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CHAPTER 8

NATURAL RESOURCES AND

FOOD IN THE MEDITERRANEAN
Roberto Capone, Hamid El Bilali, Abderraouf Elferchichi,
Nicola Lamaddalena and Lamberto Lamberti
CIHEAM-MAI Bari, Italy

When one considers the exhaustion of fossil energy reserves, limited soil capacities, the
degradation of ecosystems, climate change and global warming, unbalanced diets, and
population increase, the current food system cannot be regarded as sustainable. Action
to implement a strategy that promotes the concept of sustainable diets is thus a matter
of urgency. Diets are a significant factor in a number of critical sustainability issues
such as climate change, public health, social inequalities, biodiversity, the use of energy,
land and water, and so on (Reddy et al., 2009).

The FAO (2010) defines a sustainable diet as one that ensures food for future generations,
while generating minimum negative impact on the environment. It consists of food
that is produced locally and is thus available, accessible and affordable for all as well as
being safe and nutritious; it furthermore protects the incomes of farmers and other
workers as well as the cultures of consumers and communities. A sustainable diet places
nutrition, food and biodiversity at the core of sustainable development and people’s
right to food. In order to be considered sustainable, Mediterranean Diets should thus,
inter alia, have low environmental impact, protect and respect biodiversity and eco-
systems, and optimise the use of natural resources.

Diets affect various factors − agricultural, nutritional, environmental, social, cultural,

economic − which interact with one another. From this point of view, the Mediterranean
is a region where many issues (biodiversity loss, soil erosion, water scarcity, etc.) that
are directly or indirectly related to Mediterranean food consumption patterns should
be addressed as priorities (Lacirignola and Capone, 2010).

The aim of this paper is to provide an overview of natural resources in the Mediterranean
region and to analyse the main environmental impacts of Mediterranean food consump-
tion patterns on land and water resources and biodiversity.

Water and land resources in Mediterranean

countries
In the Mediterranean region, water resources are limited, fragile and unevenly distributed
over space and time. Southern-rim countries are endowed with only 13% of the total
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172 MEDITERRA 2012

resources (Blue Plan, 2006). Irrigation accounts for almost 65% of anthropogenic
abstraction and can even exceed 80% in the southern and eastern Mediterranean
countries (Thivet and Blinda, 2007). The seasonal nature of rainfall plays a crucial role
in water stress, since the water demand of certain Mediterranean crops coincides with
the periods of lowest rainfall and water availability (Fernandez and Mouliérac, 2010).

According to the projections of the Blue Plan, which takes the year 2000 as the base
year, water demands could increase by a further 15% by 2025, especially in the southern
and eastern countries, where an increase of 25% is expected. Furthermore, Mariotti et
al. (2008) have predicted an average decrease of 20% in surface water availability by
2070-2099, with a decrease in soil moisture and river runoff, and a 24% increase in the
loss of fresh water over the Mediterranean region due to precipitation reduction and
warming-enhanced evaporation. In fact, the impact of climate change on the
Mediterranean environment is already noticeable (Blue Plan, 2008). Measures to improve
water demand management, water saving and the rational use of water, especially in
agriculture, are thus of paramount importance in the region. In fact, the estimated
overall water use efficiency for the Mediterranean countries ranges from 50% to 85%
(Thivet and Blinda, 2007). Water demand management measures can free up significant
amounts of water. They are economically worthwhile if they provide a means of
maintaining the water supply where it is a limiting factor. Although the market can
create a preference for crops that consume smaller amounts of water, incentives and
regulatory measures must also be explored (Fernandez and Mouliérac, 2010).

The various forms of land degradation, particularly erosion, are as old as the region
(Blue Plan, 2003), and new threats have appeared in modern times in connection with
the social and economic upheavals of recent years, poor farming intensification in
certain sectors, encroachment on space by urbanisation and infrastructures, urban and
industrial waste pollution, and so on.

Diversity of plants, crops and farming systems

in the Mediterranean
The current era is one of unprecedented threats to biodiversity. Fifteen out of 24
ecosystem services are assessed as being in decline (Steinfeld et al., 2006). The genetic
diversification of food crops and animal breeds is diminishing rapidly. In fact, at the
beginning of the 21st century it is estimated that only 10% of the variety of crops that
have been cultivated in the past are still being farmed, many local varieties being replaced
by a small number of improved non-native varieties (Millstone and Lang, 2008). Only
some 30 crop species provide 95% of food energy in the world, whereas 7000 partly or
fully domesticated species are known to have been be used for food; these include many
of the so-called underutilised, neglected or minor crops (Williams and Haq, 2002).

Biodiversity in the Mediterranean hotspot

The Mediterranean basin Biodiversity Hotspot (MBH) is the second largest hotspot in
the world. It covers more than 2 million square kilometres and stretches west to east
from Portugal to Jordan and north to south from northern Italy to Cape Verde. It is one
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Natural resources and food in the Mediterranean 173

of the greatest areas for endemic plants on earth and includes several epicentres of plant
diversity. Three main circumstances have contributed to the high diversity of the MBH:
(i) its location at the intersection of two major landmasses (Eurasia and Africa) and (ii)
tremendous topographical diversity and huge differences in altitude. Its climate is unique,
but rainfall ranges from 100 mm to 3,000 mm, resulting in high vegetation diversity
within the region.
These combined factors make the MBH the third richest hotspot in the world in terms
of plant biodiversity (Mittermeier et al., 2004). Approximately 30,000 plant species occur
there, and more than 13,000 species are endemic to the hotspot; yet many more are
being discovered every year (Radford et al., 2011). The MBH is a centre of plant
endemism, with 10% of the world’s plants found in about 1.6% of the earth’s surface.
The hotspot, a surface area one-fourth the size of sub-Saharan Africa, has roughly the
same plant diversity as the entire area of tropical Africa (CEPF, 2010).
The forests of the Mediterranean are diverse, harbouring up to 100 different tree species.
Moreover, it is estimated that the Mediterranean Sea contains 8% to 9% of all marine
species in the world (Sundseth, 2009). In the Mediterranean basin, there is tremendous
topographic, climatic and geographic variability resulting in an astounding array of
species and habitat diversity. The World-Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) has listed 32
eco-regions occurring in the Mediterranean hotspot. There are three broad types of
vegetation: maquis, forests, and garrigue (CEPF, 2010), the maquis being nowadays the
most widespread. Many of the endemic and restricted-range plant species depend on
this habitat, and several are thus threatened (Tucker and Evans, 1997).
Changes in diet, especially an increase in meat consumption, have generated an increase
in diet-related diseases but are also having an impact on biodiversity. The livestock sector
is considered to be one of the major players in the reduction of biodiversity since it is
one of the primary drivers of, inter alia, deforestation, land degradation, pollution,
climate change, the erosion and sedimentation of coastal areas and the facilitation of
alien species invasion (Steinfeld et al., 2006). Some 306 of the 825 terrestrial eco-regions
identified by the WWF reported livestock as one of the current threats; 23 of 35 global
hotspots for biodiversity identified by Conservation International are reported to be
affected by livestock production. And an analysis of the Red List of Threatened Species
issued by the IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature – formerly World
Conservation Union) shows that most of the world’s threatened species are suffering
habitat loss where livestock is a factor (Baillie et al., 2004).

Diversity of crops and farming systems in the Mediterranean

The importance of the Mediterranean in terms of crop diversity, is illustrated by the
fact that about one-third of the foodstuffs used by humankind comes from the
Mediterranean climatic region, if not strictly from the topographic basin proper (Harlan,
1995). Barley, wheat, oats, olives, grapes, almonds, figs, dates, peas and other innumerable
fruits and vegetables as well as medicinal or aromatic herbs are derived from wild plants
found in the Mediterranean region (Sundseth, 2009).

The Mediterranean basin was one of the eight centres of cultivated plant origin and
diversity identified by Vavilov (1951), who listed over 80 crops, the most important,
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174 MEDITERRA 2012

however, being cereals, pulses, fruit trees and vegetables. There were also many herbs,
spice-producing plants, horticultural crops, and ornamentals (Heywood, 1998). Several
socio-political, agro-climatic, ecological and genetic factors have contributed to this
remarkable crop diversity in the Mediterranean (Jana, 1995).
Agricultural lands and grasslands occupy 40% of the Mediterranean region, ranging
from large intensive olive or citrus groves to more mixed farming systems. With some
17 million farms, the Mediterranean region has an agricultural labour force of millions
of people (Elloumi and Jouve, 2010). The low intensity and localised nature of thousands
of years of subsistence farming has had a profound effect on the landscape, creating a
complex mosaic of alternating semi-natural habitats rich in wildlife. Vineyards and
ancient olive groves are also still a characteristic feature of the Mediterranean landscape.
On flatter land and in the plains various forms of sustainable agro-sylvo-pastoral farming
systems have evolved that make best use of natural resources (Sundseth, 2009).
However, whilst small-scale farming is still practised in many parts of the region, the
last 50 years have seen a massive change in agricultural practices. Ancient vineyards,
orchards and olive groves have been ripped out to make way for industrial-scale fruit
or olive plantations, and mixed rotational farming has been replaced by intensive
monocultures. This has caused the loss of wildlife-rich habitats (Sundseth, 2009).
Due to their high demand for pesticides, fertilisers and irrigation water, modern farming
practices put excessive pressure on the environment. More than 26 million hectares
(ha) of farmland are now under irrigation in the Mediterranean basin and in some
areas up to 80% of the available water is used for irrigation. The rapid growth in tourism
and urban development in coastal areas combined with the abandonment of small-
scale farming practices is putting tremendous pressure on the Mediterranean region’s
rich biodiversity (Sundseth, 2009).
Analysis of Mediterranean farm structures reveals that there are a large number of small
farms (less than 5 ha) on both the southern and the northern shores, especially in Greece
(76% of farms on 27% of the agricultural area), Italy (77% of farms on 17% of
farmland), Morocco (71% of farms on 24% of farmland) and Turkey (67% of farms
on 22% of farmland) (Elloumi and Jouve, 2010).

Diversity of plants consumed in the Mediterranean

Mediterranean food consumption cultures use different types of cultivated and sponta-
neous plants, thus promoting the use and conservation of biodiversity. Mediterranean
Diets are far from homogeneous; they involve a wealth of typical products and are
extremely varied. It is that diversity which provides a certain level of nutritional and
social well-being for the various populations (Padilla, 2008). The general term
“Mediterranean diet” inevitably implies a common dietary pattern in Mediterranean
countries. This is not the case, however, since there are obvious differences in the dietary
patterns of the Mediterranean populations (Trichopoulou and Lagiou, 1997). This
“dietary polymorphism” partially reflects religious and cultural differences (Manios et
al., 2006). It is interesting to note that significant dietary differences can be observed
even within the same country. In Italy, for instance, the consumption of cereals, fruit
and vegetables is higher in the southern part of the country (Lupo, 1997).
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Natural resources and food in the Mediterranean 175

In many rural regions, especially in southern and eastern Europe, non-cultivated food
plants are still gathered (Heinrich et al., 2005). Local foods represent a type of mutual
interaction between the availability of edible plants that grow locally and the nutritional
requirements and needs of populations. In general, wild varieties tend to be richer in
micronutrients and bioactive secondary metabolites than those which are cultivated.
These secondary plant metabolites are produced in adaptation to local environmental
conditions (Heinrich et al., 2006). The diversity of local Mediterranean food elements
is not well known. Edible wild plants and weeds are interesting local elements in
Mediterranean food cultures. Ethnobotanical research has identified about 2,300 different
plant and fungi taxa that are gathered and consumed in the Mediterranean. The
percentage of local Gathered Food Plant (GFP) taxa is higher in the main diversity centres
on the periphery of the Mediterranean (Sahara, Alps, Caucasus, Canary Islands, the
Levant) and islands (Sicily, Sardinia, Crete, Cyprus). In an ethnobotanical survey carried
out in the Montseny mountain range (in Catalonia, Spain), Bonet and Vallès (2002)
recorded the consumption of 132 GFP taxa. As for North Africa, Gast (2000) reported
exhaustively on 80 species of wild vegetables and grain food plants used by Berber groups
during the famine season (December to March) in the Ahaggar region (Algeria). Wild
and spontaneous food plants are also widely used and consumed in Italy.

Use of wild food plants in Italy, especially in Apulia and Sardinia

A flora of 11,000 plant species

Although Italy covers only one-thirtieth of the European continent, it has a flora of
11,000 plant species, that is to say, half of those that exist in Europe. There are areas in
southern Italy which could be considered the geographical origin of 542 taxa (Hammer
et al., 1992). There are 880 food plants that are gathered and consumed in Italy (Bianco
et al., 2009). Sardinia has the highest proportion of GFPs − 257 taxa out of some 2,100
in the vascular plant flora category (Atzei, 2003).
The domestication of wild species
A recent research study showed that 532 plant species are currently consumed in the
Apulia region (south-eastern Italy) out of 2,500 representing the flora of the region. Of
these 532 species, 104 belong to the Asteraceae family and there are 44 Lamiaceae, 40
Brassicaceae, 38 Fabaceae, and 29 Amaranthaceae and Apiaceae. There are 304 genera,
the most important being Allium (12), Chenopodium (10), Vicia and Rumex (9),
Amaranthus, Plantago and Crepis (7), and Salvia and Valerianella (6).
The domestication of wild species has never stopped in Italy. In fact, for 122 that have
been identified in the Apulia region there have been attempts to grow species of wild
edible plants in open fields and/or in greenhouses. One of the most successful examples
of domestication that can be mentioned is that of Diplotaxis tenuifolia: domestication
started 20 years ago and the plant is now grown on more than 1000 ha of greenhouses
in Italy (Bianco et al., 2009).
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176 MEDITERRA 2012

The main environmental impacts of food

consumption in the Mediterranean
Diets vary widely around the world and have co-evolved over thousands of years due
mainly to the influence of environmental, social and economic conditions (such as
climate, ecology, biodiversity, etc.) (Millstone and Lang, 2008). There is growing evidence
of the impact of diet on health, including a higher risk of obesity, cardiovascular disease
and cancer, and also of its role as a social indicator (Reddy et al., 2009; Hawkesworth
et al., 2010). The sustainability of the food system and of food consumption is not only
a question of health concerns; it is also about environmental impact. According to one
large-scale European study, food and drink accounts for an estimated 20% to 30% of
the environmental impact of all consumption (Carlsson-Kanyama et al., 2003).

The environmental food pyramid or double pyramid

Healthy eating habits

Healthy eating habits reduce the risk of diabetes and major coronary events. They also
offer considerable health benefits to individuals and contribute to public health in
general (Esposito and Giugliano, 2006; Brunner et al., 2008). In particular, the food
pyramid illustrating Mediterranean dietary traditions has been associated historically
with good health (Willet et al., 1995). Many other studies have provided strong evidence
that higher conformity with the Mediterranean dietary pattern has a beneficial effect
on the risk of death from all causes, including cardiovascular disease and cancer (Sofi
et al., 2008; Esposito and Giugliano, 2008).
Food that respects the environment
The recommended food pyramids, such as the Mediterranean pyramid, not only offer
considerable health benefits but also respect the environment. In fact, the various food
groups can be evaluated in terms of their environmental impact. Reclassifying foods
on the basis of their negative effect on the environment rather than in terms of their
positive impact on health produces an inverted pyramid where the foods with greater
environmental impact are at the top and those with lower impact at the bottom. When
this new Environmental Pyramid is brought alongside the Food Pyramid it creates an
Environmental Food Pyramid known as the “Double Pyramid”. It shows that foods
with higher recommended consumption levels are also those with lower environmental
impact. This unified model shows that if the diet suggested in the traditional Food
Pyramid is followed, not only do people live better (longer and in better health), but
the impact – or better, footprint – left on the environment is also decidedly reduced
(Barilla Center, 2010).
The environmental Pyramid illustrates the environmental impacts of diets. Its design
is based on the precise evaluation of the impact of the various foods using the Life Cycle
Assessment method. By eating responsibly, humans can definitely reconcile their personal
well-being (personal ecology) with the environment (ecological context) (Barilla Center,
2010).

Taken as a whole, agriculture is the largest single source of greenhouse gas emissions
in the food chain (Carlsson-Kanyama, 1998), meat and meat products being the largest
contributor (Sinha et al., 2009). In addition, food production has major implications
for biodiversity at the global level, including habitat loss and pollution as well as an
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Natural resources and food in the Mediterranean 177

impact on water and land use (Reddy et al., 2009). Furthermore, disruptions of
environmental integrity can affect patterns of human health and disease as well as
nutritional status. However, acknowledging that the loss of biodiversity and other
environmental changes affect diet and health is usually limited to general considerations
of food security, and little attention is paid to the complexity of nutrition-health
relationships (Johns & Eyzaguirre, 2002). The footprint concept is a method for
addressing environmental impact; it comprises the Ecological Footprint (EF), the Carbon
Footprint (CF) and the Water Footprint (WF).

The environmental impacts of diets

Environmental impacts include the Carbon Footprint (generation of greenhouse gas),

the Water Footprint (use of water resources) and the Ecological Footprint (use of land
resources).
The Ecological Footprint
According to Ewing et al. (2010a), the Ecological Footprint = Population × Consumption
per person × Resource and waste intensity. The Ecological footprint is a method for
answering the question of how much of the regenerative capacity of the biosphere is
taken up by human activities (Schaefer et al., 2006). Biocapacity refers to the capacity
of ecosystems to produce useful biological materials and to absorb waste materials
generated by humans, using current management schemes and extraction technologies
(GFN, 2011). Biocapacity is a method for answering the question of how much of the
renewable resources have been made by the biosphere’s regenerative capacity (Schaefer
et al., 2006). According to Schaefer et al. (2006), the EF is a renewable resources account-
ing tool that is used to address the underlying issue of sustainable consumption. In fact,
the EF has emerged as the world’s foremost measure of humanity’s demands on nature
(GFN, 2011). It measures how much land and water area a human population requires
in order to produce the resource it consumes and to absorb its carbon dioxide emissions,
using the prevailing technology (Schaefer et al., 2006).
The Carbon Footprint
The CF - which is a measure of the exclusive total amount of CO2 emission that is
directly and indirectly caused by an activity or is accumulated over the life stages of a
product (Wiedmann and Minx, 2008) – represents 54% of humanity’s overall EF and
humanity’s CF has increased more than 10-fold since 1961 (GFN, 2011).
The Water Footprint
The last dimension of the environmental impact is the WF, i.e. the demand of freshwater
resources required to produce goods and services. The WF is a measure of man’s
appropriation of freshwater resources: freshwater appropriation is measured in terms
of water volumes consumed (evaporated or incorporated into a product) or polluted
per unit of time (Mekonnen and Hoekstra, 2011).

Assessment of the ecological and carbon footprints

The EF calculation methodology on the national scale has been explained in full by
Ewing et al. (2010a, 2010b). The EF measures appropriated biocapacity, expressed in
global average bioproductive hectares, across six major land use types (i.e. cropland,
grazing land, fishing grounds, forestland, carbon footprint, and built-up land). With
the exception of built-up land and forest for carbon dioxide uptake, the EF of each
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178 MEDITERRA 2012

major land use type is calculated by totalling the contributions of a variety of specific
products. The EF of built-up land reflects its bioproductivity compromised by
infrastructure and hydropower. And the EF for forestland for carbon dioxide uptake
represents the waste absorption of a world-average hectare of forest needed to absorb
human-induced carbon dioxide emissions, after having considered the sequestration
capacity of the ocean.

In order to keep track of both the direct and indirect biocapacity needed to support
people’s consumption patterns, the EF methodology uses a consumer-based approach;
for each land use type, the EF of consumption (EFC) is thus calculated as: EFC=EFP+EFI-
EFE, where EFP is the EF of production and EFI and EFE are the footprints embodied in
imported and exported commodity flows respectively. EF assessments aim to measure
demand for biocapacity by final demand, but the EF is tallied at the point of primary
harvest or carbon emission. Thus, tracking the embodied EF in derived products is
central to the task of assigning the EF of production to the end uses it serves. Primary
and derived goods are related by product-specific extraction rates.

Chart 1 - A comparative analysis of EF of production, EF of consumption,

Biocapacity, and Carbon footprint in the Mediterranean region

5
Global hectares per capita

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EF of production EF of consumption Biocapacity Carbon footprint

Source: Ewing et al. (2010a).

Data elaborated from the 2007 national footprint accounts statistics presented by Ewing
et al. (2010a) show that the Mediterranean EF of consumption is always higher than
the EF of production (Chart 1), except in the case of Serbia. Furthermore, the CF alone
is generally higher than the biocapacity value, except in the case of Morocco, Tunisia,
Albania, Turkey, Bosnia, Croatia and France. In general, the results show that the northern
Mediterranean countries have a high EF, while the impact of countries in North Africa
and the Middle East is the lowest.

With regard to the EF of production, the period needed to regenerate the resources used
in 2007 by Mediterranean countries ranged from 5 years and 5 months to 1 year and 3
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Natural resources and food in the Mediterranean 179

months in Libya and Albania respectively. As regards the EF of consumption, the period
needed to regenerate the resources consumed ranged from 8 years and 6 months to 1 year
and 6 months in Jordan and Croatia respectively. Thus, the Mediterranean countries have
a net demand on the planet greater than their respective biocapacity: expressed in average
values, 2 years and 3 months are needed to regenerate the resources used for production,
while 3 years and 4 months are needed to regenerate the resources effectively consumed.

Chart 2 shows that North America has the highest EF, whilst Asia has an EF similar to
North Africa and the Middle East. The European countries, including the Mediterranean
States, have a higher EF compared to Asia, Oceania, and Latin America.

Chart 2 - The Mediterranean region in the world: a comparative analysis in terms

of EF of production, EF of consumption, Biocapacity, and Carbon footprint

9
8
Global hectares per capita

7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
EF of production EF of consumption Biocapacity Carbon footprint

North Africa Africa

Middle East Asia
Northern Medit. Europe
Oceania Latine A. & Caribbean
North America

Source: Ewing et al. (2010a).

Taking land use types (i.e. cropland, grazing land, forestland, fishing grounds, and built-
up land) into consideration, the results show that the EF of cropland is highest in
Mediterranean countries, while the EF of grazing land and forestland is highest in
Oceania (Chart 3). The average EF in the Balkans and northern Mediterranean countries
is at least 1.5 times the EF of North Africa and the Middle East.

Chart 4 shows that the EF per capita in the Mediterranean region increased in the 1961-
2007 period except in Morocco, Jordan and Albania, while the biocapacity decreased.
The ecological deficit is therefore going to increase. The EF has increased on average by
47.4% whilst the biocapacity has decreased by 36.4%.

Meat production has a higher environmental impact than the production of fruit and
vegetables. According to the Livestock, Environment and Development (LEAD) initiative,
the livestock industry is one of the largest contributors to environmental degradation,
on both the local and the global scale, contributing to deforestation, air and water
pollution, land degradation, loss of topsoil, climate change, the overuse of resources
including oil and water, and loss of biodiversity (Steinfeld et al., 2006). According to
studies carried out in the EU’s Environmental Impact of Products (EIPRO) project, the
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180 MEDITERRA 2012

production and consumption of food accounts for 22% to 31% of the EU countries’
total greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, the so-called food carbon footprint. The
consumption of meat and dairy products is estimated to be responsible for approximately
14% of Europe’s overall impact on global warming (EC, 2006).

Chart 3 - The Mediterranean in the world: a comparative analysis in terms of

EF by land use type
Global hectares per capita

1,2
1,0
0,8
0,6
0,4
0,2
0,0
Cropland Grazing land Forestland Fishing grounds Built-up land

North Africa Africa

Middle East Asia
Northern Medit. Europe
Oceania Latine A. & Caribbean
North America

Source: Ewing et al. (2010a).

Chart 4 - Evolution of the EF and biocapacity in the Mediterranean

countries from 1961 to 2007
150
Percentage of change

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Ecological footprint per capita

Biocapacity per capita *Data shows change between 1992 and 2007.

Source: Ewing et al. (2010a).

As matter of fact, EIPRO showed that food and drink are responsible for 20% to 30%
of the various environmental impacts of total consumption (abiotic depletion,
acidification, ecotoxicity, global warming, eutrophication, human toxicity, ozone layer
depletion and photochemical oxidation), and in the case of eutrophication for even
more than 50%. Within this area of consumption, meat and meat products (including
meat, poultry, sausages, etc.) have the greatest environmental impact and their estimated
contribution to global warming is in the range of 4% to 12% of all products. The second
important product group in terms of environmental impact is that of dairy products
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Natural resources and food in the Mediterranean 181

(EC, 2006). A recent analysis by Goodland and Anhang (2009) finds that livestock and
their by-products actually account for at least 32.6 billion tons of carbon dioxide per
year, or 51% of annual worldwide GHG emissions.

Assessment of the water footprint

The global freshwater resources are subject to increasing pressure in the form of
consumptive water use and pollution (Postel, 2000; WWAP, 2009). Given the growing
water scarcity and environmental problems, the increase in the volume of water needed
to meet the demand for food is a major concern. Already 1.4 billion people live in places
where water is physically scarce (Comprehensive Assessment of Water Management in
Agriculture – CA 2007). The CA 2007 estimated that with the present production
practices water demands could double by 2050. The kind of food in demand and the
quantity required determine to a large extent how water for agriculture is allocated and
used (Lundqvist et al., 2008).

Food supply directly translates into consumptive water use, that is, the amount of water
that is transpired and evaporates from the field during the production of a specific
amount of food (e.g. Molden, 2007). Water requirements for plant and animal products
vary widely. Higher-value crops (e.g. horticultural crops) typically require more water
per calorie than staple cereal crops. Meat and dairy production is more water-intensive
than crop production. In fact, 500-4,000 litres of water are evaporated in the production
of one kilogram of wheat, depending on many factors (such as climate, agricultural
practices, variety, lenght of growing season, yield), whereas it takes 5,000-20,000 litres
to produce one kilogram of meat, mainly to grow animal feed. In terms of food energy
content, approximately 0.5 m3 of water is needed to produce 1,000 kcal of plant-based
food, while for animal-based food, some 4 m3 of water are required. Assuming a projected
high level of average food supply of 3,000 kcal/capita/day, with 20% animal and 80%
plant food, the consumptive water use will be over 3 m3/capita/day – 1,300 m3/capita/year
(Falkenmark and Rockström, 2004).

The methodology of the global standard for water footprint assessment developed by
the Water Footprint Network is set out by Hoekstra et al. (2011) in The Water Footprint
Assessment Manual. The study quantifies and maps the water footprints of nations from
both the production and the consumption perspective and also estimates international
virtual water flows and national and global water savings resulting from trade. The
estimate included a breakdown of water footprints, virtual water flows and water savings
into their green, blue and grey components.

Water footprint, virtual water and embedded water

The water footprint concept is closely related to the virtual water concept (Hoekstra &
Chapagain, 2007). The water footprint of a product is similar to what has been called
alternatively the ‘virtual-water content’ of the product (Hoekstra and Chapagain, 2008).
The terms virtual-water content and embedded water, however, refer to the water volume
embodied in the product alone (Allan, 1998), while the term ‘water footprint’ refers
not only to the volume, but also to the sort of water that was used (green, blue, grey)
and to when and where the water was used. The water footprint of a product is thus a
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182 MEDITERRA 2012

multidimensional indicator, whereas ‘virtual-water content’ or ‘embedded water’ refer

to volume alone. The use of the term ‘water footprint’ is recommended because of its
broader scope. Besides, the term ‘water footprint’ can also be used in a context where
we speak about the water footprint of a consumer or a producer (Hoekstra et al., 2011).
The term ‘virtual water’ is used in particular in the context of international (or inter-
regional) virtual-water flows (Hoekstra et al., 2011). If a nation (region) exports/imports
a product, it exports/imports water in virtual form. The concept of virtual water is very
important in the field of freshwater management. In fact, for water-scarce countries it
could be attractive to achieve water security by importing water-intensive products
instead of producing all water-demanding products domestically (WWC-CME, 1998).
The water footprint includes the use of blue water (ground and surface water), the use
of green water (rain water or moisture stored in soil strata), and grey water. The grey
water footprint refers to pollution and is defined as the volume of freshwater that is
required to assimilate the load of pollutants given natural background concentrations
and existing ambient water quality standards (Hoekstra et al., 2011)

The water footprint is a geographically explicit indicator, showing not only volumes of
water consumption and pollution, but also the locations. The framework for national
water footprint accounting is shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1 - The national water footprint accounting scheme

Internal water footprint of External water footprint of Water footprint of

national consumption + national consumption = national consumption

+ + +

Virtual water export related

Virtual water Virtual water
to goods produced + =
re-export export
domestically

= = =

Water footprint within Virtual water Virtual water

+ =
the national territory import budget

Source: Hoekstra et al. (2011).

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Natural resources and food in the Mediterranean 183

According to Mekonnen and Hoekstra (2011), the global water footprint was 9087
Gm3/yr (74% green, 11% blue, 15% grey) in the 1996-2005 period, and agricultural
production contributed 92% to this total footprint. The total volume of international
virtual water flows related to trade in agricultural and industrial products was 2320
Gm3/yr (68% green, 13% blue, 19% grey), 76% of which was related to trade in crop
products (trade in animal products contributes 12%). Moreover, the water footprint of
the global average consumer was 1385 m3/yr in the same period, 92% of which was
related to the consumption of agricultural products.

Chart 5 - Water footprint of consumption

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Source: Mekonnen and Hoekstra (2011).

Chart 6 - WF of agricultural products consumption

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Internal WF External WF Totale WF

Source: Mekonnen and Hoekstra (2011).

Data from the 1996-2005 period show that the WF of consumption varied widely amongst
Mediterranean countries (Chart 5), especially in terms of internal and external WF of
consumption. In fact, the percentage of the external WF of consumption ranged from 7.3%
to 85.8%, in Palestinian Territories and Jordan respectively. Northern Mediterranean countries
had the highest water footprint of consumption per year and per capita (2279 m3) compared
to North Africa (1892 m3), the Balkans (1708 m3) and the Middle East (1656 m3).
Maquette_EN:Mediterra_2012_EN 22/02/12 9:07 Page 184

184 MEDITERRA 2012

Table 1 - The virtual water balance by country (Mm3/year)

Total
Countries Green Water Blue Water Grey Water
(Green + Blue + Grey)
Algeria 14,269.8 1,458.5 1,582.6 17,311
Libya 6,846.5 1,553.1 1,159.8 9,559
Morocco 8,513.1 – 1,301.4 1,124.8 8,337
Tunisia – 2,829.9 995.5 168.2 – 1,666
Egypt 14,661 – 5,445.9 – 164.3 9,051
Jordan 4,341.3 645.1 680.2 5,667
Lebanon 2,965.9 517 574.3 4,057
Palestinian T. - - - -
Syria 575.2 – 2,494.5 – 347.5 – 2 267
Turkey 8,577.2 – 4,658.1 1,866.8 5,786

Albania 835.1 174.7 154.8 1,165

Bosnia and
1,318.3 116.6 455.7 1,891
Herzegovina
Croatia 1,203.6 199.5 570.3 1,973

FYROM 428.9 10.6 – 99.5 340

Serbia 167.1 87.8 – 2,034.6 – 1,780

Slovenia 1,308.7 202.1 – 95.8 12,822

France 6,658 3,029.4 3,134.9 6,903

Greece 5,458.7 – 870.2 2,314 62,157

Italy 49,388.4 6,278.3 6,490 62,157

Portugal 8,674.9 749.6 821.3 10,246

Spain 21,386.1 – 3,295.1 6,111,8 24,203

Canada – 46,720 1,484.2 – 7,341.1 – 52,577

USA – 80,701 – 8,805 9,926 – 79,580

Most of the WF of consumption is in fact due to the consumption of agricultural

products, as shown in Chart 6. The average value observed is approx. 91% of the total
WF of consumption: 96% in North Africa, 93% in the Middle East, 82% in the Balkans,
and 91% in northern Mediterranean countries.

Mekonnen and Hoekstra’s study (2011) also evaluated the virtual water balance in the
period from 1995 to 2005 (Table 1) as an indicator of the water saved as a result of trade
in agricultural products. Only Tunisia, Syria and Serbia present a negative virtual water
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Natural resources and food in the Mediterranean 185

balance. The other Mediterranean countries show water savings ranging from 340 Mm3
to 62,157 Mm3, in FYROM and Italy respectively. Total water savings of 177,168 Mm3
(including the three forms of virtual water) are observed in the Mediterranean region.

Environmental implications of food loss and wastage

The distribution of food clearly poses a problem. Losses of food between the farmer’s
field and the dinner table are huge. Tremendous quantities of food are discarded in
processing, transport, supermarkets and people’s kitchens (Lundqvist et al., 2008). An
estimated 50% of the food produced is lost and wasted between field and fork with
considerable variations from one country and season to another (Lundqvist, 2010).
According to a recent study commissioned by the FAO from the Swedish Institute for
Food and Biotechnology (SIK), roughly one-third of the food produced in the world for
human consumption every year − circa 1.3 billion tonnes − gets lost or wasted. The amount
of food lost or wasted every year is equivalent to more than half of the world’s annual
cereals crop (2.3 billion tonnes in 2009/10) (Gustavsson et al., 2011). Food wastage and
loss amount to loss of water and other natural resources. Reducing food loss and wastage
reduces water needs in agriculture (Lundqvist et al., 2008) as well as environmental impacts.

Food losses and food waste

According to Parfitt et al. (2010), the term “food losses” refers to the decrease in edible
food mass throughout the part of the supply chain leading specifically to edible food
for human consumption. Food losses take place at the production, post-harvest and
processing stages in the food supply chain. Losses occurring at the end of the food
chain − retail and consumption − are referred to as “food waste”. Food waste or loss is
measured only for products that are intended for human consumption, i.e. feed and
non-edible product parts are excluded. Food that was originally meant for human
consumption but which is accidentally eliminated from the human food chain is regarded
as food loss or waste even if it is then directed to a non-food use (feed, bioenergy, etc.)
(Gustavsson et al., 2011).

Food loss and waste vary, depending on type of food, country and season, inter alia.
Inefficient harvesting, transport, storage and packaging make a considerable dent in
food availability. Additional and significant losses and wastage occur in food processing,
in the wholesale and retail trade, and where food is consumed. Food losses in rich
countries are different to those in the developing world (Lundqvist et al., 2008); they
are greatest in developing countries due to poor infrastructure, low levels of technology
and low investment in food production systems (Gustavsson et al., 2011). Relatively
speaking, losses in the first part of the food chain, which are due to poor harvesting
techniques, lack of transport and poor storage in combination with climate conditions,
are more important in developing countries (Lundqvist et al., 2008), where 40% of food
losses occur at the post-harvest and processing level while in industrialised countries
more than 40% of the losses occur at the retail and consumer level (i.e. food is wasted).

Per capita waste by consumers is between 95 kg and 115 kg a year in Europe and North
America, while consumers in sub-Saharan Africa throw away only 6 kg-11 kg a year
(Gustavsson et al., 2011). There are several differences in terms of food wastage even
amongst industrialised countries and amongst households in the same country. In Italy,
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186 MEDITERRA 2012

some 20 million tonnes of food waste are formed every year throughout the supply
chain. Every French citizen throws away 7 kg of food every year that is still in the original
package (ADEME, 2010).

Trends in diet composition towards a higher proportion of animal food items, fruit and
vegetables tend to shorten the durability of food and could increase the risk of losses
and wastage (Lundqvist et al., 2008). Fruit and vegetables as well as roots and tubers
have the highest wastage rates of any food (Gustavsson et al., 2011). According to Jones
(2004), losses at farm level in the US probably amount to about 15%-35%, depending
on the industry: 20%-25% for the fresh vegetable industry, 10%-40% for fruits such as
apples and citrus, 26% for the retail industry; 1% in supermarkets. In the US, the average
overall loss of fresh fruit and vegetables between production and consumption sites is
around 12% (Kader, 2005). Distance to market, a more complex food chain and changes
in composition and variety of food supply provide opportunities for more food and
water wastage (Lundqvist et al., 2008).

Food and drink wastage involve major global environmental consequences. Food loss
and wastage amount to major squandering of resources, including water, land, energy,
labour and capital, and needlessly produce greenhouse gas emissions (Gustavsson et al.,
2011). They account for more than one quarter of the total consumptive use of finite and
vulnerable freshwater and more than 300 million barrels of oil per year (Hall et al., 2009).
Reducing not only the consumption of food, especially meat and animal products, and
drink but also household waste can help to reduce the environmental impact of diets.

Conclusion
UNESCO’s awarding of the Immaterial Human Heritage title to the Mediterranean diet
gives it a strong geographical connotation and provides an opportunity to promote a
variety of Mediterranean products, environments and cultures. From this point of view
it is important to highlight their association with sustainable agro-food systems
conserving biodiversity and using natural resources (such as water and soil) rationally.
The Mediterranean diet should also be associated with food security, food sovereignty
and dependence on local and indigenous traditions and knowledge as well as with the
conservation of natural resources and reduction of the use of non-renewable external
inputs.

Mediterranean food consumption patterns contribute to biodiversity conservation for

at least two main reasons. First of all because they promote the use of a wide range of
cereals, fruit and vegetables, not only cultivated products but also spontaneous and wild
species, thus enabling them to be conserved along with the local, indigenous and
traditional knowledge relating to these species. Moreover, by using less meat and fewer
animal products, Mediterranean diets reduce the impacts of the livestock sector on
biodiversity and natural resources. In fact, meat-based diets, such as those typical of
northern countries, have higher environmental impacts (such as water footprint, ecological
footprint, carbon footprint) than plant-based eating patterns such as the Mediterranean
diets. Moreover, promoting the use of local and typical products can help to reduce
environmental impacts (food miles and carbon footprint). However, further studies on
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Natural resources and food in the Mediterranean 187

the environmental impacts and sustainability of Mediterranean food consumption

patterns need to be conducted that take account of food origins and production and
distribution systems and methods as well as the wastage of food and drink.

It is important furthermore to reduce the amount of food wasted throughout the food
chain (i.e. from farm to fork). To do so, it is crucial to alert consumers to the environ-
mental implications of their diets and of overeating and wasting food. Reducing losses
and wastage will ease pressure on water and other resources and free up land and water
for purposes other than food production.

Cereal imports and high prices are calling the socio-economic and environmental
sustainability of the Mediterranean diet in question (in terms of purchasing power and
food miles), particularly in certain southern and eastern Mediterranean countries. In
fact, the FAO Food Price Index averaged 236 points in February 2011, which is the
highest figure (in real and nominal terms) since 1990. The steepest rise was in cereal
prices. In the countries of North Africa and the Middle East, per capita cereal con-
sumption is also high (265 kg/year in Egypt, for example) and the ratio of imports to
total cereal consumption is also high (87% in Libya, for instance). High prices of cereals,
and especially of fruit and vegetables, are likely to transform the traditional Mediterranean
diet into a diet for the rich. Moreover, population increase, especially in the southern
and eastern Mediterranean countries, will increase pressure on the region’s limited and
scarce natural resources, particularly water. In fact, almost 65% of water resources in
the Mediterranean are used in irrigation. This also calls in question the sustainability
of a diet that is based, inter alia, on irrigated crops such as vegetables and fruit. The per
capita EF in the region rose on the whole in the 1961-2007 period (+47.4%) while
biocapacity dropped (-36.4%) resulting in an increase in the ecological deficit. Further-
more, the carbon footprint is generally higher than biocapacity, particularly in northern
Mediterranean countries. Agriculture – particularly intensive irrigated agriculture –
also has a negative impact on biodiversity.

What is more, not only food production but also the transport, distribution and
consumption of foodstuffs and waste management are all issues that must be addressed
appropriately if the sustainability of Mediterranean food consumption patterns is to
be enhanced.

All in all, measures to promote Mediterranean diets can contribute to sustainable land
and water resources management and to the conservation of biodiversity, but they will
not suffice alone. Strategies and policies should be designed and implemented with the
active involvement and participation of all relevant stakeholders, particularly small-
holders, who are the main custodians of biodiversity, since it is they who manage natural
resources directly and who possess the local knowledge pertaining to biodiversity and
water and land resources.
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188 MEDITERRA 2012

Table 2 - Countries and geographical areas

Geographical areas Countries

Balkans Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, FYROM

Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon, Palestinian Territories,

Middle East
Syria, Turkey

North Africa Algeria, Libya, Morocco, Tunisia

Cyprus, France, Greece, Italy, Malta, Portugal, Slovenia,

Northern Mediterranean
Spain

Asia China, India, Japan

Australia Australia

Austria, Belarus, Belgium, Denmark, Estonia, Finland,

Central & Northern Europe
Germany, Iceland, Ireland, United Kingdom

Latin America Argentina, Brazil

North America Canada, United States of America

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