t h r o u g h a l l t h e s i d e s of t h e n o d a l a r e a . Each s u b s u r f a c e f l o w i s t h e a l g e b r a i c p r o d u c t of t h e h y d r a u l i c g r a d i e n t between t h e node i t s e l f and one of i t s n e i g h b o u r i n g n o d e s , t h e hydraul i c conductivity, t h e s a t u r a t e d t h i c k n e s s of t h e
a q u i f e r between t h e s e nodes, and t h e l e n g t h of t h e nodal a r e a s s i d e . A p o s i t i v e s i g n means t h a t t h e r e i s a n e t i n f l o w of s u b s u r f a c e flow i n t o t h e n o d a l a r e a and a n e g a t i v e s i g n means t h a t t h e r e i s a n e t outflow from t h e nodal a r e a . PUMP F L O W
= a playback of
the recharge input d a t a . This i s the
lumped sum of t h e r e c h a r g e components t h a t a l r e a d y had t h e dimension of a volume p e r t i m e .

A positive sign
means p e r c o l a t i o n t o t h e a q u i f e r and a n e g a t i v e s i g n means a b s t r a c t i o n from t h e a q u i f e r . DRAINAG FLOW

= t h e c a l c u l a t e d q u a n t i t y of
water, a d d i t i o n a l l y stored
i n o r r e l e a s e d from t h e a q u i f e r , t o keep t h e w a t e r t a b l e between t h e p r e s c r i b e d l i m i t s . A p o s i t i v e s i g n means a d d i t i o n a l p e r c o l a t i o n t o t h e a q u i f e r and a n e g a t i v e s i g n , a d d i t i o n a l a b s t r a c t i o n from t h e a q u i f e r .

120
For each t i m e s t e p , t h e a c t u a l t i m e and t h e number of i t e r a t i o n s and s u b i t e r a t i o n s , i f any, a r e p r i n t e d . Depending on t h e a c t u a l v a l u e s of LSW7 and LSW8, w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n s a t t h e nodes and water balance components of t h e nodal a r e a s are p r i n t e d over v a r i o u s t i m e l e v e l s . These water balance components should be read as f o l l o w s : For unconfined and confined a q u i f e r s t h e r e i s one water b a l a n c e : recharge
+ change i n s t o r a g e i n a q u i f e r + t o t a l subsurface flow + pump flow + d r a i n a g e flow = r e s i d u a l v a l u e .

a q u i f e r s t h e r e are two water b a l a n c e s , one f o r t h e a q u i f e r i t s e l f and one f o r t h e c o n f i n i n g l a y e r : (i) seepage flow + change i n s t o r a g e i n a q u i f e r + t o t a l s u b s u r f a c e flow + pump flow + d r a i n a g e flow = r e s i d u a l v a l u e ( i i ) r e c h a r g e + change i n s t o r a g e i n c o n f i n i n g l a y e r flow = a n o t h e r r e s i d u a l v a l u e .
For semi-confined
seepage
With t h e a i d of t h e a c t u a l v a l u e s of t h e water balance components, t h e u s e r can check whether t h e r e s i d u a l v a l u e f o r t h e a q u i f e r i s a c c e p t a b l e ; i f n o t , he must choose a smaller value of ERROR ( s e e Data Set I ) .
Note: A s l i g h t d i s c r e p a n c y e x i s t s between t h e p r i n t e d w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n s and two of t h e p r i n t e d water balance components r e l a t e d t o t h e w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n s ( i . e . change i n s t o r a g e and s u b s u r f a c e flow). The v a l u e s of those water balance components correspond t o w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n s as t h e y were c a l c u l a t e d d u r i n g t h e second l a s t i t e r a t i o n , whereas o n l y i n t h e l a s t i t e r a t i o n are t h e w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n s a d j u s t e d .
4.2.4
Data S e t I V
SGMP 3
p r e s e n t s t h e w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n s a t t h e nodes i n g r a p h i c a l form.
W e have chosen t o have t h i s done by a l i n e p r i n t e r i n s t e a d of a p l o t t e r f o r two reasons. The f i r s t i s t h a t a p l o t t e r works more slowly and i s t h u s more expensive t o use, and t h e second i s t h a t n o t e v e r y computer c e n t r e h a s p l o t t e r f a c i l i t i e s . A d i s a d v a n t a g e i s t h a t t h e graphs c o n s i s t of i s o l a t e d p o i n t s i n s t e a d of continuous l i n e s .
121
P r e s c r i b e d f o r SGMP 3b
along with the calculated watertable elevations,
which are read from a f i l e (FILE 2)
a r e v a r i o u s s i g n s f o r t h e p l o t and
v a l u e s f o r t h r e e e x t e r n a l s w i t c h e s . For t h e c a l i b r a t i o n p r o c e s s , the h i s t o r i c a l w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n s are p r e s c r i b e d . (For i n f o r m a t i o n on
h i s t o r i c a l w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n s , see Chap. 2 S e c t . 3 . 1 ) . For o p e r a t i o n a l r u n s t h e v a l u e s of M I N O R , MAJOR, and L I S T must b e r e r e a d .
D e f i n i t i o n s of i n p u t VariabZes
BLNK
HI HMINUS
HX
= always a blank. = a s i g n t h a t i n d i c a t e s t h e u n i t of s c a l e .
= a s i g n t h a t i n d i c a t e s t h e t e n t h of t h e u n i t of s c a l e . = a s i g n t h a t i n d i c a t e s when a computed w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n
f a l l s o u t s i d e t h e maximum range of t h e s c a l e . ASTRSK

= a sign t h a t indicates the position
of a c a l c u l a t e d w a t e r t a b l e
e l e v a t i o n i n t h e graph.
HY
= a s i g n t h a t i n d i c a t e s when a h i s t o r i c a l w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n
f a l l s o u t s i d e t h e maximum range of t h e scale. PLUS

= a sign t h a t indicates the position
of a h i s t o r i c a l w a t e r t a b l e
e l e v a t i o n i n t h e graph. LSW9
= an e x t e r n a l s w i t c h t h a t can be g i v e n two v a l u e s .
S e t t i n g LSW9 e q u a l t o 1 means t h a t o n l y t h e w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n s
a t t h e i n t e r n a l nodes are p l o t t e d .
S e t t i n g LSW9 e q u a l t o 2 means t h a t t h e w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n s a t t h e i n t e r n a l and e x t e r n a l nodes are p l o t t e d . Usually t h i s i s done o n l y once t o p r o v i d e a v i s u a l check of t h e head-controlled boundaries.
LSWlO
= an e x t e r n a l s w i t c h t h a t can be g i v e n two v a l u e s .
S e t t i n g LSWlO e q u a l t o 1 means t h a t b o t h c a l c u l a t e d and h i s t o r i c a l w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n s are p l o t t e d . T h i s i s r e q u i r e d f o r t h e c a l i b r a t i o n p r o c e s s , i n which t h e c a l c u l a t e d w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n s a r e compared w i t h t h e h i s t o r i c a l ones.

l . > .
, , .
S e t t i n g LSWlO e q u a l t o 2 means t h a t o n l y t h e c a l c u l a t e d watert a b l e e l e v a t i o n s are p l o t t e d . This i s done i n o p e r a t i o n a l r u n s , when no h i s t o r i c a l water l e v e l s are r e q u i r e d as i n p u t . 122
LSWl 1
a n e x t e r n a l switch t h a t can b e given two v a l u e s .
S e t t i n g LSWll e q u a l t o 1 means t h a t an e r r o r c a l c u l a t i o n i s made of t h e d e v i a t i o n s beween t h e c a l c u l a t e d and h i s t o r i c a l w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n s . For a l l t h e i n t e r n a l nodes of t h e network, t h e s e d e v i a t i o n s a r e c a l c u l a t e d f o r each t i m e s t e p f o r which h i s t o r i c a l w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n s a r e a v a i l a b l e ; t h e mean and s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n are t h e n c a l c u l a t e d and p r i n t e d a t t h e end of a l l t h e plots. e have found t h a t a f t e r having made some c a l i b r a t i o n r u n s Note: W (Chap. 6 Sect. 1.1) w e could n o t always see whether t h e r e s u l t s of t h e l a s t c a l i b r a t i o n run were an improvement on t h e p r e c e d i n g o n e s , e s p e c i a l l y when t h e network c o n s i s t s of a g r e a t number of i n t e r n a l nodes. W e t h e n found t h a t an e r r o r c a l c u l a t i o n c o u l d be h e l p f u l . The mean g i v e s a g e n e r a l i n d i c a t i o n of whether t h e model i s predominantly u n d e r e s t i m a t i n g o r predominantly o v e r e s t i m a t i n g t h e measured w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n s , whereas t h e s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n g i v e s a d i r e c t measure of t h e degree of improvement of any run over any p r e v i o u s run. I n g e n e r a l , one c a n say t h a t t h e smaller t h e s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n , t h e b e t t e r t h e g e n e r a t e d w a t e r t a b l e behaviour, even i f t h e mean i s s l i g h t l y h i g h e r t h a n i n a p r e v i o u s run. It i s s t r e s s e d t h a t t h e a c t u a l v a l u e s o f mean and s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n are only an e x p e d i e n t ; f i r s t of a l l , one must v i s u a l l y i n s p e c t t h e c a l c u l a t e d w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n s and examine t h e c a l c u l a t e d water b a l a n c e components. S e t t i n g LSWll e q u a l t o 2 means t h a t no e r r o r c a l c u l a t i o n i s made. I n p r o d u c t i o n r u n s LSWl1 must be kade e q u a l t o 2 , because t h e r e a r e t h e n no h i s t o r i c a l w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n s t o be compared.
MINOR
: I n o p e r a t i o n a l r u n s t h e s e parameters should be g i v e n v a l u e s
MAJOR
t h a t d i f f e r from t h o s e p r e s c r i b e d i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n program. Suppose t h e model i s run f o r 30 y e a r s with a time s t e p of a f o r t n i g h t and t h e boundary c o n d i t i o n s a r e p r e s c r i b e d on a monthly b a s i s . The parameters of t h e t i m e d i s c r e t i z a t i o n are t h e n : TMBAS : month
DELTA : 0.5 MINOR : 2
LIST
MAJOR : 12
LIST
: 30
Using t h e same v a l u e s i n t h e p l o t program would mean t h a t t h e

w a t e r l e v e l s are p l o t t e d f o r each month, because they are p l o t t e d a t t h e end of e a c h f i r s t accumulation l e v e l . I n g e n e r a l , one w i l l
n o t need t h a t much i n f o r m a t i o n , and water l e v e l s p l o t t e d a f t e r e a c h h a l f y e a r w i l l u s u a l l y s u f f i c e . The v a l u e s of MINOR, W O R , and L I S T a r e t h e n :

M I N O R : 12
MAJOR : 6 0
LIST
H(K,M)
=
: 1
h i s t o r i c a l w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n s of t h e a q u i f e r f o r a l l i n t e r n a l
nodes. The maximum range of t h e p l o t i s t e n u n i t s of s c a l e ; t h e s c a l e i s not f i x e d , but depends on t h e range of t h e h i s t o r i c a l and c a l c u l a t e d w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n s ; t h e minimum s c a l e i s 1 metre and t h e maximum 8 m e t r e s . The number of w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n s p r i n t e d i n one p l o t depends on t h e value of
MAJOR. When, f o r i n s t a n c e , f o r a c a l i b r a t i o n , h i s t o r i c a l w a t e r t a b l e elev-
a t i o n s a r e a v a i l a b l e on a monthly b a s i s f o r a p e r i o d of two y e a r s , t h e v a l u e of MAJOR i s 24. I n o u r p l o t program t h e maximum number of w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n s i n one p l o t i s 3 6 . I f one wishes t o i n c r e a s e t h i s number, one b must a d j u s t t h e v a l u e of MAJOR i n t h e a r r a y dimensions of SGMP 3 (see Appendix I ) . I f one i s u s i n g a mini-computer and i s f a c i n g problems of memory r e q u i r e ments, a s o l u t i o n i s t o s p l i t up t h e p l o t s by making MAJOR i n Data Set I e q u a l t o 1 2 . Suppose t h a t one i s s i m u l a t i n g a p e r i o d of t e n y e a r s f o r which h i s t o r i c a l d a t a are a v a i l a b l e on a monthly b a s i s . I f t h e v a l u e s of LIST and
MAJOR i n Data Set I have been chosen as 1 and 120 r e s p e c t i v e l y , t h e value b of MAJOR i n t h e a r r a y dimensions of SGMP 3 must t h e n be a d j u s t e d t o 120 b and t h e o u t p u t of SGMP 3 w i l l show f o r each node a l l t h e 120 h i s t o r i c a l
and c a l c u l a t e d w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n s i n one p l o t . For mini-computers such an i n c r e a s e i n t h e v a l u e of MAJOR could r e s u l t i n an e r r o r message t h a t t h e n e can avoid t h i s computer memory i s n o t b i g enough t o s t o r e a l l t h e d a t a . O problem by making LIST and MAJOR i n Data S e t I e q u a l t o IO and 12 respect-
124
i v e l y and r e d u c i n g t h e v a l u e of MAJOR i n t h e a r r a y d i m e n s i o n s t o
2. This
w i l l s u b s t a n t i a l l y r e d u c e t h e memory r e q u i r e m e n t . A s a r e s u l t , t h o u t p u t b o f SGMP 3 w i l l show f o r e a c h node 10 p l o t s of 12 h i s t o r i c a l and c a l c u l a t e d w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n s . A d i s a d v a n t a g e i s t h a t t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e r e s u l t s i s more d i f f i c u l t b e c a u s e t h e d a t a are s p r e a d o v e r v a r i o u s p l o t s .
Sequence of cards and data f o m a t s

T a b l e 4.5 shows t h e i n p u t s e q u e n c e a n d d a t a f o r m a t s f o r d i r e c t k e y p u n c h i n g o f t h e d a t a c a r d s o f Data S e t I V ; t h e o t h e r r e q u i r e d d a t a a r e r e a d from a f i l e ,(FILE 2 ) .
T a b l e 4.5 Card s t r u c t u r e of Data S e t I V Card No.

1
Name BLNK, H I , HMINUS, HX, ASTRSK, HY, PLUS, LSW9, LSWIO, LSWl1
MINOR, MAJOR, LIST
Format 7A4,312 314
2 3
H(K,M), K = I , N N ,
M=l,MAJOR
8x ,9F8.2
Note t h a t : If L S W O i s e q u a l t o 1 , Card 2 i s s k i p p e d . I f LSW O i s e q u a l t o 2 , Cards 3 are s k i p p e d .
4.2.5
Data S e t V
The d a t a r e q u i r e d f o r OPRO 1 are t h e same as f o r SGMP 1 : d a t a c o n c e r n i n g t h e n e t w o r k , and t h o s e of t h e h y d r o l o g i c a l p a r a m e t e r s and o t h e r v a r i a b l e s . The d a t a a r e p r o c e s s e d and s t o r e d i n t h e memory (FILE 1 ) . a l s o t h e same a s f o r SGME'
1.
The o u t p u t i s
Tp compose a T e c t , a n g u l a r , n e t w o r k , a s y s t e m of r e c t a n g l e s a n d f o r s q u a r e s i s
s u p e r p o s e d on t h e a r e a ( F i g . 4 . 3 ) .
An a r b i t r a r y o r i g i n i s c h o s e n w i t h t h e
125
x - a x i s i n h o r i z o n t a l d i r e c t i o n ( p o s i t i v e t o t h e r i g h t ) and t h e y-axis i n v e r t i c a l d i r e c t i o n ( p o s i t i v e downwards).
+
Y
2 2
:2
22
:3
; 3
i n t e r n a l node e x t e r n a l node
Fig. 4 . 3
Lay-out of r e c t a n g u l a r network
The i n t e r n a l nodes of t h e network a r e numbered i n a f i x e d sequence, from l e f t t o right (positive x-direction) row a f t e r row. The e x t e r n a l nodes of
t h e network a r e a l s o numbered i n a f i x e d sequence: f i r s t t h e network's t o p boundary, then i t s l e f t - and r i g h t - h a n d - s i d e b o u n d a r i e s , and f i n a l l y i t s bottom boundary. These nodes are numbered c o n s e c u t i v e l y i n t h e p o s i t i v e d i r e c tion. The f o l l o w i n g i n p u t v a r i a b l e s are used f o r t h i s network:
NX NY RX(I),I=l,NX
RY(I),I=I ,NY
COTBY
= = =
number of i n t e r n a l nodes i n x - d i r e c t i o n number of i n t e r n a l nodes i n y - d i r e c t i o n x - c o o r d i n a t e s of t h e i n t e r n a l nodes along a l i n e
p a r a l l e l t o t h e y-axis
=
y - c o o r d i n a t e s of t h e i n t e r n a l nodes along a l i n e
p a r a l l e l t o t h e x-axis
= y-coordinate
=
of t h e e x t e r n a l nodes of t h e t o p boundary
COBBY
y - c o o r d i n a t e of t h e e x t e r n a l nodes of t h e bottom
b ound a r y
CORBX
x - c o o r d i n a t e of t h e e x t e r n a l nodes a t right-hand-side
boundary
126
COLBX
= x-coordinate
of t h e e x t e r n a l nodes a t t h e l e f t - h a n d -
s i d e boundary

I n t h i s program t h e a q u i f e r i s assumed t o b e homogeneous e x c e p t a l o n g i t s b o u n d a r i e s , where o t h e r h y d r a u l i c c o n d u c t i v i t y v a l u e s can b e p r e s c r i b e d . The g e o h y d r o l o g i c a l parameters are:
SLC
. BLC
= upper boundary of t h e a q u i f e r system

= lower boundary of
t h e a q u i f e r system
S TO CONDUC
= s p e c i f i c y i e l d o r s t o r a g e c o e f f i c i e n t of t h e a q u i f e r = h y d r a u l i c c o n d u c t i v i t y of t h e a q u i f e r = hydraulic conductivity along t h e network's
CONDTB CONDBB CONDRB
t o p boundary
= h y d r a u l i c c o n d u c t i v i t y a l o n g t h e n e t w o r k ' s bottom boundary

= hydraulic conductivity along t h e network's right-hand-side
boundary
CONDLB
= hydraulic conductivity along t h e network's
left-hand-side
boundary These e i g h t parameters a r e needed f o r a l l t y p e s of a q u i f e r . I f t h e a q u i f e r
i s semi-confined,
STOCON PCONC
three a d d i t i o n a l geohydrological parameters are needed:
= s p e c i f i c y i e l d of t h e c o n f i n i n g l a y e r = h y d r a u l i c c o n d u c t i v i t y of t h e c o n f i n i n g l a y e r f o r v e r t i c a l flow = t h i c k n e s s of t h e a q u i f e r
THID
The l a s t parameter i s a l s o needed when t h e a q u i f e r i s c o n f i n e d . The dimensions of a l l t h e above v a r i a b l e s a r e t h e same as i n SGMP I .

T a b l e 4 . 5 shows t h e i n p u t sequence and d a t a f o r m a t s f o r d i r e c t key punching of d a t a , c a r d s of Data S e t V.
127
T a b l e 4 . 5 Card s t r u c t u r e o f Data S e t V
I
Format
Card No.
1
Name
TITLE
NX, NY, NSCONF, NCONF, NEXTN
20 A4 / 2 O A4
514 2F4. O ,F7.5 ,F8.4 8F5.2 2A4,2F4.IyF8.O,I4 F4.2,314 2F8.2 I4,F4.1 2F4. O 1615.2 16F5.2 F8.4 , F 7 . 5 F4.0
2
3 4 5 6 7
SLC, BLC, STO, CONDUC COTBY, COBBY, CORBX, COLBX, CONDTB, CONDBB, CONDRB, CONDLB TMBAS, D T I M , T, SCALE, LSWl DELTA, MINOR, MAJOR, LIST ERROR, COEFFA LSW2, DELQ ULC, OLC RX(I), I = I , N X R Y ( I ) , I=I,NY PCONC, STOCON THID
I
I
9
IO
11
12 13
Note t h a t : I f LSW2 i s e q u a l t o two, Card 9 i s s k i p p e d . I f NSCONF i s e q u a l t o z e r o , Card 12 i s s k i p p e d . I f b o t h NSCONF a n d NCONF are e q u a l t o z e r o , Card 13 i s s k i p p e d .
4.3
4.3.1
Program adaptations
Adaptations t o nodal network
I
R e q u i r e d a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f a l l computer programs i s a b l o c k o f a r r a y d i m e n s i o n s , a n a r r a y b e i n g a c o l l e c t i o n of v a r i a b l e s of one s p e c i f i c t y p e . PERM(7), f o r i n s t a n c e , i s a n a r r a y c a l l e d PERM w i t h 7 v a r i a b l e s . F i g u r e 4.4 p r e s e n t s p a r t o f t h e l i s t i n g of SGMP 1 showing t h e a r r a y d i m e n s i o n s .
128
G R O U N D Y A T E R M O D E ~ ~ P A RI T ~R E A D I N G I N P U T D A T A ( P O L Y G O N S / I N H O M O G ~ N ~ ~ S ) INTEGER TNN REAL L E N G T H D I H E N S I O N P~RM(7),NS(7),TITLE(48)ltWBAS(~) D I M E N S I O N A S C ( NNI VUL( NN) ,OL( NN) , A R E A ( NN) , A S ( NN) ,SI,( NN) D I M E N S I O N BL(TNN),NSIDC( N N I t P C O N f C NN),NReL( NN,lI,CONDU( NN,7] D I H E N S I D N CD(TNN,21
Array dimensions (SGMP 1 )
Fig. 4.4
O f t h e a r r a y dimensions i n our programs, t h e o n l y ones t h a t may need t o be adapted are t h o s e r e l a t e d t o t h e n o d a l network. The network used i n t h e programs comprises 7 1 i n t e r n a l nodes, s i g n i f y i n g nodal a r e a s , and 39 e x t e r n a l nodes, s i g n i f y i n g boundary c o n d i t i o n s
a t o t a l of 110 n o d e s . I f
t h e u s e r ' s network comprises 110 nodes o r l e s s , no a d j u s t m e n t s need t o be made i n t h e network a r r a y dimensions. I f h i s network comprises more t h a n
110 nodes, however, he must i n c r e a s e t h e a r r a y dimensions a c c o r d i n g l y . I f
h i s computer has i n s u f f i c i e n t memory c a p a c i t y t o cope w i t h I10 n o d e s , h e must reduce t h e a r r a y dimensions a c c o r d i n g l y . The complete l i s t i n g s of o u r programs i s g i v e n i n Appendix I . In these
l i s t i n g s t h e a r r a y dimensions of t h e n o d a l network a r e p r e s e n t e d as NN and

TNN, w i t h NN d e n o t i n g t h e number of i n t e r n a l nodes and TNN t h e t o t a l number
of nodes ( i n t e r n a l + e x t e r n a l ) . I f t h e u s e r ' s network c o m p r i s e s , s a y , 90 i n t e r n a l nodes and 44 e x t e r n a l nodes, he must r e p l a c e NN w i t h 90 and TNN w i t h 134 i n a l l t h e programs t h a t he u s e s .
4.3.2
Adaptations t o computer.systems
Each computer c o n s i s t s of a " c e n t r a l memory",
i n which t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s are
performed, and " p e r i p h e r a l d e v i c e s " , which p r o v i d e f o r t h e i n p u t / o u t p u t handling. The p h e r i p h e r a l d e v i c e s used i n o u r programs are t h e "card-reader", the "line printer", and "two s c r a t c h f i l e s on t h e d i s k mass s t o r a g e " .
Assigned t o e a c h d e v i c e i s a " l o g i c a l d e v i c e number", which d i f f e r s from one computer t o a n o t h e r . I n o u r s o u r c e programs, t h e l o g i c a l d e v i c e number f o r t h e c a r d r e a d e r i s 8 , t h a t f o r t h e l i n e p r i n t e r i s 5 , and t h o s e f o r t h e two s c r a t c h f i l e s a r e 1 and 2. F i g u r e 4 . 5 shows p a r t of t h e l i s t i n g of SGMP
2 as an i l l u s t r a t i o n .
129
F i g . 4.5
L o g i c a l d e v i c e numbers
I f t h e computer o p e r a t o r p r e s c r i b e s o t h e r v a l u e s f o r t h e l o g i c a l d e v i c e numbers, t h e new v a l u e s must be i n s e r t e d i n a l l t h e programs. Cyber computer systems r e q u i r e t h a t t h e f i r s t c a r d of e a c h s o u r c e program b e a "program card".
A program c a r d s t a t e s t h e name of t h e program, t h e
p h e r i p h e r a l d e v i c e s u s e d , and t h e i r l o g i c a l d e v i c e numbers. F i g u r e 4 . 6 shows t h e program c a r d s f o r t h e f o u r s o u r c e programs of t h e program package. Our programs are s u i t a b l e f o r computers i n which a "word" c o n t a i n s a t l e a s t
'
16 " b i t s " .
I f t h e u s e r ' s computer h a s fewer b i t s i n a word, t h e a c c u r a c y of
t h e r e s u l t s w i l l be e n d a n g e r e d . He i s t h e n a d v i s e d t o u s e "double p r e c i s i o n " , which i s a c h i e v e d by i n s e r t i n g c e r t a i n c a r d s a f t e r t h e f i r s t c a r d i n e a c h s o u r c e program. F i g u r e 4.7 shows a n example o f such c a r d s . Depending
o n t h e F o r t r a n c o m p i l e r f e a t u r e s i n use i n t h e system, d e c l a r a t i v e s o t h e r t h a n " i m p l i c i t r e a l * 8 " and " r e a l * 8 " may have t o be u s e d .
Input data Calculation Pr i n t - o u t Plot-out Fig. 4.6
PROGRAM L I N P U T ~ I N P U T , O U T P U ~ , T A P E B . I N P U l ~ T A P E ~ ~ O U T P U l ~ l A P E l ~ PROGRAM tALCU(INPUT,OU1PUl,lAP~8~INPUl,TAPES~OUT~UT,TAPEl,TAPE2J PROGRAM PRINT(INPUT,OUTP~lf,lAPEB~INPUT,lAPE5~OUTPUl,TAPE2) PROGRAM P ~ O l ( I N P U l , O U T P U T ~ T A P E B ~ I N P U l ~ T A P E 5 ~ O U l P U l ~ l A P E 2 l
Examples of program c a r d s
130
I n p u t data
I M P L I C I T RE AL^^ (A-H,O-S,U-Z) REAL.8 TMBAS,T
Fig. 4 . 7
Example o f c a r d s f o r d o u b l e p r e c i s i o n
4.4
Some remarks f o r the system manager
(If t h e system manager i s n o t a v a i l a b l e , t h e u s e r should c o n s u l t e i t h e r t h e
shift-leader or operator). The program c o n s i s t s of e i t h e r t h r e e o r f o u r s o u r c e programs, depending on which combination i s chosen by t h e u s e r ( s e e a l s o F i g . 4 . 1 ) . Each program
i s f o l l o w e d by i t s own d a t a s e t . The programs must be r u n i n one b a t c h

s t r i n g and i n a c e r t a i n sequence. F i g u r e 4.8 shows t h e s t r u c t u r e of t h e deck of c a r d s used f o r t h e f o u r programs of SGMP. P l e a s e a d v i s e t h e u s e r which j o b c o n t r o l language c a r d s he should u s e t o run t h e program. While t h e programs a r e b e i n g run, t h e r e i s a d a t a t r a n s f e r from o r t o s c r a t c h f i l e s on t h e d i s k mass s t o r a g e . These f i l e s a r e u n f o r m a t t e d and i n b i n a r y form. F i l e 1 i s c r e a t e d i n t h e f i r s t s o u r c e program and i s used i n t h e second. I t s r e c o r d s a r e as f o l l o w s :
WRITE I D S K I DEL0 COEFFA~T,NN~NO,TNN,ERROR,D~LTA~NCONF,LSWl W R I T E I I D S K l { T I T L k , T M B A S , (EL(K1, K R 1 1 TNN) L I S T , H A J O R , MINOH,NSCONV M R I T E ( I D S K 1 ) ( U L ()o O L ( K I S L ( K I AREA ( K I , AS ( K I , N S I D E ( K ) , K I 1 N N I W R I 0 E ( I D S K I ) ( ( N R E L ( K t J) CONOU ( K , J) J.117) , K * I V N N I IF(NCONF,GT,B) WRITE(IDSI11 (CO(I,P),I~l,NCONFI I F (NSCONF*GT,BI WRITE ( I D S K 1) ( L S C ( K ) PCONF ( K I K.1, NSCONP)
131
EOR: end of record
EOF: end of file
*
Fig. 4.8 Example of deck s t r u c t u r e
need for job control language cards
I n t h e second s o u r c e program, a n o t h e r f i l e , FILE 2 , i s c r e a t e d and i s u s e d
i n t h e t h i r d o r f o u r t h programs o r b o t h , d e p e n d i n g on t h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f
p r o g r a m s c h o s e n . I t s r e c o r d s are as f o l l o w s :
132
Depending upon t h e v a l u e s of t h e a r r a y d i m e n s i o n s , t h e r e can be a problem o f f i n d i n g enough space on t h e d i s k mass s t o r a g e . A n a l t e r n a t i v e would then

b e t o t r a n s f e r t h e s e two d a t a f i l e s t o magnetic t a p e .
I f t h e programs a r e t o be run o f t e n , make r e l o a d a b l e modules o f t h e s o u r c e programs and a d j u s t t h e j o b c o n t r o l language c a r d s a c c o r d i n g l y .
I33
134
SAMPLE RUN
5.1
Introduction
Before a program can be run on a computer, t h e d a t a have t o b e t r a n s f e r r e d from maps t o a nodal network, from a nodal network t o t a b l e s , and f i n a l l y from t a b l e s t o computer c a r d s . W e s h a l l i l l u s t r a t e t h e p r o c e s s w i t h a hypot h e t i c a l example. By u s i n g a h y p o t h e t i c a l example i n s t e a d of a r e a l o n e , w e can r e s t r i c t t h e number of nodal a r e a s t o only a few, t h u s a v o i d i n g t h e reproduction of l e n g t h y t a b l e s . A h y p o t h e t i c a l example a l s o g i v e s us t h e freedom t o i n t r o d u c e v a r i o u s boundary c o n d i t i o n s and t o impose a r b i t r a r y h y d r o l o g i c a l stresses on t h e a q u i f e r system. For o u r example we s h a l l use t h e complete s e t o f t h e S t a n d a r d Groundwater Model Package (SGMF'), which means t h a t w e must p r e p a r e f o u r d a t a s e t s .
5.2
D e s c r i p t i o n of t h e area
Our h y p o t h e t i c a l a r e a r e p r e s e n t s p a r t of a graben v a l l e y . The v a l l e y o r i g i n a t e s from a downfaulting between two WNW-ESE o n l y one i s shown n F i g u r e 5. I . s t r i k i n g f a u l t s of which
To t h e w e s t , a n o t h e r f a u l t c r o s s e s t h e
v a l l e y from n o r t h t o s o u t h . Massive g r a n i t e b l o c k s form t h e v a l l e y w a l l s .

On t h e upthrown block t o t h e w e s t , a r e l a t i v e l y t h i n s a n d s t o n e a q u i f e r
o v e r l i e s t h e g r a n i t i c bedrock. A r i v e r e n t e r s t h e downthrown block through a gorge. The downthrown block i s e n t i r e l y f i l l e d w i t h u n c o n s o l i d a t e d r i v e r

135
v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v
Fig. 5. 1 Hypothetical area
m above m.s. I.
-:
: : :sandstone
O
Fig. 5.2
10 k m
Longitudinal section of the hypothetical area

136
sediments whose g r a i n s i z e s v a r y from v e r y c o a r s e a t t h e mouth of t h e gorge t o f i n e r t e x t u r e d downstream.

A t r i b u t a r y , r i s i n g on t h e s o u t h e r n g r a n i t i c
b l o c k , has b u i l t an a l l u v i a l f a n i n t o t h e v a l l e y . The c o a r s e material of t h e f a n becomes p r o g r e s s i v e l y f i n e r g r a i n e d downstream. A s t u d y of a v a i l a b l e w e l l l o g s r e v e a l s t h a t a t h i c k bed of s h a l e u n d e r l i e s t h e r i v e r s e d i m e n t s o f t h e downthrown b l o c k ; t h e s u r f a c e of t h e s h a l e d i p s i n downstream d i r e c t i o n . The geology of t h e a r e a i s shown s c h e m a t i c a l l y i n F i g u r e 5.1 and
a geologic s e c t i o n i n F i g u r e 5 . 2 .
A groundwater model i s r e q u i r e d f o r t h e area bounded by t h e r i v e r and i t s
t r i b u t a r y , t h e WNW-ESE
f a u l t , and t h e w e s t e r n N-S
f a u l t . The a v a i l a b l e l o g s
of w e l l s and b o r e h o l e s and r e a d i n g s from o b s e r v a t i o n w e l l s and some d o u b l e piezometers r e v e a l t h a t t h e a q u i f e r i s unconfined. The t o t a l a r e a of t h e a q u i f e r t o be modelled i s 78 km'. The boundary c o n d i t i o n s are d e f i n e d a s f o l l o w s :
As t h e river and i t s t r i b u t a r y a r e p e r e n n i a l , t h e y are c o n s i d e r e d t o
r e p r e s e n t h e a d - c o n t r o l l e d boundaries. Although t h e i r water l e v e l s change i n t h e c o u r s e of t h e y e a r , mean f i x e d water l e v e l s are assumed i n the calculations.
I n the s o u t h , t h e WNW-ESE f a u l t i s c o n s i d e r e d t o r e p r e s e n t a z e r o f l o w
boundary because t h e a q u i f e r t e r m i n a t e s t h e r e a g a i n s t t h e massive block of g r a n i t e which d o e s n o t t r a n s m i t any a p p r e c i a b l e amount of groundwater.
I n t h e w e s t , t h e N-S f a u l t i s c o n s i d e r e d t o r e p r e s e n t a f l o w - c o n t r o l l e d
boundary, because t h e sandstone o v e r l y i n g t h e g r a n i t e c o n t a i n s a w a t e r t a b l e t h a t s t a n d s h i g h e r than t h a t i n t h e a q u i f e r t o t h e e a s t o f t h e f a u l t . From a v a i l a b l e d a t a on r a i n f a l l and s u r f a c e r u n o f f , we assume a n a v e r a g e p e r c o l a t i o n of r a i n i n t h e s a n d s t o n e t h a t c o r r e sponds w i t h an a v e r a g e groundwater f l o w a c r o s s t h i s f a u l t of 15 per k m l e n g t h of t h e f a u l t . F i g u r e 5.3 shows t h e c o n f i g u r a t i o n of t h e n o d a l network used f o r t h e example. The f i v e i n t e r n a l n o d e s (Nodes 1 t o 5 ) were s e l e c t e d a r b i t r a r i l y . The e x t e r n a l nodes needed t o c o n s t r u c t t h e network are t h o s e i n t h e r i v e r and i t s t r i b u t a r y (Nodes 6 t o 1 1 ) and t h o s e beyond t h e f a u l t s : Node 12 ( o p p o s i t e Node 4 ) , Nodes 13 and 14 ( o p p o s i t e Node 5 ) , and Node 15 ( o p p o s i t e Node 1 ) .
A s e x p l a i n e d i n Chapt. 3 S e c t . 4 t h e Thiessen method was used t o
11s
c o n s t r u c t t h e network.
137
A s shown i n F i g u r e 5 . 3 , t h e a r e a i s modelled i n f i v e nodal a r e a s , s o NN i s
5 . The b o u n d a r i e s a r e r e p r e s e n t e d by I O e x t e r n a l nodes, s o NEXTN = 10.

F i g u r e 5.2 shows t h a t t h e modelled a r e a i s p a r t of an unconfined a q u i f e r ,
s o NSCONF = O and N C O N F = O.
138
~-
The number of s i d e s o f each nodal area and t h e c o o r d i n a t e v a l u e s o f e a c h node a r e r e a d from F i g u r e 5.3. These d a t a are p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e 5.1.
Table 5.1 P a r a m e t e r s of network c o n f i g u r a t i o n
Number of node K
NSIDE (K)
CO ( K , 1 (x-coordinate)
CO (K ,2) (y-coordinate)
I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 IO
11
5 5 6 5 5
12 13 14 15
4.45 8.80 8.35 8.35 3.75 4.50 8.60 14.20 14.40 13.15 11.75 7.35 2.75 1.35 2.05
12.55 12.80 9.25 4.90 6.30 13.55 13.90 14.15 11.30 7.20 2.80 I .55 3.00 6.55 12.80
Note: The c o o r d i n a t e s of t h e e x t e r n a l nodes must a l s o be p r e s c r i b e d as t h e s e v a l u e s e n a b l e t h e computer t o c a l c u l a t e t h e area of e a c h n o d a l area.
5.3.2
Parameters of dimensions
Recharge and a b s t r a c t i o n r a t e s and t h e c o n d i t i o n s a l o n g t h e h e a d - c o n t r o l l e d b o u n d a r i e s a r e known on a monthly b a s i s , so W A S = MONTH, and DMTIM = 30.5. The c a l c u l a t i o n s a r e s t a r t e d on I December (T=O). The scale of t h e map on which t h e n o d a l network i s drawn i s 1:100,000, so SCALE = 100,000. Because t h e h y p o t h e t i c a l a r e a i s l a r g e , t h e dimensions f o r area and volume a r e t a k e n as 1,000,000 s q u a r e metres and 1,000,000 c u b i c metres, r e s p e c t i v e l y , so LSWl = 1.
139
5.3.3
P a r a m e t e r s of t i m e d i s c r e t i z a t i o n
A t i m e s t e p of one month i s chosen f o r t h e c a l c u l a t i o n p r o c e d u r e , s o

DELTA=l, TMBAS b e i n g one month. The t o t a l time p e r i o d f o r which t h e c a l c u -
l a t i o n s are t o b e made i s t a k e n as one y e a r . Because t h e a l g e b r a i c p r o d u c t of t h e v a l u e s of DELTA, MINOR, MAJOR, and LIST must b e e q u a l t o t h e t o t a l
t i m e p e r i o d e x p r e s s e d i n t h e u n i t TMBAS, t h e f o l l o w i n g a r b i t r a r y v a l u e s
have been chosen:
MINOR : 1
MAJOR : 12
LIST
5.3.4
Geohydrological p a r a m e t e r s
A s w e assume t h e p r e s e n c e of an unconfined a q u i f e r throughout t h e v a l l e y ,
w e must p r e p a r e mean h y d r a u l i c c o n d u c t i v i t y v a l u e s f o r a l l s i t e s where

a q u i f e r t e s t s t o o k p l a c e o r where b o r e h o l e s o r w e l l s were d r i l l e d . F i g u r e 5.4 shows t h e network superimposed on t h e isoperm map, which shows l i n e s of e q u a l weighted mean h y d r a u l i c c o n d u c t i v i t y .
'
For a l l t h e s i d e s of t h e nodal areas, a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e h y d r a u l i c c o n d u c t i v i t y PERM(J) (m/d) i s determined, e i t h e r by i n t e r p o l a t i o n o r by t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of a weighted mean v a l u e , depending on whether t h e isoperms are p a r a l l e l or perpendicular t o the sides, respectively.
Note: The W N W E S E f a u l t r e p r e s e n t s a b a r r i e r boundary. I t s h y d r a u l i c c o n d u c t i v i t y i s t h e r e f o r e z e r o . The N-S f a u l t i s a f l o w - c o n t r o l l e d boundary
b u t i t s h y d r a u l i c c o n d u c t i v i t y i s s e t e q u a l t o z e r o because t h e groundwater i n f l o w t h e r e i s accounted f o r i n t h e n e t pumped a b s t r a c t i o n s of Nodal Areas

1 and 5.
A s t h e a q u i f e r i s unconfined, we now need r e p r e s e n t a t i v e v a l u e s of t h e

s p e c i f i c y i e l d i n t h e n o d a l a r e a s . I n F i g u r e 5.5 t h e network i s superimposed on t h e map showing l i n e s of e q u a l weighted mean s p e c i f i c y i e l d of t h e a q u i f e r . A s e x p l a i n e d e a r l i e r , t h i s map i s compiled from a q u i f e r t e s t
140
Lkm
F i g . 5 . 4 Network s u p e r i m p o s e d on t h e i s o p e r m map, which shows l i n e s of e q u a l w e i g h t e d mean h y d r a u l i c c o n d u c t i v i t y (m/d)

O
L km
F i g . 5.5 Network s u p e r i m p o s e d on t h e map showing l i n e s of e q u a l w e i g h t e d mean s p e c i f i c y i e l d of t h e a q u i f e r ,4,
d a t a and by e s t i m a t i n g weighted mean s p e c i f i c y i e l d v a l u e s C O ( K , l )
from
b o r e and w e l l l o g s over a s e c t i o n e x t e n d i n g from t h e land s u r f a c e t o some

10 t o 2 0 m below t h e average w a t e r t a b l e depth. R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s p e c i f i c
y i e l d v a l u e s f o r a l l t h e n o d a l a r e a s are determined from t h e s o - s p e c i f i c y i e l d l i n e s and weighted over t h e area of each n o d a l a r e a .
5.3.5
Topographical parameters
A s t u d y of a v a i l a b l e well l o g s , bore l o g s , and geophysical d a t a shows t h a t
a t h i c k bed of s h a l e r e p r e s e n t s t h e impermeable b a s e of the a q u i f e r . Owing

t o t e c t o n i c e v e n t s i n t h e p a s t , t h e s u r f a c e of t h e s h a l e i s n o t h o r i z o n t a l b u t s l o p e s from w e s t t o e a s t . F i g u r e 5.6 shows t h e network superimposell on a c o n t o u r map of t h e s h a l e s u r f a c e . The c o n f i g u r a t i o n , g r a d i e n t , and e l e v a t i o n of t h i s s u r f a c e can be d e r i v e d from t h i s map and t h e weighted mean e l e v a t i o n f o r each of t h e nodal
areas can be determined. The r e s u l t s are i n d i c a t e d a t each node i n m above

mean sea l e v e l .
Note: E l e v a t i o n s of t h e impermeable b a s e a r e r e q u i r e d n o t only f o r t h e i n t e r n a l nodes but a l s o f o r t h e nodes i n t h e r i v e r s , which a r e head-controlled. N o such e l e v a t i o n s are needed f o r t h e e x t e r n a l nodes t o t h e south and
w e s t of t h e two f a u l t s .
F i g u r e 5.7 shows t h e network superimposed on t h e topographical map showing c o n t o u r l i n e s of t h e land s u r f a c e i n m above mean s e a 1evel:The weighted
mean l a n d s u r f a c e e l e v a t i o n s of t h e f i v e nodal areas a r e i n d i c a t e d a t each node.
I n our example, no r e s t r i c t i o n s are imposed on t h e w a t e r t a b l e f l u c t u a t i o n s ,
s o LSW2 = 2 . This means t h a t t h e c a l c u l a t i o n program only checks whether

t h e w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n s remain w i t h i n t h e imposed l i m i t s defined by t h e impermeable base and the l a n d s u r f a c e e l e v a t i o n s .
142
Fig. 5.6 Network superimposed on t h e contour map o f t h e s u r f a c e of t h e impermeable s h a l e u n d e r l y i n g t h e a q u i f e r
km
F i g . 5.7
Network superimposed on t h e t o p o g r a p h i c a l c o n t o u r map
143
5.3.6
I n i t i a l conditions
A s explained e a r l i e r , i n i t i a l w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n s a r e needed f o r a l l i n -
t e r n a l and head-controlled nodes. To o b t a i n t h e s e v a l u e s , a watertablecontour map i s made f o r t h e d a t e on which t h e c a l c u l a t i o n process s t a r t s . This map i s based on d a t a from o b s e r v a t i o n w e l l s and/or piezometers and on water l e v e l d a t a of t h e r i v e r s . I n our example w e assume t h a t t h e water l e v e l s of the e x t e r n a l nodes i n t h e r i v e r s a r e f i x e d . In F i g u r e 5.8 t h e network i s superimposed on t h e contour map of t h e i n i t i a l w a t e r t a b l e (HZERO), which shows l i n e s of equal w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n . These l i n e s a r e used t o determine a weighted mean w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n f o r a l l nodal a r e a s . The mean v a l u e s i n m above mean s e a l e v e l a r e i n d i c a t e d a t each node.
Lkm
F i g . 5 . 8 Network superimposed on t h e i n i t i a l w a t e r t a b l e contour map (HZERO map)

144
5.3.7
Boundary c o n d i t i o n s
Rain i s t h e o n l y s o u r c e of groundwater r e c h a r g e i n t h e a r e a . R a i n f a l l d a t a a r e a v a i l a b l e from a s i n g l e m e t e o r o l o g i c a l s t a t i o n . Taking i n t o account t h e s i z e of t h e a r e a and t h e f a c t t h a t o n l y one s t a t i o n e x i s t s i n i t , w e s h a l l assume t h a t t h e r a i n f a l l i s r e g u l a r l y d i s t r i b u t e d o v e r the a r e a . The p o r t i o n of r a i n t h a t r e a c h e s t h e groundwater, depends on s e v e r a l f a c t o r s : t h e depth of t h e r a i n f a l l t h e s l o p e of t h e area whether t h e area h a s a v e g e t a t i v e c o v e r ( t r e e s , c r o p s ) o r i s b a r r e n land t h e i n f i l t r a t i o n c a p a c i t y of t h e s o i l t h e s o i l m o i s t u r e c o n d i t i o n s of t h e u n s a t u r a t e d zone Table 5 . 2 g i v e s t h e monthly r a i n f a l l f o r t h e s t a t i o n and t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g deep p e r c o l a t i o n t o t h e groundwater which we have e s t i m a t e d by assuming c e r t a i n values f o r t h e d i f f e r e n t f a c t o r s .
Table 5 . 2 Monthly r a i n f a l l and deep p e r c o l a t i o n , i n nun

M
2
Rainfall
F
24
J
121
O
207
D
36
Total
1105
13
44
89
46
184
323
16
Deep p e r c o l a t i o n
O O O O
19
IO
25
29
56
38
177
The e n t i r e v a l l e y bottom i s used f o r a g r i c u l t u r e . Supplementary i r r i g a t i o n i s needed t o grow two c r o p s a y e a r . To meet t h e w a t e r r e q u i r e m e n t s , groundwater i s pumped from w e l l s which are s c a t t e r e d over t h e a r e a . T h e i r l o c a t i o n , d i s c h a r g e , and t i m e o f o p e r a t i o n are known. T a b l e 5 . 3 shows t h e monthly groundwater a b s t r a c t i o n s from each n o d a l area.
145
T a b l e 5 . 3 Monthly groundwater a b s t r a c t i o n s i n m i l l i o n m 3 i n t h e Nodal Areas

1 to 5
~~
Month
1
Nodal areas 3 4
5 -0.62 -0.57 -0.40 -0.03 +O. 18 +O. 18 +o. 18 +O. 18 +o. 18 +O. 18 -0.23 -0.52
Total
January February March April May June July August September October November December
-0.38 -0.36 -0.25

O
-0.39 -0.36 -0.30 -0.1 I

O O O O O O
-1.20 - 1 . 15 -0.89 -0.32

O
-0.71 -0.67 -0.52 -0.19

O O O O O O
+O. 14 +O. 14 +O. 14 +O. 14 +O. I 4 +O. 14 -0.13 -0.32
O
O O O O
-0.2 1 -0.36
-0.64 -1.07
-0.37 -0.62
-3.30 -3.11 -2.36 -0.65 +O. 32 +O. 32 +0.32 +0.32 +0.32 +O. 32 -1.58 -2.89
Note: The a b s t r a c t i o n s of Nodes 1 and 5 h a v e been a d j u s t e d f o r t h e l a t e r a l groundwater i n f l o w a c r o s s t h e N-S f a u l t . It i s assumed t h a t t h i s i n f l o w (15

l / s per k m l e n g t h of t h e f a u l t ) i s c o n s t a n t . For Nodes 1 and 5 t h i s c o r r e -
sponds t o 0.14 and 0.18 m i l l i o n m 3 p e r month, r e s p e c t i v e l y . The n e t a b s t r a c t i o n i n t h e s e nodes i s t h e a l g e b r a i c sum of t h e real a b s t r a c t i o n and t h e groundwater i n f l o w . The area has t h r e e t y p e s of boundary c o n d i t i o n s , v i z . zero-flow, c o n t r o l l e d , and h e a d - c o n t r o l l e d . flow-
Because t h e h y d r a u l i c c o n d u c t i v i t y f o r
zero-flow and f l o w - c o n t r o l l e d b o u n d a r i e s i s set e q u a l t o z e r o , t h e o n l y w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n s t h a t need t o be p r e s c r i b e d a r e t h o s e f o r t h e headc o n t r o l l e d b o u n d a r i e s . The nodal network ( F i g . 5 . 3 ) h a s s i x e x t e r n a l nodes t h a t s i m u l a t e h e a d - c o n t r o l l e d b o u n d a r i e s , v i z . Nodes 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10, and
1 1 . T a b l e 5.4 shows t h e v a l u e s of t h e s e e x t e r n a l water l e v e l s , which are
kept constant.
Note: The u s e r should b e aware of t h e s p e c i a l problems t h a t a low-flow r i v e r may pose when used as a ' h e a d - c o n t r o l l e d boundary. I f water i s t o be
a b s t r a c t e d from w e l l s i n i t s neighbourhood, t h e r i v e r may d r y up w i t h o u t t h e model n o t i c i n g i t . Another, i n f i n i t e s o u r c e w i l l t h e n act as. boundary.

A second problem i s t h a t r i v e r s may have a low-permeability b e d , i n c r e a s i n g
t h e i r r a d i a l resistance t o groundwater f l o w and r e s t r i c t i n g recharge ( s e e Chap. 6. S e c t . 2 . 2 ) .
146
Table 5.4 Data of water l e v e l s a t h e a d - c o n t r o l l e d
boundaries ( m above m.s.1.)
Month
E x t e r n a l node no.
~
6
January February March April May June July August September October November December
8 568.5 568.5 568.5 568.5 568.5 568.5 568.5 568.5 568.5 568.5 568.5 568.5
9 569.0 569.0 569.0 569.0 569.0 569.0 569.0 569.0 569.0 569.0 569.0 569.0
IO
11
12
13
14
15
571.4 571.4 571.4 571.4 571.4 571.4 571.4 571.4 571.4 571.4 571.4 571.4
569.7 569.7 569.7 569.7 569.7 569.7 569.7 569.7 569.7 569.7 569.7 569.7
570.0 570.0 570.0 570.0 570.0 570.0 570.0 570.0 570.0, 570.0 570.0 570.0
572.0 572.0 572.0 572.0 572.0 572.0 572.0 572.0 572.0 572.0 572.0 572.0
5.3.8
Historical watertable elevations
For t h e f i v e i n t e m a l nodes of t h e network, monthly w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n s have been d e r i v e d . Table 5 . 5 shows t h e s e d a t a . T h i s t a b l e i s needed i n t h e c a l i b r a t i o n phase when t h e c a l c u l a t e d w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n s a r e compared w i t h t h e h i s t o r i c a l ones.
U
Table 5.5 Data of h i s t o r i c a l w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n s (m above m.s.1.)
Month
1
I n t e r n a l node no.
3 570.38 570. I6 570.09 570.02 570.06 570.12 570.23 570.40 570.45 570.42 570.34 570.21 147
4 570.78 570.49 570.32 570.26 570.52 570.63 570.99 571.17 571.65 571.88 571.77 571.43
5 573.00 572.48 572.22 572.26 572.37 572.69 573.04 573.41 573.83 574.25 573.86 573.54
January February March April May June J u ly August September October November December
571.58 571.30 571. I O 571.03 571.08 571. I3 571.24 571.32 571.53 571.68 571.37 571.14
569.64 569.62 569.66 569.71 569.88 570.00 570.16 570.33 570.57 570.72 570.59 569.28
5.3.9.
P r i o r t o m o d e l l i n g a groundwater b a s i n , one must a s s e s s an o v e r a l l groundw a t e r b a l a n c e of t h e b a s i n . I n t h e c a l i b r a t i o n p r o c e s s , some of t h e flow
components of t h e groundwater b a l a n c e can b e compared w i t h t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g f l o w components c a l c u l a t e d by t h e computer ( e . g . t o t a l s u r f a c e w a t e r o u t f l o w , change i n groundwater s t o r a g e ) . I n o u r example, t h e a n n u a l groundwater b a l a n c e r e a d s as f o l l o w s : Input Recharge from r a i n I n f l o w through N-S fault output
13,735,200 m3
3y840y000
A b s t r a c t i o n by w e l l s Groundwater o u t f l o w Change i n s t o r a g e
15,810,000 m 3 2,113,300
0,348,100 17,575,200 m 3
17,575,200 m3
5.3.10
Other i n p u t d a t a
The u s e of S G M P means t h a t t h e c a l c u l a t i o n p r o c e s s i s a Gauss-Seidel i t e r -
a t i o n method. To t e r m i n a t e t h e i t e r a t i o n s , a t o l e r a n c e l e v e l must be p r e s c r i b e d . The v a l u e of t h e annual r e c h a r g e frm r a i n e x t e r n a l flow i n t h e v a r i a b l e RECH(K) -
being t h e only
i s used as a y a r d s t i c k and 10 p e r
c e n t of t h i s v a l u e i s t a k e n as an i n i t i a l estimate. Because t h e u n i t f o r volume i s one m i l l i o n c u b i c metres and t h e u n i t f o r t i m e i s one month,

ERROR i s e q u a l t o 0.114.
For t h e r e l a x a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t w e t a k e t h e v a l u e of 1 and f o r DELQ t h e v a l u e of 0.1,
i n conformity with t h e previously given guidelines.
For SGMP 2 , f o u r e x t e r n a l s w i t c h e s must be p r e s c r i b e d . LSW3 i s e q u a l t o 2 , because t h e boundary c o n d i t i o n s are a v a i l a b l e on a monthly b a s i s and because DELTA=] and M I N O R = I . LSW4 i s equal t o 2 , because we s t a r t w i t h t h e c a l i b r a t i o n p r o c e s s . LSW5 i s e q u a l t o 1, because w e u s e a f i x e d time s t e p of one month. F o r LSW6 no s p e c i f i c v a l u e n e e d s t o b e g i v e n , because t h e a q u i f e r i s n o t semi-confined.
148
For SGMP 3
t h r e e e x t e r n a l s w i t c h e s must b e p r e s c r i b e d . A s we want t o h a v e
t h e c a l c u l a t e d w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n s and groundwater b a l a n c e s p r i n t e d f o r e a c h month, t h e v a l u e s f o r LSW7 and LSW8 a r e b o t h e q u a l t o I . LSW9 i s e q u a l t o 2 , because i t i s t h e f i r s t r u n and w e want t o check t h e v a l u e s of t h e head-controlled boundaries.
b For SGMP 3 t h r e e e x t e r n a l s w i t c h e s must be p r e s c r i b e d . LSW9 i s made e q u a l t o 1 , because i n SGMP 3a t h e v a l u e s of t h e h e a d - c o n t r o l l e d b o u n d a r i e s w i l l b e p r i n t e d , so we do n o t need a p l o t o f them. LSWlO i s made e q u a l t o 1 , b e c a u s e we have h i s t o r i c a l w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n s a v a i l a b l e . F i n a l l y LSWll
i s made e q u a l t o 1 , because w e want t o c a l c u l a t e t h e d e v i a t i o n s between

h i s t o r i c a l and c a l c u l a t e d w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n s .
5.4
Transfer of d a t a
The p r e p a r a t i o n of d a t a as d i s c u s s e d i n S e c t i o n 5 . 3 r e s u l t e d i n a number of maps, a number of t a b l e s , and a number of s i n g l e v a l u e s . To t r a n s f e r t h e s e d a t a t o computer c a r d s , one f i r s t p r e p a r e s a number of t a b l e s , as w i l l b e exp 1a ined b e l ow.
5.4.1
P r e p a r a t i o n of Data S e t I
The p a r a m e t e r s a s s i g n e d t o t h e nodes are r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e i r node numbers. T a b l e 5.6 l i s t s t h e d a t a a s s i g n e d t o b o t h i n t e r n a l and e x t e r n a l n o d e s ; t h e d a t a a r e t a k e n from F i g u r e 5.6 and T a b l e 5.1.
149
T a b l e 5.6 P a r a m e t e r s a s s i g n e d t o i n t e r n a l and e x t e r n a l nodes
Number of node K
1
BL(K)
COW, 1 ) (x-coordinate)
CO(K,2) (y-coordinate)
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
IO
11
5 37 506 508 509 538 537 506 485 484 488 493
12 13 14 15
4.45 8.80 8.35 8.35 3.75 4.50 8.60 14.20 14.40 13. 15 11.75 7.35 2.75 1.35 2.05
12.55 12.80 9.25 4.90 6.30 13.55 13.90 14.15 11.30 7.20 2.80 1.55 3.00 6.55 12.80
T a b l e 5.7
l i s t s t h e d a t a a s s i g n e d t o t h e i n t e r n a l nodes o n l y ; t h e d a t a a r e
t a k e n from F i g u r e s 5 . 5 and 5 . 7 and Table 5 . I .
T a b l e 5.7 P a r a m e t e r s a s s i g n e d t o i n t e r n a l nodes o n l y
Number of node
~~~
NSIDE(K)
~~ ~~
CO(K, 1 ) specific yield
UL(K)*
OL(K)* -
2 3 4 5
580 573 576 58 1 583
5 5 6 5 5
O . 18 o. 20 O . 18 O . 14 0.07
Note: I f s w i t c h LSW2 i s e q u a l t o 1, s p e c i f i c v a l u e s f o r UL(K) and OL(K) a r e needed i n Columns 5 and 6.
Note: I f some of t h e nodes i n t h e network a r e denoted as semi-confined a n d / o r c o n f i n e d , a n o t h e r t a b l e i s needed (Table 5 . 8 ) .
150
Table 5 . 8 P a r a m e t e r s o r semi-confined a n d / o r c o n f i n e d a q u i f e r s
Number of node
ONF
(I)
(I)
CO(I , 2 ) (thickness aquifer)
The parameters a s s i g n e d t o t h e s i d e s of t h e n o d a l a r e a s a r e more d i f f i c u l t t o r e p r e s e n t than t h o s e of t h e nodes. A s p e c i a l t a b l e i s needed t o r e p r e s e n t t h e h y d r a u l i c c o n d u c t i v i t y PERM(J). F i r s t an a u x i l l i a r y t a b l e i s made (Table 5 . 9 ) . I t s f i r s t column l i s t s t h e numbers of t h e i n t e r n a l nodes. I t s second and f o l l o w i n g columns l i s t t h e nodes t h a t surround each o f t h e n o d e s i n Column I . One s t a r t s with an a r b i t r a r i l y chosen s u r r o u n d i n g node and t h e n c o n t i n u e s w i t h t h e o t h e r s , moving i n a clock-wise d i r e c t i o n . The p r o c e s s i s r e p e a t e d f o r a l l t h e o t h e r i n t e r n a l nodes.
Table 5 . 9 Numbering system of t h e nodal network Number of node (K)

1
Number of i n t e r n a l and e x t e r n a l , nodes surrounding node ( K ) 6 7 2 3

1
2 3 4 5
2 3 5 1 8 9 3 9 1 0 4 10 11 12 3 4 13
5
1
5 14
Table 5.10 can now be compiled from Table 5.9 and F i g u r e 5 . 4 . Column I a g a i n l i s t s t h e numbers of t h e i n t e r n a l nodes. The even-numbered columns
l i s t t h e s u r r o u n d i n g nodes, and t h e odd-numbered columns, s t a r t i n g w i t h
Column 3, l i s t t h e v a l u e s of t h e h y d r a u l i c c o n d u c t i v i t y between t h e nodes of Column I and t h e surrounding nodes l i s t e d i n t h e p r e c e d i n g even-numbered column. For example, t h e h y d r a u l i c c o n d u c t i v i t y of t h e s i d e s e p a r a t i n g Nodes 1 and 6 i s 70.
151
T a b l e 5 . 1 0 P a r a m e t e r a s s i g n e d t o t h e s i d e s o f t h e n o d a l areas
1 1 2 3 4 5
2 6 7
3
70 62 60 43 25
1 0 1 1 1 2 1 3
2 3
.I
2 6 0 8 5 0 9 48 IO 65 3 28
3 4 5 9 4 8 52 10 11 70 4 15
5 2 5 1 5 O 3 6 0 1 6 0 4 43 5 28 12 O 5 15 13 O 14 O
45
5.4.2
S e q u e n c e o f c a r d s and d a t a f o r m a t s i n Data S e t I
T a b l e 5.11 shows t h e i n p u t s e q u e n c e and d a t a f o r m a t s of t h e d a t a c a r d s i r Data S e t I.
T a b l e 5 . 1 1 Card s t r u c t u r e of Data S e t I
Card No.
1
Name
TITLE N N , NSCONF, NCONF, NEXTN NSIDE(K), K = l ,NN ( C O ( I , J ) , J=1,2), 1 = 1 ,TNN TMBAS, DMTIM, T , SCALE, LSWl DELTA, M I N O R , MAJOR, LIST
ERROR, COEFFA
Format 20A4120A4 4I 4 4012 16F5.2 2A4,2F4.1,F8.0, F4.2,314 2F8.2 20F4. O 1 3 , 7 x , 7 ( 1 3 , F 5 . 2 , 2x) llF7.5 10F8.4
1 lF7.5
'
3
4 5 6 7
I4
8
9 10
11
BL(K), K=l,TNN K , ( N S ( J ) , PERM(J), J = I , J 2 )
, 1 = 1 ,NN PCONF(K) , K = l ,NSCONF

CO(1,l) A S C ( I ) , 1 = 1 ,NSCONF SL(K), K = l ,NN C O ( I , 2 ) , I=I,NCONF LSW2, DELQ UL(K), K = l , N N OL(K), K = I , N N
12
13
14 15 16 17
20F4. O 20F4. O I4,F4.1 10F8.4 10F8.4
152
The d e t a i l s a r e : Card 1 Card 2 Card 3 Card 4

: Any name o r s e n t e n c e ; t o t a l number of c a r d s i s 2 . : For a c t u a l v a l u e s , see S e c t i o n 5.3.1. : The v a l u e s of Column 3 of Table 5.7 a r e punched on t h i s c a r d ,
40 v a l u e s on each c a r d . Total number of c a r d s i s " 1 4 0 .

: The v a l u e s o f Columns 3 and 4 of Table 5 . 6 a r e punched on t h i s
c a r d ; f o r each node, f i r s t t h e x-coordinate and then t h e yc o o r d i n a t e , 16 v a l u e s on each c a r d . T o t a l number o f c a r d s i s 2 x

TNN/ 1 6.
Card 5 Card 6 Card 7 Card 8
: For a c t u a l v a l u e s , see S e c t i o n 5.3.2. : For a c t u a l v a l u e s , see S e c t i o n 5.3.3.

: For a c t u a l v a l u e s , see S e c t i o n 5.3. I O . : The v a l u e s o f Column 2 of Table 5.6 a r e punched on t h i s c a r d ,
20 v a l u e s on each card. T o t a l number of c a r d s i s TNN/20.

Card 9
: The v a l u e s o f Table 5. 10 a r e punched on t h i s c a r d , each row on
one c a r d . T o t a l number of c a r d s i s equal t o NN. Card I

: The v a l u e s of Column 4 of Table 5.7 are punched on t h i s c a r d ,
1 1 v a l u e s on each card. T o t a l number o f c a r d s i s
NN/Il.
Card I
: If NSCONF i s n o t equal t o z e r o , t h e v a l u e s of Column 2 of T a b l e
5 . 8 are punched on t h i s c a r d , I O v a l u e s on each c a r d . T o t a l number of c a r d s i s NSCONF/IO.

I f NSCONF i s e q u a l t o z e r o , s k i p Cards 1 1 .
: If NSCONF i s n o t equal t o z e r o , t h e v a l u e s of Column 3 of Table
Card 12
5 . 8 are punched on t h i s c a r d , 1 1 v a l u e s on each c a r d . T o t a l number of c a r d s i s "/I

l.
I f NSCONF i s e q u a l t o z e r o , s k i p Cards 12.
Card 13
: The v a l u e s of Column 2 of Table 5.7 are punched on t h i s c a r d ,
20 v a l u e s on each c a r d . T o t a l number of c a r d s i s NN/20.

C a r d 14
: I f NSCONF o r NCONF i s n o t e q u a l t o z e r o , t h e v a l u e s o f Column 4
o f T a b l e 5.8 are punched on t h i s c a r d , 20 v a l u e s on each c a r d .
T o t a l number of c a r d s i s (NSCONF + NCONF)/20.

I f b o t h NSCONF and N C O N F a r e e q u a l t o z e r o , s k i p Cards 14.
Card 15 Card 16
: For a c t u a l v a l u e s , see S e c t i o n s 5 . 3 . 5 and 5.3.10. : I f LSW2 i s e q u a l t o 1, t h e v a l u e s of Column 5 o f Table 5.7 are
punched on t h i s c a r d , IO v a l u e s on each c a r d . T o t a l number o f c a r d s i s "/IO. 153
I f LSW2 i s e q u a l t o 2 , s k i p Cards 16. Card 17

: I f LSW2 i s e q u a l t o 1,
t h e v a l u e s of Column 6 of Table 5.7 a r e
punched on t h i s c a r d , I O v a l u e s on each c a r d . T o t a l number of c a r d s i s "/IO. I f LSW2 i s e q u a l t o 2 , s k i p Cards 1 7 .

A s p e c i a l form i s used t o f a c i l i t a t e t h e punching of t h e d a t a c a r d s ; it i s
d i v i d e d i n t o 80 columns, which correspond w i t h t h e 80 columns on a computer c a r d ( f o r more i n f o r m a t i o n , s e e Appendix 2 ) . F i g u r e 5 . 9 shows such a form.
I t s v a l u e s have been w r i t t e n i n accordance w i t h t h e f o r m a t s given i n Table
5.11.
The v a l u e s correspond w i t h t h e d a t a of t h e h y p o t h e t i c a l example.
When t h e form h a s been completed, t h e c a r d s can b e punched and Data Set I
i s ready.
F i g u r e 5.10 shows p a r t of t h e numerical o u t p u t of Data S e t I. I t g i v e s a r e f o r m a t t e d playback of t h e g e n e r a l i n p u t , t h e d i s t a n c e between a d j a c e n t n o d e s (LENGTH), t h e l e n g t h of t h e s i d e s of t h e n o d a l a r e a s , c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y two node numbers (WIDTH), and t h e a r e a s of t h e n o d a l a r e a s .
5.4.3
P r e p a r a t i o n of Data S e t I1
To t r a n s f e r t h e d a t a t o computer c a r d s , f o u r t a b l e s a r e p r e p a r e d :
T a b l e 5.12 c o n t a i n s t h e d a t a of t h e i n i t i a l w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n s a t each node, and t h e d a t a of t h e i n i t i a l w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n s of t h e c o n f i n i n g l a y e r f o r t h o s e nodes denoted a s semi-confined.. A s o u r h y p o t h e t i c a l example
i s p a r t of an unconfined a q u i f e r , Table 5 . 1 2 i s compiled from F i g u r e 5 . 8 .
154
H
U
vl
a
rd rd
n
L l O
W
E
W
a a
u
4
a
O
!?
u
c n
I n
.?I
Lu
I55
GRDUNOWATERMODEL FOR I L L U S T R A T I N G DATA H A N D L I N G OF THE STANDARD GRDUNDUATER MODEL PACKAGE(SGMP)
NUMBER O F I F i T E R N A L tlDDES 1s NUMBER OF E X T E R N A L NODES I S
5
lfl
8 B S
NODAL AREAS I8 NUMtJER OF SLVICONFINEO IS N U M B E R OF C O N F I N E 0 NODAL AREAS IS NUMbER O F U t i C U N F I f r E D NODAL AREAS
UNIT UNIT UNIT UNIT
1 METRE LENGTH 1 1 l r d 8 R , R 0 0 SP,MLTRCS AREA VOLUME I l , e @ m , R 0 0 CU.LfETRES

flF
T I M E FOM D E L T A AND BOUNDARY C O N O I T I O N S I S MONTH

PERVEABILITY SO ,HIDAY / M
IrIDTH Ch
B E T N E E N NODE
LENGTH
NODE NO.
X-CDDRD.
cn
1.B0 4.36 5.11 6.29 2.41 s.57 5.68 1
cn
12.5s 12.8U D.25 4,DR 6.38 13.55 13 I9.0 14.15 11.30 7.20 2.80 1.55 Q;75 1.35
BDTTOk ELEVATION
537 586,
1 AN0
I
1 AND 1 AND I AU0 1 AND 2 AND 2 AND 2 IN0 2 AND 2 AND 3 AND 3 AND 3 AND 3 AND 3 AN0 3 AND 4 AND 4 AN0 4 AND 4 AN0 4 AND S AND 5 AND 5 AND 5 AYD 3 AN0
6 2 3
S
15 7 6 Y 3 2 9 10 4 5
3.32 1.68 2.55 2.15
2
3
588.
5119,
538, 537. 586. 485, 484. 488, 493. 0, 8. 0. 0,
3.57
4.8P
iiia
4.36 10 11 12 13 14 15
1.34 1.92 4.57 1.71 4.57 "78 3.12 3.76
3;5R
3.5~
6.39 5.22 4.55 5.411 5.11 4.ss 5.32 4.Gd
s;ee
1
3 18 11 12 5 1 3 4 13 14
2,66 2.55
3.76
1 ,BR 3.15 4.8t
2,85
8.55 12.80
3.58
4.01 6.29 5.46 4.81 3.45 2.41
3.3@
2.28 2.66 3.26 3.38 4.68
Fig. 5 I O P a r t of the o u t p u t of SGMP 1
Table 5.12 I n i t i a l c o n d i t i o n s a t time T=O
Number of node
1
HCONF (K)
2 3
5 6 7 8 9 IO
11
571.20 569.70 570.60 571. I O 573.60 571.40 569.70 568.50 569.00 570.00 572.00
12 13
14 15
Note: Of t h e e x t e r n a l nodes, o n l y t h o s e s i m u l a t i n g h e a d - c o n t r o l l e d
bound-
a r i e s (Nodes 6, 7 , 8, 9 , I O , and 1 1 ) r e q u i r e a v a l u e of H(K). For p u r e l y f l o w - c o n t r o l l e d b o u n d a r i e s , t h e r e i s no need t o s p e c i f y H(K) b e c a u s e t h e boundaries f a c i n g t h e s e e x t e r n a l nodes are assumed t o b e impermeable and t h e i r hydraulic conductivity values a r e t h e r e f o r e zero. Table 5.13 c o n t a i n s t h e d a t a of RECH(K), r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e deep p e r c o l a t i o n from r a i n f a l l . The columns are headed by t h e numbers of t h e i n t e r n a l nodes. The rows c o n t a i n t h e v a l u e s of RECH(K), e i t h e r f o r each time s t e p DELTA o r f o r e a c h f i r s t o r second accumulation l e v e l , depending on t h e v a l u e a s s i g n e d t o
LSW3. The t o t a l number of rows a l s o depends on LSW3:

f o r LSW3 e q u a l t o 1 : L I S T rows f o r LSW3 e q u a l t o 2 : L I S T f o r LSW3 e q u a l t o 3: L I S T
X
X
MAJOR rows
MAJOR
X
MINOR rows
For our h y p o t h e t i c a l example, T a b l e 5.13 i s compiled from Table 5 . 2 (LIST=I,

MAJOR=12
, MINOR= 1 ,
LSW3=2).
157
T a b l e 5.13 Data of RECH(K)
Number of f i r s t accumulation l e v e l (month)

1
1
2
0 O O O 0.019 0.010 0.025 O. 029 0.056 O . 038 O O
3 O O O O 0.019. 0.010 O. 025 O . 029 O . 056 0.038 O O
4
O
5
O O O O
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 IO
11
O O O
12
O 0.019 0.010 0.025 0.029 O . 056 0.038 O O
O O 0.019 0.010 0.025 0.029 O . 056 O . 038 O

O
0.019 0.010 O . 025 0.029 O . 056 O . 038

O O
T a b l e 5.14 c o n t a i n s t h e d a t a of FLWCON(K), r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e a l g e b r a i c sum o f t h e a b s t r a c t i o n by pumped w e l l s and t h e groundwater flow through flowc o n t r o l l e d b o u n d a r i e s . T h i s t a b l e i s compiled from T a b l e 5.3 and i s s e t o u t i n t h e same way a s Table 5.13.
T a b l e 5.14 Data of FLWCON(K)

1
1
3 -1.20 -1. 15 -0.89 -0.32 O O O O

O O
5 -0.62 -0.57 -0.40 +O. 03
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 IO
11
-0.38 -0.36 -0.25 O +O. 14 +O. 14 +O. 14 +O. 14 +O. 14

+O. 14
-0.39 -0.36 -0.30 -0.11 O O O

O O O
-0.71 -0.67 -0.52 -0.19 O O O

O
O
O
+o. 18 +o. 18 +o. 18 +o. 18 +o. 18 +o. 18

-0.23 -0.52
12
-0.13 -0.32
-0.21 -0.36
-0.64 -1 . O 7
-0.37 -0.62
Note: I f t h e v a l u e s of RECH(K) and FLWCON(K) are a v a i l a b l e on a monthly b a s i s and TMBAS i s made e q u a l t o one week, t h e s e v a l u e s must be e n t e r e d i n
158
i
I
Tables 5 . 1 4 and 5 . 1 5 on t h e t i m e b a s i s of one week; i n o t h e r words, t h e o r i g i n a l d a t a must b e d i v i d e d by f o u r .
Table 5.15 c o n t a i n s t h e w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n s f o r t h o s e e x t e r n a l nodes t h a t s i m u l a t e h e a d - c o n t r o l l e d b o u n d a r i e s . It i s compiled from Table 5 . 4 .
Table 5 . 1 5 Data of h e a d - c o n t r o l l e d b o u n d a r i e s

1
E x t e r n a l node no.
6 571.4 571.4 571.4 571.4 571.4 571.4 571.4 571.4 571.4 571.4 571.4 571.4
7 569.7 569.7 569.7 569.7 569.7 569.7 569.7 569.7 569.7 569.7 569.7 569.7
8 568.5 568.5 568.5 568.5 568.5 568.5 568.5 568.5 568.5 568.5 568.5 568.5
9 569.0 569.0 569.0 569.0 569.0 569.0 569.0 569.0 569.0 569.0 569.0 569.0
IO 570. O 570.0 570. O 570.0 570. O 570. O 570. O 570. O 570.0 570. O 570.0 570.0
11
12
13
14
15
2
3
4 5 6 7 8 9 10
11
12
572. O 572. O 572. O 572. O 572. O 572.0 572. O 572. O 572. O 572.0 572.0 572. O
5.4.4
Table 5.16
Sequence of c a r d s and d a t a format i n Data S e t I1
shows t h e i n p u t sequence and d a t a f o r m a t s of t h e d a t a c a r d s i n
Data S e t 11.
Table 5.16
~~
Card s t r u c t u r e of Data S e t I1
Card No.
1
Name
LSW3, LSW4, LSW5, LSW6 H(K), K=I,TNN HCONF (K) , K= 1 ,NSCONF RECH(K), K = l ,NN FLWCON(K), K = l ,NN H(K), K=NO,TNN
Format
414
10F8.2
2
3
10F8.2
4 5 6 7
8x,l4F5.3
8 x , 7F 1 O . 4
8x,9F8.2 F6.4
DELTA
The d e t a i l s are: Card 1 Card 2

: For a c t u a l v a l u e s , see S e c t i o n 5.3.10.
: The v a l u e s of Column 2 of Table 5.12 a r e punched on t h i s c a r d .
Each c a r d c o n t a i n s I O v a l u e s . T o t a l number of c a r d s i s T N N / I O . Card 3

: The v a l u e s of Column 3 of Table 5.12 are punched on t h i s c a r d .
Each c a r d c o n t a i n s I O v a l u e s . T o t a l number of c a r d s i s NSCONF/IO. I f NSCONF e q u a l s z e r o , s k i p Card 3. Card 4

: The f i r s t 8 columns a r e r e s e r v e d f o r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n (see
below). The v a l u e s of t h e f i r s t row of Table 5.13 a r e punched on t h i s c a r d , e x c e p t t h e one i n Column 1 . Each c a r d c o n t a i n s 14 v a l u e s . T o t a l number of c a r d s i s NN/14. Card 5
: The f i r s t 8 columns a r e r e s e r v e d f o r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n (see
below). The v a l u e s of t h e f i r s t row of Table 5.14 a r e punched on t h i s c a r d , e x c e p t t h e one i n Column I . Each card c o n t a i n s 7 v a l u e s . T o t a l number of c a r d s i s NN/7. Card 6
: The f i r s t 8 columns are r e s e r v e d f o r i d e n t i f i x a t i o n
(see
below). The v a l u e s of t h e f i r s t row of Table 5.15 a r e punched on t h i s c a r d , e x c e p t t h e one i n Column I . Each c a r d c o n t a i n s 9
v a l u e s . T o t a l number of c a r d s i s NEXTN/9. Card 7

: Values of DELTA.
If L S W 5 i s e q u a l t o 1 , s k i p Card 7 ; t h e
c a l c u l a t i o n i s t h e n made w i t h a c o n s t a n t t i m e s t e p DELTA read from SGMP I .
Note: Because L S W 3 i s made e q u a l t o 2 , Cards 4 , 5 , and 6 are repeated LIST

X
MAJOR t i m e s .
I n t h e second set of t h e s e c a r d s , t h e v a l u e s of t h e second
row of T a b l e s 5.13, 5.14, and 5.15 are punched; i n t h e t h i r d s e t t h e v a l u e s of t h e t h i r d row, and s o on. Depending on t h e t o t a l number of t i m e s t e p s f o r which t h e boundary condit i o n s a r e a v a i l a b l e and on t h e number of i n t e r n a l nodes i n t h e network,
Data S e t I1 may c o n t a i n a g r e a t number of d a t a c a r d s . To f a c i l i t a t e t h e

i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of s p e c i f i c c a r d s , t h e f i r s t 8 columns of Cards 4 , 5 , and 6 a r e r e s e r v e d f o r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n , i n d i c a t i n g , f o r example, t h e name of t h e v a r i a b l e , run-number, number of t i m e s t e p .
160
F i g u r e 5.11 shows t h e form completed f o r Data Set 11. I t s v a l u e s have been w r i t t e n i n accordance w i t h t h e f o r m a t s g i v e n i n Table 5.16. When t h e c a r d s have been punched, Data S e t I1 i s ready. With Data S e t s I and 11, t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s c a n ' b e made. There i s s t i l l no o u t p u t , however, because i t i s s t o r e d on a f i l e (FILE 2 ) .
5.4.5
P r e p a r a t i o n of Data S e t I11
A s t h e r e q u i r e d d a t a are r e a d from a f i l e (FILE 2 ) , Data S e t 111 o n l y re-
q u i r e s t h e v a l u e s of t h r e e e x t e r n a l s w i t c h e s with which t h e u s e r can c h o o s e what kind of d a t a he wants p r i n t e d and i n what d e t a i l . Data S e t I11 req u i r e s only one c a r d . I t s d a t a format i s shown i n T a b l e 5.17. For t h e a c t u a l v a l u e s o f t h e t h r e e s w i t c h e s , see S e c t i o n 5.3.10.
Table 5.17 Card s t r u c t u r e of Data S e t I11 Card No.

1
Name
LSW7, LSW8, LSW9
Format 314
F i g u r e 5.12 shows p a r t of t h e o u t p u t of SGMP 3a. Note t h a t b o t h t h e watert a b l e e l e v a t i o n s and t h e groundwater b a l a n c e a r e p r i n t e d f o r e a c h t i m e s t e p of one month and t h a t t h e v a l u e s a t t h e e x t e r n a l nodes a r e a l s o p r i n t e d .
5.4.6
P r e p a r a t i o n of Data S e t I V
To t r a n s f e r t h e d a t a t o computer c a r d s , one t a b l e , Table 5.18 i s p r e p a r e d .

It contains t h e h i s t o r i c a l w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n s a t t h e f i v e i n t e r n a l
nodes, and i s compiled from Table 5.5.
162
-d
aJ 1 C
.r(
u
C
o v
H
H
a l cn
u
P
! 4
rd
rd
O
W
E O
W
a
4
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8 U
vl
M
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Fr
&
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z
U
t
Q
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c
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L
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m 3
& O O
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c .
u)
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m w
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+
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U w
F
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h 5
a
w
I
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c
z
n
z
a
0
f.
0
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u
U
Q 7
= B
9
5
u U z
U J h
U J
m
wwwuuw www awwwww
c
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 000000000000000 Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z
+ w
U
S
w c
e
X
164
Table 5.18 Data of h i s t o r i c a l w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n s
No. of f i r s t accumulation l e v e l (month)

1
1
2 569.64 569.62 569.66 569.71 569.88 570.00 570. 16 570.33 570.57 570.72 570.59 569.28
3 570.38 570.16 570.09 570.02 570.06 570.12 570.23 570.40 570.45 570.42 570.34 570.21
4 570.78 570.49 570.32 570.26 570.52 570.63 570.99 571.17 571.65 571.88 571.77 571.43
5
573.00 572.48 572.22 572.26 572.37 572.69 573.04 573.41 573.83 574.25 573.86 573.54
2 3 4
5
6 7 8 9
10 11
12
571.58 571.30 571.10 571.03 571.08 571. I3 571.24 571.32 571.53 571.68 571.37 571.14
T a b l e 5.19 shows t h e i n p u t sequence and d a t a f o r m a t s of t h e d a t a c a r d s i n Data S e t I V .
Table 5 . 1 9 Card s t r u c t u r e of Data S e t I V
Card No.
Name
Format
I 2 3
BLNK, H I , HMINUS, HX, ASTRSK, H Y , PLUS, LSW9, LSWIO, LSWl I

MINOR, MAJOR, LIST
7A4,312 314
H(K,M), K = I , N N ,
M=I,MAJOR
8x ,9 F8.2
The d e t a i l s a r e : Card 1
: The s i g n s BLNK, H I , HMINUS, HX, ASTRSK, HY, and PLUS are a r b i t -
r a r i l y chosen; f o r a c t u a l v a l u e s f o r LSW9, LSWIO, and LSWII, s e e S e c t i o n 5.3. I O . Card 2

: The v a l u e s of MINOR, MAJOR, and LIST a r e punched on t h i s c a r d .
I f LSWIO i s e q u a l t o 1, Card 3
s k i p C a r d 2.
: The f i r s t 8 columns are r e s e r v e d f o r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n . The v a l u e s
of t h e f i r s t row of T a b l e 5.18, e x c e p t t h e one i n Column I ,
are
165
punched on t h i s c a r d . Each c a r d c o n t a i n s 9 v a l u e s . T o t a l number of c a r d s i s "19. I f LSWlO i s e q u a l t o 2 , s k i p Cards 3. Card 3 i s r e p e a t e d L I S T

X
MAJOR t i m e s . I n t h e second s e t of t h e s e c a r d s ,
t h e v a l u e s of t h e second row of T a b l e 5.18 a r e punched; i n t h e t h i r d s e t , t h e v a l u e s of t h e t h i r d , r o w , and s o on. F i g u r e 5 . 1 3 shows t h e form completed f o r Data S e t I V ; i t s v a l u e s have been w r i t t e n i n accordance w i t h t h e f o r m a t s g i v e n i n Table 5.19. When t h e c a r d s
are punched, Data S e t I V i s r e a d y .
F i g . 5. 13 Completed form f o r Data S e t I V
F i g u r e 5.14 shows p a r t of t h e o u t p u t of SGMP
jb,
i . e . a p l o t of t h e water-
t a b l e e l e v a t i o n s c a l c u l a t e d from Data S e t s I and 11. Note t h a t o n l y t h e w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n s of t h e i n t e r n a l nodes a r e p l o t t e d (LSW9=I), b e c a u s e a t h e y w e r e a l r e a d y p r i n t e d i n SGMP 3
166
COMPT(.)
570.84 578.61 57a.45 5711.43 576.61 570.72 578.92 571.13 571.52 571.76 571.58 57 1.32
MIST(+)
578,78 570,49 570*32 578.26 570,52 570163 578.99 571.17 571.65 571.68 571.71 571.45
NODE NO
L L E V A T I O N 8 ( H E T R E S ABOVE S E A L E V E L )
VS.
T I M E ( HONTH
) I SURFACE E L E V A T I O N
581.
COMPT(*l
572.98 572.41 572.00 571.91 572.27 572.49 572.91 573.38 674.22 574.76 574.45 573.98
HIST(+)
573.00 572,48 572.22 572,26 572,37 572.69 575.84 573.41 573.83 574.25 573.86 573.54
NODE NO
E L E V A T I O N S ( M E 1 R E S ABOVE S E A L E V E L ) VS.
T I H E ( MONTH
1 1 SURFACE E L E V A T I O N
583.
C A L C U L I T I O N OF O E V I A T I O N S BETHEEN CALCIJLATED AN0 H I S T O R I C A L WATERTABLE E L E V A T I O N S
THIS C A L C U L A T I O N IS BASED ON THE D E V I A T I O N S OVER ALL THt I N T E R N A L NODES AN0 TAKEN OVER 1 2 T I M E S T E P S I T O T A L NUMBER OF T I H E S T E P S I N THE E N T I R E C A L C U L A T I O N P E R I 0 0 IS 12
MEAN m -R,A6 STANDARD O E V I A T I O N m A.27 METER NETER
b F i g . 5.14 P a r t of t h e o u t p u t of SGMP 3
CALIBRATION AND PRODUCTION.RUNS
6.1
6.1.1
Ca 1 ib rat ion
General
Before t h e model can perform i t s t a s k of p r e d i c t i n g t h e , f u t u r e w a t e r t a b l e b e h a v i o u r , it must b e c a l i b r a t e d . T h i s means t h a t a check must be made t o s e e whether t h e model can c o r r e c t l y g e n e r a t e t h e p a s t b e h a v i o u r of t h e w a t e r t a b l e a s i t i s known from h i s t o r i c a l r e c o r d s . One s t a r t s t h e c a l i b r a t i o n p r o c e d u r e by s e l e c t i n g a p e r i o d f o r which h i s t o r i c a l r e c o r d s are a v a i l a b l e . The r e l e v a n t g e o l o g i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n and t h e h i s t o r i c a l d a t a are then f e d i n t o t h e computer, which c a l c u l a t e s a w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n f o r each n o d a l p o i n t . These v a l u e s are t h e n compared w i t h t h e w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n s a s t h e y are known from h i s t o r i c a l r e c o r d s . The comparison w i l l u s u a l l y r e v e a l a d i s c r e p a n c y between t h e two.
A s e r r o r s can o b v i o u s l y be made i n t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of g e o l o g i c a l information and as h i s t o r i c a l r e c o r d s may n o t b e wholly r e l i a b l e o r may b e incomplete, one i s p e r m i t t e d t o change t h e i n p u t p a r a m e t e r s t o a c e r t a i n e x t e n t . One must r e - e v a l u a t e t h e g e o l o g i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n a n d f o r t h e h i s t o r i c a l r e c o r d s , which w i l l y i e l d a new s e t of i n p u t d a t a f o r t h e model. A new run i s made w i t h t h i s new set of d a t a and new w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n s a r e c a l c u l a t e d . These may f i t t h e h i s t o r i c a l w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n s b e t t e r ( o r p o s s i b l y even worse) t h a n t h e o r i g i n a l s e t . T h i s p r o c e s s of t r i a l and e r r o r
i s r e p e a t e d u n t i l t h e c a l c u l a t e d v a l u e s s a t i s f a c t o r i l y match t h e h i s t o r i c a l
ones.
169
Depending on t h e d e s i r e d a c c u r a c y and t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s e x p e r i e n c e d w i t h s c a r c i t y of d a t a , some t e n t o twenty r u n s may b e needed t o o b t a i n a good
f i t . Goodness of f i t , of c o u r s e , i s a r e l a t i v e i d e a b u t , i n g e n e r a l , t h e
p e r m i s s i b l e d e v i a t i o n s between c a l c u l a t e d and h i s t o r i c a l w a t e r t a b l e s a r e some t e n s of c e n t i m e t r e s .
I
O b v i o u s l y , t h e l o n g e r t h e p e r i o d used f o r c a l i b r a t i o n , t h e b e t t e r t h e r e s u l t s w i l l be. T h i s i s p a r t i c u l a r l y s o f o r unconfined a q u i f e r s , which h a v e a l o n g n a t u r a l r e s p o n s e t i m e (Rushton and Redshaw 1979). A s long-term r e c o r d s of w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n s a r e seldom a v a i l a b l e , however, t h e model u s u a l l y h a s t o be c a l i b r a t e d w i t h d a t a c o v e r i n g o n l y a r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t p e r i o d , which, i f p o s s i b l e , s h o u l d be s o s e l e c t e d t h a t extremes of watert a b l e b e h a v i o u r have o c c u r r e d w i t h i n i t . The a b s o l u t e minimum p e r i o d , however, i s two f u l l y e a r s of d a t a , t h e f i r s t y e a r b e i n g used t o a d j u s t t h e i n p u t d a t a and t h e second y e a r s e r v i n g a s a check t o s e e whether t h e a d j u s t m e n t s were a d e q u a t e . I f n o t , t h e p r o c e s s i s r e p e a t e d . C a l i b r a t i o n i s t h e most d i f f i c u l t p a r t of groundwater modelling. It re-
q u i r e s g r e a t s k i l l and r e a l teamwork on t h e p a r t of a l l t h e p e o p l e inv o l v e d : t h e g e o l o g i s t who i s p r o v i d i n g d a t a on t r a n s m i s s i v i t i e s and s t o r a g e c o e f f i c i e n t s , t h e i r r i g a t i o n e n g i n e e r p r o v i d i n g d a t a on i r r i g a t i o n p r a c t i c e s and l o s s e s , t h e h y d r o l o g i s t p r o v i d i n g d a t a on w a t e r t a b l e b e h a v i o u r and w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n s , and t h e o t h e r s who are p r o v i d i n g d a t a on r a i n f a l l , e v a p o t r a n s p i r a t i o n , r u n o f f , and pumping r a t e s . A l l t h e s e d a t a must be b r o u g h t t o g e t h e r b e f o r e a c a l i b r a t i o n r u n c a n b e made. The b e s t way t o a c t d u r i n g c a l i b r a t i o n i s t o e v a l u a t e t h e r e s u l t s of a c a l i b r a t i o n r u n , p r o p o s e c e r t a i n a d j u s t m e n t s i n i n p u t p a r a m e t e r s , and d i s c u s s t h e s e w i t h t h e e x p e r t ( s ) i n q u e s t i o n . For f r u i t f u l c o o p e r a t i o n , e a c h e x p e r t should b e aware t h a t many of h i s f i g u r e s a r e mere e s t i m a t e s and
are t h u s l i a b l e t o e r r o r .
It i s s t r e s s e d t h a t e a c h e x p e r t p r o v i d i n g i n p u t p a r a m e t e r s should i n d i c a t e
t h e p o s s i b l e r a n g e of e r r o r s i n t h e v a l u e s h e i s p r o v i d i n g , p r e f e r a b l y b e f o r e t h e f i r s t c a l i b r a t i o n run i s made. To b e a b l e t o do t h i s , he must h a v e a sound judgement of t h e p a r a m e t e r s i n q u e s t i o n and must know t h e e x t e n t t o which t h e i r v a l u e s can b e v a r i e d o v e r t h e t o l e r a n c e t o which t h e y
a r e known.
170
6.1.2
Sources of e r r o r
E r r o r s i n i n p u t d a t a can stem from two c a t e g o r i e s of s o u r c e s :
i)
E r r o r s i n t h e p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s of t h e a q u i f e r : t y p e of a q u i f e r depth p ermeab i 1i t y storage coefficient/specific yield watertable elevation
ii)
E r r o r s i n t h e h y d r o l o g i c a l s t r e s s e x e r t e d on t h e a q u i f e r : precipitation seepage from o r d r a i n a g e t o r i v e r s l o s s e s i n t h e conveyance, d i s t r i b u t i o n , and a p p l i c a t i o n of i r r i g a t i o n water groundwater flow through f l o w - c o n t r o l l e d b o u n d a r i e s

171
tubewell abstraction c a p i l l a r y r i s e from a s h a l l o w w a t e r t a b l e evapotranspiration
A s t h i s l i s t shows, almost a l l i n p u t d a t a are s u b j e c t t o e r r o r . The devi-
a t i o n s between c a l c u l a t e d and h i s t o r i c a l w a t e r t a b l e s w i l l o f t e n b e t h e r e s u l t of a combination of e r r o r s . U n r a v e l l i n g t h e s o u r c e s of e r r o r can b e s t b e done by examining each a q u i f e r parameter a n d ' e a c h h y d r o l o g i c p a r a m e t e r s e p a r a t e l y . The most common e r r o r s w i l l b e d i s c u s s e d below. Of c o u r s e , e r r o r s c a n a l s o be made i n punching t h e d a t a o n t o computer c a r d s and, i t i s a d v i s a b l e t o f i r s t check whether any such e r r o r s have been made. One c a n do t h i s i n two ways: e i t h e r by comparing t h e punched d a t a w i t h t h e d a t a on t h e completed forms, o r by making a computer r u n and comparing t h e p r i n t e d d a t a w i t h t h e t a b l e s and l i s t s p r e p a r e d b e f o r e completing t h e forms
.
Trarsmissivity
F i g u r e 6.1 shows t h e e f f e c t of a wrong e s t i m a t e of t h e t r a n s m i s s i v i t y between two nodes. F o r t h i s and t h e f o l l o w i n g examples we used o u r hyp o t h e t i c a l area d e s c r i b e d i n Chapter 5. I t s w a t e r t a b l e - c o n t o u r map shows t h a t t h e groundwater f l o w i s from Nodal Area 1 t o Nodal Area 2 . It i s t h e r e f o r e o b v i o u s t h a t t h e t r a n s m i s s i v i t y a t t h e s i d e shared by t h e s e two
areas h a s b e e n a s s e s s e d t o o low. T h i s r e s u l t s i n w a t e r t a b l e s t h a t are t o o

h i g h i n Nodal Area 1 and t o o low i n Nodal Area 2 , which i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h i s k i n d of e r r o r . Because t h e t r a n s m i s s i v i t y T i s t h e a l g e b r a i c p r o d u c t of t h e s a t u r a t e d t h i c k n e s s D and t h e h y d r a u l i c c o n d u c t i v i t y K , t h e s o u r c e of t h e e r r o r could be e i t h e r i n D o r K o r i n b o t h .
Storage coefficient f o r specific yield)

F i g u r e 6 . 2 shows t h e e f f e c t of t o o h i g h an estimate of t h e s t o r a g e coeff i c i e n t i n a n o d a l area.
172
1 2 3
4
5
6 I 6
D
IQ
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 10
2m
21 22
23
2d 25 26
27
calculated measured
21 29 38 31 32 3s
3.
35 36
NOOE *O
SURFACE E L E V A I I O N
584.
N O D E '10 VS.
SURfAtE
MONTH
ELEVATlON
575.
E L E V A T I P N S I M E T R E S ABOVE S E A L E V E L )
lIME(
Fig. 6.1
Error in transmissivity
1
2 3
a
5
6
a
J 1d 11
12 13 14
15 1b
I7 19 19
2 1 1
'
21
22
23
24
25
26
2) 2a
- calculated
ZP
36
__-- measured
SI
32
33 Jl 35
31
NODE C 8 U
E L L V A l I O * I S l M E l R E S A B O V E S E A L E V C L I VS.
TINEI MONlk
570.
Fig. 6.2
Error in storage coefficient
I73
For p e r i o d i c f l u c t u a t i o n s i n the h i s t o r i c a l watertables,
this results in
a m p l i t u d e s i n t h e c a l c u l a t e d w a t e r t a b l e s t h a t are t o o small. F o r t o o low v a l u e s o f t h e s t o r a g e c o e f f i c i e n t , t h e a m p l i t u d e s are t o o l a r g e .
Watertable e l e v a t i o n
F i g u r e 6 . 3 shows t h e e f f e c t of a n e r r o r i n a n o d a l w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n .
li
12 11
14
24
25 26
27 21
29
Jm
11 12 11
34 35
- calculated __-- measured
36
Fig. 6.3
Error i n watertable elevation
I n t h e f i e l d , g r o u n d w a t e r l e v e l s a r e measured as a d e p t h t o t h e w a t e r t a b l e , b u t t h e model r e q u i r e s a b s o l u t e e l e v a t i o n s above a datum. T h i s means t h a t t h e e l e v a t i o n o f t h e r i m of t h e w e l l o r a r e f e r e n c e p o i n t i n t h e w e l l must b e known from a l e v e l l i n g s u r v e y . T h i s l e v e l l i n g i s sometimes a g r e a t s o u r c e o f e r r o r , e s p e c i a l l y when t h e l e v e l l i n g s u r v e y i s n o t p e r f o r m e d i n c l o s e d c i r c u i t s o r b a c k and f o r t h from a bench mark. Such m i s t a k e s may go u n n o t i c e d and t h e r e s u l t i n g e r r o r s c a n r a n g e from s e v e r a l metres t o some t e n s o f metres. B e c a u s e t h e i n i t i a l and c o n s e c u t i v e h i s t o r i c a l w a t e r t a b l e s
174
are a l l a f f e c t e d i n t h e same way, a r e s u l t as shown i n F i g u r e 6 . 3 c a n be

o b t a i n e d . Because t h e r e w a s a l e v e l l i n g e r r o r of + 3 m i n t h e e l e v a t i o n of t h e w e l l , t h e i n i t i a l w a t e r t a b l e and a l l c o n s e c u t i v e h i s t o r i c a l w a t e r t a b l e s
are 3 m t o o h i g h . C h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h i s t y p e o f e r r o r i s t h a t i n t h e
b e g i n n i n g of t h e c a l c u l a t i o n p e r i o d t h e d e v i a t i o n s between c a l c u l a t e d and h i s t o r i c a l w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n s i n c r e a s e s t e a d i l y and l a t e r on become more o r less c o n s t a n t . I n t h i s case, t h e d e v i a t i o n s s t a b i l i z e d a t 3 m d i f f e r e n c e .
PercoZation or abstraction
F i g u r e 6.4 shows t h e e f f e c t s of e r r o r s i n nodal n e t p e r c o l a t i o n a n d / o r abstraction.
6 7
4 9 IQ
?* .
\ ---_
-+.
LI
12 13 14 15 16 17
ld
19 20
(
% b .
21
23
24 25 24
21
22
r'
----
calculated measured
28
2Y
30 .I1
32
33
34
'.. - ..
f
33
36
F i g . 6.4
Error i n percolation o r abstraction
These e r r o r s are o f t e n s y s t e m a t i c . I f , f o r example, i r r i g a t i o n f i e l d l o s s e s have' been a s s e s s e d t o o h i g h , t h e w a t e r t a b l e s i n a l l areas where i r r i g a t i o n i s p r a c t i s e d w i l l be t o o h i g h . Another p o s s i b i l i t y i s t h a t n o t a l l compon e n t s i n f l u e n c e t h e w a t e r t a b l e c o n s t a n t l y . A s shown i n F i g u r e 6 . 4 , f o r
175
i n s t a n c e , t h e a b s t r a c t i o n w a s a s s e s s e d reasonably w e l l , but t h e p e r c o l a t i o n from p r e c i p i t a t i o n w a s e s t i m a t e d t o o h i g h . There w a s no p e r c o l a t i o n from r a i n f a l l i n t h e f i r s t t h r e e months, s o t h e c a l c u l a t e d w a t e r t a b l e s match t h e h i s t o r i c a l ones i n t h a t p e r i o d .
6.1.3
C a l i b r a t i o n procedure
A s d e v i a t i o n s between c a l c u l a t e d and h i s t o r i c a l w a t e r t a b l e s can be due
e i t h e r t o e r r o r s i n i n d i v i d u a l i n p u t parameters o r t o a combination of such e r r o r s , t h e problem one f a c e s i n changing i n p u t parameters i s where t o

s t a r t and what t o change.
The b e s t p l a c e t o s t a r t i s i n those n o d a l areas where t h e l a r g e s t devia t i o n s occur. T h i s i s advised f o r two r e a s o n s . F i r s t l y , i f i n p u t d a t a are changed i n t o o many nodal areas a t once, i t w i l l be d i f f i c u l t t o s e e what t h e i n d i v i d u a l e f f e c t s of t h e s e changes are. Secondly, d e v i a t i o n s i n a c e r t a i n nodal a r e a may w e l l be t h e r e s u l t of e r r o r s i n input d a t a of o t h e r n o d a l areas, whereas t h e i n p u t d a t a f o r t h e n o d a l area i t s e l f are good. F i g u r e 6.5 g i v e s an example.
6 9 1U
I1
12
13
14
15 16 I7
I8
za
10
21 22
23
24
25
26 27 28 29
ia SI
35
- calculated --__ measured
32
34 35
36
F i g . 6.5
I n f l u e n c e of one a r e a on a n o t h e r 176
F o r t h e nodal a r e a i t s e l f , t h e i n p u t d a t a a r e c o r r e c t , b u t t h e d e v i a t i o n s a r e caused by an e r r o r i n t h e s t o r a g e c o e f f i c i e n t i n i t s n e i g h b o u r i n g n o d a l a r e a s . When t h i s e r r o r i s c o r r e c t e d , t h e problem i n t h e n o d a l a r e a no l o n g e r e x i s t s . One must always b e on o n e ' s guard f o r e r r o r s of t h i s k i n d , and m u s t n e v e r f o r g e t t h a t changing an i n p u t parameter i n one n o d a l a r e a
w i l l have an e f f e c t , e i t h e r good o r b a d , i n o t h e r nodal a r e a s .

A s t o t h e q u e s t i o n of what t o change, t h e r e i s no cut-and-dried
answer; t h e
problem i s t o d e t e c t which i n p u t p a r a m e t e r ( s ) i s ( a r e ) c a u s i n g t h e d e v i a t i o n s . One b e g i n s by c o n s i d e r i n g t h e f o u r s o u r c e s of e r r o r : e r r o r s i n storage c o e f f i c i e n t (S) e r r o r s i n t r a n s m i s s i v i t y (K o r D ) e r r o r s i n p e r c o l a t i o n o r l a n d a b s t r a c t i o n (R o r P) e r r o r s i n w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n (WE)
By making a s e n s i t i v i t y a n a l y s i s of t h e f i r s t t h r e e c a t e g o r i e s , it may b e
p o s s i b l e t o d e t e c t t h e s o u r c e s of e r r o r . A t t h e v e r y l e a s t , a s e n s i t i v t Y a n a l y s i s w i l l r e v e a l t h a t a w a t e r t a b l e i s more s e n s i t i v e t o changes i n o n e k i n d of i n p u t parameter t h a n t o changes i n a n o t h e r . For example, from Figures 6 . 1 , 6.2, and 6 . 4 , i n which t h e v a l u e s of K ( o r D ) ,
S , and R ( o r P )
w e r e changed 100 p e r c e n t , i t can b e s e e n t h a t t h e w a t e r t a b l e reacts more

s h a r p l y t o changes i n n e t r e c h a r g e (R o r P) t h a n t o changes i n t h e geoh y d r o l o g i c a l p a r a m e t e r s ( K , D , and S ) . S i n c e t h i s i s t r u e f o r most'groundw a t e r b a s i n s , i t i s sometimes p o s s i b l e t o e s t a b l i s h whether changes i n t h e g e o h y d r o l o g i c a l p a r a m e t e r s a l o n e are s u f f i c i e n t t o reduce d e v i a t i o n s t o w i t h i n an a c c e p t a b l e r a n g e . To b e a b l e t o do t h i s , one must set u p p e r and lower l i m i t s f o r each of t h e s e p a r a m e t e r s . Suppose t h a t t h e r e are d e v i a t i o n s of more t h a n 3 m and s e n s i t i v i t y r u n s have i n d i c a t e d t h a t c h a n g i n g t h e geohydrological p a r a m e t e r s up t o t h e i r l i m i t s o n l y r e s u l t s i n c h a n g i n g t h e w a t e r t a b l e by 2 m, t h i s i s clear e v i d e n c e t h a t changes must a l s o be made i n t h e n e t p e r c o l a t i o n and a b s t r a c t i o n r a t e s o r w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n s , because t h e r e a r e o b v i o u s l y e r r o r s i n t h e s e d a t a .
L '
The n e x t s t e p i s t o examine t h e p a t t e r n of d e v i a t i o n , a s t h i s can h e l p i n d e t e r m i n i n g which of t h e i n p u t p a r a m e t e r s i s p r i m a r i l y c a u s i n g t h e d e v i a t i o n s . F i g u r e 6 . 6 o u t l i n e s a procedure t h a t c a n b e followed. possibilities. I t shows f i v e
177
'-i
DEVIATIONS
possibility 1 YES
1
TRY S possibility 3 possibility 2
possibility 4
possibility 5
F i g . 6.6 Procedure f o r d e t e r m i n i n g which i n p u t p a r a m e t e r ( s ) i s ( a r e ) causing t h e d e v i a t i o n
P o s s i b i l i t y 1 r e f e r s t o a s i t u a t i o n i n which t h e h i s t o r i c a l w a t e r t a b l e exh i b i t s p e r i o d i c f l u c t u a t i o n s and t h e d e v i a t i o n s keep changing i n s i g n from p o s i t i v e t o n e g a t i v e . The amplitude of t h e c a l c u l a t e d w a t e r t a b l e i s then c o n s t a n t l y g r e a t e r o r s m a l l e r t h a n t h a t of t h e h i s t o r i c a l w a t e r t a b l e . F i g u r e 6.2 gives an example. P o s s i b i l i t y 2 r e f e r s t o c a l c u l a t e d and h i s t o r i c a l w a t e r t a b l e s t h a t match f o r a c e r t a i n p e r i o d , and t h e n suddenly d e v i a t e . An example i s shown i n F i g u r e 6.7. I t i s a l s o p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e c a l c u l a t e d and h i s t o r i c a l water.
I78
t a b l e s f i r s t d e v i a t e f o r a c e r t a i n p e r i o d and t h e n suddenly match. I n b o t h c a s e s t h e r e are o b v i o u s l y e r r o r s i n t h e p e r c o l a t i o n a n d / o r a b s t r a c t i o n r a t e s . An e x p l a n a t i o n of t h e second could b e t h a t d u r i n g t h e i n i t i a l p e r i o d
i t was assumed t h a t no i r r i g a t i o n took p l a c e , whereas i n r e a l i t y i t d i d .
I 3
4
5 O 7 9 9
I0
I1
12 13 14
I5
16 17 18 19 24 21 22
23
24
25
20 27 28
29
3yI
31
32 33
34
----
calculated measured
3)
30
NOOE
N I
ELEVhlIUNS(*ETUES
ABUVf
SEALEVEL)
VS.
I I M E I WONTH
'5.
F i g . 6.7
E r r o r i n n e t deep p e r c o l a t i o n
P o s s i b i l i t y 3 r e f e r s t o d e v i a t i o n s t h a t do n o t n e c e s s a r i l y change i n s i g n , b u t , v a r y i n magnitude w i t h t i m e . T h i s i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g u r e 6 . 8 . Here t o o , t h e b e s t way t o s t a r t i s by changing t h e s t o r a g e c o e f f i c i e n t S. P o s s i b i l i t y 4 i s c l e a r ; when two n e i g b o u r i n g n o d a l a r e a s e x h i b i t t h e same tendency i n d e v i a t i o n s , b u t w i t h o p p o s i t e s i g n s , i t i s a d v i s a b l e t o change t h e t r a n s m i s s i v i t y a t t h e i r common boundary ( s e e a l s o F i g . 6 . 1 ) . I n a l l o t h e r c i r c u m s t a n c e s , changing t h e t r a n s m i s s i v i t y w i l l r e s u l t i n an i m provement i n one n o d a l a r e a and a worsening i n a n o t h e r . I t i s n o t a d v i s a b l e t r y i n g t o change t h e p e r c o l a t i o n o r a b s t r a c t i o n r a t e s i n o u t p u t s a s i n Figure 6.1, because e r r o r s i n n e t r e c h a r g e a r e o f t e n s y s t e m a t i c . T h i s means
t h a t i n both a r e a s t h e y a r e e i t h e r too b i g o r t o o s m a l l .
179
I
2 J
d
5 6 7 I
O
lil
LI
I2 IJ
14.
I5
16
17
18 IP 2% ?I 22
23
24 21
26 27 29 29
- calculated
----
34
31
measured
32
33
31
31 36
NflDt'Jls
L L F V I T I I I N S f ~ E l P E JL l 4 O V E $ L L L E V E L I , V $ .
TIME(
NOlllY
) I SVRFACF E L P V A l l f l N s
184.
Fig. 6.8
Error i n storage coefficient
P o s s i b i l i t y 5 i s t h e most d i f f i c u l t ; i t means t h a t none of t h e previous p o s s i b i l i t i e s were c l e a r l y r e l e v a n t , s o t h a t t h e cause of the d e v i a t i o n s must be sou,ght i n e r r o r s i n n e t p e r c o l a t i o n a n d / o r a b s t r a c t i o n rates o r e r r o r s i n w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n s . When t h e c a l c u l a t e d w a t e r t a b l e s are c o n s i s t e n t l y t o o h i g h o r t o o low over t h e whole area o r over a p a r t of i t ,
i t is advisable t o re-evaluate
the n e t perco'lation and/or a b s t r a c t i o n
r a t e s . When i s o l a t e d d e v i a t i o n s occur without any clear p a t t e r n , i t i s

advisable t o re-evaluate the l e v e l l i n g d a t a i n those areas.
The procedure o u t l i n e d above i s meant merely as a g u i d e l i n e ; one w i l l always f a c e d e v i a t i o n s o c c u r r i n g i n a p a t t e r n t h a t s u g g e s t s t h a t they a r e due t o e r r o r s i n one i n p u t parameter, whereas i n r e a l i t y they are due t o a combination of e r r o r s . The procedure merely s u g g e s t s which i n p u t parameter one might s t a r t w i t h . In F i g u r e 6 . 4 , f o r i n s t a n c e , t h e r e may a l s o b e an e r r o r i n t h e s t o r a g e c o e f f i c i e n t , b u t changing t h a t parameter i n an e a r l y s t a g e w i l l n o t improve t h e p i c t u r e .
180
6.2
6.2.1
Production runs
General
So f a r , a l l t h e work of c o l l e c t i n g t h e d a t a , p r e p a r i n g t h e d a t a s e t s , and c a l i b r a t i n g t h e model h a s o n l y allowed u s t o r e c o n s t r u c t t h e h i s t o r i c a l measured w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n s . But t h e t r u e purpose of a model i s t o i n d i c a t e what t h e long-term b e h a v i o u r of the w a t e r t a b l e would b e i f c e r t a i n p l a n s f o r t h e u s e of water were t o be implemented. A ''production run" i s t h e term used when t h e model s i m u l a t e s f u t u r e p e r c o l a t i o n and a b s t r a c t i o n a s i f a c e r t a i n development p l a n had a l r e a d y been implemented. Such p l a n s i n t r o d u c e e i t h e r p e r c o l a t i o n o r a b s t r a c t i o n ( o r b o t h ) t h a t i s d i f f e r e n t from t h e p e r c o l a t i o n o r a b s t r a c t i o n i n t h e p a s t . A new i r r i g a t i o n scheme, f o r example, i n t r o d u c e s a d d i t i o n a l p e r c o l a t i o n through i r r i g a t i o n l o s s e s and l e a c h i n g p r a c t i c e s , i f any; a new pumping s t a t i o n f o r d o m e s t i c
water s u p p l i e s o r f o r i r r i g a t i o n i n t r o d u c e s new, l o c a l l y h i g h , a b s t r a c t i o n
r a t e s . Amore complex s i t u a t i o n i s one i n which an a r e a i s a l r e a d y b e i n g

i r r i g a t e d w i t h water from a r i v e r b u t , s i n c e t h e r i v e r flows v a r y g r e a t l y , a p l a n i s b e i n g drawn up t o u s e groundwater a s an a u x i l i a r y s u p p l y . Such a p l a n n o t only means r a t e s of groundwater a b s t r a c t i o n t h a t w i l l v a r y i n accordance w i t h t h e r i v e r f l o w s b u t a l s o new, a d d i t i o n a l p e r c o l a t i o n . I n complex s i t u a t i o n s l i k e t h i s , t h e model e n a b l e s u s t o examine what consequences a c e r t a i n development p l a n w i l l have on t h e w a t e r t a b l e . But and t h i s i s t h e r e a l s t r e n g t h of t h e model
i t a l s o allows us t o study
t h e consequences of a number of a l t e r n a t i v e s w i t h i n t h e development p l a n . Possible alternatives are:

0
whether i r r i g a t i o n c a n a l s should b e l i n e d o r n o t which i r r i g a t i o n method should. b e a p p l i e d what i s t h e b e s t s i t e f o r a pumping s t a t i o n what a r e t h e e f f e c t s of changes i n t h e r e l a t i v e c o n t r i b u t i o n of s u r f a c e w a t e r and groundwater.
By s i m u l a t i n g such a l t e r n a t i v e s , one can p r o v i d e t h e decision-maker w i t h a sound b a s i s on which t o s e l e c t t h e most a p p r o p r i a t e p l a n . Each development p l a n o r a l t e r n a t i v e w i t h i n i t can b e " t r a n s l a t e d " i n t o new, a d d i t i o n a l p e r c o l a t i o n a n d f o r a b s t r a c t i o n r a t e s . These r a t e s , s u p e r 181
imposed on t h e a c t u a l r a t e s , can b e r e g a r d e d as t h e assumed, f u t u r e hydrol o g i c a l s t r e s s on t h e groundwater b a s i n . Together w i t h t h e v a l u e s of t h e h y d r o g e o l o g i c a l p a r a m e t e r s t h a t were found d u r i n g t h e c a l i b r a t i o n p r o c e s s , t h e y form t h e b a s e of t h e d a t a s e t s f o r p r o d u c t i o n r u n s . The p e r i o d over which t h e model c a n s i m u l a t e f u t u r e c o n d i t i o n s i n product i o n r u n s can be a s l o n g as one l i k e s , a l t h o u g h p e r i o d s of twenty t o f o r t y y e a r s w i l l s u f f i c e f o r most p u r p o s e s . The advantage of such long-term s i m u l a t i o n i s t h a t c y c l e s of d r y and w e t y e a r s can be s i m u l a t e d , w i t h groundwater mining i n dry y e a r s and groundwater r e c h a r g e i n w e t y e a r s (de R i d d e r and Erez 1 9 7 7 ) .
6.2.2
'
D a ta requirements
For p r o d u c t i o n r u n s , our model r e q u i r e s Data Sets I , 11, 111, a n d / o r I V . A b r i e f d e s c r i p t i o n of each f o l l o w s .
A s Data S e t I c o n s i s t s of d a t a on t h e geometry of t h e n o d a l network and on

t h e h y d r o g e o l o g i c a l p a r a m e t e r s of t h e a q u i f e r , i t i s t h e same f o r product i o n r u n s as i t w a s a f t e r c a l i b r a t i o n , e x c e p t f o r t h e parameters of t i m e d i s c r e t i z a t i o n . Because t h e p e r c o l a t i o n l o s s e s and a b s t r a c t i o n r a t e s w i l l u s u a l l y be p r e p a r e d on a monthly b a s i s (TMBAS i s month), LIST d e n o t e s t h e number of y e a r s one wants t o s i m u l a t e , MAJOR i s e q u a l t o 12 ( d e n o t i n g months), and M I N O R and DELTA are e q u a l t o 1. I f DELTA i s chosen as O . 5 ,
MINOR i s then equal t o 2.

A s Data S e t s 1 1 1 and I V c o n s i s t o n l y of e x t e r n a l s w i t c h e s f o r p r i n t i n g o r
p l o t t i n g t h e s i m u l a t i o n r e s u l t s , t h e y c o n s t i t u t e no problem. The only d i f f i c u l t i e s t h a t may arise are i n Data S e t 11, which c o n s i s t s of t h r e e t y p e s of d a t a : i) ii) d a t a on i n i t i a l w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n s d a t a on p e r c o l a t i o n and a b s t r a c t i o n rates
i i i ) d a t a on boundary c o n d i t i o n s i)
I n i t i a l w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n s must b e p r e s c r i b e d f o r a l l i n t e r n a l
To o b t a i n t h e s e
nodes and f o r any e x t e r n a l nodes t h a t are h e a d - c o n t r o l l e d .
e l e v a t i o n s , one needs t h e most r e c e n t l y r e c o r d e d d a t a . One m i g h t , f o r i n 182
s t a n c e , u s e l a s t y e a r s r e c o r d s of o b s e r v a t i o n w e l l s and c a l c u l a t e from them t h e mean w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n s . These v a l u e s , , t r a n s p o s e d t o a watert a b l e - c o n t o u r map and superimposed on t h e network, a l l o w t h e n o d a l watert a b l e e l e v a t i o n s t o b e determined. ;i) The f u t u r e assumed p e r c o l a t i o n and a b s t r a c t i o n d a t a i n e a c h n o d a l area
must be p r e s c r i b e d f o r each p r o d u c t i o n r u n . F i r s t t h e p e r c o l a t i o n a n d / o r a b s t r a c t i o n rates as t h e y w i l l be under t h e development p l a n are c a l c u l a t e d . These r a t e s are t h e n superimposed on t h e p r e s e n t r a t e s , which may c o n s i s t of p e r c o l a t i o n from r a i n f a l l , groundwater i n f l o w a n d / o r o u t f l o w o v e r t h e b o u n d a r i e s of t h e a r e a , a b s t r a c t i o n from w e l l s , e t c . The f i n a l r a t e s must b e p r e s c r i b e d f o r each month and f o r t h e number of y e a r s one wants t o s i m u l a t e . Depending on c o n d i t i o n s , t h e r e a r e two ways i n which one c a n proceed. F i r s t l y , it i s sometimes j u s t i f i e d t o assume t h a t &he p e r c o l a t i o n and a b s t r a c t i o n r a t e s w i l l n o t v a r y s u b s t a n t i a l l y from y e a r t o y e a r , a l t h o u g h t h e y may v a r y from month t o month w i t h i n each y e a r . I n such c i r c u m s t a n c e s one can p r e p a r e monthly n o d a l p e r c o l a t i o n and a b s t r a c t i o n r a t e s f o r one y e a r , based on an average of t h e f u t u r e p e r c o l a t i o n and a b s t r a c t i o n r a t e s . Using t h e e x t e r n a l s w i t c h LSW4 i n Data S e t I1 ( s e e Chap. 4 S e c t . 2 . 2 ) one c a n r e p e a t t h i s one-year d a t a b a s e f o r t h e number of y e a r s one wants t o s i m u l a t e . T h i s s a v e s c o n s i d e r a b l e time i n d a t a p r e p a r a t i o n . The r e s u l t s of such a run w i l l show how l o n g i t w i l l t a k e b e f o r e a new s t e a d y - s t a t e c o n d i t i o n i n t h e groundwater b a s i n i s reached and t o what e x t e n t t h e w a t e r t a b l e w i l l r i s e or f a l l . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , s i t u a t i o n s as simple a s t h a t d e s c r i b e d above w i l l n o t o f t e n b e encountered and i t w i l l be f a r more common t o meet s i t u a t i o n s i n which p e r c o l a t i o n from r a i n f a l l p l a y s a n i m p o r t a n t r o l e , w i t h r a i n f a l l v a r y i n g s t r o n g l y from one y e a r t o a n o t h e r , o r i n which a b s t r a c t i o n r a t e s from pumped w e l l s a r e expected t o v a r y due t o a non-regulated s u r f a c e water
s u p p l y . Here, one cannot b a s e p r o d u c t i o n runs on a v e r a g e c o n d i t i o n s , b u t must p r e p a r e monthly p e r c o l a t i o n and a b s t r a c t i o n rates f o r each s e p a r a t e y e a r . Because p r o d u c t i o n r u n s are p r o j e c t i o n s of p o s s i b l e f u t u r e c o n d i t i o n s , one must u s e p r o b a b i l i t y a n a l y s i s t o q u a n t i f y t h e v a r i a t i o n s of t h e d i f f e r e n t p e r c o l a t i o n a n d / o r a b s t r a c t i o n r a t e s from one y e a r t o a n o t h e r and
I83
d e r i v e s t o c h a s t i c sequences. F i g u r e 6 . 9 shows an example of s t o c h a s t i c a l l y determined a b s t r a c t i o n r a t e s , i n which y e a r s of "normal" s t r e a m flow a r e f o l l o w e d by d r y y e a r s when groundwater i s mined t o meet t h e water demand.
node
m
880
m 910
87 O
300
860
years
F i g . 6 . 9 W a t e r t a b l e b e h a v i o u r of two nodes f o r s t o c h a s t i c a l l y v a r y i n g a b s t r a c t i o n rates ( d e Ridder and Erez 1977)
For more i n f o r m a t i o n on t h i s s u b j e c t , t h e r e a d e r i s r e f e r r e d t o I L R I P u b l i c a t i o n 21: Optimum use of water resources (de Ridder and E r e z 1977).
iii) The i n t r o d u c t i o n of s u r f a c e water i r r i g a t i o n o r groundwater a b s t r a c t i o n may cause a change i n t h e boundary c o n d i t i o n s of t h e s t u d y a r e a . These f u t u r e boundary c o n d i t i o n s must b e p r e s c r i b e d . Zero-flow b o u n d a r i e s c o n s t i t u t e no problem b e c a u s e t h e y remain unchanged. Flow-controlled and head-
c o n t r o l l e d b o u n d a r i e s , however, r e q u i r e a p r o j e c t i o n of how they may change under f u t u r e c o n d i t i o n s . A way t o avoid t h i s problem i s t o extend t h e n e t work o v e r s u c h a l a r g e a r e a t h a t no matter what t h e f u t u r e c o n d i t i o n s a r e , t h e y w i l l n o t e x e r t any i n f l u e n c e on t h e b o u n d a r i e s of t h e a q u i f e r . If s u c h a n e x t e n s i o n i s i m p o s s i b l e , one must a n a l y s e t h e b e h a v i o u r of t h e boundary c o n d i t i o n s i n t h e p a s t and e x t r a p o l a t e t h i s i n t o t h e f u t u r e .
184
6.2.3
Sensitivity analysis
A s e n s i t i v i t y a n a l y s i s made d u r i n g p r o d u c t i o n r u n s can a n a l y s e the sen-
s i t i v i t y of an a q u i f e r t o changes i n t h e h y d r o l o g i c a l s t r e s s e x e r t e d on i t . Two s e p a r a t e o c c a s i o n s c a l l f o r a s e n s i t i v i t y a n a l y s i s . F i r s t l y , a new development p l a n i m p l i e s a whole s e t of assumptions: a new c r o p p i n g p a t t e r n , a new water d e l i v e r y system, improved i r r i g a t i o n e f f i c i e n c i e s , groundwater pumped by i n d i v i d u a l f a r m e r s o r s u p p l i e d from w e l l s owned by t h e s t a t e , and s o on. A l l t h e s e assumptions and c o r r e s p o n d i n g d a t a a r e drawn up from behind a d e s k ; t h e y are d e s i g n v a l u e s . In r e a l i t y , when t h e
p l a n i s implemented, t h e r e w i l l b e many d e v i a t i o n s : some f a r m e r s w i l l n o t pump groundwater o r w i l l pump i t f o r s h o r t e r o r l o n g e r p e r i o d s than w e r e envisaged; i r r i g a t i o n conveyance, d i s t r i b u t i o n , and f i e l d a p p l i c a t i o n e f f i c i e n c e s w i l l d i f f e r from t h e assumed o n e s , and s o on. Making a s e n s i t i v i t y a n a l y s i s of t h e major assumptions w i l l show how s e n s i t i v e t h e d i f f e r e n t p a r t s of t h e a q u i f e r are t o d e v i a t i o n s from t h e d e s i g n v a l u e s . I f such a s e n s i t i v i t y a n a l y s i s shows t h a t c e r t a i n of t h e assumptions are h i g h l y s e n s i t i v e i.e. t h a t d e v i a t i o n s i n them w i l l r e s u l t i n a p p r e c a b l y d i f f e r e n t
w a t e r t a b l e b e h a v i o u r , one must make a number of a l t e r n a t i v e r u n s , showing t h e i n f l u e n c e of t h e s e d e v i a t i o n s on t h e w a t e r t a b l e . The decision-maker

w i l l then b e forewarned and can perhaps r e - e v a l u a t e
t h e assumptions.
Secondly, once c e r t a i n v a l u e s have been a s s i g n e d t o t h e head- and flowc o n t r o l l e d b o u n d a r i e s , t h e s e boundary c o n d i t i o n s w i l l i n f l u e n c e t h e f u t u r e w a t e r t a b l e behaviour. I f t h e network does n o t e x t e n d f a r enough beyond t h e a r e a t h a t w i l l be a f f e c t e d by major changes i n t h e h y d r o l o g i c a l s t r e s s , t h e f u t u r e c o n d i t i o n s a t t h e b o u n d a r i e s can d i f f e r a p p r e c i a b l y from t h e p r e s e n t ones. A s e n s i t i v i t y a n a l y s i s of t h e boundary c o n d i t i o n s , performed by making production r u n s w i t h v a r y i n g w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n s a n d f o r f l o w s a c r o s s t h e b o u n d a r i e s , w i l l show t h e i n f l u e n c e of such v a r i a t i o n s on f u t u r e w a t e r t a b l e behaviour. I f an a p p r e c i a b l e i n f l u e n c e i s found, one must enlarge the area simulated.
185
6.2.4
Network m o d i f i c a t i o n
When a s e r i e s of p r o d u c t i o n r u n s have been made t o t e s t v a r i o u s a l t e r n a t i v e p l a n s , t h e i r r e s u l t s s h o u l d b e examined and n o n - f e a s i b l e plans should be d i s c a r d e d . A f t e r r a n k i n g t h e remaining p l a n s , i t may happen t h a t one wants t o make a more a c c u r a t e s t u d y of one o r two of t h e " b e s t " a l t e r n a t i v e s . To do s o , one may need a d i f f e r e n t , d e n s e r , n o d a l network than t h a t used i n t h e e a r l i e r runs. T h i s w i l l b e s o , f o r i n s t a n c e , when one needs more a c c u r a t e v a l u e s of w a t e r t a b l e e l e v a t i o n s i n a r e a s where f u t u r e a b s t r a c t i o n r a t e s w i l l be h i g h and where, c o n s e q u e n t l y , h y d r a u l i c g r a d i e n t s w i l l be s t e e p . The mesh s i z e of t h e network i n such a r e a s should then be reduced accordingly. The d a t a on t h e geometry of t h e new network must b e prepared and t h e d a t a on i t s h y d r o g e o l o g i c a l p a r a m e t e r s d e r i v e d by i n t e r p o l a t i o n from t h e ones found a f t e r c a l i b r a t i o n .
186
APPENDIX 1 L I S T I N G OF SOURCE PROGRAMS
Source programs l i s t i n g s are given t o i l l u s t r a t e where t o make any changes demanded by t h e u s e r ' s n o d a l network o r h i s computer system. Copies of t h e s o u r c e programs i n t h e form of a complete set of punched c a r d s can b e o r d e r e d from I L R I ; t h e only c o s t s i n v o l v e d are t h o s e of copying the programs and of m a i ing t h e c a r d s . A l l dimension s t a t e m e n t s i n t h e s e copies r e f e r t o a network of 71 n o d a l a r e a s and 39 boundary c o n d i t i o n s .
I87
40
47 10
42
46 3
4
44 12
17
39
45
13
15
I88
41 11
54
55
53
52
49
36
37
48
16
3s
189
18 43
5
38
6
7
8
9 19
26 50
33
51
34
21 22 23 24 25
31
32 27
190
28
14
26
29
30
191
C GROllNDWATERMODEL/PART2
P
I C A L C U L A T I O N OF GROUNDWATER FLOW(GAUSS/SEIDEL)
38
ie
40
39
41 42
1 2
32
4
31
3 5
192
7 28
35 9 10
13
30 44
33
34 14
193
16
17
19
20
21 22
23 24
25
37
29
27
36
26
70
8U
98
F O R H A T ( / / 2 6 H D E L 0 I S T O 0 SMALL AT T I M E , F 8 # 4 / / ) IF(ITRNO.LT.50) GO T O 2R WRITECIPR, 1 9 ) 1 FoRMAT(//6GlX,37H R E L A X A T I O N F A I L S TO CONVERGE A T TIHEfF8e4) DO 2 5 K 8 1 , N t l IF(H(K)eGE.OL(K),ANDeH(K),LTIUL(KI) GO T O 25 I F ( A R S ( F L W C O N ( K ) ) * G T s A B S ( R E C h ( K ) ) ) Go TO 21 TDRECMDA~S(RECH(K))*DE~~ C u TO 22 T[)REcHMABS (FLWCDN ( K I 1 +OELQ IF(H(KI,LT,OL(K)) GO T O 23 IF(K,LE,NCONP) GO T O 23 DRECH ( K ) MDRECH ( K ) r T D R E C H GO T O 2 4 DRECH(K1 =DRECH ( K ) + T D R E C H Lh 8 1 CONTINUE I F ( I T R N U s G E . S 0 , 0 R , S U ~ I T R s G E ~ 5 0 ) GO T O 37 IF(LM,EU.l) SUBITR~SUDIfR+l I F ( L M r E O e l ) G f l TO l l J IF(ITOET.EQ,2) CO TO 9 DO 26 K W l f N N I F (K,GT.NSCONF) GO TO 27 IF (HCONF ( K I .GT OSL ( K I 1 WRITE ( I P R , 2 9 ) K, T F O R N A T ( / / 3 9 H WATER T A B L E I N C O N F I N I N G LAYER A T N O O E ~ I 3 i 3 l H I S ABOV I E SURFACE L E V E L AT T I H E f F 8 . 4 ) IF(K,GT,NCONF) G O f O 26 I F ( H ( K 1 . L T , ( R L ( K l + T H I D ( K I ) I W R I T E ( I P R f 3 6 1 K,T FORHAT (//37H P I E Z O M E T R I C L E V E L I N A Q U I F E R AT N O D E f I 3 f 2 6 H I S BELOW lTOPLAYER AT T I M E t F 8 * 4 ) CONTINUE WRITE(IDSK2) (RECH(K)fTOTALn(K),S(K) , F L W C O Y ( K ) , O R E C H ( K I , K ~ l , N N ) wRITE(IOSK2) ( H ( K ) , K ~ l ~ T N N ) ~ T , I T R ~ O ~ O E L T A , S U B I T R I F [ N S C O N F , G T ~ B ) w R I T E ( I O S K 2 ) (HCONC(K) , Q S E E P ( K I , S C ( ~ ) , K ~ l ~ N S C O N F l C O N 1 INIJE CU N T I NU E CONTINUE END
194
14
1
44
43
42 39 47 27 28 2
GRaUNO~ATERHODEL/PART3A I PRENTING OF RESULTS IIITEGER TNN, S U B I T R D I M E N S I O N H ( T N N ) t S L ( NN) ,HCOkF( N N l , T I T L E ( 4 0 ) t T Y B A S ( 2 ) D I M E N S I O N RECMt N N I , FLWCON ( N f l l , TOTALO C N N I 1s [ NN) I OSEEP ( NN) D I M E N S I O N SC ( NN) ORECH ( NM) T O T R E ( NN) TOTFC ( N N I p T O T S O [ NN) D I M E N S I O N T O T S ( N I I I , T O T O S ( NN) t TOTSC ( NN) TOTDQ ( NN) IRO.8 IPRt5 IDSK202 REWIND I O S K 2 READ(IDSK2) LIST,MAJUR,MIt~OR,DELTA,T,NN,TNN,LSWl READ( I D S K 2 ) ( H ( K ) K m l ,TIIN), NSCONF, ( S L ( K ) , K m l , N N I ,NCONF, T I T L E , T M B A S IF(NSCONFIGT,@) R E A D ( I D S K ~ I (HCONF(K1 ,K=l,NSCUNF) READ(IRD,lI) LSW7,LSw8,LSWg FORMAT ( 3 1 4 ) IF(LSW9.EQ.l) WTN IF(LSWQ.EO.21 NT=TNN NEXTNSTNN-NN N PH m NN c IjC O N F NNCmNCONFrNSCONF WRITE ( I P R , 1) FORMAT ( 9 H S O L U T I O N / / / / ) WRITE(IPR,441 T I T L E FORM A f ( 2 1H GROUND W AT ER MO DEL FOR, 2 B A 4 1 2 0 A 4 / / ) P R I 4 3 1 NN NE X T N N SC ONF, NN C NPH NR 1TE ( I FORHAT(28H rJUHRER OF I N T E R N A L NODES I S , I 4 / 2 B H NUMBER OF EXTERNAL N IODES I S , 1 4 / / / 3 8 Y tlUMBER OF SEHICONFINEO NODAL AREAS 1 3 , 1 4 / 3 8 H NUMB 2ER OF CONFItJED IJODAL AREAS L S , I 4 / 3 8 H NUMBER OF UNCOhFINED NODA 3L AREAS 1S,I4/1 I F (LSW 1 ,EO, 1) WRITE ( I P R , 4 2 ) I F ( L S W I .Eu12] WRITE(IPR,39) 1 METRE/34H U N I T AREA I 1,WBB F O R f l A T ( / / 3 0 } i U N I T LENGTH I l,Cl0@ SO,METRES/34H LJNIT VOLUME t 1 1 8 8 0 , 0 R @ CUqHETRESI F O R M A T ( / / 2 2 H U N I T LENGTH I 1 METHE/25H U N I T AREA ? 1 SQ,HETRE/25 1 H U N I T VOLIJME 8 1 CU,HETRE) WRITE ( I P R , 4 7 1 TYBAS FORMAT(//JGiH U N I T OF T I M E FOR DELTA 4ND BOUNDARY C O N D I T I O N S I S r 2 A 4
11
dRITE(IPR,27) F O R M A T ( / / / P B H VALUES OF EXTERNAL SWITCHES/) rJR I TE ( I PR, 28 1 LSW7, LSIJB LSW 9 FORMAT(lAX,7HLSYI ,I2/1BX,7HLSw8 ,12/lnX,7HLSW9 0 rI2) WRITE ( I P R , 2 ) FORMAT ( / / / / 3 1 H I N I T I A L WATER L E V E L E L E V A T I O N S / ) WRITE ( 1 P R , 3 ) T fORHAT(//9H = ,FlA*4//1 OD 4 K ~ ~ , N T I F (K,LE,NSCONF) WHITE ( I P R , 4 1 ) K,H ( K ) ,HCONF(KI I F ( k ,GT.NSCOtJF,AND.K,LE, NCONFI WRITE ( I P R , 4 0 ) K t H ( K I I F (K,GT,NCONF) WRITE ( I P R , 4 5 ) K, W ( K I FORtlAT(9M NODE NO,,I4,SX,17HHZERO SEMICONF 8 ,F8,4,5X,5HH 1) CONFINED rP8.4) FORMAT(9H NODE NO,,I4,SX,17HHZEHO UNCONF ,F8,4) FORHAT(9H NODE NOI,I4,5X,17HH2ERO CUNTINUE 00 90 L m 1 , L I S T IF(LSW8.NE.31 GO TO 6 D O 5 KO1,NN TOTRECK) a f l . @ T O T S D (K 1 88 0 T o T s ( K 1 gB.8
41 40 45 4
fF8.4
195
llil
196
11
12 13
DO 38 K a l f N T I F (KeLE.NSCONF) WRITE ( I P R , 3 7 ) K, H ( K I ,HCONF ( K I I F (KsGT.NSCONFsANDsK *L,EotJCONF) WRITE ( I P R 1 3 6 ) K , H ( K I TE ( I P R , 35) K H (K 1 I F ( K e C T NCO HF ] W R I FORMAT(9H NODE rJO,,I4,JX,13HH SEMICONF ,FBe4,JX,SHH1 ,F8.4) CONFINED ,Fee41 FORMAT(9H NODE N O e , I 4 , S X , l 3 H H UNCONF 0 tF8.4) FORMAT(9H NODE NO,,I4,SX,l3HH CONTINUE IF(LSW8.NEe1) GO T O 7f4 WRITE(IPR,161 F U W H 4 T ( / / 2 4 t i WATERBALANCE COMPONENTS) NRITE(IPR,171 F O R f l A T ( / / ( S H NOOE,4X,8HRECHARGE,4X, 17HCMANGE I N STORAGEtdX, 12HSEEP 1AGE FLOW,4X117HCHANGE I N STORAG,4X,21HTOTAL SUBSURFACE FLOW,4X,9H 2PUMP FLOW,4X,13HDRAINAGE F L O W / 2 4 X , l l H I N TOPLAYER,27X,lBHIN AQUIFER 3/30X,JSH(ALL COMPONENTS AR CALCULATED FOR THE LAST T I M E S T E P ) / ) ) DUM.@. B
37
38
35
38 15
16
17
19 18
26 WKITE ( I P R , 201) F O P H A T ( / / 4 U H WATERBALANCE COMPONENTS FOR WHOLE B A S I N / )
34 22 23
1F(LSW7,NEe2) GO T O 2 2 DO 3 4 N S l , N T IF(K.LE.NSCONF) WRITE ( I P R , 3 7 ) K , H ( K ) ,HCONF ( P I I F (K .CT.NSCONF,AND .LE,NCOIIPJ WRITE ( I P R , 36) K H ( K I I F (KaGT,NCONF) WRITE ( I P R , 3 5 ) K,HCKI CONTINUE I F ( L S W 8 , ~ l E s 2 1 GO TO 80 WRITE(IPR,lGI WHITE (IPR, 2 3 1 M I N O R F O R M A T ( / / ( 5 H ND@E14X,BHRECMARGE,4X, 17HCHANGE I N STORAGE,4X, 12HSEEP 1AGE fLOW14X,l7HCHAMGE I t 4 STORAGE,4%,21HTOTAL SUBSURFACE FLOW,4X,QH
197
198
14 35 29
31
32 34 35 3ld
70
a0
2G 3
199
6
7
10 28
11
12
13
15
36
16
17
18
19
20
200
21
22
27
23
24
38 37
41
39
40
25
90
20 1
40
1
2 47
FORHAT ( 2 6 A 4 j 2 0 A 4 ) READ ( I R D , 11 NX ,NY ,NSCONFtUCONF, NEXTII FORMAT(SI4) RE AU ( I R D , 2 ) SLC ,BLC, S l a , CONOuC FORHAT(2F4,8,F7,S,F8.4) READ(IRDp47) C O f R Y , C O R B Y , C O R H X , C O L ~ X , C O N D T B , C ~ ~ D ~ B , C O N ~ R B , C O N D L ~ FORHAT (8F5.21 NN 8N X I N Y 1NN t NFJ + N E X T N Nfl=t.1N+l NCOtjF SN C 0NF +NS CUNF NPHrNN-NCONF NNC 8 NCO U F N S C O N F N1aNYm2 N3*NN+NX Y48NN+NX+1 N 5 * NN N X + t4 Y READCIRDr46) T M B A S , D r T I M , T , S C A L E , L S ~ ~
46
FORHAT(2A4,2F4,l,F8,B,I4)
3
4 49 5
9
48
1s
7
8
10 44 12
17
REA@ ( I R D , 3 ) DELTA, M I t + O R , M A J O H , L I S T FORMAT (F4*2,314) READ CIRO,4)ERWOR,COEFF4 FORHAT ( 2 F 8 . 2 ) R E A D ( I R O , 4 9 ) LSU2,DELQ FORMAT (14, F4.1) O0 5 K u l , " NSIDE(KJ84 S L ( K I CSLC D o 9 KS1,TNN BL (KI 'BLC TFCLSW2,EQ121 GO TO 7 READ[IRD,48) ULCtOLC FORMAT (2F4.01 DO 1 5 K = l , N N UL (KI UULC OL ( K ~IO L C CO TO i a DO 8 K o l , " UL ( K I E S L ( K I OL (K).BL (I() HRITE(XPR,44) TITLE FORMAT ( 2 1 H GROlJNDW4TERMOOEL F O R 1 2 0 A 4 / 2 0 A 4 / / J WRITE ( I P R , 12) Ntqr NEXTfI,NSCONF, NNC, NPH FORHAT(28W NUIIE)ER @F I N T E R N A L NODES I S , I 4 / 2 8 H NUMBER D f EXTERNAL N IODES I S , f 4 / / / 3 8 W tcUMBER OF SEb!ICONFINEO NODAL AREAS I S , I 4 / 3 8 H NUMB OER OF CONFINED tlL1DAL AREAS 1 3 , 1 4 / 3 8 H NUMBER OF UNCONFINED NRDA 3L AREAS ISt14/) IF(LShlqEQ.1) WRITE(IPR~l7I I F ( L ~ W I . E Q D ~ IW R I T E t X P R , 3 9 ) F O R H A T ( / / 3 0 H U N I T LENGTH t 1 N E T R E / 3 4 H U N I T AREA t 1,BAQ
202
39
45 13
41 11
58
59 63
60
6 42
61
203
'i
62
36
37
16
35
18
38
52
54
55
56 57
19
204
20 50
33
53
43
21 22 23 24 25
31
32 27 28 14
26
29
30
205
9
18
46
47 48 49
30
32
4
31
3
S
206
28
39 8
35
TH
13
33
14
41
42
40
13
20 7
36
45
25 26 7w 6B
90
20 8
APPENDIX 2
DATA FORMATS
A computer c a r d c o n t a i n s 80 columns i n which i n p u t d a t a can b e punched. To
e n s u r e t h a t t h e punched d a t a a r e r e a d c o r r e c t l y by t h e computer, c e r t a i n s p e c i f i c a t i o n s must be p r e s c r i b e d . These s p e c i f i c a t i o n s i n d i c a t e how many columns are a l l o c a t e d t o e a c h v a r i a b l e and what k i n d of d a t a c a n be e x p e c t e d . T h i s i n f o r m a t i o n i s provided by a FOT'AT s t a t e m e n t . W e have used t h r e e t y p e s of F O R M A T s t a t e m e n t s i n o u r programs: I , F , and A formats.
I.
I f o r m a t , i n t h e form Iw. I s p e c i f i e s t h a t t h e v a l u e i s a d e c i m a l
i n t e g e r v a l u e (whole number) ; w s p e c i f i e s t h e f i e l d l e n g t h (number of columns) i n which t h e v a l u e can b e punched. The v a l u e i s punched as f a r r i g h t as p o s s i b l e i n t h e a l l o t e d group of .columns; unused s p a c e i s l e f t b l a n k . The u s e of a p l u s s i g n i s o p t i o n a l ; i f no p l u s s i g n i s punched, t h e v a l u e i s t a k e n t o be p o s i t i v e . Blanks a f t e r t h e l a s t punched d i g i t i n e a c h f i e l d a r e i n t e r p r e t e d as z e r o s . Decimal p o i n t s s h o u l d n o t be punched. Examples of I f o r m a t s are shown below.
Format
-
External value
Card columns
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 I3 I4 I5 I7
I5
Value s t o r e d i n computer memory
2 84 -284 174 29.4
2 8 4 - 2 8 4 1 7 4 2 9 . 4
1
+284 -284
+ I 74
n o t permitted
IO
+ IO
209
2.
F format, i n t h e form F w . ~ . F s p e c i f i e s t h a t t h e v a l u e h a s a f r a c t i o n a l
p a r t ; w s p e c i f i e s t h e f i e l d l e n g t h i n which t h e v a l u e can be punched; d i n d i c a t e s t h e number of columns a l l o c a t e d a f t e r t h e decimal p o i n t . With an

F f o r m a t no decimal p o i n t i s punched because d p r e s c r i b e s where t h e decimal
p o i n t i s placed when such a v a l u e i s s t o r e d i n t h e computer memory. I f t h e d e c i m a l p o i n t i s punched, i t o v e r r i d e s d . A s w i t h t h e I f o r m a t , t h e use of
a p l u s s i g n i s o p t i o n a l , l e a d i n g b l a n k s are i g n o r e d , and b l a n k s a f t e r t h e
l a s t d i g i t are i n t e r p r e t e d as z e r o s . Examples of F f o r m a t s a r e shown below.
Format External value Card columns 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 2 3 5 4 7 2 Value s t o r e d i n computer memory +2.35472
F8.5 F5.2 F8.3 F6.3
2.35472
-0.78
24.0
- 7 8
2 4 4 . 7 5
-0.78
+24.000 +4.750
4.75
3.
A format i n t h e form
&.
A s p e c i f i e s t h a t t h e v a l u e c o n t a i n s alpha-
numerics ( b e s i d e s d i g i t s , a l s o c h a r a c t e r s A-Z);
t h i s format i s used t o
p r i n t headings and e x p l a n a t i o n s a l o n g w i t h o u t p u t d a t a ;
w specifies the
f i e l d l e n g t h i n which t h e v a l u e can be punched. Examples of A formats are shown below.
Format
External value
Card columns 1 2 3 4
Value s t o r e d i n computer memory
A2
A4
A4
cm
c m
c m d a t a
cm cm
data
cm
data
I n g e n e r a l , more v a l u e s t h a n j u s t one w i l l be punched on a c a r d . Data are e n t e r e d i n t o t h e computer memory by t h e e x e c u t i o n of a READ s t a t e m e n t i n t h e s o u r c e program. T h i s s t a t e m e n t l i s t s t h e names of t h e v a r i a b l e s f o r which c e r t a i n v a l u e s are t o b e read from a c a r d . A r e a d s t a t e m e n t can a l s o r e a d t h e v a l u e s of an a r r a y , which i s a c o l l e c t i o n of v a r i a b l e s of one s p e c i f i c type. Values must be punched on t h e c a r d i n t h e same sequence as t h e v a r i a b l e names are l i s t e d i n t h e READ s t a t e m e n t . The computer then 210
f o l l o w s a scanning p r o c e s s : t h e f i r s t v a l u e on t h e c a r d c o r r e s p o n d s w i t h t h e f i r s t v a r i a b l e name, t h e second v a l u e with t h e second v a r i a b l e name, and s o on, f o r as many v a r i a b l e names as t h e r e are. The scanning proceeds from l e f t t o r i g h t and b e g i n s w i t h t h e f i r s t (most l e f t ) d a t a v a l u e on t h e card. The e x e c u t i o n of a new READ s t a t e m e n t always i n i t i a t e s t h e r e a d i n g of a new c a r d . I f more v a r i a b l e names have t h e same f o r m a t , one can p l a c e a r e p e t i t i v e number ( m u l t i p l i e r d i g i t ) b e f o r e t h e a c t u a l format. So, 514 means t h a t f i v e succeeding v a r i a b l e names have t h e same format: 14. This i s v a l i d f o r a l l t h r e e types of f o r m a t s . Two o t h e r s i g n s w i l l be encountered i n t h e format s t a t e m e n t s . The f i r s t i s the sign
1; it
i n d i c a t e s t h a t more t h a n 80 columns have been a l l o c a t e d t o
punch t h e n e c e s s a r y i n f o r m a t i o n and t h a t t h e remaining i n f o r m a t i o n can b e found on t h e f o l l o w i n g c a r d . I f 80 columns o r l e s s a r e u s e d , t h e f o l l o w i n g c a r d must be a blank. The second s i g n i s t h e c h a r a c t e r x preceded by a d i g i t ; i t means t h a t i n c e r t a i n columns no information i s t o be e x p e c t e d ; f o r example, 8x i n a format s t a t e m e n t w i l l s k i p t h e r e a d i n g of 8 columns.
Examples
Card 6 of Data S e t I (Chap. 4 S e c t . 2.1) i n i t i a t e s t h e r e a d i n g of a new c a r d i n t h e c a r d deck; f o u r v a l u e s must be punched on t h a t c a r d , c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e v a r i a b l e names of DELTA, M I N O R , MAJOR, and LIST. I f DELTA =
0 . 5 0 , MINOR = 4 , MAJOR = 3, LIST = 2 , and t h e corresponding format i s F4.2,

314, t h e v a l u e f o r DELTA must b e punched according t o format F4.2 and t h e v a l u e s of M I N O R , MAJOR and LIST according t o format 14. The punched c a r d i s t h e n as f o l l o w s :
21 I
ZIZ
APPENDIX 3 SEPARATION OF THE COMPONENTS OF THE NET RECHARGE
I n the standard groundwater model package, the n e t recharge i s d i v i d e d i n t o two c a t e g o r i e s : e x t e r n a l flows measured o r c a l c u l a t e d a s a d e p t h p e r time and e x t e r n a l flows measured o r c a l c u l a t e d as a volume p e r t i m e . To each category, w e have a l l o c a t e d one v a r i a b l e : RECH(K) t o t h e f i r s t and FLWCON(K) t o t h e second. The v a l u e s o f t h e s e v a r i a b l e s r e p r e s e n t t h e a l g e b r a i c sum of
a number of e x t e r n a l flows, which i s c a l c u l a t e d manually and e n t e r e d i n t h e

computer. T h i s procedure i s followed t o keep t h e c a l c u l a t i o n program's memory requirements w i t h i n c e r t a i n l i m i t s and o f t h e same o r d e r of magnitude as those of t h e o t h e r programs. I n c a l i b r a t i n g t h e model o r i n making production r u n s , i t may happen t h a t one wants t o change t h e v a l u e s of one o r more of t h e e x t e r n a l flow components. For example, i n c e r t a i n n o d a l a r e a s one may wish t o change t h e a b s t r a c t i o n rates of pumped w e l l s by 20 per c e n t ; one cannot t h e n simply change t h e lumped v a r i a b l e FLWCON(K) by 20 p e r c e n t . A s e x p l a i n e d i n Chap.
6 , t h e procedure t o b e followed t o o b t a i n t h e new n o d a l FLWCON(K) v a l u e s i s

t o c a l c u l a t e by hand t h e new a b s t r a c t i o n r a t e s of t h e nodal areas i n q u e s t i o n and add t o them t h e e x t e r n a l flows t h a t have remained unchanged. These t e d i o u s hand c a l c u l a t i o n s can b e avoided by l e t t i n g t h e computer do t h e job. To do so, one a l l o c a t e s s e p a r a t e v a r i a b l e s t o each of t h e e x t e r n a l flows and makes t h e f o l l o w i n g a d j u s t m e n t s i n SGMF'2 o r OPR02, depending on which program package one i s u s i n g : In t h e dimension s t a t e m e n t s , add t h e names of t h e new v a r i a b l e s ;
I n t h e READ s t a t e m e n t s , add t h e r e a d i n g of t h e s e new v a r i a b l e s and remove from t h e READ s t a t e m e n t s t h e r e a d i n g of RECH(K) and FLWCON(K). A f t e r t h e new READ s t a t e m e n t s , add two s t a t e m e n t s i n which t h e new v a r i a b l e s a r e lumped t o g e t h e r i n e i t h e r RECH(K) o r FLWCON(K) o r i n b o t h . T h i s i s done t o a v o i d having t o make more a d j u s t m e n t s t h a n would o t h e r w i s e be n e c e s s a r y . Because t h e boundary c o n d i t i o n s can be r e a d on t h r e e d i f f e r e n t t i m e l e v e l s depending on t h e v a l u e of LSW3, t h e s e a d j u s t m e n t s must b e made t h r e e t i m e s . To i l l u s t r a t e t h e a d j u s t m e n t s , l e t u s assume a model s t u d y i n which t h e f o l l o w i n g e x t e r n a l flows o c c u r : r e c h a r g e by r a i n f a l l p e r c o l a t i o n of i r r i g a t i o n water from t h e f i e l d p e r c o l a t i o n of i r r i g a t i o n water from t h e main and branch c a n a l s a b s t r a c t i o n s by w e l l s s u b s u r f a c e flow a c r o s s f l o w - c o n t r o l l e d b o u n d a r i e s . The d a t a of t h e f i r s t two e x t e r n a l f l o w s , which are a v a i l a b l e a s a d e p t h p e r t i m e , a r e d e n o t e d a r b i t r a r i l y as R I (K) and R2(K)
r e s p e c t i v e l y . The
d a t a of t h e o t h e r t h r e e e x t e r n a l f l o w s , which are a v a i l a b l e a s a volume p e r
t i m e , are d e n o t e d a r b i t r a r i l y as P I ( K ) , P2(K), and P3(K) r e s p e c t i v e l y .

These s e p a r a t e v a r i a b l e s must b e added t o t h e l i s t i n g of SGMP2 o r OPR02, n a s t e r i s k means t h a t a new c a r d must be p a r t of which i s p r e s e n t e d below. A added and a minus s i g n means t h a t an e x i s t i n g c a r d must be removed; a broken l i n e i n d i c a t e s t h a t a jump has been made i n t h e l i s t i n g ( s e e a l s o Appendix I ) .
C GROUNDWATElZMODEL/PART2 : CALCULATION O F GROUNDWATER FLOW(GAUSS/SEIDEL) INTEGER TNN ,SUBITR REAL IMP

DIMENSION NREL(NN,7) ,NSIDE(NN) ,AREA(") ,TITLE(40) ,TMBAS(2)
DIMENSION H(TNN) ,HO(")
,HCONF(NN) ,HOCONF (NN) ,DRECH(NN)
DIMENSION RECH(NN) ,FLWCON(NN) ,TOTALQ(NN) ,S(NN) ,QSEEP (NN)

DIMENSION CONDU(NN,7) ,PCONF(NN) ,SC(") DIMENSION BL(TNN) ,UL(NN) ,OL(") ,ASC(NN) ,AS(")
,THID(NN) ,SL(NN)
DIMENSION R I (NN) ,R2 (NN) ,P 1 (NN) ,P2 (NN) ,P3(NN)
214
IRD=8 IPR=5
I
I
1
DO 90 L=l,LIST IF(LSW3.NE.I) GO TO 31 READ(IRD, 1 ) (RI(K) ,K=I ,NNI READ(IRD, I ) (RZ(K) ,K=l ,NN) READ(IRD, I ) (RECH(K) ,K=l ,NN)
1
*
*
FORMAT(8x, l4F5.3) READ(IRD,Z) READ(IRD,Z) READ(IRD,2) (PI(K) ,K=l ,NNI (P2(K),K=I ,NNI (P3(K),K=I ,NN)
READ(IRD,Z) (FLWCON(K) ,K=l ,") 2 FORMAT(8x, 7F IO. 4) DO 32 K=l ,NN RECH(K)=RI(K)+RZ(K)

FLWCON(K)=PI(K)+PZ(K>+P3(K)
32
RECH( K) =RECH( K) AREA( K)
READ(IRD,4)
(H(K) ,K=NO,TNN)
4
31
FORMAT (8x,9F8.2) DO 80 M=l ,MAJOR IF(LSW4.EQ. I.AND.L.NE. IF(LSW3.NE.2) GO TO 5 READ(IRD, I ) (RI (K) ,K=l ,NN) READ(IRD, 1) (R2(K) ,K=I ,NN) READ(IRD, I ) (RECH(K) ,K=l ,NN) READ(IRD,Z) (PI(K),K=I,NN) READ(IRD,2) (PZ(K) ,K=l ,NNI READ(IRD,2) READ(IRD,2) DO 3 K=l ,NN
RECH(K)=RI(K)+RZ(K)
1)
GO TO 5
* *
(P3(K) ,K=l ,NN) (FLWCON(K),K=l,m)
FLWCON (K)=P 1 (K)+P2 (K)+P3 (K) 3 RECH(K)=RECH(K)~AREA(K) READ( IRD,4) (H(K) ,K=NO,TNN) 215
* *
DO 70 JT=l ,MINOR IF(LSW3.NE. 3) GO TO 7 READ(IRD, I ) (RI (K) ,K=l ,NN) READ(IRD, I ) (R2(K) ,K=l ,NN) READ(IRD, I ) (RECH(K) ,K=l,NN) READ(IRD,2) READ(IRD,2) READ(IRD,2) READ(IRD,2) DO 6 K=l ,NN RECH( K)=R 1 (K) + ~ ( K) 2
FLWCON(K)=PI(K)+PZ(K)+P3(K)
(PI (K) ,K=l ,NN)
(P2(K) ,K=l,NN) (P3(K) ,K=l ,NN) (FLWCON(K) ,K=l ,NN)
RECH( K) =RECH( K) A R E A ( K) READ(IRD,4) (H(K) ,K=NO,TNN) IF(LSW5 .EQ.2) READ( IRD ,28) DELTA FORMAT(F6.4) T=T+DELTA
7 28
Because t h e e x t e r n a l f l o w s are lumped t o g e t h e r i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n program, e i t h e r i n RECH(K) o r FLWCON(K) o r i n b o t h , t h e p r i n t - o u t of t h e r e s u l t s of t h e
w i l l only show t h e lumped v a l u e s . If one wishes t o have a p r i n t - o u t

s e p a r a t e v a l u e s , a l i s t i n g of Data S e t I1 must be made.
216
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ERNST, L . F . ,
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HILLEL, D . ,
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61 p.
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W I N D , G.P.,
16, V o l . 11, I L R I , Wageningen, p . 189-222. 1955. A f i e l d e x p e r i m e n t c o n c e r n i n g c a p i l l a r y r i s e of m o i s t u r e
i n a heavy c l a y s o i l . Neth. J . A g r i c . S c i e n c e , 3:60-69.
219
220
SUBJECT INDEX
Adaptations t o computer system Alluvial fan recharge A q u i f e r , bottom e l e v a t i o n boundaries characteristics confined definition f a c i e s changes hydraulic conductivity isopach map l a t e r a l extent multi recharge sand p e r c e n t a g e saturated thickness schemat i z a t i o n semi-confined test
t hickne s s
17, 91, 93, 92,
129 26 26
110
Array, a d j u s t m e n t s definition dimensions Boundaries, a r b i t r a r y curved external flow-controlled head-controlled imp erme a b l e internal recharge zero-flow Boundary c o n d i t i o n s changing s e n s i t i v i t y a n a l y sis C a l i b r a t i o n , o f model period procedure Capillary r i s e different soils C e n t r a l memory C l a s s i f i c a t i o n , sandy
124, 129 128 129 29 86, 88 22, 2 6 26 25 22 22, 2 6 26 22 22 , 1 I 4
22 32 17 17 30 35 19, 93 19 17 52 30 93 16 17 32 110 16 17
146 182 185 169 170 176 62 63 129
types unconfined
materials
n e t recharge
22 1
37 97
Confining l a y e r bottom e l e v a t i o n c o n s t a n t w a t e r t ab l e hydraulic conductivity saturated thickness s p e c i f i c yield variable watertable C o n s e r v a t i o n of m a s s Darcy's l a w
Data set
16 94
1 I5
Hydraulic c o n d u c t i v i t y confining layer g r a i n s i z e method map network Hydro l o g i c a l equ i1i b r ium
35 1o9
1o9
38 45, 91
91
1
94 46, 79, 96
1 I5
i
i
'
stress
unit Impermeable b a s e depth s t r u c t u r a l map I t e r a t i o n s , maximum number I t e r a t i o n technique Gauss-Seidel K a r s t i f i e d limestone Laminar flow Line p r i n t e r plot scale Logical d e v i c e number
8 , 48 86
76 76 99
11
1 7 , 2 4 , 92
2 19 4
112
Depositional area environment of Discharge of a q u i f e r s methods of e s t i m a t i n g Discharge a r e a s D i s c r e t i z a t i o n , space time Double p r e c i s i o n E l i m i n a t i o n technique Gauss-Jordan E r r o r dimension estimation selection sources tolerable Evapotranspiration pot e n t ia1 E x t e r n a l flows categories F i n i t e d i f f e r e n c e method Format Groundwater balance equation unknown terms Groundwater b a s i n
1 2 , 13, 14 59 59
1 2 , 59
82 82
17
17
79, 84 80, 81, 105 130 82 83 107

1O 8
121
124
129 83 83
Matrix, c o e f f i c i e n t
no t a t i o n Mini-computer Model, c a l i b r a t i o n conceptual features numerical restrictions Morphological f e a t u r e s Net r e c h a r g e of a q u i f e r variables Network, nodal c o o r d i n a t e system design examp 1e s graded irregular 222
124
107
6 , 96, 169
1 7 1 , 177 82
62 64 97 97
7
75
7
75
12
97
1 I5
3 , 79
209 67 67 70 12
80 90 84 90
87
89
104 186 86 I04 79 97 95, 109 96, 109 95, I10 79 89 90, 104 96 89, 104 8 9 , 104 85, 104
numbering Non-linear f e a t u r e s Non-water-bearing Peripheral device P h y s i c a l framework Product ion run Program c a r d Recharge of a q u i f e r s layer
semi-confined a q u i f e r unconfined a q u i f e r Source program Source t e r m confined a q u i f e r semi-conf ined a q u i f e r unconfined a q u i f e r Specific yield determination estimation o r d e r of magnitude of nodal area Standard d e v i a t i o n calculation Storage c o e f f i c i e n t estimation of nodal a r e a Stratigraphic correlation unit S t r u c t u r a l deformation Time, s t e p period Transmissivity
78 77 99 76 77 78 77 4 5 , 77 45 46 46 9 5 , 109 123 123 47, 7 7 , 95 47 9 6 , 109

14
126 2 , 75 16 129
30 1 4 , 16
8
181
81, 1 0 4 , 105
105 32 45
I30 55
55
12 52 53
methods of e s t i m a t i n g 3 2 , 33, 35
36, 42
Turbulent flow
17
Unsaturated zone, water b a l a n c e 6 8 Water-bearing formation Watertable, calculation contour map correction elevation e r r o r i n node frequency of measuring
81, 107
131
16 93 50, 8 6
51
16 177, 185 182 76 77 223
49 123 50
historical initial n o d a l area o b s e r v a t i o n network p r e s c r i b e d 1i m i t s
5 0 , 96
5 0 , 9 6 , 115
96 49
110
224
AUTHOR INDEX
Athavale, R.N. Bouwer, H.
58 33 35 33 12 75 62, 63 44
K e l l e r , H.B.
Knowles, D.B. Kruseman, G.P. McCracken, D.D. Molen, W.H. Molz, F . J . M o r r i s , D.A. Morton, K.W. Murty, C.S.
84 33 2 4 , 3 2 , 33 83 64
33 33 58
Bredehoeft, J . D . Brown, R.H.
Bruggeman, G.A. Chaud, R. Cooper, H.H. Davis, S.N. D i e t r i c h , G. Doorenbos, J. Dorn, U . S . Edelman, J . H . E r e z , A. E r n s t , L.F. Ferris, J.G. Goodwill, I . M . Gray, D.M. Gun, J.A.M.
van d e r
86 46 81 58 33
62, 63
Papadopulos, I. S. P r u i t t , W.O. R a l s t o n , A. Reading, H.G.
83 184 54 33 75 47 Y 48 56
van d e r
82 1 2 , 30 8 5 , 8 9 , 170 86 33 81 24, 32, 33, 38, 43, 8 5 , 8 9 , 170 3 3 , 44 8 2 , 8 5 , 90 12

de
Redshaw, S.C. Remson, I . Rice, R.C.
Richtmeyer, R.D. Ridder, N.A.
Hornberger, G.M. Huisman, L. I s a a c s o n , E. Johnson, A . J . Kamp, G.S.J.P.
86
5 4 , 184
Rushton, K.R. S t a l l m a n , R.W. Thomas, R.G.
44 84 46
van d e r
43
Thornbury, W.D.
225
f o d d , D.K. T y s o n , H.N.
12, 4 3
75
Uffink, G.J.M. Vries, J . J . d e Weber, E.M. W e s s e l i n g , J.

Wiest, R.J.M.
36 54 4 3 , 44
de 56 2 75
Wigham, J.M. W i l f , H.S. W i t , K.E. 82
3 8 , 43
226

Numerical Modelling of Groundwater Basins

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Numerical modelling of groundwater basins

Numerical modelling of groundwater basins

General . The model Scope of t h e book

2 2.1 2.2 2.2.1 2.2.2

DATA REQUIRED TO DEVELOP A GROUNDWATER MODEL

Introduction P h y s i c a l framework Topography Geology

Geomorphozogy Subsurface geoZogy

Types o f a q u i f e r s A q u i f e r t h i c k n e s s and l a t e r a l e x t e n t Aquifer boundaries

Zero-fZow boundary Head-controZZed boundary FZow-controZZed boundary

Lithological variations within the aquifer Aquifer c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

Estimating specific yield Estimating storage coefficient

Hydrological s t r e s s Watertable elevation Type and e x t e n t of r e c h a r g e a r e a s Rate of r e c h a r g e

Estimating unknown components Estimating aquifer characteristics Final remarks

S p e c i f i c y i e l d and s t o r a g e c o e f f i c i e n t Hydraulic head N e t recharge

4 4.1 4.2 4.2.1

Package d e s c r i p t i o n S t r u c t u r e of d a t a s e t s Data Set I

102 102 112

D e f i n i t i o n s of input variables Sequence of cards and data formats

D e f i n i t i o n s of input variables Sequence of cards and data formats

D e f i n i t i o n s of input variables Sequence of cards and data formats

D e f i n i t i o n s of input variables Sequence of cards and. data formats

SAMPLE RUN Introduction D e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e area Data p r e p a r a t i o n P a r a m e t e r s f o r t h e c o n f i g u r a t i o n of t h e n e t w o r k Parameters of dimensions

135 135 135

I6 I I6 1 169 169 169 171 172 172 174 175 176

CALIBRATION AND PRODUCTION RUNS Calibration General S o u r c e s of e r r o r

181 182 185 186 187 209 213

LISTING OF SOURCE PROGRAMS

SEPARATION OF THE COMPONENTS OF THE NET RECHARGE

as Laplace and Newton were l o n g ago a p p l y i n g numer-

i t makes no h y d r o l o g i c a l s e n s e . Between t h e s e two e x t r e m e s t h e r e i s t h e

miracles from models, which a r e , and cannot be a n y t h i n g more t h a n , s i m p l i f i c a t i o n s of t h e complex c o n d i t i o n s t h a t we f a c e i n n a t u r e .

i f a g e o l o g i s t o r h y d r o l o g i s t wants t o a p p l y t h e t e c h n i q u e d e s c r i b e d i n them, h e s c a r c e l y knows how t o proceed. I f a manual i s a v a i l a b l e , i t w i l l

v e r y l i k e l y d e s c r i b e how t h e model w a s developed b u t n o t how i t should be used. Groundwater m o d e l l i n g i s a m u l t i d i s c i p l i n a r y s c i e n c e , i n v o l v i n g

Goodwill, Department of C i v i l E n g i n e e r i n g , U n i v e r s i t y of Leeds, M r . D.

MacTavish, B i n n i e and P a r t n e r s , London, M r .

L e r n e r , London, D r . J.J. Kruseman, I n t e r n a t i o n a l

A g r i c u l t u r a l C e n t r e , Wageningen, M r . W. Boehmer, E u r o c o n s u l t , Arnhem, and

v a r i a t i o n s i n an a q u i f e r ' s h y d r a u l i c c o n d u c t i v i t y , boundary c o n d i t i o n s t h a t change w i t h t i m e , and o t h e r long-term time-dependent e f f e c t s . Sometimes

A s a n a l t e r n a t i v e t o t h e i t e r a t i o n method, w e have i n c l u d e d i n t h e model

Scope of the 'book

emerges from t h e s e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s r e v e a l s t h e p r e s e n c e o f an unconfined a q u i f e r , a c o n f i n e d a q u i f e r , a semi-confined a q u i f e r , o r any l a t e r a l

smaller u n i t s and t h u s d e v e l o p a n a p p r o p r i a t e f i n i t e - d i f f e r e n c e network.

DATA REQUIRED TO DEVELOP A GROUNDWATER MODEL

The first phase of a groundwater model study consists of collecting all

Table 2 . 1 Data r e q u i r e d t o d e v e l o p a groundwater model

4 . Type and e x t e n t of d i s c h a r g e a r e a s 5 . Rate o f d i s c h a r g e

, I t i s common p r a c t i c e t o p r e s e n t t h e r e s u l t s of h y d r o g e o l o g i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s i n t h e form of maps, g e o l o g i c a l s e c t i o n s , and t a b l e s - a procedure

watert ab le-con t o u r maps

A n a c c u r a t e t o p o g r a p h i c a l map of t h e groundwater b a s i n t o b e modelled i s a

t h e b a s i n i s s m a l l o r i f a more d e t a i l e d s t u d y o f a l o c a l problem i s t o be made, t h e s c a l e should be 1:50,000,

f o r example, means Well No. 3 i n Square I-B

The t o p o g r a p h i c a l map should show t h e l o c a t i o n of t h e bench marks w i t h t h e i r elevations.

Example of s q u a r e g r i d f o r numbering w e l l s and bore h o l e s

I n t e n s i v e geomorphological and g e o l o g i c a l s t u d i e s of t h e groundwater b a s i n

I n F i g u r e 2 . 2 , f o r example, t h e r e c h a r g e a r e a s a r e t h e p r e s e n t and former

F i g . 2 . 2 Morphological f e a t u r e s and s e d i m e n t s t y p i c a l of broad r i v e r v a l l e y basins

A) o v e r l y i n g a c o n f i n e d a q u i f e r (Type B) o r a semi-confined a q u i f e r (Type

grammed f o r o n l y one s i n g l e a q u i f e r , i . e . Type A , B , o r C , o r any l a t e r a l t r a n s i t i o n from one t y p e t o a n o t h e r .