1

Oscillators
Oscillator: An oscillator is a circuit that generates a repetitive waveform of fixed amplitude and
frequency without any external input signal [1, p. 279].

Function of Oscillator: The function of oscillator is to generate alternating current or voltage
wave forms such as sinusoidal, square wave, triangular wave, sawtooth wave,
etc.

Used of Oscillator: Oscillators are used in radio, TV, computers, CRT, Oscillocope, and
communications.

Types of Oscillator: There are two main types of electronic oscillator:
(i) Harmonic oscillator and
(ii) Relaxation oscillator

Depending on the used elements of an oscillator, the types of oscillator are:
(i) RC oscillator,
(ii) LC oscillator and
(iii) Crystal oscillator.


Harmonic Oscillator: The harmonic oscillator produces a sinusoidal output. The basic form of a
harmonic oscillator is an electronic amplifier with the output attached to a narrow-band electronic
filter, and the output of the filter attached to the input of the amplifier. When the power supply to
the amplifier is first switched on, the amplifier's output consists only of noise. The noise travels
around the loop, being filtered and re-amplified until it increasingly resembles the desired signal.

Relaxation Oscillator: The relaxation oscillator is often used to produce a non-sinusoidal output,
such as a square wave, sawtooth wave, and triangular wave. The oscillator contains a nonlinear
component such as a transistor that periodically discharges the energy stored in a capacitor or
inductor, causing abrupt changes in the output waveform.

Sinusoidal Oscillator: If the output signal of an oscillator circuit varies sinusodally, the circuit is
referred to as a sinusoidal oscillator [3, p. 757].

Pulse or Square-Wave Oscillator: If the output voltages of an oscillator circuit rises quickly to
one voltage level and later drops quickly to another voltage level, the circuit is
generally referred to as a pulse or square-wave oscillator.


Oscillator Principles: An oscillator is a type of feedback amplifier in which part of the output is
fed to the input via a feedback circuit. If the signal fed back is of proper magnitude
and phase, the circuits produces alternating currents or voltages. To visualize the
requirements of an oscillator, consider the block diagram of Figure 7-17 [1].


2



Fig. 7-17 Block diagram of oscillator.

This diagram looks identical to that of the feedback amplifiers. However, here the input voltage is
zero (v
in
=0). Also, the feedback is positive because most oscillators use positive
feedback. Finally, the closed-loop gain of the amplifier is denoted by A
v
.
In the block diagram of Fig. 7-17,
in f d
v v v + = ;
d v o
v A v = ;
o f
v v | =
Using these relationships, the following equation is obtained:
v
v
in
o
A
A
v
v
|
=
1

However, v
in
=0 and v
o
=0 implies that
1 =
v
A | (7-20)
expressed in polar form,

o o
360 or 0 1 =
v
A | (7-21)
Equation (7-21) gives the two requirements for oscillations:
(1) The magnitude of the loop gain A
v
| must be at least 1, and
(2) The total phase shift of the loop gain A
v
| must be equal to 0
o
or 360
o
.
For instance, as indicated in Figure 7-17, if the amplifier causes a phase shift of 180
o
, the
feedback circuit must provide an additional phase shift of 180
o
, so that the total phase shift
around the loop is 360
o
.
The waveforms shown in Fig. 7-17 are sinusoidal and are used to illustrate the circuit
action. The type of waveform generated by an oscillator depends on the components in the circuit
and hence may be sinusoidal, square, or triangular. In addition, the frequency of oscillation is
determined by the components in the feedback circuit.

The Barkhausen Criterion:
(1) Oscillations will not be sustained if, at the oscillator frequency, the magnitude of the
product of the transfer gain of the amplifier (A
v
) and the magnitude of the feedback
factor (|) of the feedback network (the magnitude of the loop gain) are less than unity.
(2) The frequency at which a sinusoidal oscillator will operate is the frequency for which
the total shift introduced, as a signal proceeds from the input terminals, through the
amplifier and feedback network, and back again to the input, is precisely zero (or, of
course, an integral multiple of 2t). Stated more simply, the frequency of a sinusoidal
oscillator is determined by the condition that the loop-gain phase shift is zero.

3
The condition of unity loop gain A
v
|=1 is called the Barkhausen criterion. This
condition implies, of course, both that ,A
v
|,=1 and that the phase of A
v
| is zero.

What happens to the output voltage?
If AB is less than 1, ABv
in
is less than v
in
and the output signal will die out. However AB is
greater than 1, ABv
in
is greater than v
in
and the output signal build up.

Where Does the Starting Voltage Come From?
Every conductive wire or resistor contains free electrons. Because of ambient temperature, these
free electrons move randomly in different directions and generate a noise voltage
over 1000 GHz. So the conductive wire or resistor acts as a small ac voltage source
producing all frequencies.
When the power is turned on, the only signals in the system are noise voltages generated by the
conductive wire or resistor. These nose voltages are amplified and appear at the
output terminals. The amplified nose, which contains all frequencies, drives the
resonant feedback circuit. According to the design of an oscillator, the loop gain is
greater 1 and the loop phase shift is equal to 0
o
or 360
o
at the resonant frequency.
Above or bellow the resonant frequency the phase shift is different from 0
o
or 360
o
.
As a result oscillation will build up only at the resonant frequency of the feedback
circuit.


Phase-Shift Oscillator: An oscillator circuit that follows the basic development of a
feedback circuit is the phase-shift oscillator.

Figure 7-18 (and Fig. 14-29) shows a phase shift oscillator, which consists of an op-
amp as the amplifying stage and three RC cascaded networks as the feedback circuit. The
feedback circuit provides feedback voltage from the output back to the input of the amplifier. The
op-amp is used in the inverting mode; therefore, any signal that appears at the inverting terminal
is shifted 180
o
at the output.
An additional 180
o
phase shift required for oscillation is provided by the cascaded RC
networks. Thus the total phase shift around the loop is 360
o
(or 0
o
). At some specific frequency
when the phase shift of the cascaded RC networks is exactly 180
o
and the gain of the amplifier is
sufficiently large, the circuit will oscillate at that frequency. This frequency is called the
frequency of oscillation, f
o
, and is given by
) ( ) ( 2
1
1 3 2 1 1 2 1 3 3 2 2 1 3 2 2 1 2 1
C C C C R R C C C C C C R R C C R R
f
o
+ + + + +
=
t

RC RC
f
o
065 . 0
6 2
1
= =
t
(7-22a)
At this frequency, the gain A
v
must be at least 29. That is,
29
1
= =
R
R
A
F
v

Or
1
29R R
F
= (7-22b)

4
Thus the circuit will produce a sinusoidal waveform of frequency f
o
if the gain is
29 and the total phase shift around the circuit is exactly 360
o
.


Fig. 7-18 Phase-shift oscillator.

For a desired frequency of oscillation, choose a capacitor C, and then calculate the value
of R from equation (7-22a). A desired output, however, can be obtained with back-to-back zeners
connected at the output terminal.

7-13 WIEN BRIDGE OSCILLATOR [R. A. Gayakward]
Because of it simplicity and stability, one of the most commonly used audio-frequency
oscillators is the Wien Bridge. Figure 7-19 shows the Wien Bridge Oscillator in which the
Wien Bridge circuit is connected between the amplifier input terminals and the output terminal.
The bridge has a series RC network in one arm and a parallel RC network in the adjoining
arm. In the remaining two arms of the bridge, resistors R
1
and R
F
are connected (see Figure 7-19).
The phase angle criterion for oscillation is that the total phase shift around the circuit
must be 0
o
. This condition occurs only when the bridge is balanced, that is, at resonance. The
frequency of the oscillation f
o
is exactly the resonant frequency of the balanced Wien bridge and
is given by
RC RC
f
o
159 . 0
2
1
= =
t
(7-23a)
assuming that the resistors are equal in value, and the capacitors are equal in value in the reactive
leg of the Wien bridge. At this frequency the gin required for sustained oscillation is given by

5
3
1
= =
B
A
v

That is,
1
1
2 ; 3 1 R R
R
R
F
F
= = + (7-23b)

Figure 7-19 Wien bridge oscillator

For the derivation of Equations (7-23a) and (7-23b), refer to Appendix C. The Wien
bridge oscillator is designed using Equations (7-23a) and (7-23b), as illustrated in Example 7-13.

Example 7-13: Design the Wien bridge oscillator of Figure 7-19 so that f
o
=965Hz.
Solution: Let C= 0.05 F. Therefore, from Equation (7-23a),
O =

= =

K 3 . 3
10 5 965
159 . 0 159 . 0
8
C f
R
o

Now let R
1
=12KO. Then, from Equation (7-23b),
O = O = K 24 K 12 2
F
R

7-14 Quadrature Oscillator [R. A. Gayakward]
As its name implies, the quadrature oscillartor generates two signals (sine and cosine) that
are in quadrature, that is, out of phase by 90
o
. Although the actual location of the sine and cosine
is arbitrary, in the quadrature oscillator of Figure 7-20 the output of A
1
is labeled a sine and the
output of A
2
is a cosine.

6

Figure 7-19 Quadrature Oscillator. A
1
and A
2
dual op-amp: 1458/353.

This oscillator requires a dual op-amp and three RC combinations. The first op-amp A
1
is
operating in the noninverting mode and appears as a noninverting integrator. The second op-amp
A
2
is working as a pure integrator.
Furthermore, A
2
is followed by a voltage divider consisting of R
3
and C
3
. The divider
network forms a feedback circuit, whereas A
1
and A
2
form the amplifier stage.
The total phase shift of 360
o
around thee loop required for oscillation is obtained in the
following way. The op-amp A
2
is a pure integrator and inverter. Hence it contributes -270
o
(or
90
o
) of phase shift. The remaining -90
o
(or 270
o
) of phase shift needed are obtained at the voltage
divider R
3
C
3
and the op-amp A
1
. The total phase shift of 360
o
, however, is obtained at only one
frequency f
o
, called the frequency of oscillation. This frequency is given by

RC RC
f
o
159 . 0
2
1
= =
t
(7-24a)
where R
1
C
1
= R
2
C
2
= R
3
C
3
=RC. At this frequency,
414 . 1
1
= =
B
A
v
(7-24b)
which is the second condition for oscillation.
Thus, to design a quadrature oscillator for a desired frequency f
o
, choose a value of C;
then, from Equation (7-24a), calculate the value of R. To simplify design calculations, choose
C
1
=C
2
=C
3
and R
1
= R
2
= R
3
. In addition, R
1
may be a potentiometer in order to eliminate any
possible distortion in the output wave forms.

Example: Design the quadrature oscillator of Figure 7-20 so that f
o
=159 Hz.
Solution: Let C=0.01 F. Then, from equation (7-24a),

7
O =

= =

K 100
10 159
159 . 0 159 . 0
8
C f
R
o

Thus C
1
=C
2
=C
3
=0.01 F and R
1
= R
2
= R
3
=100 KO. However, R
1
may be a 200 KO
potentiometer, which can be adjusted for undistorted output wave forms.


23.3 Twin-T Oscillator [3]

Figure Twin-T oscillator

An oscillator configuration that uses a Twin-T filter in the feedback path is shown in the
following Figure 23.12. The Twin-T filter consists of two Tee-shaped networks connected in
parallel. These Twin-T filters are also known as band-reject filters or notch filters. In the Twin-T
filter shown in Figure 1.38, the elements connected to ground have values of 2C and R/2,
respectively. The twin-T circuits acts as a lead-lag circuit with a changing phase angle. There is a
frequency f
o
at which the voltage gain drops to 0. The equation of the frequency is
RC
f
o
t 2
1
=
The positive feedback to the noninverting input is through a voltage divider. The negative
feedback is through the Twin-T filter.
To ensure that the oscillation frequency is close to the notch frequency f
o
, the voltage
divider should have R
2
much larger than R
1
.
The Twin-T oscillator is not popular circuity because it works well only at one frequency.

14-18 A General Form of Oscillator Circuit [J. Millman, C. C. Halkias]
Many oscillator circuits fall into the general form shown in Figure 14-32a.


8


Figure 14-32 (a) The basic configuration for many resonant-circuit oscillators. (b) The linear
equivalent circuit using an operational amplifier.

The active device may be a bipolar transistor, an operational amplifier or an FET. In the
analysis that follows we assume an active device with infinite input resistance such as an FET, or
an operational amplifier.
Figure 14-32b shows the linear equivalent circuit of Figure 14-32a, using the amplifier
with negative gain A
v
and output resistance R
o
. Clearly the topology of Fig. 14-32 is that of
voltage-series feedback.

The Loop gain: The value of AB will be obtained by considering the circuit of Fig. 14-32a to
be a feedback amplifier with output taken from terminals 2 and 3 and terminals 1 and 3. The load
impedance Z
L
consists of Z
2
in parallel with series combination of Z
1
and Z
3
that means
Z
L
=Z
2
(Z
1
+Z
3
)/(Z
1
+Z
2
+Z
3
). The gain without feedback is A=-A
v
Z
L
/(Z
L
+R
o
). The feedback factor is
B=-Z
1
/(Z
1
+Z
3
). The loop gain is found to be
) ( ) (
3 1 2 3 2 1
2 1
Z Z Z Z Z Z R
Z Z A
AB
o
v
+ + + +

= (14-65)

Reactive Elements Z
1
, Z
2
, and Z
3
: If the impedances are pure reactances (either inductive
or capacitive), then Z
1
=jX
1
, Z
2
=jX
2
, and Z
3
=jX
3
. For an inductor X=eL, and for a capacitor X=-
1/eC. Then
) ( ) (
3 1 2 3 2 1
2 1
X X X X X X jR
X X A
AB
o
v
+ + + +
= (14-66)
For the loop gain to be real (zero phase shift)

0
3 2 1
= + + X X X (14-67)
and

9
3 1
1
3 1 2
2 1
) ( X X
X A
X X X
X X A
AB
v v
+

=
+
= (14-68)
From Eq. (14-67) we see that the circuit will oscillate at the resonant frequency of the series
combination of X
1
, X
2
, and X
3
.
Using Eq. (14-67) in Eq. (14-68) yields
2
1
X
X A
AB
v
= (14-69)
Since AB must be positive and at least unity in magnitude, then X
1
and X
2
must have the
same sign (A
v
is positive). In other words, they must be the same kind of reactance, either both
inductive or both capacitive. Then, from Eq. (14-67), X
3
=-(X
1
+X
2
) must be inductive if X
1
and X
2

are capacitive, or vice versa.
If X
1
and X
2
are capacitors and X
3
is an inductor, the circuit is called a Colpits oscillator.

If X
1
and X
2
are inductors and X
3
is an capacitor, the circuit is called a Hartley oscillator.
In this latter case, there may be mutual coupling between X
1
and X
2
(and the above equations will
then not apply).
Transistor versions of above types of LC oscillators are possible. As an example, a
transistor Colpits Oscillator is indicated in Fig 14-33a. Qualitatively, this circuit operates in the
manner described above. However, the detailed analysis of a transistor oscillator circuit is more
difficult, for two fundamental reasons.
First, the low impedance of the transistor shunts Z
1
in Fig. 14-32a, and hence complicates
the expressions for the loop gain given above.
Second, if the oscillation frequency is beyond the audio range, the simple low-frequency
h-parameter model is no longer valid. Under these circumstances the more complicated high-
frequency hybrid-H model of Fig. 11-5 must be used. A transistor Hartley oscillator is shown in
Fig. 14-33b.


Figure. (a) An Op-amp Colpits Oscillator. (b) An op-amp Hartley Oscillator.


10
2 3 1
2
1
3 1
1
3 1
1
X X X
X
X
X X
X
Z Z
Z
B = + =
+
=
+
=
B A
X
X A
AB
v
v
= =
2
1

1
R
R
A A
F
v
= =
1
1
R
R
B
A
F
= =

From (14.67)
For Hartley: 0
3 2 1
= + + X X X ;
0
2 1
= +
c L L
jX jX jX ;
0
1
2 1
= +
C
j L j L j
e
e e ;
0 1 ) (
2 1
2
= + C L L e ;
C L L ) (
1
2 1
+
= e ;
C L L
f
o
) ( 2
1
2 1
+
=
t
;
C L
f
eq
o
t 2
1
= ;
2 1
L L L
eq
+ =
2
1
L
L
B = ;
1
2
1
1
L
L
R
R
B
A
F
= = = ;
1
1
2
R
L
L
R
F
=
For Colpits: 0
3 2 1
= + + X X X ;
0
2 1
= +
L C C
jX jX jX ;
0
1 1
2 1
= + L j
C
j
C
j e
e e
; 0
2 1
2 1
= +
+
L j
C C
C C
e
e
;
0 ) (
2 1
2
2 1
= + + C LC C C e ;
2 1
2 1 2
C LC
C C +
= e ;
eq
LC
1
2
= e ;
2 1
2 1
C C
C C
C
eq
+
= ;
eq
LC
1
= e ;
eq
o
LC
f
t 2
1
=
1
2
C
C
B = ;
2
1
1
1
C
C
R
R
B
A
F
= = = ;
1
2
1
R
C
C
R
F
=



11
Clapp Oscillator:
The Clapp oscillator is a Colpitts oscillator
with an additional capacitor placed in series
with the inductor. The oscillation frequency in
hertz (cycles per second) for the circuit of
Clapp oscillator, is
)
1 1 1
(
1
2
1
2 1 0
C C C L
f
o
+ + =
t

A Clapp circuit is often preferred over a
Colpitts circuit for constructing a variable
frequency oscillator (VFO). In a Colpitts
VFO, the voltage divider contains the variable
capacitor (either C
1
or C
2
). This causes the
feedback voltage to be variable as well,
sometimes making the Colpitts circuit less
likely to achieve oscillation over a portion of
the desired frequency range. This problem is
avoided in the Clapp circuit by using fixed
capacitors in the voltage divider and a variable
capacitor (C
0
) in series with the inductor.


Figure. An Op-amp Clapp Oscillator.
Crystal Oscillators
18-9 [Robert Boylestad, Louis Nashelsky]
A crystal oscillator is basically a tuned-circuit oscillator using piezoelectric crystal as a
resonant tank circuit. The crystal (usually quartz) has a greater stability in holding constant at
whatever frequency the crystal is originally cut to operate. Crystal oscillators are used whenever
great stability is required, for example, in communication transmitters and receivers.
Characteristics of a Quartz Crystal
A quartz crystal (one of a number of crystal types) exhibits the property that If a
piezoelectrical crystal, usually quartz, has electrodes plated on opposite faces when mechanical
stress is applied across the faces of the crystal, a difference of potential develops across opposite
faces of the crystal. This property of a crystal is called the piezoelectric effect. Similarly, a
voltage applied across one set of faces of the crystal causes mechanical distortion in the crystal
shape.
When alternating voltage is applied to a crystal, mechanical vibrations are set up-these
vibrations having a natural resonant frequency dependent on the crystal. Although the crystal has
electromechanical resonance, we can represent the crystal action by an equivalent resonant circuit
as shown in Fig. 14-35.

12

(a)

(b)

(c)
Fig. 14-35 A piezoelectric crystal. (a) symbol; (b) electrical model; (c) the reactance function
(if R=0)

The inductor L and capacitor C represent electrical equivalents of a crystal mass and
compliance while R is an electrical equivalent of the crystal structures internal friction. The
shunt capacitance C
M
represents the capacitance due to the mechanical mounting of the crystal.
Because the losses of crystal, represented
by R, are small, the equivalent crystal Q (quality
factor) is high. Values of Q up to almost 10
6
can
be achieved by using crystals.
The crystal as represented by the
equivalent electrical circuit of Fig. 14-35 can
have two resonant frequencies. One resonant
condition occurs when the reactances of series
RLC leg are equal (and opposite). For this
condition the series-resonant impedance is very
low (equal to R).

Figure 18.32 Crystal impedance versus
frequency.
The other resonant condition occurs at a high frequency when the reactance of the series-
resonant leg equals the reactance of capacitor C
M
. This is a parallel resonance or anti-resonance
condition of the crystal. At this frequency the crystal offers a very high impedance to the external
circuit. The impedance versus frequency of the crystal is shown in Fig. 18-32.
In order to use he crystal properly it must be connected in a circuit so that its low
impedance in the series operating mode or high impedance in the anti-resonant operating mode is
selected.

Series-Resonant Circuits
To excite a crystal for operation in the series-resonant mode it may be connected as a
series element in a feedback path. At the series-resonant frequency to the crystal its impedance is

13
smallest and the amount of (positive) feedback is largest. A typical transistor circuit is shown in
Fig. 18.33. Resistors R
1
, R
2
, and R
E
provide a voltage-divider stabilized dc bias circuit.
Capacitor C
E
provides ac bypass of the emitter resistor and the RFC coil provides for dc bias
while decoupling any ac signal on the power lines from affecting the output signal. The voltage
feedback from collector to base is a maximum when the crystal impedance is minimum (in series-
resonant). The coupling capacitor C
C
has negligible impedance at the circuit operating frequency
but blocks any dc between collector and base.










Figure 18.33 Crystal-controlled oscillator using crystal in series-feedback path.

The resulting circuit frequency of oscillation is set, then, by the series-resonant frequency
of the crystal. Changing in supply voltage, transistor device parameters, and so on, have no effect
on the circuit operating frequency which is held stabilized by the crystal. The circuit frequency
stability is set by the crystal frequency stability, which is good.
Parallel-Resonant Circuits
Since the parallel-resonant impedance of a crystal is a maximum value, it is connected in
shunt. At the parallel-resonant operating frequency a crystal appears as an inductive reactance of
largest value. Figure 18-34 shows a crystal connected as the inductor element in a modified
Colpits circuit. The basic dc bias circuit should be evident. Maximum voltage is developed across
the crystal at its parallel-resonant frequency. The voltage is coupled to the emitter by a capacitor
voltage divider-capacitors C
1
and C
2
.















Figure 18.34 Crystal-controlled oscillator operating in parallel-resonant mode.

14

A Miller crystal-controlled oscillator is shown in Fig. 18.35. A tuned LC circuit in the
drain section is adjusted near the crystal parallel-resonant frequency. The maximum gate-source
signal occurs at the crystal anti-resonant frequency controlling the circuit operating frequency.













Figure 18-35 Miller crystal-controlled oscillator.

Crystal Oscillator
An op-amp can be used in a crystal oscillator as shown in Fig. 18.36. The crystal is
connected in the series-resonant path and operates at the crystal series-resonant frequency. The
present circuit has a high gain so that an output square-wave signal results as shown in the figure.
A pair of Zener diodes is shown at the output to provide output amplitude at exactly the Zener
voltage (V
Z
).














Figure 18.36 Crystal oscillator using op-amp.


14-20 [J. Millman, C. C. Halkias]
If a piezoelectrical crystal, usually quartz, has electrodes plated on opposite faces and if a
potential is applied between these electrodes, forces will be exerted on the bound charges within

15
the crystal. If this device is properly mounted, deformations take place within the crystal, and an
electromechanical system is formed which will vibrate when properly excited.
The resonant frequency and the Q depend upon the crystal dimensions, how the surfaces
are oriented with respect to its axes, and how the device is mounted.
Frequency ranging from a few kilohertz (kHz) to a few megahertz (MHz), and Qs in the
range from several thousand to several hundred thousand, are commercially available.
These extraordinarily high values of Q and the fact that the characteristics of quartz are
extremely stable with respect to time and temperature account for the exceptional frequency
stability of oscillators incorporating crystals.

The electrical equivalent circuit of a crystal is indicated in Fig. 14-35. The inductor L,
capacitor C, and resistor R are the analogs of the mass, the compliance (the reciprocal of the
spring constant), and thee viscous-damping factor of the mechanical system. C
M
is mounting
capacitance.
Typical values for a 90-kHz crystal are L=137 H, C=0.235 pF, and R= 15 K,
corresponding to Q=5,500. The dimensions of such a crystal are 30 by 4 by 1.5 mm. Since C
M

represents the electrostatic capacitance between electrodes with the crystal as a dielectric, its
magnitude (~3.5 pF) is very much larger than C.

If we neglect the resistance R, the impedance of the crystal is a reactance jX whose
dependence upon frequency is given by
2
2
2
2
p
s
M
C
j
jX
e e
e e
e

= (14-75)
where
LC
s
1
2
= e is the series resonant frequency (the zero impedance frequency), and
)
1 1
(
1
2
M
p
C C L
+ = e is the parallel resonant frequency (the infinite impedance frequency).
Since C
M
>>C, then
s p
e e ~ . For the crystal whose parameters are specified above, the
parallel frequency is only three-tenth of 1 percent higher than the series frequency. For
p s
e e e < < , the reactance is inductive, and outside this range it is capacitive, as indicated in
Fig. 14-35.
A variety of crystal-oscillator circuit is possible. If in the basic configuration of Fig. 14-
32a a crystal is used for Z
1
, a tuned LC combination for Z
2
, and the capacitance C
dg
between drain
and gate for Z
3
, the resulting circuit is as indicated in Fig. 14-36.
From the theory given in the preceding section, the crystal reactance, as well as that of the
LC network, must be inductive. For the loop gain to be greater than unity, we see from Eq. (14-
69) that X
1
cannot be too small. Hence the circuit will oscillate at a frequency which lies between
e
s
and e
p
but close to the parallel-resonance value. Since e
p
~e
s
, the oscillator frequency is
essentially determined by the crystal, and not by the rest of the circuit.


References:

16
[1] Ramakant A. Gayakward, Op-Amps and Linear Integrated Circuits (Fourth Edition),
Pearson Education, Inc., 2000. pp. 279
[2] Jacob Millman, and Christos C. Halkias, Integrated Electronics: Analog and Digital Circuits
and Systems, Tata McGrew-Hill Publishing Conpamy Ltd., 1972. pp. 486
[3] Albert Paul Malvino, Electronic Principles, Tata McGraw-Hill, 1999
[4] Robert Boylestad, and Louis Nashlsky, Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory, Prentice-
Hall inc., 1994.


















To show:
RC RC
f
o
065 . 0
6 2
1
= =
t
; 29
1
=
R
R
F
for Phase-shift oscillator
First consider the feedback circuit consisting of RC combinations of the phase shift
oscillator. For simplicity we use the Laplace transform. Thus, the circuit is represented in the S
domain as shown in Figure C-8. Let us determine V
f
(S)/V
o
(S) for the circuit.
Writing Kirchhofs current law (KCL) at node V
1
(S), we get
) ( ) ( ) (
3 2 1
S I S I S I + =
SC
S V S V
R
S V
SC
S V S V
o
/ 1
) ( ) ( ) (
/ 1
) ( ) (
2 1 1 1

+ =

Solving for V
1
(S), we have
1 2
)] ( ) ( [
) (
2
1
+

=
RCS
RCS S V S V
S V
o
(C-8)
Writing KCL at node V
2
(S),
) ( ) ( ) (
5 4 3
S I S I S I + =





17
To show:
RC RC
f
o
159 . 0
2
1
= =
t
;
1
2R R
F
= for Wien bridge oscillator
First consider the feedback circuit of the Wien bridge oscillator of Figure 7-19. The circuit is
transformed in the S domain and redrawn in Figure C-10.
Using the voltage-divider rule:

) ( ) (
) ( ) (
) (
S Z S Z
S V S Z
S V
S P
o P
f
+
=
where
SC
RSC
SC
R S Z
RSC
R
SC
R S Z
S P
1 1
) ( ;
1
1
) (
+
= + =
+
= =
Therefore, substituting Z
P
(S) and Z
S
(S) values, we get

RCS RCS
S V RCS
S V
o
f
+ +
=
2
) 1 (
) ( ) (
) (
Or
1 3 ) (
) (
2 2 2
+ +
= =
RCS S C R
RCS
S V
S V
B
o
f
(C-15)







Figure C-10 Feedback circuit of the Wien bridge oscillator of Figure 7-19 represented in the S
domain.


Next, consider the op-amp part of the Wien bridge oscillator. The circuit is redrawn in Figure C-
11.








Figure C-11 Op-amp part of the Wien bridge oscillator.

The voltage gain Av of the op-amp is
1
1
) (
) (
R
R
S V
S V
A
F
f
o
v
+ = = (C-16)
Finally, the requirement for oscillation is:
1 = B A
v


18
Therefore using Equations (C-15) and (C-16), we have
1
1 3
) 1 (
2 2 2
1
=
+ +
+
RCS S C R
RCS
R
R
F

Substituting S=je in this equation and then equating the real and imaginary parts, we get the
frequency of the oscillation f
o
and the gain required for oscillation, as follows:
1 3 ) ( ) 1 (
2
1
+ + = + e e e RC j RC jRC
R
R
F


2 2
2
1
C R
= e (real part)
or

RC RC
f
o
159 . 0
2
1
= =
t
(7-23a)
and
e e RC RC
R
R
F
3 ) 1 (
1
= + (imaginary part)
1
1
2 ; 3 1 R R
R
R
F
F
= = + (7-23b)
To show:
RC RC
f
o
159 . 0
2
1
= =
t
; A
v
=1/B=1.414 for Quadrature oscillator

i
V
R
sC
o
V )
/ 1
1 ( + = ;
o
V
R
sC
o
V
/ 1
1
= ;
1
/ 1
/ 1
o
V
sC R
sC
V
f
+
=


To show
2
2
2
2
p
s
M
C
j
jX
e e
e e
e

= for crystal oscillator

=


=

=
) (
) (
) (


19
) (
1 1
) (
1 1
1 1
1
)
1
(
2
2
2
2
M M
M
M M
M
M
M
p
C C LCC
LC
j
CC
C C LCC
C C
LC
j
C C
L
C C
L
j Z
+

=
+

=
e
e
e
e
e
e e
e
e e
e
e e
e

)}] / 1 ( ) / 1 ){( / 1 ( [
) / 1 ( 1
] / ) ( [
) / 1 ( 1
2
2
2
2
C C L
LC
C
j
CC C C L CC
LC LC
j Z
M M M M M
p
+

=
+

=
e
e
e e
e
e

2 2
2 2
1
p
s
M
p
C
j Z
e e
e e
e

= ; )} / 1 ( ) / 1 ){( / 1 (
2
C C L
M p
+ = e

OR
The impedance of series branch is: e j s
sC
sC R Z
s
= + + =
1

] [
1
]
1
[
1
2 2
2 2
p
s
M M
s s
s
L
R
s s
s
L
R
s
sC sC
sC R
sC
Z Z
e
e
+ +
+ +
= + + = =

The following steps should be followed to discuss or explain about the operation an oscillator:
Step 1: Draw the circuit diagram and indicate the amplifier part and feedback network part
Step 2: Discuss or explain, what type of amplifier is used, what is the expression of amplifier
gain, and how much phase shift is occurred in the amplifier circuit.
Step 3: Discuss or explain, what type of feedback network is used, how much phase shift is
required to obtain from the feedback network.
Step 4: Discuss or explain, what is the expression of frequency to satisfy the condition that the
angle of loop gain is 0 or 360 degree.
Step 5: Discuss or explain, what is the requirement of the parameters of amplifier gain expression
to satisfy the condition that the amplitude or magnitude of loop gain is greater than or equal 1.