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FZ Is A Pole of Order M of F Iff Z A FZ AA

1. The document discusses the behavior of functions near poles, essential singularities, and singularities at infinity. It defines poles, essential singularities, and calculates residues. 2. A key point is that a function has a pole of order m at a point if the limit of the function over (z-a)^m is non-zero as z approaches a. An essential singularity occurs when this limit does not exist. 3. The Cauchy residue theorem allows evaluating integrals using residues of singularities enclosed by the contour.

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32 views

FZ Is A Pole of Order M of F Iff Z A FZ AA

1. The document discusses the behavior of functions near poles, essential singularities, and singularities at infinity. It defines poles, essential singularities, and calculates residues. 2. A key point is that a function has a pole of order m at a point if the limit of the function over (z-a)^m is non-zero as z approaches a. An essential singularity occurs when this limit does not exist. 3. The Cauchy residue theorem allows evaluating integrals using residues of singularities enclosed by the contour.

Uploaded by

yashbanw
Copyright
© Attribution Non-Commercial (BY-NC)
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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1

Lecture 12

Behaviour of ( ) f z in the neighbourhood of Pole:

Proposition. The point a is a pole of order m of f iff
lim( ) ( ) , 0,
m
z a
z a f z A A

= = .

Proof.

(i) If the point a is a pole of order m of f, then

( ) ( )
0 1
( )
m
n n
n n
n n
f z c z a d z a


= =
= + , 0
m
d = .
lim( ) ( ) 0,
m
m
z a
z a f z d

= = .
2

(ii) If lim( ) ( ) , 0,
m
z a
z a f z A A

= = , then for every 0 c > there


exists a 0 o > such that ( )
m
A
f z
z a
c +
<

in 0 z a o < < .
Therefore,

( )
1
1 ( )
, 0 ,
2
n
n
w a r
f w
d dw r
i
w a
o
t
+
=
}
= < <

gives

1
1
. .2 0 0,
2
n
m n m n
A A
d r as r if n m
r r
c c
t
t
+
+ +
< = >

0,
n
d if n m = > .

For n = m, using that 0
k
d if k m = > ,


( )
1
1
0
lim( ) ( )
lim( ( ) ... )
m
z a
n m
m
n m m
z a
n
A z a f z
c z a d z a d d

=
= + + + =


0
m
d = f has a pole of order m at the point a.
3
Proposition. f has pole of order m at the point a iff 1/f has a
zero of order m at a.

Proof.

(i) Let f have a pole of order m at a. Then, by definition of
Pole,

( ) ( )
0 1
( ) , 0
m
n n
n n m
n n
f z c z a d z a d


= =
= + =

( )
1 1
0
( ) ( ( ) ... ( ) )
n m
m m
m m n
n
z a d d z a d z a c z a

=
= + + + +
( ) ( )
m
z a z

= ,

where, ( ) z is analytic in z a R < for some R and
( ) 0
m
a d = = .

Since ( ) z is continuous, ( ) 0 z = in some neighbourhood
z a R o < < .
1
( ) ( ), ( )
( )
& ( ) 0
m
z a z where z is analytic in z a
f z
a
o

= <
=


1
( ) f z
has a zero of order m at the point a.
4

(ii) If
1
( ) f z
has a zero of order m at the point a, then
1
( ) ( ),
( )
( ) 0& ( ) 0 .
m
z a z
f z
where a z is analytic in z a

o
=
= < <


1
( ) ( ) ( ),
( ) 0 .
m
f z z a z
where z is analytic and nonzero in z a

=
< <

(since zeros are isolated)

( )
0
0
( ) ( ) ( ), 0
n
m
n
n
f z z a c z a c

=
= = .
( ) f z has a pole of order m at the point a.


Corollary. f has a pole at the point a iff lim ( )
z a
f z

=
5
Behaviour of ( ) f z in the neighbourhood of Essential Singularity:

Proposition. A function f has an essential singularity at a iff
lim ( )
z a
f z

does not exist.



Proof.

(i) Let a function f have an essential singularity at a and
lim ( )
z a
f z

= A exists.

If A < , then f will have a removable singularity at a a
contradiction.

If A = , f has a pole at the point a a contradiction.

Therefore, lim ( )
z a
f z

does not exist.



(ii) If lim ( )
z a
f z

does not exist, then the point a can not be a


pole or removable singularity

the point a is an essential singularity of f.

6
Singularity at . A function f(z) is said to have a singularity
(removable, pole or essential) at , if f(1/z) has a singularity
(removable, pole or essential respectively) at z = 0.

Examples.

(i)
0 1
( ) .... , 0
n
n n
P z a a z a z a = + + + = has a pole of order n at .
(ii)
z
e has an essential singularity at .
(iii)
1/z
e is analytic at .


Nonisolated singularities.

Example: Let f have a pole at , 1,2,...
n
z n = , and
n
z a as
n , then a is a nonisolated singularity of f. Take, e.g.,
1
( ) cosec
z
, where 1/
n
z nt = and a = 0.
7
Residues and Integration

Let the function f(z) have an isolated singularity at a point a
and

( ) ( )
0 1
( )
n n
n n
n n
f z c z a d z a

= =
= +

(*)

be the Laurents expansion of f(z) in the annulus 0 z a R < < .


Definition: The residue of f(z) at the point a is defined as

Coefficient of
1
z a
=
1
d =
1
( )
2
C
f w dw
i t
}


where, C is any simple, closed, p.w. smooth curve lying in
0 z a R < < and enclosing the point a.

8
Cauchy Residue Theorem.

Let a function f(z) be analytic inside and on a simple, closed, p.w.
smooth curve C , except for having finitely singularities at the
points
1 2
, ,...,
n
z z z enclosed in C. Let
k
p be the residue of f(z) at
the point
k
z . Then,

1
( ) 2
n
k
k
C
f w dw i p t
=
=

}
.

Proof. By Cauchy Theorem for Multiply Connected Domains,

1 1
( ) ( ) 2
k
n n
k
k k
C C
f w dw f w dw i p t
= =
= =

} }

(the last equality is due to definition of residues).








2
C

3
C

4
C


5
C


6
C


1
C

3
z
2
z

1
z

4
z

6
z

5
z

C

9
Example. Evaluate
2
5 2
( 1)
z
z
dz
z z
=

}
.
Solution.
1
5 2 2
( ) (5 )(1 )
( 1)
z
f z z
z z z

= =


2
2
(5 )(1 ...) z z
z
= + + +
2
3 3 .... z
z
=
0
1
( ) 2
z
Coeff of res f z
z
=
= = .

Further,
5 2 5( 1) 3
( )
( 1) ( 1)
z z
f z
z z z z
+
= =


1
2
3 1 3
(5 )( ) (5 )(1 ( 1))
1 1 ( 1) 1
3
(5 )(1 ( 1) ( 1) ...)
1
z
z z z
z z
z

= + = + +
+
= + +


Coeff. of
1
1 z
= 3
1
( ) 3
z
res f z
=
=
2
5 2
2 (3 2) 10
( 1)
z
z
dz i i
z z
t t
=

= + =

}
. (By Cauchy Residue Theroem)

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