"Smart Grid" Preview (ISBN 1587331624)

GOVERNMENT SERIES
Smart
Grid
Modernizing Electric Power Transmission and
Distribution; Energy Independence, Storage and
Security; Energy Independence and Security Act
of 2007 (EISA); Improving Electrical Grid Efficiency,
Communication, Reliability, and Resiliency;
Integrating New and Renewable Energy Sources
GOVERNMENT SERIES
Smart
Grid
Modernizing Electric Power Transmission and Distribution;
Energy Independence, Storage and Security; Energy
Independence and Security Act of 2007 (EISA); Improving
Electrical Grid Efficiency, Communication, Reliability, and
Resiliency; Integrating New and Renewable Energy Sources
Compiled by TheCapitol.Net
Authors: Stan Mark Kaplan, Fred Sissine, Amy Abel,
Jon Wellinghoff, Suedeen G. Kelly, and James J. Hoecker
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v1
Smart Grid, softbound:

ISBN: 158733-162-4
ISBN 13: 978-1-58733-162-6
Summary Table of Contents
Introduction
Chapter 1:
“Electric Power Transmission: Background and Policy Issues,”
by Stan Mark Kaplan, CRS Report for Congress R40511, April 14, 2009 ............ 1
Chapter 2:
“Electric Transmission: Approaches for Energizing a Sagging Industry,”
by Amy Abel, CRS Report for Congress RL33875, January 30, 2008 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Chapter 3:
“Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007:
A Summary of Major Provisions,” by Fred Sissine,
CRS Report for Congress RL34294, February 22, 2008 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Chapter 4:
Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007, Title XIII,
“Smart Grid,” P.L. 110-140, 121 Stat. 1783-1794, Dec. 19, 2007 .................... 95
Chapter 5:
“Smart Grid Provisions in H.R. 6, 110th Congress,” by Amy Abel,
CRS Report for Congress RL34288, February 13, 2008 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Chapter 6:
“The Smart Grid: An Introduction,” prepared for the Department of Energy ...... 119
Chapter 7:
Smart Grid System Report, U.S. Department of Energy, July 2009 ................ 167
Chapter 8:
Testimony of Commissioner Jon Wellinghoff,
Federal Energy Regulatory Commission Before the Energy
and Environment Subcommittee of the Committee on
Energy and Commerce, U.S. House of Representatives,
Hearing on “The Future of the Grid: Proposals for
Reforming National Transportation Policy,” June 12, 2009 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Chapter 9:
Testimony of Commissioner Suedeen G. Kelly,
Federal Energy Regulatory Commission Before
the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources,
U.S. Senate, March 3, 2009 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
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Chapter 10:
Prepared Statement of James J. Hoecker, Counsel to WIRES,
Before the Select Committee on Energy Independence and
Global Warming, U.S. House of Representatives, Hearing on
“Get Smart on the Smart Grid: How Technology Can Revolutionize
Efficiency and Renewable Solutions,” February 25, 2009 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Chapter 11:
“A Vision for the Modern Grid,” conducted by the National
Energy Technology Laboratory for the U.S. Department of Energy,
Office of Electricity Delivery and Energy Reliability, March 2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
Chapter 12:
“Integrated Communications,” conducted by the National
Office of Electricity Delivery and Energy Reliability, February 2007 ................ 295
Chapter 13:
“Sensing and Measurement,” conducted by the National
Chapter 14:
“Advanced Components,” conducted by the National
Chapter 15:
“Advanced Control Methods,” conducted by the National
Chapter 16:
“Improved Interfaces and Decision Support,” conducted by the
National Energy Technology Laboratory for the U.S. Department of
Energy, Office of Electricity Delivery and Energy Reliability, March 2007 .......... 391
Chapter 17:
“Self-Heals,” conducted by the National Energy
Technology Laboratory for the U.S. Department of Energy,
Office of Electricity Delivery and Energy Reliability, January 2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
Chapter 18:
“Motivates and Includes the Consumer,” conducted by the National
iv Copyright ©2009 by TheCapitol.Net. All Rights Reserved. 703-739-3790 www.thecapitol.net

Chapter 19:
“Provides Power Quality For 21st Century Needs,” conducted by the
Energy, Office of Electricity Delivery and Energy Reliability, January 2007 ........ 461
Chapter 20:
“Resists Attack,” conducted by the National Energy
Chapter 21:
“Accommodates All Generation and Storage Options,”
conducted by the National Energy Technology Laboratory
for the U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Electricity
Delivery and Energy Reliability, January 2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505
Chapter 22:
“Enables Markets,” conducted by the National Energy
Chapter 23:
“Optimizes Assets and Operates Efficiently,”
Chapter 24:
“FERC Adopts Policy to Accelerate Development
of Smart Grid,” July 16, 2009, Docket No. PL09-4-000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569
Chapter 25:
“Proposed Smart Grid Policy Statement and Action Plan,”
Federal Energy Regulatory Commission Fact Sheet,
March 19, 2009, Docket No. PL09-4-000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571
Chapter 26:
“Proposed Policy Statement and Action Plan,”
Federal Energy Regulatory Commission, March 19, 2009,
Docket No. PL09-4-000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 573
Chapter 27:
Other Resources ........................................................................... 615
Chapter 28:
Other Resources from TheCapitol.Net .................................................. 619
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Table of Contents
Introduction
Chapter 1:
“Electric Power Transmission: Background and Policy Issues,”
by Stan Mark Kaplan, CRS Report for Congress R40511, April 14, 2009 ............ 1
Introduction and Organization
Overview of the Electric Power System
Physical and Technical Features of the Power System
Regulatory Framework
State Regulation and Self-Governing Public Power
Federal Regulation of Electric Power Transmission and Power System Reliability
Transmission Planning
Background
Objectives of the Planning Process
Expansion for Renewable Energy
Expansion for Congestion Relief and Reliability
Planning and Alternatives to Transmission
Planning Authority
Transmission Planning: Summary of Policy Issues
Transmission Permitting
Background and Discussion
Transmission Permitting: Summary of Policy Issues.
Transmission Financing and Cost Allocation
Background
Early Financing
Cost Allocation
Financing and Cost Allocation: Summary of Policy Issues.
Transmission System Modernization and the Smart Grid
Background
Smart Grid Functions
Federal Support for the Smart Grid
Smart Grid Cost and Rate Issues
Modernization and Smart Grid: Summary of Policy Issues
Transmission System Reliability
Problems in Evaluating the Current Reliability Condition of the Grid
Reliability and Grid Modernization
Reliability and Changes in the Energy Market
Transmission Reliability: Summary of Policy Issues
Summary of Transmission Policy Issues
Federal Transmission Planning
Permitting of Transmission Lines
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Transmission Line Funding and Cost Allocation
Transmission Modernization and the Smart Grid
Transmission System Reliability
Figure 1. Elements of the Electric Power System
Figure 2. United States Power System Interconnections
Figure 3. NERC Reliability Regions
Figure 4. North American Transmission Organizations
Figure 5. Transmission Investment by Investor-Owned Utilities
Table 1. High Voltage Transmission by Owner and Region
Chapter 2:
“Electric Transmission: Approaches for Energizing a Sagging Industry,”
by Amy Abel, CRS Report for Congress RL33875, January 30, 2008 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Introduction
Historical Context
Current Issues
Physical Limitations
Congestion
Security
Siting
Alternatives to New Rights-of-Way
Burying Power Lines
Undergrounding Transmission
Pricing
Regulatory Uncertainty
Investment
Conclusion
Figure 1. Western Transmission Congestion, 1999-2005
Figure 2. Mid-Atlantic Area National Interest Electric Transmission Corridor
Figure 3. Southwest Area National Interest Electric Transmission Corridor
Figure 4. Real Private Fixed Investment in Electrical Power Generation,
and Electricity Consumption, Generation, and Real Prices
Figure 5. Congested Lines in the Eastern Interconnection
Table 1. Revenue Requirements for IOUs To Convert Florida’s Existing Transmission
Facilities to Underground, and Rate Impact Over 10-Year Period—Overview
Chapter 3:
“Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007:
A Summary of Major Provisions,” by Fred Sissine,
CRS Report for Congress RL34294, February 22, 2008 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Introduction
Key Provisions
Provisions Included
Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) Standards
Renewable Fuel Standard (RFS)
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Appliance and Lighting Efficiency Standards
Provisions Excluded
Renewable Energy Portfolio Standard (RPS)
Energy Tax Subsidies
Brief Legislative History of H.R. 6
House Passes H.R. 6
Senate Amends H.R. 6
House Approves H.R. 3221
Informal HouseSenate Negotiations
House Amends Senate Amendment to H.R. 6
Senate Removes RPS and Most Tax Provisions of H.R. 6
Title I: Energy Security Through Improved Vehicle Fuel Economy
Subtitle A, Increased Corporate Average Fuel Economy
Subtitle B, Improved Vehicle Technology
Subtitle C, Federal Vehicle Fleets
Title II: Energy Security Through Increased Production of Biofuels
Subtitle A, Renewable Fuel Standard
Subtitle B, Biofuels Research and Development (R&D)
Subtitle C, Biofuels Infrastructure
Subtitle D, Environmental Safeguards
Title III: Energy Savings Through Improved Standards for Appliances and Lighting
Subtitle A, Appliance Energy Efficiency
Subtitle B, Lighting Energy Efficiency
Title IV: Energy Savings in Buildings and Industry
Subtitle A, Residential Building Efficiency
Subtitle B, High-Performance Commercial Buildings
Subtitle C, High-Performance Federal Buildings
Subtitle D, Industrial Energy Efficiency
Subtitle E, Healthy High-Performance Schools
Subtitle F, Institutional Entities
Subtitle G, Public and Assisted Housing
Subtitle H, General Provisions
Title V: Energy Savings in Government and Public Institutions
Subtitle A, United States Capitol Complex
Subtitle B, Energy Savings Performance Contracting
Subtitle C, Energy Efficiency in Federal Agencies
Subtitle D, Energy Efficiency of Public Institutions
Subtitle E, Energy Efficiency and Conservation Block Grants
Title VI: Accelerated Research and Development
Subtitle A, Solar Energy
Subtitle B, Geothermal Energy
Subtitle C, Marine and Hydrokinetic Renewable Energy Technologies
Subtitle D, Energy Storage for Transportation and Electric Power
Subtitle E, Miscellaneous Provisions
Copyright ©2009 by TheCapitol.Net. All Rights Reserved. 703-739-3790 www.thecapitol.net ix

Title VII: Carbon Capture and Sequestration
Subtitle A, Carbon Capture and Sequestration Research, Development, and Demonstration
Subtitle B, Carbon Capture and Sequestration Assessment and Framework
Title VIII: Improved Management of Energy Policy
Subtitle A, Management Improvements
Subtitle B, Prohibitions on Market Manipulation and False Information
Title IX: International Energy Programs
Subtitle A, Assistance to Promote Clean and Efficient Energy Technologies in Foreign Countries
Subtitle B, International Clean Energy Foundation
Subtitle C, Miscellaneous Provisions
Title X: Green Jobs
Title XI: Energy Transportation and Infrastructure
Subtitle A, Department of Transportation (DOT)
Subtitle B, Railroads
Subtitle C, Marine Transportation
Subtitle D, Highways
Title XII: Small Business Energy Programs
Title XIII: Smart Grid
Title XIV: Pool and Spa Safety
Title XV: Revenue Provisions
Title XVI: Effective Date
Author Contact Information
CRS Key Policy Staff
Chapter 4:
Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007, Title XIII,
“Smart Grid,” P.L. 110-140, 121 Stat. 1783-1794, Dec. 19, 2007 .................... 95
Sec. 1301. Statement Of Policy On Modernization Of Electricity Grid
Sec. 1302. Smart Grid System Report
Sec. 1303. Smart Grid Advisory Committee And Smart Grid Task Force
Sec. 1304. Smart Grid Technology Research, Development, And Demonstration
Sec. 1305. Smart Grid Interoperability Framework
Sec. 1306. Federal Matching Fund For Smart Grid Investment Costs
Sec. 1307. State Consideration Of Smart Grid
Sec. 1308. Study Of The Effect Of Private Wire Laws On The Development
Of Combined Heat And Power Facilities
Sec. 1309. Doe Study Of Security Attributes Of Smart Grid Systems
Chapter 5:
“Smart Grid Provisions in H.R. 6, 110th Congress,” by Amy Abel,
CRS Report for Congress RL34288, February 13, 2008 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Introduction and Overview
Selected Utility Applications
Southern California Edison Company
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Pacific Northwest GridWise™ Demonstration
TXU Electric Delivery Company
Summary of H.R. 6 Smart Grid Provisions
Section 1301. Statement of Policy on Modernization of Electricity Grid
Section 1302. Smart Grid System Report
Section 1303. Smart Grid Advisory Committee and Smart Grid Task Force
Section 1304. Smart Grid Technology Research, Development, and Demonstration
Section 1305. Smart Grid Interoperability Framework.
Section 1306. Federal Matching Funds for Smart Grid Investment Costs
Section 1307. State Consideration of Smart Grid
Section 1308. Study of the Effect of Private Wire Laws on the Development
of Combined Heat and Power Facilities
Section 1309. DOE Study of Security Attributes of Smart Grid Systems
Figure 1. Electric Transmission Network
Figure 2. The Electric Power System
Chapter 6:
“The Smart Grid: An Introduction,” prepared for the Department of Energy ...... 119
Introduction: We Don’t Have Much Time.
Edison vs. Graham Bell: The Case for Revitalization
The Grid As It Stands: What’s at Risk?
The Smart Grid: What It Is. What It Isn’t.
Compare and Contrast: A Grid Where Everything is Possible.
First Things First: Teasing Out the Complexities
How Things Work: Creating the Platform for the Smart Grid.
Progress Now!: A Look at Current Smart Grid Efforts and How They’re Succeeding.
Edison Unbound: What’s Your Stake in All This?
Resources and Glossary
Chapter 7:
Smart Grid System Report, U.S. Department of Energy, July 2009 ................ 167
Executive Summary
Acronyms and Abbreviations
Introduction
Objectives
Scope of a Smart Grid
Stakeholder Landscape
Regional Influences
About this Document
Deployment Metrics and Measurements
Smart-Grid Metrics
Smart-Grid Characteristics
Mapping Metrics to Characteristics
Deployment Trends and Projections
Copyright ©2009 by TheCapitol.Net. All Rights Reserved. 703-739-3790 www.thecapitol.net xi

Enables Informed Participation by Customers
Grid-Enabled Bi-Directional Communication and Energy Flows
Managing Supply and Demand
Accommodating All Generation and Storage Options
Distributed Generation and Storage
Standard Distributed-Resource Connection Policy
Enables New Products, Services, and Markets
Enabling New Products and Services
Enabling New Markets
Provides Power Quality for the Range of Needs
The Cost of Poor Power Quality
Smart-Grid Solutions to Power Quality Issues
Optimizing Asset Utilization and Operating Efficiency
Bulk Generation
Delivery Infrastructure
Distributed Energy Resources
Overall System Efficiency
Operating Resiliently to Disturbances, Attacks, and Natural Disasters
Area, Regional, National Coordination
DER Response
Delivery Infrastructure
Secure Information Networks
Challenges to Deployment
Technical Challenges
Business and Financial Challenges
Recommendations for Future Reports
References
Annex A – Metrics
Annex B – Electricity Service Provider Interviews
Figures
Scope of Smart-Grid Concerns
Stakeholder Landscape
United States Portions of NERC Region Representation Map
EPA eGRID Subregion Representational Map
Overview of AMI Interface
Demand Response by NERC Region
Yearly Installed DG Capacity by Technology Type
Projected DG Capacity in GW
State Interconnection Standards
Favorability of State Interconnection Standards
Venture-Capital Funding of Smart-Grid Startups
Interoperability Categories
Measured and Predicted Peak Summer, Peak Winter,
and Yearly Average Generation Capacity Factors in the U.S
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Generation Efficiency for Various Fossil Fuel Sources over Time
Current/Future Plans for Connecting EMS/SCADA/DMS Systems to Other Data Systems
North American Electric Power T&D Automation Expenditures
Winter Peak Demand for the Contiguous U.S
Electricity Flow Diagram 2007
Current/Future Plans for Connecting EMS/SCADA/DMS Systems to Other Data Systems2
Networked Phasor Measurement Units in the North American Power Grid
Trends for 55 Utilities Providing Data Between 2000-2005
Tables
Summary of Smart Grid Metrics and Status
Smart-Grid Characteristics
Map of Metrics to Smart-Grid Characteristics
Number of Entities Offering and Customers Served by Dynamic Pricing Tariffs
Capacity of Distributed Generators by Technology Type 2004 and 2008
EV and PHEV Market Penetration
Capacity of Microgrids in 2005
Entities Offering Load-Management and Demand-Response Programs
Measured and Projected Peak Demands and Generation Capacities
for Recent Years in the U.S., and Calculated Capacity Factors
Summary of the NERC Critical Infrastructure Protection Standards
Sample Security Question from Service Provider Interviews
Chapter 8:
Testimony of Commissioner Jon Wellinghoff,
Federal Energy Regulatory Commission Before the Energy
and Environment Subcommittee of the Committee on
Energy and Commerce, U.S. House of Representatives,
Hearing on “The Future of the Grid: Proposals for
Reforming National Transportation Policy,” June 12, 2009 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Chapter 9:
Testimony of Commissioner Suedeen G. Kelly,
Federal Energy Regulatory Commission Before
the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources,
U.S. Senate, March 3, 2009 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Chapter 10:
Prepared Statement of James J. Hoecker,
Counsel to WIRES, Before the Select Committee
on Energy Independence and Global Warming,
U.S. House of Representatives, Hearing on
“Get Smart on the Smart Grid: How Technology
Can Revolutionize Efficiency and Renewable Solutions,”
February 25, 2009 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Copyright ©2009 by TheCapitol.Net. All Rights Reserved. 703-739-3790 www.thecapitol.net xiii

Chapter 11:
“A Vision for the Modern Grid,” conducted by the National
Table of Contents
Why We Need a Vision
The Vision
Summary
Call to Action
Chapter 12:
“Integrated Communications,” conducted by the National
Office of Electricity Delivery and Energy Reliability, February 2007 ................ 295
Executive Summary
Current State
Communications Standards
Communications Media and Technologies
Broadband over Power Line (BPL)
Wireless Technologies
Other Technologies
Future State
Benefits of Implementation
Barriers to Deployment
Possible Solutions
Summary
Bibliography
Acronyms List
Chapter 13:
“Sensing and Measurement,” conducted by the National
Executive Summary
Current State
Customer-Side Advances
Utility-Side Advances
Related Research and Development
Requirements and Regulations
Future State
Meter Transformation
Data Collection
Control Instrumentation
xiv Copyright ©2009 by TheCapitol.Net. All Rights Reserved. 703-739-3790 www.thecapitol.net

Possible Solutions
Summary
Bibliography
Acronyms
Chapter 14:
“Advanced Components,” conducted by the National
Executive Summary
Current State
Power Electronics in Transmission and Distribution Systems
Superconducting devices
Generation and Storage Distributed Energy Resources
Distributed Generation Devices
Distributed Storage Devices
Complex Systems
Composite Conductors
Grid Friendly Appliances
Future State
The Role of Power Electronics
The Role of Superconductivity
The Role of Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEVs)
Possible Solutions
Summary
References
Acronyms
Chapter 15:
“Advanced Control Methods,” conducted by the National
Executive Summary
Current State
Distributed Intelligent Agents
Analytical Tools
Operational Applications
Future State
Benefits
Summary
Bibliography
Acronyms
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Chapter 16:
“Improved Interfaces and Decision Support,” conducted by the
Energy, Office of Electricity Delivery and Energy Reliability, March 2007 .......... 391
Executive Summary
Current State
Future State
Visualization, Decision Support, and Operator Training
Visualization
Decision Support
System Operator Training
Summary
Bibliography
Acronym List
Chapter 17:
“Self-Heals,” conducted by the National Energy
Table of Contents
Executive Summary
Current and Future States
Current State
Transmission
Distribution
Future State
Requirements
Key Success Factors
Reliable
Secure
Economic
Efficient and Environmentally Friendly
Safe
Observed Gaps
Design Concept
Design Features and Functions
Probabilistic Risk Assessment
Power Stabilization Techniques
Distribution System Self-healing Processes
User Interface
Functional Architecture Standardization
Performance Requirements
xvi Copyright ©2009 by TheCapitol.Net. All Rights Reserved. 703-739-3790 www.thecapitol.net

Barriers
Benefits
Recommendations
Summary
Bibliography
Chapter 18:
“Motivates and Includes the Consumer,” conducted by the National
Table of Contents
Executive Summary
Current State
Future State
Requirements
Features
Key Components
Barriers
Benefits
Demand Response
Distributed Energy Resources
Re commendations
Summary
For more information
Bibliography
Chapter 19:
“Provides Power Quality For 21st Century Needs,” conducted by the
Energy, Office of Electricity Delivery and Energy Reliability, January 2007 ........ 461
Table of Contents
Executive Summary
A Primer on Power Quality
Current State
Future State
Requirements
Specific Solutions for Specific PQ Problems
Key Technologies that Offer Solutions
Barriers
High Costs of Devices
Policy and Regulation
Codes and Standards
Copyright ©2009 by TheCapitol.Net. All Rights Reserved. 703-739-3790 www.thecapitol.net xvii

Benefits
Recommendations
Summary
Bibliography
Chapter 20:
“Resists Attack,” conducted by the National Energy
Table of Contents
Executive Summary
Current State
Future State
Requirements
System Requirements
Policy and Regulation Requirements
Codes and Standards Requirements
Barriers
Benefits
Recommendations
Summary
Bibliography
Chapter 21:
“Accommodates All Generation and Storage Options,”
Table of Contents
Executive Summary
Current State
Future State
Requirements
The Importance of Generation Alternatives
Essential Functions
Barriers
Benefits of Accommodating All Generation and Storage Options
Reliability
Security
Economic
Efficiency
Environmental Quality
xviii Copyright ©2009 by TheCapitol.Net. All Rights Reserved. 703-739-3790 www.thecapitol.net

Safety
Recommendations
Summary
Bibliography
Chapter 22:
“Enables Markets,” conducted by the National Energy
Table of Contents
Executive Summary
Current State
Future State
Requirements
Design Concept
Design Features and Functions
Market Infrastructure and Support Systems
Other Requirements
Barriers
Benefits
Recommendations
Summary
Bibliography
Chapter 23:
“Optimizes Assets and Operates Efficiently,”
Table of Contents
Executive Summary
Current State
Future State
Requirements
Gathering and Distributing Data
Levels of Asset Optimization
Applications and Device Technology Requirements
Performance Standards
Barriers
Benefits
Reliable
Secure
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Economic
Efficient
Environmentally Friendly
Safe
Recommendations
Summary
Bibliography
Chapter 24:
“FERC Adopts Policy to Accelerate Development
of Smart Grid,” July 16, 2009, Docket No. PL09-4-000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569
Chapter 25:
“Proposed Smart Grid Policy Statement and Action Plan,”
Federal Energy Regulatory Commission Fact Sheet,
March 19, 2009, Docket No. PL09-4-000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571
Chapter 26:
“Proposed Policy Statement and Action Plan,”
Federal Energy Regulatory Commission, March 19, 2009,
Docket No. PL09-4-000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 573
Chapter 27:
Other Resources ........................................................................... 615
Chapter 28:
Other Resources from TheCapitol.Net .................................................. 619
xx Copyright ©2009 by TheCapitol.Net. All Rights Reserved. 703-739-3790 www.thecapitol.net

Introduction
Smart Grid:
Modernizing Electric Power Transmission and Distribution;
Energy Independence, Storage and Security; Energy Independence
and Security Act of 2007 (EISA); Improving Electrical Grid Efficiency,
Communication, Reliability, and Resiliency; Integrating New
and Renewable Energy Sources
The electric grid delivers electricity from points of generation to consumers, and the electricity
delivery network functions via two primary systems: the transmission system and the distribution
system. The transmission system delivers electricity from power plants to distribution substations,
while the distribution system delivers electricity from distribution substations to consumers. The grid
also encompasses myriads of local area networks that use distributed energy resources to serve local
loads and/or to meet specific application requirements for remote power, municipal or district power,
premium power, and critical loads protection.
The concept of a “smart grid” lacks a standard definition but centers on the use of advanced technology
to increase the reliability and efficiency of the electric grid, from generation to transmission to distribution.
However, the smart grid does not necessarily replace the existing infrastructure, most of which was
installed in the 1970s.
The move to a smart grid is a move from a centralized, producer-controlled network to one that is less
centralized and more consumer-interactive.
• It enables informed participation by consumers
• Accommodates all generation and storage options
• Enables new products, markets, and services
• Provides the power quality for the range of needs
• Optimizes asset utilization and operating efficiency
• Operates resiliently to disturbances, attacks, and disasters
The Department of Energy, Office of Electricity Delivery and Energy Reliability is charged with
orchestrating the modernization of the nation’s electrical grid. The office’s multi-agency Smart Grid
Task Force (www.oe.energy.gov/smartgrid_taskforce.htm) is responsible for coordinating standards
development, guiding research and development projects, and reconciling the agendas of a wide range
of stakeholders, including utilities, technology providers, researchers, policymakers, and consumers.
The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), has been charged under the Energy
Independence and Security Act (P.L. 110-140, Dec. 19, 2007) with identifying and evaluating existing
standards, measurement methods, technologies, and other support services to Smart Grid adoption.
1626SmartGrid.com
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Chapter 1: Electric Power Transmission: Background and Policy Issues
Electric Power Transmission: Background and

Policy Issues
Stan Mark Kaplan

Specialist in Energy and Environmental Policy
April 14, 2009
Congressional Research Service

7-5700
www.crs.gov
R40511
CRS Report for Congress
Prepared for Members and Committees of Congress
Copyright ©2009 by TheCapitol.Net. All Rights Reserved. 703-739-3790 www.thecapitol.net 1

Goverment Series: Smart Grid
Electric Power Transmission: Background and Policy Issues
Summary
This report provides background information on electric power transmission and related policy
issues. Proposals for changing federal transmission policy before the 111th Congress include S.
539, the Clean Renewable Energy and Economic Development Act, introduced on March 5,
2009; and the March 9, 2009, majority staff transmission siting draft of the Senate Energy and
Natural Resources Committee. The policy issues identified and discussed in this report include:
Federal Transmission Planning: several current proposals call for the federal government to
sponsor and supervise large scale, on-going transmission planning programs. Issues for Congress
to consider are the objectives of the planning process (e.g., a focus on supporting the development
of renewable power or on a broader set of transmission goals), determining how much authority
new interconnection-wide planning entities should be granted, the degree to which transmission
planning needs to consider non-transmission solutions to power market needs, what resources the
executive agencies will need to oversee the planning process, and whether the benefits for
projects included in the transmission plans (e.g., a federal permitting option) will motivate
developers to add unnecessary features and costs to qualify proposals for the plan.
Permitting of Transmission Lines: a contentious issue is whether the federal government should
assume from the states the primary role in permitting new transmission lines. Related issues
include whether Congress should view management and expansion of the grid as primarily a state
or national issue, whether national authority over grid reliability (which Congress established in
the Energy Policy Act of 2005) can be effectively exercised without federal authority over
permitting, if it is important to accelerate the construction of new transmission lines (which is one
of the assumed benefits of federal permitting), and whether the executive agencies are equipped
to take on the task of permitting transmission lines.
Transmission Line Funding and Cost Allocation: the primary issues are whether the federal
government should help pay for new transmission lines, and if Congress should establish a
national standard for allocating the costs of interstate transmission lines to ratepayers.
Transmission Modernization and the Smart Grid: issues include the need for Congressional
oversight of existing federal smart grid research, development, demonstration, and grant
programs; and oversight over whether the smart grid is actually proving to be a good investment
for taxpayers and ratepayers.
Transmission System Reliability: it is not clear whether Congress and the executive branch have
the information needed to evaluate the reliability of the transmission system. Congress may also
want to review whether the power industry is striking the right balance between modernization
and new construction as a means of enhancing transmission reliability, and whether the reliability
standards being developed for the transmission system are appropriate for a rapidly changing
power system.
This report will be updated as warranted.
2 Copyright ©2009 by TheCapitol.Net. All Rights Reserved. 703-739-3790 www.thecapitol.net

Contents
Introduction and Organization .....................................................................................................1
Overview of the Electric Power System.......................................................................................1
Physical and Technical Features of the Power System ...........................................................1
Regulatory Framework..........................................................................................................5
State Regulation and Self-Governing Public Power .........................................................6
Federal Regulation of Electric Power Transmission and Power System Reliability ..........6
Transmission Planning ................................................................................................................9
Background ..........................................................................................................................9
Objectives of the Planning Process ...................................................................................... 10
Expansion for Renewable Energy.................................................................................. 10
Expansion for Congestion Relief and Reliability ........................................................... 11
Planning and Alternatives to Transmission .................................................................... 12
Planning Authority .............................................................................................................. 13
Transmission Planning: Summary of Policy Issues .............................................................. 14
Transmission Permitting............................................................................................................ 15
Background and Discussion ................................................................................................ 15
Transmission Permitting: Summary of Policy Issues............................................................ 16
Transmission Financing and Cost Allocation ............................................................................. 17
Background ........................................................................................................................ 17
Early Financing................................................................................................................... 19
Cost Allocation ................................................................................................................... 20
Financing and Cost Allocation: Summary of Policy Issues................................................... 21
Transmission System Modernization and the Smart Grid........................................................... 22
Background ........................................................................................................................ 22
Smart Grid Functions .......................................................................................................... 23
Federal Support for the Smart Grid...................................................................................... 24
Smart Grid Cost and Rate Issues ......................................................................................... 25
Modernization and Smart Grid: Summary of Policy Issues .................................................. 27
Transmission System Reliability ............................................................................................... 28
Problems in Evaluating the Current Reliability Condition of the Grid .................................. 28
Reliability and Grid Modernization ..................................................................................... 30
Reliability and Changes in the Energy Market ..................................................................... 32
Transmission Reliability: Summary of Policy Issues............................................................ 34
Summary of Transmission Policy Issues.................................................................................... 35
Federal Transmission Planning............................................................................................ 35
Permitting of Transmission Lines ........................................................................................ 36
Transmission Line Funding and Cost Allocation.................................................................. 36
Transmission Modernization and the Smart Grid ................................................................. 37
Transmission System Reliability ......................................................................................... 37
Figures
Figure 1. Elements of the Electric Power System.........................................................................2

Figure 2. United States Power System Interconnections...............................................................3

Figure 3. NERC Reliability Regions............................................................................................5
Figure 4. North American Transmission Organizations ................................................................8
Figure 5. Transmission Investment by Investor-Owned Utilities ................................................ 18
Tables
Table 1. High Voltage Transmission by Owner and Region..........................................................4
Contacts
Author Contact Information ...................................................................................................... 38

Introduction and Organization

This report discusses electric power transmission and related policy issues. Transmission is a
prominent federal issue because of a perceived need to improve reliability and reduce costs,
transmission’s role in meeting national energy goals (such as increased use of renewable
electricity), and the potential efficiency advantages of “smart grid” modernization. Proposals
before the 111th Congress for changing federal transmission law and regulations to meet these and
other objectives include S. 539, the Clean Renewable Energy and Economic Development Act,
introduced on March 5, 2009; and the March 9, 2009, majority staff transmission siting draft of
the Senate Energy and Natural Resources Committee (the “Senate Energy Majority Draft”).1
Transmission development and regulation are complex and sometimes contentious policy areas.
In addition to an overview of the electric power system, this report reviews six major
transmission policy topics:
• Transmission planning.
• Transmission permitting.
• Financing and cost allocation.
• System modernization and the smart grid.
• Transmission system reliability.
A concluding section summarizes the policy issues identified in the report.
Overview of the Electric Power System

This section discusses the physical and technical characteristics of the nation’s power system, and
then regulation of electric power transmission.
Physical and Technical Features of the Power System

Figure 1 illustrates the major components of the electric power system. In brief:
1
S. 539 is available at http://www.congress.gov/cgi-lis/bdquery/z?d111:S.539: (in the Legislative Information System).
The Senate Energy Majority Draft is at http://energy.senate.gov/public/index.cfm?FuseAction=IssueItems.View&
IssueItem_ID=6a7e4b50-e86d-452b-b0eb-630b2c7c10d1. Other transmission-related proposals as of March 2009
include the WIRES Group proposal (http://www.wiresgroup.com/); the American Electric Power /Mesa Power
legislation draft (hard copy only; for related information see http://www.aep.com/about/transmission/); Energy Future
Coalition proposal (http://www.energyfuturecoalition.org/editorsblog/EFC-Announces-Vision-Clean-Energy-Smart-
Grid); the American Wind Energy and Solar Energy Industry Associations joint proposal (http://www.awea.org/
GreenPowerSuperhighways.pdf); the Center for American Progress proposal (http://www.americanprogress.org/issues/
2009/04/wired_for_progress2.0.html); the Manhattan Institute report, The Million-Volt Answer to Oil
(http://www.manhattan-institute.org/html/cepe_10-14-08.htm); and the Institute for 21st Century Energy of the U.S.
Chamber of Commerce study, Blueprint for Securing America’s Energy Future, (http://energyxxi.org/pages/
reports.aspx).
Congressional Research Service 1

• Generating plants produce electricity, using either combustible fuels such as coal,
natural gas, and biomass; or non-combustible energy sources such as wind, solar
energy, and nuclear fuel.
• Transmission lines carry electricity from the power plant to demand centers. The
higher the voltage of a transmission line the more power it can carry. Current
policy discussions focus on the high voltage network (230 kilovolts (kV) rating
and greater) used to move large amounts of power long distances. 2
• Near customers a step-down transformer reduces voltage so the power can use
distribution lines for final delivery. 3
Figure 1. Elements of the Electric Power System

Simplified Schematic
Source: U.S.-Canada Power System Outage Task Force, Final Report on the August 14, 2003 Blackout in the
United States and Canada: Causes and Recommendations, April 2004, p. 5, https://reports.energy.gov/
BlackoutFinal-Web.pdf.
The vast majority of the transmission system in the United States is an alternating current (AC)
system. This is largely because the voltage of AC power can be stepped up and down with
relative ease. A small portion of the system runs on high voltage direct current (DC) lines. This
technology is very efficient but requires expensive converter stations to connect with the AC
system.
The transmission grid was not built in conformance with a plan like the interstate highway
system. The grid is a patchwork of systems originally built by individual utilities as isolated
transmission islands to meet local needs. These small networks were unsystematically linked
when utilities decided to jointly own power plants or to connect to neighboring companies to
2
Lines rated at 345 kilovolts (kV) or 500 kV are referred to as extra high voltage (EHV) lines. Lines rated at 765 kV
are referred to as ultra high voltage (UHV) lines.
3
In addition to the 167,000 miles of high voltage transmission lines, the transmission system includes about another
300,000 miles of lower voltage transmission lines. Note that the division between the transmission and distribution
systems is not clear-cut. Depending on the application, a 69kV line might be considered a transmission or distribution
line. For more information see Douglas R. Hale, Electricity Transmission in a Restructured Industry: Data Needs for
Public Policy Analysis, Energy Information Administration (EIA), DOE/EIA-0639, Washington, DC, December 2004,
p. 16, http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/electricity/page/transmission/DOE_EIA_0639.htm.

facilitate power sales.4 The grid eventually evolved into three major “interconnections,” Eastern,
Western, and the Electric Reliability Council of Texas (ERCOT, which covers most but not all of
the state) (Figure 2). Within each interconnection the AC grid must be precisely synchronized so
that all generators rotate at 60 cycles per second (synchronization failure can cause damage to
utility and consumer equipment, and cause blackouts). There are only eight low capacity links
(called “DC ties”) between the Eastern, Western, and ERCOT Interconnections. 5 In effect, the 48
contiguous states have three separate grids with limited connections.
Figure 2. United States Power System Interconnections
Source: adapted from a map located on the Energy Information Administration website at
http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/electricity/page/fact_sheets/transmission.html.
Notes: ERCOT = Electric Reliability Council of Texas. For the extensions of the interconnections into Canada
and Mexico see Figure 3. Neither figure shows the Quebec Interconnection.
4
As recently as 1962 the systems that now constitute the Eastern Interconnection were not fully connected (Figure 2).
Securities and Exchange Commission, Prepared Direct Testimony of Paul B. Johnson on Behalf of the American
Electric Power System, In the Matter of American Electric Power Company, Inc.: File No. 3-11616, December 7, 2004,
pp. 9 and 11, http://www.sec.gov/divisions/investment/opur/filing/3-11616-120704aepex2.pdf.
5
The direct current DC ties permit limited power transfers between the interconnections without synchronizing the
systems. For example, a synchronization problem in the Eastern Interconnection cannot propagate across a DC tie into
the Western Interconnection. ERCOT has two ties with the Eastern Interconnection and there are six ties between the
Eastern and Western Interconnections. See http://www.wapa.gov/about/faqtrans.htm and Bill Bojorquez and Dejan J.
Sobajic, “AC-DC Ties @ ERCOT,” The 8th Electric Power Control Centers Workshop, Les Diablerets, Switzerland,
June 6, 2005, http://www.epccworkshop.net/archive/2005/paper/pdf_monday/PanelSession/Sobajic_ERCOT.pdf. The
typical capacity of these ties appears to be about 200 megawatts. Total generating capacity in the United States is about
one million megawatts.

Within the three interconnections, the grid is operated by a total of about 130 balancing
authorities. 6 These are usually the utilities that own transmission systems, but in some cases (such
as ERCOT) a single authority supervises an entire regional grid. The balancing authorities operate
control centers which monitor the grid and take actions to prevent failures like blackouts.
The transmission grid is owned by several hundred private and public entities. Table 1 shows the
miles of high voltage transmission line in the 48 contiguous states by region and type of owner.
The table also shows the data expressed as ownership percentages (values in brackets).
Table 1. High Voltage Transmission by Owner and Region

Data in Miles [and Regional %] for the 48 Contiguous States for Transmission Lines of 230 kV and Higher
Owner Northeast Upper
Type /Midwest Southeast Southwest Plains West U.S. Total
Federal 21 [0%] 2,768 [7%] 0 [0%] 2,541 [17%] 18,214 [27%] 23,544 [14%]
Other Public 964 [3%] 2,079 [5%] 731 [5%] 1,798 [12%] 5,525 [8%] 11,098 [7%]
Power
Cooperative 0 [0%] 2,993 [8%] 387 [2%] 2,908 [20%] 4,496 [7%] 10,784 [6%]
Subtotal – All 986 [3%] 7,840 [20%] 1,118 [7%] 7,247 [49%] 28,235 [42%] 45,426 [27%]
Public Power
and
Cooperatives
Independent 4,640 [15%] 0 [0%] 351 [2%] 1,045 [7%] 0 [0%] 6,036 [4%]
Transmission
Companies
Investor 24,968 [81%] 31,412 [79%] 12,408 [80%] 5,402 [36%] 37,034 [56%] 111,223
Owned [66%]
Utilities
N/A 260 [1%] 264 [1%] 1,686 [11%] 1,148 [8%] 1,250 [2%] 4,609 [3%]
Total 30,853 39,516 15,563 14,843 66,519 167,294
[100%] [100%] [100%] [100%] [100%] [100%]
Source: Data downloaded from Platts POWERmap, information on entity ownership type provided by the
Energy Information Administration, and CRS estimates.
Notes: The Northeast/Midwest region is the combination of the RFC and NPCC NERC regions; the Southeast
is the combination of SERC and FRCC; the Southwest is the combination of ERCOT and SPP; the Upper Plains is
the MRO region; and the West is the WECC region. For a NERC regional map, see Figure 3. N/A signifies that
ownership information is not available. Other Public Power includes municipal and state systems. kV = kilovolt.
Detail may not add to totals due to independent rounding.
The table illustrates how ownership patterns vary greatly across the country. In the West and
Upper Plains regions, public power owns more than 40% of the high voltage grid. In the other
regions about 80% of the grid is owned by investor owned utilities.
Figure 3 (below) shows the eight North American Electric Reliability Corp. (NERC) regions. As
discussed later in the report, NERC and its regions play important roles in maintaining the
6
U.S. Department of Energy, 20% Wind Energy by 2030, Washington, D.C., July 2008, p. 91,
http://www1.eere.energy.gov/windandhydro/pdfs/41869.pdf. For a map that displays balancing authorities see the
NERC website at http://www.nerc.com/fileUploads/File/AboutNERC/maps/NERC_Regions_BA.jpg.

Chapter 2: Electric Transmission: Approaches for Energizing a Sagging Industry
Electric Transmission: Approaches for Energizing a Sagging Industry
Contents
Introduction ................................................................................................................................1
Historical Context .......................................................................................................................6
Current Issues .............................................................................................................................8
Physical Limitations..............................................................................................................8
Congestion.................................................................................................................... 10
Security ........................................................................................................................ 11
Siting .................................................................................................................................. 12
Alternatives to New Rights-of-Way............................................................................... 14
Burying Power Lines .......................................................................................................... 15
Undergrounding Transmission....................................................................................... 16
Pricing ................................................................................................................................ 18
Regulatory Uncertainty ....................................................................................................... 20
Investment .......................................................................................................................... 22
Conclusion................................................................................................................................ 23
Figures
Figure 1. Western Transmission Congestion, 1999-2005..............................................................4
Figure 2. Mid-Atlantic Area National Interest Electric Transmission Corridor..............................5
Figure 3. Southwest Area National Interest Electric Transmission Corridor .................................5
Figure 4. Real Private Fixed Investment in Electrical Power Generation, and Electricity
Consumption, Generation, and Real Prices ............................................................................. 10
Figure 5. Congested Lines in the Eastern Interconnection .......................................................... 22
Tables
Facilities to Underground, and Rate Impact Over 10-Year Period ........................................... 17
Contacts
Author Contact Information ...................................................................................................... 23

Introduction
The electric utility industry is inherently capital-intensive. At the same time, the industry must
operate under a changing and sometimes unpredictable regulatory system at both the federal and
state level. Inconsistent rules and authorities can result in inefficient operation of the interstate
transmission system. The electric transmission system has been affected by a combination of
factors that has resulted in insufficient investment in the physical infrastructure.
This report discusses factors that have contributed to the lack of new transmission capacity and
some of the resulting issues, including
• background on the evolution of the regulatory structure, including the creation of

an electric reliability organization (ERO);
• issues associated with operating a congested transmission system;
• security of the physical assets;
• siting of transmission lines;
• cost implications of burying power lines;
• pricing of new transmission projects; and
• funding of these projects.
In addition, this report reviews approaches being taken to address the lack of investment in
transmission infrastructure and transmission congestion.
The transmission system was developed to fit the regulatory framework established in the 1920
Federal Power Act1—utilities served local customers in a monopoly service territory. The
transmission system was not designed to handle large power transfers between utilities and
regions. Enactment of the Energy Policy Act of 1992 (EPACT92)2 created tension between the
regulatory environment and the existing transmission system. EPACT92 effectively deregulated
wholesale generation by creating a class of generators that were able to locate beyond a typical
service territory with open access to the existing transmission system. The resulting competitive
market encouraged wholesale, interstate power transfers across a system that was designed to
protect local reliability, not bulk power transfers.
The blackout of August 2003 in the Northeast, Midwest, and Canada highlighted the need for
infrastructure and operating improvements. However, a conflict exists between the apparent goal
of increasing competition in the generation sector and assuring adequate transmission capacity
and management of the system to move the power. Additions to generating capacity are occurring
at a more rapid pace than transmission additions. The traditional vertically integrated utility no
longer dominates the industry structure.3 In addition, demand for electric power continues to
1
16 U.S.C. 791a et seq.
2
P.L. 102-486.
3
Seventeen states and the District of Columbia are implementing retail choice for electricity. According to the Energy
Information Administration, in 1996, 10% of generating capacity was owned by non-utility generators. By 2005, 43%
of net summer generating capacity was owned by non-utility generators. See http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/electricity/
epa/epat2p3.html.

• planning and permitting,

• labor to remove existing facilities,
• new underground transmission facilities,
• labor to install the new underground facilities,
• trucks and other equipment to remove and install facilities,
• credits for existing overhead facilities that could be employed in the future, and
• disposal of facilities that could not be employed in the future.
The most recent study estimated that in 2003 dollars, the cost per mile to place transmission
underground was $3.6 million or a total of $51.8 billion for all investor-owned utility
transmission assets in Florida. The FPSC further calculated that converting overhead transmission
facilities to underground would increase rates 49.7% for customers of investor-owned utilities
(IOUs) over a 10-year period (Table 1).

Facilities to Underground, and Rate Impact Over 10-Year Period
(in 2003 dollars)
Rate Impact
Estimated cost of conversion $51.8 billion

Estimated cost adjusted for inflation over 10 years $57.9 billion
Levelized annual revenue requirement $6.5 billion
Percentage rate impact (spread over all kilowatt-hours) 49.7%
Assumptions
Weighted rate of return 12.04%

Property tax rate 1.86%
Operation and maintenance savingsa (0.7%)
Inflation rate 2.44%
Source: Florida Public Service Commission.

a. Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) Form 1 data do not separately identify transmission
operation and maintenance (O&M) for overhead and buried transmission. FPSC used distribution O&M
savings from the 2003 FERC Form 1 for its calculations.
Both the 1991 FPSC study and the 1998 Australian study included a cost savings to utilities due
to fewer automobile collisions with utility poles. Both studies considered lost wages, medical
expenses, insurance administration costs, property damage, and loss of life. According to FPSC,
utilities would avoid approximately $117 million (2003 dollars) annually of accident-related
costs.66 Neither study considered that some communities would plant trees on old rights-of-way,
66
FPSC 1991. Volume II. For consistency, CRS used the same GDP deflator index ratio of 1.299 as was used in the
1995 FPSC report to index the 1990 findings to 2003 dollars.

and a collision with a well-established tree could cause injury and death, though in this case, a
utility would not likely be liable for costs associated with the accident.
Another benefit of burying power lines is a reduction of electrocutions from sagging or downed
power lines. In addition, workers would be less likely to inadvertently make contact with a buried
distribution line. The FPSC study calculated an annual avoided cost from contact accidents of
$243,000 (2003 dollars) if all power lines were buried. 67
Pricing
Some transmission-owning utilities argue that the current pricing mechanism for transmission
discourages investment. FERC regulates all transmission, including unbundled retail transactions.
Under the Federal Power Act (FPA), FERC is required to set “just and reasonable” rates for
wholesale transactions.68 FERC has traditionally determined rates by using an embedded cost
method that includes recovery of capital costs, operating expenses, improvements, accumulated
depreciation, and a rate of return. Traditionally, transmission owners have been compensated for
use of their lines based on a contract path for the movement of electricity, generally the shortest
path between the generator and its customer. However, electricity rarely follows a contract path
and instead follows the path based on least impedance. 69 Transmission lines often carry
electricity that has been contracted to move on a different path. As more bulk power transfers are
occurring on the transmission system, transmission owners not belonging to RTOs (regional
transmission organizations) are not always being compensated for use of their lines, because a
contract path rarely follows the actual flow. This creates a disincentive for transmission owners to
increase capacity. 70
Under Order 2000,71 FERC stated its interest in incentive ratemaking and, in particular,
performance-based ratemaking. Those in favor of incentive ratemaking, including the electric
utility industry, argue that incentives are needed (1) to encourage participation in regional
transmission organizations (RTOs),72 (2) to compensate for perceived increases in financial risk
because of participation in a regional transmission organization, and (3) to facilitate efficient
expansion of the transmission system.
FERC has used a “license plate” rate for transmission: a single rate based on customer location.
As FERC is encouraging formation of large regional transmission organizations, FERC may
move toward a uniform access charge, sometimes called postage stamp rates. With a postage
stamp rate, users pay one charge for moving electricity anywhere within the regional transmission
organization.
67
Ibid.
68
16 U.S.C. 824(d)(a).
69
Impedance is a measure of the resistive and reactive attributes of a component in an alternating-current circuit.
70
National Economic Research Associates, Transmission Pricing Arrangements and Their Influence on New
Investments, World Bank Institute (July 6, 2000).
71
89 FERC 61,285.
72
A regional transmission organization is an independent organization that does not own the transmission lines but
operates a regional transmission system on a non-discriminatory basis. For additional discussion on RTOs see, CRS
Report RL32728, Electric Utility Regulatory Reform: Issues for the 109th Congress, by Amy Abel.

Postage stamp rates eliminate so-called rate pancaking, or a series of accumulated transmission
charges as the electricity passes through adjacent transmission systems, and increases the pool of
available generation. On the other hand, by moving to postage stamp rates, customers in low-cost
transmission areas may see a rate increase, and high-cost transmission providers in the same area
may not recover embedded costs, because costs are determined on a regional basis.
In early 2003, FERC began to consider raising the rate of return as a way to reflect the regulatory
uncertainty in the industry and encourage transmission investment. 73 The proposal would give a
1% return-on-equity-incentive for new transmission projects operating under an RTO. Transfer of
transmission assets to an RTO would also result in an incentive return on equity of between 0.5%
and 2%. This could raise return on equity to approximately 14% for some transmission projects.
Increases in the return on equity would increase consumers’ electric bills. However, in 2000, the
cost of transmission accounted for less than 10% of the final delivered cost of electricity. 74 While
the industry is in favor of increasing the return on equity as a way of providing an incentive to
invest, consumer groups are opposed to such proposals because of the potential to increase
consumer rates.75
As required by § 1241 of EPACT05, FERC issued its Final Rule on transmission pricing on
July 20, 2006.76 Although the order identifies specific incentives that FERC will allow, the burden
remains on an applicant to justify the incentives by showing that the new transmission capacity
will reduce the cost of delivered power by reducing transmission congestion or will ensure
reliability. The applicant will also have to show that the rate is just, reasonable, and not unduly
discriminatory or preferential.77
Although the order identifies specific incentives that FERC will allow, the burden remains on an
applicant to justify the incentives. Several consumer groups argue that the Final Rule is too
permissive in offering rate incentives. Under the Final Rule, FERC requires that applicants pass a
“nexus test,” meaning that the requested incentives match the demonstrable risks and challenges
faced by the applicant undertaking the project. The final rule applies the “nexus test” to each
incentive, rather than to the package of incentives as a whole. The American Public Power
Association (APPA) and the National Rural Electric Cooperative Association (NRECA) argue
that this approach fails to protect consumers where an applicant seeks incentives that both reduce
the risk of the project and offer an enhanced return on equity for increased risk. In response to
comments on the Final Order, FERC issued an Order on Rehearing and determined that the nexus
73
Federal Energy Regulatory Commission, Proposed Pricing Policy for Efficient Operation and Expansion of the
Transmission Grid, Docket No. PL03-1-000 (January 15, 2003).
74
Energy Information Administration, Electric Sales and Revenue 2000.
75
Testimony of Gerald Norlander for the National Association of State Utility Consumer Advocates before the House
Committee on Energy and Commerce, March 14, 2003, available at http://energycommerce.house.gov/108/Hearings/
03132003hearing818/hearing.htm.
76
Federal Energy Regulatory Commission Final Rule, Order Number 679, Promoting Transmission Investment
through Pricing Reform (July 20, 2006), Docket Number RM06-4-000.
77
The final rule authorizes FERC to approve the following incentive-based rate treatments: a rate of return on equity
sufficient to attract new investment in transmission facilities; allowance of 100% of prudently incurred Construction
Work in Progress (CWIP) in the rate base; recovery of prudently incurred pre-commercial operations costs; accelerated
depreciation used for rate recovery; recovery of 100% of prudently incurred costs of transmission facilities that are
canceled or abandoned due to factors beyond the control of the public utility; and deferred cost recovery.

requirement no longer will be applied separately to each incentive but that the total package of
incentives must match the demonstrable risks or challenges.78
In addition, the National Association of Regulatory Utility Commissioners (NARUC), APPA,

NRECA, Transmission Dependent Utility Systems (TDU Systems), and the Transmission Access
Policy Study Group (TAPS) argued that under the Final Rule, FERC erred in rebuttably
presuming that certain review processes such as state siting approvals and regional planning
processes would satisfy the requirement that a transmission project ensure reliability or reduce
congestion. Under FERC’s Order on Rehearing, FERC will require that each applicant explain
whether any process being relied upon for a rebuttable presumption includes a determination that
the project is necessary to ensure reliability or reduce congestion. 79
Since Order 689 was issued, projects have received transmission rate incentives, including
American Electric Power (AEP) Service Corp. received approval from FERC for incentive rates
for a new 765 kV, 550-mile transmission line that is expected to extend from West Virginia to
New Jersey; Allegheny Energy Inc. (Allegheny) was granted rate incentives on a proposed 500
kilovolt transmission line within the PJM region; Duquesne Light Co.’s (Duquesne) petition for
incentive rates was conditionally approved for several projects in Western Pennsylvania; and
Commonwealth Edison Company (ComEd) was granted incentive rates for Phase II of the West
Loop Project and Chicago. FERC has approved incentives for the AEP and Allegheny projects
that include a return on investment (ROE) “at the high end of the zone of reasonableness, with the
zone of reasonableness to be determined in a future proceeding,” recovery of construction work
in progress (CWIP) costs, the ability to expense and recover pre-construction and pre-operating
costs, and accelerated depreciation. 80 FERC conditionally granted Duquesne’s ROE request of up
to one and one-half percentage points above a base-level ROE, recovery of CWIP costs, recovery
of prudently incurred pre-commercial operations costs, and prudently incurred costs of the project
in the event the project is cancelled due to factors beyond Duquesne’s control.81 ComEd was
granted a one percentage point adder to their ROE and recovery of CWIP.
Regulatory Uncertainty
For many years, transmission owners and investors expressed concern that the regulatory
uncertainty for electric utilities is inhibiting both new investment in and construction of
transmission facilities. For example, repeal of the Public Utility Holding Company Act of 1935
(PUHCA) had been debated since 1996. Without clarification on whether PUHCA would be
repealed, utilities stated that they were reluctant to invest in infrastructure. It was argued that
repeal of PUHCA could significantly expand the ability of utilities to diversify their investment
options.82 EPACT05 repealed PUHCA, and FERC and state regulatory bodies are given access to
78
Federal Energy Regulatory Commission Final Rule, Order on Rehearing, Order Number 679-A, Promoting
Transmission Investment through Pricing Reform (December 22, 2006), Docket Number RM06-4-001, p. 21.
79
Ibid., p. 4.
80
116 FERC 61,059. Docket Number EL06-50-000, p. 15, available at http://www.ferc.gov/whats-new/comm-meet/
072006/E-15.pdf.
81
FERC, Docket No. EL06-109-000, et al. (February 6, 2007), available at http://www.ferc.gov/EventCalendar/Files/
20070206185852-EL06-109-000.pdf.
82
For discussion of PUHCA repeal issues, see CRS Report RL32728, Electric Utility Regulatory Reform: Issues for the
109th Congress, by Amy Abel.

utility books and records. Removing this uncertainty could encourage additional investment in the
transmission system.
In addition, FERC has been moving toward requiring participation in regional transmission
organizations to create a more seamless transmission system. A fully operational regional
transmission organization would operate the entire transmission system in a region and be able to
replace multiple control centers with a single control center.83 This type of control can increase
efficiencies in the operation of the transmission system. RTO participants are required to adhere
to certain operational guidelines, but these are not currently enforceable in court. Uncertainty
over the form of an RTO, its operational characteristics, and the transmission rates for a specific
region have apparently made utilities wary of investing in transmission. FERC has granted RTO
status to several entities and conditionally approved others. If RTOs are able to operate
successfully and develop a track record, some regulatory uncertainty will diminish.
On July 31, 2002, FERC issued a Notice of Proposed Rulemaking (NOPR) on standard market
design (SMD).84 This NOPR was highly controversial. FERC’s stated goal of SMD requirements
in conjunction with a standardized transmission service was to create “seamless” wholesale
power markets that allow sellers to transact easily across transmission grid boundaries. The
proposed rulemaking would have created a new tariff under which each transmission owner
would be required to turn over operation of its transmission system to an unaffiliated independent
transmission provider (ITP). The ITP, which could have been an RTO, would have provided
service to all customers and would have run energy markets. Under the NOPR, congestion would
have been managed with locational marginal pricing. FERC withdrew its SMD proposal shortly
before passage of EPACT05.
83
PJM operates with a single control center.
84
FERC, Docket No. RM01-12-000.

Figure 5. Congested Lines in the Eastern Interconnection
Source: U.S. Department of Energy, National Transmission Grid Study, May 2002.
Investment
Some contend that obtaining funding is the major impediment to transmission expansion.85
Utilities have traditionally raised capital from three sources: equity investors, internal cash flow,
and bondholders. Before 1978, utility stocks were seen as safe investments for investors. The
Three Mile Island nuclear accident and other cost overruns of nuclear facilities made utility
investment less attractive. Following enactment of the Energy Policy Act of 1992, many found
investing in non-traditional utilities (Enron, Mirant, etc.) to once again be an attractive option.
Following the California energy crises and the bankruptcy of several energy-related companies,
investors once again withdrew from heavily investing in utility stock. Between 2000 and 2002,
utility bonds had been unattractive to investors, according to Standard & Poor’s.86 Since then,
many utilities have had their bond ratings reduced. In 2002, there were 182 bond rating
downgrades of utility holding and operating companies and only 15 upgrades. A majority of
electric utilities (62%) had a bond rating of BBB or below while the number of those rated A- or
better fell from 51% to 38% in one year. Also, according to Standard & Poor’s, debt and preferred
85
Roseman, E., and Paul De Martini, In Search of Transmission Capitalists, Public Utilities Fortnightly
(April 1, 2003).
86
Standard & Poor’s, U.S. Power Industry Experiences Precipitous Credit Decline in 2002; Negative Slope Likely to
Continue (January15, 2003).

Smart Grid Provisions in H.R. 6, 110th Congress
Summary
The term Smart Grid refers to a distribution system that allows for flow of information from a
customer’s meter in two directions: both inside the house to thermostats and appliances and other
devices, and back to the utility. This could allow appliances to be turned off during periods of
high electrical demand and cost, and give customers real-time information on constantly changing
electric rates. Efforts are being made in both industry and government to modernize electric
distribution to improve communications between utilities and the ultimate consumer. The goal is
to use advanced, information-based technologies to increase power grid efficiency, reliability, and
flexibility, and reduce the rate at which additional electric utility infrastructure needs to be built.
Both regulatory and technological barriers have limited the implementation of Smart Grid
technology. At issue is whether a distinction for cost allocation purposes can be made between the
impact of Smart Grid technology on the wholesale transmission system and its impact on the
retail distribution system. Another issue limiting the deployment of this technology is the lack of
consistent standards and protocols. There currently are no standards for these technologies. This
limits the interoperability of Smart Grid technologies and limits future choices for companies that
choose to install any particular type of technology.
H.R. 6, as signed by the President, contains provisions to encourage research, development, and
deployment of Smart Grid technologies. Provisions include requiring the National Institute of
Standards and Technology to be the lead agency to develop standards and protocols; creating a
research, development, and demonstration program for Smart Grid technologies at the
Department of Energy; and providing federal matching funds for portions of qualified Smart Grid
investments.

Chapter 5: Smart Grid Provisions in H.R. 6, 110th Congress
Contents
Introduction and Overview..........................................................................................................1
Selected Utility Applications .......................................................................................................3
Southern California Edison Company....................................................................................3
Pacific Northwest GridWise™ Demonstration.......................................................................5
TXU Electric Delivery Company ..........................................................................................5
Summary of H.R. 6 Smart Grid Provisions ..................................................................................6
Section 1301. Statement of Policy on Modernization of Electricity Grid ................................6
Section 1302. Smart Grid System Report...............................................................................6
Section 1303. Smart Grid Advisory Committee and Smart Grid Task Force ...........................6
Section 1304. Smart Grid Technology Research, Development, and Demonstration...............7
Section 1305. Smart Grid Interoperability Framework...........................................................7
Section 1306. Federal Matching Funds for Smart Grid Investment Costs ...............................7
Section 1307. State Consideration of Smart Grid ...................................................................7
Section 1308. Study of the Effect of Private Wire Laws on the Development of
Combined Heat and Power Facilities ..................................................................................8
Section 1309. DOE Study of Security Attributes of Smart Grid Systems ................................8
Figures
Figure 1. Electric Transmission Network.....................................................................................1
Figure 2. The Electric Power System...........................................................................................2
Contacts
Author Contact Information ........................................................................................................8

Introduction and Overview

The U.S. electric power system has historically operated at such a high level of reliability that any
major outage, either caused by sabotage, weather, or operational errors, makes news headlines. As
the August 14, 2003, Midwest and Northeast blackout demonstrated, a loss of electric power is
very expensive and can entail considerable disruption to business, travel, government services,
and daily life.
The electric utility industry operates as an integrated system of generation, transmission, and
distribution facilities to deliver power to consumers. The electric power system in the United
States consists of over 9,200 electric generating units with more than 950,000 megawatts of
generating capacity connected to more than 300,000 miles of transmission lines; more than
210,000 miles of the transmission lines are rated at 230 kilovolts (kV) or higher (Figure 1).1 In
addition, approximately 150 control centers manage the flow of electricity through the system
under normal operating conditions.
Figure 1. Electric Transmission Network
Source: GAO Report GAO 01 201
Most electricity in the United States is generated at power plants that use fossil fuels (oil, gas,
coal), nuclear fission, or renewable energy (hydropower, geothermal, solar, wind, biomass). At
the power plant, energy is converted into a set of three alternating electric currents, called three-
phase power.2 After power is generated, the first step in delivering electricity to the consumer is to
transform the power from medium voltage (15-50 kilovolt (kV)) to high voltage (138-765 kV)
1
North American Reliability Council. NERC 2007 Electricity Supply and Demand Database.
2
The three currents are sinusoidal functions of time but with the same frequency (60 Hertz). In a three phase system,
the phases are spaced equally, offset 120 degrees from each other. With three-phase power, one of the three phases is
always nearing a peak.

alternating current (Figure 2).3 This initial step-up of voltage occurs in a transformer located at
transmission substations at the generating facilities. High voltages allow power to be moved long
distances with the greatest efficiency, i.e. transmission line losses are minimized.4 The three
phases of power are carried over three wires that are connected to large transmission towers.5
Close to the ultimate consumer, the power is stepped-down at another substation to lower
voltages, typically less than 10 kV. At this point, the power is considered to have left the
transmission system and entered the distribution system.
Figure 2.The Electric Power System
The transmission system continues to become more congested, and siting of transmission lines
continues to be difficult. To try to maximize operation of existing infrastructure, efforts are being
made in both industry and government to modernize electric distribution equipment to improve
communications between utilities and the ultimate consumer. The goal is to use advanced,
information-based technologies to increase power grid efficiency, reliability, and flexibility, and
reduce the rate at which additional electric utility infrastructure needs to be built.
Some utilities have been using smart metering: meters that can be read remotely, primarily for
billing purposes. However, these meters do not provide communication back to the utility with
information on voltage, current levels, and specific usage. Similarly, these meters have very
limited ability to allow the consumer the ability to either automatically or selectively change their
usage patterns based on information provided by the utility.
The term Smart Grid refers to a distribution system that allows for flow of information from a
customer’s meter in two directions: both inside the house to thermostats and appliances and
other devices, and back to the utility. It is expected that grid reliability will increase as additional
information from the distribution system is available to utility operators. This will allow for
better planning and operations during peak demand. For example, new technologies such as a
Programmable Communicating Thermostat (PCT) could connect with a customer’s meter
3
1kV=1,000 volts
4
The loss of power on the transmission system is proportional to the square of the current (flow of electricity) while the
current is inversely proportional to the voltage.
5
Transmission towers also support a fourth wire running above the other three lines. This line is intended to attract
lighting, so that the flow of electricity is not disturbed.

through a Home Area Network allowing the utility to change the settings on the thermostat
based on load or other factors. PCTs are not commercially available, but are expected to be
available within a year.6 It is estimated that a 4% peak load reduction could be achieved using
Smart Grid technologies.
Both regulatory and technological barriers have limited the implementation of Smart Grid
technology. The Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) regulates the wholesale
transmission system and the states regulate the distribution system. In general, the federal
government has not interfered with state regulation of the electric distribution system. However,
the Energy Policy Act of 2005 (EPACT05) required states to consider deploying smart meters for
residential and small commercial customers. 7 At issue is whether a distinction for cost allocation
purposes can be made between Smart Grid technologies’ impact on the wholesale transmission
system and retail distribution system. If FERC and the states cannot determine which costs should
be considered transmission related (federally regulated) and which should be considered
distribution related (state regulated) utilities may be reluctant to make large investments in Smart
Grid technologies.
Another issue limiting the deployment of this technology is the lack of consistent standards and
protocols. There currently are no standards for these technologies. Most systems are able to
communicate only with technologies developed by the same manufacturer. This limits the
interoperability of Smart Grid technologies and limits future choices for companies that choose to
install any particular type of technology. The Department of Energy’s (DOE’s) Office of
Electricity Delivery and Energy Reliability in partnership with industry is developing standards
for advanced grid design and operations. In addition, DOE is funding research and development
projects in this area.
Selected Utility Applications

Smart Grid technologies are currently being used by several utilities in small applications, mainly
for testing purposes. However, the technologies within the customer’s house or business cannot
allow for dynamic control of thermostats, for instance, but rather use switches to either turn an
appliance on or off depending on preset criteria. The following applications of Smart Grid
technologies represent some of the largest installations.
Southern California Edison Company

The California Public Utility Commission as well as the California Energy Action Plan call for
smart meters as part of the overall energy policy for California.8 On July 31, 2007, Southern
California Edison Company (SCE) filed an application with the Public Utility Commission of
California for approval of advanced metering infrastructure (AMI) deployment activities and a
cost recovery mechanism for the $1.7 billion in estimated costs.9 Beginning in 2009, SCE
6
Personal Communication. Tom Casey, CEO Current Technologies. August 2, 2007.
7
P.L. 109-58, §1252.
8
California Energy Commission. Energy Action Plan II, September 21, 2005. Available at http://www.energy.ca.gov/
energy_action_plan/2005-09-21_EAP2_FINAL.PDF.
9
Public Utilities Commission of the State of California. Southern California Edison Company’s (U 338-E)
(continued...)

proposes to install through its SmartConnect™ program advanced meters in all households and
businesses under 200 kW throughout its service territory (approximately 5.3 million meters). It is
expected that demand response at peak times could save SCE as much as 1,000 megawatts of
capacity additions. Dynamic rates such as Time of Use and Critical Peak Pricing should provide
incentives to customers to shift some of their electricity usage to off-peak hours. According to
SCE’s application before the California Public Utility Commission:
Edison SmartConnect™ includes meter and indication functionality that (i) measures interval
electricity usage and voltage; (ii) supports nonproprietary, open standard communication
interfaces with technologies such as programmable communicating thermostats and device
switches; (iii) improves reliability through remote outage detection at customer premises;
(iv) improves service and reduces costs by remote service activation; (v) is capable of remote
upgrades; (vi) is compatible with broadband over powerline used by third parties; (vii)
supports contract gas and water meter reads; and (viii) incorporates industry-leading
security capabilities.10
In its filing, SCE is requesting approval to recover the operation and maintenance and capital
expenditures associated with deployment of Edison SmartConnect™.
SCE is planning to use three telecommunications elements in addition to a smart meter.11 The
telecommunications system will include a Home Area Network (HAN) that is a non-proprietary
open standard two-way narrowband radio frequency mesh network interface from the meter to
customer-owned smart appliances, displays, and thermostats. Second, there will be a Local Area
Network (LAN) consisting of a proprietary two-way narrowband radio frequency network that
will connect the meter to the electricity aggregator.12 Finally, a Wide Area Network (WAN) will
be installed using a non-proprietary open standard two-way broadband network that will be used
to communicate between the aggregator and the utility back office systems.13 The meter will
integrate the LAN and HAN in order to provide electric usage measurements, service voltage
measurements, and interval measurements for billing purposes. These meters will have net-
metering capability to support measurement of solar and other distributed generation at the
customer’s location. In addition, the meters will have security that has sophisticated
cryptographic capabilities.
For the consumer, benefits include load reduction and energy conservation, which could result in
lower electric bills. Outage information will automatically be sent to the utilities so customers
won’t need to report these disturbances. SCE is expecting to achieve greater reliability over time
as additional information from the system is available to manage operations. For the utility,
manual meter reading will be eliminated as will field service to turn power on to new customers.
(...continued)
Application for Approval of Advanced Metering Infrastructure Deployment Activities and Cost Recovery Mechanism.
Filed July 31, 2007.
10
Ibid., p. 7.
11
Email communication. Paul De Martini. Director Edison SmartConnect™. August 2, 2007.
12
An electric aggregator purchases power at wholesale for resale to retail customers.
13
The two-way broadband network could include cellular, WiMax, or broadband over powerline.

Pacific Northwest GridWise™ Demonstration

The Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL) is teaming with utilities in the states of
Washington and Oregon to test new energy technologies designed to improve efficiency and
reliability while at the same time increasing consumer choice and control. 14 The utilities involved
in the demonstration projects include the Bonneville Power Administration, PacifiCorp, Portland
General Electric, Mason County PUD #3, Clallam County PUD, and the City of Port Angeles,
Washington. PNNL has received in-kind contributions from industrial collaborators, including
Sears Kenmore dryers, and communications and market integration software from IBM.
Two demonstration projects involve 300 homes as well as some municipal and commercial
customers. The first project on the Olympic Peninsula involves 200 homes that are receiving real-
time price signals over the Internet and have demand-response thermostats and hot water heaters
that can be programmed to respond automatically. The goal is to relieve congestion on the
transmission and distribution grid during peak periods. These 200 homes will test a “home
information gateway” that will allow smart appliances such as communicating thermostats, smart
water heaters, and smart clothes dryers to respond to transmission congestion due to peak demand
or when prices are high. In addition, consumers will be able to see the actual cost of producing
and delivering electricity, and cash incentives will be used to motivate customers to reduce peak
demand. Part of the demonstration will study how existing backup generators can be used to
displace demand for electricity.
The second demonstration involves 50 homes on the Olympic Peninsula in Washington, 50

homes in Yakima, Washington, and 50 homes in Gresham, Oregon. Clothes dryers will be
installed in 150 homes and water heaters will be installed in 50 homes to test the ability of PNNL-
developed appliance controllers to detect fluctuations in frequency. Fluctuations in frequency can
indicate that the grid is under stress, and the appliance controllers can quickly respond to that
stress by reducing demand. The appliance controllers will automatically turn off some appliances
for a few seconds or minutes, allowing grid operators to rebalance the system.
TXU Electric Delivery Company

In October 2006, TXU Electric Delivery entered into an agreement to purchase 400,000 advanced
meters. TXU Electric Delivery plans to have 3 million automated meters installed primarily in the
Dallas-Fort Worth area by 2011. As of December 31, 2006, TXU had installed 285,000 advanced
meters, 10,000 of which had broadband over powerline (BPL) capabilities. 15 This system
combines advanced meters manufactured by Landis+Gyr with BPL-enabled communications
technology provided by CURRENT Technologies. TXU Electric Delivery in the near-term will
primarily use the advanced meters for increased network reliability and power quality and to
prevent, detect, and restore customer outages more effectively. It is expected that TXU electric
delivery will eventually include time-of-use options and new billing methods to its consumers.
14
http://gridwise.pnl.gov/
15
TXU Electric Delivery Company Annual Report. Form 10-K filing to the Securities and Exchange Commission.
March 7, 2007.

On May 10, 2007, the Public Utility Commission of Texas issued an order allowing for the cost
recovery of advanced meters.16
Summary of H.R. 6 Smart Grid Provisions

H.R. 6, signed by the President, contains a provision on Smart Grid technologies to address some
of the regulatory and technological barriers to widespread installation. 17 This section summarizes
Title XIII.
Section 1301. Statement of Policy on Modernization of

Electricity Grid
It is the policy of the United States to support the modernization of the electric transmission and
distribution system to maintain reliability and infrastructure protection. The Smart Grid is defined
to include: increasing the use of additional information controls to improve operation of the
electric grid; optimizing grid operations and resources to reflect the changing dynamics of the
physical infrastructure and economic markets, while ensuring cybersecurity; using and integrating
distributed resources, including renewable resources; developing and integrating demand
response, demand-side resources, and energy-efficiency resources; deploying smart technologies
for metering, communications of grid operations and status, and distribution automation;
integrating “smart” appliances and other consumer devices; deploying and integrating advanced
electricity storage and peak-shaving technologies; transferring information to consumers in a
timely manner to allow control decisions; developing standards for the communication and the
interoperability of appliances and equipment connected to the electric grid; identifying and
lowering of unreasonable or unnecessary barriers to adoption of smart grid technologies,
practices, and services.
Section 1302. Smart Grid System Report

No later than one year after enactment, and every two years thereafter, the Secretary of Energy
shall issue a report to Congress on the status of the deployment of smart grid technologies and
any regulatory or government barriers to continued deployment.
Section 1303. Smart Grid Advisory Committee and Smart Grid

Task Force
Within 90 days of enactment, the Secretary of Energy shall establish a Smart Grid Advisory
Committee, whose mission is to advise the Secretary of Energy and other relevant federal
officials on the development of smart grid technologies, the deployment of such technologies, and
the development of widely-accepted technical and practical standards and protocols to allow
16
Public Utility Commission of Texas. Project Number 31418. Rulemaking Related to Advanced Metering.
May 10, 2007.
17
P.L. 110-140, signed by President Bush on December 19, 2007.

interoperability and integration among Smart Grid capable devices, and the optimal means for
using federal incentive authority to encourage such programs.
In addition, a Smart Grid Task Force shall be established within 90 days of enactment. This task
force will be composed of employees of the Department of Energy, Federal Energy Regulatory
Commission, and the National Institute of Standards and Technology. The mission of the Smart
Grid Task Force is to ensure coordination and integration of activities among the federal agencies.
Section 1304. Smart Grid Technology Research, Development,

and Demonstration
The Secretary of Energy, in consultation with appropriate agencies, electric utilities, the states,
and other stakeholders, is directed to carry out a program, in part, to develop advanced
measurement techniques to monitor peak load reductions and energy efficiency savings from
smart metering, demand response, distributed generation, and electricity storage systems; to
conduct research to advance the use of wide-area measurement and control networks; to test new
reliability technologies; to investigate the feasibility of a transition to time-of-use and real-time
electricity pricing; to promote the use of underutilized electricity generation capacity in any
substitution of electricity for liquid fuels in the transportation system of the United States; and to
propose interconnection protocols to enable electric utilities to access electricity stored in hybrid
vehicles to help meet peak demand loads. The Secretary of Energy shall also establish a Smart
Grid regional demonstration initiative focusing on projects using advanced technologies for use in
power grid sensing, communications, analysis, and power flow control.
Section 1305. Smart Grid Interoperability Framework

The Director of the National Institute of Standards and Technology is primarily responsible for
coordinating the development of a framework for protocols and model standards for information
management to gain interoperability of smart grid devices and systems.
Section 1306. Federal Matching Funds for Smart Grid

Investment Costs
The Secretary of Energy shall establish a program to reimburse 20% of qualifying Smart
Grid investments.
Section 1307. State Consideration of Smart Grid

The Public Utility Regulatory Policies Act of 1978 (16 U.S.C. 2621 (d)) is amended to require
each state to consider requiring electric utilities demonstrate that prior to investing in non-
advanced grid technologies, Smart Grid technology is determined not to be appropriate. States
must also consider regulatory standards that allow utilities to recover Smart Grid investments
through rates.

Chapter 6: The Smart Grid: An Introduction
Exploring the imperative of revitalizing

America’s electric infrastructure.
the
SMART GRID:
an introduction.
How a smarter grid works as an enabling engine

for our economy, our environment and our future.
prepared for the U.S. Department of Energy by Litos Strategic Communication under contract No. DE-AC26-04NT41817, Subtask 560.01.04

PREFACE
IT IS A COLOSSAL TASK. BUT IT IS A TASK

THAT MUST BE DONE.
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modernization of our nation’s electrical grid.
While it is running.
Full-tilt.
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of a wide range of stakeholders.
Equally critical to the success of this effort is the education of all interested members
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Grid and its implementation.
It is to this mission that The Smart Grid: An Introduction is dedicated.
From the Department of Energy
The Smart Grid Introduction is intended primarily to
acquaint non-technical yet interested readers about:
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its implementation.

SECTION FOUND ON
ONE Introduction: We Don’t Have Much Time. 2

Toward an orderly transition to a smarter grid…
TWO Edison vs. Graham Bell: The Case for Revitalization. 4

Presenting the argument in a timely fashion requires a trip “back to the future…”
THREE The Grid as It Stands: What’s at Risk? 6

The many hazards associated with operating the 20th century grid in the 21st century.
The lights may be on, but consider what we’re missing…
FOUR The Smart Grid: What It Is. What It Isn’t. 10

Why it’s important to know the difference…
FIVE Compare and Contrast: A Grid Where Everything is Possible. 16

For an invigorating vision of our energy future, look forward…
SIX First Things First: Teasing Out the Complexities.

T IC
TOPICS 24
How various constituencies – i.e., utilities and regulators – are working toward
fundamental realignment to make a smarter grid get here faster…
SEVEN How Things Work: Creating the Platform for the Smart Grid. 28
Making it possible for consumers to participate…
EIGHT Progress Now!: A Look at Current Smart Grid Efforts and How They’re Succeeding. 32
From West Virginia to California to Hawaii, a smarter grid is taking shape…
NINE Edison Unbound: What’s Your Stake in All This? 36

Benefits for everyone…
Resources and Glossary 40

Coming to terms with the Smart Grid...

SECTION ONE :
INTRODUCTION
WE DON’T HAVE MUCH TIME.
Our nation’s electric power infrastructure that has served us so well for so long – also known as “the grid” –
is rapidly running up against its limitations. Our lights may be on, but systemically, the risks associated with
relying on an often overtaxed grid grow in size, scale and complexity every day. From national challenges like
power system security to those global in nature such as climate change, our near-term agenda is formidable.
Some might even say history-making.
Fortunately, we have a way forward.

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needed but well within reach. Think of the Smart Grid as the internet brought to
our electric system.
A tale of two timelines

There are in fact two grids to keep in mind as our future rapidly becomes the present.
The first – we’ll call it “a smarter grid” – offers valuable technologies that can be deployed within the very near future
or are already deployed today.
The second – the Smart Grid of our title – represents the longer-term promise of a grid remarkable in its intelligence
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a similar killer app in this space won’t substantially accelerate that timetable?
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on our environment.
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Intelligent – capable of sensing system overloads and

IN TERMS OF rerouting power to prevent or minimize a potential outage;
OVERALL VISION, of working autonomously when conditions require resolution

faster than humans can respond…and cooperatively in aligning
THE SMART GRID IS: k_\ ^fXcj f] lk`c`k`\j# Zfejld\ij Xe[ i\^lcXkfij
Efficient – capable of meeting increased consumer demand without

adding infrastructure
Accommodating – accepting energy from virtually any fuel source including

solar and wind as easily and transparently as coal and natural gas; capable of
èk\îXkè^ Xep Xe[ Xcc Y\kk\i `[\Xj Xe[ k\Z_efcf^`\j » \e\i^p jkfiX^\ k\Z_efcf^`\j#
for example – as they are market-proven and ready to come online
Motivating – enabling real-time communication between the consumer and utility so

Zfejld\ij ZXe kX`cfi k_\ì \e\i^p Zfejldgk`fe YXj\[ fe è[`m`[lXc gi\]\i\eZ\j# c`b\ gi`Z\
Xe[&fi \emìfed\ekXc ZfeZ\iej
Opportunistic – creating new opportunities and markets by means of its ability to capitalize on
plug-and-play innovation wherever and whenever appropriate
Quality-focused » ZXgXYc\ f] [\c`m\iè^ k_\ gfn\i hlXc`kp e\Z\jjXip » ]i\\ f] jX^j# jg`b\j# [`jkliYXeZ\j
Xe[ èk\iilgk`fej » kf gfn\i fli èZi\Xjè^cp [`^`kXc \Zfefdp Xe[ k_\ [XkX Z\ek\ij# Zfdglk\ij Xe[
electronics necessary to make it run
Resilient – increasingly resistant to attack and natural disasters as it becomes more decentralized and reinforced
with Smart Grid security protocols
“Green” » jcfnè^ k_\ X[mXeZ\ f] ^cfYXc Zc`dXk\ Z_Xe^\ Xe[ fĲ\iè^ X ^\elè\ gXk_ kfnXi[ j`ê`ÈZXek
environmental improvement
Applied across various key constituencies, the benefits of The more efficient their systems, the less utilities
creating a smarter grid are drawn in even sharper relief. need to spend.
The Smart Grid as it applies to utilities. Given our nation’s population growth and the exponential
N_\k_\i k_\pÀi\ èm\jkfi$fne\[# Zffg\iXk`m\cp fne\[ fi increase in the number of power-hungry digital components in
glYc`Z# lk`c`k`\j Xi\ [\[`ZXk\[ kf gifm`[è^ ]fi k_\ glYc`Z ^ff[ fli [`^`kXc \Zfefdp# X[[`k`feXc è]iXjkilZkli\ dljk Y\ Yl`ck »
» `%\%# kXbè^ ZXi\ f] jfZ`\kpÀj \c\Zki`Z`kp e\\[j » Yp fg\iXkè^# JdXik fi efk% 8ZZfi[è^ kf K_\ 9iXkkc\ >iflg# èm\jkd\ek kfkXcè^
maintaining and building additional electric infrastructure. The approximately $1.5 trillion will be required between 2010 and
costs associated with such tasks can run to billions of dollars 2030 to pay for this infrastructure. The Smart Grid holds the
annually and the challenges associated with them are enormous. potential to be the most affordable alternative to “building out”
Yp Yl`c[è^ c\jj# Xe[ jXmè^ dfi\ \e\i^p% @k n`cc Zc\Xicp i\hlì\
=fi X jdXik\i î`[ kf Y\e\Èk jfZ`\kp# `k dljk i\[lZ\ lk`c`k`\jÀ
investments that are not typical for utilities. But the overall
ZXg`kXc Xe[&fi fg\iXkè^ \og\ej\j kf[Xp » fi i\[lZ\ Zfjkj è k_\
Y\e\Èkj f] jlZ_ \Ĳfikj n`cc flkn\`^_ k_\ Zfjkj# Xj jfd\ lk`c`k`\j
future. It is estimated that Smart Grid enhancements will ease
are already discovering.
Zfe^\jk`fe Xe[ èZi\Xj\ lk`c`qXk`fe f] ]lcc ZXgXZ`kp # j\e[è^ ,'
kf *'' dfi\ \c\Zki`Z`kp k_ifl^_ \o`jkè^ \e\i^p Zfii`[fij%
17

SECTION FIVE : CONTINUED

COMPARE AND CONTRAST: A GRID WHERE EVERYTHING IS POSSIBLE
One afternoon in early 2008, the wind stopped blowing in Texas.

8 c\X[\i è k_`j i\e\nXYc\ \e\i^p# k_\ jkXk\ \og\i`\eZ\[ X jl[[\e# leXek`Z`gXk\[
Xe[ [iXdXk`Z [ifg è nè[ gfn\i » (*'' Dn è aljk k_i\\ _flij% 8e \d\i^\eZp
demand response program was initiated in which large industrial and commercial POWER SYSTEM FACT
lj\ij i\jkfi\[ dfjk f] k_\ cfjk ^\e\iXk`fe n`k_è k\e dèlk\j# XZkè^ Xj X YlĲ\i
In the United States, the average
for fluctuations in this intermittent resource. Smart Grid principles in action.
generating station was built in the
The Smart Grid as it applies to consumers. 1960s using even older technology. Today, the
=fi dfjk Zfejld\ij# \e\i^p _Xj cfe^ Y\\e Zfej`[\i\[ X gXjj`m\ gliZ_Xj\% average age of a substation transformer
8]k\i Xcc# n_Xk Z_f`Z\ _Xm\ k_\p Y\\e ^`m\e6 K_\ kpg`ZXc \c\Zki`Z Y`cc `j cXi^\cp is 42, two years more than their
unintelligible to consumers and delivered days after the consumption actually
expected life span.
occurs – giving consumers no visibility into decisions they could be making
regarding their energy consumption.
?fn\m\i# `k gXpj kf cffb Xk \c\Zki`Z Y`ccj Zcfj\cp `] ]fi ef fk_\i i\Xjfe k_Xe k_`j2
they also typically include a hefty “mortgage payment” to pay for the infrastructure
needed to generate and deliver power to consumers.
8 jligi`jè^cp jlYjkXek`Xc gfik`fe f] pfli \c\Zki`Z Y`cc » Y\kn\\e ** » ,' » `j

Zlii\ekcp Xjj`ê\[ kf ]le[è^ fli ½è]iXjkilZkli\ dfik^X^\#¾ fli Zlii\ek \c\Zki`Z
infrastructure. This item is non-negotiable because that infrastructure – power
gcXekj# kiXejd`jj`fe cè\j# Xe[ \m\ipk_è^ \cj\ k_Xk Zfee\Zkj k_\d » dljk Y\
dXèkXè\[ kf b\\g k_\ î`[ ileeè^ Xj i\c`XYcp Xj `k [f\j% @e ]XZk# k_\ kiXejd`jj`fe
Xe[ [`jki`Ylk`fe Z_Xi^\ fe k_\ \c\Zki`Z Y`cc `j jg\Z`ÈZXccp ]fi è]iXjkilZkli\%
N`k_ [\dXe[ \jk`dXk\[ kf [flYc\ Yp )',' » Xe[ dfi\ gfn\i gcXekj# kiXejd`jj`fe
cè\j# kiXej]fid\ij Xe[ jlYjkXk`fej kf Y\ Yl`ck » k_\ Zfjkj f] k_`j ½Y`^ ìfe¾ n`cc Xcjf
show up on your bill in one way or another. (The only difference this time is that
^cfYXc [\dXe[ ]fi k_\ ìfe# jk\\c# Xe[ ZfeZi\k\ i\hlì\[ kf Yl`c[ k_`j è]iXjkilZkli\
n`cc dXb\ k_\j\ Zfddf[`k`\j ]Xi dfi\ Zfjkcp2 è ]XZk# k_\ Zfjk f] dXep iXn dXk\i`Xcj
Xe[ î`[ Zfdgfe\ekj _Xj dfi\ k_Xe ki`gc\[ jèZ\ )''-%
smart definition: real-time pricing – K_\j\ Xi\ \e\i^p gi`Z\j k_Xk Xi\ j\k ]fi X jg\Z`ÈZ
time period on an advance or forward basis and which may change according to price changes in the
dXib\k% Gi`Z\j gX`[ ]fi \e\i^p Zfejld\[ [liè^ k_\j\ g\i`f[j Xi\ kpg`ZXccp \jkXYc`j_\[ Xe[ befne kf
Zfejld\ij X [Xp X_\X[ ½[Xp$X_\X[ gi`Zè^¾ fi Xe _fli X_\X[ ½_fli$X_\X[ gi`Zè^¾ è X[mXeZ\ f] jlZ_
Zfejldgk`fe# Xccfnè^ k_\d kf mXip k_\ì [\dXe[ Xe[ ljX^\ è i\jgfej\ kf jlZ_ gi`Z\j Xe[ dXeX^\
k_\ì \e\i^p Zfjkj Yp j_`]kè^ ljX^\ kf X cfn\i Zfjk g\i`f[# fi i\[lZè^ Zfejldgk`fe fm\iXcc%
18

GLOSSARY (CONT’D)
ELECTRIC UTILITY: 8ep \ek`kp k_Xk ^\e\iXk\j# kiXejd`kj# fi [`jki`Ylk\j \c\Zki`Z`kp Xe[ i\Zfm\ij k_\ Zfjk f] `kj ^\e\iXk`fe# kiXejd`jj`fe fi
[`jki`Ylk`fe Xjj\kj Xe[ fg\iXk`fej# \`k_\i [ì\Zkcp fi è[ì\Zkcp# k_ifl^_ Zfjk$YXj\[ iXk\j j\k Yp X j\gXiXk\ i\^lcXkfip Xlk_fi`kp \%^%# JkXk\ GlYc`Z
J\im`Z\ :fdd`jj`fe # fi `j fne\[ Yp X ^fm\ied\ekXc le`k fi k_\ Zfejld\ij k_Xk k_\ \ek`kp j\im\j% <oXdgc\j f] k_\j\ \ek`k`\j èZcl[\1 èm\jkfi$
fne\[ \ek`k`\j# glYc`Z gfn\i [`jki`Zkj# glYc`Z lk`c`kp [`jki`Zkj# dle`Z`gXc`k`\j# iliXc \c\Zki`Z Zffg\iXk`m\j# Xe[ JkXk\ Xe[ =\[\iXc X^\eZ`\j%
ELECTRICITY CONGESTION: 8 Zfe[`k`fe k_Xk fZZlij n_\e èjlĳZ`\ek kiXejd`jj`fe ZXgXZ`kp `j XmX`cXYc\ kf `dgc\d\ek Xcc f] k_\ [\jì\[
transactions simultaneously.
ELECTRICITY DEMAND: K_\ iXk\ Xk n_`Z_ \e\i^p `j [\c`m\i\[ kf cfX[j Xe[ jZ_\[lcè^ gfèkj Yp ^\e\iXk`fe# kiXejd`jj`fe# Xe[ [`jki`Ylk`fe
facilities.
ENERGY EFFICIENCY, ELECTRICITY: I\]\ij kf gifîXdj k_Xk Xi\ X`d\[ Xk i\[lZè^ k_\ \e\i^p lj\[ Yp jg\Z`ÈZ \e[$lj\ [\m`Z\j Xe[ jpjk\dj#
kpg`ZXccp n`k_flk XĲ\Zkè^ k_\ j\im`Z\j gifm`[\[% K_\j\ gifîXdj i\[lZ\ fm\iXcc \c\Zki`Z`kp Zfejldgk`fe i\gfik\[ è d\^XnXkk_flij # f]k\e
without explicit consideration for the timing of program-induced savings. Such savings are generally achieved by substituting technologically
dfi\ X[mXeZ\[ \hl`gd\ek kf gif[lZ\ k_\ jXd\ c\m\c f] \e[$lj\ j\im`Z\j \%^% c`^_kè^# _\Xkè^# dfkfi [i`m\ n`k_ c\jj \c\Zki`Z`kp% <oXdgc\j
èZcl[\ _`^_$\ĳZ`\eZp Xggc`XeZ\j# \ĳZ`\ek c`^_kè^ gifîXdj# _`^_$\ĳZ`\eZp _\Xkè^# m\ek`cXkè^ Xe[ Xì Zfe[`k`feè^ ?M8: jpjk\dj fi Zfekifc
df[`ÈZXk`fej# \ĳZ`\ek Yl`c[è^ [\j`ê# X[mXeZ\[ \c\Zki`Z dfkfi [i`m\j# Xe[ _\Xk i\Zfm\ip jpjk\dj%
ENERGY SAVINGS: 8 i\[lZk`fe è k_\ Xdflek f] \c\Zki`Z`kp lj\[ Yp \e[ lj\ij Xj X i\jlck f] gXik`Z`gXk`fe è \e\i^p \ĳZ`\eZp gifîXdj Xe[ cfX[
management programs.
ENERGY SERVICE PROVIDER: An energy entity that provides service to a retail or end-use customer.
FEDERAL ENERGY REGULATORY COMMISSION (FERC): K_\ =\[\iXc X^\eZp n`k_ ali`j[`Zk`fe fm\i èk\ijkXk\ \c\Zki`Z`kp jXc\j# n_fc\jXc\ \c\Zki`Z
iXk\j# _p[if\c\Zki`Z c`Z\ejè^# eXkliXc ^Xj gi`Zè^# f`c g`g\cè\ iXk\j# Xe[ ^Xj g`g\cè\ Z\ik`ÈZXk`fe% =<I: `j Xe è[\g\e[\ek i\^lcXkfip X^\eZp
n`k_è k_\ ;\gXikd\ek f] <e\i^p Xe[ `j k_\ jlZZ\jjfi kf k_\ =\[\iXc Gfn\i :fdd`jj`fe%
FUEL CELL: 8 [\m`Z\ ZXgXYc\ f] ^\e\iXkè^ Xe \c\Zki`ZXc Zlii\ek Yp Zfem\ikè^ k_\ Z_\d`ZXc \e\i^p f] X ]l\c \%^%# _p[if^\e [ì\Zkcp èkf \c\Zki`ZXc
\e\i^p% =l\c Z\ccj [`Ĳ\i ]ifd Zfem\ek`feXc \c\Zki`ZXc Z\ccj è k_Xk k_\ XZk`m\ dXk\i`Xcj jlZ_ Xj ]l\c Xe[ fop^\e Xi\ efk ZfekXè\[ n`k_è k_\ Z\cc Ylk
Xi\ jlggc`\[ ]ifd flkj`[\% @k [f\j efk ZfekXè Xe èk\id\[`Xk\ _\Xk ZpZc\# Xj [f dfjk fk_\i \c\Zki`ZXc ^\e\iXk`fe k\Z_e`hl\j%
GENERATION: K_\ gifZ\jj f] gif[lZè^ \c\Zki`Z \e\i^p Yp kiXej]fidè^ fk_\i ]fidj f] \e\i^p2 Xcjf# k_\ Xdflek f] \c\Zki`Z \e\i^p gif[lZ\[#
expressed in kilowatthours.
GLOBAL WARMING: An increase in the near surface temperature of the Earth. Global warming has occurred in the distant past as the result
f] eXkliXc èÉl\eZ\j# Ylk k_\ k\id `j kf[Xp dfjk f]k\e lj\[ kf i\]\i kf k_\ nXidè^ jfd\ jZ`\ek`jkj gi\[`Zk n`cc fZZli Xj X i\jlck f] èZi\Xj\[
anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases.
GREENHOUSE GASES: K_fj\ ^Xj\j# jlZ_ Xj nXk\i mXgfi# ZXiYfe [`fo`[\# e`kiflj fo`[\# d\k_Xe\# _p[if]clfifZXiYfej ?=:j #
g\i]clfifZXiYfej G=:j Xe[ jlc]li _\oX]clfi`[\# k_Xk Xi\ kiXejgXi\ek kf jfcXi j_fik$nXm\ iX[`Xk`fe Ylk fgXhl\ kf cfe^$nXm\ è]iXi\[
iX[`Xk`fe# k_lj gi\m\ekè^ cfe^$nXm\ iX[`Xek \e\i^p ]ifd c\Xmè^ <Xik_Àj Xkdfjg_\i\% K_\ e\k \]]\Zk `j X kiXggè^ f] XYjfiY\[ iX[`Xk`fe
and a tendency to warm the planet’s surface.
INTERMITTENT ELECTRIC GENERATOR OR INTERMITTENT RESOURCE: An electric generating plant with output controlled by the natural
mXi`XY`c`kp f] k_\ \e\i^p i\jfliZ\ iXk_\i k_Xe [`jgXkZ_\[ YXj\[ fe jpjk\d i\hlì\d\ekj% @ek\id`kk\ek flkglk ljlXccp i\jlckj ]ifd k_\ [ì\Zk# efe$
jkfi\[ Zfem\ij`fe f] eXkliXccp fZZliiè^ \e\i^p Élo\j jlZ_ Xj jfcXi \e\i^p# nè[ \e\i^p# fi k_\ \e\i^p f] ]i\\$Éfnè^ i`m\ij k_Xk `j# ile$f]$i`m\i
_p[if\c\Zki`Z`kp %
INTERRUPTIBLE LOAD: K_`j ;\dXe[$J`[\ DXeX^\d\ek ZXk\^fip i\gi\j\ekj k_\ Zfejld\i cfX[ k_Xk# è XZZfi[XeZ\ n`k_ ZfekiXZklXc
XiiXe^\d\ekj# ZXe Y\ èk\iilgk\[ Xk k_\ k`d\ f] XeelXc g\Xb cfX[ Yp k_\ XZk`fe f] k_\ Zfejld\i Xk k_\ [ì\Zk i\hl\jk f] k_\ jpjk\d fg\iXkfi% K_`j
kpg\ f] Zfekifc ljlXccp èmfcm\j cXi^\$mfcld\ Zfdd\iZ`Xc Xe[ è[ljki`Xc Zfejld\ij% @ek\iilgk`Yc\ CfX[ [f\j efk èZcl[\ ;ì\Zk CfX[ :fekifc%
LINE LOSS: <c\Zki`Z \e\i^p cfjk Y\ZXlj\ f] k_\ kiXejd`jj`fe f] \c\Zki`Z`kp% DlZ_ f] k_\ cfjj `j k_\idXc è eXkli\%
LOAD (ELECTRIC): K_\ Xdflek f] \c\Zki`Z gfn\i [\c`m\i\[ fi i\hlì\[ Xk Xep jg\Z`ÈZ gfèk fi gfèkj fe X jpjk\d% K_\ i\hlì\d\ek fi`^èXk\j Xk
the energy-consuming equipment of the consumers.
LOAD CONTROL PROGRAM: A program in which the utility company offers a lower rate in return for having permission to turn off the air
conditioner or water heater for short periods of time by remote control. This control allows the utility to reduce peak demand.
OFF PEAK: G\i`f[ f] i\cXk`m\cp cfn jpjk\d [\dXe[% K_\j\ g\i`f[j f]k\e fZZli è [X`cp# n\\bcp# Xe[ j\XjfeXc gXkk\iej2 k_\j\ fĲ$g\Xb g\i`f[j [`Ĳ\i
for each individual electric utility.
ON PEAK: G\i`f[j f] i\cXk`m\cp _`^_ jpjk\d [\dXe[% K_\j\ g\i`f[j f]k\e fZZli è [X`cp# n\\bcp# Xe[ j\XjfeXc gXkk\iej2 k_\j\ fe$g\Xb g\i`f[j
differ for each individual electric utility.
OUTAGE: K_\ g\i`f[ [liè^ n_`Z_ X ^\e\iXkè^ le`k# kiXejd`jj`fe cè\# fi fk_\i ]XZ`c`kp `j flk f] j\im`Z\%
42

PEAK DEMAND OR PEAK LOAD: K_\ dXo`dld cfX[ [liè^ X jg\Z`È\[ g\i`f[ f] k`d\%
PEAKER PLANT OR PEAK LOAD PLANT: 8 gcXek ljlXccp _fljè^ fc[# cfn$\ĳZ`\eZp jk\Xd le`kj# ^Xj kliYè\j# [`\j\cj# fi gldg\[$jkfiX^\
hydroelectric equipment normally used during the peak-load periods.
PEAKING CAPACITY: :XgXZ`kp f] ^\e\iXkè^ \hl`gd\ek efidXccp i\j\im\[ ]fi fg\iXk`fe [liè^ k_\ _flij f] _`^_\jk [X`cp# n\\bcp# fi j\XjfeXc
loads. Some generating equipment may be operated at certain times as peaking capacity and at other times to serve loads on an around-the-
clock basis.
RATE BASE: K_\ mXcl\ f] gifg\ikp lgfe n_`Z_ X lk`c`kp `j g\id`kk\[ kf \Xie X jg\Z`È\[ iXk\ f] i\klie Xj \jkXYc`j_\[ Yp X i\^lcXkfip Xlk_fi`kp% K_\
rate base generally represents the value of property used by the utility in providing service and may be calculated by any one or a combination
f] k_\ ]fccfnè^ XZZflekè^ d\k_f[j1 ]Xì mXcl\# gil[\ek èm\jkd\ek# i\gif[lZk`fe Zfjk# fi fi`^èXc Zfjk% ;\g\e[è^ fe n_`Z_ d\k_f[ `j lj\[# k_\
iXk\ YXj\ èZcl[\j ZXj_# nfibè^ ZXg`kXc# dXk\i`Xcj Xe[ jlggc`\j# [\[lZk`fej ]fi XZZldlcXk\[ gifm`j`fej ]fi [\gi\Z`Xk`fe# Zfeki`Ylk`fej è X`[ f]
ZfejkilZk`fe# Zljkfd\i X[mXeZ\j ]fi ZfejkilZk`fe# XZZldlcXk\[ [\]\ii\[ èZfd\ kXo\j# Xe[ XZZldlcXk\[ [\]\ii\[ èm\jkd\ek kXo Zi\[`kj%
RATE CASE: 8 gifZ\\[è^# ljlXccp Y\]fi\ X i\^lcXkfip Zfdd`jj`fe# èmfcmè^ k_\ iXk\j kf Y\ Z_Xi^\[ ]fi X glYc`Z lk`c`kp j\im`Z\%
RATE FEATURES: Jg\Z`Xc iXk\ jZ_\[lc\j fi kXi`Ĳj fĲ\i\[ kf Zljkfd\ij Yp \c\Zki`Z Xe[&fi eXkliXc ^Xj lk`c`k`\j%
RATE OF RETURN: The ratio of net operating income earned by a utility is calculated as a percentage of its rate base.
RATE OF RETURN ON RATE BASE: K_\ iXk`f f] e\k fg\iXkè^ èZfd\ \Xie\[ Yp X lk`c`kp# ZXcZlcXk\[ Xj X g\iZ\ekX^\ f] `kj iXk\ YXj\%
RATE SCHEDULE (ELECTRIC): 8 jkXk\d\ek f] k_\ ÈeXeZ`Xc k\idj Xe[ Zfe[`k`fej ^fm\ieè^ X ZcXjj fi ZcXjj\j f] lk`c`kp j\im`Z\j gifm`[\[ kf X
customer. Approval of the schedule is given by the appropriate rate-making authority.
RATEMAKING AUTHORITY: 8 lk`c`kp Zfdd`jj`feÀj c\^Xc Xlk_fi`kp kf Èo# df[`]p# Xggifm\# fi [`jXggifm\ iXk\j Xj [\k\idè\[ Yp k_\ gfn\ij ^`m\e
k_\ Zfdd`jj`fe Yp X JkXk\ fi =\[\iXc c\^`jcXkli\%
RATES: K_\ Xlk_fi`q\[ Z_Xi^\j g\i le`k fi c\m\c f] Zfejldgk`fe ]fi X jg\Z`È\[ k`d\ g\i`f[ ]fi Xep f] k_\ ZcXjj\j f] lk`c`kp j\im`Z\j gifm`[\[ kf X
customer.
RELIABILITY (ELECTRIC SYSTEM): A measure of the ability of the system to continue operation while some lines or generators are out of service.
I\c`XY`c`kp [\Xcj n`k_ k_\ g\i]fidXeZ\ f] k_\ jpjk\d le[\i jki\jj%
RENEWABLE ENERGY RESOURCES: Energy resources that are naturally replenishing but flow-limited. They are virtually inexhaustible in duration
Ylk c`d`k\[ è k_\ Xdflek f] \e\i^p k_Xk `j XmX`cXYc\ g\i le`k f] k`d\% I\e\nXYc\ \e\i^p i\jfliZ\j èZcl[\1 Y`fdXjj# _p[if# ^\fk_\idXc# jfcXi#
nè[# fZ\Xe k_\idXc# nXm\ XZk`fe# Xe[ k`[Xc XZk`fe%
SOLAR ENERGY: K_\ iX[`Xek \e\i^p f] k_\ jle# n_`Z_ ZXe Y\ Zfem\ik\[ èkf fk_\i ]fidj f] \e\i^p# jlZ_ Xj _\Xk fi \c\Zki`Z`kp%
TARIFF: A published volume of rate schedules and general terms and conditions under which a product or service will be supplied.
THERMAL ENERGY STORAGE: K_\ jkfiX^\ f] _\Xk \e\i^p [liè^ lk`c`kp fĲ$g\Xb k`d\j Xk e`^_k# ]fi lj\ [liè^ k_\ e\ok [Xp n`k_flk èZliiè^
daytime peak electric rates.
THERMAL LIMIT: K_\ dXo`dld Xdflek f] gfn\i X kiXejd`jj`fe cè\ ZXe ZXiip n`k_flk jlĲ\iè^ _\Xk$i\cXk\[ [\k\i`fiXk`fe f] cè\ \hl`gd\ek#
particularly conductors.
TIME-OF-DAY PRICING: A special electric rate feature under which the price per kilowatthour depends on the time of day.
TIME-OF-DAY RATE: The rate charged by an electric utility for service to various classes of customers. The rate reflects the different costs of
providing the service at different times of the day.
TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION LOSS: <c\Zki`Z \e\i^p cfjk [l\ kf k_\ kiXejd`jj`fe Xe[ [`jki`Ylk`fe f] \c\Zki`Z`kp% DlZ_ f] k_\ cfjj `j
thermal in nature.
TRANSMISSION (ELECTRIC) (VERB): The movement or transfer of electric energy over an interconnected group of lines and associated
equipment between points of supply and points at which it is transformed for delivery to consumers or is delivered to other electric systems.
Transmission is considered to end when the energy is transformed for distribution to the consumer.
UTILITY GENERATION: Generation by electric systems engaged in selling electric energy to the public.
UTILITY-SPONSORED CONSERVATION PROGRAM: 8ep gifîXd jgfejfi\[ Yp Xe \c\Zki`Z Xe[&fi eXkliXc ^Xj lk`c`kp kf i\m`\n \hl`gd\ek Xe[
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generators.
43

Chapter 7: Smart Grid System Report, U.S. Department of Energy

Executive Summary
Executive Summary
Section 1302 of Title XIII of the Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 directs the
Secretary of Energy to “…report to Congress concerning the status of smart grid deployments
nationwide and any regulatory or government barriers to continued deployment.” This
document satisfies this directive and represents the first installment of this report to Congress,
which is to be updated biennially.
The state of smart grid deployment covers a broad array of electric system capabilities and
services enabled through pervasive communications and information technology, with the
objective to improve reliability, operating efficiency, resiliency to threats, and our impact to
the environment. By collecting information from a workshop, interviews, and research of
existing smart grid literature and studies, this report attempts to present a balanced view of
progress toward a smart grid across many fronts. The Department of Energy sponsored a
workshop, “Implementing the Smart Grid,” that engaged stakeholders from utilities,
reliability coordinators, electricity market operators, end users, suppliers, trade organizations,
and state and federal regulators, as well as the National Institute of Standards and Technology
and the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission. The workshop’s outcomes provide a
foundation for the metrics identified in this report. In addition, the Department’s Energy
Advisory Committee and their Smart Grid Subcommittee were consulted along with the
inter-agency Smart Grid Task Force that includes representatives from NIST, FERC, the
Department of Homeland Security, and the Environmental Protection Agency among others.
While future reports will improve the measurement and perspective of this progress, the
investigation done for this first report reveals the following key findings.
Key Findings
t Distributed energy resources: The ability to connect distributed generation, storage,
and renewable resources is becoming more standardized and cost effective. While the
penetration level remains low, the area is experiencing high growth. Several other
concepts associated with a smart grid are in a nascent phase of deployment these
include the integration of microgrids, electric vehicles, and demand response initiatives,
including grid-sensitive appliances.
t Electricity infrastructure: Those smart grid areas that fit within the traditional
electricity utility business and policy model have a history of automation and advanced
communication deployment to build upon. Advanced metering infrastructure is taking
automated meter reading approaches to a new level, and is seen as a necessary step to
enabling dynamic pricing and consumer participation mechanisms. Though
penetration of these systems is still low, the growth and attention by businesses and
policymakers is strong. Transmission substation automation remains strong with
greater levels of information exchanged with control centers. Cost/benefit thresholds
are now encouraging greater levels of automation at the distribution substation level.
While reliability indices show some slight degradation, generation and electricity
transport efficiencies are improving.
t Business and policy: The business cases, financial resources, paths to deployment, and
models for enabling governmental policy are only now emerging with experimentation.
This is true of the regulated and non-regulated aspects of the electric system.
Understanding and articulating the environmental and consumer perspectives also
iii

Smart Grid System Report — July 2009
remains in its infancy, though recent reports and deliberations indicate that significant
attention is beginning to be given to these issues.
t High-tech culture change: A smart grid is socially transformational. As with the
Internet or cell phone communications, our experience with electricity will change
dramatically. To successfully integrate high levels of automation requires cultural
change. The integration of automation systems within and between the electricity
delivery infrastructure, distributed resources, and end-use systems needs to evolve from
specialized interfaces to embrace solutions that recognize well-accepted principles,
methodology, and tools that are commonly recognized by communications, information
technology, and related disciplines that enable interactions within all economic sectors
and individual businesses. The solutions to improving physical and cyber security,
information privacy, and interoperability (conveniently connect and work within a
collaborative system) require disciplines and best practices that are subscribed to by all
stakeholders. A cross-disciplinary change that instills greater interaction among all the
stakeholders is a necessary characteristic as we advance toward a smart grid. Progress in
areas such as cyber security and interoperability is immature and difficult to measure,
though improved approaches for future measurements are proposed.
The Scope of a Smart Grid

A smart grid uses digital technology to improve reliability, security, and efficiency (both
economic and energy) of the electric system from large generation, through the delivery
systems to electricity consumers and a growing number of distributed-generation and storage
resources (DOE/OEDER 2008a(1)). The information networks that are transforming our
economy in other areas are also being applied to applications for dynamic optimization of
electric system operations, maintenance, and planning. Resources and services that were
separately managed are now being integrated and rebundled as we address traditional problems
in new ways, adapt the system to tackle new challenges, and discover new benefits that have
transformational potential.
Areas of the electric system that cover the scope of a smart grid include the following:
t UIF EFMJWFSZ JOGSBTUSVDUVSF FH USBOTNJTTJPO BOE EJTUSJCVUJPO MJOFT USBOTGPSNFST

switches),
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loads, distributed generation, storage, electric vehicles),
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Some aspect of coordination (e.g., transmission and distribution control centers, regional reliability
the electricity coordination centers, national emergency response centers),
system touches t UIF JOGPSNBUJPO OFUXPSLT UIFNTFMWFT FH SFNPUF NFBTVSFNFOU BOE DPOUSPM
every person in communications networks, inter- and intra-enterprise communications, public
the Nation. Internet), and
t UIF mOBODJBM BOE SFHVMBUPSZ FOWJSPONFOU UIBU GVFMT JOWFTUNFOU BOE NPUJWBUFT
decision makers to procure, implement, and maintain all aspects of the system
(e.g., stock and bond markets, government incentives, regulated or non-regulated
rate-of-return on investment).
(1) Items in parentheses such as this indicate source material listed in Section 6.0 References.
iv

2.0 Deployment Metrics and Measurements
characteristic for emphasis. The table indicates the characteristic where a metric is emphasized
as “emphasis.” The other characteristic cells where a metric plays an important role are
indicated by “mention.” This should not be interpreted to be of secondary importance, only
that a metric finding is mentioned under that characteristic in order to reduce redundancy of
material in explaining the status of smart grid deployment.
The interviews with 21 electric-service providers also provide insight into a measure of the
metrics and how they relate to the smart-grid characteristics. The interview questions were
designed to gather information related to the metrics of interest. The interview results are
presented in Annex B and the information gained from these interviews is woven into the
metric write-ups in Annex A as well as the smart-grid status descriptions presented for each
characteristic in the next section.
Table 2.3. Map of Metrics to Smart-Grid Characteristics
Operates
Accom- Optimizes Resiliently to
Enables modates All Enables New Provides Asset Disturbances,
Informed Generation & Products, Power Quality Utilization & Attacks, &
Metric Participation Storage Services, & for the Range Efficient Natural
No. Metric Name by Customers Options Markets of Needs Operation Disasters
1 Dynamic Pricing Emphasis Mention Mention Mention
2 Real-Time Data Sharing Mention Emphasis
3 DER Interconnection Mention Emphasis Mention Mention
4 Regulatory Policy Emphasis
5 Load Participation Emphasis Mention Mention Mention
6 Microgrids Mention Mention Emphasis Mention
7 DG & Storage Mention Emphasis Mention Mention Mention Mention
8 Electric Vehicles Mention Mention Emphasis Mention
9 Grid-responsive Load Mention Mention Mention Mention Emphasis
10 T&D Reliability Emphasis
11 T&D Automation Mention Emphasis Mention
12 Advanced Meters Emphasis Mention Mention Mention
13 Advanced Sensors Mention Emphasis
14 Capacity Factors Emphasis
15 Generation, T&D Efficiency Emphasis
16 Dynamic Line Rating Emphasis Mention
17 1PXFS 2VBMJUZ Mention Emphasis
18 Cyber Security Emphasis
19 Open Architecture/Stds Emphasis
20 Venture Capital Emphasis
11

3.0 Deployment Trends and Projections
openly available communications architectures and standards, while work is just beginning to
understand the information and business processes involved in application areas such as
demand response.
Determining a quantifiable measurement of progress to improving interoperability for a smart
grid is difficult; however, significant progress has been made in educating stakeholders on the
nature of the issues and their importance. In the Energy Independence and Security Act of
2007, NIST was given the directive to develop an interoperability framework of protocols and
standards to support a smart grid. Stakeholders are assembling to contribute and align their
ideas for such a framework. As interoperability improvement is akin to software quality
improvement, a more quantifiable measurement based upon a Capability Maturity Model
(SEI 2008) is proposed for future reports. With such a model, assessments can be made by
interviewing a representative sample of smart grid projects.
3.4 Provides Power Quality for the

Range of Needs
Not all commercial enterprises, and certainly not all residential customers, need the same
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JTTVFT JODMVEF WPMUBHF TBH nJDLFS BOE
momentary interrupts. Some customers have critical computer systems and complex
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BQQSFDJBUF QBZJOH GPS CFUUFS 12 " TNBSU HSJE TVQQMJFT WBSZJOH HSBEFT PG QPXFS BOE TVQQPSUT
WBSJBCMF QSJDJOH BDDPSEJOHMZ ɨF DPTU PG QSFNJVN 12 GFBUVSFT DBO CF JODMVEFE JO UIF
electrical service contract. Advanced control methods monitor essential components;
FOBCMJOH SBQJE EJBHOPTJT BOE QSFDJTF TPMVUJPOT UP 12 FWFOUT TVDI BT BSJTF GSPN MJHIUOJOH
switching surges, line faults and harmonic sources. A smart grid also helps buffer the
electrical system from irregularities caused by consumer electronic loads.
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grid to provide a continuous flow of energy with a quality to power all their electrical
requirements. Not all customers, however, have the same energy needs. Residential
customers tend to be affected more by sustained interruptions while commercial and
industrial customers are troubled most by sags and momentary interruptions. With greater
flexibility to locally target power quality resources, the ability to offer several pricing levels for
varying grades of power can be considered. For those customers who are deemed power
sensitive, the extra cost of premium power would be a worthwhile investment when compared
with the lost revenue due to a loss of power.
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including:
t 12 NFUFST Not all customers
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t 4NBSU BQQMJBODFT
quality of power.
t 1SFNJVNQPXFS QSPHSBNT
t %FNBOESFTQPOTF QSPHSBNT
t 4UPSBHF EFWJDFT FH CBUUFSJFT nZXIFFMT TVQFSDPOEVDUJOH NBHOFUJD FOFSHZ TUPSBHF
31

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t .POJUPSJOH TZTUFNT VTFE UP JEFOUJGZ TZTUFN IFBMUI BOE DPSSFDU JNQFOEJOH GBJMVSFT
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sensitive loads (NETL 2007)
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generation and storage to manage voltage and VARs
t 3FNPUF GBVMU JTPMBUJPO
t %ZOBNJD GFFEFS SFDPOmHVSBUJPO
t .JDSPHSJET
t %JTUSJCVUJPO TUBUF FTUJNBUJPO
Together, these technologies and other elements of a smart grid could offer tremendous
benefits to energy consumers through cost avoidance and associated productivity gains.
8IJMF 12 JT HFOFSBMMZ WJFXFE JO UFSNT PG CPUI EJTSVQUJPOT BOE EJTUVSCBODFT UIJT TFDUJPO
Related Metrics
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5, 6*, 7, 9, 11, 17* of power disruptions.
3.4.1 The Cost of Poor Power Quality

Power quality incidents in the past were often rather difficult to observe and diagnose due to
their short interruption periods. The increase in power-sensitive and digital loads has forced
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as a drop by 40% or more for 60 cycles, but now it may be a drop by 15% for five cycles
(Kueck et al. 2004).
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The two most widely cited studies were the 1969-1972 Allen-Segall (IBM) study and the
1977-1979 Goldstein-Speranza (AT&T study). A third more recent and considerably larger
study was conducted by the National Power Laboratory (NPL) in the earlier 1990’s. The
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practical reality, and there is a need for different grades of power to protect sensitive loads
(Dorr 1991).
Comparing the studies and assessing trends, however, is more difficult, as each study uses
different definitions, parameters, and instrumentation. NPL filtered data to compare it with
UIBU PG *#. BOE UIFO UIF "55 TVSWFZT JO UIFJS 12 QBQFS UP FYBNJOF USFOET JO EJTUVSCBODFT
and outages. When the data examined by NPL were compared to both the IBM and AT&T
studies, the NPL research team found a decrease in total disturbances per month but an
Loss and fluctua- increase in outages and sag disturbances. Thus, the data suggest the electrical grid has
tions in power improved in terms of its ability to provide clean power free of disturbances but has become
cause users to lose less capable over time to meet the growing demand placed on it and provide an uninterrupted
valuable time and power supply to electricity consumers.
money each year. A loss of power or a fluctuation in power causes commercial and industrial users to lose
valuable time and money each year. Cost estimates of power interruptions and outages vary.
A 2002 study prepared by Primen concluded that power quality disturbances alone cost the
US economy between $15-$24 billion annually (McNulty and Howe 2002). In 2001 EPRI
32

estimated power interruption and power quality cost at $119 billion a year (EPRI 2001), and
a more recent 2004 study from Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL) estimated the
cost at $80 billion a year (Hamachi LaCommare and Eto 2004).
3.4.2 Smart-Grid Solutions to Power Quality Issues

Interviews were conducted for this report with 21 companies meeting an annual peak demand
of 150,000-175,000 megawatts and 0.8-1.2 billion megawatt hours of generation served. The
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(excluding outages). The utilities indicted that 3.1 percent of all customer complaints were
SFMBUFE UP 12 JTTVFT
" TNBSU HSJE DBO BEESFTT 12 JTTVFT BU WBSJPVT TUBHFT JO UIF FMFDUSJDJUZ EFMJWFSZ TZTUFN 'PS
example, smart-grid technologies address transmission congestion issues through demand
response and controllable load. Smart-grid-enabled distributed controls and diagnostic tools
within the transmission and distribution system help dynamically balance electricity supply
and demand, thereby helping the system to respond to imbalances and limiting their Smart-grid-enabled
propagation when they occur [Metric 11]. This reduces the occurrence of outages and power distributed controls
disturbances attributed to grid overload. and diagnostic tools
There are a number of technologies that serve to automate the transmission and distribution help the system
system and are enabled by a smart grid, including: Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition dynamically
(SCADA) technologies, remote sensors and monitors, switches and controllers with respond to power
embedded intelligence, and digital relays [Metric 11]. Nationwide data has shown that imbalances.
transmission automation has penetrated the market, while distribution automation is
primarily led by substation automation, with feeder automation still lagging. Recent research
shows that while 84% of utilities had substation automation and integration plans underway
in 2005 and about 70% had deployed SCADA systems to substations, the penetration of
feeder automation is still limited to approximately 20% (ELP 2008; McDonnell 2008).
.JDSPHSJET BSF BMTP TFSWJOH UP FOIBODF 12 BU TQFDJmD TJUFT <.FUSJD > 5FDIOPMPHJD
regulatory, economic, and environmental incentives are changing the landscape of electricity
production and transmission in the United States. Distributed production using smaller
generating systems, such as small-scale combined heat and power (CHP), small-scale
renewable energy sources (RES) and other DERs can have energy efficiency, and therefore,
environmental advantages over large, central generation. The growing availability of new
technologies in the areas of power electronics, control, and communications supports efforts
in this area. These new technologies enable small power generators, typically located at user
sites where the energy (both electric and thermal) they generate is used, to provide sources of
reliable, quality power, which can be organized and operated as microgrids.
A microgrid is defined as a distribution system with distributed energy sources, storage
devices, and controllable loads, that may generally operate connected to the main power grid
but is capable of operating as an island. Currently, approximately 20 microgrids can be found
at universities, petrochemical facilities and U.S. defense facilities. According to RDC (2005),
the microgrids provided 785 MW of capacity in 2005. They noted additional microgrids that
were in planning at the time as well as demonstration microgrids. RDC also noted that by
examining the Energy Information Administration’s database they could determine
approximately 375 potential sites for microgrids if they weren’t already microgrids. Outside
of the petrochemical microgrids, there are no commercial microgrids in the United States
33

(PSPN 2008). Given EIA’s net summer capacity of 906,155 MW and assuming no
devolution of microgrid capacity from 2005, the percentage of capacity met by microgrids
is about 0.09% in 2006.
Table 3.4. Capacity of Microgrids in 2005 (MW) (RDC 2005)
University Petrochemical DoD

Capacity (MW) 322 455 8
Navigant Consulting, in their base case scenario, projected 550 microgrids installed and
producing approximately 5.5 GW by 2020 (Navigant 2005) or about 0.5% of projected
capacity (DOE/EIA 2009a). Navigant (2005) predicts a range of 1 13 GW depending on
assumptions about pushes for more central power, requirements and demand for reliability
from customers and whether there is a environmental requirement for carbon management.
(SJEDPOOFDUFE EJTUSJCVUFE HFOFSBUJPO %(
BOE TUPSBHF UFDIOPMPHJFT DBO FOIBODF 12 EVF
to their smaller scale, localized support for power generation and distribution systems, and
potential ability to respond to power disruptions and disturbances (e.g., islanded operation).
These technologies include power generators, such as wind turbines connected at the
distribution system level, micro hydro installations, solar panels, and gas microturbines.
These distributed generators produce power for onsite or adjacent consumption and could sell
surplus power back into the grid under an established fee-in tariff. These technologies also
include energy storage devices such as batteries and flywheels, which could be used to store
energy produced or purchased during off-peak hours and then sold or consumed on-peak.
8IJMF UIFTF UFDIOPMPHJFT IBWF DPOTJEFSBCMF QPUFOUJBM GPS FOIBODJOH 12 EJTUSJCVUFE
generation capacity is currently a small part of total power generation, with combined
total distributed generation capacity reaching 12,702 megawatts in 2007 [Metric 7]
(DOE/EIA 2007).
The ability to track where power is going, what is being done with it, and when it is being
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type, such as firm service or interruptible service, and their corresponding tariffs (fixed or
marginal-cost based) will enable utility and government agencies to discriminate between
consumer types, enable demand-curve estimation, and identify energy-consumption
schedules.
According to estimates published in the 2008 Annual Energy Outlook, residential and
commercial energy sales are expected to outpace industrial energy sales (DOE/EIA 2008a).
With both residential and commercial energy demands approaching approximately double
their 1995 values by 2030, the ability to disaggregate and track not only who is consuming
the most energy, but how it is being consumed, will become an increasingly more valuable
asset of a smart grid as utility and government agencies strive to further increase energy
FċDJFODJFT NBOBHF FWFSJODSFBTJOH MPBET BOE QSPWJEF IJHI 12
Load management involves demand-response equipment that can respond to load conditions
[Metric 5]. There are a number of organizations (e.g., Electric Reliability Council of Texas,
Public Utility Commission of Texas) that act to balance and curtail loads to avoid and manage
power disruptions and disturbances. Nationally, however, demand response is low. Table 3.5
shows the number of entities with demand response programs.
34

Table 3.5. Entities Offering Load-Management and

Demand-Response Programs (FERC 2008)
Number of
Type of Program Entities
Direct Load Control 209
Interruptible/Curtailable 248
Emergency Demand Response Program 136
Capacity Market Program 81
Demand Bidding/Buyback 57
Ancillary Services 80
Grid-responsive demand-side equipment includes “smart” appliances (e.g., communicating

thermostats, microwaves, space heaters, hot water heaters, refrigerators) and other devices,
including switches, power-outlets, and various other controllers that could be used to retrofit
or otherwise enable existing equipment to respond to smart grid conditions. This type of
equipment enhances power quality by enabling customers, utilities, and/or third parties to
dynamically control energy consumption based on energy prices and grid conditions. A
recent smart grid experiment conducted by the U.S. Department of Energy, which tested
thermostats, washers and dryers, and water heaters fitted with “smart” grid-responsive
equipment, found these “smart” devices reduced load fluctuations, decreased peak loads, and
significantly reduced energy costs. However, only approximately 8% of U.S. energy
customers have any form of time-based or incentive-based price structure that would enable
customers to reap the benefits associated with load shifting behavior [Metric 9] (FERC 2008).
Only 5 percent were reported as having a time-based rate in the 2006 FERC Survey
(FERC 2006a).
Related Metrics
3.5 Optimizes Asset Utilization 2, 3, 5, 7, 11*, 13,
and Operating Efficiency 14*, 15*, 16*
One of the key features of a smart grid is its lower costs of operations, maintenance, and
expansion compared with those of traditional forms of operation. A smart grid is able to
optimize operating efficiency and utilization of assets by employing advanced information and
communication technologies; this allows better monitoring of equipment maintenance,
minimizes operation costs, and “replaces iron with bits” (DOE/OEDER 2008b) by reducing
the need for increased generation and infrastructure through demand-response measures and
other technologies.
This section looks at asset utilization and operating efficiency of the bulk generation,
transmission and distribution delivery infrastructure, and the distributed energy resources in
the electric system. It concludes with an overall view of system efficiency.
3.5.1 Bulk Generation

The United States crept closer to its generation capacity limits for at least the ten years
preceding 1998-2000, according to NERC, but reversed that trend during the next 5 years
and returned to more conservative capacity factors [Metric 14]. Figure 3.9 shows measured
and predicted winter and summer peak generation capacity factors from 1999 and projected
35

to 2014. It indicates that,

after a recent decline, the
generation capacity factors
are predicted to increase
slightly in the next 8 years.
The large differential
between available
capacities and average
capacity is built to
accommodate a few hours
of peak demand during
winter and summer
regionally.
For bulk generation,
efficiencies for coal,
petroleum, and gas remain
Figure 3.9. Measured and Predicted Peak Summer, Peak Winter, and Yearly Average almost constant for the last
Generation Capacity Factors in the U.S. (NERC 2008) 20 years; there is no new
breakthrough in sight (see
Figure 3.10). The combination of coal, petroleum, and natural gas makes up about 80% of
the nation’s electric power-generation base [Metric 15].
Figure 3.10. Generation Efficiency for Various Fossil Fuel Sources over Time
(DOE/EIA 2007a)
Table 3.6 shows the 2006 and projected 2008 peak demand and generation capacities. The
grid currently runs with a generation capacity factor of about 46%.
36

Table 3.6. Measured and Projected Peak Demands and Generation Capacities for
Recent Years in the U.S., and Calculated Capacity Factors (NERC 2008)
Measurement 2006 Measured 2008 Projected

Summer peak demand (MW) 789,475 801,209
Summer generation capacity (MW) 954,697 991,402
Capacity factor, peak summer (%) 82.69 80.82
Winter peak demand (MW) 640,981 663,105
Winter generation capacity (MW) 983,371 1,018,124
Capacity factor, peak winter (%) 65.18 65.13
:FBSMZ FOFSHZ DPOTVNFE CZ MPBE (8IS
3,911,914 4,089,327
Capacity factor, average (%)(1) 46.08 46.46
(1) The average of the NERC (2006) summer and winter capacities was used for this calculation.
3.5.2 Delivery Infrastructure

T&D automation devices communicate real-time information about the grid and their own
operation and then make decisions to bring energy consumption and/or performance in line
with their operator’s preferences. These smart devices, which exchange information with other
substation devices or area control centers, can increase asset utilization and smart-grid reliability
as well as reduce operating expenses by increasing device and system responsiveness to grid
events. T&D automation devices can aid in reducing the differential between average load and
peak load. Recent research found that about 60% of the control centers in North America have
linkages with other utilities [Metric 2] (Newton-Evans 2008).
Data from utilities across the nation show a clear trend of increasing T&D automation and
increasing investment in these systems. Key drivers for the increase in investment include
operational efficiency and reliability improvements to drive cost down and overall reliability up.
The lower cost of automation with respect to T&D equipment (transformers, conductors, etc.)
is also making the value proposition easier to justify. With higher levels of automation in all
aspects of the T&D operation, operational changes can be introduced to operate the system
closer to capacity and stability constraints [Metric 11].
Results of interviews undertaken for this report (see Annex B) indicate that:
t PG UIF UPUBM TVCTUBUJPOT PXOFE XFSF BVUPNBUFE

t PG UIF UPUBM TVCTUBUJPOT PXOFE IBE PVUBHF EFUFDUJPO
t PG UPUBM DVTUPNFST IBE DJSDVJUT XJUI PVUBHF EFUFDUJPO
t PG UPUBM SFMBZT XFSF FMFDUSPNFDIBOJDBM SFMBZT
t PG UPUBM SFMBZT XFSF NJDSPQSPDFTTPS SFMBZT QSFTVNFE SPVOEJOH FSSPS
Other nationwide data has shown that transmission automation has already penetrated the
market highly, while distribution automation is primarily led by substation automation, with
feeder equipment automation still lagging. Recent research shows that while 84% of utilities
had substation automation and integration plans underway in 2005, and about 70% of utilities
had deployed SCADA systems to substations, the penetration of feeder automation is still
limited to about 20% (ELP 2008; McDonnell 2008). Because feeder automation lags other
automation efforts so significantly, this should be an area addressed directly in future work.
37

Chapter 8: Testimony of Commissioner Jon Wellinghoff, FERC
Testimony of Chairman Jon Wellinghoff

Federal Energy Regulatory Commission
Before the Energy and Environment Subcommittee
Of the Committee on Energy and Commerce
United States House of Representatives
Hearing on the Future of the Grid: Proposals for Reforming National
Transmission Policy
June 12, 2009
Mr. Chairman, and members of the Subcommittee:
My name is Jon Wellinghoff, and I am the Chairman of the Federal Energy

Regulatory Commission (Commission). Thank you for the opportunity to appear
before you today to discuss the critical topic of the development of our Nation’s
electric transmission grid.
Transmission facilities are critical to meeting the goal of reducing reliance on

carbon-emitting sources of electric energy and bringing new sources of renewable
energy to market. A reliable and robust transmission grid is essential to allow
regions, states, and utilities to access least-cost resource options to meet state and
national environmental, economic and security goals. To meet the challenges of
building needed new transmission facilities, we must address not only the role of
federal siting authority but also the closely-related issues of transmission planning
and cost allocation. In doing so, we must focus on maintaining the reliability of
the electric system. The time has come to develop a regulatory framework that
will allow us to successfully meet these challenges. I commend you, Mr.
Chairman, and the Subcommittee for your decision to hold a hearing on these
important issues.
Introduction
President Obama has stated that the country that harnesses the power of clean,
renewable energy will lead the 21st century. The President also stated that we will
need to build power lines that can carry new clean energy to cities and towns
across this country. He also said we should be “starting to build a new smart grid
that will save us money, protect our power sources from blackout or attack, and
deliver clean, alternative forms of energy to every corner of our nation."
A majority of states have adopted renewable portfolio standards that require

utilities to acquire renewable generation capacity, some of which are quite
aggressive. For example, the Connecticut standard requires that 27% of the
energy consumed in the state be generated using renewable resources by 2020.

Both houses of Congress are considering a federal renewable energy standard as

well.
Clean power is essential to meeting energy goals such as promoting fuel diversity,
reducing greenhouse gas emissions, strengthening our national security, enhancing
competition, ensuring reliability, and revitalizing our economy. The need for
additional federal authority to achieve these goals is clear. Historically, the
Nation’s electric utilities transported fuels to generate electricity to plants located
near load centers. Many of today’s clean energy resources are located far from
consumers and existing transmission facilities and those resources cannot be
moved. Moreover, they are not evenly dispersed throughout the country.
Delivering the power generated by these resources to consumers will require the
planning, siting and construction of interstate and inter-regional transmission
facilities. Only Congress, exercising its authority to regulate commerce among the
states, can address this problem.
The requirement for greater fuel diversity, whether as a result of federal or state
goals, cannot be accomplished unless we ensure that the renewable, and
sometimes variable, generation resources that we will rely upon to meet these
goals can be reliably integrated into the power grid and ultimately deliverable to
consumers. Renewable energy resources, particularly those whose operation
follow a natural but variable cycle, must be integrated into the transmission system
in a manner consistent with reliable operation of the grid. We know that the grid
can accommodate some level of renewable generation, but we also know that, with
the current configuration of the grid and the variability of some forms of
renewable generation, it cannot accommodate 100%. Compounding the
challenges of integrating renewable generation, we also know that the grid is
aging, was designed for more traditional types of generation, and is characterized
by decreasing reserve margins. These conditions mean that smaller disturbances
on the grid cause larger fluctuations and increase the risk of outages.
Because of these factors, Commission staff is conducting a study to determine the

appropriate metrics for use in assessing the reliability impact of integrating large
amounts of variable renewable power generation onto the existing power grid.
That study, which is being undertaken by Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
and overseen by Commission staff, is due to be completed by November 2009.
When the study is complete, it will help answer the question of how variable
resources can be reliably integrated onto the existing grid, which will help inform
policy makers about the current limitations of the grid and identify what new
resources and transmission facilities will be necessary to reliably accommodate
future renewable resources and those currently under development.

Chapter 8: Testimony of Commissioner Jon Wellinghoff, FERC
I believe that, if the Nation is to meet its goals, there must be a mechanism that,
after the states have had an opportunity, allows a transmission developer to invoke
federal authority to site the transmission facilities necessary to interconnect
renewable power to the electric transmission grid and move that power to
consumers. We need a national policy commitment to develop the transmission
infrastructure to bring renewable energy from remote areas where it is produced
most efficiently into our metropolitan areas where most of this Nation’s power is
consumed. This transmission infrastructure is likely to be comprised of extra-high
voltage facilities, related feeder lines that will interconnect remote renewable
energy resources to the transmission grid, and supporting upgrades to the existing
grid (hereinafter, “transmission infrastructure”). Without this national
commitment, we will not be able to take advantage of our capacity to develop
clean power.
We must develop a structured regulatory framework that will enable the United
States to build the transmission infrastructure necessary to deliver our Nation’s
high quality, location-constrained renewable resources to load centers. That
framework must adequately address transmission siting and the related issues of
transmission planning and cost allocation. And above all, we must ensure that we
preserve the reliability of the electric grid so that consumers and businesses
continue to receive the highest level of service, protecting the safety of our
citizens, the security of our Nation, and the health of our economy.
There is a real opportunity to make the United States a world leader in developing
the clean energy industries of the future. Without a coherent drive for a smart grid
that is designed and built (or rebuilt) to achieve our national energy and
environmental goals in a timely fashion, the jobs and sustainable economic
development options from those potential new industries could very well manifest
in Europe or Asia rather than here.
Though the focus of this hearing is on ensuring that the development of the
interstate transmission grid allows our country to meet national and state goals, we
should not lose sight of the critical role of local renewable energy, distributed
resources, and demand response. We must focus on ensuring that we remove
barriers to entry for local renewable and distributed resources. Developing and
reliably delivering these local resources is important as we expand our capacity to
generate clean power, but that effort must be made in concert with and not
separate from developing the transmission infrastructure that I describe above. An
optimal blending of both resources will be necessary to achieve our Nation’s
energy goals. That optimization process will require a collaborative effort
between the states and the Federal government with an expanded Federal role.
The Need for an Expanded Federal Role

Chapter 10: Prepared Statement of James J. Hoecker, Counsel to WIRES


Chapter 10: Prepared Statement of James J. Hoecker, Counsel to WIRES

Figure 3: An example of meter-reading architecture. The electric meter measures a variety of electrical parameters and may also
control metered load. Image courtesy of Elster Metering.
What is the Consumer Portal?
Figure 4: EPRI’s Consumer Portal architecture. Image courtesy of EPRI.
Page B2-7 Modern Grid Systems View: Appendix B2 v2.0 Sensing and Measurement

Chapter 13: Sensing and Measurement
UTILITY-FOCUSED ADVANCES
Utility Monitoring Systems
For most utilities, real-time monitoring systems provide up-to-date
information on major substation equipment and some transmission
line conditions. However, this is not true for most distribution
facilities.
EPRI and the Tennessee Valley Authority have identified several

requirements for advanced condition sensors, such as devices that
determine the instantaneous condition of switches, cables, and other
grid components.
They have found that first of all, costs must be low for the sensors,
including their installation and maintenance. Second, inspections
must be easily implemented, with special attention to hard-to-access
locations, such as energized conductors on structures and inside
cabinets. Third, the sensors must be small in size and secure from
damage. Finally, they must not create problems related to
electromagnetic compatibility (EMC).
Table 2 describes some advanced utility monitoring systems that are

either commercially available or are currently under development.

Table 2: Advanced Utility Monitoring System

Advanced Utility Monitoring System
System Description
Wide-area monitoring x GPS-based phasor monitoring unit (PMU).
system (WAMS) x Measures the instantaneous magnitude of voltage or current at a selected grid
See Figure 5 location.
x Provides a global and dynamic view of the power system, automatically checks if
predefined operating limits are violated, and alerts operators.
x Provides a global view of disturbances, as shown in Figure 5.
x Compares generator operation points to allowable limits to keep generators in a
safe state.
x Tracks inter-area, low-frequency power oscillations and presents results to system
operators; also used to tune damping controllers.
x Combines phasor data with conventional SCADA (supervisory control and data
acquisition) data for enhanced state estimation.
x The Consortium for Electric Reliability Technology Solutions is one of several
groups striving to develop WAMS technology for North America.
x Of the many sensing and measurement technologies currently under development,
WAMS may have the greatest potential for enabling grid reliability improvement.
Dynamic line rating x Measures the ampacity of a line in real time.
technology x The Power Systems Engineering Research Center has sponsored development of a
See Figure 6 for an computer program that calculates line sag and current-carrying capacity in real
example time using inputs from both direct and indirect measurements.
x One university, with support from the National Science Foundation and a local
utility, plans to develop a wireless network for dynamic thermal rating of a line at a
target cost of $200 per sensor; this would allow the determination of dynamic
thermal line rating for all spans, eliminating the need to identify a critical span.
Conductor/ x Measures conductor temperature to allow accurate dynamic rating of overhead
compression lines and line sag, thus determining line rating.
connector sensor x Measures temperature difference between conductors and conductor splices.
x Interrogation via helicopter, ground, BPL, or wireless.
x Battery-free.
x Unique serial number tied to asset GPS location.
Image courtesy of EPRI.
Insulation x Continually monitors leakage current and extracts key parameters.

contamination leakage x Critical to determining when an insulator flashover is imminent due to
current sensor contamination.
x Clip-on, wireless, battery-free.
x Unique identification number.
S el t oni b o a rd
7 0 0 0 -tu rn co il
2 .0 " x 0 .9 "
E n clo su re sh ow n
tra n slu ce n t
x On-board storage of key parameters.
x On-board storage of solar power.
x Ability for interrogator to reset data.

Advanced Utility Monitoring System

System Description
Backscatter radio x Provides improved data and warning of transmission and distribution component
technology failure.
x Communicates data back to a substation or other data collection point.
x Small, low cost, reliable.
x Battery-free, with minimal electronics and long service life.
x Radiation-free for reduced EMC concerns.
x Uses inexpensive, off-the-shelf components.
x Always “awake,” enabling fast inspection speeds.
Electronic instrument x Replaces precise electromagnetic devices (such as current transformers and
transformer potential transformers) that convert high voltages and currents to manageable,
measurable levels.
x Fiber-optic-based current and potential sensors, available from several venders,
accurately measure voltage and current to revenue standards over the entire
range of the device.
Other monitoring x Fiber-optic, temperature-monitoring system: Provides direct, real-time
systems measurement of hot spots in small and medium transformers, thus addressing
utility concerns about the safety and reliable operation of high-voltage equipment.
x Circuit breaker real-time monitoring system: Measures the number of operations
since the last time maintenance was performed, as well as operation times, oil or
gas insulation levels, breaker mechanism signatures, etc.
x Cable monitor: Determines changes in buried cable health by trending partial
discharges or through periodic impulse testing of lines.
x Battery monitor: Minimizes battery failure by assessing cell health, specific gravity
liquid level, cell voltage, and charge/discharge characteristics.
x Sophisticated monitoring tool: Combines several different temperature and
current measurements to dynamically determine temperature hot spots; measure
dissolved gases in oil; evaluate the high-frequency patterns and signatures
associated with faulty components and report the health of transformers and load
tap changers in real time.
x Many of these systems are commercially available.
Table 2: Advanced Utility Monitoring System

Figure 5: This sample image of a WAMS record-and-replay function display provides a global view of disturbances. Graphic under
IEEE copyright. It appeared in the article, “WAMS Applications in Chinese Power Systems” in the IEEE Power & Energy Magazine,
V4:1 (Jan/Feb 2006). Image courtesy of IEEE Power and Energy Magazine.
Figure 6: A real-time rating characteristic. Historically, line ratings have been based on assumed static conditions, but in-service
conditions can differ substantially from those assumptions. This figure illustrates the dynamically increased power rating achievable
with actual conditions provided by tower-mounted weather stations, line tension monitors, and/or visual cameras. Image courtesy
of EPRI.
Advanced Protection Systems
In the past, more than 70 percent of major system disturbances

have involved protective relaying systems, not necessarily as the
initiating event but as a contributor to the cascading nature of the
event. Today, products to reduce this problem are increasingly
available. Compared to the electromechanical and analog relays of
the past, new digital relays include many value-adding functions, such
as fault location, high-impedance distribution fault detection, more
sophisticated transformer and bus fault detection, self checking

diagnostics, adaptive relaying and greater use of networked digital

communications. As these new digital devices continue to be
deployed throughout the grid, reliability will be significantly enhanced.
Table 3 describes two advanced protection technologies.
Advanced Protection System

System Description
Fault-testing recloser x Applies a very fast, low-energy pulse to the line to determine if a fault
is still present.
x Minimizes damage caused by reclosing into faulted lines.
x Significantly reduces damaging fault-current and voltage sags on the
faulted line and adjacent feeders.
x Substation transformers experience fewer through-faults, thus
extending service life.
x Cables, overhead conductors, splices, and terminations experience
less thermal and mechanical stress from through-fault currents.
Special protection x Real-time monitoring of key generation assets or transmission lines
system and their associated power flows.
x Upon a change of status (like loss of generation and/or loss of
transmission), a pre-programmed set of actions takes place (e.g.,
wide-area load shed, generator redispatch, separation of interties).
x Allows power transfers across the grid that would not comply with
single or multiple contingencies under normal criteria.
x Allows operators to load transmission lines closer to thermal limits or
beyond normal voltage or system stability limits.
Table 3: Advanced protection systems
RELATED RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT

Research and development will support the integration of the sensing
and measurement capabilities discussed previously as they come to
market. In addition to utilities, EPRI and various equipment vendors
are actively engaged in important R&D efforts.
Table 4: Research and Development Related to Sensing and Measurement.

Research and Development Related to Sensing and Measurement
Name Description
The Consortium for x Is working to accelerate meaningful opportunities for customers to
Electric Reliability participate voluntarily in competitive electricity markets.
Technology Solutions x Studies focus on determining the effect of demand response on
(CERTS) market efficiency and on demonstrating advanced demand-response
technologies and strategies that will improve the reliability of the grid.
x Work on WAMS contributes to this key technology area.

Research and Development Related to Sensing and Measurement

Name Description
The Power Systems x Reliability-based vegetation management through intelligent system
Engineering Research monitoring.
Center (PSERC): x Digital protection systems using optical instrument transformers and
Transmission and digital relays interconnected by an IEC 61850-9.2 digital process bus.
Distribution
Technologies stem x Optimal placement of PMUs for state estimation.
The California Energy x Advanced metering design, costs, and benefits.

Commission x Tariff design.
x The evaluation of dynamic rates and programs for small customers.
x The evaluation of DR programs for large customers.
Table 4: Research and Development Related to Sensing and Measurement
REQUIREMENTS AND REGULATIONS

Customer metering has always fallen within the purview of state
regulatory bodies. So, too, have the tariffs that determine how and
what a customer will pay. Hence, a metering transformation cannot
occur without the support and encouragement of these regulators.
The Energy Policy Act of 2005 (EPAct) is very clear in this regard. The
following sums up the spirit of this new law:
It is the policy of the United States that time-based

pricing and other forms of demand response, whereby
electricity customers are provided with price signals
and the ability to benefit by responding to them, shall
be encouraged, and the deployment of such
technology and devices that enable electricity
customers to participate in such pricing and demand
response systems shall be facilitated, and
unnecessary barriers to demand response
participation in energy, capacity, and ancillary service
markets shall be eliminated.
The law is also very proactive in requiring electric suppliers to employ

advanced metering and communications technology. It will certainly
motivate regulators to more seriously address the need for these
technologies.

FUTURE STATE
We have examined the current state of the sensing and
measurement technologies. Now, we will look at how this
key technology area will develop in the future.
At the customer level, the modern grid will have no

electromechanical customer meters or meter readers. Instead,
modern solid-state meters will communicate with both the customer
and the service provider.
Microprocessors in these advanced meters will offer a wide range

of functions. At a minimum, they will record usage associated with
different times of day and costs of production. Most will also be able
to register a critical peak-pricing signal sent by the service provider,
charging at that critical rate while it is in effect. At the same time, the
meter will notify the customer that the critical rate has been
implemented.
A still more sophisticated version will adhere to a desired-usage

profile preprogrammed by the customer. In response to fluctuating
electricity prices, the unit will automatically control the customer’s
loads in accordance with that schedule.
The most sophisticated versions will even provide non-utility services,

such as fire and burglar alarms.
This new metering approach will be built on the digital

communications capabilities of the Internet, will employ standard
Internet protocols, and will use reliable, ubiquitous communications
media, such as wireless, BPL, or even fiber to the home. The
customer interface will be user friendly, with increasing levels of
sophistication as product features are added. Security will be
designed to prevent tampering or disruption.
At the utility level, advanced sensing and measurement tools will

supply expanded data to power-system operators and planners.
This will include information about the following:
x Power factor
x Power quality throughout the grid
x Phasor relationships (WAMS)
x Equipment health and capacity
x Meter tampering
x Vegetation intrusion
x Fault location
x Transformer and line loading

x Circuit voltage profiles

x Temperature of critical elements
x Outage identification
x Power consumption profiles and forecasting
x Curtailable load levels
New host software systems will collect, store, analyze, and process
the abundance of data that flows from these modern tools. The
processed data will then be passed to the existing and new utility
information systems that carry out the many core functions of the
business (e.g., billing, planning, operations, maintenance, customer
service, forecasting, statistical studies, etc.).
As the requirements for a modern grid crystallize, additional

parameters will need to be calculated in the meters, and other
measurement and sensing points will be desired. The architecture of
a modern grid must allow retrofitting of advancements without the
need for massive infrastructure change-out.
Future digital relays that employ computer agents will further

enhance reliability. A computer agent is a self-contained software
module that has properties of autonomy and interaction. Wide-area
monitoring, protection and control schemes will integrate digital
relays, advanced communications and computer agents. In such an
integrated distributed protection system, the relays will be capable of
autonomously interacting with each other. This flexibility and
autonomy adds reliability because even with failures in parts of the
system, the remaining agent-based relays continue to protect the
grid.
The primary assumption underlying the realization of sensing and

measurement is that the benefits of developing and implementing
these technologies will exceed the cost. Hence, an important
variable is the value assigned to those benefits, some of which reach
beyond the utility function to impact society as a whole.
There is little doubt that modern digital technology can produce low-
cost, highly effective solutions, with all such technological
developments depending on two major factors:
x Scale of deployments
x The continued reduction in the price of digital integrated circuits
The projected scale of various deployments is enormous. A global

metering transformation would employ hundreds of millions of
intelligent, communicating meters. But, as Moore’s Law consistently
shows, the price of chips will continue to drop even as their
processing power grows.
Also, as history has shown us, the associated requirement of

ubiquitous, reliable, inexpensive communications will become

Chapter 15: Advanced Control Methods
Appendix B4:
A Systems View of the Modern Grid
ADVANCED CONTROL METHODS
Conducted by the National Energy Technology Laboratory

for the U.S. Department of Energy
Office of Electricity Delivery and Energy Reliability
March 2007
Office of Electricity
Delivery and Energy
Reliability
v2.0

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Executive Summary .................................................................................. 2
Current State............................................................................................ 4
DISTRIBUTED INTELLIGENT AGENTS ................................................................6
ANALYTICAL TOOLS .......................................................................................7
OPERATIONAL APPLICATIONS .........................................................................8
Future State ........................................................................................... 11

FUNCTIONS ACM WILL PERFORM: .............................................................. 11
Benefits ................................................................................................. 15
Barriers to Deployment........................................................................... 16
Summary ............................................................................................... 18
Bibliography........................................................................................... 20
Acronyms ............................................................................................... 21
Page B4-1 Modern Grid Systems View: Appendix B4 v2.0 Advanced Control Methods

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
It is becoming increasingly difficult today to meet our
nation’s 21st century power demands with an
electric grid built on yesterday’s technologies.
A fully modernized grid is essential to provide service that is

reliable, secure, cost-effective, efficient, safe, and
environmentally responsible. To achieve the modern grid, a
wide range of technologies must be developed and
implemented. These technologies can be grouped into five
key technology areas as shown in Figure 1 below.
Figure 1: The Modern Grid Systems View provides an “ecosystem” perspective that considers all aspects and all stakeholders.
The advanced control methods (ACM) featured in this paper comprise

one of the five key technology areas that must be developed if we are
to have a truly safe, reliable, and environmentally friendly modern grid.
ACM technologies are the devices and algorithms that will analyze,
diagnose, and predict conditions in the modern grid and determine and
take appropriate corrective actions to eliminate, mitigate, and prevent
outages and power quality disturbances. These methods will provide
control at the transmission, distribution, and consumer levels and will
manage both real and reactive power across state boundaries.
To a large degree, ACM technologies rely on and contribute to each of

the other four key technology areas. For instance, ACM will monitor
essential components (Sensing and Measurements), provide timely and
appropriate response (Integrated Communications; Advanced
Components), and enable rapid diagnosis (Improved Interfaces and

Decision Support) of any event. Additionally, ACM will also support

market pricing and enhance asset management.
The analysis and diagnostic functions of future ACM will incorporate

predetermined expert logic and templates that give “permission” to
the grid’s software to take corrective action autonomously when these
actions fall within allowable permission sets.
As a result, actions that must execute in seconds or less will not be

delayed by the time required for human analysis, decision-making, and
action. Significant improvement in grid reliability will result due to this
self-healing feature of the modern grid.
ACM will require an integrated, high-speed communication

infrastructure and corresponding communication standards to process
the vast amount of data needed for these kinds of system analyses.
ACM will be utilized to support distributed intelligent agents, analytical
tools, and operational software applications.
This paper covers the following four important topics:
x Current state of ACM

x Future state of ACM
x Benefits of implementation
x Barriers to deployment
Although it can be read on its own, this paper supports and supplements
“A Systems View of the Modern Grid,” an overview prepared by the
Modern Grid Initiative team.

CURRENT STATE
The communication infrastructure supporting today’s control
systems consists of a wide spectrum of technologies patched
together. The required information is transmitted from the
sensor to the control systems, processed by the control
systems, and then transmitted to the controlling devices.
This current communication infrastructure is too limited to support the

high-speed requirements and broad coverage needed by ACM, and it
does not provide the networked, open architecture format necessary
for the continued enhancement and growth of the modern grid.
Additionally, today's grid lacks many of the smart sensors and control
devices including consumer portal devices that need to be deployed to
measure the required data and provide the control mechanisms to
manage the electric system.
Some progress is being made. For instance, distribution automation

(DA) technologies are presently being integrated with supervisory control
and data acquisition (SCADA) systems to provide rapid reconfiguration of
specific sections of the distribution system. This will minimize the impact
of system faults and power quality disturbances on customers. DA
provides the ability to monitor and operate devices that are installed
throughout the distribution system, thereby optimizing station loadings
and reactive supply, monitoring equipment health, identifying outages,
and providing more rapid system restoration. However, this integration
needs to happen more quickly and on a much wider scale.
Some of today’s ACM technologies are locally based, such as at a

substation, where the necessary data can be collected in near real time
without the need for a system-wide communication infrastructure. But
these control algorithms act autonomously at a local substation level and
hence do not benefit from a system-wide perspective. Often, these
algorithms are integrated with centralized systems to enable others not
located at the substation to have access to the data. Substation
automation technologies provide this functionality and are in their early
phases of implementation at most utilities. Numerous vendors provide
modern substation automation technologies today using architectures
similar to that shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2: Example schematic of substation data architecture. Image courtesy of the International Electrotechnical Commission.
ACM technologies depend heavily on data sensing and some form of

data transmission (See “Appendix B2: Sensing and Measurement” and
“Appendix B1: Integrated Communications”). Today’s sensors that
measure system parameters (e.g.., watts and watt-hours, VArs and VAr-
hours, volts, amperes, power factor, phase angles, harmonics, etc.) are
only beginning to evolve from the traditional electric/electromechanical
design to a solid-state, electronic-based technology of higher accuracy,
more intelligence, and with the capability to interface with digital
communication systems. The widespread deployment of intelligent
electronic devices (IEDs) at the system, equipment, and consumer levels
must occur to support ACM in the future.
Significant advances have been made in software-based control

algorithms in nearly every industry and much has been done in the
area of ACM. Some of the ACM technologies needed for the modern grid
are currently available or are in research and development. These
technologies are slowly being integrated into three important areas:
distributed intelligent agents, analytical tools, and operational
applications. Some of the technologies in these areas are described in
the three tables which follow.

DISTRIBUTED INTELLIGENT AGENTS

Distributed Intelligent Agents are adaptive, self-aware, self-healing,
and semi-autonomous control systems that respond rapidly at the local
level to unburden centralized control systems and human operators.
Several of these agents are often combined to form a multi-agent system
with peer-to-peer communication. These multi-agent systems are
capable of reaching goals difficult to achieve by an individual system.
Some of these technologies are described in Table 1 below.
Distributed Intelligent Agents
Agent Description
Digital protective relay x Senses electric system parameters, analyzes data, and initiates
control actions autonomously to protect system assets
x Communication-enhanced coordination ensures only last device
feeding a faulted section clears the fault
x Protection coordination can be automatically updated as circuits are
reconfigured
x Provides post-disturbance data for analysis of event
x New design not yet universally deployed across the grid
Intelligent tap x Senses both high- and low-side voltages to perform advanced control
changer x Minimizes draw of reactive power from transmission system
Dynamic circuit rating tool x Determines the safe and accurate dynamic rating of lines
x Interfaces with advanced sensors that monitor weather parameters,
line sag, and conductor temperature to obtain the required inputs
x Normally provides additional line capacity except during times when
weather conditions and line loadings are not favorable
Energy management system x Monitors electric system parameters and marketing information;
considers consumer preset settings and acts on the behalf of the
consumer to manage energy costs, comfort, and health
x Supports demand-response (DR) programs based on real-time
pricing
Grid-friendly appliance x Senses grid conditions by monitoring the frequency or voltage of the
controller system and provides automatic DR in times of system distress
x Can be installed in household appliances such as refrigerators,
washers, dryers, stoves, etc., to turn them off or on as required to
allow the grid to stabilize
Dynamic distributed power x Increases or decreases line impedance
control devices x Improves utilization of under-utilized lines
x Can manage flexible alternating current transmission system (FACTS)
devices installed at substations to provide instantaneous and
autonomous control of line flow and voltage
x Low-cost, mass-produced, distributed power-flow devices can be
installed on each phase of a line to provide 10% or more
instantaneous control of power flow
Table 1: Distributed intelligent agents

Chapter 16: Improved Interfaces and Decision Support
Figure 2: Bus voltage contours. Image courtesy of Tom Overbye University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.
Figure 3: 3-D Visualization. Image courtesy of Tom Overbye University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.
Page B5-10 Modern Grid Systems View: Appendix B5 v2.0 Improved Interfaces and Decision Support

Figure 4: POWERWORLD™ display. Image courtesy of Tom Overbye University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.
Before data can be put into visual form, however, data optimization
– the reducing, combining, and categorizing of data to eliminate
unnecessary clutter – must be performed so that the visualization
processes can present the data to an operator using the most
effective visual interface.
Online optimization software is currently being demonstrated that

transforms complex calculations into an easily visualized graphic
format. In the future, software of this kind is expected to be widely
accepted and implemented. Figure 5, below, depicts the results of
such an online transmission-system optimization program.

Chapter 16: Improved Interfaces and Decision Support
Figure 5: Visualization of online transmission system optimization. Image courtesy of V&R Energy Systems Research,
Inc.
Without optimization, the secure region of operation is limited by

voltage constraints, but after optimization, the secure region of
operation increases until lines become limited by voltage stability.
Using visualization technologies, the system operator may optimize

the transmission system by applying control measures such as these:
x MW dispatch
x MVAR dispatch
x Capacitor and reactor switching
x Operation of FACTS devices
x Transformer tap changes
x Line switching
x Adjustment of phase shifter settings
x Load curtailment
x Defined operating procedures
x Switching not-affected lines
In the near future, many new applications will be available that will
improve visualization and thus increase the human operator’s
understanding and speed of comprehension. Here are some
examples:
x Advanced pattern recognition – Used for intruder detection,
forgery detection, biometrics, next-generation computer
interfaces, and automatic paraphrasing, translation and language
understanding.

Chapter 17: Self-Heals
Appendix A1:
SELF-HEALS

March 2007
Delivery and Energy
Reliability

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Table of Contents...........................................................................1
Executive Summary........................................................................2
Current and Future States ..............................................................6

Current State .................................................................................. 6
Transmission .................................................................................. 6
Distribution ..................................................................................... 6
Future State.................................................................................... 7
Requirements................................................................................9
Key Success Factors ...................................................................... 9
Reliable ........................................................................................... 9
Secure ............................................................................................. 9
Economic ......................................................................................10
Efficient and Environmentally Friendly .......................................10
Safe ...............................................................................................10
Observed Gaps .............................................................................10
Design Concept ............................................................................11
Design Features and Functions ..................................................12
Probabilistic Risk Assessment.....................................................12
Power Stabilization Techniques ..................................................12
Distribution System Self-healing Processes ...............................12
User Interface ...............................................................................13
Functional Architecture Standardization ....................................13
Performance Requirements ........................................................14
Barriers ...................................................................................... 16
Benefits ..................................................................................... 18
Recommendations ..................................................................... 19
Summary.................................................................................... 20
Bibliography............................................................................... 22
Page A1-1 Modern Grid Systems View: Appendix A1 v2.0 Self-Heals

Chapter 17: Self-Heals
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The systems view of the modern grid features seven
principal characteristics. One of those characteristics is
‘Self heals’. What that means and how we might attain
that characteristic is the subject of this paper.
In the context of the modern grid, “self-healing” refers to an

engineering design that enables the problematic elements of a
system to be isolated and, ideally, restored to normal operation
with little or no human intervention. These self-healing actions will
result in minimal or no interruption of service to consumers. It is, in
essence, the modern grid’s immune system.
The modern, self-healing grid will perform continuous, online self-

assessments to predict potential problems, detect existing or
emerging problems, and initiate immediate corrective responses.
The self-healing concept is a natural extension of power system
protective relaying, which forms the core of this technology.
A self-healing grid will frequently utilize a networked design linking

multiple energy sources. Advanced sensors on networked
equipment will identify a malfunction and communicate to nearby
devices when a fault or other problem occurs. Sensors will also detect
patterns that are precursors to faults, providing the ability to mitigate
conditions before the event actually occurs.
The self-healing objective is to limit event impact to the smallest area

possible. This approach can also mitigate power quality issues;
sensors can identify problematic conditions and corrective steps can

be taken, such as instantly transferring a customer to a “clean” power

quality or source.
A simplified example of the self-healing concept, illustrated in Figure

2 below, shows two power lines having many “intelligent switches”
(noted as “R”) located along the circuit. This diagram illustrates the
intelligent switching feature of self-healing, which can maintain power
to a maximum number of customers by instantaneously transferring
them to an alternate energy source.
Alternate energy sources may include circuit ties to other feeders or

to distributed energy resources (DER) such as energy storage devices
and small electrical generators (powered by both renewable and non-
renewable fuels). Demand response (DR) can also be a tool in
matching load to generation in the self-healing process.
Automated Radial Feeders

Station A Station B
Pod 1 Pod 2 Pod 3 Pod 4 Pod 5 Pod 6
R R R R R
Figure 2: Automated radial feeders schematic. Image courtesy of DV2010.
The modern electrical grid will know a great deal about problems
affecting its operation. One of the keys to self-healing is the
utilization of a wide assortment of information gathered from modern
grid devices to enable rapid analysis and initiation of automatic
corrective actions,
Fault locations, circuit configuration changes, voltage and power

quality problems and other grid abnormalities can be quickly
discovered and corrected. High-risk areas, as well as individual pieces
of equipment, can be analyzed for immediate action. Also advanced
models can provide new visualization tools revealing congestion
issues, overlays of failure probabilities, and resulting threat levels.
Another element of self-healing is the avoidance of high-risk

situations. When impending weather extremes, solar magnetic
disturbances, and real-time contingency analyses are incorporated
into a probabilistic model, grid operators will be better able to
understand the risks of each decision they may make, as well as ways
to minimize those risks. In such applications, the expected volume of
real-time data is high. And it will be necessary to integrate those data
up to the control area, regional transmission organization level, NERC
Region level, or the entire national grid, including its interconnections
with Canada and Mexico.

Chapter 20: Resists Attack
Appendix A3:
RESISTS ATTACK

January 2007
Delivery and Energy
Reliability
V2.0

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Table of Contents...........................................................................1
Executive Summary........................................................................2
Current and Future States ..............................................................6

Current State .................................................................................. 6
Future State.................................................................................... 7
Requirements............................................................................. 10
System Requirements..................................................................10
Policy and Regulation Requirements..........................................11
Codes and Standards Requirements..........................................12
Barriers ...................................................................................... 13
Benefits ..................................................................................... 14
Recommendations ..................................................................... 15
Summary.................................................................................... 16
Bibliography............................................................................... 18
Page A3-1 Modern Grid Systems View: Appendix 3 v2.0 Resists Attack

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The systems view of the modern grid features seven
principal characteristics. (See Figure 1.) The ability to
resist attack is one of those characteristics and the
subject of this paper.
The energy industry’s assets and systems were not designed to

handle extensive, well-organized acts of terrorism aimed at key
elements.
The U.S. energy system is a huge network of electric generating

facilities and transmission lines, natural gas pipelines, oil refineries
and pipelines, and coal mines. Occasionally, these systems have
been tested by large-scale natural disasters such as hurricanes and
earthquakes. Generally, industries have restored energy relatively
quickly. Sabotage of individual components has caused some
problems, but the impacts have been managed. We’ve been lucky.

Compressor
Station Power Power
Oil / Gas Plant Supply Electric
Fuel Supply
Power
Switching Substation
Office Traffic
Comm unications Light
End Office Transportation
Transport
Water
Reservoir Emergency
Substation Hospital Services
Ambulance Fire Emergency
Bank Station Call Center
Banking &
Finance Check Legislative Governm ent
ATM Federal Offices Services
Processing Reserve
Center Pension/Service Payments Military
Treasury Dept. Installations
Figure 2: Interdependence of Energy and Other Sectors: Losing power in even one region damages the whole economy. Image
courtesy of Science Applications International Corporation (SAIC).
The dependency of other key elements of the economy on the

electrical power part of the energy system (see Figure 2) is apparent
when millisecond outages disrupt sensitive digital processes, and
outages extending days or weeks can deprive a community or region
of running water. Telecommunications, financial, and health sectors
try to ensure uninterrupted power by installing generators, batteries,
or redundant systems. Even these, however, can be limited in their
With the introduction of effectiveness. Generators, for example, are limited by the availability
digital technology
throughout our society, of fuel.
the cost of outages (e.g.,
from equipment failure or It is critical for the modern grid to address security from the outset,
weather-related incidents)
has significantly increased making security a requirement for all the elements of the grid and
– from $30 billion in 1995 ensuring an integrated and balanced approach across the system.
to $119 billion in 2001
(National Research
Council, 2002) Threats to the infrastructure are usually broken into two categories:
physical (explosives, projectiles) attacks and cyber (computer
launched) attacks. Whatever the specific nature of the threat, the
designers of the modern grid should plan for a dedicated, well-
planned, and simultaneous attack against several parts of the
system.
The threat of both physical and cyber attack is growing and a

widespread attack against the infrastructure cannot be ruled out.
There is evidence that Al Qaeda has been tracking debates in the
United States related to the cyber vulnerability of control systems in
the energy infrastructure (Hamre, 2003).
x Cyber attacks — Computer security incidents are increasing at an
alarming rate. According to the Government Accountability Office,
in 2002, 70 percent of energy and power companies experienced
some kind of severe cyber attack to their computing or energy
management systems. (See Figure 3.)

x Physical attacks — Physical attacks against key elements of the

grid, or physical attacks combined with cyber attacks, cannot be
discounted. From a terrorist viewpoint, damage from a physical
attack may be more predictable than a cyber attack, and
therefore promise more certainty in causing harm.
Figure 3: 70% of energy and power companies experienced some kind of severe cyber attack to
either their IT or SCADA/EMS network. (GAO analysis based on Carnegie Mellon University’s CERT
Coordination Center data).
Whether it is going to be a physical or cyber attack, the modern

grid must resist two different attack strategies:
1. Attacks on the power system, in which the infrastructure itself is
A study that surveyed over the primary target.
170 security professionals
and other executives 2. Attacks through the power system, in which attackers take
concluded that, across
industries, respondents
advantage of power system networks to affect other infrastructure
believe that a large-scale systems, such as telecommunications, financial, or government.
cyber attack in the United
States will be launched
against their industry in An emphasis on security throughout the development and
the near future. (U.S. implementation phases of the modern grid is critical. Such an
General Accounting Office, emphasis would:
2004)
x Ensure lowest cost for system elements by addressing security
concerns during the initial design and throughout the lifecycle.
x Demonstrate benefits of security enhancements to grid efficiency
and vice-versa.
x Increase public and business confidence in the modern grid’s
resilience.
This paper covers four important topics:

1. The current and future states of grid security.

2. The requirements that, if met, would assure a disciplined systems
approach and an industry/government partnership.
3. The benefits that accrue to developing a modern grid that resists
attack.
4. Recommendations for moving forward.
Although it can be read on its own, this paper supports and

supplements “A Systems View of the Modern Grid,” an overview
prepared by the Modern Grid Initiative (MGI) team.

Chapter 26: Proposed Policy Statement and Action Plan
126 FERC ¶ 61,253

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
FEDERAL ENERGY REGULATORY COMMISSION
18 CFR Part Chapter I
[Docket No. PL09-4-000]
SMART GRID POLICY
(Issued March 19, 2009)
AGENCY: Federal Energy Regulatory Commission.
ACTION: Proposed Policy Statement and Action Plan.
SUMMARY: This proposed policy statement and action plan provides guidance to
inform the development of a smarter grid for the Nation’s electric transmission system
focusing on the development of key standards to achieve interoperability of smart grid
devices and systems. The Commission also proposes a rate policy for the interim period
until interoperability standards are adopted. Smart grid investments that demonstrate
system security and compliance with Commission-approved Reliability Standards, the
ability to be upgraded, and other specified criteria will be eligible for timely rate recovery
and other rate treatments. This rate policy will encourage development of smart grid
systems.
DATES: Comments on the proposed policy statement and action plan are due
[Insert_Date 45 days after publication in the FEDERAL REGISTER]

Docket No. PL09-4-000 -2-
FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT:
David Andrejcak
Office of Electric Reliability
888 First Street, N.E.
Washington, D.C. 20426
(202) 502-6721
[email protected]
Elizabeth H. Arnold
Office of General Counsel
(202) 502-8818
[email protected]
Ray Palmer
Office of Energy Market Regulation
(202) 502-6569
[email protected]
SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION:

Chapter 26: Proposed Policy Statement and Action Plan
126 FERC ¶ 61,253

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
FEDERAL ENERGY REGULATORY COMMISSION
Before Commissioners: Jon Wellinghoff, Acting Chairman;

Suedeen G. Kelly, Marc Spitzer,
and Philip D. Moeller.
Smart Grid Policy Docket No. PL09-4-000
PROPOSED POLICY STATEMENT AND ACTION PLAN
(Issued March 19, 2009)
1. The Commission is issuing this proposed policy statement to articulate its policies
and near-term priorities to help achieve the modernization of the Nation’s electric
transmission system, one aspect of which is “Smart Grid” development. Smart Grid
advancements will apply digital technologies to the grid, and enable real-time
coordination of information from generation supply resources, demand resources,1 and
distributed energy resources (DER).2 This will bring new efficiencies to the electric
system through improved communication and coordination between utilities and with the
grid, which will translate into savings in the provision of electric service. Ultimately the
1
For purposes of this proposed policy statement, “demand resources” refers to the
set of demand response resources and energy efficiency resources and programs that can
be used to reduce demand or reduce electricity demand growth.
2
DER comprises dispersed generation devices and dispersed storage devices,
including reciprocating engines, fuel cells, microturbines, photovoltaics, combined heat
and power, and energy storage. See International Electrotechnical Commission,
International Standards IEC 61850-7-420.

Docket No. PL09-4-000 -2-
smart grid will facilitate consumer transactions and allow consumers to better manage
their electric energy costs. These technologies will also enhance the ability to ensure the
reliability of the bulk-power system. The Commission’s interest and responsibilities in
this area derive from its authority over the rates, terms and conditions of transmission and
wholesale sales in interstate commerce, its responsibility for approving and enforcing
mandatory reliability standards for the bulk-power system in the United States, and a
recently enacted law3 requiring the Commission to adopt interoperability standards and
protocols necessary to ensure smart-grid functionality and interoperability in the
interstate transmission of electric power and in regional and wholesale electricity
markets. The development and implementation of these interoperability standards is a
challenging task, which requires the efforts of industry, the states and other federal
agencies, in addition to the Commission. The Commission intends to use its authority, in
coordination and cooperation with other governmental entities, to help achieve
interoperability in a timely manner. Achievement of interoperability will not only
increase the efficiency of the bulk-power system, with the goal of achieving long-term
consumer savings, but will also enable demand response and other consumer transactions
and activities that give consumers the tools to better control their electric energy costs.
Reaching this goal will also help promote the integration of significant new renewable
3
Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007, Pub. L. No. 110-140, 121 Stat.
1492 (2007) (EISA).

Docket No. PL09-4-000 - 40 -
Appendix A
System of Systems
RTO/ISO
GMS EMS
DR Aggregator
Utility System
Utility System
DMS & OMS
Smart
CIS
Meter
3rd Party Svcs Customer
Customer Inter-system Interface

Intra-system Interface
Source: Smart Grid Standards Adoption: Utility Industry Perspective, OpenSG

Subcommittee of the Utility Communication Architecture International User Group, and
Smart Grid Executive Working Group.

Chapter 27: Other Resources
Other Resources
Internet Resources
• Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007, P.L. 110-140, Dec. 19, 2007
<http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgi-bin/getdoc.cgi?dbname=
110_cong_public_laws&docid=f:publ140.pdf>
• Smart Grid News.com
<www.smartgridnews.com>
• National Institute of Standards and Technology Smartgrid
<www.nist.gov/smartgrid>
• Federal Energy Regulatory Commission
<www.ferc.gov>
• U.S. Department of Energy
<www.doe.gov>
• National Council on Electricity Policy
<www.ncouncil.org>
• Smart Grid: Smart Grid News—Grid Modernization and the Smart Grid
<www.smartgridnews.com/artman/publish>
• SmartGridToday.com
<www.smartgridtoday.com>
• The Smart Grid Security Blog
<http://smartgridsecurity.blogspot.com>
• The Smart Grid Buzz
<http://broadbandoverpowerlines.blogspot.com>
• Collaborative Energy—the Smart Grid and the End Node
<www.newdaedalus.com>
• “Smart Electric Grid of the Future: A National ‘Distributed Store-Gen’ Test Bed”
by Roger Anderson, Columbia University; Paul Chu, University of Houston;
Ron Oligney, Texas Energy Center; and Rick Smalley, Rice University
<www.ldeo.columbia.edu/res/pi/4d4/testbeds/Smart-Grid-White-Paper.pdf>
• Environmental & Energy Study Institute
<www.eesi.org>
• Smart Grid Working Group
<www.energyfuturecoalition.org/preview.cfm?catID=13>
• Listing and links to various reports
<www.energyfuturecoalition.org/Resources/Energy-Efficiency-/-Smartgrid>
• “Challenge and Opportunity: Charting a New Energy Future”, Energy Future Coalition
<http://energyfuturecoalition.org/files/webfmuploads/EFC_Report/EFCReport.pdf>

• Edison Electric Institute

<www.eei.org>
• 2009 National Electricity Delivery Forum
<www.electricitydeliveryforum.org>
• National Electrical Manufacturers Association Seminar on
“Defining Intelligence in the Intelligent Electricity Grid”, January 18, 2008
<www.nema.org/gov/energy/smartgrid/upload/Presentation-Smart-Grid.pdf>
• National Energy Technologies Laboratory -Presentation
<www.energetics.com/supercon07/pdfs/NETL_Synergies_
of_the_SmartGrid_and_Superconducitivity_Pullins.pdf>
• San Diego Smart Grid Study
<www.sandiego.edu/epic/publications/documents/061017_SDSmartGridStudyFINAL.pdf>
• Electric Power Research Institute, EPRI Intelligrid
<http://intelligrid.epri.com>
• Gridwise at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL)
<http://gridwise.pnl.gov>
• U.S. Department of Energy Smart Grid Task Force
<www.oe.energy.gov/smartgrid_taskforce.htm>
• Smart Grid
<www.oe.energy.gov/smartgrid.htm>
• GRIDWISE Alliance
<www.gridwise.org>
• Grid Week
<www.gridweek.com>
• IntelliGrid
<http://intelligrid.epri.com>
• Galvin Electricity Initiative
<www.galvinpower.org>
Books
• “Perfect Power: How the Microgrid Revolution Will Unleash Cleaner, Greener, More Abundant
Energy,” by Robert Galvin and Kurt Yeager (McGraw-Hill 2008), ISBN-10: 0071548823
• “The Green Guide to Power: Thinking Outside the Grid,” by Ron Bowman (BookSurge 2008),
ISBN-10: 1439207690
• “The Grid: A Journey Through the Heart of Our Electrified World,” by Phillip F. Schewe
(Joseph Henry Press 2007), ISBN-10: 030910260X
• “Understanding Today’s Electricity Business,” by Bob Shively and John Ferrare
(Enerdynamics 2004), ISBN-10: 0974174416

Chapter 27: Other Resources
• “Electric Power Industry in Nontechnical Language,” by Denise Warkentin-Glenn

(PennWell 2006), ISBN-10: 1593700679
• “Electricity Markets: Pricing, Structures and Economics,” by Chris Harris (Wiley 2006),
ISBN-10: 0470011580
• “Energy and Power Risk Management: New Developments in Modeling, Pricing and Hedging,”
by Alexander Eydeland and Krzysztof Wolyniec (Wiley 2002), ISBN-10: 0471104000
• “Electric Power System Basics for the Nonelectrical Professional,” by Steven W. Blume
(Wiley-IEEE 2007), ISBN-10: 0470129875
• “Electric Power Generation: A Nontechnical Guide,” by Dave Barnett and Kirk Bjornsgaard
(Pennwell 2000), ISBN-10: 0878147535
• “From Edison to Enron: The Business of Power and What It Means for the Future of Electricity,”
by Richard Munson (Praeger 2008), ISBN-10: 031336186X
• “Power Primer: A Nontechnical Guide from Generation to End Use,” by Ann Chambers
(Pennwell 1999), ISBN-10: 087814756X
• “Electric Power Generation, Transmission, and Distribution,” by Leonard L. Grigsby
(CRC 2007), ISBN-10: 0849392926
• “Electric Power Distribution Handbook,” by Thomas Allen Short (CRC 2003),
ISBN-10: 0849317916
• “Understanding Electric Utilities and De-Regulation,” by Lorrin Philipson (CRC 2005),
ISBN-10: 0824727738
• “Power System Economics: Designing Markets for Electricity,” by Steven Stoft
(Wiley-IEEE 2002), ISBN-10: 0471150401
• “Making Competition Work in Electricity,” by Sally Hunt (Wiley 2002), ISBN-10: 0471220981
• “Market Operations in Electric Power Systems: Forecasting, Scheduling, and Risk
Management,” by M. Shahidehpour, H. Yamin, and Zuyi Li (Wiley-IEEE 2002),
ISBN-10: 0471443379
• “The Electric Power Engineering Handbook, Second Edition,” by Leonard L. Grigsby
(CRC 2007), ISBN-10: 0849392934
• “America’s Electric Utilities: Past, Present And Future,” by Leonard S. Hyman, Andrew S.
Hyman, and Robert C. Hyman (Public Utilities Reports 2005), ISBN-10: 0910325006
• “Electric Power Systems: A Conceptual Introduction,” by Alexandra von Meier
(Wiley-IEEE 2006), ISBN-10: 0471178594
• “Electric Power Planning for Regulated and Deregulated Markets,” by Arthur Mazer
(Wiley-IEEE 2007), ISBN-10: 0470118822
• “Economic Evaluation of Projects in the Electricity Supply Industry,” by H. Khatib
(The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2003), ISBN-10: 0863413048
• “Electricity Economics: Regulation and Deregulation,” by Geoffrey Rothwell
and Tomás Gómez (Wiley-IEEE 2003), ISBN-10: 0471234370

• “Fundamentals of Power System Economics,” by Daniel S. Kirschen and Goran Strbac

(Wiley 2004), ISBN-10: 0470845724
• “Distributed Generation: A Nontechnical Guide,” by Ann Chambers, Barry Schnoor,
and Stephanie Hamilton (Pennwell 2001), ISBN-10: 0878147896
• “Power Industry Dictionary,” by Ann Chambers and Susan D. Kerr (Pennwell 1996),
ISBN-10: 0878146059
• “Electrical Power System Essentials,” by Pieter Schavemaker and Lou van der Sluis
(Wiley 2008), ISBN-10: 0470510277
• “Power System Engineering: Planning, Design, and Operation of Power Systems
and Equipment,” by Juergen Schlabbach and Karl-Heinz Rofalski (Wiley-VCH 2008),
ISBN-10: 3527407596
• “Power System Operation,” by Robert Miller and James Malinowski (McGraw-Hill 1994),
ISBN-10: 0070419779
• “Power System Stability and Control,” by Prabha Kundur (McGraw-Hill 1994),
ISBN-10: 007035958X
• “Power Generation Handbook: Selection, Applications, Operation, Maintenance,”
by Philip Kiameh (McGraw-Hill 2002), ISBN-10: 0071396047
• “Electric Power Substations Engineering, Second Edition,” by John D. McDonald
(CRC 2007), ISBN-10: 0849373832
• “Modeling and Forecasting Electricity Loads and Prices: A Statistical Approach,”
by Rafal Weron (Wiley 2006), ISBN-10: 047005753X
• “Electric Power Distribution System Engineering, Second Edition,” by Turan Gonen
(CRC 2007), ISBN-10: 142006200X
• “Electricity Demystified,” by Stan Gibilisco (McGraw-Hill 2005), ISBN-10: 0071439250
• “Understanding Today’s Electricity Business,” by Bob Shively and John Ferrare
(Enerdynamics 2004), ISBN-10: 0974174416
• “Transmission and Distribution Electrical Engineering, Third Edition,”
by Colin Bayliss and Brian Hardy (Newnes 2007), ISBN-10: 0750666730
• “Power Distribution Planning Reference Book, Second Edition,” by H. Lee Willis
(CRC 2004), ISBN-10: 0824748751
• “Guide to Electrical Power Distribution Systems, Sixth Edition,” by Anthony J. Pansini
(CRC 2005), ISBN-10: 084933666X
• “Electric Utility Systems and Practices,” by Homer M. Rustebakke
(Wiley-Interscience 1983), ISBN-10: 0471048909
• “Understanding Electric Power Systems: An Overview of the Technology
and the Marketplace,” by Jack Casazza and Frank Delea (Wiley-IEEE 2003),
ISBN-10: 0471446521

Chapter 28: Other Resources from TheCapitol.Net
Other Resources from TheCapitol.Net

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ISBN 13: 9781587331398
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ISBN 13: 9781587331466
• Overview of the Rulemaking Process

ISBN 13: 9781587331466
• OMB’s Role in the Regulatory Process and Pertinent Executive Orders

ISBN 13: 9781587331480
• How to Read and Comment on a Proposed Rule

ISBN 13: 9781587331541
• Devising a Policy and Issue Management Strategy

ISBN 13: 9781587331558
• Preparing for Congressional Oversight and Investigation

ISBN: 1587330644
Live Training
• Understanding the Regulatory Process:
Working with Federal Regulatory Agencies
<www.RegulatoryProcess.com>
• Understanding Congressional Budgeting and Appropriations

<www.CongressionalBudgeting.com>
• Advanced Federal Budget Process

<www.BudgetProcess.com>
• The President’s Budget

<www.PresidentsBudget.com>
• Capitol Hill Workshop

<www.CapitolHillWorkshop.com>

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Electric Power Transmission: Background and

Stan Mark Kaplan

April 14, 2009

Congressional Research Service

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Electric Power Transmission: Background and Policy Issues

This report will be updated as warranted.

Congressional Research Service

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Electric Power Transmission: Background and Policy Issues

Congressional Research Service

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Electric Power Transmission: Background and Policy Issues

Figure 2. United States Power System Interconnections...............................................................3

Congressional Research Service

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Electric Power Transmission: Background and Policy Issues

Introduction and Organization

Overview of the Electric Power System

Physical and Technical Features of the Power System

Congressional Research Service 1

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Electric Power Transmission: Background and Policy Issues

Figure 1. Elements of the Electric Power System

Congressional Research Service 2

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Electric Power Transmission: Background and Policy Issues

Figure 2. United States Power System Interconnections

Congressional Research Service 3

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Electric Power Transmission: Background and Policy Issues

Table 1. High Voltage Transmission by Owner and Region

Congressional Research Service 4

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Electric Transmission: Approaches for Energizing a Sagging Industry