Course Design and Development

Issue 8905

Course Design and Development

Instructional Systems Development
Course Design and Development ...............................................39
Front-End Problem Analysis ....................................................................40

Models for Design and Development .......................................41

Competency-Based Approach .................................................................41 Functional-Context Learning ...................................................................42 Design Basics ..........................................................................................43 Strategies: Media and Methods .............................................................45 Course Description ..................................................................................46 Course Development Materials ..............................................................49

References & Resources ................................................................51

Editorial Staff for 8905 Editor
Susan G. Butruille

Job Aid
Course Design Quality Checklist .............................................................53

ASTD Internal Consultant

Greta Kotler

Production Assistant
Lee Allen

Revised 1997 Editor

Cat Sharpe

Designer
Steven M. Blackwood

Copy Editor
Kay Larson

Course Design and Development

Course Design and Development

So what do course design and development really mean? Webster says it as well as anyone: Design: a preliminary sketch or outline showing the main features of something to be executed. Development: to set forth or make clear by degrees or in detail. Course design and development are phases of instructional systems development (ISD). In the design phase, the course director outlines the main features of the course and in the development phase, he or she makes the course content clear by increasing the level of detail. The other major ISD phases are analysis, implementation, and evaluation. The illustration on the next page depicts the ISD phases. For a complete overview of ISD, refer to Infoline No. 9706, The Basics of Instructional Systems Development. In the course design phase, the course designer or design team plans the course, while in the course development phase, the designer develops the actual training materials for the course. In both phases, the trainer makes increasingly precise decisions about what to include in a course and how to convey the content to learners. Several factors guide these decisions.

Course design begins with broad planning or macro level planning, moves toward midlevel planning for units or modules (also called mesolevel), and ends with detailed lesson or learning plans at the microlevel. For example, in the design or planning phase, a class designer may feel that a film offers the best overview for a course. In the development phase, he or she will select or create a particular film. During both phases, the course designer considers: Instructional objectives: What must the film show to introduce concepts that meet the stated learning objectives? Is the vocabulary level appropriate? How will learning be evaluated to ensure that learners have grasped the key concepts? Available resources: Would a generic, commercially produced film serve the purpose? If so, should it be rented or bought? If not, how soon can a film be created and what will it cost? Are enough VCRs and televisions on hand? Next, a lesson or learning plan specifies:

how the film will be introduced what activity will monitor participants learning how the films information will link with the next training or learning activity

What Participants Need to Know The analysis phase determines the knowledge, skills, and attitudes (KSAs) to be learned for satisfactory job or task performance. The KSAs to be learned are written in the form of objectives.

Throughout design and development, the course designer constantly needs to assess the value of learning activities and the means for carrying them out by keeping in mind the following factors:

A Focus on Learning Transfer By focusing on transferring participants learning to job performance, the training must ultimately lead to better job performance. Otherwise, no matter how entertaining or enlightening, the training will fail.

Does the activity enhance participants motivation to learn? How does this activity lead to the desired learning? What kind(s) of feedback will evaluate and validate participants progress in meeting learning objectives? Do the activities promote learning retention and transfer of learning to the job?

Impact on the Organization The design and development phases spell out the courses expected benefits and costs to the organization. The careful planner keeps costs proportionate to benefits.

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Course Design and Development

An Instructional Systems Development Model

This ISD model, reprinted from Infoline No. 9706, Basics of Instructional Systems Development, shows the basic phases of ISD, and the relationship of the phases to one another. The lines and arrows show that phases interrelate and may be changed during development. Lines and arrows leading back to each phase from the evaluation phase show that evaluation may turn up some problems that make it necessary to go back to a particular phase and make changes.

This Infoline focuses on the broad or macrolevel of course design and development and the midlevel (meso) of unit and module design and development. It describes the major terms associated with course design and development, the analyses that contribute information to course design, trends influencing course design and development, considerations that affect writing and sequencing objectives, contents of a course description, design strategies and development steps, and characteristics of a high-quality course design. Infoline No. 8906, Lesson Design and Development concentrates on the microlevel of lesson or learning plan design and development.

The ADDIE Model

ANALYSIS

Front-End Problem Analysis

DESIGN

DEVELOPMENT

IMPLEMENTATION

Training design should begin only after a fundamental front-end problem analysis yields a go (as opposed to a no-go) signal. Joe Harless, author of Analyzing Human Performance: Tools for Achieving Business Results, points out that when a performance problem is perceivedby trainers, managers, supervisors, or employeestraining may be the solution, only part of the solution, or unrelated to the solution. Because of this several questions arise, such as:

EVALUATION

What indicators or symptoms suggest that change is needed? What is the root of the problem? What role, if any, can training play in remedying the problem? What is the monetary value of solving the problem? Would an improvementbut less-thancomplete remedybe acceptable?

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Models for Design and Development

If training is needed, the analysis phase of ISD continues, and the training designer(s) may start roughing out a design according to such factors as current law, policies, procedures, and negotiated agreement clauses related to the proposed training; organizational relationships among and within divisions and departments; job duties and determined performance levels; as well as the following resources and constraints: Time: How soon must training be accomplished? When will prospective training participants be available? When are heavy workload periods? Should instruction be carried out in one block of time or paced to alternate with time on the job? Money: How much money will be available? When? All at once or over a span of time? Culturenational, ethnic, and corporate: How are decision makers and prospective training participants used to doing things? What values, rituals, and shared or different points of view must be reflected and respected in the instructional design? Training population characteristics: What related education, training, and experience do prospective training participants have? How have KSAs and on-the-job performance been assessed? Where are prospective participants? Are they close to one another or to other possible training sites? Availability and location: Where and when can trainers, facilitators, subject matter experts (SMEs), design and development specialists, and others who will contribute to the ISD process be made available. Also to be considered is the availability, location, and cost of training facilities, equipment and supplies. ISD models dating back to World War II depict sequential but interactive phases. Recent models, however, emphasize interactivity and de-emphasize sequence, so that course design may begin before all analyses are complete; development may fill in completed parts of a design while other parts still are unfinished; the trainer may improve a courseupdate its information content or refine its evaluation techniquesduring any phase, or even after the course has begun.

Competency-Based Approach
A major trend in ISD is the competency-based, functional-context approach, described in the writings of Tom Sticht, Larry Mickulecky, and others. This approach focuses on the learner, with heavy emphasis on individual learning plans. Features of the competency-based approach are:

Occupational analysis identifies competencies (performance objectives) required for successful performance. The validity of competencies is verified through people who actually perform the job. Criteria (standards) for adequate or excellent performance, and the conditions under which the job is to be performed, are made known to learners from the beginning. The learner and trainer plan individual instruction and evaluation for each competency.

Although certain KSAs may be evaluated, the main measure of success is performance that integrates KSAs under job conditions. For more than a decade, many trainers acknowledged the appeal of the competency-based approach. But they resisted it, believing they did not have the resources to use it. Individualized content and pacing were the key sticking points. But from the mid-1970s to the present, trainer resistance faded as business competition became global, pressure to prove trainings value increased, and many organizations faced labor shortages. More important, trainers discovered that this approach worked, and could be managed incrementally in several ways:

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Occupational analyses could be initiated for particular organizational levels, divisions, or departmentsor for selected jobs. Portions of existing and new courses could be individualized. Some new courses could be fully competency based.

tency-based approach applies to complex skills such as those related to leadership and interpersonal relations. Many training experts believe that the competency-based approach should replace the traditional approach to design and development. They disparage the conventional process of gathering and analyzing content information, listing topics, developing and sequencing course objectives, preparing a course description, and developing unit and lesson plans. Many, however, see that it is not an either-or situation and understand the value of adapting competency-based principles to the traditional process. Most important, however, is the recognition that learning is what must be planned, not just instruction. This Infoline, like much training today, is based on the traditional process, while showing the strong influence of the competency-based approach. It is essential that trainers within an organization share a common approach to training so that program planning, course, evaluation procedures, and documentation can be coordinated and integrated.

Trainers also found that occupational analyses became quicker and easier once they fine-tuned the initial analytical process to organizational culture and built an updatable information base. The competency-based approach originally applied to relatively separate and sequential tasks. But now, training researchers are studying how the compe-

Coming to Terms
Training experts vary in their use of the terms listed below. For instance, some trainers use the terms program and course interchangeably. For purposes of this Infoline, the following definitions will be used: Course: a planned, organized series of learning experiences related to a particular topic or group of tasks. This term may be applied to trainer- or facilitator-led experiences, or self-instruction for training, education, or development. Learning plan: a detailed plan of learning activities and experiences (describes what learners will do and use); associated with the competency-based approach to training and with selfinstruction. (See Infoline No. 8906, Lesson Design and Development.) Lesson plan: a detailed plan of instructional activities (describes what trainers and facilitators will do and use). Module: a unit, especially one that can stand alone, to be learned independent of other units. Occupational analysis: a blanket term to cover analysis of jobs, tasks, and relationships among jobs, performance conditions, and standards. Training program: an organizations overall training effort, or a group of related courses. Unit: a major subtopic, task, or task cluster to be learned within a course.

Functional-Context Learning
The term functional-context often crops up in discussions of the competency-based approach. It too describes training that relates to actual job circumstances, because training is successful only when learners can carry out learned tasks at their actual work stations. For example, a learner may be able to diagnose a mechanical problem and perform a series of repair steps in a logical, timely way during the training course. But if actual work conditions are noisy and chaotic, those conditions may need to be simulated during training. Similarly, the materials, tools, and aids that learners use in training must match those available on the job. Conditions during training should increasingly approximate conditions on the job.

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Advancing Technology
Advancing, affordable computer-based technology has changed many trainers approaches to course design and development. Technology offers these potential benefits:

mally with training media and materials suppliers during design and development, but the suppliers are not part of the design and development teamunless a courses primary goal is to acquaint learners with use of a suppliers product or service. In that case, a supplier representative will likely be on the team.

Data to be analyzed may be recorded on machine-readable forms, then scanned by an optical character reader and tabulated by offthe-shelf computer software. Training design and development print materials may be word processed, produced through desktop publishing, and easily adapted. The latest software allows for more individualized learning (interactive video, CBT, multimedia, Internet, intranets) and analysis of design alternatives and other design decision support (spreadsheet programs and expert systems). Data bases store historical training information for flexible future reference.

Design Basics
Various documents record decisions made during the design phase, and note steps and decisions yet to be made in the development phase. A course design should consist of the following:

Design and Development Teams

Sometimes a solo trainer is responsible for course design and development. Even so, the trainer will need to consult with other people and with information resources such as training services or materials directories. It is also desirable to involve training specialists in course design and development. So where budgets and time permit, design and development usually are carried out by a team headed by someone from the training departmenta course designer. Teams should consist of people knowledgeable or competent in one or more of the following areas:

A Budget Request Unless the courses funding is already set, a budget needs to be requested. If only the total budget allocation is known, the design still should specify funding categories (personnel, equipment and supplies, facilities). Some organizations demand a budget justification. This can provide an opportunity to justify, for example, using a conference center with the necessary equipment and supplies versus a less expensive site that will involve extra company time and expense to lease and ship equipment. A List of Objectives A sequenced list of objectives should be prepared along with any corresponding test items. A Course Description A course description records broad design considerations and decisions and supports a budget request (if made). A course description will vary in length, depending on organizational custom and the scope of the course. A Project or Administrative Plan A project or administrative plan will specify individual responsibilities and deadlines for course development. A List of Needed Equipment A tentative list of needed equipment, materials, and supplies. A final list will emerge with completed lesson and learning plans. For more information on project management, refer to Infoline No. 9004, Project Management: A Guide.

organizational culture and resources adult learning styles instructional technology matching strategies with course content job and occupational analysis skills needed for the job testing and evaluation

The course designer often calls on consultants to work on specialized aspects of course design and development. The director may also consult infor-

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Objectives and Test Items

Throughout the sequence of instruction, learners will be working to meet objectivesand to prove through testing that objectives are met. Over the years trainers have defined many kinds of objectives. So many, in fact, that in his book Making Instruction Work, instructional design expert Robert F. Mager warned against goofing off with objectives. Most, if not all, of the objectives to be determined and put into writing fall into one of the following categories: Course objectives that state the general purpose(s) or benefit(s) of a course. Subordinate or enabling objectives that describe the learning steps leading to terminal objectives. Terminal learning objectives or performance objectives that state what a learner should be able to do after training, under what conditions, and to what standards or criteria. Examples: A course objective for editors might be: learners will become proficient in using a new word processing package. An enabling objective might be: learners will be able to use the appropriate keys for moving, deleting, or copying text. A performance objective might be: Given access to a personal computer installed with XYZ software, an instructor-provided disk with unedited text and hard copy showing the text with 20 common proofreaders marks, the learner will produce edited text with no more than two errors within a pre-established time period. This objective assumes that all editors have proofreading and typing skills. An enabling objective or terminal learning objective should be written in terms of observable behavior. For that reason, an action verb telling what the learner will do (list, repair, type, bake) is the heart of an objective. Even for learning that involves attitudes or knowledge, objectives should not contain verbs (such as know) that describe a learners internal state. Rather, the designer

should use verbs that describe behavioral indicators of a persons internal state (knowledge, for example, is indicated by ability to list, classify, identify, and so on). Each enabling or terminal objective should be measurable. Some measures of behavioral objectives are of a pass or fail nature; a learner either performs the required behavior or not. Other measures are gauged according to standards set, for instance, by an employer, a professional society, or the law. The standards associated with an objective should be based on adequate performance, not best performance. Some learners may demonstrate excellent performance by the end of a course, while others will improve with subsequent practice, and some will plateau at the adequate level. Writing objectives requires the following:

distilling performance information to essentials grouping performance requirements into learning activities of similar scope standardizing the format that outlines performance requirements

To help ensure the validity of performance objectives, designers may observe on-the-job performance, ask job holders or their supervisors to assess written objectives, or consult with curriculum experts or subject matter experts (SMEs). Each objective should be testable and written in terms of what the learner will do. Well-stated, realistic, job-related objectives are a giant step toward the design of test items, but in themselves do not constitute test items. The design of test items begins with general decisions about how a learner can demonstrate performance of an objective. If an objective requires a learner to list 10 items in order, that task might be demonstrated orally, on paper, or on a computer. If an objective requires a learner to identify five major parts of a machine, testing may be carried out with the actual equipment, a simulator, or a photograph or drawing.

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In choosing how to test, the designer will look at the interplay between instructional considerations and resource limitations. Testing, especially of enabling objectives, may demand safety precautions. Many behaviors that are safe for job veterans are not safe for novices. As a rule, subject matter experts can alert a designer to errorssafety related and otherwisethat novices are likely to make. Instruction should include direct warnings or advice about avoiding such errors. When safety is not a concern, however, it may be better for learners to make a few minor errors, because that helps them open up to new ideas and procedures. Learners commonly resist testing. But that resistance can be lessened by closely relating test items to objectives, and objectives to job performance requirements. For more information, see Infolines No. 9712, Instructional Objectives; No. 8502, Be a Better Needs Analyst; No. 9808, Task Analysis; No. 8505, Write Better Behavioral Objectives; No. 9705, Essentials for Evaluation; and No. 8903, Be a Better Job Analyst.

Active learning tends to be more meaningful and memorable than passive learning, but it isnt always appropriate or feasible. If there truly is only one right way to perform a task, learners may well resent spending time to discover it while a knowing trainer withholds the answer. If time for learning is short or unskilled performance is dangerous, its best to tell or show learners what to do. In the early 1970s, Malcolm Knowles popularized the term andragogy to describe principles of adult learning and teaching (as distinguished from pedagogy, a term applied to children). Over the years, Knowles himself and other training experts downplayed several distinctions between how adults and children learn. But today, virtually all theorists and practitioners agree that instructors for adults must acknowledge that adults bring a wealth of experience to learning. Past experiences make adults more diverse, but also equip them with information and coping strategies that must be taken into account. While some adults current skills and knowledge may be a good foundation for learning, some of their prior learning may be outmoded. In such cases, an instructor may need to help a learner unlearn, while still respecting his or her past learning. Trust, respect, involvement, and collaboration are concepts that arise repeatedly in discussions of andragogy. An attitude of were all adults here with experience, skill, and knowledge to contributeunderlies modern course design. One outgrowth of this trend toward team efforts is synergogy. The term, used by J.S. Mouton and R.R. Blake (best known as the developers of the managerial grid), describes learning in which a group of employees, regardless of organizational rank, suspend traditional competition and share knowledge, skills, and viewpoints. For more information on this, refer to Infoline No. 8804, Training and Learning Styles.

Strategies: Media and Methods

Once objectives are refined and tests designed to validate learning, its time to consider instructional strategies. To begin with, will the course be instructor led, on the job, machine mediated, peer learning, self-instruction, or a combination of these? To make this and other strategic decisions, Leonard Nadler has noted that the designer must know enough about learning theory to know what has been researched and theorized in the past. There are proponents and opponents for every learning theory .The designer may not want to choose sides, but at times must make decisions as to which learning theory is most appropriate for a specific learning experience. Training theorists and practitioners often advocate using strategies related to experiential, active, or discovery learning. This means that learners participate in activitiessuch as role play, discussion, and hands-on practicethat help them discover what to do for good job performance. In contrast, didactic strategies involve telling or showing learners what to do.

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Course Design and Development

Course Description
Putting a course description together is like doing a crossword puzzle: Some parts are easy to fill in; some are difficult; and later information may invalidate earlier choices. The final course description should tell you: WHY the course is needed and should include the course objectives; the expected benefitsfor the organization, learners and their supervisors, colleagues, and for organizational clients or customs; and the estimated dollar value of these benefits. WHO is involved (job titles, number of people) in the courses analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation. The who should include:

how topics, tasks, and KSAs have been identified and analyzed and their relevance to improved job performance how a participant demonstrates successful learning (for example, pencil and paper tests, oral presentations, construction of a model, a performance of activity)

HOW course content is sequenced and what strategies are employed to engage participants in learning. This includes:

learning events and activities whether learning will be accomplished in a group or individually which portions of the course, if any, will be designed for self-instruction whether portions of the course allow a trainer or participants to choose among alternative activities

who is to receive training prerequisites or entry requirements, if any availability of learners for training whether trainers will be working with SMEs, facilitators, other trainers, training managers, consultants, suppliers, or other individuals staff trainers special interests, knowledge, and skills availability of people involved in designing, developing, implementing, and evaluating the course

You will also need to determine how much the course is expected to cost. This includes such factors as how it will be funded: through an organization-wide budget category or the HRD/training department budget; by charging departments whose workers use the course; through grants from outside sources; by the participants; or through some combination of sources. WHEN the course will take take place and how it will be run. This includes:

WHAT aspects of their work must be coordinated and who will oversee coordination. This should include the following:

whether it will be run once, several, or many times, and whether it will be on company time or on learners time whether it must be run in a particular season, on particular days, or at particular times expected course completion date whether everyone will participate at the same time or at different times, according to such factors as available sites or organizational levels

general course contentmajor topics, tasks, and task clusters KSAs to be learned or improved approximate proportions of cognitive learning (knowledge), psychomotor learning (skill), and affective learning (attitude) the course will involve

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whether the course will run in segments, or as a whole whether there will be any pilot tests and, if so, whether alternative designs will be offered

Which Comes First: Budget or Design?

In an ideal world, budget allocation for a particular course follows the design phase. After this, each course would then receive funds according to anticipated costs and benefits. Realistically, an organizations budget cycle and funding practices often dictate a courses budget, limiting design and development decisions. Gradually, organizational decision makers are becoming more aware of the value and utility of basing a courses budget on its design, rather than the reverse. However, there still is little logic to the funding of many courses. Trainers need to seek information about budget cycles and funding practices. Besides making formal inquiries, a trainer who consults the organizational grapevine may discover which kinds of funding appealsformal or informal, mostly prose or mostly statistics, early or late in the budget cyclehave been the most successful in the past.

WHERE the course will be conducted and this should include:

whether it will be at a central site, such as a corporate training center or at individual plants, offices, field sites, or any combination thereof special facilities requirementselectrical power, lighting, space, seating, and viewing arrangements whether, if all or part of the course is selfinstruction, learners will perform this training at their regular work stations, at learning centers stocked with special equipment, or at home

Sequence of Instruction
The analysis phase of ISD begins before the design phase and discloses various relationships among job tasks. Some tasks are subordinate to others; some are equal in importance but must be performed in a particular sequence; some tasks have a logical relationship but may be performed in any order; and some tasks within a job are unrelated to others. A designer may notice that certain task clusters can be translated into training and learning units or modules. Also, it may be evident that performance of some tasksespecially those performed infrequently or those demanding strict adherence to a sequenceshould be supported by job aids. Refer to Infoline No. 9711, Create Effective Job Aids. Typically, instruction is structured and sequenced according to tasks, topics, or problems. For example, training for a new salesperson might follow a task chronology (greet customer; determine needs; if appropriate, present merchandise and suggest accessories; close and record transaction; thank customer and invite him/her to visit store again).

Or, such training might group tasks by topics (customer service; demonstration and description of merchandise; mechanics of recording sales, returns, and other transactions). The problem-solving approach is similar to the topical approach but emphasizes problem diagnosis and solution. This might be appropriate for a mid-level sales training workshop (how to determine customer priorities efficiently; handle difficult customers tactfully; complete complex transactions accurately). Within a framework of tasks, topics, and problem solving, instruction usually is either sequenced step-by-step in job performance order, in order of priority or frequency of performance, or by moving from:

simple to complex overview to detail specific to general known to unknown concrete to abstract practical to theoretical present to future observation to reasoning

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Media, Methods, and Materials

Decisions about media, methods, and materials involve trade-offs. For example, color print and film cost more than black and white. But color is attractive and may alert learners to key points or hazards, or help them distinguish parts of a whole. When listing preliminary decisions about media, methods, and materials, its a good idea to note those that require:

workshop, simulation, programmed instruction workbook, correspondence course, teleconference, videoconference, or outside source such as a training school or college instruction delivered by instructors, facilitators, managers acting as trainers, or self-instructional materials lecture, discussion, panel presentation, interviews, or debate Modeling, demonstration, observation, field trip, or tour case study, role play, game, brainstorming, or buzz groups coaching and mentoring drill and practice work materials and tools mock ups, models, and simulations print material such as texts, lists, or reference bibliographies films, tapes, records, transparencies, slides, charts, graphs, flipcharts, magnetic boards, or chalkboards interactive video, CBT programs, Internet, intranet, or other computer multimedia recorders, computers, projectors, cameras, and simulators

a large sum of money to buy, rent, or create significant time to locate, adapt, or develop any needed help outside the training department or design team

Simply jotting down symbols (say, a $ by expensive items; T for time-consuming; and O for outside assistance) will help clarify how resources are allocated. And if the first, ideal design requires too much money, time, or staff, these symbols point out where to look first for design changes. On the other hand, it is important to avoid the common mistake of choosing and using methods, media, and materials just because they are familiar and available, or because they seem entertaining. Motivation to learn and remember is important, but sheer entertainment is not. Money and time are important, but valuesuccessful learning that will improve productivityis more important. The main concern is to choose strategies that will lead learners to pass tests related to validated performance objectives. Bearing all this in mind, a designer or design team selects media, methods, and materials. Design specialists define media as whatever transmits instruction. Among the choices to consider are:

Authoring Tools
If a course designer decides that an e-learning course best suits his or her needsmaybe the intended audience is large or located in various offices throughout the worldthen he or she must know a thing or two about authoring tools. According to the Learning Circuits glossary, an authoring tool is a software application or program used by trainers or instructional designers to create elearning courseware. Types of authoring tools include instructionally focused authoring tools, web authoring and programming tools, knowledge capture systems, and text and file creation tools.

small or large group, or individual instruction structured on-the-job training, apprenticeship, formalized mentioning, coaching instruction at a field site, classroom, laboratory, or work station

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Fortunately, a trainer does not have to be a computer programmer to design an e-learning course. Off-the-shelf tools are available that use templates to ease the pain of making custom content. These software applications allow designers to incorporate text, graphics, audio, and even simulations into their courses. Jeff Harris, author of the Learning Circuits article An Introduction to Authoring Tools, suggests that designers ask the following questions when selecting an authoring tool:

Training Materials
During the development phase, media and materials will be located, selected, or created. Off-theshelf materials can be used as is, or adapted when appropriate. Suppose, for example, that a video film contains an excellent illustration of a procedure, but uses many terms that dont fit the organizational culture. In this case, the film might be run with the sound shut off, and the instructor reading a script aloud. Or, the trainer could give a special pre-viewing explanation of the film. Training materials to be gathered, created, or designed include the following:

What works best? A template-based tool that requires little to no training. A mid-level tool that requires some training, but offers increased creativity. A high-end tool that requires several weeks or months of training, but rewards course designers with entertaining simulations and stunning graphics that rival computer games. Does the authoring tool write program code? If not, the course designer will have to enlist the help of a programmer or learn how to code (HTML, XML, or DHML). Will the tool work with the organizations other elearning software and systems? If the programs arent interoperable, is it worth the investment? What standard does the tool adhere to: Aviation Industry Computer-based Training Committee (AICC), Sharable Content Object Reference Model (SCORM), IMS Global Learning Consortium, or Microsoft LRN? If an organization has a learning management system, the course designer will want to ensure that the selected authoring tool is compatible with the LMS.

instructional guides such as lesson and learning plans that detail introductory material bridges that lead from one instructional activity to another integrators that tie course activities together and link them to participants prior learning administrative aids such as participant rosters, maps, and material, equipment, or supplies checklists, and name tags evaluation materials (see below) participant guides such as texts, workbooks, and job aids activity aids such as checklists, role play scripts, case studies, and lab exercises actual equipment and suppliespaper, videotapes, VCRs, films, projectors, computers, charts, pointers, flipcharts, markers, and spare parts

Course Development Materials

Development should proceed according to some project planning and control method. The course director will need a record of who has responsibility for course development steps and will need to coordinate and monitor intermediate due dates to ensure that the course is ready on time.

Evaluation Materials
Evaluation will be either formative or summative, and must be tied to objectives. Formative evaluation continues throughout the analysis, design, development, and implementation phases. Summative evaluation occurs after course completion.

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Although, as baseball great Yogi Berra said you can observe a lot by watching, subjective impression should be only part of evaluation. Both formative and summative evaluation should be supported by a plan for objective measures of success, and by written materials devised during the development phase. A formative evaluation plan describes means for improving a course and for assessing learners intraining progress and attitudes toward training. A summative evaluation plan describes such measures as posttraining employee performance, turnover, and customer comments. An overall evaluation plan should tell how and when, throughout the entire ISD process, information will be distributed and collected, and from and by whom. Many organizations conduct one or more pilot tests of a course before carrying it out on a large scale. If a control group is used, or if more than one pilot test is conducted, designers may test alternative designs. But this is a luxury that many organizations cannot afford. Evaluation techniques should cause as little disruption as possible. Forms should be clearly worded, quick and easy to fill out. Evaluation results can lead to design refinements by answering questions about:

Tests Do tests call for participants to demonstrate (rather than describe) learning? Do participants consider tests fair? Do participants and their supervisors consider the tests reasonable indicators of ability to perform on the job?

Productivity Have measures of productivity (absenteeism, turnover, rework, rates, and quality tests) improved for individuals or groups after their training? For more information, refer to Infoline No. 9505, Essentials for Evaluation.

Training Documentation Materials

During course development, a documentation plan will be created to tell what training records will be kept, how, by whom, and for how long. Training records may be kept on paper, file cards, microfilm, or computer files. Original or back-up records may be maintained in the training, information systems, planning, or legal department. Original training records or copies may need to be forwarded to a government agency, private regulator group, or to a professional agency that issues credentials. Record retention and destruction schedules may be established by law, organizational policy, or by the designers recommendation. During development, any needed documentation materials will be developed or copied. For example, the training department probably has a standard daily attendance form that needs only to be copied. But a new legally mandated safety course might require a form documenting employees attendance according to specific units within the course. Organizations typically save a course history showing who was responsible for various aspects of ISD; samples of forms; the course design document and lesson and learning plans; the course budget; attendance by learners, trainers, facilitators, and guests; evaluation records about individual participants, instructor performance, and course effectiveness and efficiency.

Tasks Do instructors and learners believe that tasks are sequenced properly for effective, efficient learning? Do they believe learning has been broken down into tasks that are not boringly easy or overwhelmingly difficult? Topics Do instructors or learners believe any information is missing? Do they find any information to be misleading or wrong? Learning Activities and Materials Do learners believe they get enough feedback and practice? Do they and their supervisors consider the course useful? Do they consider it interesting, difficult, or fun? Do learners and facilitators consider learning activities and materials worth the time (and money) invested in them?

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References & Resources

Articles
Chapman, Bryan L. Accelerating the Design Process: A Tool for Instructional Designers. Journal of Interactive Instruction Development, Fall 1995, pp. 8-15. Dixon, Daniele M. Standardizing Craft Training, Technical & Skills Training, May/June 1996, pp. 10-13. Friedlander, Philip. Competency-driven, Component-based Curriculum Architecture. Performance & Instruction, February 1996, pp. 14-21. Hites, Jeanne M. Design and Delivery of Training for International Trainees: A Case Study. Performance & Improvement Quarterly, vol. 9, no. 2 (1996), pp. 57-74. Holton, Elwood F., and Curt Bailey. Top-to-Bottom Curriculum Redesign. Training & Development, March 1995, pp. 40-44. Murk, P.J., and J.H. Wells. A Practical Guide to Program Planning. Training & Development Journal, October 1988, pp. 45-47. Patrick, Eric. Distributed Curriculum Development Environments: Techniques and Tools. Journal of Interactive Instruction Development, Spring 1996, pp. 26-34. Rogers, James L. Helping Clients Make Training Decisions. Performance & Instruction, July 1996, pp. 24-27. Shaffer, Mary K., and Isobel L. Pfeiffer. A Blueprint for Training. Training & Development, March 1995, pp. 31-33. Shultz, Fred, and and Rick Sullivan. A Model for Designing Training. Technical & Skills Training, January 1995, pp. 22-26. Sullivan, Richard L. Transferring Performance Skills: A Clinicians Case Study. Technical & Skills Training, January 1996, pp. 14-16. Wedman, John, and Martin Tessmer. Instructional Designers Decisions and Priorities: A Survey of Design Practice. Performance Improvement Quarterly, vol. 6, no. 2 (1993), pp. 43-47. Williams, Deborah, and Scott Stahl. Fords Lessons in Distance Learning. Technical & Skills Training, November/ December 1996, pp. 10-13. Wircenski, Michelle D., and Jerry L. Wircenski. Greek to Me: Training Effectively with Unfamiliar Content. Technical & Skills Training, February/March 1997, pp. 28-30. Zemke, Ron, and Judy Armstrong. How Long Does It Take? Training, May 1997, pp. 69-79.

Books
Kemp, Jerrold E., and George W. Cochern. Planning for Effective Technical Training: A Guide for Instructors and Trainers. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications, 1994. Knowles, Malcolm S. Designs for Adult Learning:Practical Resources, Exercises, and Course Outlines from the Father of Adult Learning. Alexandria, VA: ASTD, 1995. Phillips, Jack J., and Donald J. Ford, eds. In Action: Designing Training Programs. Alexandria, VA: ASTD, 1996. Piskurich, George M. Self-Directed Learning: A Practical Guide to Design, Development, and Implementation. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1993. Rothwell, William J., and H.C. Kazanas. Mastering the Instructional Design Process: A Systematic Approach. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1992.

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Course Design and Development

References & Resources

Infolines
Butruille, Susan G., ed. Lesson Design and Development. No. 8906 (revised 1999). Callahan, Madelyn, ed. Be a Better Needs Analyst. No. 8502 (revised 1998). . Be a Better Task Analyst. No. 8503 (out of print).

. Write Better Behavioral Objectives. No. 8505 (revised 1998). Eline, Leanne. How to Prepare and Use Effective Visual Aids. No. 8410 (revised 1997). Hodell, Chuck. The Basics of Instructional Systems Development. No. 9706. Kirrane, Diane, ed. Listening to Learn; Learning to Listen. No. 8806 (revised 1997). . Training and Learning Styles. No. 8804 (revised 1998). Liebman, Sophie. The 3-5-3 Approach to Designing Creative Training. No. 9609. Novak, Clare. High Performance Training Manuals. No. 9707. Russell, Susan. Create Effective Job Aids. No. 9711. Thompson, Connie. Project Management: A Guide. No. 9004 (revised 1998). Waagen, Alice. Essentials for Evaluation. No. 9705. . Task Analysis. No. 9808.

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Course Design and Development

Job Aid Course Design Quality Checklist

During the design phase of ISD, a course director must pay attention to innumerable details. Once a design is written, the director needs to step back and assess the quality of the overall scheme. The director may also ask design and development team members (or, if no team was formed, people with relevant knowledge and skills) to assess design quality. The checklist below is admittedly subjective. Everyone will not necessarily agree, for example, about what equals adequate resources. But whenever someone who reviews the checklist believes that a course lacks one of the desired characteristics, that person should be asked for suggestions to improve the course design. This request often brings useful advice. Responses also help the course director recognize when reviewers have an overly ambitious idea of whats possible. In this case, the director may need to talk with reviewers to modify their expectations or to marshal their support for additional resources. Some public relations work may also be in order. This checklist can be handed to a reviewer for use as a course design evaluation form, or the course designer can use it to evaluate his or her own design. Is valid; is based on analyses of training population and job tasks, topics, and problems. ___________________ ______________________________________________ ______________________________________________ ______________________________________________ Is efficient, uses least disruptive data collection methods and timing; uses appropriate technology for data collection and analyses, forms production, and so on. ______ ______________________________________________ ______________________________________________ ______________________________________________ Considers training participants prior level of training. ______________________________________________ ______________________________________________ ______________________________________________ Respects resource constraints, but provides adequate resources for meeting the course objective(s). _______ ______________________________________________ ______________________________________________ ______________________________________________ Appropriately involves training population representatives, their supervisors, and subject matter experts (SMEs). ______________________________________ ______________________________________________ ______________________________________________ Is relevant and meaningful; focuses time on skills, knowledge, or attitudes that learners need on their jobsand in which they need improvement. _________ ______________________________________________ ______________________________________________ ______________________________________________ (continued on next page)

Instructions to reviewer: Please review the attached design, then check as many of the descriptors below as you believe apply. For any descriptor that you do not check, please indicate in the space provided (use the back of the form, too, if necessary) what change(s) you recommend for improving the design. Or, use a question mark to indicate that you lack the information to assess the particular characteristic. Please return this form in the enclosed envelope by ________________________________________________. Thank you. Signature Block (Course Director)

Course Title: _____________________________________ Course Objective(s): ______________________________ _________________________________________________ _________________________________________________

The Design
Describes training, education, and development capable of solving all or part of a performance problem. ______ ______________________________________________ ______________________________________________ Is systematic; offers orderly plans. _________________ ______________________________________________ ______________________________________________

The material appearing on this page is not covered by copyright and may be reproduced at will.

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Course Design and Development

Job Aid
Is comprehensive; covers all essential tasks, topics, and problems. _____________________________________ ______________________________________________ ______________________________________________ Emphasizes need to know tasks and topics; avoids extraneous information or activities. ________________ ______________________________________________ ______________________________________________ Emphasizes active learning, except when safety or deadline considerations dictate otherwise. _______________ ______________________________________________ ______________________________________________ Includes written performance objectives that state what a learner ultimately is expected to do, under what conditions, and to what standard(s). ___________________ ______________________________________________ ______________________________________________ Logically sequences subordinate and final learning and performance objectives. _________________________ ______________________________________________ ______________________________________________ Maintains (through trainer, facilitator, or learning materials) appropriate degree of control over process to ensure efficient use of time, learner safety, and so on. ______________________________________________ ______________________________________________ ______________________________________________ Allows, to the extent possible, learners choices based on individual needs, and control over their own rates of progress. ______________________________________ ______________________________________________ ______________________________________________ Is internally consistent; matches test items to performance objectives. ______________________________ ______________________________________________ ______________________________________________ Is standardized; uses formats, forms, and data analysis categories in keeping with usual training and organizational requirements. ____________________________ ______________________________________________ ______________________________________________ Provides learners with adequate feedback on their progress. ______________________________________ ______________________________________________ ______________________________________________ Offers learners adequate practice especially for difficult or important, but infrequently used, tasks. __________ ______________________________________________ ______________________________________________ Includes job aids as necessary. ____________________ ______________________________________________ ______________________________________________ Makes critical use of media, methods, and materials, avoids overly complex, expensive, or time-consuming strategies. _____________________________________ ______________________________________________ ______________________________________________ Approximates or duplicates the context (physical surroundings, materials, tools, equipment, aids) in which learners must function after training. _______________ ______________________________________________ ______________________________________________ Clarifies roles and responsibilities of course developers, instructors, facilitators, and learners; incorporates plans to ensure accountability of achieving their responsibilities. __________________________________________ ______________________________________________ ______________________________________________ Incorporates evaluation plans for individual learners progress and for the course itself. __________________ ______________________________________________ ______________________________________________ Incorporates plans for training documentation, noting any related level or organizational policy requirements. ______________________________________________ ______________________________________________ ______________________________________________ Appears reliable; pending pilot testing or implementation, seems reasonable to expect design to produce good results for its target audience. _____________________ ______________________________________________ ______________________________________________

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The material appearing on this page is not covered by copyright and may be reproduced at will.