Perl Programming
Perl Programming
Perl Programming
Wikibooks.org
December 1, 2012
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Contents
0.1 Section 1: Beginning Perl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.2 Getting Started . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.3 A First Taste of Perl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.4 Strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.5 Single Quoted Strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.6 Brief Digression from Strings Alone: The print Function 0.7 Double Quoted Strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.8 Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.9 Simple variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.10 Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.11 Associative arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.12 Subroutines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 The operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1 Arithmetic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 Assignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3 Comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4 Logical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5 Bitwise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.6 String . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.7 Comparing strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.8 File Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.9 Other . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.10 Precedence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.11 The smart match operator () . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.12 Dereferencing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.13 Scalar Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.14 Lists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.15 Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.16 Command line arguments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.17 Related Articles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.18 "Associative Arrays" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.19 Working with hashes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.20 Hash of Hashes of Hashes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.21 Output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.22 Input . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Unit Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1 Advanced Output Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2 Use other quotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3 Escape characters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1 3 4 5 7 9 11 13 14 14 15 17 19 19 20 21 21 23 23 23 23 24 24 25 25 26 29 31 33 33 35 35 35 36 36 39 39 39 39
III
Contents 3.4 Custom Quotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5 Block Output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6 Variable Output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.7 Caveats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.8 Control structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.9 See Also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Read les . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1 Procedural Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2 Object Oriented Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3 String functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4 Numeric functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.5 Array functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.6 List functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.7 Associative array functions . . . . . . . . . . . 4.8 Input and output functions . . . . . . . . . . . 4.9 Functions for working with xed length records 4.10 Filesystem functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.11 Program functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.12 Misc functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.13 Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.14 Modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.15 Classes and objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.16 Sockets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.17 Login information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.18 Network information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.19 Time and date . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.20 Functions that reverse each other . . . . . . . . 4.21 Section 2: In-depth Perl ideas . . . . . . . . . 4.22 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.23 Referencing and Dereferencing Syntax . . . . 4.24 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.25 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.26 Section 3: Interfacing Perl . . . . . . . . . . . 4.27 Links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.28 Installing modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.29 Using a module in your program . . . . . . . . 4.30 Finding documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.31 Contributing your own modules to CPAN . . . 4.32 Section 4: CGI and Apache . . . . . . . . . . 4.33 The Initial Setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.34 Retrieving Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.35 Output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.36 The Finished Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.37 Frameworks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.38 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.39 The Initial Setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.40 Retrieving Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.41 Output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 40 40 41 41 43 45 45 45 46 52 54 55 56 57 60 61 65 67 69 70 70 72 72 72 72 74 75 75 75 75 80 84 84 85 86 86 87 88 88 89 89 89 90 91 91 91 91
IV
Section 1: Beginning Perl 4.42 The Finished Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.43 Section 5: Perl and beyond . . . . . . . . . . . 4.44 Section 6: Sample code . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.45 Section 7: Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.46 String functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.47 Numeric functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.48 Array functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.49 List functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.50 Associative array functions . . . . . . . . . . . 4.51 Input and output functions . . . . . . . . . . . 4.52 Functions for working with xed length records 4.53 Filesystem functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.54 Program functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.55 Misc functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.56 Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.57 Modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.58 Classes and objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.59 Sockets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.60 Login information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.61 Network information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.62 Time and date . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.63 Functions that reverse each other . . . . . . . . 4.64 Key Sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.65 Community . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.66 Other . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Contributors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . List of Figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Licenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1 GNU GENERAL PUBLIC LICENSE . . . . . 6.2 GNU Free Documentation License . . . . . . . 6.3 GNU Lesser General Public License . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 91 92 95 95 101 103 104 105 106 108 109 113 115 117 118 118 120 120 120 120 122 123 123 123 125 131 135 135 136 136
Contents This will display which version of Perl you have installed on your computer, if it is installed. There are at least two easy ways to install Perl on Windows: the ActiveState1 distribution, and the Strawberry Perl2 distribution. Both are downloadable as native Windows installers. ActivePerl has a prebuilt package repository and is supported by a corporation, while Strawberry Perl includes a compiler (gcc) so that perl modules can be installed "on the y" and is community-supported. Most Unix-like operating systems will include Perl by default, and Linux Standard Base mandates that all compliant Linuxes ship with Perl installed. However, if for some reason you don't have perl, you can explore the options available to you at the main Perl download page3 , which will provide links to source and binaries.
If you don't understand this yet, don't worry; This will be explained in more depth later. Save the le as myprog.pl and you have a perl program ready to run.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
A First Taste of Perl From a windows command-line interface, you can run the program thusly:
C:\> perl path\to\foo\myprog.pl
Note: You may have to specify the full path to your program unless you are running the command prompt in that directory. UNIX-like Systems You can run a perl program by running perl itself, and telling the shell the name of the le:
perl myprog.pl
Usually, perl programs are made executable on their own. This involves two changes to the sample program. First, edit it and put the following shebang line8 at the top of the le:
#!/usr/bin/perl
Your program is now executable and ready to run, just like any other le. To execute, type:
./myprog.pl
By convention, .pl identies a perl script, and .pm a perl library. The .pl le extension isn't needed for either of these examples; it's just a useful way of identifying les. The only time the convention should be violated is if the program is to be installed outside of the current working directory, and there runs a chance you might want to some day rewrite them in a different language.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shebang%20%28Unix%29
Contents Let's take a look at this program line by line: #!/usr/bin/perl On Unix systems this tells the Operating System to execute this le with the program located at /usr/bin/perl. This is the default Unix location for the perl interpreter, on Windows #!C:\Perl\bin\perl.exe or #!C:\strawberry\perl\bin\perl.exe (depending on whether ActivePerl or Strawberry Perl was installed) should be used instead. Shebang: A line at the start of a le, beginning with #!, that gives instructions to the operating system. # Outputs ... This line is a comment - it is ignored by the perl interpreter, but is very useful. It helps you to debug and maintain your code, and explain it to other programmers. Comment: A line of plain text ignored by the interpreter in a le of code. print "Hello world!\n"; The print instruction writes whatever follows it to the screen. The \n at the end of the string puts a new line to the screen. The semicolon at the end of the line tells the perl interpreter that the instruction is nished; you must put a semicolon at the end of every instruction in Perl code. String: A sequence of characters used as data by a program.
0.3.1 Exercises
Change the program so it says hello to you. Change the program so that after greeting you, it asks how you are doing, on the next line. The output should look like this: Hello your_name! How are you? Experiment with the \n character, what happens when you take it away? What happens if you put two in a row? Remember: if you add another print instruction you will need to put a semicolon after it.
0.4 Strings
Any sequence of characters put together as one unit, is a string. So, the word the is a string. This sentence is a string. Even this entire paragraph is a string. In fact, you could consider the text of this entire book as one string. Strings can be of any length and can contain any characters, numbers, punctuation, special characters (like ! #, and %), and even characters in natural languages besides English. In addition, a string
Single Quoted Strings can contain special whitespace formatting characters like newline, tab, and the bell character. We will discuss special characters more later on. For now, we will begin our consideration of strings by considering how to insert literal strings into a Perl program. To begin our discussion of strings in Perl, we will consider how to work with string literals in Perl. The word literal here refers to the fact that these are used when you want to type a string directly to Perl. This can be contrasted with storing a string in a variable. Any string literal can be used as an expression. We will nd this useful when we want to store string literals in variables. However, for now, we will simply consider the different types of string literals that one can make in Perl. Later, we will learn how to assign these string literals to variables in the Scalar Variables section9 .
You should see "Hello Fred" on the rst line and "Hello $name\n" on the second (without a newline after it). Putting the value of $name into the string in the rst print statement is called "interpolation." If you don't need interpolation, you should use single quotes, because it makes your intent clearer.
We have in this example a string with 7 characters exactly. Namely, this is the string: xxx'xxx. It can be difcult at rst to become accustomed to the idea that two characters in the input to Perl
9 Chapter 2.12.2 on page 26
Contents actually produce only one character in the string itself. (C programmers are already probably used to this idea.) However, just keep in mind the rules and you will probably get used to them quickly. Since we have used the \ character to do something special with the ' character, we must now worry about the special cases for the backslash character itself. When we see a \ character in a single-quoted string, we must carefully consider what will happen. Under most circumstances, when a \ is in a single-quoted string, it is simply a backslash, representing itself, as most other characters do. However, the following exceptions apply: The sequence \' yields the character ' in the actual string. (This is the exception we already discussed above). The sequence \\ yields the character \ in the actual string. In other words, two backslashes right next to each other actually yield only one backslash. A backslash, by itself, cannot be placed at the end of a the single-quoted string. This cannot happen because Perl will think that you are using the \ to escape the closing '. The following examples exemplify the various exceptions, and use them properly:
I don\t think so.; \ Need a \\ (backslash) or \?; You can do this: \\; Three \\\s: "\\\\\"; # Note the inside is escaped with # The \\ gives us \, as does \ # A single backslash at the end # There are three \ chars between ""
In the last example, note that the resulting string is Three \'s: "\\\". If you can follow that example, you have denitely mastered how single-quoted strings work! Instead of unreadable backslash escapes, Perl offers other ways10 of quoting strings. The rst example above could be written as:
q{I dont think so}; # No \ needed to escape the
# Represents the single string composed of: # Time to followed by a newline, followed by # start anew.
10
http://perldoc.perl.org/perlop.html#Quote-and-Quote-like-Operators
Brief Digression from Strings Alone: The print Function This string has a total of twenty characters. The rst seven are Time to. The next character following that is a newline. Then, the eleven characters, start anew. follow. Note again that this is one string, with a newline as its eighth character. Further, note that we are not permitted to put a comment in the middle of the string, even though we are usually allowed to place a # anywhere on the line and have the rest of the line be a comment. We cannot do this here, since we have yet to terminate our single-quoted string with a ', and thus, any # character and comment following it would actually become part of the single-quoted string! Remember that single-quotes strings are delimited by ' at the beginning, and ' at the end, and everything in between is considered part of the string, included newlines, # characters and anything else.
Sometimes, when you have invalid string literals such as in the example above, the error message that Perl gives is not particularly intuitive. However, when you see error messages such as:
(Might be a runaway multi-line string starting on line X) Bareword found where operator expected Bareword "foo" not allowed while "strict subs" in use
It is often an indication that you have runaway or invalid strings. Keep an eye out for these problems. Chances are, you will forget and violate one of the rules for single-quoted strings eventually, and then need to determine why you are unable to run your Perl program.
11
Contents
use warnings; 'Three \\\'s: "\\\\\"'; # There are three \ chars between "" 'xxx\'xxx'; # xxx, a single-quote character, and then xxx 'Time to start anew.';
you probably noticed that nothing of interest happens. Perl gladly runs this program, but it produces no output. Thus, to begin to work with strings in Perl beyond simple hypothetical considerations, we need a way to have Perl display our strings for us. The canonical way of accomplishing this in Perl is to use the print function. The print function in Perl can be used in a variety of ways. The simplest form is to use the statement print STRING;, where STRING is any valid Perl string. So, to reconsider our examples, instead of simply listing the strings, we could instead print each one out:
#!/usr/bin/perl use strict; use warnings; print print print start '; 'Three \\\'s: "\\\\\"'; # Print first string 'xxx\'xxx'; # Print the second 'Time to anew. # Print last string, with a newline at the end
This program will produce output. When run, the output goes to what is called the standard output. This is usually the terminal, console or window in which you run the Perl program. In the case of the program above, the output to the standard output is as follows:
Three \'s: "\\\"xxx'xxxTime to start anew.
Note that a newline is required to break up the lines. Thus, you need to put a newline at the end of every valid string if you want your string to be the last thing on that line in the output. Note that it is particularly important to put a newline on the end of the last string of your output. If you do not, often times, the command prompt for the command interpreter that you are using may run together with your last line of output, and this can be very disorienting. So, always remember to place a newline at the end of each line, particularly on your last line of output. Finally, you may have noticed that formatting your code with newlines in the middle of single-quoted strings hurts readability. Since you are inside a single-quoted string, you cannot change the format of the continued lines within the print statement, nor put comments at the ends of those lines because that would insert data into your single-quoted strings. To handle newlines more elegantly, you should use double-quoted strings, which are the topic of the next section.
As you may have noticed in the previous chapter, you can put the name of a variable within a string with its leading dollar sign. This form of interpolation replaces the name of the variable in the string with the content of the variable.
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Contents
"A backslash: \\\n"; "Tab follows:\tover here\n"; "Ring! \a\n"; "Please pay someone\@example.org \$20.\n";
This program, when run, produces the following output on the screen:
A backslash: \ Tab follows: over here Ring! Please pay someone@example.org $20.
In addition, when running, you should hear the computer beep. That is the output of the \a character, which you cannot see on the screen. However, you should be able to hear it. Notice that the \n character ends a line. \n should always be used to end a line. Those students familiar with the C language will be used to using this sequence to mean newline. When writing Perl, the word newline and the \n character are roughly synonymous.
If you want to make the string have a space between Hello and World you could write it like this:
"Hello" . " " . "World" # This is the same as "Hello World"
Or like this:
"Hello" . " World" # This is the same as "Hello World"
The x Operator This is called the string repetition operator and is used to repeat a string. All you have to do is put a string on the left side of the x and a number on the right side. Like this:
10
Numbers
If you wish to insert a line break after each output of the string, use:
"Hello\n" x 5
0.7.4 Exercises
Write a program that uses the . operator to print "Hello Sir!". Write another program which uses the x operator to print "HelloHelloHelloHello". Put comments in this program that explain how it works Remember to take some time to play with single and double quoted strings, the more practice you get, the better you will be.
0.8 Numbers
Numbers in Perl do not have to be enclosed in any kind of punctuation; they can be written as straight numbers.
0.8.2 Integers
Integers are all whole numbers and their negatives (and 0): {... -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3 ...}. Here are a few examples of integers:
12, -50, 20, 185, -6654, 6654
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Contents
Octal numbers start with 0 ("zero"), so here are some possible octal numbers:
015462 062657 012
Hexadecimal numbers start with 0x, so here are some possible hexadecimal numbers:
0xF17A 0xFFFF
13 14 15
12
Simple variables Perl also has the familiar increment, decrement, plus-equals, and minus-equals operators from C:
$a++ # ++$a # $a-# --$a # $a += 5 # + 5 $a -= 2 # $a = $a-2 evaluate, then increment increment, then evaluate evaluate, then decrement decrement, then evaluate plus-equals operator, adds 5 to $a. Equivalent to $a = $a minus-equals operator, subtracts 2 from $a. Equivalent to
Now let's look at one more operator that's a little less obvious. The ** Operator The ** operator is simply the exponentation operator. Here's another example:
2**4 # That's 16, same as 24 4**3**2 # that's 4**(3**2), or 49 , or 262144
Extra! The modulus operator (%) can be used to nd the remainder when dividing two numbers. If that doesn't make sense now, that's ne, it's not that important.(Note, this returns 0 when used on oating point numbers)
0.8.5 Exercises
Remember the x operator? Use a mathematical expression as the number of times to repeat the string, see what happens. Write a program like our original hello world program except make it print a mathematical expression. In Perl, there are ve types of variables: $calars, @rrays, %hashes, &subroutines, and *typeglobs.
print $my_variable;
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Contents
0.10 Arrays
Arrays in Perl use the @ character to identify themselves.
@my_array @my_array @my_array @my_array one-word @my_array @my_array = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10); # numeric list = (1 .. 10); # same as above = (John, Paul, Kanai, Mahenge); # strings = qw/John Paul Kanai Mahenge/; # the same strings, with less typing = qw/red blue 1 green 5/; # mixed types = (\@Array1, \@Array2, \@Array3); # array of arrays
However, when you deal with just one element of the array (using square brackets so it's not confused), then that element of the array is considered a scalar which takes the $ sigil:
$my_array[0] = 1;
As in the C programming language, the number of the rst element is 0 (although as with all things in Perl, it's possible to change this if you want). Array subscripts can also use variables:
$my_array[$MyNumber] = 1;
When using the => the left side is assumed to be quoted. For long lists, lining up keys and values aids readability.
%my_hash = ( key1 => value1, key2 => value2, key3 => value3, );
However, when you deal with just one element of the array (using braces), then that element of the array is considered a scalar and takes the $ identier:
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http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/%2Fcase%20sensitivity%2F
14
Subroutines
$my_hash{key1} = value1;
Associative arrays are useful when you want to refer to the items by their names.
0.12 Subroutines
Subroutines are dened by the sub function, and used to be called using & (using & is now deprecated). Here's an example program that calculates the Fibonnaci sequence:
sub fib { my $n = shift; return $n if $n < 2; return fib( $n - 1 ) + fib( $n - 2 ); } print fib(14);
The if statement is the primary conditional structure in Perl. The syntax is as follows:
if (boolean expression) { statement; }
If the boolean expression evaluates to true, the statements between the two braces will be executed. The braces around statements are mandatory, even if there is only one statement (unlike C or Java). An alternative syntax to the if statement may be used on a single statement. This involves putting the conditional at the end of the statement rather than before, and does not include braces:
statement if (boolean expression) ;
You should choose whichever one is clearer in a given situation. For example, the following is legal, but unclear:
foreach my $word (@words) { if ($word eq end) { last; } print "$word\n"; }
This hides the last (which is like break, and ends the loop) over at the right. Instead use a postx if:
foreach my $word (@words) { last if $word eq end; print "$word\n"; }
The boolean expression conditional can contain any one of the comparison operators covered in the next section.
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Contents Multiple conditions can be checked together using the boolean expression operators: && - logical and, C style; used for most conditionals and - logical and, but with a lower precedence; used for ow control || - logical or, C style; used for most conditionals or - logical or, but with a lower precedence; used for ow control ! - logical not, C style not - logical not, but with a lower precedence
if ( ($x == 20) || ( ($x > 0)&&($x < 10)&& !($x == 5) ) ){ print "x is equal to 20 or either between 0 and 10 but not 5.\n"; }
Conditional statements can also be extended with the elsif and else structures:
if (boolean expression 1) { statement 1; } elsif (boolean expression 2) { statement 2; } else { statement 3; }
Note that an if statement is followed by any number (including zero) of elsif statements, and nally an optional else statement. The statements of an elsif will be executed if its boolean expression is true, and no preceding (els)if statement's boolean expression is true. The trailing else (if present) is executed if none of the preceding statements' boolean expressions are true.
16
1 Introduction
Perl's set of operators borrows extensively from the C programming language1 . Perl expands on this by infusing new operators for string functions (.=, x, eq, ne, etc.). C by contrast delegates its subset of Perl functionality to a library strings.h, and ctype.h, and includes no such functionality by default compilation. Perl also includes a highly exible Regex2 engine inspired by Sed with improvements to standard POSIX regexes, most notably the support of Unicode.
1 2
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2 The operators
2.1 Arithmetic
Most arithmetic operators are binary operators; this means they take two arguments. Unary operators only take one argument. Arithmetic operators are very simple and often transparent.
2.1.1 Binary
All the basic arithmetic operators are present: addition (+), subtraction (-), multiplication (*), and division (/). The modulus operator is %. Modulus returns the remainder of a division (/) operation.
# 3 goes into 4, 1 time with 1 left over. print 4 % 3; # prints 1 # 2 goes into 4, 2 times with 0 left over. print 4 % 2; # prints 0 # 3 goes into -4, -2 times with 2 left over. print -4 % 3; # prints 2
The exponentiation operator is **. It allows you to raise one value to the power of another. If you raise to a fraction you will get the root of the number. In this example the second result when raised to the power of 2 should return 2 (( 2 ** (1/2) ) ** 2 = 2 ).
# Four squared: print 4 ** 2; # prints 16 # Square root of 2 print 2 ** (1/2); # prints 1.4142135623731
The function sqrt is provided for nding a Square Root. Other fractional powers (i.e., (1/5), (2/13), (7/5), and similar) are suitably found using the ** operator.
2.1.2 Unary
The auto-decrement (--), and auto-increment (++) operators are unary operators. They alter the scalar variable they operate on by one logical unit. On numbers, they add or subtract one. On letters and strings, only the auto-increment shift one up in the alphabet, with the added ability to roll-over. Operators that come in post- and pre- varieties can be used two ways. The rst way returns the value of the variable before it was altered, and the second way returns the value of the variable after it was altered.
19
The operators
my $foo = 1; # post decrement (printed and then decremented to 0) print $foo--; # prints 1 # prints 0 print $foo; my $foo = 1; # pre-decrement (decremented to 0 then printed) print --$foo; # prints 0 # prints 0 print $foo; my $foo = d; # pre-increment (incremented to e then printed) print ++$foo; # prints e print $foo; # prints e my $foo = Z; # post-increment (printed the incremented to AA) print $foo++; # prints Z # prints AA print $foo;
2.2 Assignment
The basic assignment operator is "=" which sets the value on the left side to be equal to the value on the right side. It also returns the value. Thus you can do things like $a = 5 + ($b = 6), which will set $b to a value of 6 and $a to a value of 11 (5 + 6). Why you would want to do this is another question. The assignment update operators from C, "+=", "-=", etc. work in perl. Perl expands on this basic idea to encompass most of the binary operators in perl. operator += subtract assign, minus-equals *= /= %= **= .= repeat assign &&= ||= &= |= = = <<= >>= name add assign, plus-equals multiply assign divide assign modulo assign exponent assign concatenate assign logical AND assign logical OR assign bitwise AND assign bitwise OR assign bitwise XOR assign bitwise NOT assign left shift assign right shift assign
20
Logical
my $foo = Hello; $foo .= , world; print $foo; # prints Hello, world; my $bar = +; $bar x= 6; print $bar; # prints ++++++;
2.3 Comparison
Perl uses different operators to compare numbers and strings. This is done because in most cases, Perl will happily stringify numbers and numify strings. In most cases this helps, and is consistent with Perl's DWIM Do-What-I-Mean theme. Unfortunately, one place this often does not help, is comparison. name equal not equal less than greater than less or equal greater or equal compare numeric == != < > <= >= <=> string eq ne lt gt le ge cmp
2.4 Logical
Perl has two sets of logical operators, just like the comparison operators, however not for the same reason. The rst set (sometimes referred to as the C-style logical operators because they are borrowed from C) is &&, ||, and !. They mean logical AND, OR, and NOT respectively. The second set is and, or, and not. The only difference between these two sets is the precedence they take (See Precedence1 ). The symbolic operators take a much higher precedence than the textual.
2.4.1 Conditionals
Most of the time, you will be using logical operators in conditionals.
# Only prints "I like cookies\n" if both $a is 5 and $b is 2 if($a == 5 && $b == 2){ print "I like cookies\n"; }
21
The operators In this case, you could safely substitute and for && and the conditional would still work as expected, however, this is not always the case.
#True if $a is 5, and either $b, $c, or both are 2 if($a == 5 and $b == 2 || $c == 2){ print "I like cookies\n"; } #Using brackets, the order is made more clear. #This conditional acts in the same way as the last. if($a == 5 and ($b == 2 || $c == 3)){ print "I like cookies\n"; }
Most people prefer to use C-style logical operators and use brackets to enforce clarity rather than using a combination of textual and C-style operators (when possible), which can be very confusing at times.
This also works with logical OR statements. If the rst expression evaluates as true, then the second is never evaluated because the conditional is automatically true. This becomes useful in a case like this:
sub foo { #returns a true or false value } foo() or print "foo() failed\n";
Here, if the foo() subroutine returns false, then "foo() failed\n" is printed. However, if it returns true, then "foo() failed\n" is not printed, because the second expression (print "foo() failed\n") does not need to be evaluated.
22
Bitwise
2.5 Bitwise
These operators perform the same operation as the logical operators, but instead of being performed on the true/false value of the entire expressions, it is done on the individual respective bits of their values. "&" (bitwise AND) "|" (bitwise OR) "" (bitwise XOR) "" (bitwise NOT)
The left and right shift operators move the bits of the left operand (e.g. $a in the case of $a << $b) left or right a number of times equal to the right operand ($b). Each move to the right or left effectively halves or doubles the number, except where bits are shifted off the left or right sides. For example, $number << 3 returns $number multiplied by 8 (2**3). "<<" (left shift) ">>" (right shift)
2.6 String
The string concatenation operator is ., not + which some other languages use.
print Hello . world; # prints "Hello world" without a newline at the end
There is a repeat operator for strings (x) which repeats a string a given number of times.
my $str = "hi"; my $repeated_str = $str x 5; print "$repeated_str\n"; # prints "hihihihihi" with a newline at the end
23
The operators
2.9 Other
The range operator (..) returns a list of items in the range between two items; the items can be characters or numbers. The type of character is determined by the rst operand; the code:
print print print print print print print print ('A'..'Z'); ('a'..'z'); ('A'..'z'); (1..'a'); (1..20); ('&'..'!'); (10..-10); "$_\n" foreach (1..10);
Note that the case is dened by the rst operand, and that the 1..'a' and (10..-10) operations don't return anything.
2.10 Precedence
Precedence is a concept that will be familiar to anyone who has studied algebra or coded in C/C++. Each operator has its place in a hierarchy of operators, and are executed in order. The precedence of perl operators is strict and should be overridden with parentheses, both when you are knowingly going against precedence and when you aren't sure of the order of precedence. For a complete listing of the order, check perlop3 .
http://www.perl.com/doc/manual/html/pod/perlop.html#SYNOPSIS
24
The smart match operator is versatile and fast (often faster than the equivalent comparison without ). See smart matching in detail4 for the comparisons it can do. is also used in the given/when switch statement new in 5.10, which will be covered elsewhere.
2.12 Dereferencing
2.12.1 The doubledollar
A variable, previously referenced with the reference operator can be dereferenced by using a doubledollar symbol prex:
$number = 12; $refnum = \$number; # backslash is the reference operator $$refnum = 13; # $$ is used as a dereference to the original variable $($refnum) = 11; # This is an alternative syntax using brackets print $number; # the original variable has changed
http://perldoc.perl.org/perlsyn.html#Smart-matching-in-detail
25
The operators Perl has four fundamental data type5 s: scalars, lists, hashes, and typeglobs. scalar is a funny way of saying a single value; it may be a number, a string, or a reference6 . list is an ordered collection of scalars. A variable that holds a list is called an array. Items in a list or array can be accessed by their position in the list; programs can retrieve the rst, second, third, etc. item in a list. hash is like an array, in that a hash holds many values, but the values are identied by a unique "key", rather than an ordinal index position. typeglob is a variable representing an entry within the internal symbol table. It is used to manipulate le handles, and to create references or aliases. All variables are marked by a leading sigil7 , which identies the data type. The same name may be used for variables of different types, without conict.
$foo @foo %foo *foo # # # # a a a a scalar list hash typeglob
Now let's break this program down: The rst two lines you already know, #!/usr/bin/perl and use warnings; The third line is more interesting, it contains a scalar variable. There are a few important things to point out:
5 6 7
26
Scalar Variables 1. In case you haven't gured this out, the scalar variable in this line is $my_scalar_variable 2. Notice the $ before the name my_scalar_variable, in order to dene a scalar variable, this sign must appear before the name. Now let's look at the last line. This is just the familiar print function being told to print the value of $my_scalar_variable. Try it! Type in the program mentioned above and run it.
Would return "I saw 4 lions!" With a single quoted string, this program:
#/usr/bin/perl use warnings; $variable = 4;
27
The operators
Would return "I saw $variable lions!" Try it! Type in the programs mentioned above and run them. This effect is because of what I said before, single quoted strings8 are interpreted literally.
String Comparison Operators Here is the list of string comparison operators: eq - Equal to ne - Not equal to lt - Less than gt - Greater than le - Less than or equal to ge - Greater than or equal to cmp - String Comparison
8 9
28
Lists Note The two 'Comparison' operators <=> and cmp are slightly different from the rest. Rather than returning only true or false, these operators return 1 if the left argument is greater than the right argument, 0 if they are equal, and -1 if the right argument is greater than the left argument.
2.13.4 Exercises
Try writing a program like the Hello World program except elaborate it by storing "Hello, world!\n" in a variable and then printing the variable. Play around with all the things we have learned so far. Try to create a program that has an example of everything we have learned so far. Perl syntax includes both lists and arrays.
2.14 Lists
A list in perl is an ordered set of scalar values. It is represented in your code as a comma-separated sequence of values, which may or may not be contained in scalar variables. Lists can be used to make multiple assignments at once, and can be passed as arguments to several built-in and user-dened functions:
#!/usr/bin/perl use strict; use warnings; my ($length, $width, $depth) = (10, 20, 15); print "The values are: ", $length, $width, $depth;
Note Parentheses are notrequired in the construction of a list. They are used only for precedence.
you can use the qw// operator. This operator uses any non-alpha-numeric character as a delimiter (typically the / character), and encloses a space-separated sequence of barewords. A delimeter separates the command with the arguments. The above line is identical to the following:
($name1, $name2, $name3, $name4) = qw/Paul Michael Jessica Megan/;
29
The operators
The last example uses the open and close parenthesis as a different delimeter. If there is an open and close version of the delimiter you choose, you need to use them both. Otherwise just repeat the same symbol twice. For example, you cannot type qw<Paul Michael< you have to type qw<Paul Michael>. You can also abuse the glob syntax, when the strings do not include shell metacharacters:
($name1, $name2, $name3, $name4) = <Paul Michael Jessica Megan>;
Note The resulting strings from the qw// operator are single-quoted, meaning no interpolation happens in the set. If you need to include a variable in your list, you cannot use this method.
If there are more variables on the left than values on the right, the 'extra' variables are assigned the default undef value:
#!/usr/bin/perl ($length, $width, $depth) = (10, $w); #$length gets 10, $width gets the value of $w. $depth is undef
The existence of list assignment creates the ability to 'swap' two variables' values without the need of an intermediary temporary variable:
#!/usr/bin/perl $foo = 10; $bar = 5; ($foo, $bar) = ($bar, $foo); 10; #$foo now equals 5, while $bar equals
30
Arrays
2.15 Arrays
An array in Perl is a variable which contains a list. An array can be modied, have elements added and removed, emptied, or reassigned to an entirely different list. Just as all scalar variables start with the $ character, all array variables start with the @ character. Note It is a common and frequent mistake in Perl to use the terms 'list' and 'array' interchangeably. They do not have the same meaning. A decent analogy is that a list (such as qw/foo bar baz/) is to an array (such as @values) as a string (such as 'Paul') is to a scalar variable (such as $name).
@names = qw/Paul Michael Jessica Megan/; @all = (@nums, @more); #@all contains all integers from 1 to 1000
That last example exemplifes a feature of Perl known as 'array attening'. When an array is used in a list, it is the array's elements that populate the list, not the array itself. As stated above, a list is a set of scalar values only. Therefore, the @all array contains 1000 elements, not 2. Note Although this implies you cannot create an 'array of arrays', or 'two-dimensional arrays', such things do exist in Perl. They are simulated by using references10 .
10
31
The operators
Note A common misconception is that a list in scalar context will also return its size. This is untrue. In fact, there is no such thing as a list in scalar context: using the comma operator in a scalar context does not create a list, instead it evaluates each of its arguments, left to right, and returns the last one:
$name = ('Paul','Michael','Jessica','Megan'); print "The last name in my list is $name\n";
In the rst example, the print function is being given a list of 6 arguments: the string 'My names are: ', each of the four values in @names, and the string ".\n". Each argument is printed separated by the value of the $, variable (which defaults to the empty string), resulting in the values from the array being 'squished' together:
My names are: PaulMichaelJessicaMegan.
In the second example, the print function is being given exactly one argument: a string that contains an interpolated array. When Perl interpolates an array, the result is a string consisting of all values in the array separated by the value of the $" variable (which defaults to a single space):
My names are: Paul Michael Jessica Megan.
Note Both the $, and $" variables can be changed to any string you like. For example, to separate the array's items with a comma and a space instead of just a space:
$" = ', '; print "My names are: @names.\n";
My names are: Paul, Michael, Jessica, Megan.You generally do not want to do that as this may cause problems in other parts of your program depending on the default values of those variables though! A safer way to print your arrays with custom separator will be explained later.
32
What if you need to know the last index? $#array will return it for you:
@array = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5); print $array[4]; # Prints 5 # Same as above print $array[-1]; print $array[ $#array ]; # Also prints 5
print @array[0];
In fact @array[0] is a slice (that is, a sub-array of an array) that contains one element, whereas $array[0] is a scalar which contains the value 1.
11 12 13
33
The operators Perl Arrays14 A Perl hash is similar to an ordinary array, but instead of using integer indexes, a hash uses "keys" that can take on any scalar value. These are usually strings or numbers. Syntax: instead of the @ operator, associative arrays use the % symbol, and rather than square brackets [], as in $myarray[0], hash elements are referenced using curly brackets {}, as in $myhash{"george"}. Hashes are one of the most powerful and commonly used features in Perl. A typical use would be to build a hash that contains a "dictionary", with each key being a word in the dictionary, and the corresponding values being the denitions of those words. A hash containing the sounds various household pets make is below
my %petsounds = ("cat" => "meow", "dog" => "woof", "snake" => "hiss");
'=>' and ',' are actually interchangeable, so the right side could look exactly like an array. This means that you can assign an array to a hash. In such an assignment, each element with an even index (starting from 0) in the array becomes a key in the hash. The following statements create the same hash as the previous one does
my @array = ("cat", "meow", "dog", "woof", "snake", "hiss"); my %petsounds = @array;
But the rst style is more preferred because it makes the statement more readable. To access a hash element, use the curly brackets:
print STDOUT "The cat goes " . $petsounds{"cat"} . ".\n";
To remove an item from a hash, use delete. Setting the value to undef does not delete the item; using exists on a key that has been set to undef will still return true.
delete($petsounds{"cat"}); # will remove "cat" from our hash
14
http://www.programmingbulls.com/perl-array
34
"Associative Arrays"
15
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hashtable
35
The operators
} } } print Dumper(\%a);
Input/Output or IO, is an all-encompassing term that describes the way your program interacts with the user. IO comes in two forms, or stream types: the program's stimuli are collectively referred to as input, while the medium that the program uses to communicate back, write logs, play sounds, etc. is known as output. Both types of streams can be redirected either at a lower level than Perl, as is the case when done through the operating system by the shell; or, in Perl itself, as is the case when you reopen the le handles associated with the stream.
2.21 Output
You have already learned how to output with the print statement. A simple reference is provided:
print "Hello World";
What this print statement is actually doing is printing to STDOUT, which stands for standard output. Standard output is the default destination for all output. If you wish to print anywhere else you must be explicit. We will revisit this later.
2.22 Input
As you may have imagined, it's very hard to write a good program without any type of input; here is an example program to teach you these concepts:
#!/usr/bin/perl use strict; use warnings; print "What is your name?\n";
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Input
## Get the users $name from Standard In my $name = <STDIN>; print "Your name is $name\n";
Standard input is usually the keyboard though this can be changed at a lower level than your program. For now we will assume it isn't changed. However, this might not be an assumption you wish to make in production code.
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3 Unit Exercise
Write a program which prompts the user for a number and then returns the number multiplied by four (or any other number).
will not work because the interpreter would think that the quotes mark the end of the string. As with all things in Perl, there are many solutions to this problem.
This is obviously not the best solution, as it is conceivable that you are trying to print a string containing both kinds of quote:
# I said "They're the most delicious fruits". print 'I said "They're the most delicious fruits".';
39
Unit Exercise
print I said "They\re the most delicious fruits".; print "I said \"They\re the most delicious fruits\".";
Using single quotes, the characters that require escaping are \'. Using double quotes, the characters that need escaping are the variable sigils, (i.e. $@%*) in addition to \" Using \ to escape reserved characters of course implies that you also need to escape any backslashes you want to use in your string. To print the second line literally using perl, you would need to write:
print " print \"I said \\\"They\\\re the most delicious fruits\\\".\";"
Luckily perl provides us with another way of quoting strings that avoids this problem.
The only symbols I have found that cannot be used for these quotes are $ /
Any string of characters can be used instead of OUTPUT in the example above. Using this technique anything can be output no matter what characters it contains. The one caveat of this method is that the closing OUTPUT must be the rst character on the line, there cannot be any space before it.
print <<EverythingBetween ... ... EverythingBetween
40
Caveats
my $one = mangoes; print print print print "I like $one."; I like $one.; qq@ I love $one.@; q#I love $one.#; # I like mangoes. # I like $one. # I love mangoes. # I love $one.
print <<OUT I love $one OUT ; print <<OUT I love $one OUT ;
I love mangoes
I love $one
Perl will gure out where your variable ends if the character after it is neither a letter, number nor an underscore. If that is not your case, put your variable inside curly braces:
my $one = lemon; print "A $one is too sour; "; print "${one}ade is better.\n"; # A lemon is too sour; # lemonade is better.
print <<OUT I love ${one}s in $one souffle. OUT ; # I love lemons in lemon souffle.
3.7 Caveats
The single quote ' q{ and double quote " qq <<A operators, behave differently. Whereas when using double quotes, you can include variables and escape any characters, when you use single quotes you can only escape single quotes and you cannot include variables.
3.8.1 Loops
while ($boolean) { # do something } until ($boolean) {
1 2
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Programming%3AC http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Programming%3AJava
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Unit Exercise
# do something }
Note that the statements in a while (or until) loop are not executed if the Boolean expression evaluates to false (or true, respectively) on the rst pass.
do { # something } while ($boolean); do { # something } until ($boolean);
The do {} while and the do {} until loops are technically statement modiers3 and not actual control structures. The statements will be executed at least once.
for (my $i=0 ; $i<10 ; $i++) { # for (initialization; termination condition; incrementing expr) { ... } print "$i\n"; } foreach my $variable (@list) { print "$variable\n"; }
$variable is an alias to each element of the @list, starting at the rst element on the rst pass through the loop. The loop is exited when all the elements in the list have been exhausted. Since $variable is an alias, changing the value will change the value of the element in the list. This should generally be avoided to enhance maintainability of the code. If $variable is omitted, the default variable $_ will be used. Note that for and foreach are actually synonyms and can be used interchangeably.
Statements with else blocks (these also work with unless instead of if)
if ($boolean) { # do something } else { # do something else } if ($boolean) { # do something
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See Also
Control statements can also be written with the conditional following the statements (called "postx"). This syntax functions (nearly) identically to the ones given above.
statement statement statement statement statement if Boolean expression; unless Boolean expression; while Boolean expression; until Boolean expression; foreach list;
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perl%20control%20structures
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4 Read les
4.1 Procedural Interface
4.1.1 By slurping le
This method will read the whole le into an array. It will split on the special variable $/
# Create a read-only file handle for foo.txt open ( my $fh, <, foo.txt ); # Read the lines into the array @lines my @lines=<$fh>; # Print out the whole array of lines print @lines;
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# Print out the current line from foo.txt print $line; } # Include IO::File which will give you the interface use IO::File; # Create a read-only file handle for foo.txt my $fh = IO::File->new( foo.txt, r ); my @lines = $fh->getlines; # Print out the current line from foo.txt print @lines;
In addition to the basic control structures, Perl allows the use of statement modiers. The statement modier is placed at the end of the statement that it modies. Note that the do {} until and do {} while loop constructs are actually statement modiers. The complete list of modiers is: statement if expression statement unless expression statement while expression statement until expression statement foreach list
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4.3.2 chop
Action Removes the last character from a string regardless Returns ? Syntax chop($String = $_); Example
chop; # removes the last character from $_ chop(); # (same) chop($String); # removes the last character from $String
See Also chomp2 - To remove the last character from a string if it is a record seperator Removes the last character from a string (e.g. removes the newline characters when reading from a le)
4.3.3 chr
print chr(65); # Prints a capital A
1 2
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4.3.4 crypt
# One-way hash function my $HashedWord = crypt($Word, $Salt);
(See also MD53 ) The salt string needs only be 2 characters long, and provides a way of randomising the hash, such that the same word can produce several different hashes, if used with different values of $Salt;!
4.3.5 hex
print hex(11); # Prints B
Converts a number to hexadecimal Other way around - converts hex to number: print hex(11); # prints 17 you can use print sprintf("%X",11); # Prints B
4.3.6 index
Search for one string within another. (see rindex to search from end-to-start)
$Result = index($Haystack, $Needle); $Result = index($Haystack, $Needle, $StartPosition); index("Some text", "bleh"); # Returns -1 (not found) index("Some text", "Some"); # Returns 0 (first character) index("Some text", "text"); # Returns 5 (sixth character)
The special variable $[ always gets added to the return value, but $[ is normally 0, and the manual recommends leaving it at 0.
4.3.7 lc
$Lowercase = lc($String);
http://search.cpan.org/~gaas/MD5-2.03/MD5.pm
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String functions
4.3.8 lcrst
Converts the rst character of a string to lowercase
4.3.9 length
print "String is " . length($String) . " characters long\n";
4.3.10 oct
print oct(8); # Prints 10
4.3.11 ord
Converts a character to its number.
4.3.12 pack
Takes a list and converts it into a string using a supplied set of rules.
my $String = pack($Template, @ListOfNumbers); my $String = pack("CCCC",65,66,67,68); # Result: "ABCD"
b vec()). B h H
A bit string (ascending bit order inside each byte, like A bit string (descending bit order inside each byte). A hex string (low nybble first). A hex string (high nybble first).
See U for
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s A signed short value. S An unsigned short value. (Exactly 16 bits unless you use the ! suffix)
i A signed integer value. I An unsigned integer value. (At least 32 bits wide, machine-dependant)
l A signed long value. L An unsigned long value. (Exactly 32 bits unless you use the ! suffix)
n An unsigned short in "network" (big-endian) order. N An unsigned long in "network" (big-endian) order. v An unsigned short in "VAX" (little-endian) order. V An unsigned long in "VAX" (little-endian) order. (Exactly 16 bits and 32 bits respectively)
q A signed quad (64-bit) value. Q An unsigned quad value. (Only available if your system supports 64-bit integers and Perl has been compiled to support them)
f d
A single-precision float in the native format. A double-precision float in the native format.
p P
u U
w A BER compressed integer. Its bytes represent an unsigned integer in base 128, most significant digit first, with as few digits as possible. Bit eight (the high bit) is set on each byte except the last.
x X @
Each letter may optionally be followed by a number giving a repeat count. The integer types s, S, l, and L may be immediately followed by a ! sufx to signify native shorts or longs
4.3.13 reverse
Reverses a string (in scalar context) or a list (in list context):
my @ReversedList = reverse(@List);
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# As commonly seen in Perl programs: foreach( reverse( sort( @List ))) { ... }
my $ReversedString = reverse($String);
my @List = ("One ", "two ", "three..."); my $ReversedListAsString = reverse(@List); # Prints "...eerht owt enO"
4.3.14 rindex
Search for one string within another, starting at the end of the string.
$Result = rindex($Haystack, $Needle); $Result = rindex($Haystack, $Needle, $StartPosition); rindex("Some text", "bleh"); # Returns -1 (not found) rindex("Some text", "Some"); # Returns 0 (first character) rindex("abbbbb", "b"); # Returns 5 (first "b" found, when starting at the end)
4.3.15 sprintf
Prints a formatted string:
my $Text = sprintf("%d / %d is %08.5f", 1, 3, 1/3); # Result: "10 / 3 is 003.33333"
sprintf("Character: %c", 65); sprintf("String %s", "Hello"); sprintf("Signed integer: %d", 15); sprintf("Unsigned integer: %u", 15); sprintf("Unsigned int (in octal): %o", 15); sprintf("Unisgned int (in hex): %x", 15); upper-case output sprintf("Binary number: %b", 15); sprintf("Scientific notation: %e", 5000); upper-case output sprintf("Floating point number: %f", 1/3); sprintf("Floating point number: %g", 1/3); scientific and float. %G is uppercase sprintf("Pointer: %p", $Variable);
# Use %X to get
Use %% to get a percent-sign. Use %n to request the number of characters written so far, and put it into the next variable in the list. You may want to check that user-supplied formatting rules don't contain this code.
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# Forces leading zeros to make the # Limits the number of decimal places
4.3.16 substr
Return part of a string (a substring) Format: substr string start-position length start-position is zero-based. A negative number starts from the end of the string.
$FirstLetter = substr($Text, 0, 1); $First3Letters = substr($Text, 0, 3); $Last3Letters = substr($Text, -3); # First letter # First three letters # Last three letters
You can use substr on the left side of an assignment statement to change part of a string. This can actually shorten or lengthen the string.
$text = 'cat dog'; substr ($mystring, 3, 1) = ' and '; dog'
4.3.17 uc
$Uppercase = uc($String);
4.3.18 ucrst
Converts the rst character of a string to uppercase
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Numeric functions
4.4.2 atan2
# Converts cartesian(x,y) coordinates into an angle $Number = atan2($Y, $X);
4.4.3 cos
# Returns the cosine of an angle (radians) $Number = cos($Angle); # Cosine = Adjacent/Hypotenuse
4.4.4 exp
# Raises e to a specified power $Number = exp(2); # Returns e2
4.4.5 hex
# Interprets a string as hexidecimal, and returns its value $Number = hex("10"); # Returns 16 $Number = hex("0xFF"); # Returns 255
4.4.6 int
Rounds a number towards zero, returning an integer
$Number = int(-1.6); # Returns -1 $Number = int(0.9); # Returns 0 $Number = int(28.54); # Returns 28
4.4.7 log
# Returns the natural logarithm of a number $Number = log(2.71828183); # Returns 1 $Number = exp(log($X)); # Returns $X $Number = log($X) / log(10); # Returns log10($X). Alternately, you can use the log10() function in the POSIX module $Number = log($X) / log(15); # Returns log to the base 15 of $X
4.4.8 oct
# Interprets a string as octal, and returns its value $Number = oct("10"); # Returns 8 $Number = oct("21"); # Returns 17
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4.4.9 rand
# Gets a random number (may automatically call srand() if that's not been done) $Number = rand(); # Returns a random number from 0 to 1 $Number = int(rand(800)); # Returns a random integer from 0 to 799 $Number = 1 + int(rand(999)); # Returns a random integer from 1 to 999
4.4.10 sin
# Returns the sine of an angle (radians) $Number = sin($Angle); # Sine = Opposite/Hypotenuse
4.4.11 sqrt
# Returns the square-root of a number $Number = sqrt(4); # Returns 2 $Number = sqrt($X ** 2 + $Y ** 2); # Returns the diagonal distance across a $X x $Y rectangle
See the Math::Complex module if you need to take roots of negative numbers;
4.4.12 srand
# Seeds (sets-up) the random-number generator srand();
Version-dependant, and older versions of Perl are not guaranteed to have a good seed value. See the Math::TrulyRandom module for more possibilities. The current version of Perl uses the urandom device if it's available.
4.5.2 push
push(@MyArray, "Last element"); push(@MyArray, "several", "more", "elements");
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4.5.3 shift
shift(@MyArray); #Delete the first element $FirstElement = shift(@MyArray); #Delete the first element, load it into $FirstElement instead
4.5.4 splice
# Removes elements from an array, optionally replacing them with a new array splice(@Array); # Removes all elements from array splice(@Array, 10); # Removes from element 10 to the end of the array splice(@Array, -10); # Removes the last 10 elements of the array splice(@Array, 0, 10); # Removes the first 10 elements of the array @NewArray = splice(@Array, 0, 10); # Removes the first 10 elements of the array and returns those 10 items splice(@Array, 0, 10, @Array2); # Replaces the first 10 elements of the array with Array2
4.5.5 unshift
unshift(@MyArray, "New element"); unshift(@MyArray, "several", "more", "elements");
# Can use a block of code instead of an expression @TextFiles = grep({return(substr($_, -3) eq "txt");}, @AllFiles);
4.6.2 join
# Joins the items of a list into a single string $OneItemPerLine = join( "\n", @List); $EverythingBunchedTogether = join( "", @List); $Filename = join( "/", ($Directory, $Subdirectory, $Filename));
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4.6.3 map
# Evaluates a block of code for each item in a list, and returns # a list of the results @UppercaseList = map(uc, @List); @Numbers = map {"Number $_"} 1..100;
4.6.4 reverse
# Reverses the order of a list @ReversedList = reverse(@List); # In scalar context, concatenates the list and then reverses the string $ReversedString = reverse('foo','bar','baz'); # gives 'zabraboof'
4.6.5 sort
# Sorts the elements in a list @AsciiSort = sort(@RandomList); @AsciiSort = sort @RandomList; foreach $Item (sort @RandomList) {...}
# Can specify a function to decide the sort order @CaseInsensitiveSort = sort {uc($a) cmp uc($b)} @RandomList; @NumericSort = sort {$a <=> $b} @RandomList; @CustomSort = sort custom_function_name @RandomList;
4.6.6 unpack
Unpacks a string into a list - see the templates available for the pack() function for details
4.7.2 each
#Return the 'next' key/value pair (in a random order) while (($key, $value) = each (%hash)){ print "$key => $value\n"; }
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4.7.3 exists
#Tests whether or not a key exists in a hash (even if the value for that key is undef) if (exists $hash{$key}){ print "\%hash contains a value for key '$key'\n"; }
4.7.4 keys
#Returns a list of all keys from the hash, in same 'random' order as each foreach $key (keys %hash){ print "$key => $hash{$key}\n"; }
4.7.5 values
#Returns a list of all values from the hash, in same 'random' order as keys foreach $value (values %hash){ print "\%hash contains a value '$value'\n"; }
4.8.3 closedir
# Close a directory open by opendir closedir(DIRHANDLE);
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4.8.7 eof
eof FILEHANDLE eof() eof
This function returns true if the next read on FILEHANDLE would return end-of-le, or if FILEHANDLE is not open. FILEHANDLE may be an expression whose value gives the real lehandle, or a reference to a lehandle object of some sort. An eof without an argument returns the end-of-le status for the last le read. An eof() with empty parentheses () tests the ARGV lehandle (most commonly seen as the null lehandle in <>). Therefore, inside a while (<>) loop, an eof() with parentheses will detect the end of only the last of a group of les. Use eof (without the parentheses) to test each le in a while (<>) loop. For example, the following code inserts dashes just before the last line of the last le:
On the other hand, this script resets line numbering on each input le:
# reset line numbering on each input file while (<>) { next if /^\s*#/; # skip comments print "$.\t$_"; } continue { close ARGV if eof; # Not eof()! }
Like "$" in a sed program, eof tends to show up in line number ranges. Here's a script that prints lines from /pattern/ to end of each input le:
while (<>) { print if /pattern/ .. eof; }
Here, the ip-op operator (..) evaluates the pattern match for each line. Until the pattern matches, the operator returns false. When it nally matches, the operator starts returning true, causing the lines to be printed. When the eof operator nally returns true (at the end of the le being examined), the ip-op operator resets, and starts returning false again for the next le in @ARGV
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4.8.8 leno 4.8.9 ock 4.8.10 format 4.8.11 getc 4.8.12 print
Prints the parameters given. Discussed in the following sections: Digression on print in Strings section5
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4.8.13 printf 4.8.14 read 4.8.15 readdir 4.8.16 rewinddir 4.8.17 seek 4.8.18 seekdir 4.8.19 select 4.8.20 syscall 4.8.21 sysread 4.8.22 sysseek 4.8.23 syswrite 4.8.24 tell 4.8.25 telldir 4.8.26 truncate 4.8.27 warn 4.8.28 write
4.9.2 read
# Reads data from a file-handle read(FILEHANDLE, $StoreDataHere, $NumberBytes);
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# Optional offset is applied when the data is stored (not when reading) read(FILEHANDLE, $StoreDataHere, $NumberBytes, Offset);
4.9.3 syscall
# Runs a system command syscall( $Command, $Argument1, $Argument2, $Argument3);
4.9.7 vec
-R -W -X -O
// // // //
is is is is
readable by real uid/gid. writable by real uid/gid. executable by real uid/gid. owned by real uid.
$FullFilename) // File exists. $FullFilename) // File has zero size. $FullFilename) // File has nonzero size (returns size).
if( -f $FullFilename) if( -d $FullFilename) if( -l $FullFilename) if( -p $FullFilename) Filehandle is a pipe. if( -S $FullFilename) if( -b $FullFilename) if( -c $FullFilename) if( -t $FullFilename)
// // // // // // // //
is is is is
a a a a
File is a socket. File is a block special file. File is a character special file. Filehandle is opened to a tty.
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$FullFilename) // File has setuid bit set. $FullFilename) // File has setgid bit set. $FullFilename) // File has sticky bit set.
$FullFilename) // File is an ASCII text file. $FullFilename) // File is a "binary" file (opposite of
$Age = -M $FullFilename; // Age of file in days when script started. $Age = -A $FullFilename; // Same for access time. $Age = -C $FullFilename; // Same for inode change time.
4.10.2 chdir
chdir $Directory; chdir $Directory || die("Couldn't change directory");
4.10.3 chmod
chmod 0744 $File1; chmod 0666 $File1, $File2, $File3; # 0 for octal, at the beginning of a number
4.10.4 chown
# Change the owner of a file chown($NewUserID, $NewGroupID, $Filename); chown($NewUserID, $NewGroupID, $File1, $File2, $File3);
chown($NewUserID, -1, $Filename); # Leave group unchanged chown(-1, $NewGroupID, $Filename); # Leave user unchanged
4.10.5 chroot
chroot $NewRootDirectory;
Sets the root directory for the program, such that the "/" location refers to the specied directory. Program must be running as root for this to succeed.
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4.10.10 lstat
Identical to stat(), except that if given le is symbolic link, stat link not the target.
4.10.11 mkdir
mkdir $Filename || die("Couldn't create directory"); mkdir $Filename, 0777; # Make directory with particular file-permissions
4.10.12 open
open(my open(my open(my open(my $FileHandle, $Filename) $fp, "<", $Filename); $fp, ">", $Filename); $fp, ">>", $Filename); || die("Couldn't open file"); # Read from file # Write to file # Append to file
open(my $fp, "<", "./ filename with whitespace \0"); open(my $fp, "<", "./->filename with reserved characters\0");
open(my $fp, "$Program |"); program open(my $fp, "| $Program"); program
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4.10.13 opendir
opendir(my $DirHandle, $Directory) || die("Couldn't open directory"); while (my $Filename = readdir $DirHandle){ # Do something with $Filename in $Directory } closedir($DirHandle);
opendir(DIR, $Directory) || die("Couldn't open directory"); foreach(readdir(DIR)){ # Do something with $_ in $Directory } closedir(DIR);
4.10.14 readlink
# Finds the value of a symbolic link $LinkTarget = readlink($LinkPosition);
4.10.15 rename
rename $OldFile, $NewFile or die("Couldn't move file");
May work differently on non-*nix operating systems, and possibly not at all when moving between different lesystems. See Figure 1
4.10.16 rmdir
rmdir $Filename || die("Couldn't remove directory");
4.10.17 stat
@FileStatistics = stat($Filename);
$DeviceNum $Inode $FileMode $NumHardLinks file $UserID $GroupID $DeviceIdent files only) $SizeBytes $AccessTime $ModifyTime
= = = =
# # # #
device number of filesystem inode number (type and permissions) number of (hard) links to the
= $FileStatistics[4]; # numeric user ID = $FileStatistics[5]; # numeric group ID = $FileStatistics[6]; # Device identifier (special = $FileStatistics[7]; = $FileStatistics[8]; # seconds since the epoch = $FileStatistics[9];
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4.10.18 symlink
# Creates a new filename symbolically linked to the old filename symlink($OldFilename, $NewFilename); symlink($OldFilename, $NewFilename) || die("Couldn't create symlink"); eval(symlink($OldFilename, $NewFilename));
4.10.19 umask
# Sets or returns the umask my $UMask = umask(); umask(0000); # This process umask(0001); # This process umask(0444); # This process for the process. can create any type of files can't create world-readable files can't create executable files
4.10.20 unlink
# Deletes a file unlink $Filename; unlink $Filename || die("Couldn't delete file"); unlink $File1, $File2, $File3; (unlink($File1, $File2, $File3) == 3) || die("Couldn't delete files");
4.10.21 utime
# Updates the modification times of a list of files my $AccessTime = time(); my $ModificationTime = time();
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foo(); sub foo { $package = caller; #returns 'main' ($package, $filename, $line) = caller; #returns 'main', the file name, and 3 # Line below returns all 10 pieces of info. (Descriptions self-explanatory from variable names) ($package, $filename, $line, $subroutine, $hasargs, $wantarray, $evaltext, $is_require, $hints, $bitmask) = caller(0); }
4.11.2 import
There is no actual 'import' function. Rather, it is a convention when writing a module to create a subroutine named 'import' which populates the current namespace with that module's needed variables and/or methods. The standard 'Exporter' module provides an import method if your class has it as a base class.
4.11.3 package
Declares all lines that follow (until EOF or the next package statement) to belong to the given package's namespace.
#!/usr/bin/perl $x = 5; #sets $main::x
package Foo; $x = 5; #sets $Foo::x sub bar { #defines &Foo::bar print "hello world"; } package Temp; $x = 5; #sets $Temp::x
4.11.4 require
includes the specied module's code into the current program. The module can be specied either with an absolute or relative path, or with a bareword. If a bareword is given, a '.pm' extention is added, and :: is replaced with the current operating system's path seperator:
require Foo::Bar; #identical to: require 'Foo/Bar.pm';
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4.11.5 use
Requires and imports the given module or pragma, at compile time. The line
use Foo qw/bar baz/;
is identical to:
BEGIN { require Foo; import Foo qw/bar baz/; }
4.12.6 my
#creates new lexical (ie, not global) variable $x = 5; #refers to $main::x {
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my $x = 10; print "x = $x\n"; # the lexical - 10 print "main's x = $main::x\n" # the global - 5 } print "x = $x\n"; #the global, because no lexical in scope - 5
4.12.7 reset
#resets hash's internal pointer, to affect lists returned by each while ($k, $v = each %h){ print "$k = $v\n"; last if ($i++ == 2); } #if another each done here, $k,$v will pick up where they left off. reset %h #now each will restart from the beginning.
4.12.8 scalar
#forces scalar context on an array @sizes = (scalar @foo, scalar @bar); #creates a list of the sizes of @foo and @bar, rather than the elements in @foo and @bar
4.12.9 undef
#undefines an existing variable $x = 5; undef $x; print "x = $x\n" if defined $x; #does not print
4.12.10 wantarray
#returns 'true', 'false', or undef if function that called it was called in list, scalar, or void context, respectively. sub fctn { my @vals = (5..10); if (wantarray) { return @vals; } elsif (defined wantarray) { return $vals[0]; } else { warn "Warning! fctn() called in void context!\n"; } }
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4.13 Processes
4.13.1 alarm 4.13.2 exec 4.13.3 fork
#clones the current process, returning 0 if clone, and the process id of the clone if the parent my $pid = fork(); if ($pid == 0) { print "I am a copy of the original\n"; } elsif ($pid == -1) { print "I can't create a clone for some reason!\n"; } else { print "I am the original, my clone has a process id of $pid\n"; }
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4.13.4 getpgrp 4.13.5 getppid 4.13.6 getpriority 4.13.7 kill 4.13.8 pipe 4.13.9 qx/STRING/ 4.13.10 setpgrp 4.13.11 setpriority 4.13.12 sleep 4.13.13 system 4.13.14 times 4.13.15 wait 4.13.16 waitpid
4.14 Modules
4.14.1 do 4.14.2 import 4.14.3 no 4.14.4 package 4.14.5 require 4.14.6 use
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4.15.1 bless 4.15.2 dbmclose 4.15.3 dbmopen 4.15.4 package 4.15.5 ref 4.15.6 tie 4.15.7 tied 4.15.8 untie 4.15.9 use
4.16 Sockets
4.16.1 accept 4.16.2 bind 4.16.3 connect 4.16.4 getpeername 4.16.5 getsockname 4.16.6 getsockopt 4.16.7 listen 4.16.8 recv 4.16.9 send 4.16.10 setsockopt 4.16.11 shutdown 4.16.12 socket 4.16.13 socketpair
= = = = = = =
# # # # # # #
0-59 0-59 0-23 1-31 0-11 Years since 1900 0:Sun 1:Mon 2:Tue 3:Wed 4:Thu 5:Fri
= $TimeParts[7]; # 1-366
4.19.2 localtime
Converts a timestamp to local time
@TimeParts = localtime(); @TimeParts = localtime($Time);
= = = = = = =
# # # # # # #
0-59 0-59 0-23 1-31 0-11 Years since 1900 0:Sun 1:Mon 2:Tue 3:Wed 4:Thu 5:Fri
= $TimeParts[7]; # 1-366
4.19.3 time
$Time = time();
Returns number of seconds since an epoch (which is system-dependant, but may be Jan 1 1970) See also ../Time::Hires/7
4.19.4 times
@CPUTimes = times(); $UserTimeForProcess $SystemTimeForProcess $UserTimeForChildren $SystemTimeForChildren = = = = $CPUTimes[0]; $CPUTimes[1]; $CPUTimes[2]; $CPUTimes[3];
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/..%2FTime%3A%3AHires%2F
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will echo 1 to standard output, ord()8 will convert a character to its number in the character set, while chr()9 will convert a number to its corresponding character, therefore 2 in the same way that x2 = x and x = x in Mathematics10 (assuming x is non-negative), ord(chr(1)) = 1 and chr(ord(1)) = 1 in Perl. List of functions that reverse each other: lc()11 and uc()12 lcfirst()13 and ucfirst()14 ord()15 and chr()16 join()17 and split()18 push()19 and pop()20 unshift()21 and shift()22
These are a set of eight exercises that can be used to test your ability to write Perl programs. In some cases, these exercises might include material not covered from the textbook; in those cases, you may have to consult your platform documentation to identify a necessary function or otherwise implement one yourself.
8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
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Section 2: In-depth Perl ideas ../Exercise 5/27 ../Exercise 6/28 ../Exercise 7/29 ../Exercise 8/30
4.22 Introduction
So you've been plodding along with your perl scripts, ddling with arrays and hashes and suddenly you realize that you would like to pass a function to another function depending on the data you encounter, or perhaps you would like to get back a hash when you look up an array index. References are the thing for you, allowing you to build and pass around ever more complex data structures.
Output should be I laugh in the face of clowns. The curly brackets are optional, but generally recommended.
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$Haystack = /needle/;
$Haystack = /(needle|pin)/;
# Either/Or statements
Regular expression can also be used to modify strings. You can search and replace complex patterns by using the regex format s///
$msg = "perl is ok"; $msg = s/ok/awesome/; replace it with "awesome" ($msg is now "perl is awesome")
m function allows you to use your choice of quote marks = m|search words|; = m{search words}; = m<search words>; = m#search words#;
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# Putting a g (global) at the end, means it replaces all occurances and not just the first $Text = s/search for/replace with/g;
# As with everything, putting an i (insensitive) at the end ignores the differences between # uppercase and lowercase. Use Locale; $Text = s/search for/replace with/i;
# It can also be used to extract certain kind of information. $Text = m|([=]*)=(\d*)|; #If $Text was "id=889", $1 now equals "id" and $2 equals 889.
( )
Groups a series of pattern elements to a single element. When you match a pattern within parentheses, you can use any of $1, $2, ... $9 later to refer to the previously matched pattern. Matches the preceding pattern element one or more times.
Program:
$string1 = "Hello World\n"; if ($string1 = m/(H..).(o..)/) { print "We matched '$1' and '$2'\n"; }
Output:
We matched 'Hel' and 'o W';
$string1 = "Hello World\n"; if ($string1 = m/l+/) { print "There are one or more consecutive l's in $stri }
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Read les Metacharacter Description Example Note that all the if statements return a TRUE value
$string1 = "Hello World\n"; if ($string1 = m/H.?e/) { print "There is an 'H' and a 'e' seperated by "; print "0-1 characters (Ex: He Hoe)\n"; }
Matches the *, +, or {M,N}'d regexp that comes before as few times as possible.
$string1 = "Hello World\n"; if ($string1 = m/(l+?o)/) { print "The non-greedy match with one or more 'l' print "followed by an 'o' is 'lo', not 'llo'.\n"; }
$string1 = "Hello World\n"; if ($string = m/el*o/) { print "There is a 'e' followed by zero to many"; print "'l' followed by 'o' (eo, elo, ello, elllo)\n }
{M,N}
$string1 = "Hello World\n"; if ($string1 = m/l{1,2}/) { print "There exists a substring with at least 1"; print "and at most 2 l's in $string1\n"; }
[...]
[...]
$string = "Sky."; if (String = /[aeiou]/) { print "$string doesn't contain any vowels"; }
$string1 = "Hello World\n"; if ($string1 = m/(Hello|Hi)/) { print "Hello or Hi is "; print "contained in $string1"; }
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External links Metacharacter Description Example Note that all the if statements return a TRUE value
$string1 = "Hello World\n"; if ($string1 = m/ello?\b/) { print "There is a word that ends with"; print " 'ello'\n"; } else { print "There are no words that end with"; print "'ello'\n"; }
\b
\w
$string1 = "Hello World\n"; if ($string1 = m/\w/) { print "There is at least one alpha-"; print "numeric char in $string1 (A-Z, a-z, 0-9, _)\n"; }
\W
$string1 = "Hello World\n"; if ($string1 = m/\W/) { print "The space between Hello and "; print "World is not alphanumeric\n"; }
\s
$string1 = "Hello World\n"; if ($string1 = m/\s.*\s/) { print "There are TWO whitespace "; print "characters seperated by other characters in $s }
\S
$string1 = "Hello World\n"; if ($string1 = m/\S.*\S/) { print "There are TWO non-whitespace "; print "characters seperated by other characters in $s }
\d
\D
Matches a non-digit.
$string1 = "Hello World\n"; if ($string1 = m/\D/) { print "There is at least one character in $string1"; print "that is not a digit.\n"; }
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$string1 = "Hello World\n"; if ($string1 = m/He/) { print "$string1 starts with the characters 'He'\n"; }
$string1 = "Hello World\n"; if ($string1 = m/rld$/) { print "$string1 is a line or string"; print "that ends with 'rld'\n"; }
4.25 Overview
Perl modules (Files that end with the pm extension) are les of perl code that can be reused from program to program. There is an online repository of perl modules called CPAN (Comprehensive Perl Archive Network) at http://cpan.org. Many of these modules come standard with Perl, but others must be installed as needed. There are thousands of perl modules that do everything from creating a temporary le to calling Amazon web services. These modules can make it easy to quickly write your application if you know how to nd, install, and use the appropriate Perl modules. If you are thinking of writing your own Perl module, the best thing to do is to rst search at http://Search.cpan.org to make sure you are not about to reinvent the wheel. There are two major styles of Perl modules: 1. Object-Oriented 2. Functional Some perl modules use both approaches. To use an object-oriented Perl module you would do something like this:
use Foo; my $foo = Foo->new(); print $foo->bar; #call Foo's bar method and print the output.
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Then cd into the directory, and follow the instructions in the README or INSTALL le. You can also use a command-line program called cpan, if you have it installed:
sudo cpan -imt Module::I::Want
You need to end the module with a true value, so the common practice is to do this at the end of the le:
1;
Example We create a new le called ExampleModule.pm, and in it have the following code:
package ExampleModule; use strict; use base "Exporter"; our @EXPORT = qw/hello_world/; sub hello_world { print "hello, world!\n"; } 1;
It will print out "ExampleModule.pm syntax OK" if all is well. Otherwise, you can debug using the messages that are printed out.
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It will then create a set of directories for you, including some shell module les with starter POD documentation. The perl modules will be inside the lib directory inside the directory that is created. These are the les to edit. You can put your tests for the modules into the "t" directory. To install and build the module, you do the following:
>perl Makefile.PL >make >make test >sudo make install
When Perl was initially developed there was no support at all for Object Orientated (OO) programming. Since Perl 5 OO has been added using the concept of Perl packages (namespaces), an operator called bless, some magic variables (@ISA, AUTOLOAD, UNIVERSAL), the -> and some strong conventions for supporting inheritance and encapsulation. An object is created using the package keyword. All subroutines declared in that package become object or class methods. A class instance is created by calling a constructor method which must be provided by the class, by convention this method is called new() Let's see this constructor.
package Object; sub new { return bless {}, shift; }
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sub setA { my $self = shift; my $a = shift; $self->{a}=$a; } sub getA { my $self = shift; return $self->{a}; }
This code prints 10. Let's look at the new contructor in a little more detail: The rst thing is that when a subroutine is called using the -> notation a new argument is pre-pended to the argument list. It is a string with either the name of the Package or a reference to the object (Object->new() or $o->setA. Until that makes sense you will nd OO in Perl very confusing. To use private variables in objects and have variables names check, you can use a little different approach to create objects.
package my_class; use strict; use warnings; { # All code is enclosed in block context my %bar; # All vars are declared as hashes sub new { my $class = shift; my $this = \do{ my $scalar }; # object is a reference to scalar (inside out object) bless $this, $class; return $this; } sub set_bar { my $this = shift; $bar{$this} = shift; } sub get_bar { my $this = shift; return $bar{$this}; } }
Now you have good encapsulation - you cannot access object variables directly via $o->{bar} but only using set/get methods. It's also impossible to make mistakes in object variable names, because they are not a hash-keys but normal perl variables, needed to be declared.
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my $o = my_class->new(); $o->set_bar(10); print $o->get_bar();
prints 10
4.27 Links
The comp.lang.perl.tk FAQ40 A huge collection of freely usable perl modules, ranging from advanced mathematics to database connectivity, networking and more, can be downloaded from a network of sites called CPAN. Most or all of the software on CPAN is also available under either the Artistic License, the GPL, or both. CPAN.pm is also the name of the perl module that downloads and installs other perl modules from one of the CPAN mirror sites; such installations can be done with interactive prompts, or can be fully automated. Look for modules on CPAN41
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Installing modules
This will give you a "Perl Package Manager" prompt, which allows you to download and install modules from the internet. For example, to install the Time::HiRes module, type:
search time::hires
That will give you a list of modules which match your search query. Once you know the module is available and what its exact name is, you can install the module with:
install Time::HiRes
This will load the CPAN module, and let you search for, download, install, and manage the modules on your computer the same as PPM.
One must have root privileges in order to install module in the system-wide directories, however alternatives exist such as local::lib, which allows regular users to install and use Perl modules in their home folder http://search.cpan.org/~getty/local-lib-1.006007/ lib/local/lib.pm.
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You can supply an optional list of the functions you want to use from this module, if you're worried that some of the function names in the module are too similar to functions you're already using:
use Time::Hires qw(time gmtime);
With that done, you can simply use the supplied functions as normal. Most modules have example programs within their documentation, and the best way to start using a module is to copy and adapt one of the example programs.
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http://search.cpan.org/ http://perldoc.perl.org/
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Contributing your own modules to CPAN perldoc Module::Name will also work. If you want documentation that is browseable in a web browser, you can install Perldoc::Server as noted below.
You can also use Perldoc::Server to display module documentation, as illustrated below.
4.30.4 Perldoc::Server
The Perldoc::Server module (which can be installed via CPAN) will provide a local server that will display html les "on the y" from Perl's documentation and the documentation for installed modules. Install it, and the command
perldoc-server
will be in your path. Run it, and then browse to http://localhost:7375/ in your web browser to see the documentation. Note that the perldoc-server command must be running to provide the documentation using this method.
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(see Perl Programming/First Programs45 for details) Next load the CGI module:
use CGI;
The CGI module makes our work easy because it has pre-programmed functions in it for internet use. Then we must create a handle to CGI - something that allows us to access the functions. We do this with:
my $query = CGI->new();
This means that the variable $query is loading the CGI standard functions. Now that our program is setup using the CGI module, it should look something like this:
#!/usr/bin/perl use CGI; my $query = CGI->new();
So we have a program, it just doesn't do anything yet, and will actually cause a server error because the server has no output or any idea of what kind of output to display even if it had some.
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Retrieving Information
Now, this line of code introduces us to the param() function (for "parameter"). The param() function can do quite a few handy tricks for us, all of them nice ways to retrieve our variables. It processes all of the http coding so all we get is a nice clean variable. Another note, you aren't required to use $Name as your variable. It's simply more convenient to only remember one name for the same variable. Still, use what's best for you.
4.35 Output
Now we must create our header information. CGI even makes THIS easy for us. Instead of memorizing a bunch of mime-type declarations (which you may do as well), all we must do is type:
print $query->header();
and it prints out our header information. A note about headers. Inside the parenthesis, we may specify parameters like cookies to send to the user's browser. This becomes very useful later. For now we will just stick to the headers. The last thing you need to put (though the program will run, displaying a blank page without it) is some output. Let's simply have it display the user's name back to him/her. This would look like.
print " You said your name was: $Name";
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When put into perspective, we can see that the $query variable is a very important connection to the CGI module as it tells perl that the function you are referencing belongs to CGI; Again, you may declare any variable name in the place of $query so long as you are consistent, though you will nd many developers use $query or $q. Also note the use of the escapeHTML method to avoid any HTML injection46 problems. Final note. Make sure you change /usr/bin/perl to the path of your perl installation (assuming that is not it) so perl will execute properly
4.37 Frameworks
There are a number of CGI frameworks to help with common CGI programming tasks: CGI::Application47 Catalyst48 mod_perl is an optional module for Apache. It embeds a Perl49 interpreter into the Apache server, so that dynamic content produced by Perl scripts can be served in response to incoming requests, without the signicant overhead of re-launching the Perl interpreter for each request. As Lincoln D. Stein dened mod_perl in his words: mod_perl is more than CGI scripting on steroids. It is a whole new way to create dynamic content by utilizing the full power of the Apache web server to create stateful sessions, customized user authentication systems, smart proxies and much more. Yet, magically, your old CGI scripts will continue to work and work very fast indeed. With mod_perl you give up nothing and gain so much! mod_perl can emulate a Common Gateway Interface50 (CGI) environment, so that existing Perl CGI scripts can benet from the performance boost without having to be re-written. Unlike CGI (and most other web application environments), mod_perl provides complete access to the Apache API, allowing programmers to write handlers for all phases in the Apache request cycle, manipulate Apache's internal tables and state mechanisms, share data between Apache processes or threads, alter or extend the Apache conguration le parser, and add Perl code to the conguration le itself, among other things.
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4.39 The Initial Setup 4.40 Retrieving Information 4.41 Output 4.42 The Finished Code 4.43 Section 5: Perl and beyond
Perl 658 will separate parsing and compilation and runtime, making the virtual machine more attractive to developers looking to port other languages to the architecture. Parrot59 is the Perl6 runtime, and can be programmed at a low level in Parrot assembly language. Parrot exists in a limited form as of June, 2003, and a small number of languages (Jako, Cola, Basic, Forth and a subset of Perl 6) exist simply to be 'compiled' down to Parrot assembly language opcodes. While Perl6 is being developed, the best way to stay informed about what's happening is to keep an eye on the front-page of http://www.perl.com/ and look out for articles. As each new language-feature is being developed, it gets discussed on Perl.com and the associated mailing lists, so subscribe to some of those to see glimpses of what Perl6 will be like.
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4.43.3 Acme
There's always a place in Perl for odd modules, and one such place is the Acme:: namespace. If you have a module which knows how long a piece of string is, or one which converts your perl script into an image of Che Guevara, post it here.
4.43.4 Golf
Perl is a very compact language. So compact, that some have even create a game around perl's terseness called perlgolf. In perlgolf, you are given a problem to solve. You must solve it in the fewest number of characters possible. A scorecard is kept, and after 18 "holes", a winner is announced.
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# This statement prompts the user for a filename to read from. print "What file would you like to read from?\n"; # This statement assigns whatever is given on the standard input(usually your keyboard) to a scalar # variable named $filename and removes the newline character that is included by default. chomp (my $filename = <STDIN>); # This line opens the file referred to in $filename for input via a lexical filehandle # stored in a scalar variable named "$file". open my $file, "<", $filename or die "Cant open $filename for reading: $^E\n"; # This loop goes through each line of the file, splits the line into separate characters and # increments the number of occurrences of each letter using a hash called "%chars". my %chars; while(<$file>) { $_ = lc($_); # convert everything to lowercase my @characters = split (//, $_); # Store list of characters in an array foreach (@characters) { if(/\w/) { # Ignore all characters except letters and numbers $chars{$_}++; } } } close $file; # This loop goes through each letter in the %chars hash and prints a report informing the user of # how many times each letter occurred. foreach my $key (sort keys %chars) { if($chars{$key} == 1) { print "$key appeared once.\n"; } else { print "$key appeared $chars{$key} times.\n"; } }
If you executed this program on a le containing the sentence "The quick, brown fox jumps over the lazy dog.", you would see this as output:
a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q appeared appeared appeared appeared appeared appeared appeared appeared appeared appeared appeared appeared appeared appeared appeared appeared appeared once. once. once. once. 3 times. once. once. 2 times. once. once. once. once. once. once. 4 times. once. once.
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r s t u v w x y z 63
Hi-Lo: A simple game written in perl that asks you for a guess between 1 and 100 and tells you if you are too high or low.
use warnings; use strict; $| = 1; print "Enter number of games to play: "; chomp(my $Num_Games = <STDIN>); my $Num_Guesses = 0; for my $gameno (1 .. $Num_Games) { my $number = 1 + int rand 100; my $guess; do { print "Enter guess from 1 to 100: "; chomp($guess = <STDIN>); ++$Num_Guesses; if ($guess < $number) { print "Higher!\n"; } elsif ($guess > $number) { print "Lower!\n"; } } until $guess == $number; print "Correct!\nAverage guesses per game: ", $Num_Guesses / $gameno, "\n\n"; } print "Games played: $Num_Games\n"; 64
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http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Category%3APerl%20Programming http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Category%3APerl%20Programming
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Section 7: Reference
4.46.2 chop
Action Removes the last character from a string regardless Returns ?
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See Also chomp66 - To remove the last character from a string if it is a record seperator Removes the last character from a string (e.g. removes the newline characters when reading from a le)
4.46.3 chr
print chr(65); # Prints a capital A
4.46.4 crypt
# One-way hash function my $HashedWord = crypt($Word, $Salt);
(See also MD567 ) The salt string needs only be 2 characters long, and provides a way of randomising the hash, such that the same word can produce several different hashes, if used with different values of $Salt;!
4.46.5 hex
print hex(11); # Prints B
Converts a number to hexadecimal Other way around - converts hex to number: print hex(11); # prints 17 you can use print sprintf("%X",11); # Prints B
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4.46.6 index
Search for one string within another. (see rindex to search from end-to-start)
$Result = index($Haystack, $Needle); $Result = index($Haystack, $Needle, $StartPosition); index("Some text", "bleh"); # Returns -1 (not found) index("Some text", "Some"); # Returns 0 (first character) index("Some text", "text"); # Returns 5 (sixth character)
The special variable $[ always gets added to the return value, but $[ is normally 0, and the manual recommends leaving it at 0.
4.46.7 lc
$Lowercase = lc($String);
4.46.8 lcrst
Converts the rst character of a string to lowercase
4.46.9 length
print "String is " . length($String) . " characters long\n";
4.46.10 oct
print oct(8); # Prints 10
4.46.11 ord
Converts a character to its number.
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4.46.12 pack
Takes a list and converts it into a string using a supplied set of rules.
my $String = pack($Template, @ListOfNumbers); my $String = pack("CCCC",65,66,67,68); # Result: "ABCD"
b vec()). B h H
A bit string (ascending bit order inside each byte, like A bit string (descending bit order inside each byte). A hex string (low nybble first). A hex string (high nybble first).
See U for
s A signed short value. S An unsigned short value. (Exactly 16 bits unless you use the ! suffix)
i A signed integer value. I An unsigned integer value. (At least 32 bits wide, machine-dependant)
l A signed long value. L An unsigned long value. (Exactly 32 bits unless you use the ! suffix)
n An unsigned short in "network" (big-endian) order. N An unsigned long in "network" (big-endian) order. v An unsigned short in "VAX" (little-endian) order. V An unsigned long in "VAX" (little-endian) order. (Exactly 16 bits and 32 bits respectively)
q A signed quad (64-bit) value. Q An unsigned quad value. (Only available if your system supports 64-bit integers and Perl has been compiled to support them)
f d
A single-precision float in the native format. A double-precision float in the native format.
p P
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u U
w A BER compressed integer. Its bytes represent an unsigned integer in base 128, most significant digit first, with as few digits as possible. Bit eight (the high bit) is set on each byte except the last.
x X @
Each letter may optionally be followed by a number giving a repeat count. The integer types s, S, l, and L may be immediately followed by a ! sufx to signify native shorts or longs
4.46.13 reverse
Reverses a string (in scalar context) or a list (in list context):
my @ReversedList = reverse(@List);
# As commonly seen in Perl programs: foreach( reverse( sort( @List ))) { ... }
my $ReversedString = reverse($String);
my @List = ("One ", "two ", "three..."); my $ReversedListAsString = reverse(@List); # Prints "...eerht owt enO"
4.46.14 rindex
Search for one string within another, starting at the end of the string.
$Result = rindex($Haystack, $Needle); $Result = rindex($Haystack, $Needle, $StartPosition); rindex("Some text", "bleh"); # Returns -1 (not found) rindex("Some text", "Some"); # Returns 0 (first character) rindex("abbbbb", "b"); # Returns 5 (first "b" found, when starting at the end)
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4.46.15 sprintf
Prints a formatted string:
my $Text = sprintf("%d / %d is %08.5f", 1, 3, 1/3); # Result: "10 / 3 is 003.33333"
sprintf("Character: %c", 65); sprintf("String %s", "Hello"); sprintf("Signed integer: %d", 15); sprintf("Unsigned integer: %u", 15); sprintf("Unsigned int (in octal): %o", 15); sprintf("Unisgned int (in hex): %x", 15); upper-case output sprintf("Binary number: %b", 15); sprintf("Scientific notation: %e", 5000); upper-case output sprintf("Floating point number: %f", 1/3); sprintf("Floating point number: %g", 1/3); scientific and float. %G is uppercase sprintf("Pointer: %p", $Variable);
# Use %X to get
Use %% to get a percent-sign. Use %n to request the number of characters written so far, and put it into the next variable in the list. You may want to check that user-supplied formatting rules don't contain this code.
sprintf("%02d", $Minutes); string 2 characters long sprintf("%1.5f", $Number); # Forces leading zeros to make the # Limits the number of decimal places
4.46.16 substr
Return part of a string (a substring) Format: substr string start-position length start-position is zero-based. A negative number starts from the end of the string.
$FirstLetter = substr($Text, 0, 1); $First3Letters = substr($Text, 0, 3); $Last3Letters = substr($Text, -3); # First letter # First three letters # Last three letters
You can use substr on the left side of an assignment statement to change part of a string. This can actually shorten or lengthen the string.
$text = 'cat dog'; substr ($mystring, 3, 1) = ' and '; dog'
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4.46.17 uc
$Uppercase = uc($String);
4.46.18 ucrst
Converts the rst character of a string to uppercase
4.47.2 atan2
# Converts cartesian(x,y) coordinates into an angle $Number = atan2($Y, $X);
4.47.3 cos
# Returns the cosine of an angle (radians) $Number = cos($Angle); # Cosine = Adjacent/Hypotenuse
4.47.4 exp
# Raises e to a specified power $Number = exp(2); # Returns e2
4.47.5 hex
# Interprets a string as hexidecimal, and returns its value $Number = hex("10"); # Returns 16 $Number = hex("0xFF"); # Returns 255
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4.47.6 int
Rounds a number towards zero, returning an integer
$Number = int(-1.6); # Returns -1 $Number = int(0.9); # Returns 0 $Number = int(28.54); # Returns 28
4.47.7 log
# Returns the natural logarithm of a number $Number = log(2.71828183); # Returns 1 $Number = exp(log($X)); # Returns $X $Number = log($X) / log(10); # Returns log10($X). Alternately, you can use the log10() function in the POSIX module $Number = log($X) / log(15); # Returns log to the base 15 of $X
4.47.8 oct
# Interprets a string as octal, and returns its value $Number = oct("10"); # Returns 8 $Number = oct("21"); # Returns 17
4.47.9 rand
# Gets a random number (may automatically call srand() if that's not been done) $Number = rand(); # Returns a random number from 0 to 1 $Number = int(rand(800)); # Returns a random integer from 0 to 799 $Number = 1 + int(rand(999)); # Returns a random integer from 1 to 999
4.47.10 sin
# Returns the sine of an angle (radians) $Number = sin($Angle); # Sine = Opposite/Hypotenuse
4.47.11 sqrt
# Returns the square-root of a number $Number = sqrt(4); # Returns 2 $Number = sqrt($X ** 2 + $Y ** 2); # Returns the diagonal distance across a $X x $Y rectangle
See the Math::Complex module if you need to take roots of negative numbers;
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4.47.12 srand
# Seeds (sets-up) the random-number generator srand();
Version-dependant, and older versions of Perl are not guaranteed to have a good seed value. See the Math::TrulyRandom module for more possibilities. The current version of Perl uses the urandom device if it's available.
4.48.2 push
push(@MyArray, "Last element"); push(@MyArray, "several", "more", "elements");
4.48.3 shift
shift(@MyArray); #Delete the first element $FirstElement = shift(@MyArray); #Delete the first element, load it into $FirstElement instead
4.48.4 splice
# Removes elements from an array, optionally replacing them with a new array splice(@Array); # Removes all elements from array splice(@Array, 10); # Removes from element 10 to the end of the array splice(@Array, -10); # Removes the last 10 elements of the array splice(@Array, 0, 10); # Removes the first 10 elements of the array @NewArray = splice(@Array, 0, 10); # Removes the first 10 elements of the array and returns those 10 items splice(@Array, 0, 10, @Array2); # Replaces the first 10 elements of the array with Array2
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4.48.5 unshift
unshift(@MyArray, "New element"); unshift(@MyArray, "several", "more", "elements");
# Can use a block of code instead of an expression @TextFiles = grep({return(substr($_, -3) eq "txt");}, @AllFiles);
4.49.2 join
# Joins the items of a list into a single string $OneItemPerLine = join( "\n", @List); $EverythingBunchedTogether = join( "", @List); $Filename = join( "/", ($Directory, $Subdirectory, $Filename));
4.49.3 map
# Evaluates a block of code for each item in a list, and returns # a list of the results @UppercaseList = map(uc, @List); @Numbers = map {"Number $_"} 1..100;
4.49.4 reverse
# Reverses the order of a list @ReversedList = reverse(@List); # In scalar context, concatenates the list and then reverses the string $ReversedString = reverse('foo','bar','baz'); # gives 'zabraboof'
4.49.5 sort
# Sorts the elements in a list @AsciiSort = sort(@RandomList); @AsciiSort = sort @RandomList; foreach $Item (sort @RandomList) {...}
# Can specify a function to decide the sort order @CaseInsensitiveSort = sort {uc($a) cmp uc($b)} @RandomList;
104
@NumericSort = sort {$a <=> $b} @RandomList; @CustomSort = sort custom_function_name @RandomList;
4.49.6 unpack
Unpacks a string into a list - see the templates available for the pack() function for details
4.50.2 each
#Return the 'next' key/value pair (in a random order) while (($key, $value) = each (%hash)){ print "$key => $value\n"; }
4.50.3 exists
#Tests whether or not a key exists in a hash (even if the value for that key is undef) if (exists $hash{$key}){ print "\%hash contains a value for key '$key'\n"; }
4.50.4 keys
#Returns a list of all keys from the hash, in same 'random' order as each foreach $key (keys %hash){ print "$key => $hash{$key}\n"; }
4.50.5 values
#Returns a list of all values from the hash, in same 'random' order as keys foreach $value (values %hash){ print "\%hash contains a value '$value'\n"; }
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4.51.3 closedir
# Close a directory open by opendir closedir(DIRHANDLE);
4.51.7 eof
eof FILEHANDLE eof() eof
This function returns true if the next read on FILEHANDLE would return end-of-le, or if FILEHANDLE is not open. FILEHANDLE may be an expression whose value gives the real lehandle, or a reference to a lehandle object of some sort. An eof without an argument returns the end-of-le status for the last le read. An eof() with empty parentheses () tests the ARGV lehandle (most commonly seen as the null lehandle in <>). Therefore, inside a while (<>) loop, an eof() with parentheses will detect the end of only the last of a group of les. Use eof (without the parentheses) to test each le in a while (<>) loop. For example, the following code inserts dashes just before the last line of the last le:
106
Input and output functions On the other hand, this script resets line numbering on each input le:
# reset line numbering on each input file while (<>) { next if /^\s*#/; # skip comments print "$.\t$_"; } continue { close ARGV if eof; # Not eof()! }
Like "$" in a sed program, eof tends to show up in line number ranges. Here's a script that prints lines from /pattern/ to end of each input le:
while (<>) { print if /pattern/ .. eof; }
Here, the ip-op operator (..) evaluates the pattern match for each line. Until the pattern matches, the operator returns false. When it nally matches, the operator starts returning true, causing the lines to be printed. When the eof operator nally returns true (at the end of the le being examined), the ip-op operator resets, and starts returning false again for the next le in @ARGV
4.51.8 leno 4.51.9 ock 4.51.10 format 4.51.11 getc 4.51.12 print
Prints the parameters given. Discussed in the following sections: Digression on print in Strings section69
69
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4.51.13 printf 4.51.14 read 4.51.15 readdir 4.51.16 rewinddir 4.51.17 seek 4.51.18 seekdir 4.51.19 select 4.51.20 syscall 4.51.21 sysread 4.51.22 sysseek 4.51.23 syswrite 4.51.24 tell 4.51.25 telldir 4.51.26 truncate 4.51.27 warn 4.51.28 write
4.52.2 read
# Reads data from a file-handle read(FILEHANDLE, $StoreDataHere, $NumberBytes);
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Filesystem functions
# Optional offset is applied when the data is stored (not when reading) read(FILEHANDLE, $StoreDataHere, $NumberBytes, Offset);
4.52.3 syscall
# Runs a system command syscall( $Command, $Argument1, $Argument2, $Argument3);
4.52.7 vec
-R -W -X -O
// // // //
is is is is
readable by real uid/gid. writable by real uid/gid. executable by real uid/gid. owned by real uid.
$FullFilename) // File exists. $FullFilename) // File has zero size. $FullFilename) // File has nonzero size (returns size).
if( -f $FullFilename) if( -d $FullFilename) if( -l $FullFilename) if( -p $FullFilename) Filehandle is a pipe. if( -S $FullFilename) if( -b $FullFilename) if( -c $FullFilename) if( -t $FullFilename)
// // // // // // // //
is is is is
a a a a
File is a socket. File is a block special file. File is a character special file. Filehandle is opened to a tty.
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$FullFilename) // File has setuid bit set. $FullFilename) // File has setgid bit set. $FullFilename) // File has sticky bit set.
$FullFilename) // File is an ASCII text file. $FullFilename) // File is a "binary" file (opposite of
$Age = -M $FullFilename; // Age of file in days when script started. $Age = -A $FullFilename; // Same for access time. $Age = -C $FullFilename; // Same for inode change time.
4.53.2 chdir
chdir $Directory; chdir $Directory || die("Couldn't change directory");
4.53.3 chmod
chmod 0744 $File1; chmod 0666 $File1, $File2, $File3; # 0 for octal, at the beginning of a number
4.53.4 chown
# Change the owner of a file chown($NewUserID, $NewGroupID, $Filename); chown($NewUserID, $NewGroupID, $File1, $File2, $File3);
chown($NewUserID, -1, $Filename); # Leave group unchanged chown(-1, $NewGroupID, $Filename); # Leave user unchanged
4.53.5 chroot
chroot $NewRootDirectory;
Sets the root directory for the program, such that the "/" location refers to the specied directory. Program must be running as root for this to succeed.
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Filesystem functions
4.53.10 lstat
Identical to stat(), except that if given le is symbolic link, stat link not the target.
4.53.11 mkdir
mkdir $Filename || die("Couldn't create directory"); mkdir $Filename, 0777; # Make directory with particular file-permissions
4.53.12 open
open(my open(my open(my open(my $FileHandle, $Filename) $fp, "<", $Filename); $fp, ">", $Filename); $fp, ">>", $Filename); || die("Couldn't open file"); # Read from file # Write to file # Append to file
open(my $fp, "<", "./ filename with whitespace \0"); open(my $fp, "<", "./->filename with reserved characters\0");
open(my $fp, "$Program |"); program open(my $fp, "| $Program"); program
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4.53.13 opendir
opendir(my $DirHandle, $Directory) || die("Couldn't open directory"); while (my $Filename = readdir $DirHandle){ # Do something with $Filename in $Directory } closedir($DirHandle);
opendir(DIR, $Directory) || die("Couldn't open directory"); foreach(readdir(DIR)){ # Do something with $_ in $Directory } closedir(DIR);
4.53.14 readlink
# Finds the value of a symbolic link $LinkTarget = readlink($LinkPosition);
4.53.15 rename
rename $OldFile, $NewFile or die("Couldn't move file");
May work differently on non-*nix operating systems, and possibly not at all when moving between different lesystems. See Figure 2
4.53.16 rmdir
rmdir $Filename || die("Couldn't remove directory");
4.53.17 stat
@FileStatistics = stat($Filename);
$DeviceNum $Inode $FileMode $NumHardLinks file $UserID $GroupID $DeviceIdent files only) $SizeBytes $AccessTime $ModifyTime
= = = =
# # # #
device number of filesystem inode number (type and permissions) number of (hard) links to the
= $FileStatistics[4]; # numeric user ID = $FileStatistics[5]; # numeric group ID = $FileStatistics[6]; # Device identifier (special = $FileStatistics[7]; = $FileStatistics[8]; # seconds since the epoch = $FileStatistics[9];
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Program functions
4.53.18 symlink
# Creates a new filename symbolically linked to the old filename symlink($OldFilename, $NewFilename); symlink($OldFilename, $NewFilename) || die("Couldn't create symlink"); eval(symlink($OldFilename, $NewFilename));
4.53.19 umask
# Sets or returns the umask my $UMask = umask(); umask(0000); # This process umask(0001); # This process umask(0444); # This process for the process. can create any type of files can't create world-readable files can't create executable files
4.53.20 unlink
# Deletes a file unlink $Filename; unlink $Filename || die("Couldn't delete file"); unlink $File1, $File2, $File3; (unlink($File1, $File2, $File3) == 3) || die("Couldn't delete files");
4.53.21 utime
# Updates the modification times of a list of files my $AccessTime = time(); my $ModificationTime = time();
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foo(); sub foo { $package = caller; #returns 'main' ($package, $filename, $line) = caller; #returns 'main', the file name, and 3 # Line below returns all 10 pieces of info. (Descriptions self-explanatory from variable names) ($package, $filename, $line, $subroutine, $hasargs, $wantarray, $evaltext, $is_require, $hints, $bitmask) = caller(0); }
4.54.2 import
There is no actual 'import' function. Rather, it is a convention when writing a module to create a subroutine named 'import' which populates the current namespace with that module's needed variables and/or methods. The standard 'Exporter' module provides an import method if your class has it as a base class.
4.54.3 package
Declares all lines that follow (until EOF or the next package statement) to belong to the given package's namespace.
#!/usr/bin/perl $x = 5; #sets $main::x
package Foo; $x = 5; #sets $Foo::x sub bar { #defines &Foo::bar print "hello world"; } package Temp; $x = 5; #sets $Temp::x
4.54.4 require
includes the specied module's code into the current program. The module can be specied either with an absolute or relative path, or with a bareword. If a bareword is given, a '.pm' extention is added, and :: is replaced with the current operating system's path seperator:
require Foo::Bar; #identical to: require 'Foo/Bar.pm';
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Misc functions
4.54.5 use
Requires and imports the given module or pragma, at compile time. The line
use Foo qw/bar baz/;
is identical to:
BEGIN { require Foo; import Foo qw/bar baz/; }
4.55.6 my
#creates new lexical (ie, not global) variable $x = 5; #refers to $main::x {
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my $x = 10; print "x = $x\n"; # the lexical - 10 print "main's x = $main::x\n" # the global - 5 } print "x = $x\n"; #the global, because no lexical in scope - 5
4.55.7 reset
#resets hash's internal pointer, to affect lists returned by each while ($k, $v = each %h){ print "$k = $v\n"; last if ($i++ == 2); } #if another each done here, $k,$v will pick up where they left off. reset %h #now each will restart from the beginning.
4.55.8 scalar
#forces scalar context on an array @sizes = (scalar @foo, scalar @bar); #creates a list of the sizes of @foo and @bar, rather than the elements in @foo and @bar
4.55.9 undef
#undefines an existing variable $x = 5; undef $x; print "x = $x\n" if defined $x; #does not print
4.55.10 wantarray
#returns 'true', 'false', or undef if function that called it was called in list, scalar, or void context, respectively. sub fctn { my @vals = (5..10); if (wantarray) { return @vals; } elsif (defined wantarray) { return $vals[0]; } else { warn "Warning! fctn() called in void context!\n"; } }
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Processes
4.56 Processes
4.56.1 alarm 4.56.2 exec 4.56.3 fork
#clones the current process, returning 0 if clone, and the process id of the clone if the parent my $pid = fork(); if ($pid == 0) { print "I am a copy of the original\n"; } elsif ($pid == -1) { print "I can't create a clone for some reason!\n"; } else { print "I am the original, my clone has a process id of $pid\n"; }
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4.56.4 getpgrp 4.56.5 getppid 4.56.6 getpriority 4.56.7 kill 4.56.8 pipe 4.56.9 qx/STRING/ 4.56.10 setpgrp 4.56.11 setpriority 4.56.12 sleep 4.56.13 system 4.56.14 times 4.56.15 wait 4.56.16 waitpid
4.57 Modules
4.57.1 do 4.57.2 import 4.57.3 no 4.57.4 package 4.57.5 require 4.57.6 use
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4.58.1 bless 4.58.2 dbmclose 4.58.3 dbmopen 4.58.4 package 4.58.5 ref 4.58.6 tie 4.58.7 tied 4.58.8 untie 4.58.9 use
4.59 Sockets
4.59.1 accept 4.59.2 bind 4.59.3 connect 4.59.4 getpeername 4.59.5 getsockname 4.59.6 getsockopt 4.59.7 listen 4.59.8 recv 4.59.9 send 4.59.10 setsockopt 4.59.11 shutdown 4.59.12 socket 4.59.13 socketpair
= = = = = = =
# # # # # # #
0-59 0-59 0-23 1-31 0-11 Years since 1900 0:Sun 1:Mon 2:Tue 3:Wed 4:Thu 5:Fri
= $TimeParts[7]; # 1-366
4.62.2 localtime
Converts a timestamp to local time
@TimeParts = localtime(); @TimeParts = localtime($Time);
= = = = = = =
# # # # # # #
0-59 0-59 0-23 1-31 0-11 Years since 1900 0:Sun 1:Mon 2:Tue 3:Wed 4:Thu 5:Fri
= $TimeParts[7]; # 1-366
4.62.3 time
$Time = time();
Returns number of seconds since an epoch (which is system-dependant, but may be Jan 1 1970) See also ../Time::Hires/71
4.62.4 times
@CPUTimes = times(); $UserTimeForProcess $SystemTimeForProcess $UserTimeForChildren $SystemTimeForChildren = = = = $CPUTimes[0]; $CPUTimes[1]; $CPUTimes[2]; $CPUTimes[3];
71
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/..%2FTime%3A%3AHires%2F
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will echo 1 to standard output, ord()72 will convert a character to its number in the character set, while chr()73 will convert a number to its corresponding character, therefore 2 in the same way that x2 = x and x = x in Mathematics74 (assuming x is non-negative), ord(chr(1)) = 1 and chr(ord(1)) = 1 in Perl. List of functions that reverse each other: lc()75 and uc()76 lcfirst()77 and ucfirst()78 ord()79 and chr()80 join()81 and split()82 push()83 and pop()84 unshift()85 and shift()86
See http://search.cpan.org/ Also, try subscribing to the use.perl.org87 mailing list, which sends out daily summaries of new modules as they're added to CPAN.
72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91
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4.65 Community
Perl Mongers98 , Perl User Group Index The Perl Monastery99 , themed Perl based help site
4.66 Other
perl.com100 - a Perl blog The DMOZ directory101 , DMOZ Perl index Perl Outsourcing Stats102 Perl Tutorial103 Wikipedia:Perl104
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/%2FTime%20and%20Date%2F http://www.perl.org http://perldoc.perl.org/ http://www.cpan.org/ http://dev.perl.org/perl6/ http://www.parrotcode.org http://www.pm.org http://www.perlmonks.org http://www.perl.com http://dmoz.org/Computers/Programming/Languages/Perl/ http://www.odesk.com/trends/perl http://www.programmingbulls.com/perl-tutorial http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perl
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Other 42 3 1 2 6 1 2 2 4 1 3 2 4 1 4 1 3 1 1 28 1 1 1 2 1 Justforasecond47 J edrzej Peka48 Kamanashisroy49 Karchnu50 Karl Dickman51 Kayau52 Krischik53 Larsnyg54 Lichray55 Luke X56 Mairi57 Malli kv258 Merime59 Mhoram60 Mickraus61 Mike Segal62 Mike.lifeguard63 Mikecx0864 Mjbmrbot65 MrItty66 Mrajcok67 Msiren68 Nex369 Nikai70 Nkrypt71
47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
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Contributors 61 1 6 4 2 4 6 3 28 2 1 3 1 2 1 2 1 21 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 Ojw72 Omegatron73 Pengrate74 Plaicy75 Pnorcks76 Poccil77 Prolix78 QuiteUnusual79 RandalSchwartz80 Recent Runes81 Rich Farmbrough82 Rovenhot83 Schwern84 Sgibson85 Shadow4286 Shiman bb87 Shoecream88 Sigma 789 Snarius90 Spoon!91 Stennie92 The bellman93 ThorstenStaerk94 Thumperward95 Toreau96
72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96
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Other 1 25 1 3 3 2 2 1 31 1 2 6 1 6 Tpraveen97 UltraAyla98 Verithrax99 Voxhumana100 WausauBill101 Webaware102 Wereon103 Wikimi-dhiann104 Yath105 YordanGeorgiev106 Yurik107 Zoohouse108 Zuco109 var Arnfjr Bjarmason110
97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109
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List of Figures
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6 Licenses
6.1 GNU GENERAL PUBLIC LICENSE
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However, nothing other than this License grants you permission to propagate or modify any covered work. These actions infringe copyright if you do not accept this License. Therefore, by modifying or propagating a covered work, you indicate your acceptance of this License to do so. 10. Automatic Licensing of Downstream Recipients. Each time you convey a covered work, the recipient automatically receives a license from the original licensors, to run, modify and propagate that work, subject to this License. You are not responsible for enforcing compliance by third parties with this License. An entity transaction is a transaction transferring control of an organization, or substantially all assets of one, or subdividing an organization, or merging organizations. 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A contributor is a copyright holder who authorizes use under this License of the Program or a work on which the Program is based. The work thus licensed is called the contributors contributor version. A contributors essential patent claims are all patent claims owned or controlled by the contributor, whether already acquired or hereafter acquired, that would be infringed by some manner, permitted by this License, of making, using, or selling its contributor version, but do not include claims that would be infringed only as a consequence of further modication of the contributor version. For purposes of this denition, control includes the right to grant patent sublicenses in a manner consistent with the requirements of this License. Each contributor grants you a non-exclusive, worldwide, royalty-free patent license under the contributors essential patent claims, to make, use, sell, offer for sale, import and otherwise run, modify and propagate the contents of its contributor version. In the following three paragraphs, a patent license is any express agreement or commitment, however denominated, not to enforce a patent (such as an express permission to practice a patent or covenant not to sue for patent infringement). To grant such a patent license to a party means to make such an agreement or commitment not to enforce a patent against the party. If you convey a covered work, knowingly relying on a patent license, and the Corresponding Source of the work is not available for anyone to copy, free of charge and under the terms of this License, through a publicly available network server or other readily accessible means, then you must either (1) cause the Corresponding Source to be so available, or (2) arrange to deprive yourself of the benet of the patent license for this particular work, or (3) arrange, in a manner consistent with the requirements of this License, to extend the patent license to downstream recipients. Knowingly relying means you have actual knowledge that, but for the patent license, your conveying the covered work in a country, or your recipients use of the covered work in a country, would infringe one or more identiable patents in that country that you have reason to believe are valid. If, pursuant to or in connection with a single transaction or arrangement, you convey, or propagate by procuring conveyance of, a covered work, and grant a patent license to some of the parties receiving the covered work authorizing them to use, propagate, modify or convey a specic copy of the covered work, then the patent license you grant is automatically extended to all recipients of the covered work and works based on it. A patent license is discriminatory if it does not include within the scope of its coverage, prohibits the exercise of, or is conditioned on the non-exercise of one or more of the rights that are specically granted under this License. You may not convey a covered work if you are a party to an arrangement with a third party that is in the business of distributing software, under which you make payment to the third party based on the extent of your activity of conveying the work, and under which the third party grants, to any of the parties who would receive the covered work from you, a discriminatory patent license (a) in connection with copies of the covered work conveyed by you (or copies made from those copies), or (b) primarily for and in connection with specic products or compilations that contain the covered work, unless you entered into that arrangement, or that patent license was granted, prior to 28 March 2007. Nothing in this License shall be construed as excluding or limiting any implied license or other defenses to infringement that may otherwise be available to you under applicable patent law. 12. No Surrender of Others Freedom. If conditions are imposed on you (whether by court order, agreement or otherwise) that contradict the conditions of this License, they do not excuse you from the conditions of this License. If you cannot convey a covered work so as to satisfy simultaneously your obligations under this License and any other pertinent obligations, then as a consequence you may not convey it at all. For example, if you agree to terms that obligate you to collect a royalty for further conveying from those to whom you convey the Program, the only way you could satisfy both those terms and this License would be to refrain entirely from conveying the Program. 13. Use with the GNU Affero General Public License. Notwithstanding any other provision of this License, you have permission to link or combine any covered work with a work licensed under version 3 of the GNU Affero General Public License into a single combined work, and to convey the resulting work. The terms of this License will continue to apply to the part which is the covered work, but the special requirements of the GNU Affero General Public License, section 13, concerning interaction through a network will apply to the combination as such. 14. Revised Versions of this License. The Free Software Foundation may publish revised and/or new versions of the GNU General Public License from time to time. Such new versions will be similar in spirit to the present version, but may differ in detail to address new problems or concerns. Each version is given a distinguishing version number. If the Program species that a certain numbered version of the GNU General Public License or any later version applies to it, you have the option of following the terms and conditions either of that numbered version or of any later version published by the Free Software Foundation. If the Program does not specify a version number of the GNU General Public License, you may choose any version ever published by the Free Software Foundation. If the Program species that a proxy can decide which future versions of the GNU General Public License can be used, that proxys public statement of acceptance of a version permanently authorizes you to choose that version for the Program. Later license versions may give you additional or different permissions. However, no additional obligations are imposed on any author or copyright
holder as a result of your choosing to follow a later version. 15. Disclaimer of Warranty. THERE IS NO WARRANTY FOR THE PROGRAM, TO THE EXTENT PERMITTED BY APPLICABLE LAW. EXCEPT WHEN OTHERWISE STATED IN WRITING THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND/OR OTHER PARTIES PROVIDE THE PROGRAM AS IS WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EITHER EXPRESSED OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. THE ENTIRE RISK AS TO THE QUALITY AND PERFORMANCE OF THE PROGRAM IS WITH YOU. SHOULD THE PROGRAM PROVE DEFECTIVE, YOU ASSUME THE COST OF ALL NECESSARY SERVICING, REPAIR OR CORRECTION. 16. Limitation of Liability. IN NO EVENT UNLESS REQUIRED BY APPLICABLE LAW OR AGREED TO IN WRITING WILL ANY COPYRIGHT HOLDER, OR ANY OTHER PARTY WHO MODIFIES AND/OR CONVEYS THE PROGRAM AS PERMITTED ABOVE, BE LIABLE TO YOU FOR DAMAGES, INCLUDING ANY GENERAL, SPECIAL, INCIDENTAL OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES ARISING OUT OF THE USE OR INABILITY TO USE THE PROGRAM (INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO LOSS OF DATA OR DATA BEING RENDERED INACCURATE OR
LOSSES SUSTAINED BY YOU OR THIRD PARTIES OR A FAILURE OF THE PROGRAM TO OPERATE WITH ANY OTHER PROGRAMS), EVEN IF SUCH HOLDER OR OTHER PARTY HAS BEEN ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGES. 17. Interpretation of Sections 15 and 16. If the disclaimer of warranty and limitation of liability provided above cannot be given local legal effect according to their terms, reviewing courts shall apply local law that most closely approximates an absolute waiver of all civil liability in connection with the Program, unless a warranty or assumption of liability accompanies a copy of the Program in return for a fee. END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS How to Apply These Terms to Your New Programs If you develop a new program, and you want it to be of the greatest possible use to the public, the best way to achieve this is to make it free software which everyone can redistribute and change under these terms. To do so, attach the following notices to the program. It is safest to attach them to the start of each source le to most effectively state the exclusion of warranty; and each le should have at least the copyright line and a pointer to where the full notice is found.
<one line to give the programs name and a brief idea of what it does.> Copyright (C) <year> <name of author> This program is free software: you can redistribute it and/or modify it under the terms of the GNU General Public License as published by the Free Software Foundation, either version 3 of the License, or (at your option) any later version. This program is distributed in the hope that it will be useful, but WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY; without even the implied warranty of MERCHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. See the GNU General Public License for more details. You should have received a copy of the GNU General Public License along with this program. If not, see <http://www.gnu.org/licenses/>. Also add information on how to contact you by electronic and paper mail. If the program does terminal interaction, make it output a short notice like this when it starts in an interactive mode:
<program> Copyright (C) <year> <name of author> This program comes with ABSOLUTELY NO WARRANTY; for details type show w. This is free software, and you are welcome to redistribute it under certain conditions; type show c for details.
The hypothetical commands show w and show c should show the appropriate parts of the General Public License. Of course, your programs commands might be different; for a GUI interface, you would use an about box.
You should also get your employer (if you work as a programmer) or school, if any, to sign a copyright disclaimer for the program, if necessary. For more information on this, and how to apply and follow the GNU GPL, see <http://www.gnu.org/licenses/>.
The GNU General Public License does not permit incorporating your program into proprietary programs. If your program is a subroutine library, you may consider it more useful to permit linking proprietary applications with the library. If this is what you want to do, use the GNU Lesser General Public License instead of this License. But rst, please read <http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/why-not-lgpl.html>.
Copyright 2007 Free Software Foundation, Inc. <http://fsf.org/> As used herein, this License refers to version 3 of the GNU Lesser General Public License, and the GNU GPL refers to version 3 of the GNU General Public License. An Application is any work that makes use of an interface provided by the Library, but which is not otherwise based on the Library. Dening a subclass of a class dened by the Library is deemed a mode of using an interface provided by the Library. The Minimal Corresponding Source for a Combined Work means the Corresponding Source for the Combined Work, excluding any source code for portions of the Combined Work that, considered in isolation, are based on the Application, and not on the Linked Version.
Everyone is permitted to copy and distribute verbatim copies of this license document, but changing it is not allowed.
The Corresponding Application Code for a Combined Work means the object code and/or source code for the Application, including any data and utility programs needed for reproducing the Combined Work from the Application, but excluding the System Libraries of the Combined Work. 1. Exception to Section 3 of the GNU GPL. You may convey a covered work under sections 3 and 4 of this License without being bound by section 3 of the GNU GPL. 2. Conveying Modied Versions. If you modify a copy of the Library, and, in your modications, a facility refers to a function or data to be supplied by an Application that uses the facility (other than as an argument passed when the facility is invoked), then you may convey a copy of the modied version: * a) under this License, provided that you make a good faith effort to ensure that, in the event an Application does not supply the function or data, the facility still operates, and performs whatever part of its purpose remains meaningful, or * b) under the GNU GPL, with none of the additional permissions of this License applicable to that copy. 3. Object Code Incorporating Material from Library Header Files. The object code form of an Application may incorporate material from a header le that is part of the Library. You may convey such object code
under terms of your choice, provided that, if the incorporated material is not limited to numerical parameters, data structure layouts and accessors, or small macros, inline functions and templates (ten or fewer lines in length), you do both of the following: * a) Give prominent notice with each copy of the object code that the Library is used in it and that the Library and its use are covered by this License. * b) Accompany the object code with a copy of the GNU GPL and this license document. 4. Combined Works. You may convey a Combined Work under terms of your choice that, taken together, effectively do not restrict modication of the portions of the Library contained in the Combined Work and reverse engineering for debugging such modications, if you also do each of the following: * a) Give prominent notice with each copy of the Combined Work that the Library is used in it and that the Library and its use are covered by this License. * b) Accompany the Combined Work with a copy of the GNU GPL and this license document. * c) For a Combined Work that displays copyright notices during execution, include the copyright notice for the Library among these notices, as well as a reference directing the user to the copies of the GNU GPL and this license document. * d) Do one of the following: o 0) Convey the Minimal Corresponding Source under the terms of this License, and the Corresponding Application Code in a form suitable for, and under terms
that permit, the user to recombine or relink the Application with a modied version of the Linked Version to produce a modied Combined Work, in the manner specied by section 6 of the GNU GPL for conveying Corresponding Source. o 1) Use a suitable shared library mechanism for linking with the Library. A suitable mechanism is one that (a) uses at run time a copy of the Library already present on the users computer system, and (b) will operate properly with a modied version of the Library that is interface-compatible with the Linked Version. * e) Provide Installation Information, but only if you would otherwise be required to provide such information under section 6 of the GNU GPL, and only to the extent that such information is necessary to install and execute a modied version of the Combined Work produced by recombining or relinking the Application with a modied version of the Linked Version. (If you use option 4d0, the Installation Information must accompany the Minimal Corresponding Source and Corresponding Application Code. If you use option 4d1, you must provide the Installation Information in the manner specied by section 6 of the GNU GPL for conveying Corresponding Source.)
* a) Accompany the combined library with a copy of the same work based on the Library, uncombined with any other library facilities, conveyed under the terms of this License. * b) Give prominent notice with the combined library that part of it is a work based on the Library, and explaining where to nd the accompanying uncombined form of the same work. 6. Revised Versions of the GNU Lesser General Public License. The Free Software Foundation may publish revised and/or new versions of the GNU Lesser General Public License from time to time. Such new versions will be similar in spirit to the present version, but may differ in detail to address new problems or concerns. Each version is given a distinguishing version number. If the Library as you received it species that a certain numbered version of the GNU Lesser General Public License or any later version applies to it, you have the option of following the terms and conditions either of that published version or of any later version published by the Free Software Foundation. If the Library as you received it does not specify a version number of the GNU Lesser General Public License, you may choose any version of the GNU Lesser General Public License ever published by the Free Software Foundation. If the Library as you received it species that a proxy can decide whether future versions of the GNU Lesser General Public License shall apply, that proxys public statement of acceptance of any version is permanent authorization for you to choose that version for the Library.
5. Combined Libraries.
You may place library facilities that are a work based on the Library side by side in a single library together with other library facilities that are not Applications and are not covered by this License, and convey such a combined library under terms of your choice, if you do both of the following: