ORACLE PL/SQL

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TABLE

CLASS -1
CREATING TABLE
CREATE TABLE table_name
(
column1 datatype null/not null,
column2 datatype null/not null,
...
);
EXAMPLE
CREATE TABLE suppliers
( supplier_id number(10) not null,
supplier_name varchar2(50) not null,
contact_name varchar2(50)
);
Practice Exercise #1:
Create an SQL table called customers that stores customer ID, name, and
address information. The customer ID should be the primary key for the
table.
Solution
CREATE TABLE customers
( customer_id number(10) not null,
customer_name varchar2(50) not null,
address varchar2(50),
city varchar2(50),
state varchar2(25),
zip_code varchar2(10),
CONSTRAINT customers_pk PRIMARY KEY
(customer_id)
);
Practice Exercise #2:
Based on the departments table below, create an SQL table called employees that
stores employee number, employee name, department, and salary information. The
primary key for the employees table should be the employee number. Create a
foreign key on the employees table that references the departments table based on
the department_id field.

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Solution
CREATE TABLE departments
( department_id number(10) not null,
department_name varchar2(50) not null,
CONSTRAINT departments_pk PRIMARY KEY
(department_id)
);
The SQL CREATE TABLE statement for the employees table is:

Solution
CREATE TABLE employees
( employee_number number(10) not null,
employee_name varchar2(50) not null,
department_id number(10),
salary number(6),
CONSTRAINT employees_pk PRIMARY KEY
(employee_number),
CONSTRAINT fk_departments
FOREIGN KEY (department_id)
REFERENCES departments(department_id)
);

ALTER
To rename a table, the SQL ALTER TABLE syntax is:
ALTER TABLE table_name
RENAME TO new_table_name;
Example
ALTER TABLE suppliers
RENAME TO vendors;
SQL ALTER TABLE - Adding column(s) to a table
Syntax #1
To add a column to an existing table, the SQL ALTER TABLE syntax is:
ALTER TABLE table_name

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ADD column_name column-definition;

For example:
ALTER TABLE supplier
ADD supplier_name varchar2(50);
Syntax #2
To add multiple columns to an existing table, the SQL ALTER TABLE syntax
is:
ALTER TABLE table_name
ADD (column_1 column-definition,
column_2 column-definition,
...
column_n column_definition);
For example:
ALTER TABLE supplier
ADD (supplier_name varchar2(50),
city varchar2(45));
This will add two columns (supplier_name and city) to the supplier table.
SQL ALTER TABLE - Drop column(s) in a table
Syntax #1 To drop a column in an existing table, the SQL ALTER TABLE syntax is:

ALTER TABLE table_name

DROP COLUMN column_name;
For example:

ALTER TABLE supplier

DROP COLUMN supplier_name;
This will drop the column called supplier_name from the table called supplier.

Rename column(s) in a table

Syntax #1
To rename a column in an existing table, the SQL ALTER TABLE syntax is:
ALTER TABLE table_name
RENAME COLUMN old_name to new_name;
For example:

ALTER TABLE supplier

RENAME COLUMN supplier_name to sname;
This will rename the column called supplier_name to sname.

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Practice Exercise #1:

Based on the departments table below, rename the departments table to depts.

CREATE TABLE departments

( department_id number(10) not null,
department_name varchar2(50) not null,
CONSTRAINT departments_pk PRIMARY KEY
(department_id)
);

Solution:
The following SQL ALTER TABLE statement would rename the departments table to depts:

Practice Exercise #2:

ALTER TABLE departments

RENAME TO depts;

Based on the employees table below, add a column called salary that is a number(6)
datatype.

CREATE TABLE employees

( employee_number number(10) not null,
employee_name varchar2(50) not null,
department_id number(10),
CONSTRAINT employees_pk PRIMARY KEY
(employee_number)

Solution:

);

The following SQL ALTER TABLE statement would add a salary column to
the employees table:

ALTER TABLE employees

ADD salary number(6);

Practice Exercise #3:

Based on the customers table below, add two columns - one column
called contact_name that is a varchar2(50) datatype and one column
called last_contacted that is a date datatype.

CREATE TABLE customers

( customer_id number(10) not null,
customer_name varchar2(50) not null,
address varchar2(50),
city varchar2(50),
state varchar2(25),
zip_code varchar2(10),
CONSTRAINT customers_pk PRIMARY KEY
(customer_id)
);

Solution:

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The following SQL ALTER TABLE statement would add

the contact_name and last_contacted columns to the customers table:

ALTER TABLE customers

ADD (contact_name varchar2(50),
last_contacted date);

Practice Exercise #4:

Based on the employees table below, change the employee_name column to a varchar2(75)
datatype.

CREATE TABLE employees

( employee_number number(10) not null,
employee_name varchar2(50) not null,
department_id number(10),
CONSTRAINT employees_pk PRIMARY KEY
(employee_number)

Solution:

);

The following SQL ALTER TABLE statement would change the datatype for
the employee_name column to varchar2(75):

ALTER TABLE employees

MODIFY employee_name varchar2(75);

Practice Exercise #5:

Based on the customers table below, change the customer_name column to NOT allow null
values and change the state column to a varchar2(2) datatype.

CREATE TABLE customers

( customer_id number(10) not null,
customer_name varchar2(50),
address varchar2(50),
city varchar2(50),
state varchar2(25),
zip_code varchar2(10),
CONSTRAINT customers_pk PRIMARY KEY
(customer_id)

Solution:

);

The following SQL ALTER TABLE statement would modify

the customer_name and state columns accordingly in the customers table:

ALTER TABLE customers

MODIFY (customer_name varchar2(50) not null,
state varchar2(2));

Practice Exercise #6:

Based on the employees table below, drop the salary column.

CREATE TABLE employees

( employee_number number(10) not null,
employee_name varchar2(50) not null,
department_id number(10),
salary number(6),

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CONSTRAINT employees_pk PRIMARY KEY

(employee_number)
);

Solution:
The following SQL ALTER TABLE statement would drop the salary column from
the employees table:

ALTER TABLE employees

DROP COLUMN salary;

Practice Exercise #7:

Based on the departments table below, rename the department_name column
to dept_name.

CREATE TABLE departments

( department_id number(10) not null,
department_name varchar2(50) not null,
CONSTRAINT departments_pk PRIMARY KEY

(department_id)
);

Solution:

The following SQL ALTER TABLE statement would rename the department_name column
to dept_name in the departments table:

ALTER TABLE departments

RENAME COLUMN department_name to dept_name;

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CLASS -2
SQL: SELECT Statement
The SQL SELECT statement allows you to retrieve records from one or more tables
in your SQL database.
The syntax for the SQL SELECT statement is:
SELECT columns
FROM tables
WHERE predicates;
SQL SELECT Statement - Select all fields from one table
example
Let's take a look at how to use the SQL SELECT statement to select all fields from a
table.
SELECT *
FROM suppliers
WHERE city = 'Newark';
In this SQL SELECT statement, we've used * to signify that we wish to view all fields
from the suppliers table where the supplier resides in Newark.
SQL SELECT Statement - Selecting individual fields from
one table example
You can also use the SQL SELECT statement to select individual fields from the table,
as opposed to all fields from the table.
For example:
SELECT name, city, state
FROM suppliers
WHERE supplier_id > 1000;
This SQL SELECT statement would return only the name, city, and state fields from
the suppliers table where the supplier_id value is greater than 1000.
SQL SELECT Statement - Select fields from multiple
tables example
You can also use the SQL SELECT statement to retrieve fields from multiple tables.
SELECT orders.order_id, suppliers.name

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FROM suppliers, orders

WHERE suppliers.supplier_id = orders.supplier_id;
SQL SELECT STATEMENT
This SQL SELECT statement joins two tables together to gives us a result set that
displays the order_id and supplier name fields where the supplier_id value existed in
both the suppliers and orders table.
SQL: INSERT Statement
The SQL INSERT statement allows you to insert a single record or multiple records
into a table.
The syntax for the SQL INSERT statement is:
INSERT INTO table
(column-1, column-2, ... column-n)
VALUES
(value-1, value-2, ... value-n);
SQL INSERT Statement - Using VALUES keyword example
The simplest way to create an SQL INSERT statement to list the values using the
VALUES keyword.
For example:
INSERT INTO suppliers
(supplier_id, supplier_name)
VALUES
(24553, 'IBM');
This SQL INSERT statement would result in one record being inserted into the
suppliers table. This new record would have a supplier_id of 24553 and a
supplier_name of IBM.
SQL INSERT Statement - Using sub-selects example
You can also create more complicated SQL INSERT statements using sub-selects.
For example:
INSERT INTO suppliers
(supplier_id, supplier_name)
SELECT account_no, name
FROM customers
WHERE city = 'Newark';
By placing a "select" in the SQL INSERT statement, you can perform multiples
inserts quickly.
With this type of insert, you may wish to check for the number of rows being
inserted. You can determine the number of rows that will be inserted by running the
following SQL SELECT statement before performing the insert.
SELECT count(*)
FROM customers

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WHERE city = 'Newark';

Frequently Asked Questions
Question: I am setting up a database with clients. I know that you use the SQL
INSERT statement to insert information in the database, but how do I make sure
that I do not enter the same client information again?
Answer: You can make sure that you do not insert duplicate information by using
the SQL EXISTS condition.
For example, if you had a table named clients with a primary key of client_id, you
could use the following SQL INSERT statement:
INSERT INTO clients
(client_id, client_name, client_type)
SELECT supplier_id, supplier_name, 'advertising'
FROM suppliers
WHERE not exists (select * from clients
where clients.client_id = suppliers.supplier_id);
This SQL INSERT statement inserts multiple records with a subselect.
If you wanted to insert a single record, you could use the following SQL INSERT
statement:
INSERT INTO clients
(client_id, client_name, client_type)
SELECT 10345, 'IBM', 'advertising'
FROM dual
WHERE not exists (select * from clients
where clients.client_id = 10345);
The use of the dual table allows you to enter your values in a select statement,
even though the values are not currently stored in a table.
Question: How can I insert multiple rows of explicit data in one SQL command in
Oracle?
Answer: The following is an example of how you might insert 3 rows into the
suppliers table in Oracle, using an SQL INSERT statement:
INSERT ALL
INTO suppliers (supplier_id, supplier_name) VALUES
(1000, 'IBM')
INTO suppliers (supplier_id, supplier_name) VALUES
(2000, 'Microsoft')
INTO suppliers (supplier_id, supplier_name) VALUES
(3000, 'Google')
SELECT * FROM dual;
SQL: UPDATE Statement

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The SQL UPDATE statement allows you to update a single record or multiple records
in a table.
The syntax for the SQL UPDATE statement is:
UPDATE table
SET column = expression
WHERE predicates;
SQL UPDATE - Simple example
Let's take a look at a very simple example.
UPDATE suppliers
SET name = 'HP'
WHERE name = 'IBM';
This SQL UPDATE statement would update all supplier names in the suppliers table
from IBM to HP.
SQL UPDATE - Updating multiple columns example
Let's take a look at an SQL UPDATE example where you might want to update more
than one column with a single SQL UPDATE statement.
UPDATE suppliers
SET name = 'Apple', product = 'iPhone'
WHERE name = 'Rim';
When you wish to update multiple columns, you can do this by separating the
column/value pairs with commas.
This SQL UPDATE statement would update the supplier name to "Apple" and product
to "iPhone" where the name of the supplier is "Rim".
SQL UPDATE - Using SQL EXISTS Clause example
You can also perform more complicated updates in SQL.
You may wish to update records in one table based on values in another table.
Since you can't list more than one table in the SQL UPDATE statement, you can use
the SQL EXISTS clause.
For example:
UPDATE suppliers
SET supplier_name = (SELECT customers.name
FROM customers
WHERE customers.customer_id =
suppliers.supplier_id)
WHERE EXISTS (SELECT customers.name
FROM customers
WHERE customers.customer_id =
suppliers.supplier_id);

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In this SQL UPDATE statement, whenever a supplier_id matched a customer_id

value, the supplier_name would be overwritten to the customer name from the
customers table.
Learn more about the SQL EXISTS condition.
Practice Exercise #1:
Based on the suppliers table populated with the following data, update the city to
"Santa Clara" for all records whose supplier_name is "NVIDIA".
CREATE TABLE suppliers
( supplier_id number(10) not null,
supplier_name varchar2(50) not null,
city varchar2(50),
CONSTRAINT suppliers_pk PRIMARY KEY
(supplier_id)
);
INSERT INTO suppliers (supplier_id,
supplier_name, city)
VALUES (5001, 'Microsoft', 'New York');
INSERT INTO suppliers (supplier_id,
supplier_name, city)
VALUES (5002, 'IBM', 'Chicago');
INSERT INTO suppliers (supplier_id,
supplier_name, city)
VALUES (5003, 'Red Hat', 'Detroit');
INSERT INTO suppliers (supplier_id,
supplier_name, city)
VALUES (5004, 'NVIDIA', 'New York');
Solution:
The following SQL UPDATE statement would perform this update in SQL.
UPDATE suppliers
SET city = 'Santa Clara'
WHERE supplier_name = 'NVIDIA';
The suppliers table would now look like this:
SUPPLIER_ID SUPPLIER_NAME
CITY
5001 Microsoft
New York
5002 IBM Chicago
5003 Red Hat
Detroit
5004 NVIDIA
Santa Clara
Practice Exercise #2:
Based on the suppliers and customers table populated with the following data,
update the city in the suppliers table with the city in the customers table when the

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supplier_name in the suppliers table matches the customer_name in the customers

table.
CREATE TABLE suppliers
( supplier_id number(10) not null,
supplier_name varchar2(50) not null,
city varchar2(50),
CONSTRAINT suppliers_pk PRIMARY KEY
(supplier_id)
);
INSERT INTO suppliers (supplier_id,
supplier_name, city)
VALUES (5001, 'Microsoft', 'New York');
INSERT INTO suppliers (supplier_id,
supplier_name, city)
VALUES (5002, 'IBM', 'Chicago');
INSERT INTO suppliers (supplier_id,
supplier_name, city)
VALUES (5003, 'Red Hat', 'Detroit');
INSERT INTO suppliers (supplier_id,
supplier_name, city)
VALUES (5005, 'NVIDIA', 'LA');
CREATE TABLE customers
( customer_id number(10) not null,
customer_name varchar2(50) not null,
city varchar2(50),
CONSTRAINT customers_pk PRIMARY KEY
(customer_id)
);
INSERT INTO customers (customer_id,
customer_name, city)
VALUES (7001, 'Microsoft', 'San Francisco');
INSERT INTO customers (customer_id,
customer_name, city)
VALUES (7002, 'IBM', 'Toronto');
INSERT INTO customers (customer_id,
customer_name, city)
VALUES (7003, 'Red Hat', 'Newark');
Solution:
The following SQL UPDATE statement would perform this update in SQL.
UPDATE suppliers

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SET city = (SELECT customers.city

FROM customers
WHERE customers.customer_name =
suppliers.supplier_name)
WHERE EXISTS (SELECT customers.city
FROM customers
WHERE customers.customer_name =
suppliers.supplier_name);

CONSTRAINT

What is a check constraint?

A check constraint allows you to specify a condition on each row in a table.
Note
A check constraint can NOT be defined on an SQL View.
The check constraint defined on a table must refer to only columns in that table. It
can not refer to columns in other tables.
A check constraint can NOT include an SQL Subquery.
A check constraint can be defined in either an SQL CREATE TABLE statement or an
SQL ALTER TABLE statement.
Using a CREATE TABLE statement
The syntax for creating a check constraint using a CREATE TABLE statement is:
CREATE TABLE table_name
(
column1 datatype null/not null,
column2 datatype null/not null,
..
CONSTRAINT constraint_name CHECK (column_name
condition) [DISABLE]
);
The DISABLE keyword is optional. If you create a check constraint using the
DISABLE keyword, the constraint will be created, but the condition will not be
enforced.
For Example
CREATE TABLE suppliers
(
supplier_id numeric(4),
supplier_name varchar2(50),
CONSTRAINT check_supplier_id
CHECK (supplier_id BETWEEN 100 and 9999)
);
In this first example, we've created a check constraint on the suppliers table called
check_supplier_id. This constraint ensures that the supplier_id field contains values
between 100 and 9999.
CREATE TABLE suppliers

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(
supplier_id numeric(4),
supplier_name varchar2(50),
CONSTRAINT check_supplier_name
CHECK (supplier_name = upper(supplier_name))
);
In this second example, we've created a check constraint called
check_supplier_name. This constraint ensures that the supplier_name column
always contains uppercase characters.
Using an ALTER TABLE statement
The syntax for creating a check constraint in an ALTER TABLE statement is:
ALTER TABLE table_name
add CONSTRAINT constraint_name CHECK
(column_name condition) [DISABLE];
The DISABLE keyword is optional. If you create a check constraint using the
DISABLE keyword, the constraint will be created, but the condition will not be
enforced.
For Example
ALTER TABLE suppliers
add CONSTRAINT check_supplier_name
CHECK (supplier_name IN ('IBM', 'Microsoft', 'NVIDIA'));
In this example, we've created a check constraint on the existing suppliers table
called check_supplier_name. It ensures that the supplier_name field only contains
the following values: IBM, Microsoft, or NVIDIA.
Drop a Check Constraint
The syntax for dropping a check constraint is:
ALTER TABLE table_name
drop CONSTRAINT constraint_name;
For Example
ALTER TABLE suppliers
drop CONSTRAINT check_supplier_id;
In this example, we're dropping a check constraint on the suppliers table called
check_supplier_id.
Enable a Check Constraint
The syntax for enabling a check constraint is:
ALTER TABLE table_name
enable CONSTRAINT constraint_name;
For Example
ALTER TABLE suppliers
enable CONSTRAINT check_supplier_id;
In this example, we're enabling a check constraint on the suppliers table called
check_supplier_id.

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Disable a Check Constraint

The syntax for disabling a check constraint is:
ALTER TABLE table_name
disable CONSTRAINT constraint_name;
For Example
ALTER TABLE suppliers
disable CONSTRAINT check_supplier_id;
SQL: DISTINCT Clause
The SQL DISTINCT clause allows you to remove duplicates from the result set. The
SQL DISTINCT clause can only be used with SQL SELECT statements.
The syntax for the SQL DISTINCT clause is:
SELECT DISTINCT columns
FROM tables
WHERE predicates;
SQL DISTINCT Clause - Single field example
The simplest way to use the SQL DISTINCT clause would be to return a single field
that removes the duplicates from the result set.
For example:
SELECT DISTINCT city
FROM suppliers;
This SQL DISTINCT clause example would return all unique cities from the suppliers
table.
SQL DISTINCT Clause - Multiple fields example
The SQL DISTINCT clause can be used with more than one field in your SQL SELECT
statement.
For example:
SELECT DISTINCT city, state
FROM suppliers;
SQL: "AND" Condition
The SQL "AND" condition allows you to create an SQL statement based on 2 or more
conditions being met. It can be used in any valid SQL statement - SQL SELECT
statement, SQL INSERT statement, SQL UPDATE statement, or SQL DELETE
statement.
The syntax for the SQL "AND" condition is:
SELECT columns
FROM tables
WHERE column1 = 'value1'
and column2 = 'value2';

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The SQL "AND" condition requires that each condition be must be met for the record
to be included in the result set. In this case, column1 has to equal 'value1' and
column2 has to equal 'value2'.
SQL "AND" Condition - SQL SELECT Statement example
The first SQL "AND" Condition example that we'll take a look at involves an SQL
SELECT statement with 2 conditions:
SELECT *
FROM suppliers
WHERE city = 'New York'
and type = 'PC Manufacturer';
This SQL "AND" condition example would return all suppliers that reside in New York
and are PC Manufacturers. Because the * is used in the SQL SELECT statement, all
fields from the supplier table would appear in the result set.
SQL "AND" Condition - JOINING Tables example
Our next example demonstrates how the SQL "AND condition" can be used to join
multiple tables in an SQL statement.
SELECT orders.order_id, suppliers.supplier_name
FROM suppliers, orders
WHERE suppliers.supplier_id = orders.supplier_id
and suppliers.supplier_name = 'IBM';
This SQL "AND" condition example would return all rows where the supplier_name is
IBM. And the suppliers and orders tables are joined on supplier_id. You will notice
that all of the fields are prefixed with the table names (ie: orders.order_id). This is
required to eliminate any ambiguity as to which field is being referenced; as the
same field name can exist in both the suppliers and orders tables.
In this case, the result set would only display the order_id and supplier_name fields
(as listed in the first part of the select statement.).
SQL "AND" Condition - SQL INSERT Statement example
The SQL "AND" Condition can be used in the SQL INSERT statement.

For example:.
INSERT INTO suppliers
(supplier_id, supplier_name)
SELECT account_no, name
FROM customers
WHERE customer_name = 'IBM'
or city = 'New York';
This SQL "AND" Condition example would insert into the suppliers table, all
account_no and name records from the customers table whose customer_name is
IBM and reside in New York.
SQL "AND" Condition - SQL UPDATE Statement example

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The SQL "AND" Condition can be used in the SQL UPDATE statement.
For example:.
UPDATE suppliers
SET supplier_name = 'HP'
WHERE supplier_name = 'IBM'
and state = 'California';
This SQL "AND" Condition example would update all supplier_name values in the
suppliers table to HP where the supplier_name was IBM and resides in the state of
California.
SQL "AND" Condition - SQL DELETE Statement example
The SQL "AND" Condition can be used in the SQL DELETE statement.
For example:.
DELETE FROM suppliers
WHERE supplier_name = 'IBM'
and product = 'PC computers';
This SQL "AND" Condition example would delete all suppliers from the suppliers
table whose supplier_name was IBM and product was PC computers.
SQL: LIKE Condition
The SQL LIKE condition allows you to use wildcards in the SQL WHERE clause of an
SQL statement. This allows you to perform pattern matching. The SQL LIKE
condition can be used in any valid SQL statement - SQL SELECT statement, SQL
INSERT statement, SQL UPDATE statement, or SQL DELETE statement.
The patterns that you can choose from are:
% allows you to match any string of any length (including zero length)
_ allows you to match on a single character
SQL LIKE Condition - Using % wildcard example
Let's explain how the % wildcard works in the SQL LIKE condition. We are going to
try to find all of the suppliers whose name begins with 'Hew'.
SELECT * FROM suppliers
WHERE supplier_name like 'Hew%';
You can also using the % wildcard multiple times within the same string. For
example,
SELECT * FROM suppliers
WHERE supplier_name like '%bob%';
In this SQL LIKE condition example, we are looking for all suppliers whose name
contains the characters 'bob'.

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You could also use the SQL LIKE condition to find suppliers whose name does not
start with 'T'.
For example:
SELECT * FROM suppliers
WHERE supplier_name not like 'T%';
By placing the not keyword in front of the SQL LIKE condition, you are able to
retrieve all suppliers whose name does not start with 'T'.
SQL LIKE Condition - Using _ wildcard example
Next, let's explain how the _ wildcard works in the SQL LIKE condition. Remember
that the _ is looking for only one character.
For example:
SELECT * FROM suppliers
WHERE supplier_name like 'Sm_th';
This SQL LIKE condition example would return all suppliers whose name is 5
characters long, where the first two characters is 'Sm' and the last two characters is
'th'. For example, it could return suppliers whose name is 'Smith', 'Smyth', 'Smath',
'Smeth', etc.
Here is another example:
SELECT * FROM suppliers
WHERE account_number like '12317_';
You might find that you are looking for an account number, but you only have 5 of
the 6 digits. The example above, would retrieve potentially 10 records back (where
the missing value could equal anything from 0 to 9). For example, it could return
suppliers whose account numbers are:
123170, 123171, 123172, 123173, 123174, 123175, 123176, 123177, 123178,
123179
SQL LIKE Condition - Using Escape Characters example
Next, in Oracle, let's say you wanted to search for a % or a _ character in the SQL
LIKE condition. You can do this using an Escape character.
Please note that you can only define an escape character as a single character
(length of 1).
For example:
SELECT * FROM suppliers
WHERE supplier_name LIKE '!%' escape '!';
This SQL LIKE condition example identifies the ! character as an escape character.
This statement will return all suppliers whose name is %.

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Here is another more complicated example using escape characters in the SQL LIKE
condition.
SELECT * FROM suppliers
WHERE supplier_name LIKE 'H%!%' escape '!';
This SQL LIKE condition example returns all suppliers whose name starts with H and
ends in %. For example, it would return a value such as 'Hello%'.
You can also use the escape character with the _ character in the SQL LIKE
condition.
For example:
SELECT * FROM suppliers
WHERE supplier_name LIKE 'H%!_' escape '!';
This SQL LIKE condition example returns all suppliers whose name starts with H and
ends in _. For example, it would return a value such as 'Hello_'.
Frequently Asked Questions
Question: How do you incorporate the Oracle upper function with the SQL LIKE
condition? I'm trying to query against a free text field for all records containing the
word "test". The problem is that it can be entered in the following ways: TEST, Test,
or test.
Answer: To answer this question, let's take a look at an example.
Let's say that we have a suppliers table with a field called supplier_name that
contains the values TEST, Test, or test.
If we wanted to find all records containing the word "test", regardless of whether it
was stored as TEST, Test, or test, we could run either of the following SQL SELECT
statements:
select * from suppliers
where upper(supplier_name) like ('TEST%');
or
select * from suppliers
where upper(supplier_name) like upper('test%')
These SQL SELECT statements use a combination of the Oracle upper function and
the SQL LIKE condition to return all of the records where the supplier_name field
contains the word "test", regardless of whether it was stored as TEST, Test, or test.

Practice Exercise #1:

Based on the employees table populated with the following data, find all records
whose employee_name ends with the letter "h".

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CREATE TABLE employees

( employee_number number(10) not null,
employee_name varchar2(50) not null,
salary number(6),
CONSTRAINT employees_pk PRIMARY KEY
(employee_number)
);
INSERT INTO employees (employee_number, employee_name, salary)
VALUES (1001, 'John Smith', 62000);
INSERT INTO employees (employee_number, employee_name, salary)
VALUES (1002, 'Jane Anderson', 57500);
INSERT INTO employees (employee_number, employee_name, salary)
VALUES (1003, 'Brad Everest', 71000);
INSERT INTO employees (employee_number, employee_name, salary)
VALUES (1004, 'Jack Horvath', 42000);
Solution:
The following SQL SELECT statement uses the SQL LIKE condition to return the
records whose employee_name ends with the letter "h".
SELECT *
FROM employees
WHERE employee_name LIKE '%h';
It would return the following result set:EMPLOYEE_NUMBER
SALARY
1001 John Smith 62000
1004 Jack Horvath 42000

EMPLOYEE_NAME

Practice Exercise #2:

Based on the employees table populated with the following data, find all records
whose employee_name contains the letter "s".
CREATE TABLE employees
( employee_number number(10) not null,
employee_name varchar2(50) not null,
salary number(6),
CONSTRAINT employees_pk PRIMARY KEY
(employee_number)
);
INSERT INTO employees (employee_number, employee_name, salary)
VALUES (1001, 'John Smith', 62000);
INSERT INTO employees (employee_number, employee_name, salary)
VALUES (1002, 'Jane Anderson', 57500);

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INSERT INTO employees (employee_number, employee_name, salary)

VALUES (1003, 'Brad Everest', 71000);
INSERT INTO employees (employee_number, employee_name, salary)
VALUES (1004, 'Jack Horvath', 42000);
Solution:
The following SQL SELECT statement would use the SQL LIKE condition to return the
records whose employee_name contains the letter "s".
SELECT *
FROM employees
WHERE employee_name LIKE '%s%';
It would return the following result set:EMPLOYEE_NUMBER
SALARY
1002 Jane Anderson
57500
1003 Brad Everest 71000

EMPLOYEE_NAME

Practice Exercise #3:

Based on the suppliers table populated with the following data, find all records
whose supplier_id is 4 digits and starts with "500".
CREATE TABLE suppliers
( supplier_id varchar2(10) not null,
supplier_name varchar2(50) not null,
city varchar2(50),
CONSTRAINT suppliers_pk PRIMARY KEY (supplier_id)
);
INSERT INTO suppliers(supplier_id, supplier_name, city)
VALUES ('5008', 'Microsoft', 'New York');
INSERT INTO suppliers (supplier_id, supplier_name, city)
VALUES ('5009', 'IBM', 'Chicago');
INSERT INTO suppliers (supplier_id, supplier_name, city)
VALUES ('5010', 'Red Hat', 'Detroit');
INSERT INTO suppliers (supplier_id, supplier_name, city)
VALUES ('5011', 'NVIDIA', 'New York');
Solution:
The following SQL SELECT statement would use the SQL LIKE condition to return the
records whose supplier_id is 4 digits and starts with "500".
select *
FROM suppliers
WHERE supplier_id LIKE '500_';

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It would return the following result set:SUPPLIER_ID SUPPLIER_NAME

5008 Microsoft
New York
5009 IBM Chicago

CITY

SQL: "OR" Condition

The SQL "OR" condition allows you to create an SQL statement where records are
returned when any one of the conditions are met. It can be used in any valid SQL
statement - SQL SELECT statement, SQL INSERT statement, SQL UPDATE statement,
or SQL DELETE statement.
The syntax for the SQL OR condition is:
SELECT columns
FROM tables
WHERE column1 = 'value1'
or column2 = 'value2';
The SQL "OR" condition requires that any of the conditions be must be met for the
record to be included in the result set. In this case, column1 has to equal 'value1'
OR column2 has to equal 'value2'.
SQL "OR" Condition - SQL SELECT Statement example
The first SQL "OR" Condition example that we'll take a look at involves an SQL
SELECT statement with 2 conditions:
SELECT *
FROM suppliers
WHERE city = 'New York'
or city = 'Newark';
This SQL "OR" Condition example would return all suppliers that reside in either
New York or Newark. Because the * is used in the SELECT statement, all fields from
the suppliers table would appear in the result set.
SQL "OR" Condition - SQL SELECT Statement with 3 conditions example
The next example SQL OR Condition example takes a look at an SQL SELECT
statement with 3 conditions. If any of these conditions is met, the record will be
included in the result set.
SELECT supplier_id
FROM suppliers
WHERE name = 'IBM'
or name = 'Hewlett Packard'
or name = 'Gateway';
This SQL "OR" Condition example would return all supplier_id values where the
supplier's name is either IBM, Hewlett Packard or Gateway.
SQL "OR" Condition - SQL INSERT Statement example
The SQL "OR" Condition can be used in the SQL INSERT statement.
For example:.

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INSERT INTO suppliers

(supplier_id, supplier_name)
SELECT account_no, name
FROM customers
WHERE city = 'New York'
or city = 'Newark';
This SQL "OR" Condition example would insert into the suppliers table, all
account_no and name records from the customers table that reside in either New
York or Newark.
SQL "OR" Condition - SQL UPDATE Statement example
The SQL "OR" Condition can be used in the SQL UPDATE statement.
For example:.
UPDATE suppliers
SET supplier_name = 'HP'
WHERE supplier_name = 'IBM'
or supplier_name = 'Dell';
This SQL "OR" Condition example would update all supplier_name values in the
suppliers table to HP where the supplier_name was either IBM or Dell.
SQL "OR" Condition - SQL DELETE Statement example
The SQL "OR" Condition can be used in the SQL DELETE statement.
For example:.
DELETE FROM suppliers
WHERE supplier_name = 'IBM'
or supplier_name = 'Dell';

SQL: "IN" Condition

The SQL "IN" condition helps reduce the need to use multiple SQL "OR" conditions.
The SQL "IN" condition can be used in any valid SQL statement - SQL SELECT
statement, SQL INSERT statement, SQL UPDATE statement, or SQL DELETE
statement.
The syntax for the "IN" condition is:
expression in (value1, value2, .... value_n);
The SQL "IN" condition will return the records where expression is value1, value2...,
or value_n.
SQL "IN" Condition - Character example
The following is an SQL SELECT statement that uses the IN condition to compare
character values:
SELECT *

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FROM suppliers
WHERE supplier_name in ('IBM', 'Hewlett Packard',
'Microsoft');
This SQL "IN" condition example would return all rows where the supplier_name is
either IBM, Hewlett Packard, or Microsoft. Because the * is used in the select, all
fields from the suppliers table would appear in the result set.
It is equivalent to the following statement:
SELECT *
FROM suppliers
WHERE supplier_name = 'IBM'
OR supplier_name = 'Hewlett Packard'
OR supplier_name = 'Microsoft';
As you can see, using the SQL "IN" condition makes the statement easier to read
and more efficient.
SQL "IN" Condition - Numeric example
You can also use the SQL "IN" condition with numeric values.
For example:
SELECT *
FROM orders
WHERE order_id in (10000, 10001, 10003, 10005);
This SQL "IN" condition example would return all orders where the order_id is either
10000, 10001, 10003, or 10005.
It is equivalent to the following statement:
SELECT *
FROM orders
WHERE order_id = 10000
OR order_id = 10001
OR order_id = 10003
OR order_id = 10005;
SQL "IN" Condition - Using the NOT operator
The SQL "IN" condition can also be combined with the SQL NOT operator.
For example,
SELECT *
FROM suppliers
WHERE supplier_name not in ( 'IBM', 'Hewlett Packard',
'Microsoft');

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SQL: BETWEEN Condition

The SQL BETWEEN condition allows you to retrieve values within a range. The SQL
BETWEEN condition can be used in any valid SQL statement - SQL SELECT
statement, SQL INSERT statement, SQL UPDATE statement, or SQL DELETE
statement.
The syntax for the SQL BETWEEN condition is:
expression BETWEEN value1 and value2;
The SQL BETWEEN condition will return the records where expression is within the
range of value1 and value2 (inclusive).
SQL BETWEEN Condition - Numeric example
The following is the SQL BETWEEN condition that retrieves values within a numeric
range.
For example:
SELECT *
FROM suppliers
WHERE supplier_id BETWEEN 5000 AND 5010;
This SQL BETWEEN condition example would return all rows where the supplier_id is
between 5000 and 5010, inclusive. It is equivalent to the following SQL SELECT
statement:
SELECT *
FROM suppliers
WHERE supplier_id >= 5000
AND supplier_id <= 5010;
SQL BETWEEN Condition - Date example
You can also use the SQL BETWEEN condition to retrieve values within a date range.
For example:
SELECT *
FROM orders
WHERE order_date between to_date ('2003/01/01',
'yyyy/mm/dd')
AND to_date ('2003/12/31', 'yyyy/mm/dd');
This SQL BETWEEN condition example would return all orders where the order_date
is between Jan 1, 2003 and Dec 31, 2003 (inclusive). It would be equivalent to the
following SQL SELECT statement:
SELECT *
FROM orders
WHERE order_date >= to_date('2003/01/01',
'yyyy/mm/dd')
AND order_date <= to_date('2003/12/31','yyyy/mm/dd');

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SQL BETWEEN Condition - Using the NOT operator

The SQL BETWEEN condition can also be combined with the SQL NOT operator.
For example:
SELECT *
FROM suppliers
WHERE supplier_id not between 5000 and 5500;
This SQL BETWEEN condition example would return all rows where the supplier_id
was not between 5000 and 5500, inclusive. It would be equivalent to the following
SQL SELECT statement:
SELECT *
FROM suppliers
WHERE supplier_id < 5000
OR supplier_id > 5500;

SQL: EXISTS Condition

The SQL EXISTS condition is considered "to be met" if the subquery returns at least
one row. The SQL EXISTS condition can be used in any valid SQL statement - SQL
SELECT statement, SQL INSERT statement, SQL UPDATE statement, or SQL DELETE
statement.
The syntax for the SQL EXISTS condition is:
WHERE EXISTS ( subquery );
Note
SQL Statements that use the SQL EXIST Condition are very inefficient since the subquery is RE-RUN for EVERY row in the outer query's table. There are more efficient
ways to write most queries, that do not use the SQL EXISTS Condition.
SQL EXISTS Condition - SELECT Statement example
Let's take a look at a simple example.
The following is an SQL SELECT statement that uses the SQL EXISTS condition:
SELECT *
FROM suppliers
WHERE EXISTS (select *
from orders
where suppliers.supplier_id =
orders.supplier_id);
This SQL EXISTS condition example will return all records from the suppliers table
where there is at least one record in the orders table with the same supplier_id.

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SQL EXISTS Condition - SELECT Statement using NOT EXISTS example

The SQL EXISTS condition can also be combined with the SQL NOT operator.
For example,
SELECT *
FROM suppliers
WHERE NOT EXISTS (select * from orders Where
suppliers.supplier_id = orders.supplier_id);
This SQL EXISTS condition example will return all records from the suppliers table
where there are no records in the orders table for the given supplier_id.
SQL EXISTS Condition - INSERT Statement example
The following is an example of an SQL INSERT statement that uses the SQL EXISTS
condition:
INSERT INTO suppliers
(supplier_id, supplier_name)
SELECT account_no, name
FROM suppliers
WHERE EXISTS (select * from orders Where
suppliers.supplier_id = orders.supplier_id);
SQL EXISTS Condition - UPDATE Statement example
The following is an example of an SQL UPDATE statement that uses the SQL EXISTS
condition:
UPDATE suppliers
SET supplier_name = (select customers.name
from customers
where customers.customer_id =
suppliers.supplier_id)
WHERE EXISTS (select customers.name
from customers
where customers.customer_id =
suppliers.supplier_id);
SQL EXISTS Condition - DELETE Statement example
The following is an example of an SQL DELETE statement that uses the SQL EXISTS
condition:
DELETE FROM suppliers
WHERE EXISTS (select *
from orders
where suppliers.supplier_id =
orders.supplier_id);

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SQL: COUNT Function

The SQL COUNT function returns the number of rows in a query.
The syntax for the SQL COUNT function is:

SELECT COUNT(expression)
FROM tables
WHERE predicates;
Note
The SQL COUNT function will only count those records in which the field in the brackets is
NOT NULL.
For example, if you have the following table called suppliers:

Supplier Supplier_Na Stat

_ID
me
e
1

IBM

Microsoft

NVIDIA

CA

And if you ran the following SQL SELECT statement that uses the SQL COUNT function:

Select COUNT(Supplier_ID) from suppliers;

The result for this query will return 3.
However, if you ran the next SQL SELECT statement that uses the SQL COUNT function:

Select COUNT(State) from suppliers;

The result for this query would be 1, since there is only one row in the suppliers table where
the State field is NOT NULL.

SQL COUNT Function - Single field example

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The simplest way to use the SQL COUNT function would be to return a single field that
returns the COUNT of something.
For example, you might wish to know how many employees have a salary that is above
$25,000 / year.

SELECT COUNT(*) as "Number of employees"

FROM employees
WHERE salary > 25000;
In this SQL COUNT function example, we've aliased the count(*) field as "Number of
employees". As a result, "Number of employees" will display as the field name when the
result set is returned.

SQL COUNT Function - Using SQL DISTINCT Clause example

You can use the SQL DISTINCT clause within the SQL COUNT function.
For example, the SQL statement below returns the number of unique departments where at
least one employee makes over $25,000 / year.

SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT department) as "Unique

departments"
FROM employees
WHERE salary > 25000;
Again, the COUNT(DISTINCT department) field is aliased as "Unique departments". This is
the field name that will display in the result set.

SQL COUNT Function - Using SQL GROUP BY Clause example

In some cases, you will be required to use the SQL GROUP BY clause with the SQL COUNT
function.
For example, you could use the SQL COUNT function to return the name of the department
and the number of employees (in the associated department) that make over $25,000 /
year.

SELECT department, COUNT(*) as "Number of employees"

FROM employees
WHERE salary > 25000
GROUP BY department;
Because you have listed one column in your SQL SELECT statement that is not
encapsulated in the SQL COUNT function, you must use the SQL GROUP BY clause. The
department field must, therefore, be listed in the GROUP BY section.

TIP: Performance Tuning

Since the SQL COUNT function will return the same results regardless of what NOT NULL
field(s) you include as the SQL COUNT function parameters (ie: within the brackets), you can
change the syntax of the SQL COUNT function to COUNT(1) to get better performance as the
database engine will not have to fetch back the data fields.

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For example, based on the example above, the following syntax would result in better
performance:

SELECT department, COUNT(1) as "Number of

employees"
FROM employees
WHERE salary > 25000
GROUP BY department;
Now, the SQL COUNT function does not need to retrieve all fields from the employees table
as it had to when you used the COUNT(*) syntax. It will merely retrieve the numeric value of
1 for each record that meets your criteria.

Practice Exercise #1:

Based on the employees table populated with the following data, count the number of
employees whose salary is over $55,000 per year.

CREATE TABLE employees

( employee_number number(10) not null,
employee_name varchar2(50) not null,
salary number(6),
CONSTRAINT employees_pk PRIMARY KEY
(employee_number)
);
INSERT INTO employees (employee_number, employee_name, salary)
VALUES (1001, 'John Smith', 62000);
INSERT INTO employees (employee_number, employee_name, salary)
VALUES (1002, 'Jane Anderson', 57500);
INSERT INTO employees (employee_number, employee_name, salary)
VALUES (1003, 'Brad Everest', 71000);
INSERT INTO employees (employee_number, employee_name, salary)
VALUES (1004, 'Jack Horvath', 42000);
Solution:
Although inefficient in terms of performance, the following SQL SELECT statement would
return the number of employees whose salary is over $55,000 per year.

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SELECT COUNT(*) as "Number of employees"

FROM employees
WHERE salary > 55000;
It would return the following result set:

Number of
employees
3
A more efficient implementation of the same solution would be the following SQL SELECT
statement:

SELECT COUNT(1) as "Number of employees"

FROM employees
WHERE salary > 55000;
Now, the SQL COUNT function does not need to retrieve all of the fields from the table (ie:
employee_number, employee_name, and salary), but rather whenever the condition is met,
it will retrieve the numeric value of 1. Thus, increasing the performance of the SQL
statement.

Practice Exercise #2:

Based on the suppliers table populated with the following data, count the number of
distinct cities in the suppliers table:

CREATE TABLE suppliers

( supplier_id number(10) not null,
supplier_name varchar2(50) not null,
city varchar2(50),
CONSTRAINT suppliers_pk PRIMARY KEY (supplier_id)
);
INSERT INTO suppliers (supplier_id, supplier_name, city)
VALUES (5001, 'Microsoft', 'New York');
INSERT INTO suppliers (supplier_id, supplier_name, city)
VALUES (5002, 'IBM', 'Chicago');
INSERT INTO suppliers (supplier_id, supplier_name, city)
VALUES (5003, 'Red Hat', 'Detroit');
INSERT INTO suppliers (supplier_id, supplier_name, city)
VALUES (5004, 'NVIDIA', 'New York');
INSERT INTO suppliers (supplier_id, supplier_name, city)

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VALUES (5005, 'NVIDIA', 'LA');

Solution:
The following SQL SELECT statement would return the number of distinct cities in
the suppliers table:

SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT city) as "Distinct Cities"

FROM suppliers;
It would return the following result set:

Distinct
Cities
4

Practice Exercise #3:

Based on the customers table populated with the following data, count the number of
distinct cities for each customer_name in the customers table:

CREATE TABLE customers

( customer_id number(10) not null,
customer_name varchar2(50) not null,
city varchar2(50),
CONSTRAINT customers_pk PRIMARY KEY
(customer_id)
);
INSERT INTO customers (customer_id, customer_name, city)
VALUES (7001, 'Microsoft', 'New York');
INSERT INTO customers (customer_id, customer_name, city)
VALUES (7002, 'IBM', 'Chicago');
INSERT INTO customers (customer_id, customer_name, city)
VALUES (7003, 'Red Hat', 'Detroit');
INSERT INTO customers (customer_id, customer_name, city)
VALUES (7004, 'Red Hat', 'New York');
INSERT INTO customers (customer_id, customer_name, city)
VALUES (7005, 'Red Hat', 'San Francisco');
INSERT INTO customers (customer_id, customer_name, city)
VALUES (7006, 'NVIDIA', 'New York');
INSERT INTO customers (customer_id, customer_name, city)
VALUES (7007, 'NVIDIA', 'LA');

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INSERT INTO customers (customer_id, customer_name, city)

VALUES (7008, 'NVIDIA', 'LA');
Solution:
The following SQL SELECT statement would return the number of distinct cities for
each customer_name in the customers table:

SELECT customer_name, COUNT(DISTINCT city) as

"Distinct Cities"
FROM customers
GROUP BY customer_name;

It would return the following result set:

CUSTOMER_N Distinct
AME
Cities
IBM

Microsoft

NVIDIA

Red Hat

ADVERTISEMENT

SQL: UNION Query

The SQL UNION query allows you to combine the result sets of 2 or more SQL SELECT
statements. It removes duplicate rows between the various SELECT statements.
Each SQL SELECT statement within the UNION query must have the same number of
fields in the result sets with similar data types.
The syntax for the SQL UNION query is:

select field1, field2, . field_n

from tables
UNION
select field1, field2, . field_n
from tables;

SQL UNION Query - Returns single field example

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The following is an example of the SQL UNION query that returns one field from multiple
SELECT statements (and both fields have the same data type):

select supplier_id
from suppliers
UNION
select supplier_id
from orders;

In this SQL UNION query example, if a supplier_id appeared in both the suppliers and orders
table, it would appear once in your result set. The SQL UNION query removes duplicates. If
you do notwish to remove duplicates, try using the SQL UNION ALL query.

SQL UNION Query - Using SQL ORDER BY Clause example

The SQL UNION query can use the SQL ORDER BY clause to order the results of the
query.
For example:

select supplier_id, supplier_name

from suppliers
where supplier_id > 2000
UNION
select company_id, company_name
from companies
where company_id > 1000

ORDER BY 2;
In this SQL UNION query, since the column names are different between the two SQL
SELECT statements, it is more advantageous to reference the columns in the SQL ORDER
BY clause by their position in the result set. In this example, we've sorted the results by
supplier_name / company_name in ascending order, as denoted by the "ORDER BY 2".
The supplier_name / company_name fields are in position #2 in the result set.

Frequently Asked Questions

Question: I need to compare two dates and return the count of a field based on the date
values. For example, I have a date field in a table called last updated date. I have to check if
trunc(last_updated_date >= trunc(sysdate-13).
Answer: Since you are using the SQL COUNT function which is an aggregate function,
we'd recommend using an SQL UNION query. For example, you could try the following:

SELECT a.code as Code, a.name as Name,

count(b.Ncode)
FROM cdmaster a, nmmaster b
WHERE a.code = b.code
and a.status = 1
and b.status = 1
and b.Ncode <> 'a10'
and trunc(last_updated_date) <= trunc(sysdate-13)
group by a.code, a.name
UNION
SELECT a.code as Code, a.name as Name,
count(b.Ncode)
FROM cdmaster a, nmmaster b
WHERE a.code = b.code
and a.status = 1
and b.status = 1
and b.Ncode <> 'a10'

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and trunc(last_updated_date) > trunc(sysdate-13)

group by a.code, a.name;
The SQL UNION query allows you to perform an SQL COUNT
based on one set of criteria.

trunc(last_updated_date) <= trunc(sysdate-13)

As well as perform an SQL COUNT based on another set of
criteria.

trunc(last_updated_date) > trunc(sysdate-13)

SQL: UNION ALL Query

The SQL UNION ALL query allows you to combine the result sets of 2 or more SELECT
statements. It returns all rows from the query (even if the row exists in more than one of
the SELECT statements).
Each SQL SELECT statement within the SQL UNION ALL query must have the same
number of fields in the result sets with similar data types.
The syntax for the SQL UNION ALL query is:

select field1, field2, ... field_n

from tables
UNION ALL
select field1, field2, ... field_n
from tables;

SQL UNION ALL Query - Returns single field example

The following is an example of the SQL UNION ALL query that returns one field from multiple
SELECT statements (and both fields have the same data type):

select supplier_id
from suppliers
UNION ALL
select supplier_id
from orders;

This SQL UNION ALL query would return a supplier_id multiple times in your result set if the
supplier_id appeared in both the suppliers and orders table. The SQL UNION ALL query
does not remove duplicates. If you wish to remove duplicates, try using the SQL UNION
query.

SQL UNION ALL Query - Using SQL ORDER BY Clause example

The SQL UNION ALL query can use the SQL ORDER BY clause to order the results of
the query.
For example:

select supplier_id, supplier_name

from suppliers
where supplier_id > 2000
UNION ALL
select company_id, company_name
from companies
where company_id > 1000
ORDER BY 2;
In this SQL UNION ALL query, since the column names are different between the two SQL
SELECT statements, it is more advantageous to reference the columns in the SQL ORDER
BY clauseby their position in the result set. In this example, we've sorted the results by
supplier_name / company_name in ascending order, as denoted by the "ORDER BY 2".

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The supplier_name / company_name fields are in position #2 in the result set.

The SQL INTERSECT query allows you to return the results of 2 or more "select" queries.
However, it only returns the rows selected by all queries. If a record exists in one query and
not in the other, it will be omitted from the INTERSECT results.
Each SQL statement within the SQL INTERSECT query must have the same number of fields
in the result sets with similar data types.
The syntax for the SQL INTERSECT query is:

select field1, field2, . field_n

from tables
INTERSECT
select field1, field2, . field_n
from tables;

SQL INTERSECT Query - Single field example

The following is an example of an SQL INTERSECT query that has one field with the same
data type:

select supplier_id
from suppliers
INTERSECT
select supplier_id
from orders;
In this SQL INTERSECT query example, if a supplier_id appeared in both the suppliers and
orders table, it would appear in your result set.

SQL INTERSECT Query - Using ORDER BY Clause example

The following is an SQL INTERSECT query that uses an SQL ORDER BY clause:

SQL: MINUS Query

select supplier_id, supplier_name

from suppliers
where supplier_id > 2000
INTERSECT
select company_id, company_name
from companies
where company_id > 1000

The SQL MINUS query returns all rows in the first SQL SELECT statement that are not
returned in the second SQL SELECT statement.
Each SQL SELECT statement within the SQL MINUS query must have the same number of
fields in the result sets with similar data types.
The syntax for the SQL MINUS query is:

select field1, field2, ... field_n

from tables
MINUS
select field1, field2, ... field_n
from tables;

SQL MINUS Query - Single field example

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The following is an example of an SQL MINUS query that has one field with the same data
type:

select supplier_id
from suppliers
MINUS
select supplier_id
from orders;
This SQL Minus query example returns all supplier_id values that are in the suppliers table
and not in the orders table. What this means is that if a supplier_id value existed in the
suppliers table and also existed in the orders table, the supplier_id value would not appear
in this result set.

SQL MINUS Query - Using ORDER BY Clause example

The following is an SQL MINUS query that uses an ORDER BY clause:

SQL: SUM Function

select supplier_id, supplier_name

from suppliers
where supplier_id > 2000
MINUS
select company_id, company_name
from companies
where company_id > 1000
ORDER BY 2;

The SQL SUM function returns the summed value of an expression.

The syntax for the SQL SUM function is:

SELECT SUM(expression )
FROM tables
WHERE predicates;
expression can be a numeric field or formula.

SQL SUM Function - Single Field example

For example, you might wish to know how the combined total salary of all employees whose
salary is above $25,000 / year.

SELECT SUM(salary) as "Total Salary"

FROM employees
WHERE salary > 25000;

In this SQL SUM Function example, we've aliased the sum(salary) field as "Total Salary". As a
result, "Total Salary" will display as the field name when the result set is returned.

SQL SUM Function - Using SQL DISTINCT Clause example

You can use the SQL DISTINCT clause within the SQL SUM function. For example, the SQL
SELECT statement below returns the combined total salary of unique salary values where
the salary is above $25,000 / year.

SELECT SUM(DISTINCT salary) as "Total Salary"

FROM employees

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WHERE salary > 25000;

If there were two salaries of $30,000/year, only one of these values would be used in the
SQL SUM function.

SQL SUM Function - Using a Formula example

The expression contained within the SQL SUM function does not need to be a single field.
You could also use a formula. For example, you might want the net income for a business.
Net Income is calculated as total income less total expenses.

SELECT SUM(income - expenses) as "Net Income"

FROM gl_transactions;
You might also want to perform a mathematical operation within the SQL SUM function. For
example, you might determine total commission as 10% of total sales.

SELECT SUM(sales * 0.10) as "Commission"

FROM order_details;

SQL SUM Function - Using SQL GROUP BY Clause example

In some cases, you will be required to use the SQL GROUP BY clause with the SQL SUM
function.
For example, you could also use the QSL SUM function to return the name of the department
and the total sales (in the associated department).

SELECT department, SUM(sales) as "Total sales"

FROM order_details
GROUP BY department;

SQL: HAVING Clause

The SQL HAVING clause is used in combination with the SQL GROUP BY clause. It can be
used in an SQL SELECT statement to filter the records that a SQL GROUP BY returns.
The syntax for the SQL HAVING clause is:

SELECT column1, column2, ... column_n,

aggregate_function (expression)
FROM tables
WHERE predicates
GROUP BY column1, column2, ... column_n
HAVING condition1 ... condition_n;

aggregate_function can be a function such as SQL SUM function, SQL COUNT

function, SQL MIN function, or SQL MAX function.

SQL HAVING Clause - Using the SUM function example

You could also use the SQL SUM function to return the name of the department and the
total sales (in the associated department). The SQL HAVING clause will filter the results so
that only departments with sales greater than $1000 will be returned.

SELECT department, SUM(sales) as "Total sales"

FROM order_details
GROUP BY department
HAVING SUM(sales) > 1000;
SQL HAVING Clause - Using the COUNT function example
You could use the SQL COUNT function to return the name of the department and the
number of employees (in the associated department) that make over $25,000 / year. The
SQL HAVING clause will filter the results so that only departments with more than 10
employees will be returned.

SELECT department, COUNT(*) as "Number of

employees"
FROM employees
WHERE salary > 25000
GROUP BY department

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HAVING COUNT(*) > 10;

SQL HAVING Clause - Using the MIN function example
You could also use the SQL MIN function to return the name of each department and the
minimum salary in the department. The SQL HAVING clause will return only those
departments where the starting salary is $35,000.

SELECT department, MIN(salary) as "Lowest salary"

FROM employees
GROUP BY department
HAVING MIN(salary) = 35000;
SQL HAVING Clause - Using the MAX function
For example, you could also use the SQL MAX function to return the name of each
department and the maximum salary in the department. The SQL HAVING clause will return
only those departments whose maximum salary is less than $50,000.

SELECT department, MAX(salary) as "Highest salary"

FROM employees
GROUP BY department
HAVING MAX(salary) < 50000;