Internal Combustion Engine

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Vehicle Engine Technology

Combustion of SI Engines

Combustion

Combustion is a chemical reaction in which hydrogen and carbon present in the fuel combine with oxygen liberating heat energy Conditions

Presence of combustible mixture Source for initiating combustion

Combustion

Types of combustion

Homogeneous or premixed combustion Fuel and oxygen molecules are uniformly distributed A flame front rapidly spreads in the mixture Heterogeneous or diffusion combustion Rate of combustion is determined by the velocity of diffusion of fuel vapors and oxygen in to the combustion zone

Stages of combustion

Stages of combustion

Ignition lag

Growth and development of self propagating nucleus of flame takes place Chemical process depending on both pressure and temperature It also depends on the nature of the fuel, proportion of residual gas present

Stages of combustion

Propagation of flame

Physical process Flame travels at constant velocity Diffusion of burning fuel molecules from the combustion zone to the adjacent layers of unburned mixture The turbulent flame spreads away from the spark discharge location. Heat transfer to the wall is low The rate of heat release depends on turbulence and also in reaction rate The rate of pressure rise is proportional to the rate of heat release The combustion chamber volume remains practically constant

Stages of combustion

Afterburning

The flame velocity decreases during this period The rate of pressure rise reduces due to lower flame velocity and reduced flame front surface No pressure rise due to expansion process

Flame front propagation


The rate of propagation of flame is very critical for efficient combustion Factors

Reaction rate Transposition rate

Reaction rate is a chemical process how it consumes unburnt charge Transposition rate is a physical process movement of flame front relative to cylinder walls

Flame Development

Flame front Region of space where the unburnt mixture is heated and converted to products Flame Result of self sustaining chemical reaction occurring in the flame front Burning velocity The velocity, relative and normal to flame front, with which the unburnt mixture move into the flame front area Flame front is divided into preheat zone and reaction zone In preheat zone the temperature of unburnt gases is raised In reaction zone the unburnt gases is converted to products

Flame Development

Flame development and propagation varies for each cycle Shape of pressure, volume fraction enflamed and mass fraction burnt varies for each cycle Flame growth depends on local mixture motion and composition Volume fraction curve rise steeply than mass fraction due to the variation in density between the burnt and unburnt mixture Even when the flame covers the entire cylinder 25% of charge will still be unburnt

Flame Development

Flame Development

Flame Structure and Speed


In SI engine the turbulent premixed flame occurs An approximately spherical flame front grows steadily from the time of spark discharge Due to turbulence an irregular reaction zone is formed Position of reaction zone moves rapidly in space, producing a time-averaged view that gives appearance of a thick reaction zone, which is called turbulent flow brush Actual reaction front is very thin

Flame Structure

Flame Structure

Flame Structure

The flame front surface area depends on geometry of combustion chamber and spark plug location Greater the flame surface area greater the mass burning rate Central spark plug location gives approximately twice the flame area than the side plug geometry Mixture burning rate increases with increased swirl

Flame Structure

Flame Structure

Flame Propogation

Factors

Turbulence

Flame speed increases with increasing turbulence Turbulence increases the heat flow to the cylinder walls Accelerates the chemical reaction - lean mixtures Excessive turbulence will extinguish the flame Highest flame velocities are obtained with slight rich mixture Less thermal energy is released in the case of lean mixture Very rich mixtures lead to incomplete combustion

Fuel air ratio


Flame Propogation

Factors

Temperature and pressure


Flame speed increases with an increase in intake temperature and pressure Better homogeneous mixture Higher compression ratio increases the flame speed Reduced clearance volume and hence high density of mixture Increases linearly with engine speed due to increased turbulence

Compression ratio

Engine speed

Ignition Process

Phases of spark ignition


Pre-breakdown Ionization of molecules between the gap Voltage ---- (15 20 kV) Breakdown Increase in the discharge current (around 100 A) in a few nanoseconds Pressure rises to few hundred atmospheres Temperature rises to 60000 K Heavy shock waves is created and plasma expands Heat is transferred to the near by mixture by conduction

Ignition process

Arc

The voltage reduces to 100 V and current is greater than 100 mA Sustained discharge of electrons from hot cathode High rate of electrode erosion Current is less than 100mA and cathode is cold Electrode erosion is less Conventional ignition system has shorter arc phase (micro seconds) and longer glow discharge (1-2 mSec)

Glow discharge

Ignition Process

Flame Propagation relations

Abnormal Combustion

Normal Combustion Smoothly varying cylinder pressure Abnormal Combustion Slightly or heavy pressure fluctuations in cylinder

Knocking Surface ignition

Knocking is the pinging noise emitted from the SI engine due to shock waves Surface ignition is due to the hot spots present inside the combustion chamber

Abnormal Combustion

Causes for Surface ignition


Carbon deposits that remain incandescent Spark plug too hot Sharp edges in combustion chamber Overheated valves

Knocking Theory

Knocking theory

Auto-ignition theory Detonation theory Spark knock Knocking surface ignition Non knocking surface ignition Run on Run away knocking Rumble

Types of Abnormal combustion


Abnormal Combustion

Abnormal Combustion

Abnormal Combustion

Factors affecting knocking


Compression ratio Inlet temperature Engine speed Engine size Location of spark plug Spark timing

Fuel Knock Scale


To provide a standard measure of a fuels ability to resist knock, a scale has been devised by which fuels are assigned an octane number ON. The octane number determines whether or not a fuel will knock for a specified engine at a specified operating condition. An ON scale is in place where normal heptane (n-C7H16) has an octane value of zero and iso-octane (i-C8H18) has a value of 100. The higher the octane number, the higher the resistance to knock. Performance Number= klimep of test fuel / klimep of isooctane

Octane Number Measurement


Two methods have been developed to measure ON using a standardized single-cylinder engine developed under the auspices of the Cooperative Fuel Research (CFR) Committee in 1931*.

The CFR engine is 4-stroke with 3.25 bore and 4.5 stroke, compression ratio can be varied from 3 to 30. Research 52 Inlet temperature (oC) Speed (rpm) 600 13 Spark advance (oBTC) Coolant temperature (oC) 100 Inlet pressure (atm) 1.0 Humidity (kg water/kg dry air) 0.0836 - 0.0072 Motor 149 900 19-26 (varies with r)

0.003 6.0072

Octane Number Measurement


Testing procedure:

Run the CFR engine on the test fuel at both research and motor conditions. Slowly increase the compression ratio until a standard amount of knock occurs as measured by an in-cylinder pressure transducer. At that compression ratio run the engines on blends of nhepatane and isooctane. ON is the % by volume of octane in the blend that produces the same knock

Octane Number Measurement


The antiknock index used in N. America is the average of the research and motor octane numbers. Note, Europe uses RON for its antiknock index.

Antiknock index =

RON + MON 2

MON is always lower than RON because it uses more severe operating conditions. For fuels with antiknock quality better than iso octane ON = 100 + 28.28T / [1.0 + 0.736T+(1.0 + 1.472T - 0.035216T2)1/2] where T is milliliters of tetraethyl lead per U.S. gallon Sensitivity : RON MON It is a measure of the extent to which a gasoline is downgraded under severe conditions

Vehicle Engine Technology


Combustion in CI Engines

Combustion of CI Engines

Fuel is injected into the cylinder at the end of compression stroke Liquid fuel atomizes into small drops and penetrates into chamber The fuel vaporizes and mixes with the high temperature and high pressure cylinder air Spontaneous ignition of fuel air mixture takes place after a delay period Cylinder pressure increases as the combustion continues CI engine combustion is a extremely complex one

Combustion in CI Engines

Stages of Combustion

Ignition delay Premixed combustion phase Mixing controlled phase Late combustion phase

Stages of Combustion

Ignition Delay

Factors affecting ignition delay


Injection timing Injection quantity or load Intake air temperature and pressure Engine Speed Combustion chamber wall effects Swirl rate Oxygen concentration Fuel properties

Ignition Delay

Injection timing

Advancing or retarding the injection increases the delay period If injection starts earlier, the pressure and temperature are too low If injection starts later, the temperature and pressure are high earlier but decrease as delay proceeds

Ignition Delay

Injection Quantity or Load


Delay decreases linearly with increase in load As load increases the residual gas temperature and the wall temperature increases resulting in high charge temperature Increase in the fuel quantity does not affect the ignition delay at high load conditions When the engine is at starting condition with increased fuel quantity increases the ignition delay

Ignition Delay

Intake air temperature and pressure

Ignition Delay

Engine Speed

Increase in engine speed decreases the heat loss to the sorroundings

Ignition Delay

Combustion Chamber Wall

Ignition Delay

Swirl Rate

Changes in swirl rate changes the evaporation and mixing process Swirl rate also affects the wall heat transfer and charge temperature At normal engine operating conditions the swirl rate changes on delay are small At low engine speeds the changes on delay is high

Ignition Delay

Oxygen Concentration

Mixing of exhaust gas changes the oxygen concentration Oxygen concentration is decreased the ignition delay increased

Ignition Delay

Fuel Properties

Ignition delay decreases with increase in cetane number Straight chain paraffinic compounds have high cetane number Aromatics have lower cetane number

Ignition Delay

Fuel Properties

Spray Characteristics

Large pressure differentials exist between injector and engine cylinder Fuel injection pressure ranges from 200 to 1700 bar At the time of injection the cylinder pressure is around 50 to 100 bar and temperature about 1000 K The density of air is between 15 to 25 kg/m3

Spray Characteristics

Liquid jet leaves the nozzle at 100 m/sec The liquid column leaving the nozzle disintegrates after the breakup length The mass of air entrained inside the spray increases as moved away from the nozzle tip Spray diverges and the velocity decreases The fuel drops evaporates The tip of spray penetrates into the combustion chamber

Spray Characteristics

Spray Characteristics

The spray spreads out and slows down as the mass flow in the spray increases Droplets on the outer edge evaporates first Fuel vapor mixture sheath is formed around the liquid core Maximum jet velocity at the jet axis The equivalence ratio is highest on the axis and reduces to zero at the spray boundary The spray flows tangentially along the cylinder walls as it reaches the cylinder boundary

Spray Characteristics

Spray Atomization

Breakup regime produces droplets with sizes much less than the nozzle diameter At low jet velocity, the breakup is due to the unstable surface waves caused by the surface tension resulting in drops larger than jet diameter As jet velocity increases, the surface tension augments to the increased relative motion resulting in drops equal to jet diameter This is called first wind-induced breakup regime As jet velocity is increased further, jet spray is diverged Further increase in the jet velocity increases the relative motion and hence the surface tension creating short surface waves This results in droplets much lesser than the jet diameter Atomization is greatly affected by the aerodynamic interactions between the liquid and gas

Spray Atomization

The spray angle is greatly affected by the nozzle geometry

Spray Atomization

Spray Atomization

Jet divergence angle increases with increasing gas density Divergence angles increase with decreasing fuel viscosity Divergence angle decrease with increased nozzle length

Spray Penetration

The spray penetration influences the air utilization and fuel air mixing rates Over penetration increases emissions of UBHC and partially burned species Under penetration reduces air utilization The initial spray tip penetration increases linearly with time till the jet breakup After breakup it increases with square root of time, t

Spray Penetration

Spray Penetration

Droplet Distribution

Sauter Mean Diameter (SMD)


The diameter of the droplet that has the same surface to volume ratio as that of the total spray

Droplet Distribution

Effect of nozzle L/D ratio

Effect of nozzle diameter

Droplet Distribution

Effect of viscosity

Effect of Surface tension

Spray Evaporation

Spray Evaporation

As the droplet temperature increases the fuel vapor pressure and evaporation rate increases Vapor moves away from the drops heat transfer to the drops decreases Also decrease in drop velocity decreases the heat transfer coefficient between drop and air These factors decreases the evaporation rate after a period of time

Knocking in CI engines

If the delay period is long a large amount of fuel will be injected and accumulated in the chamber This large amount of fuel may cause high rate of pressure rise

Fuel Ignition Quality


The ignition characteristics of the fuel affect the ignition delay. The ignition quality of a fuel is defined by its cetane number CN. For low cetane fuels the ignition delay is long and most of the fuel is injected before autoignition and rapid combustion, under extreme cases this produces an audible knocking sound referred to as diesel knock. For high cetane fuels the ignition delay is short and very little fuel is injected before autoignition, the heat release rate is controlled by the rate of fuel injection and fuel-air mixing smoother engine operation.

Fuel Ignition Quality


The method used to determine the ignition quality in terms of CN is analogous to that used for determining the antiknock quality via the ON. The cetane number scale is defined by blends of two pure hydrocarbon reference fuels. By definition, isocetane (heptamethylnonane, HMN) has a cetane number of 15 and cetane (n-hexadecane, C16H34) has a value of 100. In the original procedures alpha-methylnaphtalene (C11H10) with a cetane number of zero represented the bottom of the scale. This has since been replaced by HMN which is a more stable compound. The higher the CN the better the ignition quality, i.e., shorter ignition delay. The cetane number is given by: CN = (% hexadecane) + 0.15 (% HMN)

Cetane Measurement

The method employed to measure CN uses a standardized single-cylinder engine with variable compression ratio The operating condition is:
Inlet temperature ( C) Speed (rpm) Start of fuel injection ( BTC) Coolant temperature ( C) Injection pressure (MPa) 65.6 900 13 100 10.3

With the engine running at these conditions on the test fuel, the compression ratio is varied until combustion starts at TC ignition delay period of 13. The above procedure is repeated using blends of cetane and HMN. The blend that gives a 13 ignition delay with the same compression ratio is used to calculate the test fuel cetane number.

Comparison of Knock

SI engines - Autoignition of the end gas away from the spark plug Near the end of the combustion CI engines - Autoignition of the charge at the start of combustion Knocking intensity - High in SI engines - Low in CI engines Pre- ignition - No pre-ignition in CI engines In SI engine it is relatively easy to distinguish between knocking and non knocking operation

Comparison of Knock
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Factors SI engines Self ignition temperature High Delay period Long Compression ratio Low Inlet temperature Low Inlet pressure Low Speed High Cylinder wall temperature Low Cylinder size Small

CI engines Low Short High High High Low High Large

Vehicle Engine Technology


Charge Motion in Engines

Charge Motion

Controls combustion process in SI engines Controls the mixing rate and combustion process in CI engines Affects the heat transfer between the charge and walls Both the bulk gas motion and turbulent characteristics of the flow are important

Intake Jet Flow


The inlet valve is the minimum area of flow so gas velocities are at the maximum The gas leaves the valve as a conical jet with axial and radial velocities about 10 times the mean piston speed The jet separating from the valve lip produces turbulence due to shear layers with large velocity gradients The jet produces recirculation regions with vortex flows beneath the valve and at the corner between the wall and cylinder head These flows appear to become unstable either during the intake or compression process and break down into turbulent motions

Intake Jet Flow

Intake Jet Flow

Intake Jet Flow

Turbulence

In turbulent flow the rates of transfer and mixing is several times greater than the molecular diffusion The turbulence is due to the local fluctuations in the flow field leading to increased rates of momentum and heat and mass transfer The turbulent flow depends on the recirculating flows which are sensitive to small variations in flow The turbulent flows has substantial cycle-by-cycle variations

Turbulence

Turbulence

Turbulence Flow

Turbulence Flow

Turbulence flow is non homogeneous during the intake stroke Within the directed region the cycle-by-cycle variation is very small Outside the directed flow it is appreciably high In the absence of swirl the intake generated flow structure has almost disappeared by the time the compression process commences When the swirl is generated the flow structure remains stable for longer time

Swirl

Swirl is the organized rotation of charge about the cylinder axis Swirl is created by bringing the intake flow into the cylinder with an initial angular momentum Swirl generated during the intake generally persists through the compression, combustion and expansion processes Swirl promotes more rapid mixing of the charge Swirl also speeds up the combustion process

Swirl Generation

Two methods

Flow is discharged tangentially into the cylinder toward the cylinder wall where it is deflected sideways and downward in a swirling motion Flow is forced to rotate about the valve axis before it enters the cylinder

Swirl Generation

Tangential Flow method


The flow distribution around the circumference of the inlet valve is made nonuniform Angular momentum is created about the cylinder axis for the inlet flow Directed port and Deflector wall port - common types

Swirl Generation

Directed port

Flow path is set in the desired tangential direction Flow passage is straight Relatively low discharge coefficient

Swirl Generation

Deflector wall port


Uses the port inner side wall to force the flow through the outer periphery of the valve in a tangential direction Flow rotation can also be achieved by masking off or shrouding part of the inlet valve periphery

Swirl Generation

Swirl about the valve axis


Helical ports are used to generate swirl High volumetric efficiency Less sensitive to position displacements

Swirl Generation

Helical port imparts more angular momentum at medium lifts Directed port imparts more angular momentum at the maximum lift

Swirl Generation

Tangential flow results in highly nonuniform flow through the valve periphery Velocity component is along the cylinder axis only In helix ports the flow is uniformly distributed over the valve periphery The swirl velocity along the valve axis is relatively uniform

Swirl Generation

Swirl Generation

Swirling air flow is not uniform in operating engine Swirl velocity depends on the valve open area and piston velocity The velocities are highest during the first half of the intake process resulting in high swirls Swirl stratification takes place inside the cylinder

Swirl Generation

Flow pattern close to the cylinder head consists of disorganized vortices created due to high tangential velocity Flow is highly ordered above the piston head with high swirl velocity Swirl velocity increases with increasing radius as moving away from the cylinder head As the piston velocity decreases, the swirl speed close to the piston decreases and the swirl speed increases at the center of the cylinder Axis of the swirl may not exactly coincide with the cylinder axis

Swirl Modification

Angular momentum of the air which enters the cylinder during induction decays due to wall friction and turbulent dissipation Almost 25-35% of the momentum is lost due to compression Swirl velocity can be increased by modifying the combustion chamber In a compact bowl in piston chamber the air is forced into the chamber As the piston reaches the TDC, the moment of inertia of the air is reduced hence increasing the angular velocity

Swirl Modification

Squish

Squish is the radially inward motion of gas that occurs during the end of compression stroke The amount of squish is defined by percentage squish area

Squish

Squish

Squish

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