Centrifuge Physical Modeling & Scaling Laws

Tarek Abdoun

RPI/UCD NEES Centrifuge Research and Training Workshop 2011

Geotechnical Centrifuge

Ng

Ground Centrifuge Modeling Concept

Radial g-field
At which radius do you calculate g = w2r? Pick a point in the model where you are most concerned about accurately modeling the effective stress. Set g accordingly.
For level ground: s = r (gavg overburden)(d)

Document the RPM and the radius to a reference point on the model container Might need to account for g variation in deep models

Why Physical Model Tests?

Complex, nonlinear stress-strain behavior

of soil (made of interacting particles, air, water)

Difficulty of numerical simulation of soil

and soil-structure systems at large strains and failure

Validate and calibrate numerical methods

Why Centrifuge Model Tests?

Small-scale models are cost-effective Soil properties are highly stress-dependent Centrifuge produces equal confining stresses
in model and prototype, therefore same soil properties

Then, reasonable assumption that strains and

deformations are also equal in model and prototype

Application Domain: Systems

Natural or artificial soil deposits, different

soil types, different geometries, earth dams and dykes

Soil-foundation and soil-structure systems:

foundations of buildings, bridges
buried pipes and tunnels, basements earth levees with sheetpiles etc.

Application Domain : Loadings

Static gravity loads Earthquake shaking Blasting

Ground deformation
Water waves

Contaminant transport

Centrifuge Modeling Limitations

Useful only for systems containing

soil or other pressure-dependent material

Models allow limited detail Effect of model boundaries Time scale and strain-rate issues

Scaling Laws
Scaling Laws (N = number of gs)
Stress & Pressure * = 1 Density *=1 Length 1/N Velocity 1 Acceleration N Volume 1/N3 Mass 1/N3 Force 1/N2 Time (dynamic) 1/N Time (diffusion) 1/N2

Catalogue of scaling laws and similitude questions in centrifuge modelling

Technical Committee TC2 Physical Modelling in Geotechnics 2007 Covers: dynamics, fluid flow in soils, heat transfer and ice, particle size effects, rate effects About 60 references

Concerns regarding scale effects and scaling laws

Unsaturated soil, Turbulent flow, Erosion, Shear bands Effect of transducer or model container on the experiment Range of scaling laws applicability (50g, 100g, 150g, etc.)

Modeling Structural Elements

Very challenging task:
D & t (N) Area (N2) Inertia (N4) E (1) for same material

Usually very difficult to maintain the same scale for all parameters or to use same material in both model and prototype (easier if no specific prototype) Need to prioritize (EA, EI, t/D, etc.)
EI for flexure or bending EA for axial loading

NEES-Pipelines
Evaluation of Ground Rupture Effects on Critical Lifelines

Numerical Modeling Full scale Testing Centrifuge Modeling

EA vs. EI for Structural Elements

0.35 0.3 0.25 0.2

EA curve EI curve

Em/Ep= 0.6

tm/Dm

0.15 0.1 0.05

0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12

tp/Dp

EA vs. EI for Structural Elements

0.35 0.3 0.25 0.2

EA curve EI curve

Em/Ep= 0.6

tm/Dm

0.15 0.1 0.05

0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12

tp/Dp

EA vs. EI for Structural Elements

tm/Dm = 2 tp/Dp
0.35 0.3 0.25 0.2

EA curve EI curve

Em/Ep= 0.6

tm/Dm

0.15 0.1 0.05

0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12

tp/Dp

Other Factors: Strain Rate

HDPE Material Stress-Strain Behavior
25 Hypobolic Fit (Merry & Bray, 1997) RPI Uniaxial Tension Test 20
300%/min 130%/min

Axial Stress (MPa)

300%/min 100%/min

15
10%/min 1%/min 0.1%/min 1%/min

10

0.16%/min

0 0 1 2 Axial Strain (%) 3 4

Comparison with Full Scale Test Results (-63.5o Tension Test)

Springline Strain Comparison
10 Full Scale, f = 1.06 m Full Scale, f = 0.49 m 8 Centrifuge, f = 1.06 m Centrifuge, f = 0.49 m

Springline Strain (%)

0 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 Distance from Fault (m)

-63.5o Strike-Slip (Tension)

Time Scaling Conflict

Dynamic Time
L = 0.5 a t2 L* = a* t*2 t* = sqrt(L*/a*) t*dyn = sqrt(L*/(1/L*)) = L* or 1/N

Diffusion Time, consider time factor, T

For similarity, T* = 1 = cv* t* /L*2 t*dif = L*2 / cv* If cv* = 1 (same soil in model and prototype) then: t*dif = L*2 or 1/N2

Conflict
t*dif t*dyn

Conflict Resolution

By increasing viscosity of the fluid (m* = 1/L* or N) Decreasing the particle size of the soil (k* = C (D10*)2 )

Time Scaling Conflict

Sometimes, conflict can be neglected without changing cv
both model and prototype are undrained during dynamic event both model and prototype are drained during dynamic event

we may want to systematically vary viscosity to cover an interesting range. (Reviewers may have difficulty with this concept) It takes time to saturate a large model with viscous pore fluid. For practical purposes, we may knowingly violate time scale factor similarity, and then account for the different cv by analysis

Modeling of Shear Bands

J. DeJong, U. Mass Amherst web page

The shear band thickness depends on particle size, not on L* (N)

Modeling of Shear Bands

Particle Size Reduction

Centrifuge Modeling

Full Scale Testing

100 90 80 70
% Soil passing

Scaled Sand Ottawa Sand F#55

60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0.001 0.01 0.1 Particle size, mm 1

Particle Size effect

Most basic requirement is that there are a sufficient number of particles across the dimensions of a model so that we can model the soil as a continuum.
Required Dmodel/Dparticle depends on the problem.

Footings: Dfooting/Dparticle > 30 (minimizes particle size effect) To model contact stress and capillary rise most accurately, need to use same particle size (pore size) and fluid. The Ability to model capillary rise is an advantage of centrifuge high g modeling.

Explosions are Volumetric

Explosions Scale as N3 1 gram of explosive tested at 100g is equivalent to one million (106) grams of prototype explosive, or one metric ton (2200 lb) Scale effects also include particle size effects and differences in radial acceleration

Application of High Speed Camera to Blasting Tests

S&H

su-ho

bu-ve

su-ve

Pow er (S&H)

1.E+01

Scaled Depth (m)

1.E+00

1.E-01

1.E-02 1.E-04 1.E-03 1.E-02 1.E-01 1.E+00 1.E+01 1.E+02 1.E+03 1.E+04 1.E+05 1.E+06 Scaled Charge Mass (kg)

Blast Modeling

Groundwater/Contaminant Transport
Time Scales as g2
E.G., 24 Hour test @ 105g = 30 years prototype time

Advection (Hydraulic flow) No theoretical problems Dispersivity (Diffusion, Dispersion) more complicated, but can be done

Groundwater/Contaminant Transport (cont.)

General: Single contaminant, conservative contaminant models acceptable The robot gives us a unique opportunity to determine the transport and concentration with time of multiple contaminants

Boundary/Container effects
Flexible Containers
Hinged plate, Laminar boxes
Ideal for gently sloping or level ground

Complementary Shear issue

Boundary/Container effects
Rigid containers
P-waves from ends of the container

Side friction
Avoid narrow containers (width < height) Reduce sides friction Move structures e.g., away from boundaries

Lateral stiffness (maintaining Ko)

Ground motion selection

Sine waves, step waves or realistic ground motions?

Small step waves
Useful to check that sensors are working

Sine waves are easier to understand than real ground motions

Because they only reveal information about part of the problem (one frequency from the possible spectrum)

Sine sweeps
Useful because they cover all frequencies, but amplitude is not random.

Ground motion provides more realistic conditions but could be difficult to analyze

Final Thoughts
Centrifuge Modeling is a tool that makes model tests more accurate because it reproduces prototype stress levels in a small scale model but be mindful of its limitations Centrifuge Modeling is useful to: Test the validity of a numerical model Perform systematic parameter studies Discover mechanisms of behavior

Model testing is valuable for problems where field data is insufficient can obtain data that is impossible to obtain in other ways.
Advanced instruments of NEES (robotics, shakers, instrumentation) enable more accurate and more detailed models than was possible in the past.

NEES centrifuge research

Complementary NEES Centrifuges
UCD: larger container, V&H shaker, more sensors per test, multiple tests per container RPI: medium size, H&H shaker, more tests per month, Robot, split box.

Thank You