Earth Materials and The Lithosphere (Christopherson Cha.

8)

I. Geologic Time A. Age of the Earth: approx. 4.6 billion years B. Geologic Time Scale

Two EO S in Geologic Time !recambrian "46## $ %4&mya $ stan's for million years ago( !hanero)oic "%4& $ present( Three E*AS of the !hanero)oic Eon !aleo)oic "%+# $ &%,mya( -eso)oic "&%, $ 66mya( .eno)oic "6%.% $ present( Two !E*/O0S of the .eno)oic Era Tertiary "6%.% 1 ,.2 mya( 34aternary ",.2 $ present( Two E!O.5S of the 34aternary !erio' !leistocene ",.2mya $ ,#6###ya( 5olocene ",#6###ya $ present(

C. 7niformitarianism: "the present is the 8ey to the past( This is the ass4mption that the processes
which we obser9e to'ay ha9e been operating thro4gho4t geologic time.

II. The Structure o the Earth A. General !. *a'i4s: 64##8m ". 0ensity: 0ecreases from core to s4rface #. Temperat4re: :###;. to 66%#;. estimate' at core B. .ross$Sectional <iew "Three -ain 0i9isions( !. .ore: The core "thic8ness :%##8m( has a soli' inner core an' a molten6 o4ter core. ". -antle: A soli' 'ar8 an' 'ense layer of roc8 approx. &=##8m thic8. #. .r4st: The cr4st s4rro4n's the mantle. /ts thic8ness 9aries between % $ %#8m. There
are two types of cr4st. a) Oceanic: A9erages %8m thic86 'ar86 'ense "mostly basalt(.

$) .ontinental: A9erages :#$%#8m thic86 light color6 less 'ense. -4ch thic8er
where there are h4ge mo4ntains.

c) -ohoro9icic 0iscontin4ity or >-oho>: The bo4n'ary between the cr4st an' the
mantle.

.. .ritical Str4ct4ral S4b'i9isions ,. ?ithosphere "incl4'es .r4st an' 7pper -antle(: This is the brittle6 o4ter layer of the earth. This is the layer bro8en into >lithospheric plates>. &. Asthenosphere: This is the hot6 plastic layer of the mantle @4st below the lithosphere.

III. Composition o Crust A. Elements

Oxygen "O( Silica "Si( Al4min4m "Al( /ron "De( metals %#A B.alci4m ".a( &%A BSo'i4m " a( 2A B!otassi4m "C( %A B-agnesi4m "-g( Bimportant plant n4trients :$4A &$:A &$:A &$:A

B. -inerals: /norganic chemical compo4n's6 their formation is affecte' by a9ailable elements6 heat6
press4re6 time. An assemblage of minerals in a soli' state is a roc8.

I%. &oc' Classi ications( .lassifie' by the processes which forme' them.
/gneo4s: *oc8 forme' from molten material in the earthEs core. Se'imentary: *oc8 forme' from layere' acc4m4lations roc8 particles or minerals. -etamorphic: *oc8 forme' from expos4re to extreme heat an' press4re.

A. /gneo4s *oc8s: Dorme' from molten material in the earthEs core. They are classifie' in two
'ifferent ways6 mineral type an' cooling en9ironment.

!. /gneo4s -ineral Types: .ommonly contain silicate minerals "Si an' O combine'(. There
are two main mineral types6 felsic an' mafic.

a) Delsic -inerals: "fel for fel'spar6 sic for silica(. .haracteri)e' by their light color
an' low 'ensity. EFA-!?ES 34art) $ "SiO&( extremely common6 stable6 non$reacti9e. !otassi4m Del'spar $ Silicates of Al an' C So'i4m Del'spar $ Silicates of Al an' a .alci4m Del'spar $ Silicates of Al an' .a

$) -afic -inerals: "ma for magnesi4m6 fic for ferric(. .haracteri)e' by their 'ar8
color an' high 'ensity. EFA-!?ES -ica Amphibole !yroxene Oli9ine "4ltramafic( Silicates of Al6 -g6 De6 C6 or .a.

-g an' De "low in silica(

". /gneo4s .ooling En9ironments: /ntr4si9e "beneath the earth( or Extr4si9e "abo9e the
earth( A. /ntr4si9e: .oole' beneath the s4rface G. Extr4si9e: .oole' abo9e the s4rface

,. .ooling is S?OH beneath the EarthEs ,. .ooling is *A!/0 at the EarthEs s4rfaceI th4s the minerals ha9e time to s4rfaceI th4s the minerals 0O OT grow into large crystal forms. ha9e time to grow into large crystal forms. &. The crystals are often 9isible to the na8e' eye &. The crystals are generally 9isible to the na8e' eye OT

:. The roc8 appears coarse graine' "comprise' of larger particles6 li8e the crystals mentione' abo9e(

:. The roc8 appears fine graine' "comprise' of in'i9i'4al particles generally too small to see(

#. /gneo4s *oc8 Examples

-ineral Type Delsic Delsic "ten'ing towar' -afic( -afic 7ltramafic /ntr4si9e Examples Granite 0iorite Gabbro !eri'otite Extr4si9e Examples *hyolite An'esite Gasalt 0oesnEt exist

B. Se'imentary *oc8s "?ithification(: Dorme' from roc8 fragments or mineral particles "calle'
se'iment( are ero'e'6 transporte'6 an' 'eposite'. They may sit for tho4san's or millions of years6 '4ring which time they 4n'ergo compaction an' cementation "a process where the fragments are pac8e' 'own an' cemente' together(. .ollecti9ely6 this is calle' lithification.

!. .lastic: Dorme' when fragments of pre$existing roc8 collect in one place. a) .onglomerate: Dorme' from cobbles an' pebbles mixe' with finer se'iments $) San'stone: Dorme' from san' grains "li8e at the beach( c) Siltstone: Dorme' from silt particles "possibly from a h4ge6 floo'ing ri9er( d) Shale: Dorme' from clay particles that collect an' form a roc8 with 'istinct
layers

". .hemical : Dorme' when 'issol9e' minerals precipitate from a sol4tion an' collect.
!rocess 4s4ally happens in the ocean.

a) ?imestone: .alci4m .arbonate .a.O

$) 0olomite: .alci4m an' -agnesi4m .arbonates #. Organic: Dorme' when 'ea' plant material collects in wet6 9egetate' en9ironments an'
becomes co9ere' with other se'iments "incl4'es peat an' coalI nat4ral gas is a bypro'4ct(

C. -etamorphic *oc8s: Any roc8 which has been expose' to extreme heat an' press4re beneath
the s4rface of the Earth. !. Examples

a) Slate: Hhen shale is expose' to extreme heat an' press4re6 forming roc8 that
splits into har'6 flat plates.

$) -arble: ?imestone which is expose' to heat an' press4re c) Gneiss: *efers to most coarse graine' roc8s which become expose' to extreme
heat an' press4re "granite6 conglomerate(

)late Tectonics (Christopherson Cha. 8)

I. E*olution o the Theor+ o )late Tectonics A. Dirst S4ggeste': .ontinental fit note' as long ago as ,%=6. "Orteli4s(. S4ggeste' by other
scientists

B. Alfre' Hegener "Dather of .ontinental 0rift J !late Tectonics(: German geophysicist an'
meteorologist p4blicly anno4nce' his theory in ,=,&. .onsi'ere' re9ol4tionary.

!. Similar plants ". Similar roc8s #. .ontinental fit

" ot s4fficient proof for scientists(

C. !angaea "split in the TriassicI approx. &&%mya(: HegenerEs original s4percontinent6 split into the
two following continents.

!. ?a4rasia: E9ent4ally became . America6 E4rope6 an' Asia. ". Gon'wana: E9ent4ally became S. America6 Africa6 A4stralia6 an' Antarctica. ,. .ontin4e' -o9ement "the ca4se of earthK4a8es(: The continents "lithosphere( in constant
motion. The lithospheric plates mo9e at a rate of %$,#cmJyear "%#$,##8mJone million years(. .onstantly e9ol9ing.

II. Modern Theor+( Too8 shape in the ,=6#Es. A. .ritical Str4ct4res !. ?ithosphere ".r4st L 7ppermost mantle(: re9iew earlier 'escription ". Asthenosphere: re9iew earlier 'escription B. .ritical !rocesses !. Sea Dloor Sprea'ing: Hhere sea floor sprea's apart an' new material comes to the
s4rface. Accretion is the a''ition of new cr4st material.

". S4b'4ction: Hhere one plate 'i9es beneath another an' is cons4me'. .ons4mption is
the s4btraction of plate material.

III. Modern )late Boundaries (Mechanisms and )rocesses)( There are three types of plate bo4n'ariesI
'i9ergent6 con9ergent6 an' transform.

A. 0i9ergent Go4n'aries "forces of extension(: Two plates are mo9ing away from each other an'
magma is rising to the s4rface creating new plate material by accretion. There are two types.

!. Sea$Dloor Sprea'ing: -olten material rises to s4rface6 ca4sing sea floor to sprea'.
-olten material then fills the gap. -i'$ocean ri'ge: -agma rises to the s4rface an' creates a b4lge. -i'$ocean rift: The act4al brea8 in the sea floor. 7n'ersea 9olcanic acti9ity: ?a9a extr4'es into the sea6 creating new cr4st "accretion(.

Sea Dloor Sprea'ing

Examples: -i' Atlantic *i'ge6 The *e' Sea

". .ontinental Sprea'ing "continental r4pt4re(: Hhen molten material rises beneath a
continent6 ca4sing it to split apart. This forms rift 9alleys on lan'. -olten material then fills the gap "creating 9olcanoes(. Examples: East African *ift <alley6 Great Gasin6 orth America

B. .on9ergent Go4n'aries "forces of compression(: Occ4r where two plates colli'e. *es4lts in orogenesis "the formation of mo4ntains( thro4gh 9olcanic acti9ity or Often creates metamorphic roc8. 0isc4ss accrete' terranes here. Three Types !. Oceanic lithosphere 9s. continental lithosphere: Oceanic s4b'4cts "'i9es( beneath
continental6 creating <olcanic -o4ntain Arc6 an' also ca4sing scraping of material onto cr4st. thr4sting 4p of roc8.

.on9ergent Go4n'ary "oceanic 9s. continental(

Example of <olcanic -o4ntain Arc:

An'es "!er4$.hile Trench(

". Oceanic lithosphere 9s. oceanic lithosphere: Oceanic s4b'4cts "'i9es( beneath oceanic6
creating <olcanic /slan' <olcanic Arc. Examples of <olcanic /slan' Arcs: Mapan an' -arianas /slan's "Mapan an' -arianas Trenches(

#. .ontinental lithosphere 9s. lithosphere continental "continental s4t4re(: Hhere continents

con9erge on continents neither will s4b'4ct6 ca4sing the 4plift of a h4ge mo4ntain chain. Example: 5imalayas

C. Transform Go4n'aries "shearing forces(: Hhen two plates sli'e si'e by si'e this is referre' to as
a transform bo4n'ary. Example: San An'reas Da4lt

%. The )roo or )late Tectonics A. Giologic Arg4ments: Hhen relate' taxa "or'ers6 families6 gen4s6 species6 etc.( of plants or
animals ha9e separate' ranges. Since they share the same ancestor6 there m4st be a reason for their separation

B. Extr4sion of -agma at the Sea Dloor: /t was only recently "last ten years( that this was act4ally
obser9e'.

C. -agnetic *e9ersals:
Gefore la9a cools into a soli' state6 the tiny metallic minerals align themsel9es li8e a compass. Gy st4'ying 9olcanic roc8s6 scientists 'isco9ere' that the EarthEs magnetic fiel' has re9erse' at irreg4lar inter9als ",#6###$,##6##yrs( in the past. This pattern of re9ersals was mappe' along the ocean floor. The basalt at the rift ha' the same magnetic pattern as new la9as anywhere in the worl'.

%olcanic and Tectonic )rocesses and Land orms (The Building )rocesses) (Christopherson Cha. -) I. Introduction and &e*ie. A. ?an'forms: Deat4res on the s4rface of the lan' "mo4ntains6 9alleys6 plains6 beaches6 etc( G. Geomorphology: Geomorphology is the st4'y of the history an' processes which shape lan'forms. .. Exogenic an' En'ogenic !rocesses: En'ogenic processes are 'ri9en from within the Earth "by EarthEs internal heat( an' exogenic processes are 'ri9en by forces at the EarthEs s4rface. //. Crustal ,e ormation )rocesses( As a res4lt of !late Tectonics6 the lithosphere is 4n'er constant stress "compression6 extension6 shearing stresses(. This stress manifests itself in theee main ways A. Groa' Harping: The ben'ing of the cr4st o9er a large area. 7s4ally accomplishe' by isostatic rebo4n'6 where the cr4st rises in response to a weight being lifte' from it. This is common when large ice sheets ha9e melte'. The cr4st will act4ally rebo4n'. This can also be ca4se by the rising of a large bo'y of magma.

G. Dol'ing "compressional forces(: Se'imentary strata6 when compresse'6 will be bent into a series of wa9e li8e feat4res. The wa9e crests are anticlines an' the tro4ghs are synclines. /olding

.. Da4lting: Da4lts are planar fract4res "fa4lt plane( in the EarthEs cr4st along which slippage "earthK4a8e( occ4rs. They ta8e many forms. Do4n' commonly at plate bo4n'ariesI b4t also elsewhere.

i.

ormal Da4lt "tensional forces(: *es4lts in 9ertical mo9ement of lan'. Da4lt Scarp is a cliff forme' by fa4lting.

ormal Da4lt

ormal Da4lts in a Series "Graben an' 5orst(

ii. Stri8e$Slip "shearing forces(: *es4lts in si'e to si'e hori)ontal mo9ement. ?ea9es a fa4lt trace6 possibly a slight scarp. .an form an offset stream. *ight ?ateral Stri8e$Slip Da4lt "top9iew( ?eft ?ateral Stri8e$Slip Da4lt "top9iew( "with offset stream(

iii. *e9erse Da4lt "compressional forces(: *es4lts in 9ertical mo9ement of lan'. .a4ses o9ersteepening6 an' s4bseK4ently6 lan'sli'es. *e9erse Da4lt
O9er$steepene' Da4lt Scarp "lan'sli'es freK4ent(

,. A special case of re9erse fa4lt is calle' a thr4st fa4lt6 4s4ally reser9e' for 9ery low$angle thr4sts s4ch as the orthri'ge6 .A K4a8e. Any type of re9erse or thr4st fa4lt in'icates compressional forces.

///. Earth0ua'es( S4''en slippage along a fa4lt6 occ4r at all types of plate bo4n'aries A. Elastic *ebo4n' Theory: ,. 5elps to explain mo9ement along fa4lts. &. Da4lt ?oc8: Energy store' as stress b4il's 4p. :. Stress excee's friction6 res4lting in s4''en brea8 at the fa4lt. G. General Terminology i. Seismic Ha9es: *ipples of energy which pass thro4gh the cr4st.

ii. Doc4s: The s4bs4rface point where the maxim4m energy is release' "ie6 where the act4al brea8 occ4rs(. iii. Epicenter: The point on the s4rface 'irectly abo9e the foc4s. .. -eas4ring /ntensity an' -agnit4'e i. -ercalli Scale "meas4res intensity(: Arbitrary scale "/$F//( which rates 'amage to terrain an' str4ct4res.

ii. Seismograph: -eas4res 9ibrations ca4se' by an earthK4a8e. iii. -oment -agnit4'e Scale: 34antitati9e scale of the energy release'. *epresents the 4p'ate' 9ersion of the ol' *ichter Scale. 0. San An'reas Da4lt: Transform bo4n'ary between !acific an' orth American !lates. i. Da4lt System: /ncl4'es many relate' fa4lts.

ii. Type of Da4lt: *ight ?ateral Stri8e Slip Da4lt iii. E9ol4tion: 7ntil abo4t ,%$:#mya6 there was a s4b'4ction )one on the west coast of orth America. -4ch of the western 7nite' States is ma'e of cr4st which was >scrape'> onto the orth American !late. E9ent4ally6 this bo4n'ary e9ol9e' into a transform type of bo4n'ary. III. %olcanism 1 )rocesses and Land orms

A. ?ocations of Acti9ity
i. .on9ergent !late Go4n'aries: Hhere s4b'4ction occ4rs

ii. 0i9ergent Go4n'aries: Sea Dloor sprea'ing centers or continental r4pt4res. iii. 5ot Spots: .a4se' by a single stationary mantle pl4me. See below

B. Two -a@or Types of <olcanic Er4ptions

.5A*A.TE*/ST/.S EF!?OS/<E E*7!T/O S: This is @4st what the name implies. Gasses are trappe' by the thic8 la9a. !ress4re b4il's 4p. .omposite 9olcano: Steep cone comprise' of layers of rhyolitic an' an'esitic la9a. EDD7S/<E E*7!T/O S: This a more gentle6 oo)ing type of err4ption. The gasses are able to escape easily thro4gh the thin la9a. Shiel' 9olcano: Gently sloping cone comprise' of layers of basaltic la9a.

Type of <olcano

Si'e9iew of 9olcano
La+ers o $asalt la*a La+ers o rh+olite and andesite la*a

La+ers o p+ro1 clastics (ash and roc' ragments)

Magma Magma

<iscosity "Thic8ness(

high6 allows for steep cone to be b4ilt felsic "high in Si( rhyolite6 an'esite .rater or cal'era "large 'epression forme' by explosion( con9ergent bo4n'aries "s4b'4ction )ones( An'es6 Mapan6 N !acific orthwest "-t. St 5elenEs6 -t. 5oo'6 -t. Shasta6 etc.(

low6 res4lts in la9a flowing long 'istances6 forms shiel' shape' "or gently sloping( 9olcano mafic "high in -g an' De( basalt floo' basalts "h4ge areas co9ere' by basalt flows( ",( 0i9ergent bo4n'aries "sea floor sprea'ing( an' "&( hot spots /celan' "Sea$floor sprea'ing( N 5awaii "5ot Spot(

-ineral Type *oc8 Types Associate' ?an'forms

?ocation of <olcanic Acti9ity Examples

Doc4s on 5ot Spots: 5ot spots represent a single point of 9olcanic acti9ity. This is referre' to as a >stationary mantle pl4me> This type of acti9ity has helpe' scientists 'etermine the spee' of plate mo9ement. As a plate mo9es across a hot spot6 a chain of islan's is forme' "the 5awaiian /slan's is a great example(. The yo4ngest islan' is o9er the c4rrent hot spot location6 while the ol'er islan's ha9e since mo9e' away from the acti9ity.

)&2BLEM "see Dig4re 2.,=(: 5ow fast "in centimeters per year( is the !acific !late mo9ing o9er the 5awaiian 5otspotO To fig4re this o4t6 'etermine the 'istance from the c4rrent hot spot location "in 8ilometers(6 to the islan' of -i'way. Since the age of -i'way islan' is abo4t &% million years6 follow this form4la to calc4late the rate: P 'istance from hot spot "8m( Q x P ,##6### cmJ8m Q J P age of islan' "yrs( Q R O cmJyr

C. Explosi9e er4ptions can also ca4se...........

,. nue ardent "glowing a9alanche(: This is a clo4' of searing hot aci'ic gas an' ash which tra9els li8e a shoc8 wa9e 'own slope6 b4rning e9erything in its path. &. lahar: -4' an' 'ebris flow which res4lts from the rapi' melting of ice an' snow '4ring an er4ption. .ompose' of 9olcanic ash6 water6 m4'6 an' se'iment of all si)es.

,. Other Deat4res of <olcanic Acti9ity !. Geothermal Acti9ity "5ot Springs an' Geysers(: Gro4n' water seeps into crac8s in the
earth an' comes into contact with hot roc8. /t then rises 4n'er press4re.

". .in'er .ones: Dorme' in the rare sit4ation where basaltic la9a has a high gas content
an' is explo'e' from a small 9ent. This forms m4ch tephra an' b4il's a small6 steep si'e' cone "less than 4%# meters(.

E. Special ote: !acific *ing of DireS "see maps in text of worl'$wi'e 9olcano 'istrib4tion(

3eathering and Mass Mo*ement (Christopherson Cha. !4)

I. Introduction( He ha9e pre9io4sly loo8e' at the processes which b4il' mo4ntains "orogenisis res4lting
form the en'ogenic processes(. He will now begin to loo8 at the collecti9e processes which 'en4'e or tear 'own those mo4ntains "thro4gh exogenic processes(.

A. Two <iews of ?an'form 0e9elopment !. Geomorphic .ycle -o'el "Hilliam -orris 0a9is6 ,2%#$,=:4(:

o longer accepte'I state' that lan'scapes initially 4n'ergo one ma@or 4plift6 an' are s4bseK4ently 'en4'e' o9er time to a flat s4rface. constantly changing. ?an'forms respon' to these changes in a 'ynamic fashion.

". 0ynamic EK4ilibri4m -o'el: States that the 9ariables that shape lan'forms are B. Heathering an' -ass -o9ement: This is the beginning of the story of the 'en4'ational
processes. Heathering is the general term for the combine' processes which ca4se roc8 to brea8 'own at or near the earthEs s4rface. Heathering can either be chemical or physical. -ass -o9ement is the 'ownslope mo9ement of weathere' material 4n'er the force of gra9ity "not carrie' by win'6 water6 or ice(.

II. 3eathering( The o4ter roc8s of the Earth are infl4ence' by the weathering processes. ?iterally6 they
are expose' to the weather. The imme'iate s4rface is soil ",$&m thic8(6 which is the most highly weathere'. The weathere' be'roc8 below is referre' to as regolith "literally a mixe' pile of 'irt6 gra9el6 roc8s6 etc.(. Dract4res in the be'roc8 "@oints( are what allow for the increase' expos4re of the roc8 to the external elements. !rofile of a Heathere' S4rface

A. !hysical Heathering !rocesses: The mechanical brea8'own of soli' roc8 into smaller pieces. /t
is important to note that physical an' chemical weathering often operate together in complex ways. He separate them for con9enience.

!. Drost Action: The expansion of ice as it free)es generates a strong force capable of
fract4ring an' pl4c8ing small particles from coarse graine' roc8. This occ4rs when water enters pore spaces between the grains an' repeate'ly free)es an' thaws. This can happen on a larger scale as water collects in crac8s in the roc8. /n high mo4ntain en9ironments @agge' roc8s fract4re' loose from cliffs collect in piles at the base. These are 8nown as tal4s slopes. Drost Action

". .rystalli)ation "Salt$.rystal Growth(: The formation of crystals "salts6 other minerals(
creates a we'ging action in the pore spaces of grainy roc8 "li8e san'stone(. As the crystal lattice forms6 it we'ges loose grains. This happens especially in ari' en9ironments where water "with salts in sol4tion( flows thro4gh roc86 often flowing from the si'es of cliffs. The water e9aporates when it comes into contact with o4tsi'e air6 lea9ing behin' the salts to form crystals. This res4lts in large arches at the base of cliffs.

#. !ress4re *elease Mointing a) 0eep roc8 4n'er press4re: *oc8 at 'epth "pl4tons of granite6 metamorphic roc86
etc( is slightly compacte' 4n'er the press4re of the o9erlying roc8.

$) *oof roc8 ero'e': As the roof roc8 is ero'e' away an' the 4n'erlying roc8 is
4nco9ere'6 it expan's slightly as the weight is release'.

c) !ress4re release @oints form: Sheets of roc8 slip off in a process calle' sheeting
or exfoliation "creates exfoliation 'omes(.

5. Temperat4re Expansion N .ontraction: Expansion an' contraction following the 'aily

cycle of temperat4re

6. !lant *oots: !lant roots grow into crac8s an' pry apart roc8s 7. 5y'ration: Expansion '4e to absorption of water

!ress4re *elease Mointing

$) o*erl+ing roc' eroded8 pressure released

c) pressure release 9oints orm

a) deep roc' under pressure

B. .hemical Heathering !rocesses: The chemical alteration of roc8 minerals thro4gh expos4re to
water an' atmosphere. 34art) is the most resistant mineral when it comes to chemical weathering.

!. Oxi'ation an' 5y'rolysis: This is the chemical 4nion of oxygen an' water6 respecti9ely6
with minerals to form other more stable minerals. Oxygen6 in partic4lar6 combines with metallic elements. "Oxi'i)e' iron is r4st.... De L O& R /ron oxi'e( This process res4lts in the brea8'own of the original roc8.

". .arbonation "creates 8arst topography(: .O& an' 5&O combine to form a wea8
concentration of carbonic aci' "5&.O:(6 which is capable of 'issol9ing limestone ".a.O:( into sol4tion. Hhere water r4ns thro4gh @oints in limestone6 ca9es can be forme'. This can also for 8arst topography.

#. Organic Aci's: !lants can pro'4ce aci's which also ai' in the chemical brea8'own of
minerals.

C. EFA-!?E$$ Spheroi'al Heathering: Hhere roc8s ha9e been expose' to the elements for a long
time6 they begin to ta8e on a ro4n'e' "spheroi'al( shape. This is beca4se non$ro4n'e' roc8 "4ne9en s4rfaces6 protr4sions6 etc( has m4ch more s4rface area than ro4n'e' roc8. /ncrease' s4rface area means increase' rates of weathering. E9ent4ally the roc8 becomes ro4n'e'.

II. Mass Mo*ement( The mo9ement of material propelle' by gra9ity. A. The Slope: Slope refers to a lan' s4rface tilte' from the hori)ontal. /t is the f4n'amental 4nit we
are wor8ing with. The Earth is comprise' of a series of slopes with 'ifferent 'egrees of steepness.

!. Angle of *epose: The steepness of a slope where materials "roc86 san'6 gra9el6 cobbles6
etc( are at rest. 0ifferent with 'ifferent materials. Soli' roc8 wo4l' ha9e a steeper angle of repose. San' wo4l' be lower.

". 0ri9ing Dorce 9s. *esisting Dorce: This is essentially gra9ity 9ers4s the strength "or
cohesi9eness( of the roc8s or material. A slope at the angle of repose in'icates that the resisting force balances the 'ri9ing force.

#. O9ersteepening: O9ersteepening is any process which ma8es a slope steeper. Steeper

slopes are more s4sceptible to the force of gra9ity beca4se there is less s4pporting

material beneath. This is nat4rally ca4se' by tectonic 4plift. Hhen the 'ri9ing force wins o4t6 mass mo9ement will occ4r.

B. .lasses of -ass -o9ement "Dig4re ,#.,=( !. Soil .reep: Slow6 'ownslope mo9ement of soil an' regolith. Ai'e' by free)e$thaw
cycles. .an tilt trees an' h4man ma'e ob@ects imbe''e' into the gro4n'. Ta8es h4n're's of years.

". Dlows: 5igh water content "sat4rate'(. /ncl4'es earthflows "9isco4s6 stays reasonably in
tact6 b4t mo9es in a plastic motion( an' m4'flows "higher water content an' m4ch faster mo9ing than an earthflow(.

#. ?an'sli'es: ?ow water content "not sat4rate'(. S4''en mo9ement of intact bloc8s of
regolith or be'roc8. .an be translational or rotational.

5. Dalls an' A9alanches: Dastest. /ncl4'es roc8fall "in'i9i'4al roc8s fall an' collect in a
slope( an' 'ebris a9alanches "h4ge mass of falling roc86 'ebris an' soil(. The s4''en sli'ing of be'roc8 from steep mo4ntain slopes. Often initiate' by earthK4a8es. ot common6 b4t catastrophic.

C. Scarification "54man /n'4ce' -ass -o9ement(: 54man acti9ity can res4lt in increase' mass
mo9ement by o9ersteepening slopes. This happens with roa'b4il'ing6 mining6 constr4ction6 etc.

,. *ates of -ass -o9ement: <ery stic8y K4estion. Hhat is more effecti9e6 infreK4ent catastrophic
e9ents6 or freK4ent small e9entsO The story of An'ers *app: Car8e9agge6 Swe'en. ?ate ,=%#s. = year st4'y of mass mo9ement "carpets6 sta8es6 painte' lines6 repeat photography(. Then6 2 inches of rain fell in : 'ays. -ore mo9ement was recor'e' from this e9ent that in = years.

/lu*ial )rocesses and Land orms (&i*er S+stems) (Christopherson Cha. !!)

I. Introduction( *ecall that r4nning water is one of the flowing s4bstances which ero'e6 transport6 an'
'eposit earth materials to create terrestrial lan' forms. The others are ice6 win'6 an' wa9es. The forces of r4nning water "fl49ial processes( are the 'ominant processes shaping lan'forms6 mainly beca4se they arenEt as geographically restricte' as the other three. The st4'y of fl49ial lan'forms is terme' fl49ial geomorphology.

II. ,rainage Basin( The area "or areal 4nit( in which all precipitation 'rains to a specific point. Also calle'
watershe'. All ri9ers ha9e a 'rainage basin6 which may incl4'e many smaller trib4taries.

A. Open Systems: -atter "water6 se'iment6 organic material6 etc( an' energy enter an' exit the
system.

B. 0rainage 0ensity: ?ength of all stream channels in basin 'i9i'e' by total area of basin. C. 0rainage !attern: Arrangement of all stream channels in an area. See 'en'ritic6 trellis6 an' ,. 0ischarge: The 9ol4me of water mo9ing past a gi9en point in a gi9en 4nit if time. 7s4ally
meas4re' in c4bic feet per secon' "cfs or ft:Js(. 3 R w'96 where 3 is 'ischarge6 w is wi'th6 ' is 'epth6 an' 9 is 9elocity ra'ial.

III. /lu*ial Erosion( The process of water 'islo'ging se'iment. Hater mo9ing 'own steep slopes has a
great 'eal of 8inetic energy to ero'e earth materials.

A. .ategories of Slope Erosion "O9erlan' Dlow(: This refers to the action of rain water an'
s4bseK4ent o9erlan' r4noff. The ero'e' materials incl4'e particles of organic matter6 clays6 silt6 san'6 an' gra9el "mostly soil materials(.

!. Splash Erosion: A rain'rop colli'ing with bare soil on a slope will 'islo'ge soil particles
an' 'eposit them a little way 'ownslope. A large rainstorm can mo9e a great 'eal of material in this manner.

". Sheet Erosion: Hhen o9erlan' flow remo9es 4niform6 thin layers of soil from a slope. #. *ill Erosion: Hhen o9erlan' flow begins to concentrate an' c4t many small parallel
channels into a slope. These may wi'en an' 'eepen an' become g4llies.

B. .ategories of Stream Erosion "Streamflow(: The erosi9e powers of mo9ing water are highly
concentrate' an' foc4se' in the channel. There are three forms of stream erosion.

!. 5y'ra4lic Action: The 'ragging force of the water an' the materials carrie' by the water
constantly 'islo'ge materials from the stream be' an' ban8s.

". Abrasion: Abrasion is the physical cr4shing of be'roc8 fragments by bo4l'ers carrie'
along by the stream. /f roc8 is highly resistant to weathering in general6 abrasion is the only effecti9e process.

#. .orrosion: .hemical weathering "'issol9ing( of roc8 from the stream channel

I%. Stream Transportation( The soli' material carrie' by a stream is the stream loa'. A. Types of ?oa' !. 0issol9e' ?oa': 0issol9e' minerals in sol4tion. ". S4spen'e' ?oa': Se'iment p4lle' 4p into the water col4mn. -ost of the stream loa' is
in this form

#. Ge' ?oa': Se'iment 'ragge' along the be' "the bottom of the stream(. B. .apacity an' .ompetence: .apacity refers to the total amo4nt of se'iment a stream can carryI
competence refers to the si)e of se'iment a stream can carry. .apacity an' .ompetence increase with increase' 9elocity an' t4rb4lence. 5igh 9elocity will 'rag more >st4ff> along the be'6 an' high t4rb4lence will ca4se the stream to retain more s4spen'e' materials.

%. Stream ,eposition( The term for material 'eposite' by a stream or ri9er is all49i4m. A. *ole of <elocity an' T4rb4lence: Hhen 9elocity an' t4rb4lence 'iminish6 be' loa' an'
s4spen'e' loa' will come to a rest an' be 'eposite'. The stream no longer has the energy to carry this material.

B. Sorting of -aterials: Hhere 9elocity an' t4rb4lence are highest6 the largest si)e' se'iment will
be 'eposite'. Hhere 9elocity an' t4rb4lence are lowest6 the smallest si)e' se'iment will be 'eposite'.

%I. E:amples o /lu*ial S+stems A. 5igh Gra'ient "Steep( Stream: After tectonic 4plift creates steep slopes6 this is the first type of
stream to form. !. <$Shape' <alleys: 5igh gra'ient streams 'ownc4t rapi'ly6 res4lting in o9ersteepening of slopes an' a 'eep <$Shape. -ass mo9ement an' slope erosion increase. ic8points: This is where the be'roc8 is resistant to erosion6 creating a K4ic86 steep 'rop "falls an' rapi's( -ean'ering Stream Example: Gentle gra'ient streams will generally only transport an' 'eposit finer materials6 s4ch as san'6 silt an' clay si)e particles. This creates a mean'ering stream. TO!</EH !. All49ial -ean'ers: One f4ll wa9e in a mean'ering stream. ". Stream <elocity: -axim4m 9elocity is always on the o4tsi'e of a mean'er in a mean'ering stream. #. !oint Gar: /nsi'e of a mean'er where 'eposition excee's erosion. 5. .4tban8: O4tsi'e of a mean'er where erosion excee's 'eposition. 6. .4toff: !oint where ri9er @4mps its ban8 creating a shorter co4rse. 7. Oxbow ?a8e: Ol' ri9er co4rse create' where a mean'er is c4toff. Also calle' aban'one' mean'er.

".

B.

-ean'ering Stream "Top9iew(

C>T BA=? C>T BA=?

2@B23 LA?E

)2I=T BA&

)2I=T BA&

/ormer ri*er channels

)2I=T BA&

C>T BA=? Indicates highest lo. *elocit+ Indicates lo.est lo. *elocit+

)otential uture cuto site

&ecent cuto

.*OSS SE.T/O ;. Dloo'plain: Area occ4pie' by water that exits a ri9er channel '4ring a floo'. 8. Dloo'plain 'eposits: -aterials 'eposite' in floo'plain '4ring a floo'. -. at4ral ?e9ee: *aise' area create' precisely where ri9er exits its channel '4ring a floo'. 5appens beca4se this is where t4rb4lence an' 9elocity 'iminish rapi'ly. !4. /ncrease' Se'iment ?oa': This can fill a ri9er channel6 th4s ca4sing it to more easily exit its ban8. .a4se' by nat4ral process "glaciation( or h4man processes "mining 6 constr4ction6 etc(.

.*OSS SE.T/O
&I%E& BL>//

=AT>&AL LE%EES

&I%E& BL>//

/ L 2 2 , ) L A I =

/ L 2 2 , ) L A I =

/L22,)LAI= ,E)2SITS

ST&EAM C<A==EL

/L22,)LAI= ,E)2SITS

C. Grai'e' Stream: Grai'e' streams are forme' when a stream carries excess se'iment. The
se'iment is constantly 'eposite' along the stream be'6 e9ent4ally cho8ing the stream an' ca4sing the water to ta8e another path. The process contin4es.

,. *i9er 0eltas: The ability of ri9ers to transport se'iment is 4ltimately stoppe' at the ocean. There
is 4s4ally a massi9e area of 'eposition at the ocean. This area is calle' a 'elta.

%II./lu*ial Acti*it+ in Arid &egions( 0esert lan'forms show significant e9i'ence of being infl4ence' by
flowing water6 in spite of the fact that there is often little rain.

A. All49ial Dan: S4rfaces in the 'esert are often ",( har' an' imper9io4s "almost ba8e'( an'
"&(4n9egetate'. This ca4ses the occasional rains to r4n swiftly o9er the s4rface6 4nslowe' by 9egetation. This creates m4' flows an' 'ebris flows6 which empty o4t of the canyons an' fan o4t onto the 9alley floors. This forms an all49ial fan. otice the flow of gro4n' water in an all49ial fan. otice that the coarser materials nearest canyon mo4th6 finer materials f4rthest.

B. !laya: ?ow point "9alley floor( in an ari' region. This is where water 'rains6 carrying only fine
an' 'issol9e' se'iments. E9aporation 'ominant6 4s4ally salty.

Allu*ial /an and )la+a

Mud /lo. ,e$ris /lo.

Bedroc'

A l l u * i a l

/ a n

)LAAA

Coastal )rocesses and Land orms (Christopherson Cha. !#)

I. 2ceans and Tides( A. .a4se: Ti'es res4lt from the gra9itational attraction between the Earth an' -oon an' the S4n
an' -oon.

B. Spring Ti'e "the highest ti'al range(: Occ4rs approximately twice a month when the -oon is in a
perfect line with the Earth an' S4n. Hith both the -oon an' S4nTs gra9itational p4ll along the same axis6 a large ti'al b4lge is create'. This ca4ses the highest an' lowest ti'es to occ4r.

C.

eap Ti'e "the lowest ti'al range(: Occ4rs approximately twice a month6 when the moon is at a right angle with an imaginary line @oining the Earth an' S4n. /n this case6 the S4n an' -oon are p4lling at right angles6 res4lting in a cancellation of their forces. The 'ifference between high an' low ti'es is minimal compare' to Spring Ti'es. current flows seawar' "falling ti'e(6 while the flood current flows lan'war' "rising ti'e(.

,. Ti'al .4rrents: Occ4rs in bays an' est4aries6 ca4se' by the rise an' fall of water le9el. The ebb !. .an pro'4ce high 9elocity c4rrents in narrow inletsI 8eeps them from being bloc8e' with ".
se'iment. .an carry large s4spen'e' loa' of m4' an' silt. E9ent4ally forms ti'al c4rrent 'eposits6 m4'flats6 an' salt marshes.

II. 3a*es A. .a4ses !. Hin': -ost wa9es are win'$'ri9en.

ormally a smooth 4n'4lation of the sea s4rface "in the open ocean(6 the wa9elength rises an' the 9elocity slows when they reach shore "a f4nction of wa9elength 9s. water 'epth(. The 'istance o9er which the win' blows is terme' fetch. The longer the fetch6 an' the faster the win's6 the higher the swell "an' res4lting wa9es(. ca4se seismic sea$wa9es "ts4namis(.

". <olcanic Acti9ity: Er4ptions at sea$floor sprea'ing centers an' 9olcanic islan's can #. Tectonic Acti9ity: EarthK4a8es "fa4ltingJ4plift6 4n'ersea lan'sli'es6 an' relate'
mo9ement( an' large t4rbi'ity c4rrentsJflows can also ca4se ts4namis.

B. .oastal Geomorphology !. Erosion a) 5y'ra4lic Action: The force of the water acting against a soli' ob@ect. .an exert
tons per sK4are inch of press4re "plenty eno4gh to fract4re roc8s an' mo9e large bo4l'ers(.

$) Abrasion: -o9ement of san'6 roc8s6 an' gra9el across the s4rfaces of

hea'lan's6 cliffs6 roc8s6 etc. Acts li8e a big in'4strial san'ing machine contin4ally whac8ing yo4 abo4t the hea' an' sho4l'ers.

c) .orrosion: .hemical action6 'issol4tion of roc8s crystalli)ation of salts in roc8

pores "similar to salt$crystal growth in ari' en9ironments(.

d) !ne4matic Action: Abr4pt compression an' expansion of air in roc8 as a wa9e

brea8s on the shore. This is especially effecti9e on loose shore material "san'6 etc(.

". Transport a) ?ongshore .4rrents: Ocean c4rrents which flow parallel to the shore. They
carry se'iment along the coast.

$) Geach 0rifting: Geach 'rifting is the mo9ement of san' along the coast which
res4lts from the swash an' bac8wash of wa9es which hit the coast at an angle.

c) ?ittoral 0rift: .ombination of longshore 'rift "material transporte' by a longshore

c4rrent( an' beach 'rift. .a4se' by win'Jwa9e angles stri8ing a beach.

#. 0eposition The primary 'epositional forms on a coast are beaches. a) /n the shallow water6 wa9es of translation capt4re some se'iment from the sea
floor. As they approach shoreline6 wa9es slow 'own6 often to a point where they can 'eposit the se'iments. Th4s beaches are forme'.

$) .oastal erosion an' 'eposition are 9ery 'ynamic. Hhen the energy of wa9es
changes6 the balance between erosion an' 'eposition also shifts. ormally6 beaches grow '4ring K4iet weather an' retreat "they are ero'e'( '4ring storms.

c) Some shores experience long term tren' of either acc4m4lation an' erosion: (i) (ii)
!rogra'ation $ b4il'ing o4t of shore "acc4m4lation(. *etrogra'ation $ c4tting bac8 of a shore "erosion(.

5. .oastal ?an'forms a) Geaches: Geaches are 'epositional lan'forms ma'e 4p of san' an' larger
se'iments $ gra9el6 cobblers. Smaller particles "silt6 clay( are 4s4ally carrie' in s4spension an' not 'eposite'.

$) .liffsJGenchesJTerraces: .oastal erosion eats away coastal cliffs "by notching6

4n'erc4tting6 slope collapse(6 ca4sing them to retreat. /f erosion is strong an' prolonge'6 a broa' erosional platform is c4t at the base of shore cliffs6 calle' a wa9e$c4t bench. /t is a gently sloping be'roc8 s4rface slightly below water le9el. The material waste' from the slope is f4rther ero'e' an' carrie' away by bac8wash. /t is then often 'eposite' behin' a bench to form a wa9e$b4ilt terrace. /n time6 this terrace may grow so large as to co9er the wa9e$c4t bench RU a beach is forme'.

c) Garrier islan'sJ?agoons: Garrier islan's are long6 narrow an' low islan's
stretching along coastlines. The main ca4se of their formation is belie9e' to be the brea8ing of big wa9es "'4ring storms( in the shallow waters close to the shoreline. A lagoon is an isolate' "or almost isolate'( bo'y of water6 separate' from the sea by a barrier islan' or a san' spit across a bay. O9er time6 as fine se'iments acc4m4late in a lagoon6 it transforms into m4'flats6 an' then6 after grasses set in6 a marsh.

d) .oral reefsJAtolls: .oral polyps grow in warm tropical waters. /n a''ition6 water
has to be shallow "abo4t %# m or less(6 since polyp reK4ires s4n light for its growth.

(i) Dringing reefs $ coral reef 'e9elope' on the 4n'erwater slope of the
9olcano.

(ii) Garrier reef $ 9olcano is slowly 'estroye' by wa9es6 howe9er reef (iii)Atoll $ the 9olcanic islan' is completely 'estroye'.
contin4es to grow an' b4il' itself 4pwar'.

6. Types of .oastlines a) S4bmergent .oasts: .oasts that experience rising water. /n these cases we
ha9e partial 'rowning of a coast. Two prominent types of s4bmergence coasts are (i) *ia coast $ 'eeply embaye' coast. ?ong an' narrow bays are6 in fact6 former lower portions of stream 9alleys6 now 4n'er water $ they are 8nown as est4aries. (ii) Dior' coast $ s4bmerge' glacial tro4ghs. ?ower parts of 7$shape glacial 9alleys are in4n'ate' with seawater forming fior's $steep$walle' long an' 'eep inlets.

$) Emergent coasts: .oasts where former s4bmarine lan'forms are now expose'
on lan'. Among the emergence coasts are

(i) Garrier$islan' coast 1 low$lying6 gently sloping6 yo4ng se'imentary

'eposits6 s4bseK4ently 4plifte'. /slan's form by wa9e an' win' action from bars an' '4nes6 hel' together by beach grasses an' other 9egetation. (ii) <olcano an' la9a coast 1 <olcano coasts 4s4ally ha9e low cliffs of la9a6 an' narrow6 steep beaches. (iii).oral$reef coast 1 Only new lan' create' by organisms. ew colonies are b4ilt on top of ol' onesI pieces of 'ea' coral "calci4m carbonate( are ero'e' to form beaches. *eK4ires water temperat4res abo9e &#o .. (i*)0elta coast $ forme' by 'eposition of new material "ri9er se'iments( that gets wor8e' by wa9es an' c4rrents. The -ississippi ri9er 'ischarges abo4t , million metric tons of se'iment per 'ay. (*) Da4lt coast $ a coastline can be 'efine' by a geologic fa4lt.

Glacial )rocesses and Land orms ( lo.ing ice as an agent o erosion) (Christopherson Cha. !5)

I. Introduction( Glaciers ha9e in the past co9ere' 9ast areas of the worl'6 especially compare' to the
present. Glacial acti9ity has been partic4larly high o9er the co4rse of the last ,.6% million years. 0espite the relati9e l4ll at present6 glaciers ha9e been responsible for shaping many lan'scapes we see to'ay.

A. Two -ain Types of Glaciers !. Alpine "high ele9ation(: Alpine glaciers form for the most part in mo4ntaino4s areas6
filling narrow 9alleys with >ri9ers> of ice. Orographic precipitation is the primary factor in9ol9e' in their formation. Starts o4t as a cirK4e.

". .ontinental "high latit4'e(: .ontinental Glaciers "or ice sheets( are h4ge expanses of ice
many 8ilometers across "an' thic8( which form in col'6 polar regions. The only two ice sheets in existence to'ay are Greenlan' an' Antarctica.

B. Dormation of Glaciers !. Ann4al snowfall m4st excee' snowmelt: /n simple terms6 glaciers will form when more
snow falls than melts.

". Snowline: The term snowline is loosely applie' to mean that ele9ation in a mo4ntaino4s
en9ironment abo9e which snow remains thro4gh the next yearEs first snow. /t is only abo9e this line that there is the possibility for snow acc4m4lation "an' glacial 'e9elopment(

#. Transformation to /ce: Hhen layers of snow acc4m4late6 a slow process begins which
4ltimately res4lts in the transformation of that snow to ice. This process is one of 'ensification an' exp4lsion of air. Hhen there are no longer air spaces between the ice crystals6 the snow has become glacial ice. The transitional term is firn.

II. Glacial Geomorpholog+( There are many similarities between alpine an' continental glaciationI we will
foc4s mostly on alpine as it presents a goo' mo'el. See continental below.

A. Erosion: Glaciers ha9e ama)ing erosi9e powers6 not rea'ily noticable. Glacial till is the collecti9e
term for any glacier relate' se'iment. !. Types of Erosion a) Abrasion: The glacial ice collects gra9el6 bo4l'ers6 san'6 etc an' 'rags this material along the be'roc8 s4rface scraping off roc8 particles. The 9ery fine material is calle' glacial flo4r. This process often lea9es scars in the roc8 calle' striations.

$) !l4c8ing: This is when the glacial ice free)es to ch4n8s of @ointe' be'roc8 an'
'islo'ges them. /t is 'iffic4lt to 8now which one of these two processes is more effecti9e6 as they are 'iffic4lt to obser9e. &. Erosional ?an'forms c) .irK4e "'epression left by a cirK4e glacier( d) 5orn e) Arete ) 7$shape' 9alley "also calle' tro4gh( (i) 5anging <alley (ii) Dior' "glacial tro4gh fille' by sea( g) Striations "scratches( an' glacial polish

B. Transport !. -ass Galance: A glacial system has inp4ts an' o4tp4ts. a) Acc4m4lation Vone: The area abo9e the snowline is terme' the acc4m4lation
)one. Snowfall excee's snowmelt here.

$) Ablation Vone: The area below the snowline is terme' the ablation )one.
Snowmelt excee's snowfall here.

c) EK4ilibri4m ?ine: The bo4n'ary between the ablation )one an' the acc4m4lation
)one. Snowfall eK4als snowmelt here. Often calle' the snowline.

d) Dlow: /ce flows from the acc4m4lation )one to the ablation )one. .arries glacial
till li8e a con9eyer belt. -ass Galance of an Alpine Glacier "si'e9iew 'iagram(

B2=E 2/ ACC>M>LATI2= B2=E 2/ ABLATI2=

E0uili$rium Line

Sno.line

". Types of Dlow a) !lastic Dlow: 7n'er press4re6 the ice at 'epth flows li8e a plastic. $) Gasal Sli'ing: Sli'ing motion where ice meets be'roc86 ai'e' by the l4brication
of meltwater.

#. E9i'ence of Dlow a) .re9asses: .rac8s in the glacier where the glacier p4lls away from the mo4ntain $)
"bergschr4n'(6 where it t4rns corners6 an' where it flows 'own a steep portion "icefalls(. Experimental E9i'ence: Sta8es were po4n'e' in a straight line across glacier "perpen'ic4lar to flow(. All sta8es mo9e' in relation to the stationary points alongsi'e the glacierI the sta8es in the mi''le flowe' fastest "friction is least in the center of a glacier.

5. *ate of Dlow: "Getween a few centimeters to ,##mJ'ay( C. 0eposition "an' 0epositional ?an'forms(: Hhen a glacier melts it 'rops its loa'. !. -oraines: -o4n's of 'eposite' glacial till. a) -e'ial: Glacial till transporte' an' 'eposite' 'own the center of a glacier. $) ?ateral: Glacial till transporte' an' 'eposite' 'own the si'e of a glacier. c) Terminal: Glacial till transporte' an' 'eposite' at the en' of a glacier.

-oraines "Top9iew(

/L23 ?ateral -oraine

/L23

-e'ial -oraine

Terminal -oraine

". Erratics "or ice rafte' bo4l'ers(: Single large bo4l'ers 'eposite' by glaciers. Often loo8
o4t of place an' often are of a 'ifferent roc8 type than the local be'roc8.

III. Continental Glaciation 1 Common Land orms !. Es8er: Sna8eli8e ri'ge 'eposite' by a s4b$glacial stream. ". 0r4mlin: 0eposite' till streamline' in the 'irection of glacial ice mo9ement. #. Cettle: 0epression left behin' when a bloc8 of glacial ice brea8s off an' ta8es many
years to melt.

5. Terminal -oraine: The moraine forme' at the f4rthest reaches of the glacier. 6. *ecessional -oraine: ?i8e a terminal moraine6 forme' when the glacier stalls '4ring a
retreat.

7. O4twash J O4twash !lain: -asses of materials 'eposite' by meltwater ri9ers beyon' the
f4rthest reaches of a glacier.

I%. )leistocene( Sometimes calle' the /ce Age ",.6% million $ ,#6### years ago(. There ha9e been a series
of glaciations '4ring this time. They are referre' to as glacials "when glaciers a'9ance( an' interglacials "when glaciers retreat(. See Dig4res ,+$&+ an' ,+$&2.

A. Extent of Glacial /ce: As recently as ,%$,26 ### years ago6 massi9e continental ice co9ere'
m4ch of . America from .ana'a so4th well into the present 'ay 7nite' States. These ice sheets sco4re' off all regolith6 soils6 an' plants in their path.

B. Sea ?e9el Dl4ct4ations: .ontinental glaciation has a profo4n' effect on global sea le9el. !. .ontinental Glaciers /ncrease......... Sea ?e9els 0ecrease ". .ontinental Glaciers 0ecrease........ Sea ?e9els /ncrease C. -echanisms of .limate .hange: There are many factors which ha9e contrib4te' to climate
change o9er time. Some are re9iewe' here

!. .hanging Orbital *elations a) .hanging Orbital Shape ",##6### yr cycle( $) .hanging 0irection of Tilt "&66### yr cycle(: .alle' precession. c) .hanging 0egree of Tilt "4#6### yr cycle(: Tilt6 c4rrently at &:.% 'eg.6 9aries
between &4 'eg. An' && 'eg.

". Solar <ariability #. Tectonics 5. <olcanic Acti9ity 6. 54man Acti9ity