Design Principles of a Traffic Signal Lecture notes in Traffic Engineering And Management Overview Traffic signals are designed

to ensure safe and orderly flow of traffic, Protect pedestrians and vehicles at busy intersections and reduce the severity and frequency of accidents between vehicles entering intersections. Generally 9 stages are followed for design of traffic signal at particular intersection as per Indian standards. Those are following, 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Phase Design Cycle Time Effective Green Time Cycle Length Green Splitting Pedestrian Crossing Requirements Interval Design Performance Evaluation Special Cases (Effect of Turning Vehicles, Effect of Lane Distribution)

First Five Stages are discussed in Chapter 34 (Design Principles of Traffic Signal I). In this chapter we will discuss remaining four stages detailed. Pedestrian crossing requirements Pedestrian crossing requirements can be taken care by two ways; by suitable phase design or by providing an exclusive pedestrian phase. It is possible in some cases to allocate time for the pedestrians without providing an exclusive phase for them. For example, consider an intersection in which the traffic moves from north to south and also from east to west. If we are providing a phase which allows the traffic to flow only in north-south direction, then the pedestrians can cross in east-west direction and vice-versa.

However in some cases, it may be necessary to provide an exclusive pedestrian phase. In such cases, the procedure involves computation of time duration of allocation of pedestrian phase. Green time for pedestrian crossing can be found out by,

where

is the minimum safe time required for the pedestrians to is the

cross, often referred to as the ``pedestrian green time",

start-up lost time, is the crossing distance in metres, and is the walking speed of pedestrians which is about 15th percentile speed. The start-up lost time can be assumed as 4.7 seconds and the walking speed can be assumed to be 1.2 m/s. Interval Design There are two intervals, namely the change interval and clearance interval, normally provided in a traffic signal. The change interval or yellow time is provided after green time for movement. The purpose is to warn a driver approaching the intersection during the end of a green time about the coming of a red signal. They normally have a value of 3 to 6 seconds. The design consideration is that a driver approaching the intersection with design speed should be able to stop at the stop line of the intersection before the start of red time. Institute of transportation engineers (ITE) has recommended a methodology for computing the appropriate length of change interval which is as follows:

where y is the length of yellow interval in seconds, t is the reaction time of the driver, is the percentile speed of approaching

vehicles in m/s, a is the deceleration rate of vehicles in , g is the grade of approach expressed as a decimal. Change interval can also be approximately computed as y = SSD/v, where SSD is the stopping sight distance and v is the speed of the vehicle. The clearance interval is provided after yellow interval and as mentioned

earlier, it is used to clear off the vehicles in the intersection. Clearance interval is optional in a signal design. It depends on the geometry of the intersection. If the intersection is small, then there is no need of clearance interval whereas for very large intersections, it may be provided. Change interval Change interval or yellow or amber time is given after GREEN and before RED which allows the vehicles within a 'stopping sight distance' from the stop line to leagally cross the intersection. The amber time Y is calculated as

where t is the reaction time (about 1.0 sec), v is the velocity of the approaching vehicles, g is the acceleration due to gravity (9.8 ), n is the grade of the approach in decimals and a is the deceleration of the vehicle (around 3 Clearence interval The clearence interval or all-red will facilitate a vehicle just crossed the stop line at the turn of red to clear the intersection without being collided by a vehicle from the next phase. ITE recommends the following policy for the design of all read time, given as Where w is the width of the intersection from stop line to the farthest conflicting traffic, L is the length of the vehicle (about 6 m), v is the speed of the vehicle, and P is the width of the intersection from STOP line to the farthest conflicting pedestrian cross-walk. Performance Evaluation Performance measures are parameters used to evaluate the effectiveness of the design. There are many parameters involved to evaluate the effectiveness of the design and most common of these include delay, queuing, and stops. Delay is a measure that most directly relates the driver's experience. It describes the amount of time that is consumed while traversing the intersection. The figure 2 shows a plot of distance versus time for the progress of one vehicle. The desired path of the vehicle as well as the actual progress of the vehicle is shown. There are three types of delay as shown in the figure. They are stopped delay, approach delay and control delay. Stopped time delay includes only the time at which the vehicle is ).

actually stopped waiting at the red signal. It starts when the vehicle reaches a full stop, and ends when the vehicle begins to accelerate. Approach delay includes the stopped time as well as the time lost due to acceleration and deceleration. It is measured as the time differential between the actual path of the vehicle, and path had there been green signal. Control delay is measured as the difference between the time taken for crossing the intersection and time taken to traverse the same section, had been no intersection. For a signalized intersection, it is measured at the stop-line as the vehicle enters the intersection. Among various types of delays, stopped delay is easy to derive and often used as a performance indicator and will be discussed.

Figure 1: Illustration of delay measures

Figure 2: Graph between time and cumulative number of vehicles at an intersection Vehicles are not uniformly coming to an intersection. i.e., they are not approaching the intersection at constant time intervals. They

come in a random manner. This makes the modelling of signalized intersection delay complex. Most simple of the delay models is Webster's delay model. It assumes that the vehicles are arriving at a uniform rate. Plotting a graph with time along the x-axis and cumulative vehicles along the y-axis we get a graph as shown in figure 3. The delay per cycle is shown as the area of the hatched portion in the figure. Webster derived an expression for delay per cycle based on this, which is as follows.

Where gi is the effective green time, C is the cycle length, Vi is the critical flow for that phase, and S is the saturation flow. Delay is the most frequently used parameter of effectiveness for intersections. Other measures like length of queue at any given time (QT ) and number of stops are also useful. Length of queue is used to determine when a given intersection will impede the discharge from an adjacent upstream intersection. The number of stops made is an important input parameter in air quality models. Special cases Effect of Turning Vehicles Right Turning Vehicles Right-turn signal phases facilitate right-turning traffic and may improve the safety of the intersection for right-turning vehicles. However, this is done at the expense of the amount of green time available for through traffic and will usually reduce the capacity of the intersection. Right-turn arrows also result in longer cycle lengths, which in turn have a detrimental effect by increasing stops and delays. While phases for protected right-turning vehicles are popular and commonly requested, other methods of handling right-turn conflicts also need to be considered. Potential solutions may include prohibiting right-turns and geometric improvements. Right -Turn Phase Criteria The three right -turn phase criteria presented below are the result of considerable research and study.

1. Traffic Volumes 2. Delay Separate right -turn phasing may be considered if: The average delay for all right -turning vehicles on the approach is at least 35 seconds during that same peak hour. 3. Collision Experience
o

Separate right -turn phasing may be considered if the critical number of reportable right -turn collisions has occurred. These are:
o

For one approach to the intersection, the critical number is five l right -turn collisions in one year, or seven in two years. For both approaches to an intersection, the critical number is seven right -turn collisions in one year, or eleven in two years.

So the right turning vehicles affected saturation flow based on adjusted saturation headway. Finally actual values of right turning are calculated from right turn adjustment factor. The adjustments factor is calculated by following equations. Adjusted Saturation headway,

Adjusted Saturation flow,

Multiplicative Right turn adjustment factor,

Example: 1 If there is 15 percent right turning movement, eRT (through-car equivalent for permitted left turns) is 3, saturation headway is 2 sec; Find the value of Adjusted Saturation flow. Solution: Given Case 1 To find Adjusted headway, from that to calculate the reducing or increasing saturation flow. , , ,

Adjusted Saturation flow

The Adjusted Saturation flow = 1385 Veh/hr Case 2 To find the adjustment factor, then to calculate adjusted saturation flow based on ideal saturation flow (=1800)

The Adjusted Saturation flow = 1386 Veh/hr So case 1 and case 2, the value of saturation flow adjusted are same.

Left Turning Vehicles Adjustment Factor for Left turn: In left turn adjustment factor for Saturation flow rate is as follows, Exclusive Lane:

Shared Lane:

Where, pLT = Proportions of left turns in lane group. Normally in left turn, separate signal phase are not provided at intersection as per Indian standard. But following facilities are provided at intersection to prevent from some effects from left turning vehicles. Left-Turn Lane Allows left-turn-on-red (unless prohibited), reducing left-turn queues. Shared Lane with Island Provision of islands permits its use for placement of traffic control devices or as a pedestrian refuge. Left Turn Lane with Island Left-Turn Lane with Island and Dedicated Downstream Lane Effect of Lane Distribution Congestion and Delay at intersection particularly formed by to too many vehicles are moving same lane. So reduce that problem, we need to provide lane distribution. The lane distribution at intersection normally followed two categories. First one is the total volume of given approach are distributed by providing separate lane for left, right and through movement. For that individual movement, we need to fix some percentage of total flow at that particular approach. This type clearly defined in Figure 5 and following example.

In second type, the given approach total volumes are separated by individual lane for left, right and straight. And straight moving vehicles also distributed into left and right turn lanes for unavoidable condition. If through movement vehicles are high, we need to follow second type distribution. Second type is explained in Figure 6 and example. Normally high straight cases we followed second method. In that second type divided into two distribution methods. First one is, through movement distributed into left, right and straight lanes. Second is, extra separate lane provide for through movement. So each cases some lane distribution factors are followed. That importance points are shown in following examples.

Example: 2 For a given intersection, Traffic flow Proportion of Left and Right turn are 10% and 20% respectively. Find the traffic flow for given approach. Volume 2500veh/hr.

Figure 3: Individual Lane distribution From North to South, Total movement is 2500 veh/hr Left turn Traffic movement from total directional movement = 10% Right turn Traffic from total directional movement = 20%

Through Traffic from total directional movement = 70% Left turning Vehicles = Right turning Vehicles = Through Movement Vehicles = Example: 3 For a given intersection, Traffic flow Proportion of Left and Right turn are 10% and 20% respectively. Left and Right turn Lane utilization factors are 0.2 and 0.3 respectively. Find the traffic flow for given approach. Volume is 2500veh/hr.

Figure 4: Through movement distributed in left and right turn lanes also From North to South, Left turn Traffic movement from total directional movement = 10% Right turn Traffic from total directional movement = 20% Through Traffic from total directional movement = 70% Left turning Vehicles = Right turning Vehicles = Through Movement Vehicles =

Lane Distribution Left turn utilisation factor = 0.2 Right turn utilisation factor = 0.3 Through traffic in Left turn Lane = Through traffic in Right turn Lane = Through traffic in Median Lane = Table 1: PCU Values: Vehicle Type PCU Value Car / Taxi Auto 2W Buses LCV 2 Axle Trucks Bicycle Conclusion:

1 0.75 0.5 3 1.5 3 0.5

Generally intersection problems are unavoidable Elevated Expressways or freeway systems, grade separated intersection Efficiency, safety, speed, cost of operation and capacity of road system very much depends on the intersection design. In this chapter covered pedestrian phase, interval design, performance evaluation, turning effects and lane distribution

Assignment problem: Find Critical Volume (Vi) for a Given 4 arm Intersection. Traffic flow Proportion of Left and Right turn are 10% and 20% respectively (For all approach). Left and Right turn Lane utilization factors are 0.2 and 0.3 respectively.

Use following Phase Plan:

Solution: From West to East,

Left turn Traffic movement from total directional movement = 10% Right turn Traffic from total directional movement = 20% Through Traffic from total directional movement = 70% Left turning Vehicles = Right turning Vehicles = Through Movement Vehicles =

Lane Distribution

Left turn utilisation factor = 0.2 Right turn utilisation factor = 0.3 Through traffic in Left turn Lane = Through traffic in Right turn Lane =

Through traffic in Median Lane =

From East to west,

Left turn Traffic movement from total directional movement = 10% Right turn Traffic from total directional movement = 20% Through Traffic from total directional movement = 70% Left turning Vehicles = Right turning Vehicles = Through Movement Vehicles =

Lane Distribution

Left turn utilisation factor = 0.2 Right turn utilisation factor = 0.3 Through traffic in Left turn Lane = Through traffic in Right turn Lane = Through traffic in Median Lane =

From North to south,

Left turn Traffic movement from total directional movement = 10% Right turn Traffic from total directional movement = 20% Through Traffic from total directional movement = 70% Left turning Vehicles = Right turning Vehicles = Through Movement Vehicles =

From south to North,

Left turn Traffic movement from total directional movement = 10%

Right turn Traffic from total directional movement = 20% Through Traffic from total directional movement = 70% Left turning Vehicles = Right turning Vehicles = Through Movement Vehicles =

Performance measures Performance measures are parameters used to evaluate the effectiveness of the design There are many parameters involved to evaluate the effectiveness of the design and most common of these include delay, queuing, and stops. Delay is a measure that most directly relates the driver's experience. It describes the amount of time that is consumed while traversing the intersection. The figure 1 shows a plot of distance versus time for the progress of one vehicle. The desired path of the vehicle as well as the actual progress of the vehicle is shown. There are three types of delay as shown in the figure. They are stopped delay, approach delay and control delay. Stopped time delay includes only the time at which the vehicle is actually stopped waiting at the red signal. It starts when the vehicle reaches a full stop, and ends when the vehicle begins to accelerate. Approach delay includes the stopped time as well as the time lost due to acceleration and deceleration. It is measured as the time differential between the actual path of the vehicle, and path had there been green signal. Control delay is measured as the difference between the time taken for crossing the intersection and time taken to traverse the same section, had been no intersection. For a signalized intersection, it is measured at the stop-line as the vehicle enters the intersection. Among various types of delays, stopped delay is easy to derive and often used as a performance indicator and will be discussed. Vehicles are not uniformly coming to an intersection. i.e., they are not approaching the intersection at constant time intervals. They come in a random manner. This makes the modeling of signalized intersection delay complex. Most simple of the delay models is Webster's delay model. It assumes that the vehicles are arriving at a uniform rate. Plotting a graph with time along the x-axis and cumulative vehicles along the y-axis we get a graph as shown in figure 2. The delay per cycle is shown as the area of the hatched

portion in the figure. Webster derived an expression for delay per cycle based on this, which is as follows.

(1)

where is the effective green time, is the cycle length, critical flow for that phase, and is the saturation flow.

is the

Delay is the most frequently used parameter of effectiveness for intersections. Other measures like length of queue at any given time ( ) and number of stops are also useful. Length of queue is used to determine when a given intersection will impede the discharge from an adjacent upstream intersection. The number of stops made is an important input parameter in air quality models. Overview Topic that will be covered in this chapter are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Effect of right turning vehicles Adjustments on saturatin flow Clearence and change interval Various delay models at signalized intersection HCM procedure on signalized intersection capacity and level of service analysis

Effect of right-turning vehicles 1. A right-turnings vehicle will consume more effective green time traversing the intersection than a corresponding through vehicle. 2. Applicable especially at permitted right movements 3. right turn has great difficulty in manneouring and find a safe gap 4. right turn vehicle may block a through vehicle behind it 5. right turn vehciles may take 2, 4, or even 10 times the time to that of a through movement 6. The equivalency concept will answer how many through vehicles could pass the intersection during the time utilized by a through movement. 7. If 3 through and 2 right turn movement takes place at some time duration in a given lane. Assume at the same time

duration in another identical lane if 9 through vehicles moved, then vehicles, then

(2)

8. 9. Therefore, the right-turn adjustment factor under the current prevailing condition is 3.0. 10. This factor is normally applied in the saturation flow by adjusting its value. (3) 11. 12. For example, if there is 15 percent right-turn movement,

is 3, and saturation headway is 2 sec, then the adjusted staturatin headway is computed as follows: (4) 13. 14. The saturation head way is increased thereby reducing veh/hr. can be written as (5) 16. 17. From the Equation 3 and 5, following relation can be easily derived:

the saturatin flow 15. The adjested saturation flow

(6)

18. 19. where is the multiplicative right turn adjustment factor to the ideal stauration flow. 20. In the above example,

(7)

21. 22. Therefore the adjusted saturatin flow is veh/sec. Change interval Change interval or yellow or amber time is given after GREEN and before RED which allows the vehicles within a 'stopping sight distance' from the stop line to leagally cross the intersectin. The amber time is calculated as (8)

where

is the reaction time (about 1.0 sec),

is the velocity of the

approaching vehicles, is the acceleration due to gravity (9.8 m/sec2), is the grade of the approach in decimels and is the deceleration of the vehicle (around 3 m/sec2). Clearence interval The clearence interval or all-red will facilitate a vehicle just crossed the stop line at the turn of red to clear the intersection with out being collided by a vehicle from the next phase. ITE recomends the following policy for the design of all read time, given as

(9)

where is the width of the intersection from stop line to the farthest conflicting trafic, is the length of the vehicle (about 6 m), is the

speed of the vehicle, and is the width of the intersection from STOP line to the farthest confliting pedestrain cross-walk. Problem The traffic flow for a four-legged intersection is as shown in figure 5.

Figure 5: Traffic flow for a typical four-legged intersection Given that the lost time per phase is 2.4 seconds, saturation headway is 2.2 seconds, amber time is 3 seconds per phase, find the cycle length, green time and performance measure(delay per cycle). Assume critical Solution

ratio as 0.9.

The phase plan is as shown in figure 6.

Figure 6: Phase plan

Sum of critical lane volumes is the sum of maximum lane volumes in each phase, vph. = 433+417+233+215 = 1298

Saturation flow rate,

from equation=

= 1637 vph.

= 0.793. Cycle length can be found out from the equation as C= = 80.68 seconds 80 seconds. The effective green time can be found out as = 80-(4 2.4)= 70.4 seconds, where 2.4. = 70.4 is

the lost time for that phase = 4

Green splitting for the phase 1 can be found out as [ ] = 22.88 seconds.

Similarly green splitting for the phase 2, 22.02 seconds. Similarly green splitting for the phase 3, 12.04 seconds. Similarly green splitting for the phase 4, 11.66 seconds. The actual green time for phase 1 from equationas 3+2.4 23 seconds. Similarly actual green time for phase 2, seconds. Similarly actual green time for phase 3, seconds. Similarly actual green time for phase 4, seconds.

= = 22.8823 13 12

= 22.02-3+2.4 = 12.04-3+2.4 = 11.66-3+2.4

Pedestrian time can be found out from as seconds. The phase diagram is shown in figure 7.

= 21.5

Figure 7: Timing diagram

The actual cycle time will be the sum of actual green time plus amber time plus actual red time for any phase. Therefore, for phase 1, actual cycle time = 23+3+78.5 = 104.5 seconds. Delay at the intersection in the east-west direction can be found out from equationas

Delay at the intersection in the west-east direction can be found out from equation,as

(10)

Delay at the intersection in the north-south direction can be found out from equation,

(11)

Delay at the intersection in the south-north direction can be found out from equation,

(12)

Delay at the intersection in the south-east direction can be found out from equation,

(13)

Delay at the intersection in the north-west direction can be found out from equation,

(14)

Delay at the intersection in the west-south direction can be found out from equation,

(15)

Delay at the intersection in the east-north direction can be found out from equation,

(16)

Summary Green splitting is done by proportioning the green time among various phases according to the critical volume of the phase. Pedestrian phases are provided by considering the walking speed and

start-up lost time. Like other facilities, signals are also assessed for performance, delay being th e important parameter used. References 1. L. R Kadiyali. Traffic Engineering and Transportation Planning. Khanna Publishers, New Delhi, 1987. 2. William R McShane, Roger P Roesss, and Elena S Prassas. Traffic Engineering. Prentice-Hall, Inc, Upper Saddle River, New Jesery, 1998. Acknowledgments I wish to thank several of my students and staff of NPTEL for their contribution in this lecture. Prof. Tom V. Mathew 2013-02-09