Preferred Citation: Torrance, Robert M. The Spiritual Quest: Transcendence in Myth, Religion, and Science.

Berkeley: University of California Press, c1994 1994. htt :!!ark.cdlib.or"!ark:!1#$#$!ft4"%$$&'d!

The Spiritual Quest

Transcendence in Myth, Religion, and Science Robert M. Torrance
UNIVERSITY OF CA IFORNIA !RESS

Berkeley Los Angeles Oxford

" #$$% The Re&ents o' the Uni(ersit) o' Cali'ornia

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Preferred Citation: Torrance, Robert M. The Spiritual Quest: Transcendence in Myth, Religion, and Science. Berkeley: University of California Press, c1994 1994. htt :!!ark.cdlib.or"!ark:!1#$#$!ft4"%$$&'d!

(or )onna *+ll , had so-"ht* and .y children / 0i /

!REFACE
, be"an .y -nfinished investi"ation t1o decades a"o 1hile re arin" to teach a co. arative literat-re co-rse at 2arvard University, *The 3 irit-al 4-est: (ro. 5ir"il to 6afka* 7a co-rse , s-bse8-ently ta-"ht, in different for.s, at Brooklyn Colle"e and the University of California, )avis9, and ret-rned to it years later, after co. letin" .y book The Comic Hero . , ori"inally intended to e0a.ine so.e of the .a:or for.s the 8-est has taken in ;estern literat-re and tho-"ht fro. ancient to .odern ti.es, b-t, like any tr-e 8-est, this one took a direction that co-ld not have been f-lly foreseen, and o ened onto ne1 and lar"ely -ne0 lored territory. My initial ro:ect, therefore, re.ains, in lar"e art, for the f-t-re.

,n this book , have -ndertaken, after e0tensive research in .any fields as the di.ensions of .y s-b:ect beca.e increasin"ly evident, to e0a.ine both the essential fo-ndations or reconditions<social, biolo"ical, sycholo"ical, and lin"-istic<of the s irit-al 8-est as a f-nda.ental h-.an activity and so.e of its rinci al variations, as .anifested in reli"io-s ractices of tribal eo les thro-"ho-t .-ch of the 1orld. ,t is on the diversity of these ractices, in the artic-larity of their 1idely differin" c-lt-ral conte0ts, that ethnolo"ists of o-r a"e, 1ith dee res ect for .-ltic-lt-ral traditions and dee s-s icion of facile -niversals, .ost often foc-s. 3harin" this res ect 7and so.e of this s-s icion9, , have devoted the b-lk of both .y research and .y book to e0a.inin" variant for.s the 8-est has taken a.on" s ecific eo les of o-r richly olychro.atic "lobe. =et ske ticis. concernin" often d-bio-s and so.eti.es ethnocentric affir.ations of h-.an -nifor.ities 71hether by (ra>er or (re-d, ?-n", @AviB3tra-ss, or their .any o -lari>ers and e i"oni9 need not event-B / 0ii / ate in a relativis. that re:ects the very ossibility of .eanin"f-l co..on h-.an deno.inators. C-rs is an a"e not only of *c-lt-ral diversity* b-t of *h-.an ri"hts,* and tr-e res ect and -nderstandin" of o-r .any differences re8-ires reco"nition of the -nderlyin" co..onalities that .ake -s all<*by nat-re* or even *in essence*<e8-ally h-.an. ;e .-st "ras , 1ith Ta.biah 7199$, 11D9, that *the doctrine of the psychic unity of mankind or human universals and the doctrine of diversity of cultures societies are not contradictory do".as,* and 1ith Eeert> 719F#, %19 that *there is no o osition bet1een "eneral theoretical -nderstandin" and circ-.stantial -nderstandin", bet1een syno tic vision and a fine eye for detail.* The 8-est, as , conceive it, is the c-l.inatin" e0 ression of a -niversal activity by 1hich h-.anity is in lar"e art defined as h-.an: a for.ative activity, as o osed to a static cate"ory 7like *reli"ion,* *.arria"e,* or * ro erty* in the *consensus gentium * 1hose e. tiness Eeert> and others ri"htly re -diate9, 1hich finds e0 ression, ho1ever varied, in hiloso hical or scientific investi"ation no less than in the Gative +.erican -rs-it of a "-ardian s irit or the 3iberian sha.anHs erilo-s :o-rney to 1orlds beyond yet e.bracin" o-r o1n. The .eanin" and sco e of .y central ter.s 1ill beco.e a arent as the book ro"resses, b-t in brief by spirit , .ean the dyna.ic otentiality latent b-t -nreali>ed in the "iven 7.-ch as for., in +ristotleHs ter.inolo"y, is otential in .atter9, and by !uest the deliberate effort to transcend, thro-"h selfBtransfor.ation, the li.its of the "iven and to reali>e so.e ortion of this -nbo-nded otentiality thro-"h -rs-it of a f-t-re "oal that can neither be f-lly forekno1n nor finally attained. Beca-se it is a for.ative rocess leadin" to varied and inherently -n redictable o-tco.es, the s irit-al 8-est is a -niversal f-lly co. atible 1ith the diversity that is inevitably its rod-ct. The ori"inality of .y enter rise lies in .y contention that this activity is "ro-nded in the str-ct-re of h-.an nat-re 7and -lti.ately of life and even of .atter9 and finds e0 ression in every art of the 1orld. The -r"ent 8-est to transcend the "iven li.its of the h-.an condition characteri>es tribal eo les of Central +sia, ;est +frica, or the +.a>on at least as .-ch as o-rselves. ,t is characteristic also, to be s-re, of *advanced civili>ations* both Iast and ;est, takin" sha e in the sha.anistic rocessions of ?a an chronicled by Car.en BlackerJ in the restless search for the Taoist islands of i..ortality or for Ildorado or the 2oly Erail, the hiloso herHs stone or the eli0ir of lifeJ in il"ri.a"es to Benares, ?er-sale., Mecca, or Ro.eJ or in the .ystical as irations of M-sli. 3-fi, ?e1ish kabbalist, Catholic saint, or Protestant Pentecostalist. ,ts co. le0ly chan"in" .anifestations in the ;estern literary and hiloso hical tradition fro. the "dyssey 7or indeed the #pic of $ilgamesh 9 and

/ 0iii / Plato to o-r o1n ti.e .i"ht 1ell be the s-b:ect of another lar"e book. B-t there co-ld be no "reater rovinciality, no narro1er ethnocentris., than to think the 8-estin" s irit a .ono oly of the (a-stian ;est or an innovation of the Ereat ;orld Reli"ions. ,t is far .ore dee ly rooted and .ore 1idely s read. ,n Parts Cne and 3i0 of .y book, 1hich e0 lore the reconditions of the 8-est and vent-re so.e closin" considerations to1ard a theory or *syno tic vision* of its nat-re and str-ct-re, , have dra1n on a 1ide variety of thinkers 1ho have in co..on, erha s<in contrast to the deter.inistic behavioris.s, str-ct-ralis.s, and ostBstr-ct-ralis.s that have so.eti.es do.inated the *h-.an sciences* in o-r cent-ry<an e. hasis on the dyna.ic and active di.ensions of h-.an e0 erience oriented not to1ard an i..-table ast or inertial resent b-t to1ard a f-t-re in the rocess of for.ation: thinkers as diverse as Ber"son and Pia"et, van Eenne and T-rner, Peirce and Po er, to na.e b-t a fe1. Bet1een these sections, the .a:or ortion of .y book is an e0a.ination of for.s that the 8-est has taken in different ti.es and laces, .ainly b-t not e0cl-sively in tribal societies. Part T1o considers both collective rit-als oriented to1ard a sacred ast, in 1hich o enness to the ne1 finds e0 ression thro-"h irr- tion of the -n redictable 1ild, and .yths in 1hich .obility is inherent in the s-b:ect .atter of the :o-rney and in the variability of the 1ord itself. Part Three e0 lores incor oration of the -nkno1able beyond into h-.an e0 erience thro-"h the *t1oB1ay* co..-nication of a see.in"ly assive s irit ossession. ,n Part (o-r, the e. hasis shifts fro. the co..-nal to the individ-al 8-est as e.bodied in the sha.anHs darin" :o-rneys<in re"ions fro. +-stralia to the *sha.anic heartland* of central and northern I-rasia<to other 1orlds on behalf of his eo le. Part (ive, the lon"est of all, considers the intricate inter lay of rit-alis. and sha.anis. in the c-lt-res of Gative +.erica, fro. the +rctic to Tierra del (-e"o and the +.a>on :-n"les, c-l.inatin" in the e0traordinary vision 8-ests of the northeastern 1oodlands and the Ereat Plains. Go1here is the tension bet1een clos-re and o enness, stasis and chan"e, collective rit-al and individ-al as iration that ty ifies the dialectic of the s irit-al 8-est .ore strikin" than in the abori"inal c-lt-res of the +.ericas, and no1here does the drive for transcendence of the "iven attain .ore dra.atic e0 ression. (or several reasons, , have based .y e0 loration ri.arily on ethno"ra hic evidence rather than records fro. *advanced* civili>ations: beca-se detailed consideration of the latter 1o-ld involve e0tended attention to lon" and co. le0 historical traditions that lie o-tside the already vast sco e of the resent vol-.e and beca-se si.ilar ractices of a arently -nrelated 7or very distantly related9 tribal eo les rovide ers-asive evidence for the fre8-ency, if not -niversality, of the i. -lse to / 0iv / 1hich these ractices "ive sha e. The selfBtranscendent 8-estin" i. -lse that finds e0 ression in .yths and rit-als of h-nterB"atherers, herders, and ri.itive a"ric-lt-ralists fro. different arts of the 1orld is a le"acy co..on to eo les recently re.oved 7as al.ost all are9 fro. si.ilar conditions, and therefore one fro. 1hich 1e have .-ch to learn abo-t o-rselves. Got, of co-rse, that the ractices of tribal eo les are in any sense -n roble.atic or e0e. t fro. historical forces. 4-ite the contrary: ethno"ra hers have beco.e increasin"ly a1are not only of the co. le0ity and -nresolved conflicts internal to * ri.itive* 7as to all other9 c-lt-res, b-t of the tan"led 1eb of o-tside infl-ences that each is contin-ally assi.ilatin", both fro. other tribal societies and fro. re.ote or intr-sive i. erial civili>ations. B-t tho-"h the lives of tribal eo les, even the .ost see.in"ly isolated, far fro. bein" static, are inevitably e.bedded in history and chan"e, e. hasis on

adherence to sacred ancestral atterns re.ains a strikin" characteristic of .ost. Chan"e is ty ically resisted, if not denied, er.ittin" -s, too, to e. hasi>e 1hat is at least relatively constant 1ithin and a.on" c-lt-res devoted to the fiction of invariance. Gor is invariance solely a fictionJ the sha.anistic ractices of the 3cythians described by 2erodot-s are re.arkably si.ilar to those observed in 3iberia and Gorth +.erica t1entyBfive h-ndred years later. , have therefore "enerally -sed the traditional ethno"ra hic resent tense, 1ith f-ll kno1led"e that .any of the c-lt-res so de icted have since been transfor.ed beyond reco"nition, have ceased to e0ist, or are even no1 bein" deci.ated in re"ions fro. the 3-dan to the +.a>on. +nd tho-"h the 1ritin" of ethno"ra hers, far fro. bein" -rely ob:ective, necessarily reflects, as recent theorists stress, their o1n attit-des and res- ositions as .-ch as those of the eo les they st-dy, this obvio-s fact co. licates b-t by no .eans invalidates their observations: every re ort is an inter retation, and no inter retation, 1hether by the ethno"ra her or the ethno"ra herHs readers, can ever be val-eBfree. )oin" ethno"ra hy .ay indeed, as Eeert> observes 719F#, 1$9, be *like tryin" to read 7in the sense of Hconstr-ct a readin" ofH9 a .an-scri t,* and 1e 1ho read the ethno"ra her .-st be ca-tio-sly a1are that 1e are readin" a readin": b-t ho1 lon" has it been since 1e tho-"ht other1ise, or believed *facts* co-ld s eak for the.selvesK + 1eariso.e selfBabsor tion soon res-lts 1hen the ethno"ra herHs redilections and rhetoric beco.e the ara.o-nt foc-s of ethno"ra hy, 1hen the sit-atedness of .eanin" and 1ritin" of c-lt-re, rather than .ore de.andin" 8-estions of .eanin" and c-lt-re the.selves, are stressed *to a oint of e0hibitionis.* 7Marc-s and (ischer 4D9. , have therefore endeavored, after readin" very 1idely, to choose .y so-rces caref-lly and to cite the. 1ith a ro riate ca-tion, b-t not to e0cl-de 1hatever cannot be certainly / 0v / established, since this 1o-ld be everythin". ,t is one of .y the.es that tr-th, like the "oal of every 8-est, is no less val-able for bein" -lti.ately indeter.inate, or kno1led"e for bein" necessarily a ro0i.ative. To reco"ni>e o-r inevitable li.its is not to sink into the slo-"h of a oria b-t to enter the al1ays -ncertain li.inal real. in 1hich the 8-est contin-ally takes lace. / 0vii /

AC*NO+ E,-MENTS
My research has been "reatly facilitated by contin-ed availability of a fac-lty st-dy in 3hields @ibrary at the University of California, )avis. , a. also "ratef-l to the UC )avis 2-.anities ,nstit-te for s- ortin" .e for a 8-arter 1hen , 1as be"innin" .y revision of a .-ch lon"er .an-scri t. +.on" those 1ho enco-ra"ed .e to ersevere in ard-o-s labors a"ainst the "rain of an often shortsi"hted acade.ic re1ard syste., , es ecially thank R-by Cohn and Roland 2oer.ann. , "reatly a reciate the -sef-lly critical s-""estions of Mark ;heelis, 1ho read art of the .an-scri t. +bove all, , a. "ratef-l to )o-"las +bra.s +rava of the University of California Press for his enth-siastic res onsiveness and consistent s- ort, to the attentive readers for the Press 1ho rovided hel f-l co..entary fro. the ers ectives of their very different disci lines, and to Illen 3tein, 1hose scr- -lo-s editin" saved .e fro. a n-.ber of inconsistencies and errors. Those that inevitably re.ain, in a book of this len"th and co. le0ity, are of co-rse nobodyHs b-t .ine.

/1/

!ART ONE. ANIMA QUAERENS/ T0E QUEST AS A ,IMENSION OF 0UMAN E1!ERIENCE

ChercherK as se-le.ent: crAer. Pro-st

/#/

Chapter One. Reli&ion an2 the Spiritual Quest/ Fro3 Closure to Openness
;e shall not look far in search of the 8-estJ it 1ill .eet -s at every t-rn of the 1ay. (or this b-siness of seekin", of settin" off in deter.ined -rs-it of 1hat 1e are lackin" and .ay never attain, is no incidental the.e of o-r literat-re and tho-"ht, no by ath of history, b-t a f-nda.ental activity that contrib-tes in no s.all .eas-re to1ard definin" e0istence as h-.an. +ll life is contin-ally "oin" beyond its "iven condition, and the ri.al ori"in of the 8-est .ay very 1ell lie in the bioche.ical co. osition that links the ro-d .e.bers of o-r sa ient s ecies 1ith everythin" else that "ro1s before deco. osin". B-t the 8-est is reBe.inently a conscious transcendence, a deliberate reachin" to1ard a osited<if by no .eans an -nalterable<"oalJ and in this -r osef-l overreachin" of o-r "iven stat-s 1e are erha s entitled to re"ard h-.ankind, a.on" the inhabitants of o-r lanet, as bein" alone. ;e distin"-ish o-rselves fro. lo1lier beasts as kindlers of fire, .akers of tools, -sers of lan"-a"e, b-t 1hatever innate dis ositions .ay have evolved to render these activities ossible, each of the. 1as and re.ains, like everythin" s ecifically h-.an, not an instinctive inheritance b-t a c-lt-ral ac8-isition, a ca acity that .-st be attained. +s the ani.al .ost i. erfectly ro"ra..ed by nat-re for the eriod bet1een birth and death, the ani.al that .-st seek to ac8-ire 1hat it characteristically lacks to be"in 1ith, and to act-ali>e by directed effort 1hat is otential in its bein" b-t never kno1able in advance, the h-.an s ecies .ay be desi"nated animal !uaerens 1ith at least as .-ch ri"ht as animal rationale . ;hat h-.an bein"s lack in "enetically ro"ra..ed endo1.ents they nor.ally .ake "ood, to be s-re, by an acc-lt-ration rocess so ro-tine as to see. a-to.atic: to s eak oneHs native lan"-a"e, or to /4/ .an-fact-re a basic artifact, re8-ires no one to "o 8-estin" afar. 2ere c-lt-re is very nearly a second nat-re, and the .ost ordinary effort is all b-t certain not to .iscarry. B-t a1areness of this rocess .ay

set h-.an bein"s selfBconscio-sly a art fro. a no lon"er *nat-ral* 1orld 1hich they strive to re"ain or s-r assJ the concerted effort to overco.e this a artness is a cardinal condition of the 8-est. The very ter. spiritual is an inde0 of this se arationJ for distinction fro. the body laces the -nho-sed s irit in a state of inco. letion and need. ;hether or not the rocess of selfBtranscendence has its inartic-late ori"in in the roto las.ic be"innin"s of life, so that evol-tion can be co. rehended, as Ber"son so.e1hat fancif-lly tho-"ht 7D1#9, *only if 1e vie1 it as seekin" for so.ethin" beyond its reach,* it achieves a1areness, and hence can be f-lly a 8-est, first in .anJ and not -ntil .an osits a .obile di.ension at least artly inde endent of biolo"ical need does the 8-est beco.e s irit-al and s ecifically h-.an. ,t lies in the nat-re of s irit, 1hich o1es its e0istence to the se aration that it contin-ally strives to overco.e, rather to seek than to find.

T4o Aspects o' Reli&ious Ritual

;e nat-rally associate the s irit-al 8-est 1ith reli"ionsJ 1e e. hatically cannot identify the.. @ike technolo"y and lan"-a"e, reli"ion is a fre8-ently cited differentia of h-.anityJ insofar as it too is an instit-tion of acc-lt-ration, it a ears to be a selfBcontained syste. that leaves the s irit little to ask for. ,n this li"ht, reli"ion is less a .anifestation of the individ-al 8-est than an alternative to itJ it says not *3eekL* b-t *3eek no f-rtherL* This as ect of reli"ion has been re eatedly e. hasi>ed by those 1ho vie1 reli"io-s beliefs as a reflection, and reli"io-s ractices as a reaffir.ation, of do.inant social val-es. (or Mar0 it 1as a0io.atic that the reli"io-s senti.ent *is itself a social product * and that *the reli"io-s 1orld is b-t the refle0 of the real 1orld* 7Mar0 and In"els, F1, 1#%9, *real* bein" e8-ivalent to *socioBecono.ic.* Gor is this ers ective e0cl-sively Mar0ist: *,n societies s-ch as o-r o1n,* Ber"son re.arked 71#9, *the first effect of reli"ion is to s-stain and reinforce the clai.s of society.* (or Peter @. Ber"er 719&F, ##9, *reli"ion le"iti.ates social instit-tions by besto1in" - on the. an -lti.ately valid ontolo"ical stat-s, that is, by locating the. 1ithin a sacred and cos.ic fra.e of reference.* ;ithin this fra.e reli"io-s and social instit-tions 71hich re eatedly overla 9 are vie1ed as i..-table, and reli"ion, by its clai. to er.anent stat-s, acts as the hy ostati>ed inertia 7or *re ository of sacred tradition*9 by 1hich society collectively denies the otentially disr- tive reality of chan"e. ,t 1o-ld be hard to i.a"ine an instit-tion .ore alien to the tentative inBbet1eenness and er et-al /%/ .ove.ent of the s irit-al 8-est than this stolid ob:ectification of 1illed social ri"idity. The st-dy of * ri.itive* reli"ion has fo-nd this .odel of artic-lar val-e. ,n The #lementary %orms of the Religious &ife of 191D 711%9, )-rkhei. rono-nced the tote.is. of abori"inal +-stralia, as recorded by 3 encer and Eillen, 3trehlo1, and 2o1itt, *the .ost ri.itive and si. le reli"ion 1hich it is ossible to find,* and therefore the one in 1hich the essential feat-res of all reli"ions co-ld best be st-died. Many of )-rkhei.Hs ass-. tions no1 see. re ostero-s. +-stralian reli"ions are neither sin"le nor si. leJ and the hy othesis of -niversal reli"io-s evol-tion fro. a va"-e *tote.is.* -nattested in .-ch of the 1orld 1as fli.sy then and is -ntenable no1. B-t by his sin"leB.inded insistence on the interde endence of the reli"io-s and social orders )-rkhei. e0erted i..ense infl-ence on the sociolo"y of reli"ion. 2is belief that society is *the hi"hest reality in the intellect-al and .oral order that 1e can kno1 by observation* 7D99 .o-nts to evan"elical hei"hts 1hen he declares it *-n8-estionable* that to its .e.bers society *is 1hat a "od is to his 1orshi ers* 7D#&M#F9. +nd in this 1orshi of society *the -nani.o-s senti.ent of the believers of all ti.es cannot be ill-sory* 74&49:

their adoration has the force of indefeasible tr-th.N1O )-rkhei.Hs collectivis. is th-s totalitarian in the strictest sense. 3ociety as the +bsol-te, -nlike lesser deities, allo1s no e0ce tions and te. ers the necessity of its order 1ith no .erely ersonal .ercy. 3-ch a .onolithic reli"ion clearly leaves no lace at all for the restless s irit to 8-est in. +nthro olo"ists have by no .eans -nani.o-sly ac8-iesced in )-rkhei.Hs fervid credo<*,t 1as )-rkhei. and not the sava"e,* IvansBPritchard tartly observed 719%&, #1#9, *1ho .ade society into a "od*<b-t the social ers ective on reli"ion has been central to .any. Th-s for Malino1ski 7&&M&F9, tho-"h society is neither the a-thor nor the selfBrevealed s-b:ect of reli"io-s tr-th, reli"ion *standardi>es the ri"ht 1ay of thinkin" and actin" and society takes - the verdict and re eats it in -nison.* +nd for RadcliffeBBro1n 719%D, 1%F9, the rinci al f-nction of reli"io-s rites is to *re"-late, .aintain and trans.it fro. one "eneration to another senti.ents on 1hich the constit-tion of the society de ends.* ;e need not s-bscribe to the -nitary correlation bet1een society and reli"ion ro o-nded by Mar0 or )-rkhei. to ackno1led"e their inti.ate connection. Reli"ion is no l-0-riant e0crescence - on the tr-nk of N1O Bellah 719%9, 4%'9 .-st t-rn to early -n -blished lect-res for evidence that )-rkhei. *sa1 clearly that collective re resentations have a reci rocal infl-ence on social str-ct-re.* The #lementary %orms, )-rkhei.Hs last .a:or 1ork, 1hose very title has a Platonic resonance, offers little s- ort. Cn the contrary, as Talcott Parsons 1rites 719#F, 1:4499, )-rkhei. 1as evidently *thinkin" of society as a syste. of eternal ob:ects,* ti.eless and -nchan"in". /&/ society b-t a f-nda.ental e0 ression of -nderlyin" val-es that society can artic-late in no .ore effective for.. ,nsofar as s-ch an artic-lation, -nlike )-rkhei.Hs sea.less 1eld, allo1s for variation and i. erfection, ho1ever, and th-s falls short of *-n8-estionable* a-thority in .atters of -lti.ate tr-th, an other1ise inconceivable s ace for the 8-est .ay be i. erce tibly b-t ortento-sly o ened. ,nfl-ential tho-"h orthodo0y, or *ri"ht o inion,* has been in re"-latin" social order, the ortho ra0is, or *ri"ht ractice,* encoded in rit-al has been .ore basic stillJ and rit-al, 1hich knits the social "roto"ether and validates its identity, is invariant al.ost by definition. The strikin" arallels bet1een h-.an and ani.al rit-als have led to s ec-lations concernin" an instinctive dis osition to1ard rit-al behavior, even tho-"h rit-al, like lan"-a"e, is c-lt-rally trans.itted. (-nda.ental to its f-nction of stabili>in" social order is its re etitio-sness. Ivery rit-al .-st be erfor.ed over and over in essentially the sa.e 1ay, so that rit-al has even been defined, by 6l-ckhohn 7194D, 1$%9, as *an obsessive re etitive activity.* 3ince the rite reB resents a sacrosanct be"innin", it .-st not be tho-"ht to chan"e in any essential, ho1ever ada table it .ay rove in ractice 7(irth 19&Fa, 419. Ivery erfor.ance is not only alike b-t the same' si"nificant variation is e0cl-ded by the nat-re of rit-al itself. ;hat has 1orked before .-st not be altered li"htly if it is reliably to 1ork a"ain, and a"ain. . . . ,n rit-al the ani.al and the h-.an indistin"-ishably .eet and .o.ento-sly diver"eJ rit-al can no .ore be red-ced to biolo"y than restricted to s irit. 3-rvival val-e a ears f-nda.ental to ani.al rit-al 7@oren> 19&&, &F9. ,n addition to abatin" hostile tensions and ce.entin" social bonds, h-.an rit-al often e0 licitly ai.s to ass-re the food s- ly on 1hich s-rvival de endsJ it is literally, in 2ocartHs hrase 7#F9, *a coo eration for life.* +t the sa.e ti.e, 1hile lookin" back to1ard ri.ordial ori"ins reBenacted ad infinit-. and 1hile sharin" in the invariance of ani.al cere.onies, reli"io-s rit-al decisively differentiates h-.an fro. ani.al behavior by ositin" a "oal no lon"er deter.ined solely by chro.oso.al codes or hysiolo"ical needs. By reachin" consciously back to1ard consecrated reh-.an be"innin"s 1hose distance fro. their ordinary condition they strive to overco.e, the

enactors of rit-al thereby reach beyond the. as 1ell. They hy ostati>e ancestral ani.als not only as biolo"ical ro"enitors b-t as fo-nders of the c-lt-re that distin"-ishes h-.an fro. ani.alJ their c-lt-rally ac8-ired rit-al effects, by its very e0istence, transcendence of the ani.al condition it celebrates. The very re etitio-sness of rit-al roclai.s a distinctively h-.an reality strivin" to1ard reali>ation<a reality indeter.inately in stat- nascendi. Th-s rit-al is no .ere inertial force b-t a otent a"ency of or"anic and social develo .ent. *Both instinctive and c-lt-ral rit-als,* accordin" to @oB /F/ ren> 719&&, FFMF'9, *beco.e inde endent .otivations of behavior by creatin" ne1 ends or "oals to1ard 1hich the or"anis. strives for their o1n sake.* Rit-al *can have an ada tive and even creative f-nction* 7(irth 19&Fb, D#9 in for.ation of the social order. ,n this li"ht, rit-al see.s an e0tension of the i. -lse to -r osef-l differentiation i. licit in lifeJ it is not stasis b-t re"-lated .ove.ent. Cnly after its ada tive rhyth.s have beco.e .echanical does rit-al ass-.e the character of b-rea-cratic control assi"ned to it by ;eber 7194&, D&F9 and corres ond only to reli"io-s *r-les and re"-lations.* Iven so, the creative f-nction reco"ni>ed by (irth and others in no sense contradicts the .aintenance of social e8-ilibri-. stressed by Malino1ski and RadcliffeBBro1n. The dyna.ic as ect of rit-al .ay be no .ore erce tible to its artici ants than the evol-tion of life to a s ecies in transitionJ rit-al artici ants .ay be conscio-s only of er et-atin" their "ro- by scr- -lo-s erfor.ance of ractices rescribed since their fo-ndation. 3tability takes recedence of chan"e 7even tho-"h stability .ay be attainable only by nearly insensible chan"e9. *Cere.onies are the bond that holds the .-ltit-des to"ether,* RadcliffeBBro1n 719%D, 1%99 8-otes the Chinese (ook of Rites as sayin", *and if the bond be re.oved, those .-ltit-des fall into conf-sion.* + si.ilar vie1 -nderlies 6l-ckhohnHs contention 7194D, 1$19 that rit-als 7and associated .yths9 rovide *the .a0i.-. of fi0ity* in a 1orld 1here social order is contin-ally threatened by s ontaneity and chan"e. ,n its coercive red-ction of resent and f-t-re to reBenact.ents of a do.ineerin" ast, its ins-lation fro. ti.e and denial of the chan"e it .ay be -n1ittin"ly ro.otin", and its e0cl-sion of all -ncertainties arisin" fro. -ncontrolled variation, rit-al reinforces the e8-ilibri-. that every h-.an society strives to .aintain. ,n this it is the antithesis of the restlessly as irin" 8-est 1hich is nevertheless, erha s, latent 1ithin it. The inse arable link bet1een reli"ion and social str-ct-re ost-lated by Mar0 and )-rkhei. th-s a ears to be ab-ndantly established. =et 1e sho-ld be 1ary, even a art fro. the do".atis.s of Mar0 and evan"elical e0cesses of )-rkhei., of assentin" -ncritically to the thesis of social riority and hence of seein" reli"ion 7by si. le inversion, P la (e-erbach, of the reli"io-s vie1 oint itself9 as the reflection of a ree0istent social reality. *)-rkhei.Hs theory,* Cassirer co"ently observes 7D: 19#9, *a.o-nts to a hysteron proteron, * a lacin" of the cart before the horse. *(or the for. of society is not absol-tely and i..ediately given any .ore than is the ob:ective for. of nat-re, the re"-larity of o-r 1orld of erce tion. ?-st as nat-re co.es into bein" thro-"h a theoretical inter retation and elaboration of sensory contents, so the str-ct-re of society is a .ediated and ideally conditioned reality.* To affir. the interde endence of the reli"io-s and social orders by no .eans :-stifies /'/ -s in vie1in" either as the si. le e.anation of the otherJ and inas.-ch as rit-al is a creative force 1e .i"ht no less la-sibly vie1 society as the offshoot of reli"ion than reli"ion as the o-t"ro1th of society. The antecedence of one or the other of these coordinate constr-cts of h-.an c-lt-re is a .oot, if not a .eanin"less, 8-estion.

3-ch considerations ca-tion -s a"ainst vie1in" rit-al as a 1holly static refle0 of the society 1hose stability it asserts. 7,f rit-al is an instr-.ent of i. erce tible ada tation, its very denial of chan"e .ay be its s- re.e defensive strata"e.: l-s cHest la .Q.e chose, l-s Ra chan"e. . . .9 Gor can reli"ion be confined to the collective and invariant as ects that er.it it to be -nderstood as a ratification of e0istin" social order<the as ects in 1hich it is farthest fro. any tr-e 8-est of the .obile s irit. Ber"son, 1ho ackno1led"ed the effectiveness of reli"ion in s-stainin" societyHs clai.s, associated this di.ension 1ith a *relatively -nchan"eable* instinct directed to1ard *a closed society* 7#D9. ,n contrast, the selfBs-fficient .otion of *the o en so-l,* far fro. bein" instinct-al, *is ac8-iredJ it calls for, has al1ays called for, an effort* 7#'M#99. To these 8-alitatively distinct so-rces of .orality and reli"ion he res ectively assi"ned the f-nctions of * ress-re and as iration: the for.er the .ore erfect as it beco.es .ore i. ersonal, closer to those nat-ral forces 1hich 1e call habit or even instinct, the latter the .ore o1erf-l accordin" as it is .ore obvio-sly aro-sed in -s by definite ersons, and the .ore it a arently tri-. hs over nat-re* 7%$9. ,n this second as ect individ-als are no lon"er 1holly identified 1ith the collectivity, and no lon"er find their beliefs and ractices ade8-ately rescribed by social fiat in accord 1ith biolo"ical redis osition, b-t .-st ac8-ire the. and .ake the. their o1n. 2ere the h-.an bein", even in rit-al .ove.ents 1hich artake of both di.ensions, arts co. any 1ith the instinct-ally deter.ined ani.al 1ithin as socially ro"ra..ed reli"io-s behavior "ives 1ay to individ-ally varied reli"io-s action -r osef-lly directed to1ard an indeter.inate o-tco.e<reli"io-s action in 1hich the s irit-al 8-est has both .atri0 and aradi"..

The In2i(i2ual an2 the -roup/ Rites o' !assa&e

(ar fro. bein", in ;hiteheadHs hrase, *1hat the individ-al does 1ith his solitariness* 719D&, 4F9, reli"ion in .ost societies is a 8-intessentially social activity. Iven so, the )-rkhei.ian e8-ation of reli"io-s reality 1ith *3ociety divini>ed* led Malino1ski to ask 7%&9 if ri.itive reli"ion co-ld be *so entirely devoid of the ins iration of solit-de,* leadin" hi. to the contrary concl-sion 7%'9 that *the collective and the religious, /9/ tho-"h i. in"in" on each other, are by no .eans coe0tensive.* ,n the solidarity of tribal society o-r acc-sto.ed antithesis of individ-al and "ro- 1o-ld no do-bt be inconceivable. The very essence of the * artici ation* 1hich @AvyBBr-hl associated 1ith * ri.itive .entality* 7and, he increasin"ly reali>ed, 1ith o-r o1n9 is that *the s-b:ect is at the sa.e ti.e hi.self and the bein" in 1ho. he artici ates* 719D%, #4%9. 3elfhood is achieved by identification 1ith the "ro- , not distinction fro. it. The reli"ion of solitariness tho-"ht by ;hitehead 719D&, #%9 to be the res-lt of evol-tion to1ard .ore individ-alistic, less co..-nal for.s co-ld have had no lace 7as he -nderstood9 in the -nity of tribal society. Iven so, the identity of individ-al and "ro- has never erha s been so co. lete as @AvyB Br-hlHs .-chBdis -ted *.ystical artici ation* s-""ests. *3-ch facts as the secl-sion of novices at initiation, their individ-al, ersonal str-""les d-rin" the ordeal, the co..-nion 1ith s irits, divinities, and o1ers in lonely s ots, all these,* Malino1ski re.inds -s 7%&9, *sho1 -s ri.itive reli"ion fre8-ently lived thro-"h in solit-de.* +nd insofar as reli"ion re.ains co..-nal, the solidarity it ratifies is not an inheritance ossessed ab initio as by the bees b-t a "oal to be attained<often by stren-o-s effort<and eriodically rene1ed. (ar fro. affir.in" the -ndifferentiated cohesion of society, initiation cere.onies and other rites of assa"e s-""est a relationshi not of static invariance b-t of reci rocal transfor.ation. Iven in its tribal .anifestations, then, reli"ion res- oses 7in Ber"sonHs ter.s9 not only instinctive * ress-re* for the .aintenance of a closed society b-t, at least in otential, the sychic *.otion* of ersonal as iration

to1ard a co..-nity forever bein" achieved. The i. ortance of van Eenne Hs The Rites of )assage, -blished in 19$', fo-r years before )-rkhei.Hs #lementary %orms, is evident fro. the title: rit-al, the res-.ably i..-table s-bstrat-. of reli"io-s behavior, ertains not only to social stability b-t to transition, assa"e, and therefore chan"e. The attern -nderlyin" different rites of assa"e .ay indeed be re.arkably stable<van Eenne 7119 discri.inated the three .a:or hases of se aration 7s*paration 9, transition 7marge 9, and incor oration 7agr*gation 9, 1hich he other1ise 7D19 called the reli.inal, li.inal 7or threshold9, and ostli.inal sta"es<b-t the rites affir. not str-ct-ral fi0ity, in the first instance, b-t rocess-al .ove.entJ not the a athetic selfBs-fficiency of a divine collectivity b-t the so.eti.es ha>ardo-s ada tation of its h-.an co. onents 71hether individ-als or "ro- s9 to a lar"er 1hole 1hich, to that e0tent, is of their o1n .akin". 5an Eenne e. hasi>es 7191M9D9 the i. ortance of *transitional eriods 1hich so.eti.es ac8-ire a certain a-tono.y* and of *territorial / 1$ / passage, s-ch as the entrance into a villa"e or ho-se, the .ove.ent fro. one roo. to another, or the crossin" of streets*J the assa"e definin" these rites *is act-ally a territorial assa"e.* ,t is therefore not the be"innin" or end oints, the se aration or incor oration, 1hich these rites have in co..on<rites of birth, .arria"e, initiation, or death be"in and . end in 1holly different biolo"ical and social conditions<b-t assa"e itself, the critical crossin" of a threshold that is not a line b-t a re"ion, a te. oral and s atial inBbet1een, *a-tono.o-s* beca-se not "overned by conventions revailin" before and after the crossin". Iach assa"e, to be s-re, res- oses a "oal<it is a assa"e to so.ethin"<b-t no "oal entirely s-bs-.es the assa"e to it 7a-tono.y cannot be s-bs-.ed -nder la1, or .ove.ent -nder fi0ity9 or finally ter.inates the rocess of crossin", since every endB oint is otentially a oint of de art-re and *there are al1ays ne1 thresholds to cross* 71'99. ;hat the rite of assa"e celebrates above all is assa"e itself. 5ictor T-rner, develo in" van Eenne Hs insi"hts, re eatedly e. hasi>es that society cannot be -nderstood in ter.s of fi0ed str-ct-re alone b-t is al1ays a rocess, in 1hich van Eenne Hs transitional sta"e is of cr-cial i. ortance. Concernin" this fl-id, *antistr-ct-ral* condition of *li.inality,* and the revitali>ed h-.an relationshi of communitas to 1hich it ty ically "ives rise, he 1rites 719&9, 9%M9&9: @i.inal entities are neither here nor thereJ they are bet1i0t and bet1een the ositions assi"ned and arrayed by la1, c-sto., convention, and cere.onial. . . . ;e are resented, in s-ch rites, 1ith a *.o.ent in and o-t of ti.e,* and in and o-t of sec-lar social str-ct-re. . . . ,t is as tho-"h there 1ere here t1o .a:or *.odels* for h-.an interrelatedness, :-0ta osed and alternatin". The first is of society as a str-ct-red, differentiated, and often hierarchical syste. of oliticoBle"alBecono.ic ositions . . . The second, 1hich e.er"es reco"ni>ably in the li.inal eriod, is of society as an -nstr-ct-red or r-di.entarily str-ct-red and relatively -ndifferentiated comitatus, co..-nity, or even co..-nion of e8-al individ-als 1ho s-b.it to"ether to the "eneral a-thority of the rit-al elders. The *co..-nitas* e.er"in" fro. li.inality, in contrast to the hierarchies enclosin" it on either side of the threshold, is for T-rner the 8-intessentially reli"io-s as ect of h-.an e0istence. The totality in 1hich the individ-al transcends hi.self is not society as an i..e.orial static entity b-t an inherently transitional co..-nity er et-ally in the rocess of reali>ation. Moreover, co..-nitas, tho-"h ori"inatin" in the li.inal hase of rites of assa"e, need not ter.inate

1ith itJ :esters, saints, and other o-tsiders 1ho *fall in the interstices of social str-ct-re, are on its .ar"ins, or occ- y its lo1est r-n"s* 719&9, 1D%9 rovide society 1ith a / 11 / contin-o-s 7if not al1ays 1elco.e9 re.inder of co..-nal val-es, and transition .ay even beco.e a er.anent condition 1hen s ontaneo-s co..-nitas is nor.ali>ed, as in the .onastic orders of Christendo.. @i.inality is th-s not si. ly a transient hase left behind once the rit-al has acco. lished its i..ediate ob:ect b-t a rec-rrent constit-ent of h-.an c-lt-re, 1hich it distin"-ishes 7one .i"ht add9 fro. the transitionless hierarchies of the ants and bees as an intrinsically -nfinished rocess directed to1ard an incessantly redefined "oal. The co..-nitas fostered by this rec-rrent transitionality has an e0istential 8-ality, as o osed to the co"nitive, classificatory 8-ality 1hich T-rner 71ith @AviB3tra-ss9 associates 1ith str-ct-reJ it has *an as ect of otentiality* and *is often in the s-b:-nctive .ood* 71DF9. Cf the t1o co. le.entary di.ensions, co..-nitas<the dyna.ic or otential<is therefore rior to the a arently stable confi"-rations of the str-ct-ral stasis 1hich it is forever i. erce tibly transfor.in". *Co..-nitas . . . is not str-ct-re 1ith its si"ns reversed, .in-ses instead of l-ses, b-t rather the fons et origo of all str-ct-res and, at the sa.e ti.e, their criti8-e. (or its very e0istence -ts all social str-ct-ral r-les in 8-estion and s-""ests ne1 ossibilities. Co..-nitas strains to1ard -niversalis. and o enness* 719F4, D$D9. This as iration to1ard a .ore incl-sive h-.an co..-nity< all rites of assa"e, not e0ce tin" those of death, enlar"e a cor orate "ro- <is one res ect in 1hich *co..-nitas is to solidarity as 2enri Ber"sonHs Ho en .oralityH is to his Hclosed .oralityH* 719&9, 1#D9 <a force inherently e0 ansive and inco. lete. *Co..-nitas is not .erely instinct-al,* any .ore than Ber"sonHs second so-rceJ rather, *it involves conscio-sness and volition* 71''9. ,n .a:or li.inal sit-ations a society *takes cogni+ance of itself * 719F4, D#9M4$9J for only in bet1een obli"atory f-lfill.ent of str-ct-rally rescribed f-nctions does the otential for -r osef-l chan"e arise. The social order, for stabilityHs sake, .-st therefore confine overt e0 ressions of co..-nitas to *interstitial* occasions and instit-tions. Clearly distin"-ished cate"ories and relations are the essence of str-ct-re, and there is al1ays dan"er in transitional states, as )o-"las re.arks 79&9, *si. ly beca-se transition is neither one state nor the ne0t, it is -ndefinable.* The dan"er is one that the social order .-st strictly circ-.scribe, or it 1ill soon be no order at all. +t the sa.e ti.e, ano.aly 1hich finds a reco"ni>ed lace in the social order<as in the Gde.bt1inshi rit-al st-died by T-rner<.ay ratify that order by .akin" it the "-arantor of val-es see.in"ly antithetical to its i..-table cate"ories: by bein" assi.ilated, the ano.aly is re"-lari>ed and order is - held. *Co"nitively, nothin" -nderlines re"-larity so 1ell as abs-rdity or arado0. I.otionally, nothin" satisfies as .-ch as / 1D / e0trava"ant or te. orarily er.itted illicit behavior* 7T-rner 19&9, 1F&9. Rit-als of stat-s reversal, by .akin" the lo1 hi"h and the hi"h lo1, reaffir. the hierarchical rinci le 1itho-t 1hich hi"h and lo1 co-ld not be distin"-ished even in reverse. B-t to reaffir. the rinci le is by no .eans to affir. any "iven hierarchyHs er et-ity as act-ally constit-tedJ on the contrary, contin-o-s assa"e thro-"h a oro-s hierarchy 1hose only divisions are thresholds .akes s-ch an affir.ation .eanin"less. 3ocial life, as e0 erienced by its artici ants, is *a rocess rather than a thin"* 7D$#9<not a fi0ed syste. b-t a dialectic *that involves s-ccessive e0 erience of hi"h and lo1, co..-nitas and str-ct-re, ho.o"eneity

and differentiation, e8-ality and ine8-ality* 79F9. + society in stasis is a contradiction in ter.s, for rit-al can tr-ly affir. the social order only by contin-ally resha in" and creatin" it ane1. T-rnerHs ar"-.ent is o en to criticis. for its e0cessively liable ter.inolo"y 7communitas, like @AvyB Br-hlHs mystical participation, is a catchBall of nearly -ndefinable li.its9 and its i. ressionistic -se of evidence dra1n fro. a "rabBba" e0tendin" fro. +frican tribal rites to ;illia. Blake, Martin B-ber, and the hi ie co-nterc-lt-re of the 19&$s. Eranted that sy.bol and .eta hor are fitter vehicles 7as T-rner s-""ests9 than analysis for conveyin" the e0istential 8-alities of co..-nitas, in these de art.ents the anthro olo"ist can hardly better the ori"inals to1ard 1hich he so.e1hat red-ndantly oints -s. =et by his e. hasis on rit-al li.inality as a for.ative co. onent of a society in contin-al transition T-rner, like van Eenne before hi., f-nda.entally .odifies the 1ides read vie1 of reli"ion 7above all in its -tative ori"ins9 as a assively reflective, obsessively re etitive ratification of a ree0istent social order 1hich it thereby endeavors to i..-ni>e fro. the vir-s of chan"e. +nd by associatin" 7even at the risk of re.at-rely e8-atin"9 li.inality and co..-nitas, T-rner discerns that far fro. .erely dissolvin" the str-ct-ral bonds a.on" its .e.bers, leavin" the. isolated d-rin" their erilo-s crossin", the li.inal hases essential to the rhyth. of social life reconstit-te those bonds by creatin" a dee er a1areness of co..-nity as a shared h-.an need than any static syste. of kinshi roles alone can rescribe. ,t is in this sense, not by its coercive in:-nctions, that reli"ion, to the e0tent that it is *li.inal* and not 1holly instit-tional, is .ost rofo-ndly 7as the ety.olo"y of o-r 1ord s-""ests9 a bindin" to"ether. Thro-"h contin-ally rene1ed assi.ilation of its .e.bers into a .ore co. rehensive co..-nity in transitional rites that rovide a fl-idity inte"ral to its e0istence if alien to its cate"ories, a no lon"er static social str-ct-re achieves the ca acity for selfBrenovation by 1hich it beco.es, in .ore than a .anner of s eakin", social life. / 1# /

Reli&ion an2 Social Chan&e

This -nderstandin" of the dyna.ic role of rit-al shar ly contrasts 1ith that of )-rkhei. or RadcliffeB Bro1n, for 1ho. reli"ion 1as essentially an e i heno.enon reinforcin" the ri.ary social order 1hich it reflected. Cther .a:or thinkers of the early t1entieth cent-ry also assi"ned to reli"ion a for.ative f-nction 1ithin a society seen less as a finished str-ct-re than a 1ork forever -nder constr-ction. Ma0 ;eberHs ri.ary interest, as Talcott Parsons discerned 719&#, 0009, *is in reli"ion as a so-rce of the dyna.ics of social chan"e, not reli"ion as a reinforce.ent of the stability of societies.* (or ;eber 7194&, D4%9, the tendency of society to con"eal in b-rea-cratic instit-tions is eriodically s-bverted by the *entirely hetero"eneo-s* force of ersonal charis.a. Thro-"ho-t early history, *charis.atic a-thority, 1hich rests - on a belief in the sanctity or the val-e of the e0traordinary, and traditionalist 7 atriarchal9 do.ination, 1hich rests - on a belief in the sanctity of everyday ro-tines, divided the .ost i. ortant a-thoritative relations bet1een the.* 7D9F9. Both tendencies are therefore 7like Ber"sonHs t1o so-rces or T-rnerHs str-ct-re and co..-nitas9 f-nda.ental to reli"ionJ nor is the traditionalist solely an inertial or the charis.atic a ro"ressive force. Both 7thro-"h *revelation and the s1ord*9 can be innovative, and both are s-b:ect to instit-tional ro-tini>ation. =et charis.a, as a force essentially e0traordinary, ersonal, and -nstable, is for ;eber, in the absence of e0ternal intr-sion, the ri.ary a"ency 1orkin" a"ainst ri"idification of social str-ct-res. The charis.atic attit-de *is revol-tionary and transval-es everythin"J it .akes a soverei"n break 1ith all traditional or rational nor.s: H,t is 1ritten, b-t , say -nto yo-H* 7D%$9. By its hi"hly ersonal disr- tion of the collective, its in:ection of the -n redictable into the ro-tine, and its crystalli>ation

aro-nd the charis.atic individ-al of an intensely .otivated co..-nity 1ithin the lar"er society, reli"io-s charis.a, as ;eber ortrays it, is inherently a force for chan"e<a force e8-ally destr-ctive and creative in otential and al1ays, fro. the observerHs ers ective, -ncertain in o-tco.e. (or Eeor"e 2erbert Mead, as for Ber"son and ;eber, the transfor.ative a"ency in reli"ion is not the li.inal rite of van Eenne Hs or T-rnerHs tribal societies b-t the dissident individ-al 1ho "ives ne1 voice to his societyHs dee est, if nearly for"otten, as irations. ;hat "ives -ni8-e i. ortance to reli"io-s "eni-ses, s-ch as ?es-s, B-ddha, and 3ocrates, is their *attit-de of livin" 1ith reference to a lar"er society,* a society lar"er than their instit-tional co..-nitiesJ tho-"h each diver"es fro. the re:-dices of his a"e, *in another sense he e0 resses the rinci les / 14 / of the co..-nity .ore co. letely than any other* 719#4, D1F9. Cnly beca-se society is a dialectical interchan"e bet1een 1hole and art can any erson achieve this -ni8-e i. ortance by act-atin" the as irations i. licit in his social environ.entJ he transfor.s his 1orld by revealin" to it, fro. his see.in"ly tan"ential ers ective, the -ns-s ected novelty latent 1ithin it. ,n MeadHs social sycholo"y, *the 1hole 7society9 is rior to the art 7the individ-al9, not the art to the 1hole* 7F9. The individ-al co.es into bein" only thro-"h social differentiation and is a rod-ct of society, not its reBe0istent co. onent. Got -ntil he can ado t to1ard hi.self the attit-de of the *"enerali>ed other* constit-ted by his environ.ent does the h-.an bein" beco.e a conscio-s individ-al. Rit-al contrib-tes si"nificantly to this develo in" conscio-sness, since the self is a rocess in 1hich the conversation 1ith others has been internali>ed 71F'9J the reli"io-s c-lt contrib-tes to1ard evol-tion of the self by "ivin" e0 ression to an on"oin" conversation 1ith the 1orld. ,n contrast to the conventional *.e*<the "enerali>ed other internali>ed in each individ-al<the res onse of the s-b:ective *,* is al1ays -ncertain. *,t is there that novelty arises and it is there that o-r .ost i. ortant val-es are located. ,t is the reali>ation in so.e sense of this self that 1e are contin-ally seekin"* 7D$49. +nd this *,,* the individ-alHs chan"in" res onse to the instit-tionali>ed attit-de of the co..-nity, in t-rn chan"es the latter by introd-cin" so.ethin" not revio-sly resent 719&9: the -n redictably res onsive *,* is th-s the dyna.ic a"ency of societyHs transfor.ation. + reci rocal ada tation is al1ays takin" lace, not only of the self to the social environ.ent b-t of that environ.ent to the self by 1hich it is contin-ally bein" resha ed. Thinkin" itself is *the carryin"Bon of a conversation bet1een . . . the H,H and the H.eH* 7##%9, and beca-se this conversation is forever introd-cin" ne1 sit-ations, it is inco. atible for lon" 1ith any fi0ed for. of society. The reli"io-s "eni-s accelerates this oftenBi. erce tible rocess by actin" as *,* to societyHs *.e,* thereby act-ali>in" 1hat 1as otential. Got only ri.itive c-lt b-t reli"ion in "eneral is th-s the o enBended conversation of .an 1ith his 1orld. (or Peter @. Ber"er, too, social reality is a constr-ct of h-.an conscio-sness in t-rn str-ct-red by it thro-"h internali>ation of its o1n ob:ectified ro:ections: *the social 1orld . . . is not assively absorbed by the individ-al, b-t actively a ro riated by hi.* 71'9. By .eans of this * rotracted conversation* society f-rnishes its constit-ent individ-als 1ith a nomos, or .eanin"f-l order, that shields the. a"ainst the blankness of its -nassi.ilable .ar"ins<1ith the res-lt, ho1ever, that *the 1orld be"ins to shake in the very instant that its s-stainin" conversation be"ins to falter* 7DD9. Reli"ion rotects .an a"ainst the terror of / 1% /

*ano.y,* or .eanin"lessness, by a-dacio-sly atte. tin" to conceive of the entire cos.os as h-.anly si"nificant. +nd altho-"h its ro:ection of h-.an .eanin"s into an e. ty -niverse ret-rns as a ha-ntin"ly alien reality, the reli"io-s enter rise * rofo-ndly reveals the ressin" -r"ency and intensity of .anHs 8-est for .eanin"* 71$$9, 1hich lies at the root of all his endeavors to i. ose order on 1hat is beyond his control. ,t follo1s that reli"ion not only le"iti.ates social instit-tions by besto1in" ontolo"ical stat-s on the., b-t relativi>es these sa.e instit-tions su, specie aeternitatis and hence .ay 1ithdra1 sanctity fro. the. 79FM9'9. (ar fro. .erely validatin" societyHs decrees, reli"ion reveals the intrinsic inco. leteness of all h-.an attain.ents by holdin" o-t the ossibility of an order transcendin" the a ro0i.ative act-al: the indis ensable if -nreachable "oal of an allBenco. assin" no.os, an alle.bracin" co..-nitas. (or this reason, reli"ion is a force not only, as )-rkhei. believed, of social inertia b-t no less intrinsically, as ;eber -nderstood, of radical chan"e arisin" fro. the individ-alHs as iration to1ard a .ore .eanin"f-l order than the e. tied le"iti.acies his "iven 1orld can s- ly. + si.ilar conce tion of reli"ion as contin-o-s transcendence finds e0 ression in 6ierke"aard, 1ho affir.s thro-"h ?ohannes Cli.ac-s, the se-dony.o-s a-thor of the Concluding -nscientific )ostscript, *that it is not the tr-th b-t the 1ay 1hich is the tr-th, i.e. that the tr-th e0ists only in the rocess of beco.in"* 7FD9. I0istence *is recisely the o osite of finality* 71$F9 and cannot be conceived 1itho-t .ove.ent or red-ced to any closed syste., and reality is *an inter.esse * 7DF#9, *the dialectical .o.ent in a trilo"y, 1hose be"innin" and 1hose end cannot be for the e0istin" individ-al* 7DF99. 3ince h-.an life is by nat-re *steady strivin" and a contin-o-s .ean1hile* 74&99, then, the reli"io-s as irant 1ill reno-nce the .ira"e of absol-te tr-th in this 1orld for the road leadin" to1ard it and conc-r 1ith @essin"Hs hard sayin" that *if Eod held all tr-th in his ri"ht hand, and in his left hand held the lifelon" -rs-it of it, he 1o-ld choose the left hand* 79F9. The s-b:ective thinker has no finite "oal to1ard 1hich he strives and 1hich he co-ld reach and be finished: *Go, he strives infinitely, is constantly in rocess of beco.in"* 7'49. Reli"io-s as iration re8-ires a "oal indeed, b-t re8-ires that this "oal be transcendent<attainable, if at all, only by a lea beyond the contin-o-s .ean1hile of h-.an e0istence into another order of thin"s 1hither neither ?ohannes Cli.ac-s nor 1e .ay follo1. To the e0tent that reli"ion ertains to the h-.an it re.ains, for 6ierke"aardHs 8-i0otically in1ard o-tsider no less than for the tribes.en of van Eenne or T-rner, a neverBco. leted transition. Cf the t1o conce tions of reli"ion that 1e have e0a.ined, one is asB / 1& / sociated 1ith assively habit-al 7if not *instinctive*9 affir.ation of society as a closed str-ct-re i..-tably "ro-nded in the ast, the other 1ith actively -r osef-l transfor.ation of society as an o en rocess er et-ally in assa"e to1ard an -nreali>ed f-t-re. ,n ter.s of the first, no 8-est is conceivable, since the ans1ers are "iven in the fi0ed re etitions of rit-al before the 8-estions are asked. ,n ter.s of the second, the ersonal 8-est finds a collective aradi". in the li.inal co..-nityHs rit-ali>ed itinerary thro-"h societyHs .ar"ins to1ard an indeter.inate o-tco.e al1ays leavin" ne1 thresholds to cross, and the individ-alHs as iration to1ard a .ore .eanin"f-l order .ay in t-rn beco.e a otent instr-.ent of social transfor.ation. Bet1een the t1o, Ber"son discerned 7%'9, lies *the 1hole distance bet1een re ose and .ove.ent. The first is s- osed to be i..-table. . . . The sha e it ass-.es at any "iven ti.e clai.s to be the final sha e. B-t the second is a for1ard thr-st, a de.and for .ove.entJ it is the very essence of .obility.* The difference is not, ho1ever, as Ber"son else1here i. lies,NDO a 8-alitative one that recl-des

interaction bet1een the.. Cn the contrary, the static and the kinetic, the closed and the o en, the str-ct-red and the li.inal di.ensions of reli"ion, neither of 1hich can e0ist in isolation for lon", are inse arable as ects of one another, thro-"h 1hose dialectical inter lay the reli"io-s life of society co.es into bein" and contin-es insensibly to evolve. These as ects, tho-"h both essential, are nevertheless not e8-alJ the ri.acy of the second derives, for Ber"son, fro. the fact that *.ove.ent incl-des i..obility* 7%'9. 3tasis is the te. orary e8-ilibri-. that res-lts fro. the variation in te. o intrinsic to .otionJ it is not an a-tono.o-s reality b-t a -lsation or a-se in the .ove.ent that re eatedly creates and ann-ls it. The real is not only .obile b-t .ove.ent itselfJ and if 1e ersist in re"ardin" as real the .o.entary halts 1hich are only the si.-ltaneity of .ove.ents, and in fallacio-sly vie1in" rest as anterior to .otion, this error reflects o-r dee ly in"rained rel-ctance to acce t the inel-ctable .-tability of a condition 1hich s-""ests to o-r dissatisfied .inds *a deficiency, a lack, a 8-est of the -nchan"in" for.* 7D449. To e0ist 1ith irre ressible consciousness of i. er.anence, of the inBbet1eenness intrinsic to the transitional rocess of life, and to confront in er et-ity an o enness offerin" no ros ect of ter.ination, is to be al1ays a1are of a lack<the lack of that very clos-re and fi0ity 1e so insistently affir.<f-nda.ental to o-r e0istence. =et if the er.anence 1e inherently lack and incessantly strive to NDO *B-t bet1een the society in 1hich 1e live and h-.anity in "eneral there is, 1e re eat, the sa.e contrast as bet1een the closed and the o enJ the difference bet1een the t1o ob:ects is one of kind and not si. ly one of de"ree* 7#D9. Ber"sonHs *vitalis.* rests, very shakily, on a si.ilar d-alis.. / 1F / achieve sho-ld be a chi.era inco. atible 1ith the .-tability that defines and ro els -s as livin" and 8-estin" bein"s, it 1ill be not only a 1illBoHBtheB1is forever beyond attain.ent b-t an ob:ect finally alien to o-r as irations the.selves<an -lti.ate "oal of o-r 8-est, b-t a "oal that can only rovide f-lfill.ent so lon" as 1e contin-e to lack and contin-e to seek it. (or :-st as rest is a hase of the .ove.ent that incl-des it, findin" can be no .ore than a .o.entary a-se in the contin-o-s rocess of seekin" 1hich has, by its nat-re, no end. / 1' /

Chapter T4o. 5iolo&ical an2 !s)cholo&ical Foun2ations o' the Quest

Reli"ion as rocess is one so-rce of the s irit-al 8-est, s-""estin" that the individ-alHs search, idiosyncratic tho-"h it .ay so.eti.es see., "ives intensified direction to an i. et-s shared in so.e .eas-re 1ith society as a 1hole. The o-tcast co-ld not so fre8-ently ret-rn as hero or savior if the needs to 1hich she "ives voice 1ere not latent in those 1ho initially cast her o-t. B-t if the h-.an bein" is tr-ly animal !uaerens, a si.ilar latency 1ill be fo-nd in the biolo"ical, sycholo"ical, and lin"-istic conditions of h-.an life and c-lt-re 1itho-t 1hich society and reli"ion 1o-ld the.selves be inconceivable.

5iolo&) an2 !urpose/ The E(olution o' Openness

The 8-est, far fro. bein" an incidental activity, "ives s ecifically h-.an sha e to rocesses basic to life. )istinctive of both is direction, or even, in so.e sense, -r ose. Unlike .odern hysicists, 1ho have ri"oro-sly re:ected the notion of telos, .any biolo"ists find f-nction or -r ose a conce t f-nda.ental to -nderstandin" life. Th-s for 3i. son 7'&M'F9 *the -r osef-l as ect of or"anis.s is incontrovertible*J for Bernste:nNSO 7in ?akobson 19F#, %&9 -r osiveness is *a .anifest, erha s even decisive, difference of livin" syste.s*J and for +yala 71D9 teleolo"ical e0 lanations in biolo"y are *indis ensable.*N1O N1O +yala 7'M99 distin"-ishes *three cate"ories of biolo"ical heno.ena 1here teleolo"ical e0 lanations are a ro riate,* na.ely activity directed to1ard a conscio-sly antici ated "oalJ *selfB re"-latin" or teleono.ic syste.s*J and *str-ct-res anato.ically and hysiolo"ically desi"ned to erfor. a certain f-nction* by the directive rocess of nat-ral selection. 3ee also the distinctions in I. Ga"el, DF%M#1&, and Mayr 19'', #'M&&. +yala f-rther notes 7149 that *(inal Ca-ses, for +ristotle, are rinci les of intelli"ibilityJ they are not in any sense active a"ents in their o1n reali>ation.* The *+ristotelian* teleolo"y a"ainst 1hich .odern science reacted is a distortion of +ristotleHs final ca-se, 1hich he clearly discri.inated fro. the efficient ca-se 7the only ca-se nor.ally si"nified by o-r 1ord9 1ith 1hich a debased +ristotelian tradition confo-nded it. / 19 / =et the nat-re and ori"in of this biolo"ical -r osiveness re.ain intensely roble.atic. The ancient +ristotelian teleolo"y, *the doctrine of final ca-se, of the endHs deter.inin" the .eans,* 1hich 1idely revailed a.on" biolo"ists 1ell into the nineteenth cent-ry, is one 1hich 3i. son 7'%9 and all of .odern science can easily dis.iss as *anthro o.or hic in a tr-ly ri.itive 1ay*J in its cr-der for.s this doctrine rodi"ally ascribed to everythin" in creation a -r ose deter.ined by its -tility to .an. 3o -ncritical a teleolo"y 1as de.olished in rinci le by 6antHs *Criti8-e of the Teleolo"ical ?-d".ent* of 1F9$, 1hich both restricted the conce t of nat-ral -r osiveness to the or"anis.<in 1hich *every art is reci rocally -r ose and .eans* 7DDD9<and ar"-ed that this conce t is *not s-sce tible of roof thro-"h reason as re"ards its ob:ective reality* 7D449. B-t 6antHs scr- -lo-s criti8-e left o en the very lar"e loo hole that su,/ectively, in his vie1 7D4F9, nat-ral rocesses can only be -nderstood by ositin" *a desi"nin" ca-sality of a hi"hest ca-se,* since no h-.an reason *can ho e to -nderstand the rod-ction of even a blade of "rass by .ere .echanical ca-ses* 7D%'9. This s-b:ective conviction of a (irst Ca-se, 1hich allo1ed 6ant, after all his criti8-es of reason and :-d".ent, to see in .an *the final -r ose of creation* 7D'&9, de ended on the lack of any rationally convincin" e0 lanation of biolo"ical desi"n<-ntil )ar1in dra.atically s- lied one in nat-ral selection. Gat-ral selection .ay not, as )ar1inHs horrified conte. oraries too hastily concl-ded, 1holly eli.inate all 8-estion of -r ose fro. the 1orkin"s of nat-re e0 o-nded in The "rigin of Species . ,ndeed, )ar1inHs lan"-a"e reveals the ersistence of see.in"ly teleolo"ical and even anthro o.or hic atterns in his tho-"ht. *Man selects only for his o1n "oodJ Gat-re only for that of the bein" 1hich she tends* 71#D9, and Gat-reHs rod-ctions * lainly bear the sta. of far hi"her 1ork.anshi . . . . ,t .ay be said,* therefore, *that nat-ral selection is . . . silently and insensibly 1orkin", 1henever and 1herever o ort-nity offers, at the i. rove.ent of each or"anic bein"* 71##9. B-t the * -r oses* 1e .eta horically or retros ectively ascribe to )ar1inHs selective Gat-re differ rofo-ndly fro. those of Platonic de.i-r"e, 3toic artificer, or ?-daeoBChristian creator in accr-in" event-ally, thro-"h re rod-ctive selection of favored traits, not to the e0 endable individ-al b-t to the evolvin" s ecies<and to .an as a s ecies like any other<and in -nfoldin" in accord not 1ith a

redeter.ined lan or / D$ / *desi"nin" ca-sality* b-t solely 1ith the -nforeseeable o ort-nities rovided by rando. .-tations or *s orts.* Gor of co-rse does the rocess of evol-tion lead inevitably to "reater ada tation, fitness, or s-rvival: e0tinction, in the lon" r-n, is its nor.al o-tco.e. P-r ose s-rvived The "rigin of Species, if at all, in f-nda.entally altered for.J behavior of individ-al or"anis.s .ay no do-bt be "oalBdirected, b-t evol-tionary directionality see.s -r osive only 1hen 1e dee. it, in hindsi"ht, s-ccessf-l. To a "reat e0tent t1entiethBcent-ry .olec-lar biolo"y has confir.ed )ar1in by e0 lainin" the .echanis. of inheritance 1hich he co-ld only ascribe to a re rod-ctive syste. of 1hich he confessed to be * rofo-ndly i"norant* 71F49. ,nsofar as this .echanis. f-nctions 1ith nearly fla1less efficiency, ho1ever, the directionality s- osedly distinctive of life .i"ht see. ine0 licable: for ho1 do or"anis.s .echanically re rod-cin" their kind by invariable bioche.ical rocesses dis lay .ore -r osive direction than stars or lanets 1hirled abo-t by i. ersonal "ravitational forcesK To s-ch 8-estions ?ac8-es MonodHs Chance and 0ecessity of 19F$ ate. ted to res ond fro. the ers ective of .odern "enetics in an *orthodo0* neoB)ar1inian for. taken to a controversial e0tre.e. Monod reaffir.s the characteristic *co..on to all livin" bein"s 1itho-t e0ce tion . . . of bein" o,/ects endo1ed 1ith a purpose or pro/ect * 799. 2e calls this internal -r osiveness teleonomy <a ter. dra1n fro. cybernetics, 1hich reco"ni>es no essential difference bet1een livin" and nonlivin" syste.s<and considers it, alon" 1ith a-tono.o-s .or ho"enesis and re rod-ctive invariance, one of the three "eneral ro erties distinctive of livin" bein"s. The very fact of teleono.y, ho1ever, constit-tes an e iste.olo"ical roble. in that it see.s to violate the ironclad ost-late of the scientific .ethod 7*cons-bstantial* 1ith .odern science9 that *ob:ective* nat-re .-st be -nderstood 1itho-t reference to final ca-ses. (or Monod 7D1MDD9, *the central roble. of biolo"y lies 1ith this very contradiction.*NDO The only sol-tion he considers acce table to .odern science is *that invariance necessarily recedes teleono.y,* reservin" the effects of chance by s-b.ittin" the. *to the lay of nat-ral selection* 7D#M D49. ,nvariance 7encoded in the "ene9 is both recondition and end of teleono.y, 1hose ro:ect is *the trans.ission fro. "eneration to "eneration of the invariance content characteristic of the s ecies* 7149. =et .ore co. le0 for.s of -r osive behavior 71hich res- ose res onse to alternatives resented by variation9 co-ld s-rely never arise if invariance 1ere absol-teJ rather, in the co-rse of ada tation, purpose itself NDO Cn the ter. teleonomy, introd-ced by Pittendri"h in 19%', see +yala 71#M149 and Mayr 719'', 44M %$9. +yala refers *internal teleolo"y* as a biolo"ically a ro riate ter.. / D1 / evolves <insofar as .eta horical e0tension of a ter. strictly a licable, as 6ant already discerned, only to the individ-al or"anis. can describe the blindly directional rocesses of evol-tion<as a c-.-lative conse8-ence of the rando. ert-rbations that introd-ce variation into the resistantly invariant "ene and "rad-ally rod-ce, thro-"h s-rvival of the fittest .-tations, develo .ents of increasin" co. le0ity and refine.ent. Ivol-tionary directionality, 1itho-t itself bein" -r osive, is the indis ensable condition for the "enesis of tr-ly -r osef-l "oalBdirected behavior, 1hich is not the .otor of evol-tion, as in @a.arck, b-t one of its rod-cts<an e0 eri.ent 1hose end is not kno1n. (or the *"oals* of )ar1inian evol-tion are forever bein" deter.ined by incre.ental reservation of

advanta"eo-s .-tations introd-ced thro-"h co-ntless *choices* "iven by chance and 1inno1ed by the *strictly . . . a osteriori rocess,* in MayrHs 1ords 719'', 4#9, of nat-ral selection. (or Monod, to be s-re, the or"anic syste. is *-tterly i. ervio-s to any HhintsH fro. the o-tside 1orld* 711$M119 in a oneB1ay relationshi that is *thoro-"hly Cartesian: the cell is indeed a machine .* This contention even leads hi. to the rovocative assertion 711&9 that *evolution is not a property of living ,eings, since it ste.s fro. the very imperfections of the conservative .echanis.*<as if i. erfection 1ere less a ro erty of livin" bein"s than invariance. 7(or )ar1in, in contrast, Eo-ld re.arks N19'Fa, '4O, *The ri.ary roofs of evol-tion are oddities and i. erfections.*9 Cthers, ho1ever, have ar"-ed that the biolo"ical .echanis., even at the .olec-lar or cell-lar level, is a syste. by no .eans closed to all infl-ences fro. an o-tside 1orld 1ith 1hich its relationshi s are not entirely oneB1ay b-t reci rocal, even dialectical. Th-s for Pia"et 719F1, '19, investi"atin" the biolo"ical basis of kno1led"e as an o-t"ro1th of the rocess of life, * hylo"enesis NisO de endent in art on onto"enesis* 7evol-tion of the s ecies on develo .ent of the individ-al9, and not only the reverse, so that infor.ation s- lied by "enes *is not only trans.itted b-t also transfor.ed in the co-rse of all this develo .ent.* 3ince the "eno.e contains a syste. of a-tore"-lation, it is *a contradiction in ter.s to s- ose that all connection 1ith the so.a or the environ.ent can be c-t off* 711#9 in a rocess e0cl-din" interaction bet1een the.,N#O for if everything 1ere i..-tably ro"ra..ed, there co-ld be nothin" to re"-late. N#O The s-""estion of interaction bet1een "eno.e and environ.ent is the oint at 1hich Pia"etHs s ec-lations .ost de arted fro. orthodo0 "enetics 7for 1hich the "ene 1as a closed syste. and .-tations rando. *.istakes* in conveyin" its .essa"es9 and beca.e .ost hy othetical, for lack both of e0 eri.ental verification and of any convincin"ly de.onstrated .echanis. of interaction. *(or .odern biolo"y,* ?acob 1rites 71&9, *there is no .olec-lar .echanis. enablin" instr-ctions fro. the environ.ent to be i. rinted into )G+ directly, that is, 1itho-t the ro-ndabo-t ro-te of nat-ral selection. Got that s-ch a .echanis. is theoretically i. ossible. 3i. ly it does not e0ist.* =et recent develo .ents .ake s-ch cate"orical assertions less s-re. +s Eo-ld re.arks 719'Fb, 1%FM%99, the *central do".a* of (rancis Crick, *that )G+ .akes RG+ and RG+ .akes rotein, in a oneB1ay flo1 of infor.ation, a -nidirectional rocess of .echanical constr-ction,* has been breached, in lar"e art by the 1ork of Barbara McClintock. ,n this ne1 .odel, *the "eno.e is fl-id and .obile,* and *a set of ne1 the.es<.obility, rearran"e.ent, re"-lation, and interaction<has transfor.ed o-r vie1 of "eno.es fro. stable and linear arrays, altered iece by iece and shielded fro. any interaction 1ith their rod-cts, to fl-id syste.s 1ith otential for ra id reor"ani>ation and e0tensive feedback.* / DD / Eiven this hy othesi>ed res onsiveness of the "eno.e to environ.ental sti.-li, evol-tionary selection beco.es a reci rocal rocess at every level: or"anis.s not only ada t to "iven environ.ents b-t actively ada t environ.ents to their o1n -ses. 3-ch dyna.ic activity contin-ally rod-ces ne1 for.s of e8-ilibri-. by interaction 1ithin a chan"in" environ.entJ it involves not only rando. .istakes in "enetic trans.ission b-t endless read:-st.ent thro-"h trial and error. (or to Pia"et<1ho re:ects the * er et-al vicio-s circle* of attrib-tin" biolo"ical or"ani>ation *to chances 1hich are already artly or"ani>ed and to selections 1hich are the.selves controlled* 7DF&9<1ife inevitably entails -r osef-l .odification of biolo"ical or"ani>ation in res onse to a sha in" environ.ent 1hich it in t-rn contrib-tes to1ard sha in". Pia"etHs s ec-lations corroborate BertalanffyHs conce tion of the or"anis. as an o en syste. in contin-o-s interchan"e 1ith the environ.ent. + er.anent e8-ilibri-. 1o-ld be contrary to life,

1hich involves, for Bertalanffy as for Pia"et, er et-al reBe8-ilibration of the dise8-ilibria contin-ally introd-ced by the or"anis.Hs interaction 1ith the 1orldJ this ro"ressive reBe8-ilibration is one .ore for.-lation of biolo"ical -r osiveness. The rocess is by no .eans one of ai.less fl-ct-ation, since or"ans or str-ct-res tend to beco.e increasin"ly *.echani>ed* thro-"h ro"ressive differentiation to s-it the or"anis.Hs overall -r ose, thereby beco.in" decreasin"ly a-tono.o-s and ada table in the.selves. (or Bertalanffy, as for Ber"son, the o en syste. or rocess is therefore rior to the closed syste. or str-ct-re, its te. orarily e8-ilibrated state: *3tr-ct-res are slo1 rocesses of lon" d-ration, f-nctions are 8-ick rocesses of short d-ration* 719%D, 1#49. The or"anis. is accordin"ly *not a assive b-t a basically active syste.* 71'9, and its attrib-tes necessarily incl-de both individ-al and evol-tionary history 71$99. Beca-se life is rocess, and evol-tion 7Monod not1ithstandin"9 is its ro erty ar e0cellence, to st-dy it as a str-ct-re abstracted fro. "ro1th is to falsify it in essence. Eranted that the or"anis. is an o en a-tore"-latory syste., the * -r ose* inherent in the rocess of life 1ill be not only selfB reservation thro-"h "enetically invariant re rod-ction b-t selfBtranscendence / D# / in the direction of increasin"ly ade8-ate ada tation to chan"in" circ-.stances and, beyond this, to the incessant challen"e of chan"e itself. Biolo"ical -r osiveness, in yet another for.-lation, is active resistance to the entro y that .eas-res the de"radation of ener"y, accordin" to the second la1 of ther.odyna.ics, in any closed syste.. ,n an o en syste. res onsively interactin" 1ith its environ.ent, *the entro y balance,* Bertalanffy asserts 719&', 4'9, *.ay 1ell be ne"ative, that is, the syste. .ay develo to1ard states of hi"her i. robability, order and differentiation 7altho-"h, of co-rse, entro y increases in the lar"er syste. consistin" of the or"anis. and its environ.ent9.*N4O Cnly thro-"h the ro"ressive differentiation characteristic, for Pia"et, of all biolo"ical 7and all co"nitive9 or"ani>ations can an o en syste. of advanced co. le0ity contin-e to live and to "ro1, th-s achievin" an al1ays recario-s ne"ation of entro y and te. orary ost one.ent of e0tinction. Monod s ec-lates 71&F9 that *the rofo-nd dis8-iet 1hich "oads -s to search o-t the .eanin" of e0istence* thro-"h reli"io-s rites is an evol-tionary inheritance of h-.anity. ,f so, it .ay be a 8-ality selected not only for its advanta"e to tribal cohesion d-rin" o-r s ecifically h-.an 7and therefore recent9 evol-tion, b-t still .ore f-nda.entally the hi"hly intensified<beca-se at least artly conscio-s <e0 ression of the -nstable or"anis.Hs er et-al search for an e8-ilibri-. co. atible 1ith the al1ays destabili>in" rocess of transfor.ation thro-"h "ro1th. (or if *both instinctive and c-lt-ral rit-als,* to 8-ote @oren> once a"ain 719&&, FFMF'9, *beco.e inde endent .otivations of behavior by creatin" ne1 ends or "oals to1ard 1hich the or"anis. strives for their o1n sakes,* the rofo-ndly -n8-iet search for stability e0 ressed in the elaborate rit-als of h-.an reli"io-s behavior can be seen as a r-di.entary ro erty of livin" bein"s lon" antedatin" the - start "en-s homo . ;hich conce tion of evol-tion -lti.ately roves .ore nearly correct, the rando. .-tationis. of )ar1in es o-sed by Monod, or BertalanffyHs and Pia"etHs dialectical interaction bet1een an o en syste. and its environ.ent, 1ill of co-rse be decided by contin-in" observation and e0 eri.entation. (or the resent, fe1 leadin" biolo"ists 1o-ld find the evidence for the latter s-fficient to 1arrant serio-s 8-estionin" of orthodo0 )ar1inis. b-ttressed by .odern "enetics. The des otis. of N4O Cf. Bertalanffy 19%D, 1DF, and G. +. Bernste:nNSO as 8-oted in ?akobson 19F#, %&: *The or"anis. . . . strives for the .a0i.-. of ne"entro y co. atible 1ith its vital stability.* B-t increasin" differentiation .-st not itself be seen as a -r osef-l evol-tionary develo .ent, since, as Eo-ld ca-tions 7199#, #DDMD#9, *life sho1s no trend to co. le0ity in the -s-al sense<only an asy..etrical e0 ansion of diversity aro-nd a startin" oint constrained to be si. le. . . . ,ncreasin" co. le0ity is not

a -r osef-l trend of an -nbroken linea"e b-t only the overall diversity increases.* / D4 /

er li.it of an e0 andin" distrib-tion as

chance ded-ced by Monod is far fro. bein", ho1ever, a -niversally acce ted conse8-ence of his neoB )ar1inian re.ises. (or )ob>hansky 719F4, #1FM1'9, nat-ral selection, as *the antichance factor in evol-tion,* .akes evol-tion directional by increasin" the ada tedness of o -lations to their environ.entsJ )ar1inian fitness is *not an intrinsic ro erty of "enetic .-tation, b-t an e.er"ent rod-ct of its interactions 1ith the environ.ent* 7#D$9. Ivol-tion of an or"anis. can therefore no .ore be attrib-ted solely to chance than constr-ction of the Parthenon can: evol-tion is essentially not a rando. b-t *a creative rocess, in recisely the sa.e sense in 1hich co. osin" a oe. or a sy. hony, carvin" a stat-e, or aintin" a ict-re are creative acts,* and 1hat it creates by brin"in" into bein" *livin" syste.s that 1o-ld other1ise be infinitely i. robable* is above all *order o-t of rando.ness* 719F$, 4#$, 4#19. There is of co-rse in this i. ersonal creation no a"ent to 1hich -r ose in any -s-al sense can be ascribedJ yet the -ndeniably -r osef-l activity evident in the search of advanced ani.al or"anis.s for food, re rod-ction, and s-rvival is itself the rod-ct of a blindly for.ative evol-tionary rocess, *selfB .aintainin", selfBtransfor.in", and selfBtranscendent,* in ?-lian 2-0leyHs 1ords 72all ike 19'', #$9, *directional in ti.e and therefore irreversible, 1hich in its co-rse "enerates ever fresh novelty, "reater variety, .ore co. le0 or"ani>ation, hi"her levels of a1areness, and increasin"ly conscio-s .ental activity.* The a osteriori rocess of evol-tion thro-"h nat-ral selection is not -r osef-l in itself 7tho-"h hy othetical interaction bet1een "eno.e and environ.ent leaves even this ossibility o en at a r-di.entary level9, b-t thro-"h its o enness to the 1orld, its res onsiveness to chan"e, its o ort-nistic creativity, and its contin-al for.ation of ne1 if al1ays rovisional for.s er.ittin" s-rvival in a constantly chan"in" 1orld, it enables the s-ccessf-lly ada tive or"anis. to -rs-e the ri.ary * -r ose* or *.eanin"* of its e0istence. (or the .eanin" in livin" creat-res, )ob>hansky affir.s 719F4, #D#9, *is as si. le as it is basic<it is life instead of death.* ,n its restless -rs-it of this forever variable "oal 7life bein" an order that can never be final9, every or"anis. created by the lon" rando. rocesses of evol-tion is inherently a 8-est in the .akin".

The Quest o' Consciousness

Biolo"ists .ay s eak .eta horically of a *search* even on the .olec-lar level. B-t the 8-est is a search that is a1are of itself and able to artic-late its o1n "oalsJ for its s ecifically h-.an fo-ndations, then, 1e .-st t-rn / D% / to sycholo"y and lin"-istics. The f-nda.ental distinction of sychoBanalytical theory, as develo ed in (re-dHs last t1o decades, is not bet1een -nconscio-s and conscio-s b-t bet1een id and e"o. The id is the -ndifferentiated re"ion of the syche sh-t off 7tho-"h never entirely9 fro. conscio-sness and the o-ter 1orld. 2ere *contradictions and antitheses ersist side by side* 719%9c, D$9, the la1s of lo"ic are s-s ended, and ti.e has no lace. Tho-"h a so-rce of vast sychic ener"y and otential conflict for the e"o, to 1hich it is *a chaos, a ca-ldron f-ll of seethin" e0citations* 719&%, F#9, the id i. assively resists disr- tion of its selfBcontained e8-ilibri-. by any e0ternal dist-rbance. The only ordered .ove.ent evident in its inartic-late t-rb-lence is an endless re etition .anifested in the co. -lsive

*cere.onial* of the ne-rotic 1hich (re-d co. ared to a reli"io-s rite, describin" reli"ion itself as *a -niversal obsessional ne-rosis* 719%9a, D:#49<a :-d".ent to 1hich he held fir. thro-"ho-t his lon" life. The .essa"e cry tically co..-nicated by the id in drea.s and ne-roses ste.s, as (re-d es ecially e. hasi>es in his late 1ritin"s, fro. *the archaic heritage 1hich a child brin"s 1ith hi. into the 1orld, before any e0 erience of his o1n*<a * hylo"enetic* herita"e 71949, 1D4J cf. 19#9, 1D'9 corres ondin" to instinct in ani.als. ,nstinct is not only conservative b-t re"ressive, *an urge inherent in organic life to restore an earlier state of things * e.bodyin" the inherent inertia of or"anic life 719D', &FM&'9, so that *the aim of all life is death * 7F$9. ,n this t-rbid sedi.ent of the .ind r-led by the ast and re etitively assertin" its sa.eness 1hile sli in" back1ard to1ard ri.al nonentity the 8-est for an indeter.inate f-t-re has clearly no ossibility of co.in" into bein". The e"o of (re-dHs late 1ritin"s is *the or"ani>ed ortion of the id* 719%9b, D#9, so.e1hat as life is the or"ani>ed ortion of .atter. ,t is 8-intessentially an o en syste., since it *o1es its ori"in as 1ell as the .ost i. ortant of its ac8-ired characteristics to its relation to the real e0ternal 1orld* 71949, %'9. (re-d stresses no 8-ality of the e"o .ore than this o enness to the 1orld, 1itho-t 1hich the id *co-ld not esca e destr-ction* 719&%, F%9. ,n contrast to the a-to.atis. of the id, blind to the i. edi.ents of reality, the e"o .-st be fle0ibly res onsive to contrary needs 1hich it contin-ally strives to balance. )es ite its relative 1eakness, it is the tr-ly active co. onent of the .ind 1hich, by its *freely .obile f-nction* 719%9b, F99, co-nteracts the idHs obsessive co. -lsion to re eat 1hat has already been. ,t not only bridles and "-ides the o1erf-l id, s-bstit-tin" the reality rinci le for the idHs leas-re rinci le, b-t inventively .ediates bet1een the conflictin" de.ands of those -nreconciled rinci les and strives to acify the -n redictable conflicts to 1hich they rec-rrently "ive rise. / D& / ,t follo1s that the e"oHs atholo"ical states res-lt fro. disr- tion of this o enness to the e0ternal 1orld 71949, %'9 by 1hich the e"o .aintains its recario-s balance. Ge-rosis derives fro. conflict bet1een e"o and id, and sychosis fro. *a si.ilar dist-rbance in the relation bet1een the e"o and its environ.ent 7o-ter 1orld9* 719%9a, D:D%$M%19. Ge-rosis tries to i"nore reality 1hereas * sychosis denies it and tries to s-bstit-te so.ethin" else for it*: the healthy e"o, in contrast, .ediates bet1een id and reality by seekin" active achieve.ent in the o-ter 1orld. *,t is no lon"er,* (re-d s-ccinctly concl-des 7D:DF9M'$9, *auto.plastic b-t alloplastic .* Beca-se it sha es not itself alone b-t the other, the balanced e"o esca es the re etitio-s .onolo"-e of the rit-ali>ed id and enters into conversation 1ith an -n redictable interloc-torJ it is not only o en to the e0ternal 1orld b-t actively en"a"ed in transfor.in" a reality of 1hich, thro-"h its o enness, it is ine0tricably art. ,n shar contrast to the id, the e"o<to the e0tent that it can resist s-b.ittin" to its overa1in" attendant <is ca able of development in a -r osef-l direction *fro. obeyin" instincts to inhibitin" the.* in the * ro"ressive con8-est of the id* 719&$, 4%M4&9 to 1hich sychoanalysis, by redirectin" the e"o to1ard reality, i. ortantly contrib-tes. (re-d re eatedly ret-rned in his later 1ritin"s to the i. lications of his early hy othesis that ro"ressive ren-nciation of instincts *a ears to be one of the fo-ndations of h-.an civili>ation* 719%9a, D:#4J cf. 19&1b, FJ 19&1a, 449J and even tho-"h the s ecter of an -na easable "-ilt o.ino-sly risin" fro. the de ths of a re ressive civili>ation l-rked like a beast in the :-n"le 7or an Unbeha"en in der 6-lt-r9 in the darkenin" li"ht of (re-dHs final decades, he re.ained convinced that civili>ation can only have arisen, and can only be s-stained 7if at all9, by s-bli.ation of the se0-al instincts *thro-"h the .ediation of the e"o* 719&$, D$9. To the develo .ent of the e"o h-.anity o1es the history of 1hich that develo .ent is an inte"ral art,

for no .ore than biolo"ical life can the e"o be -nderstood a art fro. its history. ,n certain individ-als this ro"ressive e"oBdifferentiation thro-"h the al1ays i. erfect re ression of instinct beco.es a restless drive to1ard an al1ays -nreachable f-t-re "oal<a drive to 1hich not only the individ-al syche b-t h-.an civili>ation o1es its "ro1th and its .ar"in of freedo.. *;hat a ears in a .inority of h-.an individ-als as an -ntirin" i. -lsion to1ards f-rther erfection can easily be -nderstood as a res-lt of the instinct-al re ression - on 1hich is based all that is .ost recio-s in h-.an civili>ation.* ,n these fe1, (re-d 1rites 719D', F&MFF9, the difference bet1een satisfaction de.anded and achieved *1ill er.it of no haltin" at any osition attained, b-t, in the oetHs 1ords, Hunge,2ndigt immer vor12rts dringt H. . . . 3o there is no alternative b-t to advance in the direction in / DF / 1hich "ro1th is still free<tho-"h 1ith no ros ect of brin"in" the rocess to concl-sion or of bein" able to reach the "oal.*N%O The .obile e"o th-s redirects the otent ener"y of re ressed instinct fro. re"ressive inertia to as iration to1ard an -nattainable f-t-re<an as iration that (re-d associated not 1ith the childish ill-sion of reli"ion b-t 1ith science. The e"o *re resents 1hat .ay be called reason and co..on sense* 719&$, 1%9, and (re-d, an 3ufkl2rer in d4rftiger 5eit , held fast des ite his 1orst forebodin"s to the belief, reaffir.ed at the very ti.e 2itler 1as sei>in" o1er, that *o-r best ho e for the f-t-re is that intellect<the scientific s irit, reason<.ay in rocess of ti.e establish a dictatorshi in the .ental life of .an* 719&%, 1F19. Cnly an Iros "-ided by the rational e"o can dra1 the .ind ro"ressively f-rther fro. threatened s-b:ection to the deathBdevoted id, and this s- re.ely -r osef-l 1ork is the 1ork of h-.an c-lt-re itself, *not -nlike the drainin" of the T-ider Tee.* (or the id is the chan"eless ast, the e"o the indeter.inate f-t-re, the id 1hat is reified and alien to -s as evolvin" rational bein"s, the e"o o-r essential self, and 6o es 1ar , this .ost essi.istic of realists never ceased to ho e, soll ich sein: *;here id 1as, there e"o shall be* 719&%, '$9. (or (re-d, not only 1as the h-.an id a hylo"enetic inheritance b-t its differentiation fro. the e"o already e0isted in si. ler or"anis.s. Cnly the e0tent of its develo .ent 1as -ni8-e to the h-.an s ecies, and the task of sychoanalysis 1as to foster that develo .ent. Gor 1as (re-dian sychoanalysis alone in this e. hasisJ ?-n", tho-"h far .ore sy. athetic to the archety al and therefore inheritable -nconscio-s 71hich for hi. 1as not a .enacin" *it* b-t a beckonin" .other9, kne1 that the h-.an bein" co-ld no .ore ret-rn to that -niversal .atri0 than leave it 1holly behind. 2e too stressed that it is *.anHs t-rnin" a1ay fro. instinct<his o osin" hi.self to instinct<that creates conscio-sness* 719F1, 49. Cnly active assi.ilation by the conscio-s .ind can avert disr- tion of the syche by the chaotic prima materia fro. 1hich it is increasin"ly differentiated. Man only discovers the 1orld, ?-n" 1rites 719%&, D:41F9, *1hen he sacrifices his contain.ent in the ri.al .other, the ori"inal state of -nconscio-sness*J therefore the libido .-st not stick fast like These-s and Peiritho-s to the -nder1orld b-t *tear itself loose fro. the .aternal e.brace and ret-rn to the s-rface 1ith ne1 ossibilities of life* 7D:4D$9. ,n this e. hasis on -r osef-l differentiation of conscio-sness fro. the -nconscio-s, ?-n" and (re-d are f-nda.entally one<tho-"h for ?-n", N%O The Eer.an 1ords 7* resses ever for1ard -ns-bd-ed*9 are s oken by Me histo heles in EoetheHs %aust, Part Cne, scene 4. / D' / in total contrast to (re-d, *the "reat sychothera e-tic syste.s 1hich 1e kno1 as the reli"ions*

7D:#%&9 have consistently o

osed the re"ressive tendency a"ainst 1hich both re eatedly 1arned.

)es ite the *discovery of the -nconscio-s* 1idely re"arded as the si"nal acco. lish.ent of .odern sychoanalysis, then<or rather in conse8-ence of that discovery<for both (re-d and ?-n" it is the or"ani>ed activity of the 7conscious .ind for.ed thro-"h interchan"e 1ith e0ternal reality that .ost f-lly distin"-ishes the h-.an s ecies. The hylo"enetic -nconscio-s of sychoanalysis is all b-t i. er.eably selfBenclosed, b-t conscio-sness is a rocess that contin-ally o ens to1ard a reality that transcends, incl-des, and reacts back - on it. The -nconscio-s is inherited, b-t conscio-sness develo s thro-"h interaction 1ith others. By its -r osef-l differentiation fro. the re etitive -nconscio-s, and its en"a"e.ent 1ith an -n redictable and chan"in" 1orld, conscio-sness is by nat-re incessantly in 8-est of the -nkno1n. Go sycholo"ist has contrib-ted .ore to -nderstandin" the h-.an .indHs interactions 1ith the 1orld than Pia"et. ,n early infancy the absor tion of reality into the -ndifferentiated self, 1hich Pia"et desi"nates *narcissis.* or *absol-te e"ocentricity,* is nearly co. lete. The ori"ins of this condition are biolo"ical, since the or"anis. and its environ.ent are at first a contin--.. The child can en"a"e in no tr-e dialo"-e beca-se she lacks *the art of seekin" and findin" in the otherHs .ind so.e basis on 1hich to b-ild ane1* 719#Da, 1##9. Go 8-est is ossible so lon" as she fails to differentiate any ob:ect fro. herself or to conceive of any need born of its lack. *Cb:ective* tho-"ht re8-ires the s-b:ect to osit an ob:ect distinct fro. yet in contin-in" relation to itself: *the ob:ectivity of tho-"ht is closely bo-nd 1ith its co..-nicability* 71#F9. This rocess is e.inently dyna.ic, and develo in" a1areness of -r osef-l .ove.ent, *introd-cin" a ro"ressive differentiation 1ithin the ri.itive continuum of life and -r ose* 719D9, D#&9, is essential to its reali>ation. )-rin" the first hase of this rocess 7D%$M%19, self and thin"s are conf-sed in * artici ation bet1een all and everythin", and desire can e0ert a .a"ical activity over reality.* ,n the second hase, differentiation be"insJ in the third, tho-"hts and 1ords are no lon"er *conceived as adherent in thin"s* b-t are *sit-ated in the head.* The condition of se aration in 1hich the 8-est 7like van Eenne Hs rites of assa"e9 al1ays be"ins is not, Pia"et th-s s-""ests, the s-dden o-tco.e of any one event s-ch as the tra-.a of birth or 1eanin" fro. the .otherHs breast b-t res-lts fro. the "rad-al differentiation by 1hich each individ-al beco.es conscio-s of a 1orld distinct fro. herself and of a self otentially de rived of its ob:ect. The sa.e develo .ent of conscio-sness that "ives / D9 / rise to ob:ective and thence to lo"ical tho-"ht "ives rise, by the se aration it entails, to the ossibility of -nf-lfilled desire and of a 8-est by the alienated self to overco.e its lack of the "lobal ob:ect fro. 1hich it has been intrinsically b-t not inco..-nicably severed. T1o factors contrib-tin" to differentiation of conscio-sness as Pia"et ortrays it are es ecially i. ortant reconditions of the 8-est. Cne is e.er"ence, at abo-t a year and a half to t1o years, of *the ca acity to re resent so.ethin" 1ith so.ethin" else, 1hich is kno1n as the sy.bolical f-nction,* .anifested not only in s eech b-t in lay, ost oned i.itation thro-"h "est-res, and .ental ict-res or interiori>ed i.itations 719F#, 1&M1F9. 3y.bolis. is a cr-cial ste in develo .ent of conscio-sness beca-se it entails relation bet1een t1o initially differentiated *so.ethin"s,* and beca-se it e0hibits intentionality inde endent of i..ediate need by evokin" *the not act-ally erceived intended* 711F9. The develo .ent of increasin"ly ada table sy.bolis.s enables intention to be artic-lated and action to be oriented to1ard a "oal re resented in advance. +s Bertalanffy affir.s 719&', D$, 1F9, sy.bolis., the *differentia specifica of Homo sapiens ,* *.akes tr-e or +ristotelian -r osiveness ossible* by antici atin" a f-t-re "oal that .ay deter.ine resent action.

The second differentiatin" factor is the childHs insistent askin" of *1hy,* reflectin" a .ore advanced distinction of s-b:ect and ob:ect. The interro"ative .ood e0 resses hei"htened -ncertainty abo-t a 1orld no lon"er at the s-b:ectHs co..and, and the 8-estion *1hyK* evinces nascent a1areness of the ossibility that -r oses in that -nfatho.able 1orld .i"ht reveal *discord bet1een desire and its reali>ation* 7Pia"et 19#Da, D#%9. 2ere in the obstinate 8-estionin"s of the child is an e.bryonic 8-est both -r osef-lly directed to1ard an indeter.inate f-t-re "oal 7the ans1er so-"ht b-t not kno1n9 and -r"ently concerned 1ith -r ose or .eanin" itself. To the e0tent that the .ind chooses to -ndertake this effort, its develo .ent fro. e"ocentric selfBabsor tion to ob:ective and co..-nicable kno1led"e is both recondition and rototy e of the s irit-al 8-est as a conscio-s h-.an activity. Pia"et consistently e. hasi>ed the contin-ity of biolo"y and co"nition as assi.ilative o en syste.s characteri>ed by differentiation and "ro1th. The .ost advanced instr-.ent of this o enBended develo .ental rocess is the intelli"ence, characteri>ed, in o osition to habit-ated trainin", by *a reversible .obility constantly 1idenin" in sco e* 719F1, D%#9. ,ntelli"ence not only reflects b-t constr-cts *ob:ective* reality, since ob:ectivity is *a rocess and not a state* 7&49, and intelli"ence, by its distinctive .obility, is the co"nitive rocess ar e0cellence. Cnly by or"ani>in" itself thro-"h evol-tion of its cate"ories / #$ / can intelli"ence or"ani>e the 1orld it is er et-ally constr-ctin", and this ro"ressive or"ani>ation, 1hich res- oses both initial differentiation and contin-al interaction of self and thin"s, is the "oal of the .obile e8-ilibration that constit-tes intelli"ence itself.N&O Cther1ise -t, the "oal of the develo in" conscio-sness in Pia"etHs *"enetic e iste.olo"y* is .eanin" and tr-th<not as s-b:ective ro:ections or hy ostati>ed absol-tes, b-t .eanin" 7in MeadHs 1ords9 as *so.ethin" ob:ectively there as a relation* 719#4, F&9 and tr-th 7in Pia"etHs9 as *an or"ani>ation of the real 1orld* 719F1, #&1M&D9. ;itho-t the discri.ination of thin"s fro. self in 1hich the develo .ent of ad-lt conscio-sness ori"inates, no 8-est 1o-ld co.e into bein" 7for there 1o-ld be no ob:ect to seek9J b-t 1itho-t the interaction bet1een self and thin"s by 1hich intelli"ence or"ani>es an ob:ectively .eanin"f-l 1orld, none co-ld ossibly be acco. lished. ,n contrast, then, to the inertial selfBabsor tion of both (re-dHs id and Pia"etHs e"ocentric infantile conscio-sness, the ad-lt conscio-sness, or e"o, is for both an o enBended rocess contin-ally or"ani>in" itself and its 1orld in res onse to e0ternal reality and advancin" to1ard rovisional con8-ests of coherent .eanin" fro. inner and o-ter chaos alike. 3-ch a restlessly for1ardB.ovin" syche has a rec-rsor in the *(a-stian* conscio-sness inherited fro. the Renaissance. *The h-.an -nderstandin" is -n8-ietJ it cannot sto or rest, and still resses on1ard,* Bacon 1rote 7#FJ 0ovum "rganum 4'9, *b-t in vain. Therefore it is that 1e cannot conceive of any end or li.it of the 1orldJ b-t al1ays of necessity it occ-rs to -s that there is so.ethin" beyond.* B-t the conscio-sness of (re-d or Pia"et, as distinct fro. that of Br-no or Bacon, is rooted in the biolo"ical constit-tion of the h-.an ani.al, 1hich te. ers the no lon"er li.itless dyna.is. to 1hich it "ives rise and "-ides its choice of directions by "enetically trans.itted i. -lses and restraints. Beca-se the "oal of so dyna.ic a conscio-sness is in the rocess of evolvin" 7like conscio-sness and like the or"anis. itself9, it can never be redeter.ined or finally attained. Unlike the -nconscio-s, 1hich is *the rinci le of all re"ressions and all sta"nations,* conscio-sness, Ricoe-r re.arks 719F4, 11#9, *is a .ove.ent 1hich contin-ally annihilates its startin" oint and can "-arantee itself only at the end* to1ard 1hich it incessantly advances b-t never f-lly arrives. +nd beca-se it is refle0ively N&O (or Pia"et 719&F, 49, *the hi"her f-nctions of intelli"ence and affectivity tend to1ard a H.obile

e8-ilibri-..H The .ore .obile it is, the .ore stable it is.* +nd e8-ilibri-. 71%19 is not assive b-t essentially active. The conce t is central to his vie1 of str-ct-re in biolo"y, sycholo"y, and lin"-istics. / #1 / a1are of its o1n selfBtranscendent and selfBcreative activity, 1hich th-s beco.es f-lly -r osef-l, *conscio-sness is not a "iven,* Ricoe-r affir.s 71$'9, *b-t a task .* Thro-"h its a1areness of for1ard .ove.ent to1ard a contin"ent "oal in the -nforeseeable f-t-re as the task it has -r osef-lly taken - on itself and cannot abandon, h-.an conscio-sness beco.es, in its inner.ost nat-re, a er et-al 8-est. / #D /

Chapter Three. in&uistic Foun2ations o' the Quest

The selfBtranscendence inherent in life and intensified by conscio-sness can attain f-ll e0 ression only thro-"h the e0cl-sively h-.an .edi-. of s eech, 1hich "ives the inchoate 8-estin" i. -lse fle0ibly str-ct-red co..-nicable for.. Iven tho-"h its ob:ect .ay be finally ine0 ressible 7for ho1 e0 ress 1hat re.ains to be fo-ndK9, the f-lly h-.an 8-est res- oses the creative a"ency of the 1ord<or sentence<that allo1s the al1ays otential f-t-re to beco.e the "oal of resent actions.

Fro3 Collecti(e Inertia to Rule6-o(erne2 Creati(it)

That lan"-a"e .i"ht be essential to the search for an indeter.inate f-t-re is barely conceivable in the str-ct-ralist lin"-istics of 3a-ss-re and his school do.inant thro-"ho-t .-ch of the t1entieth cent-ry. The f-nda.ental distinction of 3a-ss-reHs Course in $eneral &inguistics 71#M149 is bet1een the collective syste. of conventions desi"nated langue 7*lan"-a"e*9 and the individ-al e0ec-tion called parole 7*s eech*9, "ro- ed to"ether as langage .N1O Cnly langue , as a ho.o"eneo-s syste. ca able of bein" isolated fro. the idiosyncrasies of h-.an s eech, can constit-te the s-b:ect .atter of a scientific lin"-istics. +s a s- er ersonal *collective re resentation,* langue 7in contrast to parole 9 is *the rod-ct that the individ-al assively re"isters* 7149, and it re.ains *e0ternal to the individ-al, 1ho by hi.self can neither create nor .odify it.* ,t is N1O 3a-ss-reHs In"lish translator translates parole as *s eakin"* and conf-sin"ly reserves *s eech* for 3a-ss-reHs co. rehensive langage . , shall e. loy the (rench ter.s in .y citations, referrin" to the a"ination of the In"lish translation. / ## / 7F#MF49 of all social instit-tions *the least s-sce tible to initiatives,* and like society as a 1hole, *bein" by nat-re inert, is reBe.inently a conservative force.* Iven .ore than reli"io-s rit-al for )-rkhei., langue is a *collective inertia* resistin" all innovation. Got that 3a-ss-re 1as -na1are of the historical evol-tion of lan"-a"esJ he contrib-ted, in the .a:or 1ork -blished in his lifeti.e, to the st-dy of honetic chan"e, and one section of the osth-.o-sly asse.bled Course is devoted to *diachronic* lin"-istics. B-t the very do.inance of historical concerns

in the ,ndoBI-ro ean hilolo"y of his ti.e led 3a-ss-re to "ive fir. riority to its *synchronic* as ect, to *static* rather than *evol-tionary* lin"-istics. ,n his conce tion, *the o osition bet1een these t1o oints of vie1<synchronic and diachronic<is absol-te and allo1s no co. ro.ise.* The lin"-ist 1ho 1ishes to -nderstand langue .-st i"nore diachronic develo .ent, for if langue is a selfBs-fficient relational syste. it .-st be st-died 1itho-t reference to historical "enesis. ;hatever chan"es occ-r ertain to isolated co. onents, not to the syste. of relations in 1hich langue consists. Chan"es, like verbal si"ns the.selves, are arbitrary, and langue as syste. re.ains -n.odified by the.: *,n itself it is i..-tableJ only certain ele.ents are altered 1itho-t re"ard to the solidarity that binds the. to the 1hole* 7'49. +bove all<and fro. this both arbitrariness and i..-tability follo1<langue is a selfBcontained and hence a closed syste. c-t off fro. the e0ternal 1orld. ,t is not a no.enclat-re, *a list of ter.s corres ondin" to the sa.e n-.ber of thin"s* 71hich 1o-ld s- ose fi0ed ideas ree0istin" the 1ords that na.ed the.9J rather, the lin"-istic si"n -nites *not a thin" and a na.e, b-t a conce t and an aco-stic i.a"e* 7&%M&&9. Both so-nd and conce t are -rely .ental, sealed by their co..on clos-re fro. all connection 1ith any reality beyond their reference to one another. The relation bet1een the t1o co. onents of the si"n<*si"nifier* and *si"nified* as 3a-ss-re na.ed the., revivin" a ter.inolo"y descendin" fro. 3t. +-"-stine and the 3toics 7?akobson 19F1, D:#4%9<is therefore 1holly internal, and either or both .ay chan"e 7since in isolation both must be arbitrary9 1itho-t in any 1ay alterin" their er.anently constit-tive relation. The inherently relational si"ns co. osin" langue o erate not by any intrinsic val-e 7an arbitrary si"n can have none9 b-t by the differences a.on" the. that constit-te the r-les deter.inin" their f-nction in the syste.. The co. onents of langue are th-s like chess.en, 1hose .aterial for. co-ld be entirely altered 1itho-t affectin" their role in the syste. of r-les 1hich defines the.. B-t in one cr-cial res ect chess differs fro. langue , for *the chess layer has the intention of .akin" a .ove and e0ercisin" an action on the syste., 1hereas langue re.editates / #4 / nothin"J its ieces are .oved<or rather .odified<s ontaneo-sly and by chance* 7'99. +s a selfB contained syste. of arbitrary co. onents derivin" si"nificance solely fro. differences a.on" the.selves, langue is i. ervio-s to the intentions of its -sers. ,n several key res ects Cho.skyHs theories are akin to 3a-ss-reHs, as Cho.sky, 1ho reacted a"ainst the +.erican 3tr-ct-ralist school, has noted. (or hi., too, the ob:ect of lin"-istics cannot be the chaotic inter lay of dis arate factors in the performance of lan"-a"e<3a-ss-reHs parole <b-t the competence e.bodied in a s eakerBhearerHs i. licit kno1led"e of "ra..ar as a syste. of interrelated r-les corres ondin" 7in this re"ard9 to 3a-ss-reHs langue . Iver since Syntactic Structures , Cho.sky has .aintained that *"ra..ar is a-tono.o-s and inde endent of .eanin"* 719%F, 1F9<a ti"htly or"ani>ed syste. ideally isolable fro. other co. onents of lan"-a"e. Ereat tho-"h his de art-res fro. str-ct-ralis. .ay other1ise be, for Cho.sky, *the classical 3a-ss-rian ass-. tion of the lo"ical riority of the st-dy of lan"-e. . .see.s 8-ite inesca able* 719&4, 119. Moreover, 3a-ss-reHs ass-. tion that langue is collective and i..-table is reinforced by Cho.skyHs e. hasis on lin"-istic -niversals as s eciesBs ecific, indeed "enetically ro"ra..ed, ro erties of the h-.an .ind, so that *-niversal "ra..ar* is the invariant *syste. of rinci les, conditions, and r-les that are ele.ents or ro erties of all h-.an lan"-a"es not .erely by accident b-t by necessity<of co-rse, , .ean biolo"ical, not lo"ical, necessity* 719F%, D99. 3-ch a syste., bein" ins-sce tible to all b-t hylo"enetic chan"e, is i. ervio-s, like 3a-ss-reHs, to individ-al variations, and Cho.sky

concl-des 719&%, %99 that the str-ct-re of artic-lar lan"-a"es, reflectin" innate ideas and rinci les, *.ay very 1ell be lar"ely deter.ined by factors over 1hich the individ-al has no conscio-s control and concernin" 1hich society .ay have little choice or freedo..* Th-s Cho.sky forcef-lly re:ects the *co..onsense* vie1 that intentionality lays a central role in lan"-a"e. (or if the "enetically ro"ra..ed lan"-a"e learner *does not choose to learn and cannot fail to learn -nder nor.al conditions, any .ore than he chooses 7or can fail9 to or"ani>e vis-al s ace in a certain 1ay* 719F%, F19, then -r ose, at least in the sense of conscio-s intention, is strictly s-bsidiary if not 1holly irrelevant. The 8-estion 1e .-st ask of lan"-a"e, Cho.sky .aintains 719FDa, F$9, is *1hat it is, not ho1 or for 1hat -r oses it is -sed.* =et the i. ortant affinities bet1een Cho.skyHs tho-"ht and 3a-ss-reHs sho-ld not conceal the still rofo-nder differences bet1een the.. (or Cho.skyHs str-ct-res, -nlike the differentiated verbal si"ns of 3a-ss-rian se.iolo"y, are syntactic , and this distinction is of enor.o-s conse8-ence. 3a-ss-re li.ited the syntactic co. onent of langue to linear co.binations of si"ns, called synta".s. 7;ith this synta".atic relation / #% / he contrasted the associative<later called the aradi".atic<relation of ossible s-bstit-tions for a "iven si"n by others si.ilar to it.9 To langue belon" only a fe1 readyB.ade synta".sJ others, incl-din" sentences, belon" to parole , 1hose freedo. of co.bination is not s-b:ect to r-le. Th-s synta0, in the dyna.ic sense of sentence for.ation, does not belon" to lan"-e and falls o-tside lin"-istics. (or Cho.sky this cr-cial distinction is the rinci al difference bet1een his a roach and that of str-ct-ralis. in its vario-s for.s. 3a-ss-re, in Cho.skyHs vie1 719&4, D#9, *a ears to re"ard sentence for.ation as a .atter of parole rather than langue , of free and vol-ntary creation rather than syste.atic r-le 7or erha s, in so.e obsc-re 1ay, as on the border bet1een langue and parole 9.* 2is vie1 of synta0 as a .ere inventory is an *i. overished and thoro-"hly inade8-ate conce tion* 1hich Cho.sky 719&%, 49 decisively re -diates. ,n his o1n conce tion of lin"-istic co. etence, syntactic str-ct-res are not linear arran"e.ents of si"ns b-t rocesses creatin" infinite ossibilities thro-"h finite r-les and constraints. + "enerative "ra..ar, as Cho.sky describes it in his once *standard theory*<later si"nificantly .odified<is the internali>ed syste. of r-les co. risin" the s eakerBhearerHs *tacit kno1led"e* that "enerates both the set of sentences int-itively reco"ni>ed as "ra..atical that constit-te a lan"-a"e and<in a *stron"er* sense<the str-ct-ral descri tions of these 7and no other9 sentences that constit-te an e0 licit theory of the lan"-a"e. The central syntactic co. onent of this "ra..ar *.-st s ecify, for each sentence, a deep structure that deter.ines its se.antic inter retation and a surface structure that deter.ines its honetic inter retation* 719&%, 'M99. The syntactic co. onent connects the dee str-ct-re of a sentence< a ro0i.atin" to its si. le active declarative for.<1ith the s-rface str-ct-re it finally ass-.es *by re eated a lication of certain for.al o erations called H"ra..atical transfor.ations*HJ the se.antic and honolo"ical co. onents deter.inin" the sense and the so-nd of the sentence are by contrast * -rely inter retive* 71&9. ,n this *transfor.ational "enerative "ra..ar* the a-tono.o-s syntactic str-ct-res both "enerate and transfor.. Cho.skyHs theories 1ill stand or fall, as he has al1ays affir.ed, to the e0tent that e. irical evidence s-stains the.. B-t his evolvin" conce tion differs fro. that of str-ct-ral lin"-istics, des ite their affinities, not in details b-t essentials. +bove all, tho-"h Cho.skyHs co. etence like 3a-ss-reHs langue .ay be a closed syste.<i..-ni>ed fro. variation and chan"e by bein" "enetically ro"ra..ed<it is also a "enerative process . ;hat "ra..ar<and s ecifically its syntactic co. onent<"enerates is lan"-a"e itself, not as a se8-ence of selfBenclosed si"ns b-t as an o enBended creative activity. +.on"

Cho.skyHs central ob:ections to / #& / 3a-ss-re is that langue as *an inventory of ele.ents* rather than a syste. of r-les leaves no lace for the *r-leB"overned creativity* of everyday lan"-a"e -se 719&4, D#9. ,n contrast, the retros ectively defined tradition he calls Cartesian lin"-istics, ste..in" obli8-ely fro. )escartes and incl-din" the seventeenthBcent-ry PortBRoyal "ra..arians and ;ilhel. von 2-.boldt<1ho asserted 719FD, DF9 that *lan"-a"e is not 1ork 7ergon 9 b-t an activity 7energeia 9*<"ave forcef-l e0 ression to the essential creativity of lan"-a"e 7Cho.sky 19&&, 19J cf. 19&4, 1F9.NDO ,n this conce tion, as develo ed by Cho.sky, *the li.itless ossibilities of tho-"ht and i.a"ination are reflected in the creative as ect of lan"-a"e -se. The lan"-a"e rovides finite .eans b-t infinite ossibilities of e0 ression constrained only by r-les of conce t for.ation and sentence for.ation* 719&&, D99. Iveryday lan"-a"e -se is a creative and *.ysterio-s ability* by 1hich e0 ressions ne1 to e0 erience are incessantly en"endered 719FDa, 1$$9. The contradiction bet1een this e. hasis on o enB ended creativity in lan"-a"e -se and the see.in"ly deter.inistic insistence that lin"-istic str-ct-re is a biolo"ically encoded syste. ins-sce tible to conscio-s choice is a contradiction in a earance only. (or Cho.skyHs *r-leB"overned* creativity, if s- erficially arado0ical, laces hi. fir.ly in an intellect-al 7and .oral9 tradition for 1hich freedo. itself, as o osed to license, is .ade ossible by the la1s definin" it. Constrictions on attainable lan"-a"e allo1 a lan"-a"e to be attainedJ its innate sche.atis. *makes possi,le the ac8-isition of a rich and hi"hly s ecific syste. on the basis of li.ited data* 719FDa, 1F49. + transfor.ational "enerative "ra..ar, by syntactically or"ani>in" the channels thro-"h 1hich se.antic cate"ories find honetic e0 ression, creates the *infinite ossibilities* constit-tin" the nearly -nrestricted freedo. of lin"-istic erfor.ance<the creative -se of lan"-a"e 1hich re.ains, -nlike the theoretically definable .echanis. of co. etence, *a .ystery that el-des o-r intellect-al "ras * 719'$, DDD9. Unlike the -n rod-ctive 3a-ss-rian syste., then, in 1hich langue and parole are *absol-tely distinct,* and langue is i. rinted on a assively rece tive brain, the lin"-istic co. etence enablin" creative erfor.ance reflects for Cho.sky not *a H assiveH syste. of incre.ental data rocessin", habit for.ation, and ind-ction* as in behaviorist learnin" theory, b-t an active otentiality like that of @eibni> in the rationalist tradition *for 1hich e0ternal sti.-li serve only as occasions for activatin" 1hat is already dis ositionally contained in the .indHs o1n str-ct-re* 719F%, D1&9. ,ndeed, des ite Cho.skyHs rel-ctance to attrib-te -r ose to lan"-a"e, erfor.ance is clearly the "oal to1ard 1hich the NDO (or a criti8-e of Cho.skyHs conce tion of a *Cartesian* tradition of lin"-istics, see +arsleff, 1$$M 119. / #F / "enerative rocess of lin"-istic co. etence is directed. *There is, of co-rse, no do-bt,* he asserts 1ith -ncharacteristically forthri"ht ackno1led".ent of a broadened teleolo"y, *that lan"-a"e is desi"ned for -se* 719FDb, 1999. +.on" the .ost co"ent ob:ections to str-ct-ral lin"-istics is that langue re.ains a closed syste. 1itho-t essential connection either 1ith s eech thro-"h 1hich it is reali>ed or 1ith the e0tralin"-istic 1orld. Under the *r-le of the clos-re of the -niverse of si"ns,* Ricoe-r 1rites 719F4, '#M'49, *the act of s eakin" is e0cl-ded not only as . . . individ-al erfor.ance, b-t as free co.bination, as rod-cin"

ne1 -tterances,* tho-"h this *is the essential as ect of lan"-a"e< ro erly s eakin", its "oal.* +nd lan"-a"e so -nderstood *does not refer to anythin" o-tside of itself, it constit-tes a 1orld for itself* 719F', 9$9. By his e. hasis on o enBended creativity as essential to lan"-a"e Cho.sky esca es the first of these ob:ections. B-t his insistence, since his earliest 1ork, that an a-tono.o-s "ra..ar is *inde endent of .eanin"* 719%F, 1F9 and that *se.antic notions are of no -se in "ra..ar* 71$$9 .i"ht .ake transfor.ational "enerative "ra..ar no less than 3a-ss-rian se.iolo"y see. *a 1orld for itself* inde endent of all e0ternal reference. 3o.e t1enty years after Syntactic Structures Cho.sky still *fo-nd nothin" to challen"e the absol-te thesis of a-tono.y of synta0* 719FF, %D9, 1hich re.ains a cardinal ost-late of his theory of lan"-a"e. =et Cho.sky does not identify this a-tono.o-s syste. 1ith *lan"-a"e.* Cn the contrary, he has tried to deli.it as recisely as ossible the role of synta0 a.on" the co. onents of "ra..ar and of "ra..ar 7incl-din" synta09 a.on" the syste.s co. risin" lan"-a"e. 3ynta0, and "ra..atical co. etence in "eneral, are the lan"-a"e syste. ar e0cellence, since they alone are a str-ct-reB de endent, s eciesBs ecific s-bsyste. 7or *or"an*9 of the h-.an .ind 1hose only f-nction is "eneration of lan"-a"e. B-t a-tono.y does not i. ly that no corres ondences e0ist bet1een "ra..ar and .eanin". Cn the contrary, the -ndeniable fact of s-ch corres ondences s-""ested to Cho.sky in his earliest 1ritin"s the need for a .ore "eneral theory of lan"-a"e incl-din" a theory both of lin"-istic for. and of lan"-a"e -se 719%F, 1$D9, since the latter *obvio-sly involves a co. le0 inter lay of .any factors of the .ost dis arate sort, of 1hich the "ra..atical rocesses constit-te only one* 719&4, 1$9. Cho.sky has al1ays reco"ni>ed the i. ortance of s-ch factors, even if he has so.eti.es described the. as *e0tralin"-istic* co. onents of erfor.ance and considered the. 7like .e.ory restrictions9 *not, ro erly s eakin", as ects of lan"-a"e* 719FDa, 11&9. ,ncreasin"ly, ho1ever, he ackno1led"es that the lin"-istic co. etence virt-ally identified in earlier 1ritin"s 1ith i. licit kno1led"e of "enerative "ra.B / #' / .ar co. rehends also a * ra".atic co. etence* 1hich 7tho-"h not *lan"-a"eBs ecific* like "ra..atical co. etence9 *-nderlies the ability to -se s-ch kno1led"e alon" 1ith the conce t-al syste. to achieve certain ends or -r oses* 719'$, %9J cf. DD4MD%9. ,ndeed, altho-"h Cho.sky fir.ly re:ects behaviorist learnin" theory and the doctrine that a va"-ely defined "eneral intelli"ence can acco-nt for lan"-a"e ac8-isition, he believes that several interactin" co. onents .ay be involved in kno1in" a lan"-a"e, incl-din", besides the lan"-a"eBs ecific *co. -tational* syste. of "ra..ar, a .ore "eneral *conce t-al* syste. of ob:ect reference involvin" s-ch relations as a"ent, "oal, and instr-.ent, so that kno1led"e of lan"-a"e *.i"ht consist of 8-ite different co"nitive syste.s that inter1eave in nor.al co"nitive develo .ent* 7%4M%%, %'9. The fact that in Cho.skyHs vie1 "ra..ar alone and not lan"-a"e 7of 1hich it is only the central of several interactin" syste.s9 is a-tono.o-s, and that the less s eciali>ed *conce t-al* syste. like1ise inte"ral to kno1led"e of lan"-a"e entails *ob:ect reference* and other otentially e0tralin"-istic relations, shar ly differentiates his conce tion fro. 3a-ss-reHs selfBenclosed syste. of internal val-es. *The ideali>ation of H"ra..arH 1ill th-s be entirely le"iti.ate, b-t the theory of "ra..ar 1ill be in art Ho enH* 719FF, #F9. The very fact of interaction 1ith other co. onents re8-ires that "ra..atical co. etence be a less than her.etically closed syste., and th-s dictates that it can never constit-te *a 1orld for itself.* Reference to the e0ternal 1orld, ne"lected if not recl-ded in 3a-ss-reHs conce tion of langue , is one

i. ortant f-nction of the interde endent syste.s that co. rise lan"-a"e for Cho.sky. ,n this ers ective, the a-tono.y of synta0 7and its inde endence fro. deter.ination by se.antic cate"ories9 is 1hat .akes it ossible for lan"-a"e to refer to e0tralin"-istic reality and esca e the huis clos of a soli sistic str-ct-ralis.. (or if se.antic cate"ories 1ere the.selves 7as the shortBlived theories of *"enerative se.antics* s- osed9 intrinsic<th-s *"enerative*< co. onents of "ra..atical co. etence, *.eanin"* 1o-ld be, as in str-ct-ralis., a redeter.ined, 1holly intralin"-istic affair. (ar fro. co-ntenancin" s-ch tendencies, Cho.sky, in develo in" his *e0tended standard theory* since the 19F$s, has .oved decisively a1ay fro. any association of se.antics 1ith dee str-ct-re, s-""estin" *that erha s all se.antic infor.ation is deter.ined by a so.e1hat enriched notion of s-rface str-ct-re* 719F%, 'DJ cf. 19FDb, 19FF9. *, do-bt that one can se arate se.antic re resentation fro. beliefs and kno1led"e abo-t the 1orld,* he 1rites 719F9, 14DM4#9. 3-ch nonlin"-istic syste.s of belief as e0 ectations abo-t threeBdi.ensional s ace, h-.an behavior, and so on, are cr-cial to an -nderstandin" of se.antics, in 1hich / #9 / *there are .any .ental or"ans in interaction.*N#O ,t follo1s that altho-"h se.antic reference is an -ndeniable f-nction of lan"-a"e, .eanin" is not a s-b:ect to be defined 7.-ch less rescribed9 in ter.s of lin"-istic theory alone. (ar fro. bein" a *ret-rn to str-ct-ralis.* 719F9, 1F%MFF9, Cho.skyHs association of se.antics 1ith s-rface str-ct-re and e0traBlin"-istic beliefs confir.s his radical de art-re fro. 3a-ss-reHs -rely relational lin"-istics. (or 3a-ss-re 719%9, 114M1F9, both *si"nification* 7the relation, 1ithin a si"n, bet1een si"nifier and si"nified9 and *val-e* 7the relation of si"ns to one another by 1hich the si"nification of each is deter.ined9 are internal to langue . Meanin" can only be an intralin"-istic relation a.on" si"ns or bet1een their co. onents, for in langue nothin" else enters, and o-tside it all is freedo. or chaos, not .eanin". ,n Cho.skyHs theory, on the contrary, se.antic re resentation incor orates beliefs abo-t the real 1orld 1hich enter lan"-a"e thro-"h the o enness of the le0icon and, in the strictly lin"-istic *lo"ical for.* .a ed onto sentence str-ct-re by a "enerative "ra..ar, constit-te .eanin". This distinction bet1een lo"ical for. and se.antic re resentation recalls not 3a-ss-reHs distinction bet1een valeur and signification b-t that of 3a-ss-reHs older conte. orary (re"e bet1een Sinn and (edeutung , *sense* and *.eanin"*J for (re"eHs (edeutung , in contrast to 3a-ss-reHs signification , desi"nates an e0tralin"-istic reference to a *thin" .eant,* a tr-thBval-e established by corres ondence 1ith an ob:ective state. Cnly the sense of a sentence, not its .eanin" 7for 1hich a kno1led"e of e0ternal conditions is necessary by definition9 can be ascertained by e0cl-sively lin"-istic analysis, and in "ras in" a sense, (re"e observes, *one is not certainly ass-red of .eanin" anythin"* 7&19. ;hereas 3a-ss-reHs verbal si"n relates only a so-ndBi.a"e and a .ental conce t so that e0ternal reference has no lace, for (re"e 7&19 *1hen 1e say Hthe Moon,H 1e do not intend to s eak of o-r idea of the Moon, nor are 1e satisfied 1ith the sense alone, b-t res- ose a .eanin"* 1ith reference to the e0ternal 1orld.N4O N#O ,n affir.in" that o-r conce ts *involve belief abo-t the real 1orld,* Cho.sky allies hi.self 1ith ;itt"enstein and 4-ine 7and (re"e9. 3ee 4-ine, #&: *,t is obvio-s that tr-th in "eneral de ends on both lan"-a"e and e0tralin"-istic fact.* +nd cf. +-stinHs endorse.ent 71$', 11$9 of +yerHs ar"-.ent, a"ainst Carna , that *there have to be so.e thin"s 1e say the tr-th 7or falsehood9 of 1hich is deter.ined by nonBverbal reality. . . . The idea that nothin" at all co.es in b-t the consistency of sentences 1ith each other is, indeed, erfectly 1ild.* +s Cherry re.arks 7DD&9, *Pilate did not :est abo-t syntactical tr-th.*

N4O Cf. )-..ett, 19': *The referent of an e0 ression is its e0traBlin"-istic correlate in the real 1orld: it is recisely beca-se the e0 ressions 1e -se have s-ch e0traBlin"-istic correlates that 1e s-cceed in talkin" abo-t the real 1orld, and in sayin" thin"s abo-t it 1hich are tr-e or false in virt-e of ho1 thin"s are in that 1orld.* ,n this osition, )-..ett re.arks, (re"e 1as *defyin" the 1hole idealist tradition* of conte. orary Eer.an hiloso hy, to say nothin" of the ositivist and str-ct-ralist traditions that 1o-ld later restrict tr-th or .eanin" to lo"ical or lin"-istic relations alone. My 8-otations fro. (re"e are fro. *Cn 3ense and Meanin"* 71'9D9. (re"eHs *Bede-t-n"* is often translated *reference,* as in earlier versions of Eeach and BlackHs translations, and by )-..ett. )-..ett can even ar"-e, as a res-lt, that *reference is not an in"redient in .eanin"* 7919L / 4$ / The lin"-istic sense<1hich (re"e 7&$9 associates not only 1ith individ-al si"ns b-t 1ith the *tho-"ht* i. arted by their co.bination into sentences<th-s .ediates not bet1een a si"nifier and a si"nified internal to the si"n b-t bet1een the s-b:ective idea and *the ob:ect itself*J and if 1e re.ain -nsatisfied 1ith the sense of a sentence alone and in8-ire also as to its .eanin", this is beca-se *the strivin" for tr-th . . . drives -s al1ays to advance fro. the sense to the thin" .eant* 7&#9.N%O To1ard the ascertain.ent of .eanin" as -nderstood by (re"e, then, sense 7or in Cho.skyan ter.s, lo"ical for.9, tho-"h essential, can never be s-fficient, since all sorts of considerations, Cho.sky re.arks 719F9, 1449, *deter.ine the tr-th conditions of a state.ent, and these "o 1ell beyond the sco e of "ra..ar.* Era..ar 7like the "eno.e9 .ay be a relatively closed syste., b-t lan"-a"e 7like life9 is notJ to the e0tent that it is o en, thro-"h the .-lti licity of its syste.s, to the lar"er reality 1hich it .akes accessible in the lo"ical for. i. osed by its "enerative "ra..ar, lan"-a"e .ay lead beyond internal sense to ob:ective .eanin". Th-s lan"-a"e is not a static syste. closed to the 1orld beyond it b-t an activity constantly en"a"ed in assi.ilatin" reality to conscio-sness. The a arent deter.inis. of Cho.skyHs insistence on the innateness of -niversal "ra..ar is dece tive, since only the constraints of "ra..ar ena,le the creativity of lan"-a"e. ;hether Cho.sky roves to be ri"ht or 1ron" abo-t the innateness of s ecific "ra..atical ro erties and the transfor.ations osited by his evolvin" theory, the conse8-ence of a "enerative "ra..ar in 1hich syntactic b-t not se.antic cate"ories are -niversal is not lin"-istic deter.ination b-t freedo.. (or Cho.sky 719F#, 4$DJ cf. @enneber", #FF9 as for 2-.boldt, *@an"-a"e is a rocess of free creationJ its la1s and rinci les are fi0ed, b-t the .anner in 1hich the rinci les of "eneration are -sed is free and infinitely varied. N%O The *thin" .eant* can be a conce t as 1ell as an ob:ect, )-..ett observes 7D$#9J therefore sentences as 1ell as sin"-lar ter.s 7* ro er na.es*9 .ay have ob:ective .eanin" as 1ell as lin"-istically deter.ined sense. Cn lan"-a"e as .ediation bet1een s-b:ect and ob:ect and th-s as an o enin" of the self to1ard a 1orld inter reted by lan"-a"e, see also Cassirer, 1:9# 7lan"-a"e *effects a ne1 .ediation, a artic-lar reciprocal relation * bet1een s-b:ect and ob:ect9J and Ricoe-r 19F4, D%& 7lan"-a"e *is a .ediationJ it is the medium , the H.ilie-,H in 1hich and thro-"h 1hich the s-b:ect osits hi.self and the 1orld sho1s itself*9. / 41 / Iven the inter retation and -se of 1ords involves a rocess of free creation.* This creativity never ceases to be r-leBbo-nd, ho1everJ and beca-se se.antic re resentation entails corres ondences bet1een the syste.s co. risin" lan"-a"e and e0tralin"-istic reality, the freedo. of

lan"-a"e is li.ited<and "iven direction<not only by the internal constraints of "ra..ar that deter.ine its lo"ical for. b-t by the .-lti le conditions of reference that deter.ine its .eanin", or tr-th. To the e0tent that the for.er are "iven and the latter are not<the e0tent that synta0 is closed and invariant b-t se.antics o en and indeter.inate<lan"-a"e itself, as a biolo"ically conditioned e0tension of conscio-sness into a li.itless 7and th-s far .eanin"less9 1orld 1hich it seeks to a ro riate to co"nition thro-"h its infinitely varied co.binations, is essentially, as ;horf 7F#9 said of lin"-istics, *the 8-est of Meanin".*

an&ua&e Ac7uisition an2 the Enlar&e3ent o' Free2o3

,ntensive research in recent decades stron"ly s-""ests that Cho.skyHs conce tion of an innately ro"ra..ed *lan"-a"e ac8-isition device* needin" only to be *tri""ered* by e0ternal sti.-l-s is a "reatly si. lified acco-nt of the rocess by 1hich the child constr-cts a lan"-a"e. To say that *lan"-a"e "ro1s in the child thro-"h .ere e0 os-re to an -nor"ani>ed lin"-istic environ.ent* 7Cho.sky 19'$, D4$9 no .ore allo1s for an active role in lan"-a"e develo .ent than 3a-ss-reHs conce tion of langue as a social rod-ct assively re"istered by the individ-al. +ny ade8-ately s ecified lan"-a"e ac8-isition device, Br-ner 1rites 719F'a, D$D9, .-st incl-de not only syntactic str-ct-res b-t *so.e kno1led"e of the 1orld, so.e dialo"-e ro-tines, and so.e sense of H1hat is to be acco. lishedH by co..-nication.* (or Br-ner, as for Pia"et and others, lin"-istic kno1led"e 7co. etence9 cannot be divorced fro. action 7 erfor.ance9, nor action fro. the interaction of 1hich it is art. @an"-a"e cannot be ac8-ired solely by tri""erin" an a-tono.o-s "ra..atical ro"ra. in the brain b-t only thro-"h the overall develo .ent of child ra0is. *+ll s eech rests on dialo"-e,* 2-.boldt 1rote in 1'DF 71#FM#'9, * . . . and the ossibility of s eech is itself contin"ent on address and res onse*J recent research has corroborated the central role of active interchan"e in its earliest develo .ent. The interchan"e bet1een infant and .other 7or other caretaker9 be"ins lon" before the child can s eak as an *action dialo"-e* 7Br-ner, 19F4MF%, D'49 of initially rando. b-t increasin"ly directed "est-res on the childHs art, s-ch as "ras in" and / 4D / ointin", verbally inter reted by the .other, 1hich e.er"es as the fo-ndation of a verbal lan"-a"e ac8-ired not by assive absor tion b-t by artici ation in the interaction of i.itation and lay. (or Br-ner and others Cho.skyHs belief in the ri.acy of an innate syntactic co. onent in lan"-a"e ac8-isition is *"rossly 1ron"* 719F'b, D4%9. @in"-istic co. etence, far fro. bein" "iven, develo s o-t of lin"-istic 7indeed relin"-istic9 erfor.anceJ it is not an e0ternally tri""ered "enetic program nor 7as in behaviorist learnin" theory9 a ha,it inc-lcated by re eated i.itation b-t a construct b-ilt - by activation of the childHs innate co"nitive abilities thro-"h contin-o-s interaction 1ith others. Pri.acy belon"s not to the syntactic b-t to the ra".atic or se.antic as ects of lan"-a"e, 1hich are initially inse arable since .eanin" first arises thro-"h action. ,t is *inconceivable that synta0 leads the 1ay develo .entally* 719F'a, D119. =et to concl-de fro. the te. oral riority of ra".atic or se.antic co. onents of lan"-a"e develo .ent that synta0 is a secondary and derivative syste. see.s -n1arranted. The rere8-isite develo .ent of co"nitive cate"ories need not e0cl-de the ossibility, even necessity, of an a-tono.o-s "ra..atical co. onent, s-ch as Cho.sky ost-lates, in the ac8-isition of lan"-a"e. Both deliberate sensori.otor "est-res and atterned vocal -tterances are co..on ro erties of 1idely varied ani.al s ecies, and the yo-n" of .any birds and .a..als, as 1ell as h-.an children, learn str-ct-red behavior by i.itation or layJ * rotoBse.antic* cate"ories s-ch as ca-se and effect have been

e0 eri.entally verified in chi. an>ees and are diffic-lt to r-le o-t alto"ether, "iven the va"-eness of the conce t, in any ani.al ca able of learnin" fro. e0 erience of the 1orld. =et no ani.al b-t .an, as Cho.sky stresses, ac8-ires anythin" a ro0i.atin" to h-.an lan"-a"e in co. le0ity of str-ct-re or in creativity of -se. Eranted the i. ortance of relin"-istic sensori.otor cate"ories in the childHs ac8-isition of lan"-a"e, it *re.ains as "reat a .ystery as ever,* Br-ner ackno1led"es 719F'a, D119, *ho1 he "ets fro. this early se.antic and ra".atic .astery . . . to an a reciation of synta0.* (or the .o.ent, Cho.skyHs hy othesis of an a-tono.o-s "enerative "ra..ar rovides the .ost satisfactory e0 lanationJ in contrast, the *interactionistBconstr-ctivist .odel,* e.bracin" both lin"-istic erfor.ance and reverbal actions, is for Cho.sky *diffic-lt to assess, beca-se it re.ains at the level of .eta hor* 719'$, D#%M #&9.N&O 3ince Cho.sky has never clai.ed that language is a-tono.o-s, b-t only the "ra..atical N&O =et Cho.sky ackno1led"es 719F9, '%9 that Pia"et and his "ro- have *o ened - entirely ne1 ers ectives in the st-dy of h-.an kno1led"e.* 3ee the disc-ssions in PiattelliBPal.arini. / 4# / co. onent that er.its its r-leB"overned creativity, his theory is co. atible 1ith the research of Pia"et, Br-ner, and others that has called its .ore ri"id inter retations into 8-estion. ,ndeed, by allo1in" for .-lti le syste.s ertainin" to lan"-a"e 7incl-din" *conce t-al* as 1ell as *co. -tational* co. onents9, and ad.ittin" * ra".atic* as 1ell as *"ra..atical* co. etence into lin"-istic theory, Cho.sky has conceded that lan"-a"e ac8-isition .i"ht be a .ore co. le0, active, and artici atory rocess than he has often clai.ed<even conceivably that ra".atic activation of rotoBse.antic cate"ories thro-"h interactive inter retation, and not .ere assive e0 os-re to rando. lin"-istic *in -t,* .i"ht be rere8-isite to the *tri""erin"* of syntactic str-ct-res 1hich 1o-ld other1ise be a co.binatory .echanis. 1ith nothin" to co.bine. ,n this conce tion, synta0, tho-"h develo .entally secondary, retains its ri.acy, since 1itho-t the otential for indefinite creativity 1hich only a "enerative "ra..ar allo1s, the lan"-a"e of the h-.an bein" co-ld never transcend the rotoBse.antic "est-ral and verbal si"nals of other .a..als or of the h-.an infant. Pro erly -nderstood, then, recent research has not roved Cho.skyHs theory of lin"-istic co. etence *"rossly 1ron"* b-t has laced it in the f-ller conte0t of co"nitive develo .ent thro-"h interaction to 1hich 7for all its lan"-a"eBs ecific a-tono.y9 it belon"s, thereby enlar"in" the conce t of lin"-istic creativity to e.brace not only the -ses of lan"-a"e b-t its ac8-isition thro-"h *an active search,* as Cro.er 1rites 7in Br-ner 19FD, %$9, *. . . for ne1 for.s.* 3yntactic str-ct-res .ay be "enetically "iven in the str-ct-re of the brain, b-t 1ithin their constraints lan"-a"e .-st be discovered and rediscovered ane1. ,t is *an achievement of co"nition,* ?ason Bro1n 1rites 719FF, D%9, not a "iven b-t *so.ethin" to1ard 1hich the or"anis. .-st strive.* Beca-se of the infinite rod-ctivity of "ra..ar and the o enness of the le0icon to a chan"in" 1orld, this 8-est, too, can never be co. letedJ for there is no ter.in-s short of death or a hasia to the contin-o-sly creative ac8-isition of lan"-a"e. This broadened conce tion of lan"-a"e as a constr-ct created thro-"h ra".atic dialo"-e, in accord 1ith -nderlyin" co"nitive cate"ories and the transfor.ations of "enerative "ra..ar, e. hasi>es<in contrast to the conce tions of ositivist hiloso hy, behaviorist sycholo"y, and str-ct-ral lin"-istics< its o enness, ada tability, and freedo.. The lan"-a"e "enerated by the co.binatory creativity of this "ra..atical syste. in interaction 1ith others cannot be sealed off fro. the e0tralin"-istic reality to 1hich it "ives se.antic re resentation consistent 1ith lo"ical for.. Beca-se lan"-a"e is learned not by habit-ated re etition or conditioned refle0 7on the behaviorist .odel9 b-t thro-"h creative i.itation, lay, and dialo"-e, it shares in the res onsiveness of i.itation to its .odels, the o enness to the 1orld

characteristic of lay, and / 44 / the -n redictable "iveBandBtake of conversation 1ith others. The c-riosity distinctive of the h-.an bein" fro. infancy is no1here .ore evident than in the inventive -ses of lan"-a"e, es ecially in childhoodJ and inas.-ch as the .ind is characteri>ed, as Eood.an s-""ests 719F1, 14#9, by *"ro in" and "ras in", . . . seekin" and findin",* lan"-a"e beco.es its rinci al 1ay of e0 lorin" a 1orld s-b:ected to its i. ort-nate scr-tinies. 3ince lan"-a"es, 2-.boldt lon" a"o noted 7in Cassirer 19%%, 1:1%99, *are not really .eans of re resentin" the tr-th that has already been ascertained, b-t far .ore, .eans of discoverin" a tr-th not revio-sly kno1n,* the he-ristic f-nction of lan"-a"e evidenced in the childHs insatiable 8-estionin" is a.on" its ri.e characteristics. By its endless robin"s lan"-a"e is not only o en to reality b-t is the rinci al .eans by 1hich reality is o ened to the in8-isitive h-.an .ind. ,n 2eide""erHs ter.s 719F1, #9, lan"-a"e *not only -ts forth in 1ords and state.ents 1hat is overtly or covertly intended to be co..-nicatedJ lan"-a"e alone brin"s 1hat is, as so.ethin" that is, into the C en for the first ti.e.* ,n contrast a"ain to 3a-ss-reHs static vie1, an enlar"ed ostBCho.skyan conce tion 1o-ld conc-r 1ith 2-.boldt 719FD, %9 in seein" lan"-a"e as *contin-o-sly dyna.ic*<never an *acco. lished fact,* Crte"a y Easset 1rites 7D4D9, b-t al1ays *in the rocess of bein" .ade, hence in statu nascendi .* @an"-a"e does lay a f-nda.ental role, by its lar"ely standardi>ed le0icon and -nderlyin" "ra..atical str-ct-re, in reinforcin" the stability of relin"-istically ac8-ired conce tsJ 1itho-t this re"-larity there co-ld be no lan"-a"e b-t only a .eanin"less babble. =et by his e. hasis on lin"-istic stasis and his *absol-te* distinction of synchronic fro. diachronic, 3a-ss-re falsified lan"-a"e 7and even langue 9, i"norin", as ?akobson ob:ected 719&D, DD$9, the cardinal fact that *chan"es enter into synchrony,* so that the static and dyna.ic di.ensions of langue are inse arably linked. +s ?akobson and ;a-"h 71F19 later 1rote, stability and .-tability necessarily interact in any lin"-istic codeJ hence * er.anent variability . . . is the .ain -niversal of lan"-a"e* 7D#49. Chan"e<es ecially honetic chan"e<is not arbitrary b-t syste.atic, and a chan"eless lin"-istic syste. is a contradiction in ter.s. The dyna.ic as ects of lan"-a"e are not confined to internal chan"es b-t ertain no less essentially to its ac8-isition and -se. Got only the interaction thro-"h 1hich 1ords first ac8-ire .eanin"s b-t the .eanin"s the.selves *are dyna.ic rather than static for.ations,* 5y"otsky notes 719&D, 1D49, 1hich *chan"e as the child develo s*J they are never "iven b-t .-st be invented and fo-nd. ,n contrast to the fi0ed behavioral atterns of *lo1er* ani.als, .oreover, lay is a *s ecial for. of violatin" fi0ity* 7Br-ner 19FD, #19, 1hich ro.otes, in both its .otor and verbal for.s, inventiveness, variation, and fle0ibilityJ and so stron" is the childHs lin"-istic ori"inality, Taine lon" a"o re.arked 7D%F9, *that / 4% / if it learns o-r lan"-a"e fro. -s, 1e learn its fro. the child.* Beca-se lan"-a"e learnin" is reci rocal bet1een "enerations as 1ell as individ-als, the strikin" inventive variation of children never entirely ends,NFO and the dialectic of stability and chan"e is at least otentially contin-o-s in individ-al lan"-a"e develo .ent no less than in the lin"-istic syste.. ,n conse8-ence, nor.al -se of lan"-a"e, Cho.sky re eatedly stresses, is *innovative, free fro. control by e0ternal sti.-li, and a ro riate to ne1 and ever chan"in" sit-ations* 719FDa, 1$$9. Bein" in essence activity, energeia , it is the .ost versatile h-.an instr-.ent for str-ct-rin" an -n redictably chan"in" 1orldJ thro-"h its inherently transfor.ational rocesses it is a .eans, Br-ner 1rites, *not

only for re resentin" e0 erience, b-t also for transfor.in" it* 719F#, ##$9. The e0tension lon" ast infancy of e0 loratory c-riosity and layf-l inventiveness fostered by rolon"ed i..at-rity .akes ne-rolo"ically hy ertro hied ho.o sa iens the o ort-nist 7Br-ner 19FD, 4F9, the *"reat a.ate-r* 7Meda1ar and Meda1ar, 1F$9, the *"eneralist ar e0cellence* 7Mayr 19F&, D19, a.on" .ore s eciali>ed ani.alsJ ho.o sa iens is ro"ra..ed to learn fro. -ncertainty and constrained to seek 7and by seekin" create9 the ada tations to reality "iven in advance to less fle0ible, if ossibly .ore contented, fello1 creat-res. Beyond all else it is lan"-a"e<as .-ch the ca-se, erha s, as the effect of his hylo"enetic ne-rolo"ical develo .ent<1hich by its intrinsic res onsiveness transfor.s naked and illBada ted .an into animal !uaerens, the .ost asto-ndin"ly ada tive inhabitant of the earth. @an"-a"e is th-s the f-rthest e0tension yet attained of the o en biolo"ical ro"ra. increasin"ly distinctive of hi"her ani.als, and in this o enness lies the *creative freedo.* ascribed to it by 2-.boldt and Cho.sky. ,ts indeter.inacy derives not only fro. absence of a ri"idly reBestablished ro"ra., like that of the "eno.e, for its develo .ent, b-t fro. absence of any fi0ed "oal .arkin" a ter.in-s for its -ses. The str-ct-re of lan"-a"e e.bodies a ro"ression fro. -nits co. -lsorily coded in accord 1ith inviolable la1s to a relatively -nconstrained 7tho-"h never -nconditioned9 freedo.. ,n the hierarchy of lin"-istic -nits ?akobson 719F1, D4DM4#9 finds *an ascendin" scale of freedo.* fro. co.bination of distinctive feat-res into hone.es, 1here *the freedo. of the individ-al s eaker is >ero,* to the li.ited freedo. of co.binin" hone.es into 1ords, the far less circ-.scribed for.ation of sentences, and finally the co.bination of sentences into -tterances, 1here *the action of co. -lsory syntactical r-les ceases, and the freeB NFO Go trace .ay see. to s-rvive in the ei"htByearBold, Ch-kovsky la.ents 7F9, of the yo-n"er childHs lin"-istic "eni-s, b-t as Gelson and Gelson re.ark 7DFD9, *the eriods of overlearnin", re etition, and even ri"idity that ri"htly are called HclosedH establish the best basis for ne1 eriods of fle0ibility.* / 4& / do. of any individ-al s eaker to create novel conte0ts increases s-bstantially.* +t this level<the level of parole or erfor.ance 1hich is an activation of the ro erties inherent in co. etence or langue < conscio-s choice lays a otentially deter.inative role in lan"-a"e, 1hich in t-rn i..eas-rably enlar"es its sco e. +nd since this str-ct-ral hierarchy is also, to be"in 1ith, a develo .ental se8-ence 7the child distin"-ishes hone.es before en-nciatin" 1ords, and co.bines 1ords into sentences before for.-latin" co. le0 -tterances9, the rocess of lan"-a"e ac8-isition enlar"es freedo. and choice. Ivol-tion of lan"-a"e is characteri>ed, Erace de @a"-na 1rites, *by a ro"ressive freein" of s eech fro. de endence on the erceived conditions -nder 1hich it is -ttered and heard, and fro. the behavior 1hich acco. anies it* 71$F9. ,t is above all the * ro"ressive release fro. i..ediacy* 7Br-ner 19F#, #499 achieved by this str-ct-red develo .ent of lan"-a"e fro. clos-re to o enness, infle0ibility to indeter.inacy, that er.its other1ise illB ro"ra..ed .an to artic-late and res ond to the endless choices that confront -s in o-r inel-ctable search for 1hat no lon"er is 7and can never a"ain be9 "iven.

an&ua&e an2 the Creation o' a !urpose'ul Future

,nas.-ch as biolo"ical or"ani>ation is "oalBdirected and lan"-a"e an o-t"ro1th of the o en ro"ra. e.er"ent in conscio-sness, lan"-a"e is the f-rthest e0tension of the -r osiveness inherent in life. ,ts biolo"ical deter.ination is not a denial b-t a condition of its teleolo"ical orientation. +n inchoate -r osiveness is already evident in the childHs early sensori.otor ra0is, defined by Pia"et 719F#, &#9

as *a syste. of coordinated .ove.ents f-nctionin" for a res-lt or an intention*J in observin" s-ch behavior, Br-ner 719F#, D%$9 1as str-ck by the e0tent to 1hich *intentionality recedes skill.* ,n lay, too, 5y"otsky 719F&, %%9 discerned *a .ove.ent to1ards the conscio-s reali>ation of its -r ose,*N'O 1hich finds e0 ression in ro"ressive codification of r-les and is no1here .ore i. ortant than in the syntactically str-ct-red develo .ent of lan"-a"e o-t of a arently ai.less verbal interaction and lay. The inartic-late intentionality "-idin" skilled ra0is takes on increasin"ly str-ct-red direction thro-"h lay and "est-ral dialo"-e, b-t beco.es f-lly conscio-s only in lan"-a"e. (or -r ose is not accidental b-t essential to lan"-a"e, at once its indis ensable condition and .ost .oB N'O 3ylva et al. 7D%$9 fo-nd that *children "iven a rior chance to lay are si"nificantly .ore "oalB directed.* 3ee the classic acco-nt of the develo .ent of r-les in the "a.e of .arbles in the o enin" cha ter of Pia"et 19#Db. / 4F / .ento-s res-lt. 3ince lan"-a"e 7even for Cho.sky9 *is desi"ned for -se,* and erfor.ance is the "oal of lin"-istic co. etence, s eakin" is an intrinsically -r osef-l action 1hich cannot be -nderstood 1itho-t reference to its ob:ect. @an"-a"e *cannot be analy>ed,* ?akobson insisted fro. the ti.e of his earliest honolo"ical 1ritin"s 719&D, 1J cf. 19F', D%9, in o osition both to the neo"ra..arians of the a"e and to 3a-ss-re, *1itho-t takin" into acco-nt the -r ose 1hich that syste. serves.* ;itho-t this activatin" -r ose lan"-a"e 1o-ld re.ain a otentiality inca able of reali>ation, a co. etence 1ith nothin" to do. Co..-nicative intention brin"s lan"-a"e fro. latency into bein" by "ivin" bo-ndaries to its o enness, stability to its ada tiveness, and direction to its freedo.. ;itho-t it lan"-a"e 1o-ld be 7if not catale tic silence or co. -lsive re etition9 a rando. lo"orrhea, syntactically str-ct-red erha s, b-t se.antically a disconnected ravin", a .achinelike "ra..atical *creativity* r-nnin" endlessly a.ok in a ni"ht.arish 1orld 1here colorless "reen ideas slee f-rio-sly a.id bloated sentences that dra" rec-rsively on forever. ,f intentionality .otivates the ac8-isition of lan"-a"e, f-lly conscio-s -r ose res-lts fro. it. EoalB directed behavior is an evolvin" characteristic of life fro. its be"innin"s, b-t only at the .ost advanced and s ecifically h-.an *sy.bolic* level of brain develo .ent is there, accordin" to ?ason Bro1n 719FF, DD9, *a ro"ression fro. -r osive to volitional action,* 1hich *is bo-nd - 1ith lan"-a"e develo .ent.* Iven the sin"leB1ord -tterance 7like the "est-re9 can indicate intention by desi"natin" a desired ob:ectJ b-t only syntactic connection can e0 ress the ro"ressively refined develo .ent of a hitherto lar"ely latent -r ose. Th-s *it is not -ntil redication is develo ed in the co. lete sentence,* de @a"-na observes 7#$1J cf. #$49, *that behavior beco.es -r osive in the f-ll sense of the ter.. . . . The lan"-a"e of co. lete redication er.its ,oth end and acts to ,e specifically denoted and hence distinguished .* This ca acity of syntactically str-ct-red lan"-a"e to distin"-ish "oals and acts is one that Pia"et 719F#, F#9 finds at the ori"in of all sy.bols, 1hich, 1hen differentiated fro. their i..ediate si"nifications, .ake it * ossible to evoke ob:ects and sit-ations act-ally nonB erceived, for.in" the be"innin"s of re resentation.* Cnce the intended ob:ect can be evoked in its a,sence by recise and co..-nicable lin"-istic desi"nation, the ossibility of f-lly conscio-s -r ose arises for the first ti.e and be"ins to orient h-.an action a1ay fro. reocc- ation solely 1ith the "iven and to1ard the re.editated 8-est of 1hat, bein" absent and yet intended, re.ains to be fo-nd. The .ost si"nificant absence evoked by sy.bolis. and in artic-lar by lan"-a"e is the f-t-re<1hat 1ill, or .ay be, b-t is not yetJ for only then can the intended ob:ect no1 absent beco.e resent, and this osB

/ 4' / sibility is the recondition of the -r osef-l 8-est. 3y.bolis., to 8-ote Bertalanffy once a"ain, *.akes tr-e or +ristotelian -r osiveness ossible. The f-t-re "oal is antici ated in its sy.bolic i.a"e and so .ay deter.ine resent action* 719&', 1F9. +1areness of f-t-rity as a ti.e 1hen 1hat is 1ill be other brin"s ho.o sa iens not only forekno1led"e of death b-t the still .ore characteristically ro.ethean o ort-nity of seekin" in the indefinite interi. 1hat 1e no1 lack and of strivin" -r osef-lly to beco.e so.ethin" other 7or so.ethin" .ore9 than 1hat 1e no1 are. This f-t-re di.ension, like the -r osef-lness that attends it, is a"ain i. licit in or"anic life fro. its be"innin"s, since one of the .ost "eneral f-nctions of livin" or"anis.s, ?acob observes 7&&9, *is to look ahead, to rod-ce f-t-re as Pa-l 5alAry -t it. There is not a sin"le .ove.ent, a sin"le ost-re that does not i. ly a later on, a assa"e to the ne0t .o.ent. . . . +n or"anis. is livin" insofar as it is "oin" to live, even if only for a short 1hile.* ,t is the nervo-s syste. 1hich *-lti.ately beca.e able to invent the f-t-re* as a conscio-s di.ension 7%49. ,ndeed, accordin" to 3oviet ne-rolo"ical research cited by ?akobson 719'$, #%9, the left and ri"ht he.is heres of the distinctively bilateral h-.an brain .ay de.onstrate 7like (re-dHs e"o and id9 *different te. oral orientations,* the left t-rned to1ard the f-t-re, the ri"ht to1ard the astJ the left he.is here is of co-rse nor.ally the loc-s of sy.bolic tho-"ht and s eech. (-t-rity is i. licit in life, e.er"ent in conscio-sness, b-t f-lly a rehended as an essential deter.inant of action only thro-"h the s ecifically h-.an sy.bolis. of lan"-a"e. (or by its very nat-re the sy.bol, as distin"-ished by Peirce fro. both icon and inde0, is *a la1, or re"-larity of the indefinite f-t-re* 7D:1&&9. +.on" PeirceHs three classes of si"ns or *re resenta.ens,* the icon is an i..ediate i.a"e evokin" a direct analo"y 7as a ortrait does9 1ith its ob:ectJ the inde0 is connected 1ith its ob:ect as a .atter of fact or hysical conti"-ity 7as s.oke si"nals fire9. B-t the sy.bol, in contrast to both<and for Peirce all verbal -tterances are sy.bols<is a -rely conventional si"n 1hich refers to an ob:ect *by virt-e of the idea of the sy.bolisin" .ind, 1itho-t 1hich no s-ch connection 1o-ld e0ist* 7D: 1&'M&99. Th-s the sy.bolHs *.ode of bein"* is different fro. that of the icon and inde0. *+n icon has s-ch bein" as belon"s to ast e0 erience. ,t e0ists only as an i.a"e in the .ind. +n inde0 has the bein" of resent e0 erience* 74:44F9. ;hatever is tr-ly "eneral, ho1ever, *refers to the indefinite f-t-re,* and its .ode of bein" is *esse in futuro * 7D:F99.N9O N9O Cf. D:4&M4F 7*To say that the f-t-re does not infl-ence the resent is -ntenable doctrine*9J 4:#&1 7*The val-e of a sy.bol is that it serves to .ake tho-"ht and cond-ct rational and enables -s to redict the f-t-re*9J and ':19 7letter to ;illia. ?a.es: *The tr-e idealis., the ra".atistic idealis., is that reality consists in the f-t-re*9. / 49 / The sy.bol intrinsically ertains to the f-t-re, 1hich can be effective on h-.an action only by its .eans. ,f, as Peirce believed, *the f-t-re alone has ri.ary reality* 7':1%D9, only sy.bolic reference brin"s that reality into bein", and this al1ays rovisional creation of f-t-rity is the distinctive -r ose of h-.an activity. ,n syntactically ordered redication, .oreover, lan"-a"e rovides not only *antici ation of the end to be reached* b-t also, as de @a"-na discerned 7#$19, an or"ani>ed tho-"h conditional series of inter.ediate acts leadin" -r osef-lly to1ard that end, each sta"e of 1hich *for.s a ne1 startin" oint for a fresh deter.ination of the re.ainin" sta"es* 7#$D9. This "oalBoriented serial or"ani>ation can be described, in ?ason Bro1nHs ha y hrase 719FD, D'#9, as a *contin-o-s

en-lti.acy, in that lan"-a"e develo .ent al1ays incor orates into itself the .eanin" that is so-"ht after in e0 ectation of a co.in" sta"e,* so that the develo .ent of s eech o-t of tho-"ht is essentially *a ress-re to1ards the f-t-re.* @an"-a"e not only frees .an fro. the i..ediacy of the act-al by its o enness to diversity and ada tability to chan"e, b-t "ives direction to o-r freedo. by evokin" an indeter.inate f-t-re "oal for o-r actions and "-idin" -s conditionally in 8-est of its forever en-lti.ate reali>ation. / %$ /

Chapter Four. The Questin& Ani3al

;itho-t lan"-a"e social instit-tions 1o-ld be as inconceivable as lan"-a"e 1itho-t societyJ their interde endence is a ri.ary condition of h-.an e0istence. C-r e0a.ination of lan"-a"e th-s brin"s -s back to consideration of society as the .atri0 both of co..-nal reli"io-s e0 erience and of the individ-al 8-est that can never leave this ri.al .odel and so-rce far behind. 3a-ss-reHs conce tion of langue as a s- er ersonal, assively re"istered *collective inertia* i..-ne to individ-al variation closely accords 1ith )-rkhei.Hs e0altation of society as a transcendent entity to 1hich its s-b.issive constit-ents ay ho.a"e. Go ele.entary reli"io-s for. co-ld 1ork .ore ervasively to1ard the s-..-. bon-. of .aintainin" social stasis than the s- re.ely a-tono.o-s lan"-a"e syste. ost-lated by 3a-ss-re, as absol-te 7and as arbitrary9 in its dictates as any divinity. The .ore dyna.ic, o enBended, and -r osef-lly creative conce tion of lan"-a"e that 1e have ado ted .ore nearly corres onds, on the contrary, to society as conceived by van Eenne or T-rner, Ber"er or Mead<not a "iven entity serenely reBe0istin" and i. assively s-rvivin" its e he.eral .e.bers, 1ho ay it the trib-te of 1orshi en ro-te to ersonal e0tinction, b-t a er et-ally transitional reality forever bein" for.ed and transfor.ed by those 1ho co. ose it. This is a dialo"ic and indeed a dialectic reality in assa"e 7like the lan"-a"e 1ith 1hose develo .ent its o1n is interde endent9 to1ard selfBcreated, al1ays rovisional "oals that direct its contin-o-s ada tation to a chan"in" 1orld and "ive it the fle0ible e8-ilibri-. that no closed syste. can lon" .aintain. Cf Ber"sonHs t1o so-rces of reli"ion and .orality, one 1as a closed / %1 / and static str-ct-re - held by habit-al if not instinctive * ress-re* to re eat an i..-table ast, the other an o en and dyna.ic rocess i. elled by the *for1ard .ove.ent* of -r osef-l as iration to1ard an -ncertain f-t-reJ the second .ay be considered a cardinal so-rce of the ersonal 8-est. The o osition bet1een the.<and the transfor.ative otentiality their interaction fosters<is rooted in the biolo"ical, sycholo"ical, and lin"-istic reconditions of society and reli"ion the.selves and th-s, 1e .ay safely s-r.ise, in h-.an nat-re. This d-ality can be creative only beca-se its a arently antithetical oles contin-o-sly interact in a dialectic e.bracin" both. The instr-ctions encoded in the closed "enetic ro"ra. of each or"anis., 1hose .olec-lar str-ct-res obey the statistically invariable la1s of hysics, en"ender a syste. o en to the environ.ent to 1hich it .-st ada t in order to s-rvive, and the res-ltant interaction bet1een or"anis. and environ.ent i. els the contin"ent evol-tion of accidentally variant for.s *selected* for re rod-ctive s-ccess. 3tr-ct-re and rocess, clos-re and o enness, are th-s interde endent as ects of

life, 1hose advanced for.s are increasin"ly distin"-ished by an *o en ro"ra.* ca able of ac8-irin" infor.ation not only fro. "enetically coded instr-ctions b-t in res onse to the environ.ent<ca able, that is, of rofitin" fro. e0 erience. *Cn the 1hole, and certainly a.on" the hi"her vertebrates,* Mayr 1rites 719F&, D49, *there has been a tendency to re lace ri"idly closed ro"ra.s by o en ones,* enlar"in" the or"anis.Hs sco e for -r osive choiceJ e0 anded fle0ibility 1o-ld th-s a ear to be an evol-tionary rod-ct of the "enetically *invariant* re rod-ction of life as an o en syste.. 7,n the heterodo0 biolo"y of Pia"et, this interactive d-ality ori"inates 1ithin the "eno.e, so that even .-tation involves an inchoate inter lay of clos-re and o enness.9 Cnly if *syste.* and * ro"ra.* are tho-"ht of as i. ervio-sly selfBenclosed do the conce ts *o en syste.* and *o en ro"ra.,* or the ro"ressive e0 ansion of "enetically ro"ra..ed o enness, see. contradictions in ter.s rather than essential characteristics of life. This dialectic of fi0ity and .ove.ent, str-ct-re and rocess, characteri>es not only life in "eneral b-t its e0tensions in h-.an conscio-sness, lan"-a"e, and society. The str-ct-red sycholo"ical e8-ilibri-. achieved in nor.al develo .ent thro-"h assi.ilation of and acco..odation to e0ternal reality is a *.obile e8-ilibri-.,* Pia"et e. hasi>es 719&F, 1%19, 1hich is *essentially active.* ,n lan"-a"e, Cho.skyHs transfor.ational "enerative "ra..ar incor orates rocess in the very heart of a lin"-istic str-ct-re that .-st be activated, .oreover 71hatever its ne-rolo"ical fo-ndations9, by o enBended dialo"-e. +nd society, in T-rnerHs 1ords 719&9, D$#9, is *a dialectical rocess 1ith s-ccessive hases of / %D / str-ct-re and co..-nitas* contin-ally interactin" to reserve stability 1hile ada tin" to chan"e. +t every level str-ct-re and rocess are not antithetical b-t interde endent hases 1itho-t 1hose er et-al interchan"e there co-ld be no society, no lan"-a"e, no conscio-sness, and no life. The 8-estion of ri.acy need not detain -sJ the str-ct-res of o en syste.s are by nat-re rocess-al and their rocesses inherently str-ct-red. ;hat .atters is the cr-cial role of transition . ,n or"anic str-ct-res rocess is contin-o-sJ there can be e8-ilibri-., stability, rest in an o en syste., b-t no final stasis, for cessation is death. 3-ch str-ct-res can incor orate re"-lar chan"e 1itho-t disr- tion, b-t e0tre.e or s-dden chan"e .ay - set their .obile e8-ilibri-. and res-lt 7if not in death or e0tinction9 in intensified ada tation and reBe8-ilibration event-ally stabili>ed as a ne1 str-ct-re evolved fro. the old. Ivol-tion, in Eo-ldHs 1ords 719'$, D1#9, *does not i. ly . . . that ceaseless fl-0 is the irred-cible state of nat-re and that str-ct-re is b-t a te. orary incarnation of the .o.ent. Chan"e is .ore often a ra id transition bet1een stable states than a contin-o-s transfor.ation at slo1 and steady rates. ;e live in a 1orld of str-ct-re and le"iti.ate distinction.* 3-ch transitions bet1een stable states<not only biolo"ical b-t sycholo"ical, lin"-istic, and social as 1ell<are of co-rse restricted as to ossible o-tco.es by the initial state: they are str-ct-red, not rando. chan"es. B-t beca-se of the "reat internal co. le0ity of these syste.s and their constit-ent o enness to the .ost varied e0ternal infl-ences, the o-tco.e of any .a:or transition bet1een str-ct-res .-st be -n redictable: the e.er"ent str-ct-re cannot be kno1n in advance b-t 1ill be essentially indeter.inate. Cr"anic str-ct-res are th-s re eatedly s-b:ect to transfor.ation by their very ada tability to a .-table 1orld, their constant need for an increasin"ly ade8-ate if al1ays rovisional e8-ilibri-.. Th-s *the idea of structure as a syste. of transfor.ations beco.es contin-o-s,* Pia"et 1rites 719F$, #49, *1ith that of construction as contin-al transfor.ation.* Ivery str-ct-re ori"inates in another and is a be"innin" as .-ch as an endJ the assa"e bet1een the. is the hase of .a0i.-. o enness and v-lnerability 1hen everythin" re.ains to be deter.ined<the hase of rec-rrent genesis defined by

Pia"et 71419 as a *for.ative* transition bet1een a 1eaker and a stron"er str-ct-re. Transitions bet1een no lon"er ade8-ately ada ted str-ct-res and others in the rocess of e.er"ence are ti.es of hei"htened res onsiveness to the s-rro-ndin" 1orld. Conscio-s a1areness of both the dan"ers and the transfor.ative ossibilities of s-ch transitions<an a1areness see.in"ly -ni8-e to o-r ro.ethean s ecies<i. els the co..-nal or individ-al 8-est for a f-t-re "oal that can neither be f-lly kno1n nor / %# / finally attained, b-t .-st 7as in rit-al9 be re eatedly so-"ht. Cnly by virt-e of its rovisional ter.in-s, indeed, can -r osef-lly -rs-ed str-ct-ral transition beco.e tr-ly a 8-est: a deliberate b-t -ncertain assa"e no less intrinsically -nendin", and no less creative of its o1n er et-ally transcended ob:ect, than the rocesses of life, tho-"ht, and s eech fro. 1hich it arose and contin-ally arises. ,n the s irit-al 8-est the indeter.inate selfBtranscendence of livin" thin"s as o en syste.s c-l.inates in deliberate transfor.ation of 1hat Ber"son called the *o en so-l* dra1n beyond itself<hence beyond the revio-sly "iven h-.an condition<by the for1ard .ove.ent of as iration to1ard an -nforeseeable f-t-re. To ersevere in this -nendin" rocess 1ith f-ll a1areness of its dan"ers<and f-ll a1areness, too, that the alternative to the .ove.ent of life is sta"nation and death<distin"-ishes restless .an a.on" .ore f-lly ada ted inhabitants of o-r earth as 7at least in otential9 the 8-estin" ani.al: animal !uaerens . C-r er et-al searchin" derives fro. the very e0tre.ity of conscio-s o enness to an -n redictably chan"in" 1orld and is hence both the conse8-ence and the cost of o-r recario-sly .ar"inal freedo.. Rites of assa"e, 1hich co..e.orate the ha>ardo-s crossin" of an -ncertain threshold, rovide a co..-nal aradi". for the individ-al 8-est. ,nsofar as they define a ter.inal 7if te. orary9 condition attained by all celebrants alike, ho1ever, they differ fro. the tr-e 8-est 1hose "oal can never be rescribed in advance or by others b-t .-st be en"endered thro-"h the rocess of searchin" itself. The 8-est th-s characteri>es the e.er"ent individ-al no lon"er 1holly defined by social role or 1holly content 1ith inherited str-ct-res. (or hi., or for her, the assa"e fro. one sta"e to another instit-tionali>ed in co..-nal rites is often a solitary :o-rney into -ne0 lored terrain in search of 1hat no other has fo-nd before and< ossible fail-re bein" one hall.ark of the 8-est<1hat none .ay find even no1. The 8-est rese.bles a il"ri.a"e in the hi"h -r ose that differentiates both fro. rando. 1anderin" or ha ha>ard e0 loration. B-t the il"ri.a"e is "enerally .ore co..-nal and traditional 7it .ay be re eated 1itho-t essential chan"e9, and its ter.in-s, 1hether Mecca or ?er-sale., Canterb-ry or Ro.e, is nor.ally 1ell established: only to the e0tent that it is -ni8-e and its "oal 7or the si"nificance of attainin" its "oal9 is in do-bt 1ill this rite of assa"e, like any other, beco.e tr-ly a 8-est. 3till .ore si"nificant is the intrinsic connection of the 8-est and the 8-estion. Both derive fro. @atin !uaerere, *to seek,* and their .eanin"s are closely linked. *Ivery askin",* 2eide""er 1rites 719%#, %9, *is a seekin",* and askin" is indis ensable to seekin" beca-se, in Eada.erHs 1ords 7D&&9, it *is the o enin" - , and kee in" o en, of ossibilities* 1itho-t / %4 / 1hich seekin" 1o-ld soon halt if it ever be"an. The childHs earliest, -nans1erable 8-estionin"s are the.selves an e.bryonic 8-est for resol-tion of the ne1ly discovered discord, in Pia"etHs 1ords 719#Da, D#%9, *bet1een desire and its reali>ation* that lies at the ori"in of all 8-estin". Cnly ersistence

into ad-lthood of o-r aedo.or hic 8-estionin", o-r childlike need to interro"ate every rovisional ans1er and rest satisfied 1ith none, ro els -s to -ndertake the 8-est: for to search effect-ally, Cla arUde observes 7Pia"et 19#Da, D#$9, *one .-st kno1 1hat one is searchin" for, one .-st have asked oneself a 8-estion.* +nd if a 8-estion incites the 8-est, another<or erha s the sa.e one trans.-ted ast reco"nition<1ill be 1aitin" at its end to lead -s beyond 1hat 1e tho-"ht 1as o-rselves to f-rther 8-ests and 8-estions otentially 1itho-t end. 3-ch is the ro.ise of f-t-rity, or the b-rden of inco. letion, that the 8-estin" ani.al, .an, receives as a birthri"ht and cannot fors1ear 1itho-t abandonin" 1hat .akes -s .ost h-.an. ,nsofar as *s irit-al* is .ore than a va"-e honorific it indicates the transcendent otentiality of the -nkno1n: a tr-e 8-est, +-den re.arks 7'19, *.eans to look for so.ethin" of 1hich one has, as yet, no e0 erience.* 3 irit, far fro. bein" o osed to the biolo"ical 7as in the Cartesian d-alis. of body and .ind9, is the otentiality of h-.an life<thro-"h conscio-s ositin" of f-t-re "oals<for -r osef-l creation and "ro1th. ,t is the ossibility of str-ct-ral selfBtranscendence .ade inci iently conscio-s in .an, the ca acity of ne-rolo"ically advanced life *to invent the f-t-re*J it is not an e0istent reality b-t the a""re"ate of ossible realities o en to -n ro"ra..ed h-.an develo .ent. The s irit-al 8-est is .anHs -nco. letable endeavor to act-ali>e, in so.e s.all art, the f-t-re 1hich lar"ely defines hi., and th-s to be f-lly hi.self by beco.in" contin-ally .ore. 3 irit 7like +ristotleHs form 9 is distinct fro. .atter not by difference of s-bstance b-t as otential act-ali>ation fro. "iven condition, f-t-re fro. resent, indeter.inate fro. deter.inedJ the very ter. indicates .anHs se aration fro. a condition in 1hich he is no lon"er f-lly at ho.e. Cnly 1hen it is conscio-sly re resented does the f-t-rity inherent in life beco.e s iritJ it therefore artakes of the differentiation of s-b:ect and ob:ect, self and 1orld, in 1hich conscio-sness is "ro-nded. 3 irit arises, like conscio-sness, o-t of a se aration 1hich it strives to overco.e by -r osef-l orientation to1ard a f-t-re in 1hich the contradictions that brin" it into bein" and ro el its for1ard .ove.ent 1o-ld be resolved<a resol-tion, 1ere it to be attained, that ;o-ld entail its e0tinction. To the e0tent that this "oal roves to be -nattainable, the 8-est 1ill, of co-rse, be -nendin". ,ts close connection 1ith conscio-sness recl-des e0cl-sive linkin" of s irit 1ith the irrational. (rench esprit, like Eer.an $eist and analo"o-s / %% / ter.s in other lan"-a"es, e.braces *s irit* and *.ind* in a sin"le conce tJ hence the s irit-al 8-est can incl-de both the intellect-al and scientific search for tr-th and the reli"io-s -rs-it of salvation, 1hich are f-nda.entally akin. Bet1een the ind-ctionist vie1 of science as syste.atic ro"ress by e0 eri.ental verification to1ard establish.ent of .anifest tr-th and the relativistic conce tion of shiftin" scientific aradi".s not as *a rocess of evol-tion to1ard anythin"* 76-hn 19F$, 1F$MF19 b-t as a *"estalt s1itch* 71%$9 1ith *no coherent direction of ontolo"ical develo .ent* 7D$&9< oles e8-ally alien to the 8-est<is a science born of the reco"nition *that all 1e can do,* in Po erHs 1ords 719&%, D9M#$9, *is to "ro e for tr-th even tho-"h it be beyond o-r reach,* since 1itho-t the ositin" of a transcendent if never attainable tr-th *there can be no ob:ective standards of in8-iryJ no criticis. of o-r con:ect-resJ no "ro in" for the -nkno1nJ no 8-est for kno1led"e.* The tr-th to1ard 1hich science, in this conce tion, can rovisionally lead, al1ays s-b:ect to the ref-tations by 1hich kno1led"e accr-es, is -ncertain and inco. lete even in hysics and .athe.atics 7not to .ention biolo"y9, as 2eisenber" and EVdel a. ly de.onstrated. =et the -lti.ate indeter.inacy of scientific tr-th need not entail a directionless relativis.. Cn the contrary, an indeter.inate "oal en"endered thro-"h -r osive trial and error is a ri.e criterion for the s irit-al 8-est 7as for its biolo"ical and sycholo"ical antecedents9, 1hich th-s attains in scientific in8-iry one of its f-llest e0 ressions.

,ntellect-al -rs-it of a finally -ndefinable tr-th is only one as ect, ho1ever, of the s irit-al 8-est, since s irit co. rehends b-t cannot be deli.ited by intellect. C-r 1ord derives fro. @atin spiritus, ori"inally breath or bree>e<one of .any 1ords, incl-din" Ereek psych8 and pneuma, @atin animus and anima, 3anskrit atman, and 2ebre1 ruach <associatin" breath or 1ind 1ith the ani.atin" o1er of life. This association, 1hich Tylor ointed o-t in his ioneerin" 1ork in the anthro olo"y of reli"ion 71&M1F9, is by no .eans li.ited to the ,ndoBI-ro ean or Mediterranean c-lt-ral s heres b-t rec-rs a.on" co-ntless eo les as -nrelated as the G-er of the 3-dan 7IvansBPritchard 19%&, 19 and the Gava:o of 1estern Gorth +.erica 7McGeley, #%9. 3 irit ertains .ost i..ediately, then, not to conscio-sness, by 1hich it beco.es selfBa1are, b-t to air as the force s-stainin" life. The ri.itive association 1ith breath and life is one hall.ark of s iritJ another, e8-ally f-nda.ental, is the 1holeness by 1hich it transcends or .ediates divisions. (or s irit, like the lifeBs-stainin" air, is both 1ithin and 1itho-t, an e.bracin" o1er connectin" .an 1ith the 1orld aro-nd hi. in the reci rocal bond of a tr-ly o en syste.. +nd beca-se s irit connects 1ith all livin" thin"s, it co-nteracts the individ-alHs otential isolation both fro. fello1Bh-.an bein"s and fro. other for.s of / %& / life. By -nitin" inner 1ith o-ter, self 1ith others, resent 1ith f-t-re, s irit is a contin-o-s .ediation bet1een the constricted act-alities of o-r "iven individ-al e0istence and the transcendent tho-"h never li.itless otentiality of o-r s- er ersonal bein", the er et-al ossibility of beco.in" .ore than 1e are. (or the restless s irit, the Platonic thymos called by Ricoe-r 719F', #DM##9 *the .ediatin" f-nction ar e0cellence,* is an essence forever 1ithin and forever beyond -s, reflectin" *the fact that the self is never "-aranteed,* and that its search for itself *is in a certain sense 1itho-t end.* The s irit-al 8-est is th-s a contin-o-s 8-estionin" on the s-b:ect of life itself as an o en syste. or str-ct-red rocess defined .ost f-nda.entally by the transcendent otentiality of its indeter.inate f-t-re, 1hich "ives it direction and -r ose. ,nsofar as h-.an life is -r osef-l it 1ill be an inchoate s irit-al 8-est. (or conscio-sly "oalBdirected activity res- oses deliberate orientation to1ard a otentiality si"nificantly different fro. the "iven: the 8-est is an effort to brin" a fra".ent of that -ncirc-.scribed f-t-re into bein". Cnly .an the forethinker, so far as 1e kno1 fro. o-r hardly -n re:-diced stand oint, can a rehend his inco. leteness and look - on it as ro.ise, conscio-sly directin" his selfBtransfor.ation, and for this reason he re.ains -ni8-ely animal !uaerens . There can be no certainty that the s irit-al 8-est distinctive of the h-.an s ecies 1ill contin-eJ evol-tion .ost often event-ates in e0tinction, and the very foresi"ht that enables .an to -rs-e a transcendent "oal also e. o1ers hi. to en"ineer his destr-ction. Iven short of that final 8-iet-s, the i. erfectly antici ated "oal of every 8-est 1ill al1ays be .ore el-sive than the restrictive act-alities that i. el yet threaten to abort it thro-"h a athetic indifference or hel less er le0ity, acedia or a oria. B-t tho-"h the for.er, the deadly sin of s irit-al sloth, is otentially .ortal, the latter condition, the *reso-rcelessness* of findin" no 1ay o-t of a see.in"ly ho eless dile..a, is not<as Plato, -nlike the 3o hists of his o1n day and later, 1ell -nderstood<a ter.in-s b-t the ossibility of a rec-rrent be"innin"J for only the so-l that kno1s its o1n i. asse searches, Ricoe-r re.inds -s 719F', DD9, to "o beyond it and esca e fro. the cave in 1hich it is i. risoned: aporei kai +8tei .N1O The very re.oteness of an intrinsically f-t-re, hence er et-ally absent "oal in N1O The hrase is fro. PlatoHs Repu,lic F, %D4e. +ristotle, too, links searchin" 1ith a oria in Metaphysics 1$D'b 7cited by 2eide""er 19&Db, D%%J cf. 19&', D1D9, 1here he calls the 8-estion ti to on 7*1hat is bein"K*9 to palai te kai nyn kai aei +8toumenon kai aei aporoumenon 7*1hat 1as so-"ht lon" a"o and no1 and al1ays, and al1ays 1ith no 1ay o-t*9. The a oria is an incentive, even a condition, of

the 8-est, for if the 8-est is inherently 1itho-t ter.in-s, every -nachievable "oal is not an end b-t a rovisional i. asse that is al1ays a otential ne1 be"innin", ointin" beyond itself to another yet to be so-"ht. / %F / contrast to an act-ality 1itho-t ros ect is the i. et-s 1itho-t 1hich no 8-est co-ld be"inJ its el-sively deferred attain.ent is at the sa.e ti.e its ro.ise of incessant rene1al. ,n this 1ay the s irit-al 8-est is the creative rocess ar e0cellence, the rocess by 1hich h-.an bein"s contin-ally re.ake the.selves in accord 1ith "oals forever beyond the.: to search, Pro-stHs narrator erceives at the o-tset of his i..ense e0 loration, is to create, and 1hat searchin" creates is above all the self contin-ally s-r assed in another. ,n 8-estin", therefore, is o-r essential h-.anity, o-r fidelity to o-r -nfinished selvesJ and erha s the 1isdo. by 1hich 1e res-. t-o-sly distin"-ish o-r s ecies in s ite of all evidence of o-r folly is itself best conceived as a "oal to1ard 1hich 1e advance, if at all, only by contin-in" to hold it before -s. ;e are at best homo sapiens not in the flesh b-t in s irit, that is, in -nreali>ed otentialityJ b-t inas.-ch as o-r as irations define -s, the -nachieved "oal is itself the token of an inci ient 1isdo. evinced in not 1holly abandonin" its -rs-it. 3a ience esca es -s for no1 as a differentia specifica and 1ill no do-bt contin-e to esca e -s 7as o-r hi"hest "oals al1ays 1ill9J b-t in the *contin-o-s .ean1hile* of o-r contin"ent e0istence 1e are, if not homo sapiens in acco. lish.ent, at least<or is it .ore, or even the sa.eK<homo !uaerens sapientiam , and in this .ore .odest yet .ore ro.isin" title 1e .ay s-rely take :-stified and not inconsiderable ride. / %9 /

!ART T+O. T0E S!IRITUA QUEST IN RITUA AN, MYT0

/ &1 /

Chapter Fi(e. Ritual as A''ir3ation an2 Trans'or3ation

,f the s irit-al 8-est is a f-nda.ental h-.an activity rooted in biolo"y, sycholo"y, and lan"-a"e, it 1ill find e0 ression thro-"ho-t the 1orld and thro-"ho-t the a"es in the s- re.ely i. ortant acts and stories e.bodied in reli"io-s rit-als and .yths. B-t the rich diversity of h-.an c-lt-res s-""ests that the 8-est .-st be -nderstood as .-ch thro-"h the shiftin" for.s it has taken in different ti.es and laces as thro-"h the co..on i. -lse to 1hich these .-ltifario-s e0 ressions bear 1itness. The 1idely variant c-lt-ral refractions of the 8-est are essential ro erties of a creatively selfB transfor.ative rocess irred-cible to a sin"le fi0ed aradi"., and this 1ealth of artic-lar and everB chan"in" e0 ressions .-st be f-lly taken into acco-nt.

Ancestor +orship an2 the 5ac84ar2 Mo(e3ent o' Ti3e

Iven in ri"idly re etitive rit-al celebrations of traditional order 1e have fo-nd a otential for variation and chan"e. 3-ch elaborate cere.onials nevertheless re.ain, like the *ancestor 1orshi * 1ith 1hich they are often connected, oriented .ore to1ard er et-ation of an i..-table ast than to1ard the e0 loration of an indeter.inate f-t-re essential to the s irit-al 8-est. ,n fe1 areas has rit-al been .ore elaborate than in so-th1estern Gorth +.erica. +.on" the Gava:o, 6l-ckhohn and @ei"hton 1rite 7D#49, divinities the.selves .-st *bo1 to the co. -lsion of rit-al for.-las* e.bodied in intricate *chant1ays* fre8-ently lastin" .any days: Gi"ht1ay and Mo-ntain1ay, ;ind1ay and ;ater1ay, Red +nt1ay and Ine.y1ay, to na.e b-t a fe1, and the Blessin"1ay that -nderlies the. / &D / all. By .etic-lo-s erfor.ance of h-ndreds of son"s, daily dra1in" and eras-re of sand aintin"s in strict accord 1ith traditional desi"ns, offerin" of food and rayer sticks, and re eated rit-al -rification, Gava:o chanters labor to restore health and *"ood ho e* to their tribe and to er et-ate the contin-ally threatened har.ony of their 1orld. The chanter -nder"oes a ri"oro-s a renticeshi and seldo. .asters .ore than one or t1o chantsJ the e.inent 2osteen 6lah st-died t1entyBsi0 years before actin", at a"e fortyBnine, as rinci al chanter of his first =eibichai or Gi"ht1ay cere.ony 7Ge1co.b, 11DM1'9. Ereat i. ortance is "iven to detailed correctness<*if one 1ord of the rayer . . . is .issed, it is 1orthless and destroys its 1hole effect* 72aile, 1D#9N1O <and to o-tside observers the slo1 rhyth.ic dances so.eti.es see. .onotono-s or indistin"-ishable. The atterned invariance and for.-laic control of these rites<the d-ly s-..oned divinity *is co. elled to attend* 7Reichard 19#9, i09<led 6l-ckhohn 7194D, 1$19 to vie1 rit-al as *an obsessive re etitive activity* intended to attain *the .a0i.-. of fi0ity* 71$%9 in an -n redictable 1orld. Gava:o cere.onies are erfor.ed at no set ti.es b-t 1henever occasion 7.ost co..only sickness9 re8-ires. Until recent cent-ries the shee herdin" Gava:o, like their + ache kin, 1ere no.adic h-ntersJ it is in the lon"Bsettled a"ric-lt-ral P-eblos that for.ali>ed rit-al attained its f-llest develo .ent in +.erica north of Me0ico. +.on" the 2o i, T-Wi, and others, a fi0ed ann-al cycle of cere.onies -nrolls 1ith the re"-larity of the seasons, ai.ed ri.arily at ro.otin" not individ-al healin" b-t fertility of the land. ,n rit-al the s-b.ersion of individ-al in collective, ideally invariant e0istence characteristic of P-eblo life reaches its a e0J in T-Wi, B-n>el 1rites 719#D, 49D9, *The efficacy of a for.-la de ends - on its absol-tely correct re etition,* and any de art-re fro. established ractice ca-ses *"reat ert-rbation.* Gothin" is left to chance or is s-b:ect to chan"e. 3-ch rit-als, affir.in" the ri"htness of 1hat has been and s-stainin" the contin-ity of an i..-table social and nat-ral order, see. the erfect e0 ression of Ber"sonHs first so-rce of reli"ion, the inertial -ll to1ard re ose. To this e0tent Benedict 1o-ld a ear to have been :-stified in characteri>in" the P-eblo tribes 719#4, F'M'$9 as *+ ollonian* in their co..it.ent to tradition. Their characteristic esche1al of e0cess, as Benedict ortrayed it 71ith .a:or o.issions9, is evident not only in the stately re"-larity of their cere.onies b-t in their s- osed aversion to into0ication and their te. erate offerin"s of feathered rayer sticks N1O Cf. Matthe1s, D4: *an error .ade in sin"in" a son" .ay be fatal to the efficacy of a cere.ony. ,n no case is an i. ortant .istake tolerated, and in so.e cases the error of a sin"le syllable 1orks an irre arable in:-ry.*

/ &# / and .ai>e 7rather than sla-"htered beasts and h-.an ca tives9 to the "ods 1ho eriodically d1ell a.on" the. and f-se 1ith the. in the sacred dance of the kachinas. +nother contrib-tor to co..-nal conservatis. in P-eblo society, as in .any others, is the *1orshi of the dead,* 1hich B-n>el 719#D, 4'#9 calls *the fo-ndation of all T-Wi rit-al.* There is *no ancestor 1orshi in the restricted sense* in T-Wi, since *a .an rays to the ancestors, not to his o1n ancestors* 7%1$9J b-t the infl-ence of these deified redecessors 71ho. one is destined to :oin9 in - holdin" ancient c-sto.s is every1here. Present a-thority is rooted in 1hat lies behind, not before it, so that si"nificant h-.an action er et-ates the ast rather than strivin" to "o beyond it in 8-est of an i. erfectly envisa"ed f-t-re. +ncestor 1orshi , for RadcliffeBBro1n, .ost f-lly reali>ed the social f-nction of a reli"io-s c-lt, na.ely 719%D, 1%F9 *to re"-late, .aintain, and trans.it fro. one "eneration to another senti.ents on 1hich the constit-tion of a society de ends.* ,n s-bB3aharan +frica, above all, British str-ct-ral anthro olo"ists 1ho follo1ed RadcliffeBBro1nHs lead have e. hasi>ed the f-nction of rit-al as an affir.ation of social val-es.NDO Eenerally s eakin", (ortes s-""ests 719F&, D9, 1here ancestors are 1orshi ed, not .erely co..e.orated, *the .edi-. of relationshi 1ith the. takes the for. of rit-al*J conversely, a.on" +frican eo les like the Gilotic G-er or the Con"o Py".ies 1here rit-al is less develo ed, ancestor 1orshi is fre8-ently absent or .ar"inal. ,n .-ch of ;est +frica ancestral rit-als have been central in ro.otin" tribal cohesion. +.on" the Tallensi of Ehana, for e0a. le, ancestor 1orshi , (ortes 1rites 719%9, 199, *is the reli"io-s co-nter art of their social order, hallo1in" it, investin" it 1ith a val-e that transcends .-ndane interests and rovidin" for the. the cate"ories of tho-"ht and belief by .eans of 1hich they direct and inter ret their lives and actions.* Th-s altho-"h ancestor 1orshi *does not co. rise the 1hole of any eo leHs reli"io-s syste.* 7(ortes 19F&, #9, it is fre8-ently<in tribal ;est +frica as in traditional China and ?a an or ancient Ro.e<of central i. ortance. The +frican villa"er .ay si.-ltaneo-sly 1orshi s irits of forest and strea., of the earth and its cro s, of ani.als 1ild and do.estic, and ay ho.a"e to a 2i"h Eod s-ch as +llah or ChristJ b-t these divinities .ay be dist-rbin"ly distant or .enacin"ly inaccessible even 1hen 1ell dis osed 7as 1ho can kno1K9. The ancestors, on the contrary, as contin-in" .e.bers of a linea"e, are .ore fa.iliar even 1hen an"ered, as any fa.ily .e.ber can beJ they .ay therefore reass-rin"ly NDO 3ee (ortes 19F$, D&$MF'. +s lon" a"o as 1'F1 Tylor 7D$19 noted that *on the continent of +frica, .anesB1orshi Nancestor 1orshi O a ears 1ith e0tre.est definiteness and stren"th.* / &4 / .ediate bet1een h-.an and e0trah-.an. +s the livin"Bdead, they *occ- y the ontolo"ical osition bet1een s irits and .en,* Mbiti 1rites 79$9, and s eak the lan"-a"e of both. Gor is ancestor 1orshi si. ly a "enerali>ed c-lt of the dead, since the reli"io-s stat-s of an ancestor is nor.ally achieved by a select fe1, .ainly .en of hi"h social standin". +.on" the =or-ba of Gi"eria, to beco.e a benevolent ancestor, *a .an has to live 1ell, die 1ell, and leave behind "ood children 1ho 1ill accord hi. ro er f-neral rites and contin-e to kee in to-ch 1ith hi. by .eans of offerin"s and rayer* 7+1olal-, %%9. (-ll .e.bershi in this o1erf-l co..-nity is so.eti.es ost oned -ntil s-ccessive obse8-ies have been erfor.ed and years, even "enerations, have assedJ it is the c-l.ination of a lon" and selective cursus honorum co..encin" 1ith death. T1o cate"ories of ancestral s irits are often distin"-ished, as a.on" the Gs-kka ,"bo of Gi"eria 73helton, 9D9, one of

na.eless "enerali>ed ancestors, another of those re.e.bered by na.eJ as a r-le these "ro- s are sta"es in a se8-ence leadin" event-ally, as the individ-al ancestor is for"otten, to an increasin"ly i. ersonal and a-thoritative s irit-al stat-s 7cf. Mbiti, #DM#49. The e0tent to 1hich s-ch a rocess is tho-"ht to c-l.inate in a condition co. arable to that of divinities, and deservin" of e8-al 1orshi , varies "reatlyJ it leads in any case to the hi"hest s irit-al condition a h-.an bein" born in these ti.es can achieve.N#O ,n contrast to tribes, s-ch as the + ache and .any others, in 1hich fear of the dead .an ro. ts destr-ction of his ossessions and avoidance of his na.e, the .ort-ary rites of .any ;est +frican eo les not only se arate the otentially dan"ero-s s irit of the dead fro. the cor se b-t reinte"rate it into the fa.ily, in 1hich it beco.es, en ro-te to ancestorhood, an ever .ore honored if less ersonal resence. ,n so.e societies eriodic cere.onies for the ancestors c-l.inate in "reat ann-al or biann-al festivals 7often coincidin" 1ith a"ric-lt-ral rites9, acco. anied by sacrifices, son"s and dances, and so.eti.es<as a.on" the =or-ba<by .asked i. ersonations of e.inent ancestral s irits. ;here rit-al is .ost elaborately develo ed, as a.on" the )o"on of U er 5olta 7B-rkina (aso9 and Mali, or in )aho.ey 7Benin9, ho.a"e is aid not only to forebears of individ-al linea"es b-t to .ythical ro"enitors of the tribe as a 1hole. +nd 1here hierarchical social classes and royalty revail, as a.on" the +shanti of Ehana, only deceased linea"e heads N#O The contin-ity bet1een livin" elders and ancestors and s-bordination of the latter to e0trah-.an s irits have led so.e 1riters, s-ch as ,do1- 719D9, to re:ect the ter. *ancestor 1orshi *J others, s-ch as +1olal- 7&#M&%9, find it a ro riate. The very, inconsistency of +frican beliefs 1o-ld see. 7as Messen"er s-""ests, &F9 to :-stify -se of the ter., 1ith the caveat that different for.s and de"rees of veneration are s-ited to different kinds of s irits. 3ee also 6o ytoffJ BrainJ and Barber, F4DM4#, n. 1%. / &% / receive offerin"s and rayers fro. their s-ccessors 7(ortes 19&9, 1'99. 2ere ancestor 1orshi i so facto affir.s the eternal le"iti.acy of e0istin" instit-tions. +.on" the Tallensi, as described by (ortes, the ancestors de.and confor.ity to established .oral val-es and f-lfill.ent of social obli"ations, above all to oneHs arentsJ *the critical fact is that the individ-al has no choice* 719%9, 4$9. +ll reli"ion binds to"ether those 1ho share its ractices, b-t ancestor 1orshi .ost s ecifically binds the livin" to the dead and -nborn in a "enerational solidarity that a ears to recl-de all chan"e. *The ancestors, like -blic o inion,* El-ck.an re.arks 719&#, F49, *are al1ays on the side of Hcor orateness,H* and since in tribal life, as Mbiti observes 71419, the individ-al *cannot e0ist alone e0ce t cor orately,* the ancestors beco.e the "-arantors not of a artic-lar for. of e0istence, a c-lt-re or 1ay of life only, b-t of e0istence itself. ;hatever artic-lar for. it .ay take, ancestor 1orshi res- oses obli"ation of livin" descendants to the dead and deference to their s- ernat-rally sanctioned a-thority<the pietas , as (ortes calls it, that contin-es the filial d-ty o1ed by children to livin" arents. Cnly by bein" first son and then father, and faithf-lly layin" both roles as tradition rescribes, can a .an of iety event-ally ho e to attain the c-l.inatin" "oal of s irit-al -nion 1ith the hierarchy of ancestors 1ho be"ot hi.. 3o "reat is the resti"e of the ast, indeed, that it alone can be tho-"ht of as f-t-re. +ncestor 1orshi th-s res- oses a conce tion of ti.e f-nda.entally different fro. o-r acc-sto.ed notion of a linear for1ard .ove.ent. +ccordin" to Mbiti 7D1MD#9, traditional +frican ti.e has a lon" ast and virt-ally no f-t-reJ it *.oves Hback1ardH rather than Hfor1ardHJ and eo le set their .inds not on f-t-re thin"s, b-t on 1hat has taken lace* 7D#9. The 31ahili Sasa , or *MicroBTi.e,* the i..ediate resent and its e0 eriential e0tensions into the near f-t-re and recent ast, is. s-rro-nded by the

overla in" *MacroBTi.e* of 5amani , the *ocean of ti.e* that is neither after nor before 7D'9. 3asa is *the eriod of conscio-s livin". . . . Ta.ani is the eriod of the .yth* 7D99. @ike history itself in these traditional societies, the individ-al .oves slo1ly *back1ard* to1ard those 1ho be"ot hi., and death is *a rocess 1hich re.oves a erson "rad-ally fro. the 3asa eriod to the Ta.ani* 7#D9 in 1hich the livin"Bdead finally achieve the collective i..ortality of .ythical ancestral s irits. ,n s-ch societies, (ield 1rites of the EX of Ehana 719#F, 19&M9F9, *The dead are al1ays 1atchin" to see that the livin" reserve 1hat their forefathers established.* The ancestral Ta.ani rovides an -nchan"in" archety e of h-.an behavior al1ays valid for every .e.ber of the tribe. The order "iven fro. the be"innin", often by a .ythical fo-nder, and / && / e.bodied in the ancestors is the only conceivable order. 3aint +-"-stineHs restless search for s irit-al re ose in Eod *is so.ethin" -nkno1n in +frican traditional reli"io-s life* 7Mbiti, 'F9, since the tribal +frican feels no need to seek 1hat he already has: the transcendent validation of his e0istence 1hich contin-ity 1ith the ancestors, and thro-"h the. 1ith the "ods, -nstintin"ly "ives. Melanesia, alon" 1ith Micronesia and Polynesia, is another re"ion 1here for.s of ancestor 1orshi , co. arable to those of +frica, have arisen. ;here everythin" de ends on s- ernat-ral ancestral forces, *the reli"io-s 8-est is essentially,* as Read re.arks of the Eah-k- of hi"hland Ge1 E-inea 711%9, *a search for this o1er, an effort to ta it and control it, to discover its so-rce, and to enlist its aid* thro-"h .astery of rit-al. +"ain the resent .oves to1ard absor tion by the enco. assin" ate. oral astJ a.on" the 6anakas of Ge1 Caledonia so.e old .en are called ancestral s irits 1hile still livin", since their 1isdo. artici ates, @eenhardt 1rites 7#49, in the 1isdo. of ancestors and "ods, 1ho. they 1ill soon definitively :oin. 2ere there can be no for1ard ro"ression in ti.e, for the ast is contin-ally bein" revived in the resent. Iven in tribes 1here shortBlived "hosts never attain the resti"e of tr-e ancestors, and lack the "ood fort-ne of the Trobriand ,aloma s irits 1ho slo-"h off their o-t1orn skin to be reincarnated in livin" 1o.bs 7Malino1ski, D1&9, the f-t-re can only be envisa"ed as the ast, since everyone livin" 1ill beco.e 1hat his forebears have been. The o en f-t-re of the s irit-al 8-est 1o-ld see. all b-t -nkno1n in societies so strictly deter.ined by eternal rec-rrence of the ast. The loc-s classic-s of Melanesian ancestor 1orshi is the 3olo.on ,slands, for here, Codrin"ton re.arked in 1'91 71D%9, s irits of nonh-.an ori"in, ro.inent else1here in Melanesia, have al.ost no lace, and s- ernat-ral o1er, mana , asses after death fro. o1erf-l livin" .en to their "hosts. Recent st-dies have lar"ely confir.ed Codrin"tonHs observations. The hi"hest achieve.ent of the livin" is to .ake the.selves, thro-"h rit-al a ro riation of mana , as like as ossible to the ancestral dead 1ho are its so-rce and 1ho. so.e a.on" the. 1ill soon re:oin. +.on" the 61aio of Malaita, .ost o -lo-s of the 3olo.ons, 1here all ad-lt .en and 1o.en beco.e ancestral s irits, *the syste. . . . Hori"inated fro. the ancestorsH and it is the d-ty of h-.ans to follo1 ancient r-les, not .odify the.* 76eesin" 19'Db, D1$9. 3i.ilarly a.on" the Polynesian Maori of Ge1 Tealand, *to do the ri"ht thin" is to follo1 the ancestors* 7?ohansen, 1FD9. 3i"nificant innovation can only be a la se fro. ancestral 1ays. PreBe.inent a.on" the ri"ht thin"s be8-eathed by the ancestors is rit-al, to 1hich correct erfor.ance is nor.ally essential. +.on" the Tiko ia, 1hose elaborate *;ork of the Eods* (irth .etic-lo-sly chronB

/ &F / icled, ancestral rit-al sanctioned a divinely instit-ted stat-s 8-o, and ancestor 1orshi , as in other hi"hly stratified aristocratic societies of traditional Polynesia, 1as basically<like its co-nter arts in +shanti or )aho.ey<a c-lt of officeBholders a.o-ntin", (irth re.arks 719&Fa, F&9, to *b-rea-cratic ancestralis..* ,n Cceania as in +frica, or indeed ancient China, Ro.e, or ?a an, ancestor 1orshi is "enerally characteristic rather of settled a"ric-lt-ral than of no.adic h-ntin" societies, and rit-als to honor the ancestors often .er"e 7as in Tiko ia9 1ith those intended to increase fertility of the cro s. +.on" h-nters and "atherers, the ancestors co..only honored are not the dead of recent "enerations and their anony.o-s forebears b-t the .ytholo"ical fo-nders and ro"enitors of the tribe at the be"innin" of ti.e. Th-s all le"ends in the +nda.an ,slands, RadcliffeBBro1n 1rites 719DD, 19$M919, deal 1ith the doin"s of the ri.al ancestors, .ostly na.ed after ani.al s ecies. Go1here 1as the bond bet1een the resent and a .ytholo"ical ast stron"er than in abori"inal +-stralia, 1here a"eBold sacred traditions tied tribes of h-nters as closely to their local habitat as a"ric-lt-ral settle.ent tied eo le else1here. ,n .any tribes the fo-ndin" ancestors are contin-ally resent in the -nchan"in" landsca e thro-"h 1hich the tribe re eatedly .oves, e.bodied in the tote. s ecies 1hose na.e they share and in the sacred cere.onial articles 7called t/urunga by the +randa9 1hich they have be8-eathed fro. the distant ast to the resent. Iverythin" of val-e to h-.an society iss-ed, like h-.an society itself, fro. their hands, and since that ti.e there has tr-ly been nothin" ne1 -nder the s-n. Bet1een that ancestral *)rea. Ti.e* 7the +randa alt/iringa 9 and the resent there is no -nbroken connection s-ch as that rovided by the recedin" "enealo"ies of so.e +frican and Melanesian eo les, no fadin" line of ro"enitors brid"in" the "a bet1een then and no1, b-t rather, as Maddock s-""ests 71$99, *a .eta hysical discontin-ity, a d-ality bet1een .en and o1ers.* 3ince the )rea. Ti.e, h-.an e0istence has been a ale shado1 of the le"endary ast, *a de endent life 1hich is conceived,* 3tanner 1rites of the northern M-rinbata 7n.d., #9M4$9, *as havin" taken a 1ron"f-l t-rnin" at the be"innin", a t-rn s-ch that the "ood of life is no1 inse arably connected 1ith s-fferin",* s-""estin" *so.e kind of Hi..e.orial .isdirectionH in h-.an affairs,* 1ith no chance that livin" .en can ever recover, .-ch less s-r ass, the condition they have irretrievably lost. ,rretrievably, b-t not co. letelyJ for the )rea. Ti.e is not really ast b-t lin"ers on in co-ntless for.s for the eo le of a lesser day. The ancestors never die b-t contin-e to inhabit the tribal landsca e and the sacred ob:ects. +.on" .any +-stralian tribes the livin" are believed to reincarnate, and hence er et-ally recycle, co. onents at least of the / &' / everB resent ancestorsJ th-s the +randa child is assi"ned the tote. not of his .other or father b-t of the ancestor tho-"ht to inhabit the s ot 1here his .other first beca.e a1are of her re"nancy. ,t is the ancestorHs *s irit child* that "ro1s 1ithin her, en"endered 1hen she crossed his ancient tracks or assed near a sacred hill or s rin" or lay do1n by so.e lon" lost and b-ried t/urunga . Thro-"h his initiation at the ti.e of -berty, Iliade re.arks 719F1, %'9, *the novice discovers that he has already ,een here , in the be"innin",* and that the resent itself is a shado1y reincarnation of a ast that is al1ays 1ith hi.. 3i.ilar initiations into the .ysteries of ancestral tradition 1ere virt-ally -niversal in abori"inal +-stralia, even 1here belief in reincarnation 1as absentJ and those fe1 1ho assed thro-"h f-rther initiations to beco.e *.edicine .en* a roached still .ore nearly to the otent ancestral stat-s 1hich none co-ld no1 f-lly achieve. ?-st as +-stralian initiation cere.onies identify each ne1 "eneration 1ith the ancestors of lon" a"o,

rites for the increase of lant and ani.al s ecies associated 1ith the. are an atte. t *to .aintain the re"-lar* 7Ilkin 19%4, D$%9, to banish novelty fro. the redictable ro-nd of e0istence. Thro-"h rit-al, Berndt observes 719F4, 1 : 1%9, ost-lants seek to ens-re that the ancestorsH *vital lifeB"ivin" o1er . . . is bro-"ht to bear on the affairs of .en.* B-t 1hen this o1er is attainable only by re eatin" 1hat others have al1ays done, and .en think of the.selves as * assive reci ients* of traditions eternally reB enacted in rit-al, there 1ill be no co-nter1ei"ht to the sacred ast, no incentive to innovation, no h-.an ossibility other than follo1in" footste s i..e.orially .isdirected since the fabled ancestors vanished in ro ria ersona fro. the tribal lands. +.on" the +randa, even one 1ho kne1 and ad.ired the. as inti.ately as 3trehlo1 re.arks 7194F, &, #%9, *tradition and the tyranny of the old .en in the reli"io-s and c-lt-ral s here have effect-ally stifled all creative i. -lse. . . . The chants, the le"ends, and the cere.onies 1hich 1e record today .ark the cons-..ation of the creative efforts of a distant, lon"B ast a"e. . . . Gothin" that the ancestors have done can ever be bettered by later crafts.en. ,n this res ect, too, as in all others, it is -nfort-nately tr-e that central +-stralia slee s heavily -nder the allB o ressive ni"htBshado1 of tradition.*

The Rituali9ation o' Chan&e an2 Con'lict

To the e0tent that reli"io-s rit-al is an invariant co..e.oration of ancestrally hallo1ed tradition, there can be no f-t-re that is not an i. erfect re etition of a ti.eless ast lyin" ahead no less than behindJ no individ-al de art-re fro. collective aradi".s of behaviorJ no creativity that does not reBenact 1hat has already been. There can be nothin" / &9 / to seek beca-se everythin" of val-e has once and for all been lon" a"o fo-nd. 3-ch a conce tion of rit-al, ho1ever, overlooks the cr-cial role of conflict and chan"e. + oneBsided e. hasis on affir.ation of co..-nal stability in tribal societies .arks the vie1s of )-rkhei. 7dee ly infl-enced by 3 encer and EillenHs acco-nts of +randa reli"ion9 and of RadcliffeBBro1n and the British str-ct-ralists, or f-nctionalists, 1ho follo1ed hi.. 7,n its ne"lect or denial of chan"e (rench str-ct-ralist anthro olo"y o-tdoes its e. irically restrained British co-nter art.9 2all ike, dra1in" on his st-dies of s-ch dissi.ilar eo les as the 6onso of Ithio ia and the Ta-ade of Pa -a Ge1 E-inea, is a.on" those 1ho have vi"oro-sly contested blanket clai.s that rit-al serves to increase social solidarity, 1hich he considers *the rod-ct of dayBtoBday relations, not of occasional cere.onies* 719FD, ##19. ,n his vie1, the f-nctionalist .odel of h-.an society, like that of behaviorist sycholo"y, syste.atically i"nores *the creative and the i.a"inative* and re"ards .an and society *as essentially robot .echanis.s, b-ndles of sti.-l-sBres onse refle0es* 719FF, D%D9. (-nctionalist ar"-.ents are red-ctive, circ-lar, and devoid of si"nificant content, *yet 1itho-t s-ch conce ts, that of Hf-nctionH itself beco.es .eanin"less* 7D'1J cf. 19F9, 41M&%9. ;hatever their sins of .is laced e. hasis .ay have been in the eyes of a s-bse8-ent "eneration, ho1ever, the distin"-ished line of British social anthro olo"ists fro. RadcliffeBBro1n thro-"h (irth and IvansBPritchard, El-ck.an and (ortes, to the early T-rner 1as by no .eans blind to the roble.atic as ects of *str-ct-re* and *f-nction,* or to the -bi8-ity of conflict and chan"e. The )-rkhei.ian e0altation of social solidarity 1as never -ncritically acce ted<*The G-er conce tion of Eod,* IvansBPritchard 1rote 719%&, #D$9, *cannot be red-ced to, or e0 lained by, the social order*N4O <and van Eenne Hs e. hasis on transfor.ative rites of assa"e 1as a contin-o-s infl-ence on f-nctionalist tho-"ht, ca-tio-sly co..ended by s-ch orthodo0 re resentatives as El-ck.an and (ortes, -ntil it beca.e do.inant in the *li.inality* of T-rner 7cf. El-ck.an 19&DJ T-rner 19&9, 1&&9.

Th-s altho-"h they foc-s on rit-als tho-"ht to er et-ate an ancestrally sanctioned order, these anthro olo"ists reco"ni>ed that chan"e is essential to that order even 1hen overtly denied. The Tiko ia ;ork of the Eods, 1hose *ada tive and even creative f-nction* (irth stressed 719&Fb, D#9, ceased to e0ist 1hen it ceased to ada t and create, for no livin" rit-al can affir. an order belon"in" solely to the ast. +nd des ite N4O Cver a 8-arter cent-ry earlier, he had asserted 719D9, DD9 that *it is one of the ai.s of social anthro olo"y to inter ret all differences in the for. of a ty ical social instit-tion,* s-ch as .a"ic, *by reference to difference in social str-ct-re.* / F$ / their belief *that the str-ct-re of the 1orld and life 1as fi0ed onceBforBall at a re.ote ti.e in the ast* 73tanner n.d., 1%19, the +-stralian M-rinbata *1elco.ed chan"e insofar as it 1o-ld fit the for.s of er.anence* and thereby *attained stability b-t avoided inertia* 71&'9. The distinction is cr-cial: the stability ro.oted by rit-al is not an inertial inheritance b-t a contin-ally rene1ed endeavor. ,ndeed, the stake the dead are tho-"ht to have in the f-t-re ersistence of society, (ortes 1rites 719F&, &9, arado0ically *"ives ancestor 1orshi a f-t-re orientation, rather than . . . a fi0ation on the ast.* Iven this a arently back1ardBlookin" ractice th-s re8-ires a ceaseless labor, in 1hich livin" and dead are both i. licated, to achieve a transcendent condition no lon"er "iven, as in the .ythic a"e, b-t only attainable in a f-t-re otentially one 1ith the s- erte. oral ast. The transcendent Ta.ani of the lon" dead and the not yet born .-st be s-stained by contin-o-s effort in the 3asa 1hich is here and no1. 3-ch rit-als affir. not si. ly the stability of society b-t the incessant activity necessary to achieve it. B-t to foc-s on the for.ali>ed rites of s-ch traditional tribes as the T-Wi, Tallensi, Tiko ia, and +randa <as the tradition ste..in" fro. )-rkhei. and RadcliffeBBro1n has done<"rants a falsely rivile"ed stat-s to the fi0ed, re etitive, and invariant as ects of rit-al co. atible 1ith a conservative social syste. 1hich the rit-al is tho-"ht to - hold. + f-ller ict-re .-st take into acco-nt .ore disr- tive di.ensions, indicative of irrationality and conflict as 1ell as of social cohesion. The stately calendrical rit-als of the T-Wi a ear to s- ort BenedictHs clai. 719#4, 'F9 that these sober + ollonians *do not seek or val-e e0cess,* b-t other rites "reatly alter this ict-re. (rank C-shin", the first o-tsider to "ive an e0tended acco-nt of T-Wi life, describes 7F#MF49 a 6nife )ance at 1hich he 1as threatened as a sacrificial *Gava:o* by t1o T-Wi dancers 1ho then acce ted a yello1 do" in his lace, bl-d"eoned it to death and dise.bo1eled it in a scene *too dis"-stin" for descri tion*<a scene he likens to +>tec 1ar cere.onies or the ani.al sacrifices of *the sava"es of the far GorthB1est,* the very *)ionysian* eo les 1ho. Benedict later cate"orically contrasted to the T-Wi. Go less discordant 1ith the + ollonian i.a"e is Matilda 3tevensonHs descri tion 74#F9 of the rit-al eatin" of h-.an e0cre.ent, in an *ac.e of de ravity,* by the T-Wi Eala0y (raternity, after 1hich *they bite off the heads of livin" .ice, and che1 the., tear do"s li.b fro. li.b, eat the intestines and fi"ht over the liver like h-n"ry 1olves.*N%O ,n these rit-als, and others N%O Cf. Bo-rkeHs acco-nt 719D$9 of the *vile cere.onial* he sa1 in 1''1 as C-shin"Hs "-est: *The dancers s1allo1ed "reat dra-"hts Nof h-.an -rineO, s.acked their li s, and, a.id the roarin" .erri.ent of the s ectators re.arked that it 1as very, very "ood.* Tho-"h le"erde.ain, C-rtis s-""ests 71F: 14F9, .ay have s-bstit-ted .ore alatable n-trients for *e0cre.ent* and *-rine,* the e0altation of e0cess nevertheless re.ained. / F1 /

1here initiates thr-st "lo1in" brands do1n their throats, sco-r"ed the.selves 1ith cact-s thorns, and s1allo1ed s1ords, there is .ore than a inch of )ionys-s in the + ollonian ste1<and a healthy re.inder that hi"hly coherent atterns of c-lt-re are as .-ch i. osed as e0tra olated by the observer. (ar fro. .erely .inisterin" to r-rient c-riosity abo-t the stran"e 1ays of *sava"es,* a1areness of s-ch see.in"ly aberrant ractices reintrod-ces into an e0cessively sche.ati>ed ict-re the ele.ent of contradiction lackin" so lon" as rit-al 1as vie1ed as a failBsafe .echanis. for the .aintenance of do.inant social val-es. Gor are rit-ali>ed o-tb-rsts of violence so alien as they .i"ht see. to the -tative orderliness of ri.itive a"ric-lt-ral society. ;e conventionally think of *.an the h-nter* as a""ressively sava"e, the br-te Geanderthal of o -lar fantasy, and associate the astoral or r-ral life 7havin" .ore recently lost it9 1ith serenity and eace, the + ollonian virt-es of BenedictHs ho.o"eni>ed T-Wi. B-t the o osite vie1 is at least as likely, and in recent ethno"ra hical literat-re 7as in ancient .yth9 h-nterB"atherers like the Con"o Py".ies, 6alahari B-sh.en, +-stralian abori"ines, and California acornB"atherers 1ho live *nat-rally* off the land and celebrate in reli"io-s festivities their oneness 1ith fello1Bcreat-res of forest or b-sh 1ho. they h-nt yet revere, have been 1istf-lly vie1ed as savin" re.nants or re roachf-l re.inders of a har.onio-s and even *affl-ent* ri.ordial 1ay of life lon" endan"ered and no1 on the ver"e of e0tinction. +ccordin" to T-rnb-ll, 1ho else1here 719&D, 9D9 e0tols the *.oli.o* cere.ony in 1hich the BaMb-ti y".ies celebrate their *inti.ate co..-nion* 1ith their "od the forest, not h-nters b-t a"ric-lt-ralists have been .ost a""ressive to1ard a hostile *nat-ral* 1orld a"ainst 1hich stren-o-s efforts to .old their environ.ent have itted the.. The s-b.issively ada tive h-nter *acce ts the 1orld as he finds it and does not atte. t to control or do.inate it,* T-rnb-ll contends 719F&, 14M1%9, s-bstit-tin", erha s, one stereoty e for another. ,n contrast, +frican c-ltivatin" societies, in T-rnb-llHs sche.atic vie1, are *.-ch .ore do.inatin", a""ressive, and at ti.es even hostile,* for no1 *the very earth is attacked 1ith a hoe, resha ed and refor.ed and forced to rod-ce cro s deter.ined by .an.* (ro. this vie1 oint, the .o.ento-s 1orld1ide chan"e fro. a h-ntin" 1ay of life in har.ony 1ith nat-re to an a"ric-lt-ral one in conflict 1ith the al1ays encroachin" 1ild has been seen as ro.otin" not only social stratification and its attendant tensions b-t a .ore violent relaB / FD / tion bet1een h-.an and s- erh-.an, reflected in ani.al and h-.an sacrifices that often re resent<as (ra>erHs $olden (ough lavishly attests<the slayin" of a deity. 6illin" is es ecially "lorified, +dolf ?ensen asserts 71&#9, not by h-nters b-t by rootBcro c-ltivators, the chief ractitioners of headBh-ntin" and cannibalis.J and a.on" these tro ical c-ltivators the central .yth 791M9#9 is of a ri.al ti.e bro-"ht to an end 1hen its do.inant bein"s, in lant or ani.al for., kill the deities 1ho created the e0istin" order. ;ith the end of ri.al ti.e .ortal life re laces i..ortality, and cro lants arise fro. the deityHs body, *so that the eatin" of the lants is, in fact, an eatin" of the deity.* The cere.onial eatin" of fr-it or sacrificial ani.als re resentin" the deity, and their *drastic re lace.ent* by cannibalis., act-ali>e the ri.al event 7in 1hich ancestor 1orshi has its ori"in9 thro-"h dra.atic c-lt reenact.ent. 2y othetical tho-"h his s ec-lations re.ain, ?ensenHs disc-ssion hi"hli"hts di.ensions of rit-al sli"hted 7no do-bt in rev-lsion fro. the la0 "enerali>ations of (ra>er9 by f-nctionalist anthro olo"ists. Rit-al is not solely a ho.eostatic .echanis. for brin"in" society into e8-ilibri-. thro-"h affir.ation of its -nderlyin" val-es, a .ass yeaBsayin" to thin"s as they are, b-t also a cathartic o-tlet for irrational fears and desires reflectin" ri.ordial realities of life and death fro. 1hich all o-r caref-lly str-ct-red instit-tions offer i. erfect shelter. +nd ancestor 1orshi , as its fre8-ent association 1ith sacrifice

.akes clear, ertains not only to kinshi syste.s b-t to blood and fertility and denial of -bi8-ito-s death. ,n a society like the T-Wi, 1here collective rit-al is syste.ati>ed to *+ ollonian* e0tre.es, the fla"rant e0cesses of the secret fraternities challen"e co..-nal coercion and introd-ce a .ar"in of freedo. into a c-lt-rally atterned e0istence that .i"ht other1ise see. .ore nearly a-to.atis. than life, or the life of bees rather than of .en. ,n this *society of stron" re ressions,* B-n>el notes 719#D, %D1n9 1ith a shre1dness lackin" in BenedictHs later acco-nt, deli"ht in the antics of clo1ns s rin"s fro. a *sense of release in vicario-s artici ations in the forbidden.* Gor is the *)ionysian* bloodBl-st fo-nd by ?ensen a.on" rootBcro c-ltivators of Ge1 E-inea and ,ndonesia entirely forei"n to these stately 1orshi ers of the .ai>e and the rain. ,n the .asked i. ersonation of T-Wi dancers, *1ith its at.os here of the sinister and dan"ero-s,* B-n>el finds hints 7'4&M4F9 of h-.an sacrifice :-st belo1 the s-rface of i. ersonations sy.bolically re resentin" *the e0tir ated fact.* Be that as it .ay, the stability of this 7as of any9 society is not si. ly a dat-. to 1hich its constit-ents assively s-bscribe on cere.onial occasions b-t a er et-ally endan"ered creation of their incessant endeavors. ,n +frica, too, ancestral rit-al affir.s not only a fi0ed social order b-t / F# / the -ncertainty and chan"e that attend it. The fact that blood sacririces<incl-din", in recent ti.es, h-.an sacrifices<are often .ade to ancestors concerned 1ith the fertility of the earth s-""ests that the orderly contin-ity of livin" and dead, far fro. bein" a-to.atic, has so.eti.es e0acted a rice beyond the nor.al e0 ectations of filial iety. ,n the nineteenthBcent-ry ;est +frican kin"do. of )aho.ey, not only 1ere h-.an victi.s sacrificed to the royal ancestors at the ann-al *c-sto.s,* and .any .ore, incl-din" scores of 1ives, at a kin"Hs f-neral, b-t a .ale and fe.ale slave of the kin"Hs are said to have been sacrificed each .ornin" *to thank his ancestors for havin" er.itted hi. to a1aken to a ne1 day on earth* 72erskovits 19#', D:%#9. ,n this hierarchy of interlinked obli"ations b-ttressed by ancestral tradition, the coercive 1ill of the "ods kno1n as (Y, or (ate, is offset by the contrary force of )a, *the .obile, sentient 8-ality in all thin"s that have life* 7D:D$19, a divinity 1ho incarnates *.ove.ent, fle0ibility, sin-o-sness, fort-ne* 7D:D%%9. +nd a 1ay o-t is offered, as in .any .ytholo"ies of the 1orld, fro. the ri"id .andates of divine and h-.an a-thority by a celestial trickster, @e"bY, 1hose ca ricio-s favor can overt-rn the dictates of (ate 7D: D9%9. @ike the reli"io-sly sanctioned clo1n of the P-eblos, 1hose reversal of nor.s offers release fro. conventional cond-ct, the +frican trickster affir.s that control by "ods and ancestors over h-.an cond-ct e0tends only so farJ -n redictable disr- tions of order re.ain beyond their reach. Th-s T-re, the trickster of the Central +frican +>ande, *is a .onster of de ravity,* liar, cheat, lecher, .-rderer, and bra""art, an *-tterly selfish erson,* IvansBPritchard 1rites 719&F, D'MD99, 1ho is still a hero beca-se he *does 1hat he leases, 1hat in their hearts they 1o-ld like to do the.selves . . . ;hat T-re does is the o osite of all that is .oralJ and it is all of -s 1ho are T-re.* ,n this la1less real. of sat-rnalian 1ishBf-lfill.ent, 1hatever "ods or ancestors .ay be lookin" on, in indi"nation or a.-se.ent, have no reco-rse b-t silenceJ for they 1ill not be attended. 3at-rnalian reversal of social nor.s characteri>es not only le"ends b-t rit-ali>ed cond-ct in .any re"ions of the 1orld. Iven a art fro. everyday *:okin" relationshi s,* in 1hich individ-als ins-lt others 7.ainly their inBla1s9 in socially acce table 1ays 7RadcliffeBBro1n 19%D, 9$M11&9, cere.onial occasions .ay er.it e0chan"e of ab-se and even blo1s bet1een o osin" "ro- s 7-s-ally .en and 1o.en9 or, like the Ro.an 3at-rnalia, sanction te. orary s-s ension of c-sto.ary .oral rohibitions. The verbal ta-nts, or flytin" .atches, are so.eti.es .ade in "ood s irit, as in the 6u,1ang9u t1inshi

rit-al of the Gde.b- 7T-rner 19&9, F'MF99, 1here .en and 1o.en belittle each otherHs se0-al ro1ess and e0tol their o1n in a *b-oyant and a""ressively :ovial* at.os here. B-t so.eti.es hostilities r-n dee er: a.on" the Eah-k/ F4 / of Ge1 E-inea, f-rio-s assa-lt of .ale o ressors by 1o.en ar.ed 1ith *stones and lethal ieces of 1ood, an occasional a0e, and even a fe1 bo1s and arro1s . . . convinced .e,* a br-ised .ale observer re orts 7Read, 1#&9, *that the rit-al e0 ression of hostility and se aration teetered on the ed"e of virt-al disaster.*

+itchcra't: the +il2: an2 Initiator) Trans'or3ation

3-ch o en flo-tin" of traditional nor.s is li.ited to s ecially desi"nated occasions. 3o too are the rit-als of rotest or rebellion disc-ssed by El-ck.an, s-ch as the T-l- a"ric-lt-ral rite in 1hich yo-n" "irls for.erly donned .enHs clothin" and shields, then 1ent naked and san" le1d son"s 1hile .en and boys hid inside their h-ts 719&#, 11$M#&9, or the 31a>i inc1ala cere.ony in 1hich the kin"Hs s-b:ects o enly roclai.ed their hatred of his r-le 719&&, 1$9M#&9. + far .ore .enacin" reversal of val-es is e.bodied by the 1itch, 1idely believed in tribal +frica as else1here in the 1orld to ose a contin-o-s threat to individ-al 1ellBbein" fro. a real. in 1hich .oral and social nor.s have no s1ay. +frican 1itchcraft 7in contrast to sorcery, 1hich 1orks thro-"h .a"ic and .edicines9 is a sychic s-bstance that transcends social control and ancestral a-thority 7see IvansBPritchard 19#F, D1J M. ;ilson, 9DJ Middleton 19&$, D4%M4'9. ;itches are *innately 1icked eo le 1ho 1ork har. a"ainst others . . . by virt-e of the ossession of .ysterio-s o1ers -nkno1n and -navailable to ordinary eo leJ it is this,* Middleton and ;inter co..ent 7'9, *1hich sets the. a art* and .akes the. so feared. Cnce their con"enital o1er has been activated by initiation or ill 1ill, 1itches .ay inflict infertility, dro-"ht, in:-ry, or illness, and they are 1idely tho-"ht to be the sole ca-se of death. 3-s icions of 1itchcraft fasten on social and .oral deviants 7Gadel 19%4, 1F19, 1hether solitary .alcontents or the .oderately rich and o1erf-l envied for ine0 licable s-ccessJ the latter are also fre8-ently victi.s of 1itches or sorcerers 1ho strive to brin" the. lo1. B-t 1itches are not .erely deviant .e.bers of society b-t the o-tri"ht ne"ation of nat-ral and social order itself, eatin" h-.an flesh and referrin" ni"ht to day, racticin" se0-al erversions and *defecatin" on re ared fields . . . or -rinatin" in drinkin" or .ilkin" rece tacles,* as a.on" the Mandari of the 3-dan 7B-0ton 19&#, 1$#9, or *flyin" thro-"h the air or 1alkin" - side do1n on their hands and s.eared 1hite 1ith ashes,* as a.on" the 6a"-r- of Tan>ania 7Beidel.an, &%9. ;itches a.on" the +.ba of U"anda 7;inter 19&#, D9DM9#9 not only "o abo-t naked at ni"ht, transfor. the.selves into leo ards, and feed on eo le, b-t *so.eti.es stand on their heads or rest han"in" - side do1n fro. the li.bs of trees,* eat salt 1hen thirsty, / F% / and victi.i>e .e.bers of their o1n villa"eJ s-ch behavior not only differs fro. that of ordinary eo le, like the ractices of sorcerers, *it is the e0act reverse, an inversion of the .oral code* 7and indeed of h-.an nat-re9 in every artic-lar 7cf. Middleton 19&$, D4'9. ;itches are th-s a contin-al threat to an ancestral order de endent, in arado0ical sy.biosis, on 1itchcraft to s1ell the ancestorsH n-.bers thro-"h death, 1hich 1o-ld not occ-r in its absence, and to activate their rotective intervention thro-"h .alice to1ard the livin". ;itchcraft is the indis ensable co-nter art by 1hich ancestral order, or social order in "eneral, is defined, the chaos 7or rather the antiB

cos.os, for 1itchcraft too has its order9 a"ainst 1hich the socially sanctioned cos.os is .eas-red and 1itho-t 1hich its sanctions 1o-ld have no force. U to a oint, the see.in" irrationality of 1itchcraft can be reconciled 1ith a f-nctionalist .odel of society. 6l-ckhohnHs st-dy of Gava:o 1itchcraft 71944, 1$&M11D9 contends that 1itchcraft beliefs are both sycholo"ically ad:-stive in rovidin" a channel for e0 ression of tribal tensions and sociolo"ically ada tive in affir.in" the tribeHs solidarity a"ainst disr- tions. =et tho-"h belief in 1itches no do-bt serves i. ortant social f-nctions, s-ch e0 lanations see. 1holly inade8-ate to acco-nt for its dist-rbin" o1er. (or 1itches are not, like ancestors, easily s-bs-.ed -nder social cate"oriesJ they e.body so.ethin" other, a f-nda.entally e0traBsocial threat to the fra"ile order that can so.eti.es channel b-t never f-lly contain it. They are associated not 1ith c-lt-rally en"endered ills b-t 1ith the .ost -ncontrollable o1ers of nat-re, the sharks that devo-r shi 1recked sailors in the Trobriands, the bli"ht that rava"es cro s, the disease that .ysterio-sly 1eakens and kills. ,f this o1er 1ere directed by or a"ainst stran"ers it .i"ht indeed be an instr-.ent of social cohesion, b-t the 1ides read belief that 1itches choose their victi.s e0cl-sively fro. their o1n villa"e and even fro. their nearest kin, ;inter co..ents 719&#, D'#9, is tre.endo-sly disr- tive of "ro- inte"ration. ;itchcraft is *the ene.y 1ithin*J it bla.es inco. rehensible disease and destr-ction on those closest at hand, and th-s 1orks both a"ainst social ada tation by increasin" internecine conflicts and a"ainst individ-al ad:-st.ent by aro-sin" fear, as in Cochiti P-eblo, that one .ay be -nconscio-sly "-ilty of 1itchcraft thro-"h *bad tho-"hts* res onsible for anotherHs illness or death 7(o0, D&&9. +nd beca-se it confo-nds all caref-lly constr-cted cate"ories of kinshi and co..-nity it detracts far .ore fro. stability than it co-ld ever contrib-te. ;itchcraft, ;inter re.arks of the +.ba 7n.d., 1%D9, in contrast to the ancestor c-lt 1hich increases the solidarity of the "ro- , enhances *ne"ative feelin"s of hatred 1hich tend to -ll it a art and destroy it.* (or this reason, the sociolo"ical deter.inis. of RadcliffeB Bro1n and his school, ;inter concl-des 719&#, D9FM999, resents a very oneBsided vie1 / F& / of social heno.ena by i"norin" the disinte"rative effects of 1itchcraft. The *for.al con"r-ence bet1een the set of ideas and the social str-ct-re* in the )-rkhei.ian tradition .ay even, 1hen one ter. inverts instead of reflectin" the other, rod-ce disr- tion instead of cohesion<or rather a er et-al tension bet1een the., a recario-sly dyna.ic rather than a statically har.onio-s e8-ilibri-.. The r-nnin" conflict bet1een inte"rative ancestors and disinte"rative 1itches is one ro.inent .anifestation in tribal reli"ion of a lar"er o osition bet1een society or c-lt-re itself, the real. of h-.anly er et-ated if divinely fo-nded order, and everythin" that lies threatenin"ly 7or invitin"ly9 o-tside its control. The t1o are so.eti.es -nderstood as o osin" as ects of a sin"le divinity. Th-s a.on" the @-"bara 7Middleton 19&$, D%$M%F9, Eod, or adro , in his transcendent celestial as ect is creator of .en, 1o.en, and cattle 7and hence of society9, b-t in his evil or i..anent as ect this sa.e adro stands .enacin"ly o osed to the social order: *2e is an HinversionH of both Eod in the sky and of .an. 2e lives in rivers and the b-sh, the 1aste laces bet1een the co. o-nds, 1hich are feared as Ho-tsideH and -ninhabited laces,* and is associated, as the *bad Eod,* 1ith 1itches and sorcerers, rain "roves, and ine0 licable .anifestations of .irac-lo-s o1er, kno1n also as adro. More co..only, the -ncontrollable *o-tside* forces are e.bodied as de.onic s irits of the 1ild 1ho .ay -n redictably intr-de on the social do.ain at any ti.e and assa-lt its .e.bers 1ith s irit ossession or disease. Their tar"ets are ty ically chosen 7in contrast to ersons chastised by offended ancestors9 at rando.. 3-ch s irits .ay be the fa.iliars of 1itches, or o osed to the., for they are

characteristically not .alevolent b-t a.oral, as .-ch le recha-n as devil. Their o-tsideness is their essence, ittin" the. i so facto a"ainst everythin" nor.al. Their very -n redictability is a contin-al dan"er to h-.an bein"s 1ho can never safe"-ard the.selves a"ainst ca ricio-s attack. 3i.ilar s irits, fro. i. ish olter"eists to .enacin" trolls, are of co-rse co..on thro-"ho-t the 1orld. Got only these ict-res8-e s rites, ho1ever, b-t any o-tsider not readily s-bs-.ed by established social cate"ories is *inherently linked 1ith the ;ild,* 2all ike s-""ests 719FD, #D%9, thereby beco.in" a so-rce si.-ltaneo-sly 7in )o-"lasHs ter.s9 of -rity and dan"er. Many eo les of the 1orld, like the @-"bara, and like the )inka of the 3-dan, .ake a *clear distinction bet1een the 1ilds 7roor 9 and the ho.estead 7,ai 9, Hthe desert and the so1nH,* a distinction reflected, @ienhardt 1rites of the )inka 7&#9, *in a division of Po1ers into the nonBrational and rational, the -r oseless and the -r osef-l, those 1hich share .enHs social life and those 1hich . . . are .erely .enacin" to h-.an bein"s.* Gor is the .enacin" real. of the 1ild invariably ne"ativeJ it can e.B / FF / body a otentiality for transfor.ation. +.on" the Ihan>- of central Tan>ania, to -ndo the effects of sorcery, )o-"las relates 794M9%9, a *si. leton* is sent 1anderin" into the b-sh, sy.boli>in" a vent-re both *into the disordered re"ions of the .ind* and *beyond the confines of society. The .an 1ho co.es back fro. these inaccessible re"ions brin"s 1ith hi. a o1er not available to those 1ho have stayed in the control of the.selves and of society.* Thro-"h this ha>ardo-s :o-rney into the 1ilderness the see.in"ly closed str-ct-re of tribal society o ens .o.entarily onto an -ncharted s ace in 1hich a s irit-al 8-est for the transcendent and -nkno1n beco.es a ossibility at last. +n essential tension th-s e0ists in .any tribal reli"ions bet1een ordered social str-ct-re and the -ncontrollable 1ildJ .oreover, the social str-ct-re itself is not a -nitary constr-ct b-t one that incor orates contin-o-s conflict and chan"e 1ithin its overall solidarity. +s El-ck.an has re eatedly e. hasi>ed, *Conflicts are a art of social life and c-sto. a ears to e0acerbate these conflicts: b-t in doin" so c-sto. also restrains the conflicts fro. destroyin" the 1ider social order* 719&&, D9. Conflict and resol-tion of conflict is the * ervasive the.e* of T-rnerHs early st-dy of the Gde.b- of Ta.bia, Schism and Continuity in an 3frican Society <a the.e 719%F, 00ii9 reflectin" the vie1s of those, like El-ck.an, 1ho *re"ard a social syste. as Ha field of tension, f-ll of a.bivalence, of coBo eration and contrastin" str-""le.H* 2ere a dyna.ic vie1 of society 7and of the rit-al 1hich e0 resses its do.inant val-es9 e.er"es fro. ada tation of the )-rkhei.ian .odel inherited thro-"h RadcliffeBBro1n. The stren"th of T-rnerHs analysis ste.s fro. a rehension not .erely of social conflict in "eneral b-t of the artic-larly labile for. of Gde.b- society, in contrast 1ith (ortesHs .ore stable Tallensi. Gde.b- society is .atrilineal and virilocalJ that is, inheritance is traced thro-"h 1o.en, yet a 1o.an .oves 1hen .arried to the villa"e of her h-sband and his .atrilineal kin 7to 1ho. she and her children 1ill be -nrelated9, th-s re eatedly breakin" - the residential -nity of the kinshi "ro- . Go shar o osition bet1een ancestral inte"ration and the disinte"rative forces of the 1ild can th-s obtain in this society, since -nlike that of the Tallensi, 1hich *is related to the land, to a"ric-lt-re, and to er.anent residence on the land of 1ellBdefined cor orate linea"es,* the Gde.b- ancestor c-lt *is associated 1ith the b-sh, its dan"ers and blessin"s, 1ith the transience of settle.ent, 1ith the ha>ards of life, and 1ith the .obile h-.an "ro- itself rather than its s ecific habitation* 71F#9. 3-ch a fissile society can hardly "ive rise thro-"h divini>ation of its -nifyin" val-es to the transcendent solidarity tho-"ht by )-rkhei. to be the ob:ect of rit-alJ on the contrary, *nor.s and their s- ortin" val-es can only appear to be consistent, since they .-st cover the resB

/ F' / ence of contradictions 1ithin the str-ct-re itself* 71D49. ,nstead of affir.in" established social str-ct-res, Gde.b- rit-al *co. ensates for the deficiencies in a labile society* 7#$#9 and re eatedly restates *a "ro- -nity 1hich transcends, b-t to so.e e0tent rests on and roceeds o-t of, the .obility and conflicts of its co. onent ele.ents* 7#1&9. Th-s not only invariance and i..-tability b-t conflict and chan"e .ay be inte"ral di.ensions of rit-al itself. ,t is s-rely no accident that T-rnerHs reco"nition of .obility and conflict in Gde.b- society event-ated in rediscovery of van Eenne and for.-lation of the conce ts of li.inality and co..-nitas. The e0e. lary rite de passage , in 1hich van Eenne Hs sta"es of se aration, transition, and incor oration are clearly de.arcated, is the initiation rite si"nalin" a chan"e fro. one social stat-s to another< notably fro. childhood to ad-lthood, as in the Mukanda rite of .ale circ-.cision st-died by T-rner a.on" the Gde.b-. ,n this rit-al, involvin" 7like .any others fro. +frica to +-stralia9 the se"re"ation, after ainf-l circ-.cision, of a "ro- of boys fro. their fa.ily s-rro-ndin"s, instr-ction d-rin" the eriod of healin", and reinte"ration into society as ad-lts, T-rner fo-nd social divisions "ivin" 1ay, d-rin" the transitional eriod, to a transcendent sense of co..-nity. Thro-"h *the .ystical efficacy of rit-al,* he 1rites 719&F, D&%M&&9, *Mukanda stren"thens the 1ider and red-ces the narro1er loyalties,* e. hasi>in" the -nity of .ales irres ective of .atrilineal connections. ,t effects not only a transfor.ation of :-ral stat-s b-t an e0 ansion of h-.an o-tlook, a hei"htened a1areness of co..onality that .i"ht never have co.e into bein" 1itho-t it. M-kanda .arks not only a biosocial transition, then, b-t *a co. lete chan"e in the noviceHs ontolo"ical stat-s,* as Iliade says of initiations in "eneral 719%9, 1'F9, thro-"h death to one condition and rebirth to another. Both by intense instr-ction and by confrontation d-rin" secl-sion 1ith a 1orld radically dissi.ilar to the one they had kno1n the initiates are rofo-ndly transfor.ed. Rites of assa"e th-s both ackno1led"e and redress the divisions inherent in all societiesJ they affir. the rocess-al nat-re of society itself by contin-al rea""re"ation of the individ-als and "ro- s that co. ose it and effect a f-nda.ental reorderin" of revio-s alle"iances. Transference of a boyHs attach.ent fro. the .aternally do.inated childhood fa.ily to the 1orld of .en is central to initiation in Ge1 E-inea. 2ere rit-als or"ani>ed 7as a.on" the ,lahita +ra esh or the Bakta.an9 in elaborate se8-ences in 1hich all .ales artici ate at different a"es fre8-ently involve< alon" 1ith revelation of c-lt ob:ects<bleedin" of the nose and enis and lashin" of the "enitalsJ treat.ent of yo-n" novices as *1ives* s-b:ected to ho.ose0-al interco-rseJ enactB / F9 / .ent of rebirth by cra1lin" bet1een .enHs le"sJ and -blic e0hibition of ne1 initiates in the ostentatio-s re"alia of .anhood, elicitin" assa-lt - on the. by the e0cl-ded and inf-riated 1o.en.N&O Cne rinci al ob:ective of these initiations, T->in re.arks 71$#M$49 of one rite of the Ta.baran c-lt to 1hich all ,lahita +ra esh .ales belon", is *to transfor. the novices into 1hole .en by severin" once and for all the ties of s-bstance and affection 1hich bind the. to 1o.en, es ecially their .others.* The very e0tre.ity of these contin-al Ge1 E-inean initiations s-""ests the e0tent to 1hich se aration fro. childhood de endency and attach.ent to 1o.en in s-ch fiercely 1arlike .asc-line societies is diffic-lt if not i. ossible to achieveJ here rit-al at its .ost fanatically transfor.ative affir.s not the overall solidarity b-t the -nresolvable internal conflicts of a society bent on trans.-tin" or e0tir atin", re"ardless of cost, all affiliations not s-bordinated to its ara.o-nt ob:ect.

,nitiatory rites effect a transfor.ation of attach.ent and o-tlook not .erely by .andatin" assa"e fro. one social di.ension to another b-t by brin"in" the social order itself, in the erson of initiants f-lly attached to neither di.ension, into contact 1ith the -nsociali>ed *1ild* that enco. asses itJ only th-s can s ace for assa"e bet1een the o osed conditions be o ened. 5an Eenne , 1ho laced s-ch stress 719D9 on territorial assa"e bet1een sta"es, e. hasi>ed the *ne-tral >ones*<*ordinarily deserts, .arshes, and .ost fre8-ently vir"in forests* 71'9<that for.erly se arated one territory fro. another and at the sa.e ti.e linked the. to"etherJ it is in these athless marges over 1hich no social order can clai. do.inion that the cr-cial li.inal hase of the rite of assa"e takes lace. Most initiatory rites .arkin" the transition fro. boy to .an involve collective isolation 7in contrast to the individ-al secl-sion of "irls at first .enstr-ation9 in a h-t beyond the ed"e of the villa"e, and rit-ali>ed enco-nter 1ith the 1ild is a fre8-ent condition for the candidateHs transfor.ation. + Bakta.an yo-thHs first initiation be"ins 1hen the .en of the villa"e, adorned 1ith feather headdresses and i"sH t-sks, s-ddenly s1ee do1n at ni"ht, *tear the boy loose fro. the rotestin" and beseechin" .other, and dra" hi. off into the dark, fri"htenin" forest 1here till then he has not been allo1ed to "o at ni"ht for fear of s irits and a.b-shes* 7Barth, %19. Confrontation 1ith s- ernat-ral .onsters like the *hi o ota.-s* of the 6enyan +ka.ba or the *crocodiles* of the Ge1 E-inean B-sa.a is often a central e0 erienceJ a.on" the key N&O 3ee T->in on the ,lahita +ra esh and Barth on the Bakta.an. Cn novices as 1ives, see Bateson, 1#1J on ho.ose0-ality, 6eesin" 19'Da, 1$M11, and 2erdt 19'1. Both Barth 7&%, &F9 and T->in 7D#&9 refer to rebirth by cra1lin" thro-"h .enHs le"s. / '$ / .ysteries revealed in .any societies is the identity of those behind the .asks and of the fl-tes or b-llroarers that s- ly their voices. The very se"re"ation of .en fro. 1o.en that be"ins in the boysH initiation h-t reinforces the belief, held by the B-sa.a and .any others of Ge1 E-inea, that .en are akin to s irits 1hereas 1o.en can never attain sacredness 72o"bin 194FM4', %49. Got by e0cl-sion of the 1ild b-t by enco-nter 1ith it are individ-als transfor.ed and the dyna.ic e8-ilibri-. of a .obile society .aintained. Man belon"s both to desert and so1n, 1hose eri.eters he .-st discover since neither is "ivenJ only by seekin" o-t and assi.ilatin" the alien 1ilderness, societyHs definin" antithesis, can he c-ltivate a lace in a 1orld that he 1ill thereafter e0 erience as f-lly his o1n. Beca-se they brin" e0 ansion of kno1led"e thro-"h absor tion of e0traBsocial o1ers, initiatory rites are a aradi".<ho1ever re -"nant the Ge1 E-inean instance .ay be to civili>ed .an, to say nothin" of civili>ed 1o.an<of the 8-estin" heroHs enco-nter 1ith the beyond. +1areness of their interde endence 1ith vital forces o-tside their control is the essential kno1led"e, e.bracin" all lesser .ysteries, 1hich the initiates "ain thro-"h their enco-nter. +nd since every revelation of rit-al secrets reveals a dece tion, this kno1led"e is both of transcendent tr-ths and of the ill-sions by 1hich s-ch tr-ths are a rehended or invented<an e iste.olo"ical arado0 not irrelevant to the 8-est 7see Barth, '1M'DJ T->in, es . D&1M&'9. +ssi.ilation of this transcendent di.ension res-lts in the *ontolo"ical* selfBtransfor.ation these rites brin" abo-t, as 1hen @iberian novices, havin" been *killed* by the (orest 3 irit and then res-scitated, see. to have entirely for"otten their ast e0 erience 7Iliade 19%', #1, citin" (robeni-s9 and can no lon"er erfor. the .ost basic acts 1hich society had ainstakin"ly ta-"ht the. before their transfor.ative confrontation 1ith its selfB ro:ected o osite. @i.inality can be at once a ne"ation of reli.inal social str-ct-re and an affir.ation of another order of thin"s 7T-rner 19F4, 19&9 beca-se it incor orates an alien ers ective indis ensable to society as

interactive rocess. Rit-al, the vehicle for c-lt-ral assi.ilation of the 1ild, cannot be -nderstood as .erely affir.in" a reBe0istent social reality, even the co. le0ly fissile reality of Gde.b- society analy>ed by T-rnerJ for in contradistinction to cere.ony, to 1hich T-rner assi"ns the confir.atory f-nction, rit-al is transfor.ative in essence 719&F, 9%9. ,t is the *real. of -re ossibility 1hence novel confi"-rations of ideas and relations .ay arise* 79F9, the channel thro-"h 1hich the -n redictable and indeter.inate eriodically s-bvert and rene1 the cate"ories thro-"h 1hich reality is erceived. @ike the Chiham,a rite of affliction st-died by T-rner 719F%, 1'%9, rit-al in "eneral ai.s *to break thro-"h the habit-al / '1 / atterns for.ed by sec-lar c-sto., rational thinkin", and co..on sense, to a condition 1here the -re actBofBbein" is directly a rehended,* the s- re.ely li.inal condition of .an faceBtoBface 1ith a radically -nfa.iliar 1orld over 1hich<-ntil he can enlar"e his ne1ly inade8-ate cate"ories of -nderstandin" by assi.ilatin" its infl-ence<he has no control. 2ere on the threshold of the s irit-al 8-est )-rkhei. and RadcliffeBBro1nHs intellect-ally rovocative red-ction of rit-al to re etitive affir.ation of social order .-st, as in the rites of assa"e the.selves, be left fir.ly behindJ for society, so conceived, cannot alone be the so-rce of 1hat transfor.s and creates it. / 'D /

Chapter Si;. M)th an2 the <ourne) be)on2 the Sel'

Rit-al is by no .eans, then, .erely a .echanis. for denial of chan"e. Cn the contrary, by incor oratin" forces otentially disr- tive of social order it can be a otent instr-.ent of co..-nal transfor.ation. ;hen 1e t-rn fro. rit-al act to .ythic 1ord the .ove.ent to1ard o enness<the real. of the 8-est<is still .ore rono-nced.

The M)thic +or2 an2 the Sacre2 <ourne)

Rit-al chan"es only "rad-ally, e0ce t in ti.es of crisis, since it finds validation in a ti.eless ast vie1ed as a attern for s-bse8-ent a"es. 5ariation does in fact contin-ally occ-r 7see (irth 19&Fa, D##M &$9, b-t invariance is co..only held to be indis ensable to its effect. The s ell or invocation, as the verbal as ect of rit-al action, is also ideally fi0edJ for.-laic rayer, like every .a"ic s ell, achieves *co. -lsion by e0actness of 1ord* 7Reichard 1944, 1$9, fro. 1hich the sli"htest de art-re s-ffices to render it void. B-t de"rees of fi0ity differ "reatly fro. c-lt-re to c-lt-reJ th-s IvansBPritchard 719D9, &#1M#D9 notes in Tande rit-al erfor.ance a la0ity 1hich 1o-ld *horrify a Melanesian* and invalidate the .a"ic act. @an"-a"e, as a creative fac-lty distin"-ishin" .an fro. .ore ri"idly ro"ra..ed ani.als, is es ecially s-sce tible to variationJ -nlike the fi0ed *co. -lsive 1ord* of the Gava:o, G-er rayers, for e0a. le, have *no set for. and order,* IvansBPritchard re orts 719%&, DDJ cf. D1D9, and each .ay be -sed *any1here and at any ti.e.* Gor is this fle0ibility ec-liar to the relatively -nrit-alistic G-erJ a.on" the Tallensi, 1ith their ri"id ancestral obli"ations, the body of a rayer, (ortes 1rites 719F%, 1#%9, *is a t to be a free and ad hoc constr-ction reflectin" the artic-lar feat-res of the occasion, tho-"h stock

/ '# / hrases 1ill be -sed and stock senti.ents and attit-des e0hibited.* The variability latent 7even 1hen stren-o-sly denied9 in c-lt-rally trans.itted rit-al beco.es otentially li.itless 1hen the rit-al 1ord be"ins to free itself fro. s-bordination to fi0ed rit-al action, and th-s be"ins to o en, ho1ever tentatively, fro. coercive e0actness to1ard indeter.inate e0 loration of the -nkno1n. To"ether 1ith atterned actions and -tterances, the sacred ob:ects of rit-al for. an a arently closed sy.bolic syste. s-sce tible, ho1ever, to chan"in" verbal inter retations. To the e0tent that .-ltivocality, or diversity of otential si"nification, is its essence, the sy.bol is de endent on a contin-in" her.ene-tic rocess for its e0istence. ,ts creativity lies not in sacral i..-tability b-t in the .-lti licity of .eanin"s to 1hich it "ives rise 1ithin this inter retive fra.e1ork. The dyna.ic interde endence of fi0ed sy.bol and rovisional 1ord, not the sy.bol in isolation 7for there can be no sy.bol in isolation9, *act-ally HcreatesH society,* T-rner 1rites 719F4, %&9, as a dialectic of str-ct-re and co..-nitas, stasis and chan"e. This relational .eanin" .-st in the end be verbally a rehended, for logos is relationshi , and the 1ord itself is a sy.bol oriented not to1ard an -nchan"in" ast b-t to1ard an indefinite f-t-re. 5erbal inter retation of rit-al sy.bolis. finds its .ost si"nificant e0 ression, a.on" .any tribal eo les, in .yth. Got that .yth is red-cible to .ere co..entary on rit-al. ;. Robertson 3.ith 71'9 contended over a cent-ry a"o that .yths, insofar as they 1ere e0 lanations of rit-als, 1ere in al.ost every case secondary derivations fro. the.. The hy othesis had a fertile i. act on (ra>er, the *Ca.brid"e anthro olo"ists* s-ch as ?ane 2arrison, and the British and 31edish *Myth and Rit-al* school, 1hich inter reted .yths as scenarios of rites de.onstratin" a attern of divine kin"shi thro-"ho-t the ancient Gear Iast. B-t this vie1 1as easily red-ced, by ne"lect of Robertson 3.ithHs 8-alification, to @ord Ra"lanHs clai. 7419 that *all traditional narratives ori"inate in rit-al*<an e0tre.e osition thoro-"hly reb-tted over the last half cent-ry, at the risk of a-thenticatin" the no less -ntenable antithesis that association of .yth 1ith rit-al *is nearly al1ays trivial and cas-al* 76irk, 1'9. N1O The fre8-ently close connection bet1een the. s-""ests, on the contrary, that inas.-ch as .yths can be seen 7as by no .eans all can9 as e0 lanations or inter retations of associated rit-als, they are not .ere *secondary* reflections b-t verbal co-nter arts dyna.ically interactin" 1ith the.. 3-ch bein" the case, as @AviB3tra-ss s-""ests 719&#, D#$9, *1e shall have to "ive - .echanical ca-sality as an e0 lanation and, instead, conceive of the relationshi bet1een .yth and rit-al as dialectical.* N1O (or criticis. of the *Myth and Rit-al* hy othesis and (ra>erHs school, see res ectively Brandon and (ontenrose. / '4 / This dialectic of re etitive act oriented 7insofar as it is fi0ed9 to1ard the i..-table ast and of variable 1ord oriented 7insofar as it frees itself fro. rote incantation9 to1ard the otential f-t-re is another e0 ression of the interaction of clos-re and o enness, stasis and chan"e, f-nda.ental to life, conscio-sness, and lan"-a"e itself: here Ber"sonHs t1o so-rces of .orality and reli"ion as inertial habit and for1ard thr-st find one of their .ost f-nda.ental e0 ressions. Myth too, thro-"h close association 1ith rit-al, .ay f-lfill the conservative f-nction of validatin" the ast by rovidin" a * edi"ree* for .a"ic, accordin" to Malino1ski 71419, and establishin" a *sociolo"ical charter, or a retros ective .oral attern of behavior* 71449. B-t like the blithely inconsistent e0 lanations of rit-al sy.bolis. 1hich native infor.ants often besto1 on baffled ethno"ra hers, reliterate .yths contin-ally varyJ they are edi"rees and charters, if at all, -nder constant revision. The sa.e infor.ant, RadcliffeBBro1n lon" a"o observed 719DD, 1''9, *.ay "ive, on different occasions, t1o entirely different versions of s-ch a

thin" as the ori"in of fire, or the be"innin" of the h-.an race,* and a si.ilar variation characteri>es the le"ends of .any tribal eo les. Ereater standardi>ation no do-bt occ-rred in .ore settled societies, b-t the fle0ible innovativeness of .yth by no .eans ca.e to an end, as the diver"ent renditions of Ereek dra.a or the alternative versions of creation in the 2ebre1 bible ab-ndantly de.onstrate. The characteristic variability of .yth "ives lay to the indeter.inacy latent in the rit-al rocess 7above all in its li.inal hase9, des ite its adhesion to -nchan"in" tradition. (ar fro. bein" a str-ct-reless fl-0, ho1ever, .ythic variability e0 resses the creative ca acity of h-.an conscio-sness and s eech to assi.ilate -nforeseeable e0 erience in lo"ically a rehensible for. not by habit-ated re etition b-t by innovative reco.binationJ .yth, as the .obile co. le.ent of rit-al, is th-s an instr-.ent not rinci ally for control of a .enacin" o-tside 1orld b-t for its e0 loration and transfor.ation. ,t e0tends the reach of rit-al, as 1ord does of act, by transcendin" the i..-tability of a divinely "iven ast<the sacral .o.ent in 1hich every ti.e and lace is the sa.e<thro-"h ro:ection, in the for1ard thr-st of its narrative, of a otentially transfor.ative f-t-re. This dyna.ic conce tion shar ly contrasts 1ith @AviB3tra-ssHs str-ct-ralist tenet 71hich lo"ically recl-des dialectical interaction9 that *.ytholo"y is static, 1e find the sa.e ele.ents co.bined over and over a"ain, b-t they are in a closed syste. . . . in contradistinction to history, 1hich is, of co-rse, an o en syste.* 719F9, 4$9. 5ariability el-des the str-ct-ralist *8-est for the invariant* 7'9, :-st as creative activity has no lace in a h-.an .ind conceived as a * -rely assive* crossroads 1here / '% / all that ha ens is a .atter of chance 749.NDO ,n contrast to this ass-. tion, the lin"-istically str-ct-red variability of .yth er.its the latent li.inality of rit-al to -nfold thro-"h interaction 1ith a er et-ally chan"in" 1orld 1here the 8-est for an indeter.inate "oal beco.es a ossibility, if not a necessity. +.on" the .ost co..on rit-al sy.bols are the road or :o-rney enacted by erfor.ance of the rit-al itself. The i.a"e of a sacred road .arkin" o-t the :o-rney thro-"h life and beyond is 1idely diff-sed in native +.erican reli"ions, as in .any others. Th-s the ;hite Path dra1n on the floor of the )ela1are 7or @ena e9 Bi" 2o-se leads to *the 1estern door 1here all ends* and finds a celestial co-nter art in the Milky ;ay alon" 1hich so-ls of the dead travel to the s irit real. 73 eck 19#1, D:D#9. ,n the P-eblos, 1here rit-al has often see.ed a .onotono-s denial of chan"e, the sy.bol of the road e.bodies the .obility essential to even the .ost traditional reli"ion. +.on" both 2o i and T-Wi, Ilsie Cle1s Parsons observes 719#9, 1:#&$M&19, a line of .eal s rinkled fro. the altar to the door of the sacred kiva is the road by 1hich the s irits travel. Myths of .ankindHs e.er"ence fro. beneath the earth to the *fo-rth 1orld* of the resent, and of the tribeHs lon" 1anderin"s before reachin" the solstitial .iddle lace ordained as their ho.eland, are f-rther dyna.ic di.ensions of P-eblo rit-als, 1hose artici ants re eatedly reBenact the ri.ordial tribal :o-rney "eneration after "eneration. 3i.ilar .yths are e0 licit in s-ch Gava:o chant1ays as U 1ard Movin" and I.er"ence ;ay, b-t every Gava:o rit-al is a :o-rney alon" a road that event-ates, thro-"h -rification and healin", in a change in stat-s. Iven the .etic-lo-sly dra1n b-t 8-ickly obliterated *sand aintin"s* that are art of .ost rites are an indication, des ite their see.in"ly static sy..etry, of a transfi"-rin" assa"e. *The corn 1ith its fo-r bars and fo-r ollen foot rints,* Ge1co.b 1rites 71%%M%&9 of one aintin", *1as the ladder of life thro-"h its fo-r sta"es, and above it 1as the bl-e bird indicatin" eace and ha iness as a final "oal,* th-s re.indin" the artici ant *that only by ersonal effort in .o-ntin" the ladder of life can s irit-al stren"th be ac8-ired.* Move.ent is f-nda.ental to any conce tion of rit-al in 1hich a -r osef-l :o-rney lays so central a role. ,ndeed, in a broadened sense of van Eenne Hs ter., not only initiaB

NDO Contrast Cassirer 19%%, D: &9: *Go1here in .yth do 1e find a assive conte. lation of thin"s.* @AviB3tra-ss 719&9, 1$M1D9 reb-ts *the ill-sion of liberty* by atte. tin" to sho1 *not ho1 .en think in .yths b-t ho1 .yths o erate in .enHs .inds 1itho-t their bein" a1are of the fact.* Cf his analysis of .ytholo"ies and other ta0ono.ies of *sava"e tho-"ht* in lin"-istic ter.s, Cho.sky 719FDa, F49 1rites: *Gothin" has been discovered that is even ro-"hly co. arable to lan"-a"e in these do.ains.* / '& / tions and other rit-als .arkin" for.al alteration of the individ-alHs bioBsocial stat-s b-t virt-ally every rite, insofar as it .a s o-t a ath and invites to a voya"e, is an inci ient rite of assa"e or "-ided 8-est <for 1hat seeker has not be"-n by follo1in" in the footste s of anotherK<for rene1al and transfor.ation. Iven a.on" sedentary eo les like the P-eblos, then, 1here cere.onies e0alt rec-rrence and deny innovation, the s- ressed di.ension of the 1ild .ay rea ear 1ith a ven"eance, and a vesti"ial 8-est s-rvives in rit-al i.a"ery of the road. +.on" the Gava:o, 1ho are cent-ries closer to a h-ntin" e0istence, -nderc-rrents of .obility are erce tibly stron"er. B-t an a"ric-lt-ral 8-est .yth a ears .ost ro.inently, a.on" Gorth +.erican tribes, in con:-nction 1ith the rites of a .ore northern eo le, the Pa1nee, 1ho co.bined a lantin" and a .i"ratory 1ay of life, leavin" solid earth lod"es and caref-lly tended corn cro s on the Ereat Plains of Gebraska several ti.es a year 7before their re.oval to Cklaho.a9 to enca. on the rairie and h-nt the b-ffalo. +ffinities 1ith the P-eblos and even ossibly<in their sacrifice, as recently as 1'#', of a ca tive .aiden to the Ivenin" 3tar<1ith the +>tecs s-""est, if not an ori"in *so.e1here in Cld Me0ico* 7Erinnell 1''9, DDF9, at least a si"nificant so-th1estern infl-ence 1hich shar ly differentiated the Pa1nee fro. other Plains tribes. Pa1nee cere.onies, like those of .any a"ric-lt-ral eo les, 1ere considered, ;eltfish 1rites 7'9, *as the .eans for kee in" the cos.ic order in its co-rse.* +s in T-Wi and other P-eblos, seasonal cere.onies 1ere in char"e of a riesthood, b-t<as a.on" no.adic h-nters of the Plains<1ere erfor.ed in res onse to a visionary call 7%M&9. 3edentary life 1as th-s inf-sed, for these c-ltivators and 1arriors, 1ith .obility and individ-alis.. The re.arkable rit-al se8-ence described al.ost a cent-ry a"o by the Pa1nee 6-Hrah-s, or riest, Tahir-ssa1ichi, in (letcherHs .ono"ra h, The Hako , .ay once have been 1idely diff-sed thro-"ho-t northeastern and .id1estern +.erica. ,n its Pa1nee for. the sy.bolis. of the road is act-ated as a co..-nal 8-est for fertility. There 1as, (letcher re.arks, no stated ti.e for erfor.ance of the 2ako, 1hich 1as not connected 1ith any tribal festival, b-t 1as 7D&9 *a rayer for children, in order that the tribe .ay increase and be stron".* The cere.onyHs central ob:ect, an ear of corn 1ith its ti ainted bl-e to re resent the sky, 1ith fo-r bl-e lines descendin" fro. it, sy.boli>ed the vital o1er of earth, *.other breathin" forth life* 7449, as fertili>ed by the heavens, and the ossibility of h-.an re rod-ctive and s irit-al o1er. B-t the fertility of the sacral ear 1as not assively "iven to .an, a boon descendin" like the rains fro. heaven, b-t had to be actively so-"htJ and the lon" and diffic-lt road leadin" to it 1as no sooner finished than -ndertaken ane1. / 'F / The rocession 1ent forth sin"in", on *a 1ay 1hich has co.e do1n to -s fro. o-r farBa1ay ancestors like a 1indin" ath* 7&99, leadin" thro-"h other1ise -ncharted .ar"ins bet1een kno1n territories. +lone in a land of stran"ers, the 6-Hrah-s re.e.bers 7F$MF19, *1e call - on Mother Corn and 1e ask her: H,s there a ath thro-"h this lon" stretch of co-ntry before -s 1here 1e can see nothin"KH . . . Then

o-r eyes are o ened and 1e see the 1ay 1e are to "o.* Their "-ide, Mother Corn, introd-ces into this -nfa.iliar real. the erennial lifeBs-stainin" rhyth.s that .ark a ath<the ath of oneness 1ith the rhyth.s of earth and sky<thro-"h the inh-.anly athless 1ild. +t da1n, 1hen the old is .ade ne1, Mother Iarth -nfailin"ly hears the 8-esters call: *3he .oves, she a1akes, she arises, she feels the breath of the ne1Bborn )a1n,* and every1here life is rene1ed. *This is very .ysterio-s,* the 6-Hrah-s re.arks 71D%9, *. . . altho-"h it ha ens every day.* The rene1al of earth is the ath1ay to rene1al of h-.anity, for 1o.en be"et children :-st as earth brin"s forth the corn 719$9. The 8-est led by the corn .other thro-"h threatenin" 1ilds c-l.inates in discovery of the child thro-"h 1ho. the fertili>in" o1ers of heaven descend to rene1 the eo le, and the final rit-al is a ro riately that of Blessin" the Child. *+s , sin" this son" here 1ith yo-,* the old Pa1nee riest told +lice (letcher 7D%'9, *, can not hel sheddin" tears. . . . There is no little child here, b-t yo- are here 1ritin" all these thin"s do1n that they .ay not be lost and that o-r children .ay kno1 1hat their fathers believed and racticed in this cere.ony.* 2ere too the 8-est finds a f-lfill.ent that .-st, like the blessin" of children, be re eatedly rene1ed lest it 1ither and erish. ,n the 2ako cere.ony, 1ith its strikin" si.ilarities to ancient Mysteries of the Mediterranean 1orld 7see +le0ander, 1D&M#$9, the .ythic 8-est 1as identified 1ith the i..ediate e0 erience of its celebrantsJ its territorial assa"e 1as not .a ed in corn .eal or ollen on the floor of ho"an or kiva b-t trod by foot thro-"h o en co-ntry in 1hich even fa.iliar si"hts a eared ne1. Go ob:ect .et on the :o-rney see.ed ordinary, (letcher observes 7#$D9: *The trees, the strea.s, the .o-ntains, the b-ffalo 1ere each addressed in son",* beco.in" like the eo le the.selves art of a .yth ertainin" not to a aradi".atic ast b-t to a forever -nfoldin" resent involvin" both h-.an bein"s and the 1orld aro-nd the. in fervently so-"ht rene1al.

M)ths o' the 0ea(enl) Quest

,n other .yths the ath leads to a 8-alitatively different 1orld of the "ods or the dead across distant seas, -nder the earth, or in the heavens. *+t the be"innin" of the 1orld .en and Eod 1ere in a direct relation, / '' / and .en co-ld .ove - and do1n fro. the sky* by ro e, ba.boo to1er, or a tall tree, a @-"bara .yth relates 7Middleton 19&$, DF$9. B-t 1hen this brid"e 1as broken, *.en fell do1n, scatterin" into their resent distinct "ro- s each 1ith its different lan"-a"e,* so that se aration fro. heaven entailed division fro. one another as 1ell. ,n a si.ilar .yth of the 3-danese )inka, sky and earth 1ere ori"inally connected by a ro e, and *.en co-ld cla.ber at 1ill to )ivinity. +t this ti.e there 1as no death* 7@ienhardt, ##M#49. B-t 1hen accidentally str-ck by the first 1o.anHs lon"Bhandled hoe, )ivinity 1ithdre1 to his resent "reat distance fro. the earth and sent a s.all bl-e bird to sever the ro e 1hich had "iven .en access to the sky. 3ince then, *the co-ntry has been Hs oilt,H for .en have to labo-r for the food they need, and are often h-n"ry.*N#O 3-ch +frican .yths e0 lain not only the ori"ins of 1ork, sin, or death, b-t .anHs re.oteness fro. Eod on a continent 1here the va"-e sky deity of tribal reli"ions is seldo. 1orshi ed 7as by G-er and )inka9 1ith the intense devotion accorded to s irits of the earth and the dead. The heavens are inaccessible in .ost of tribal +frica, even in .yth 7e0ce t for the tricksterHs occasional foray9, since not even the "reatest heroes co-ld ascend to a 1orld to 1hich the assa"e1ay had forever been c-t. *,t is re.arkable that o-t of these .any .yths concernin" the ri.eval .an and the loss of his ori"inal state,* Mbiti re.arks 71DF9, *there is not a sin"le .yth, to .y kno1led"e, 1hich even atte. ts to

s-""est a sol-tion or reversal of this "reat loss,* nor any *evidence of .an seekin" after Eod for his o1n sakeJ or of the s irit of .an Hthirstin"H after Eod as the -re and absol-te e0 ression of bein".* There can be no 8-est for heavens fro. 1hich the se aration is so stark and the distance so forbiddin"ly "reat. Got that ascent to the skies and .arria"e bet1een h-.an and celestial bein"s are 1holly absent fro. +frican folklore, b-t they are seldo. deliberately so-"ht and often s-""est the balef-l conse8-ences of overco.in" s-ch a division.N4O The tribal +frican 1as ty ically inti.ate 1ith transcendent o1er in terrestrial, not heavenly for.. ,n other .ytholo"ies the celestial :o-rney, even 1hen barred to the livin", lays a .ore central art. Th-s in a Micronesian .yth fro. Ulithi +toll 7@essa 19&1, 1%M199, once the halfBdivine trickster ,olofZth reaches the sky 1orld, @an", on the s.oke of b-rnin" cocon-t shells, nothin" i. edes hi. fro. :oinin" his father, the sky "od, nor can death revent hi., 1hen ca-"ht in flagrante 1ith N#O Cf. the .yths in IvansBPritchard 19%&, 1$, and B-0ton 19F#, DDMD#. (or other +frican stories of .anHs se aration fro. Eod, 1hether by accident or trans"ression, see Mbiti, 1DDMD9. N4O Cf. Radin 19F$a, &9MFDJ ;erner, %$M'$J sections ($B(199 7*Cther1orld ?o-rneys*9 of 3. Tho. son, vol. #, and of Clarke. / '9 / an avian divinityHs 1ife, fro. ret-rnin" to h-.an foible. ,n another .yth he ado ts a boy, )iscovererB ofBtheB3-n, 1ho has cli.bed to heaven after his h-.an .other left hi. to "o - to her h-sband, the 3-n. 2ere, in contrast to .ost +frican tales, *There is t1oB1ay traffic bet1een @an" and earth,* @essa co..ents 719&&a, 1D9, *and the assa"e is traversed by both deities and .ortals.* ,n a"an Polynesia the h-.an so-l artook of a * sychic dyna.is. .anifestin" itself hysically* thro-"ho-t the -niverse 72andy, D&9, and beca-se so .any of the atua 7"ods or s irits9 had once been so-ls of ersons char"ed 1ith .ana, there 1as no "-lf b-t a contin-ity bet1een *nat-ral* and *s- ernat-ral* 7&9. The dyna.is. of a .ana co..on to .en and "ods and the relative accessibility of the heavens in Polynesian .yth .ade the 8-est for a 1orld beyond a ossibility, if not for livin" individ-als in so hierarchical a society, at least for the "ods and heroes of old, in 1hose e0 loits transcendent as irations denied an o-tlet even in rit-al act fo-nd f-lfill.ent in 1ord. ,n Polynesian .yth the division of heaven and earth res-lted not fro. h-.an folly b-t fro. the effort of their offs rin", o ressed by the dark inti.acy of their -nion, to o en a breathin"Bs ace bet1een arents henceforth arted b-t still in contin-o-s contact. ,n the ri.ordial ni"ht kno1n by the Maori as Po, the sky father Ran"i and earth .other Pa a e.braced in darkness, all b-t s-ffocatin" their children. B-t their firstBborn, Tane, in BestHs T-hoe Maori version 719FD, 1: F49M%19, *lay do1n - on the breast of the Iarth Mother, 1ith his head do1n1ards he raised his le"s and ressed his feet a"ainst Ran"i and so thr-st the sky - 1ards -ntil the heat of Ra, the s-n, 1as no lon"er -nbearable.* This forced se aration, tho-"h no do-bt the ori"in of strife, 1as a feli: culpa creatin" li"ht and .otion fro. darkness and stasis, and o enin" a assa"e1ay thro-"h the .ediatin" s ace bet1een conditions no lon"er f-sed in andro"yno-s oneness. +.on" those 1ho re.ained belo1 in the s ace th-s created 1ere the ne1ly s a1ned race of h-.an bein"s 1ho 1ere at first only .ales. 2ence the search for the .ortal fe.ale *beca.e the "reat 8-est of the "ods*: far and 1ide, Best 1rites 719D4, 419, *they 1andered thro-"ho-t the -niverse, ever seekin" the fe.ale ele.ent, and ever failin" to find it,* -ntil Tane for.ed a h-.an i.a"e fro. the body of the earth .other and instilled it 1ith life fro. the * ri.al ori"in of all thin"s,* ,o 7#%J cf. 19%4, D#MD&, and 19%99. 2-.an bein"s, like the "ods their so-ls .i"ht beco.e, 1ere distin"-ished by 1ananga , or celestial kno1led"e, bro-"ht do1n by Tane 72andy, %%9J they belon"ed not to earth alone b-t in

as iration, at least, to heaven as 1ell, as the fre8-ent celestial :o-rneys of both "ods and h-.ans attest. Iven the .ore terrestrial fe.ale .ay ascend to the skies, like 2ei -a, *;reath of (lo1ers,* in a / 9$ / 3ociety ,slands tale 72andy, 'DM'#9, 1ho dies of heartbreak 1hen her celestial lover leaves her, b-t seeks hi. above and overco.es every dan"er to brin" hi. back to earth, 1here she rea1akens on her flo1ery bier to find hi. a"ain at her side. B-t the o-tco.e of the 8-est is not al1ays ha y, as several Maori le"ends .ake clear. R- e cli.bs fro. heaven to heaven in search of his sister, 1ho cast herself into the sea after Mani transfor.ed her h-sband to a do"J he s-cceeds, b-t erishes fro. the effort 7Erey, &DM&'J Best 19FD, 1:'1&M1'9. Ta1haki seeks his baby da-"hter by the "oddess Tan"otan"o, 1ho took her - to the sky 1hen he ref-sed to 1ash her. By cli.bin" a vine rooted in earth and not lookin" back, he finds her, b-t in BestHs T-hoe version, he insists on ascendin" hi"her to obtain the do"s of his ancestor Ta.a and falls fro. the - er.ost heaven 1hen Ta.a reb-ffs hi. 7Erey, 4&M&1J Best 19FD, 1:91$M1F9. The Polynesian -nlike the +frican heavens are invitin"ly o en, b-t to leave terrestrial roots behind in a verti"ino-s 8-est 1ith no co. rehensible ob:ect .ay not be "iven to h-.an bein"s, 1ho inhabit neither earth nor sky b-t the li.inal .ar"in that severs and :oins the.. ;hen the ob:ect of the 8-est is co. rehensibly -r"ent, ho1ever<not the do"s of Ta.a, b-t the con8-est of death<its -rs-it a"ainst i. ossible odds ennobles the hero 1ho atte. ts it. The e0 loits of Ma-i of a tho-sand tricks 1ere fa.ed thro-"ho-t the Polynesian islands 1hich he fished fro. the sea: ho1 he len"thened the day by nettin" the s-n and fetched do1n fire fro. the "oddess Mah-Bika, barely esca in" incineration. To this .ortal divinity not even his .otherHs ro hecy that *yo- shall cli.b the threshold of the ho-se of yo-r "reat ancestor 2ineBn-iBteB o, and death shall thenceforth have no o1er over .an* 7Erey, DDM4%9 see.ed beyond hi.. Bet1een Ma-i and 2ine a dis -te arose *concernin" the er.anence of death. Ma-i ar"-ed,* in BestHs version 719FD, 1:944M4F9, *that .an sho-ld die as dies the .oon, 1hich 1anes and dies, b-t co.es to life a"ain stron" and vi"oro-s. . . . B-t 2ine 1o-ld have none of this, and said: H@et .an die for all ti.e, that he .ay be la.ented and 1e t over.H 3o 2ine ersisted in slayin" .an,* and Ma-i ersisted in endeavorin" to e0e. t hi.self and his fello1 .ortals fro. death. *, intend,* he tells his arents in EreyHs olished acco-nt 7DDM4%9, *to "o on in the sa.e 1ay for ever.* 2ere is a tr-ly transcendent effort to breach the irrevocable condition of .an, reso-rceless only in fleein" fro. death, and des ite his fatherHs 1arnin"s, Ma-i resolves to visit his "reat ancestress in her d1ellin" lace at the hori>on. Got in the - er.ost heavens scaled by Ta1haki, then, b-t at the .eetin" lace of earth and sky, evanescent :-nct-re of the eternally dis:oined Pa a and Ran"i, 1ill Ma-i enco-nter 2ineBn-iBteB o, 8-een, like / 91 / Ereek Perse hone or Babylonian Ireshki"al, of the lo1er 1orld, yet contin-o-sly in to-ch, at the hori>on, 1ith the livin": a "oddess of the "reatest threshold of all. 3he has tried before to slay Ma-i, 1ho al1ays ret-rned to lifeJ once she obtains a dro of his blood, ho1ever, and 1orks black .a"ic - on it, he .-st erish. B-t Ma-i resolves to confront her, and finds her lyin" aslee . ;arnin" his co. anions not to la-"h, he enters 2ine thro-"h the assa"e by 1hich .an is bornJ b-t a bird la-"hs, and 2ineHs "enitals cr-sh hi. to death. 2is 8-est to ret-rn to a renatal condition has failed, b-t this culpa too is feli: J for only in bet1een, not before or after, birth and death can life<and the 8-est<

take lace. Man as animal !uaerens belon"s neither to the earth fro. 1hich he arises nor to the heavens to 1hich he as ires, b-t to the hori>on. ,n s-ch Polynesian .yths of celestial transcendence, 1hich see. never to have been closely connected 1ith the ancestral and calendrical rites of these once ri"idly stratified islanders, the for1ard thr-st of the creative 1ord rodi"ally co. ensates for the invariance of the re eated actJ the .yths are a *charter* not of thin"s as they are b-t of their otentiality for beco.in", like the 8-estin" heroes of .yth, so.ethin" other or .ore. +.on" so-th1estern +.erican eo les, too, .yth<tho-"h vie1ed by the Gava:o as secondary to the fi0ed rite 7Reichard 19#9, D$9<artic-lates the 8-est for transcendence i. licit in the ollen ath and the se8-ential dry aintin"s of rit-al. The "reat .yth of these eo les, ada ted by the Gava:o and + ache fro. the P-eblos, tells of the eo leHs I.er"ence fro. -nder"ro-nd into the resent fo-rth 7or fifth9 1orld 1here, in ri.ordial ti.es, they so-"ht the Center of the Universe 1hich beca.e their tribal ho.e. This .yth of the eo leHs collective 8-est for a lace in the 1orld resonates thro-"ho-t Gava:o rit-alJ not only the *U 1ard Movin" and I.er"ence ;ay* b-t virt-ally every chant1ay celebrates the neverBco. leted e.er"ence that ertains as .-ch to the o enB ended f-t-re as to the deter.ined ast. The Gava:o chant1ay .yths are stories 1hose hero -nder"oes a series of .isfort-nes and is restored by the s- ernat-rals 76atherine 3 encer, 19MD'9J fro. the. he ac8-ires sacred kno1led"e 1hich he besto1s as c-rin" cere.onies. These heroes, at first re:ected by their fa.ily, rove the.selves by their ordeals as o-tcasts. (ar fro. assively s-b.ittin" to trials, they actively brin" the. abo-t: *;hy is it,* the Chiricah-a ;ind1ay hero e0clai.s, *that , s-ffer those hardshi sL ,t a ears as tho-"h , 1ere seekin" the fri"htf-l thin"s that are -ttin" .e to a testL* The heroesH trials th-s take the for. of deliberate 8-ests, follo1in" e0cl-sion fro. nor.al society, for kno1led"e transfor.in" both hero and 1orld. The attern of these .yths 7and of the rit-als they acco. any9 is that of van Eenne Hs rites of assa"e: se aration, transition, incor oration. / 9D / The hero, havin" so-"ht o-t the 1ild and .ade it art of hi.self, ret-rns 1ith s- erior o1ers: henceforth he 1ill establish the nor. for his 1orld, -ntil another hero co.es to re:ect and rene1 it. Go Gava:o .yth .ore f-lly e0 resses the 8-est for transcendence than the search of Chan"in" ;o.anHs t1in boys for their father, the 3-n. This .yth, linked to the Male 3hootin"1ay chant and, -nlike the for.-laic chants, s-b:ect to contin-ed variation, finds closer analo"-es a.on" the recently .i"ratory + ache than the lon" sedentary P-eblos,N%O for the .obility of the :o-rney is fa.iliar to the h-nter as it no lon"er is, e0ce t in nostal"ic .e.ory, to the lanter. ,n the ti.e of .onsters after the Peo leHs e.er"ence, the .yth relates 76in", D1MD99, Talkin" Eod fo-nd a baby "irl in a flo1er bed by a rainbo1, born of darkness and the )a1n: a creat-re of the hori>on. Beca-se she chan"ed 1ith the seasons, she 1as called Chan"in" ;o.an. Cne day she 1andered fro. her ho"an and fell aslee in the noonday s-nJ 1hen she a1oke, she felt so.eone had co.e in her slee , and sa1 tracks in the east. (o-r days later she "ave birth to a boy and in fo-r .ore to a second 7fo-r is the sacred n-.ber of .any +.erican tribes9J the t1o babies *"re1 every fo-r days, like corn,* and at a"e t1elve disa eared. They had "one to find their father, the 3-n. ;arned by Cld +"e that they 1o-ld die before reachin" their "oal, b-t re:-venated by hi. 7for they are Chan"in" ;o.anHs sons9, and rotected by ea"le feathers 3 ider ;o.an had stolen fro. the 3-n, the t1ins after .any advent-res reach the ho-se of the 3-n. 2is da-"hter 1arns that her father 1ill kill the. 1hen he ret-rnsJ instead, the 3-n s-b:ects the. to a series of trials to test 1hether they are 2oly Peo le 1orthy to be his children. +ided by 3 ider ;o.anHs talis.ans and ti.ely advice fro. the 3-nHs

da-"hter and a hel f-l inch1or., they s-rvive an overheated s1eat bath, oisoned corn.eal, and slashin" flint knives. The 3-n na.es the elder his son and the yo-n"er his "randson, then lets the. descend to earth fro. a hole in the sky after they have identified the fo"Bcovered .o-ntains that deli.it the Gava:o ho.eland belo1. )onnin" heavenly ar.or and 1ieldin" s ears of li"htnin", they slay the .onsters infestin" their land, then revisit their .other and the .o-ntain fro. 1hich their :o-rney be"an and receive son"s fro. Talkin" Eod to a-".ent their ne1 o1er. ;hen they fall sick fro. their toils, the 2oly Peo le c-re the. by erfor.in" *;here the T1o Ca.e N%O , follo1 Gava:o chanter ?eff 6in"Hs version, recorded in 194DM4# by Ma-d Cakes. Cthers, all b-t the last recorded earlier, incl-de Matthe1s, 1$4M#4J C-rtis, 1:9'M1$&J Reichard 19#9, #FM49J 6lah, F#M99J and @ink, D4M#&. (or + ache versions, see C ler 19#', 4FM1$9 7es . 4FM%%9 and Eood1in 19#9, #M1D, 1&MD&. + P-eblo analo"-e in I. Parsons 19D&b, 99M1$D, does not involve a deliberate 8-est by heroes 1ho si. ly *"o 1here their father is.* / 9# / to their (ather*<that is, the healin" chant1ay that reBenacts their heroic 8-est and con8-est<fo-r ti.es. *Then . . . they talked of livin" in the f-t-re, and of the .akin" of the f-t-re eo le.* Th-s ends this ancient le"end of the celestially en"endered seekers to 1ho. 1arriors of old 1o-ld ray, thro-"h the Male 3hootin"1ay chant, for a share in the sacred o1er 1on by their 8-est and bro-"ht back for the benefit of their eo le fro. the distant skies. / 94 /

Chapter Se(en. Mobilit) an2 Its i3its in Co33unal Ritual an2 M)th
The collective bias of .any t1entiethBcent-ry vie1s of society and reli"ion 1as challen"ed, as 1e have seen, by s-ch thinkers as ;eber, Mead, T-rner, and Ber"er. 6arl Mannhei., too, asked 7D$&9, *(ro. 1hat sho-ld the ne1 be e0 ected to ori"inate, if not fro. the novel and -ni8-ely ersonal .ind of the individ-al 1ho breaks beyond the bo-nds of the e0istin" orderK* To break beyond the "iven to1ard e0 loration of the -nkno1n is the essence of the s irit-al 8-est, 1hich is only conceivable 1hen the individ-al no lon"er sees her e0istence as 1holly defined by the collectivity. (or (irth, too 719&4, D##M#49, individ-al actions *tend to have str-ct-ral effect*J th-s the individ-al search .ay i. ortantly infl-ence the reli"io-s syste., as it co-ld never have done for )-rkhei. or his follo1ers. Cthers .ay follo1 inter retations and actions learned fro. advent-reso.e seekers, 1ho .ay i. el social chan"e. 2ence e0a.ination of individ-al .eanin"s, (irth 1rites 74F9, is indis ensable to the st-dy of reli"ion, for 1itho-t s-ch investi"ation, *1e cannot "ive satisfactory ans1ers to the roble.s of reli"io-s transfor.ation.* 3tr-ct-re has so often connoted fi0ity 7in British as in (rench str-ct-ralist anthro olo"y9 that so.e 1riters, incl-din" (irth and T-rner, have e. loyed the .ore fle0ible ter.s organi+ation or process . ,f str-ct-re i. lies order, (irth 1rites 7&19, *or"ani>ation i. lies a 1orkin" to1ards order<tho-"h not necessarily the sa.e order.* T-rner like1ise s-""ests 719&F, DF19 that 1itho-t so.e discre ancy bet1een its rinci les of or"ani>ation, there co-ld be no s-ch thin" as society, since society is *a rocess of ada tation that can never be co. letely cons-..ated.* This ada tation, like all others, is

directed to1ard an evolvin" / 9% / end in a lo"ical ro"ression fro. .ediate "oals to final "oal<insofar as any "oal of an -nendin" rocess can be *final.* 3tr-ct-re is necessarily ada tive, since in a chan"in" 1orld, as Ra a ort notes 719F9, 14F9, .aintenance of ho.eostasis re8-ires constant chan"e of state and, in .ost cases, occasional str-ct-ral chan"es 1hose o-tco.e can never be redeter.ined. ,n s-ch a -r osively ada tive social or"ani>ation, contin-ally s-b:ect to indeter.inate str-ct-ral chan"e thro-"h individ-al actions, above all on the art of its deviant seekers, rit-al and .yth lay a cr-cial role. (or to"ether they r-n the "a.-t in tribal society bet1een collective convention, i..-tably "iven and re etitively reaffir.ed, and the *for1ard thr-st* of .ore variant as irations to transcendence. Rit-als e0 ress conflict as 1ell as confor.ityJ and rites of assa"e, by confrontin" their celebrants 1ith a socially -ncontrollable ;ild, rovide a aradi". for the .ythical e0 lorations of 8-estin" heroes like Ma-i and the Gava:o t1ins<a aradi". of radical se aration fro. the kno1n, erilo-s so:o-rn in an alien yet all-rin" li.inal real., and 7in the Gava:o if not in the Polynesian case9 transfor.ative reBincor oration into a 1orld defa.iliari>ed and reoriented by the heroesH tri-. hant ret-rn. 3-ch 8-ests co-ld not arise in a .onolithic social order 1here rit-al endlessly reaffir.s 1hat has al1ays been and .-st beJ b-t in a social or"ani>ation -n redictably *1orkin" to1ards order* they are of central and for.ative i. ortance. ?-st as the stake of the dead in contin-ity of their livin" descendants "ives ancestor 1orshi a *f-t-re orientation* 7(ortes 19F&, &9, so the see.in"ly static cere.onies of the rit-ali>ed Maori or Gava:o act-ally o en, thro-"h the creative variability of .yth, to1ard a f-t-re initiated by the heroes of old b-t still<like the .yths that tell of their e0 loits and even the slo1ly chan"in" rites that enact the.<in the rocess of for.ation. Iven so, the 8-est re.ains for the .ost art inchoate in rit-al and .yth, a latency a1aitin" reali>ation. Rit-als of rebellion and rites of assa"e acco..odate di.ensions of social conflict and .obility e0cl-ded fro. the static )-rkhei.ian .odel, b-t their effect is not to challen"e traditional society in the na.e of alternative val-es b-t to reinforce its essential ri"htness. El-ck.an re eatedly affir.s that *these rebellions, so far fro. destroyin" the established social order, 1ork so that they even s- ort this order* 719&&, D'9, since their controlled e0 ression in rit-al serves to resolve conflicts and th-s to :-stify society as it is. Cnly a society f-nda.entally beyond 8-estion co-ld er.it s-ch rit-ali>ed e0 ression of o en dissent and -nbridled e0cess: *for the order itself,* bein" i..-ne fro. challen"e, *kee s this rebellion 1ithin bo-nds* 719&#, 1DF9. / 9& / (or T-rner, Gde.b- rit-al affir.s schis. as an as ect of contin-ity, and tribal rit-al in "eneral ackno1led"es the individ-al only *by rescribin" that he s-bordinates his individ-ality to his .-lti le social roles* 719&', DF$9. Rit-als like the Mukanda th-s f-nction as a .echanis. te. orarily abolishin" or .ini.i>in" deflections fro. nor.ative behavior 719&F, D&9MF$9: s-ch de art-res fro. the nor., by bein" safely contained in a circ-.scribed li.inal arena, in the end reinforce nor.alcy. Therefore T-rnerHs assertion 719&', 19'9 that in rites of assa"e the le"iti.acy of cr-cial Gde.brinci les is endorsed does not contradict<tho-"h it i. ortantly 8-alifies<his e. hasis on li.inal co..-nitas as a real. of -re ossibility and a so-rce of novel confi"-rations, for this is a te. orary and strictly li.ited liberty sho1in" 719&F, 1$&9 *that 1ays of actin" and thinkin" alternative to those

laid do1n by the deities or ancestors are -lti.ately -n1orkable and .ay have disastro-s conse8-ences.* ,n a si.ilar 1ay, ano.alo-s events .ay be the occasion for reaffir.in" co..-nal -nity, and rites of stat-s reversal .ay corroborate the hierarchical rinci le by de.onstratin" the abs-rdity of de art-re fro. it. Th-s the circ-.scribed .obility to 1hich tribal rit-als "ive e0 ression re.ains .ar"inal to society. The -r"ent concerns .ost often addressed by reli"ion are not transcendental b-t 1orldly: food, drink, rocreation. +s @a1rence and Me""itt 71'9 1rite of Ge1 E-inea, *Reli"ion is a technolo"y rather than a s irit-al force for h-.an salvation.* There is s.all lace and s.aller .otive for deviant individ-als to 8-est for so.e fara1ay "oalJ for in the i..ediacy of shared h-.an need there is little to distin"-ish one individ-al fro. others nor .-ch to seek<so lon" as the rains and the cro s are de endable and no catastro he s- ervenes<beyond 1hat h-.an labor and the revolvin" seasons re"-larly brin". The 8-estin" co. onent of rit-al therefore re.ains lar"ely otential, even tho-"h this .o.ento-s otentiality belies red-ction of rit-al to .ere re etition of the ast or affir.ation of the stat-s 8-o. ,ndivid-al variation re.ains essential, as Mannhei. and (irth stressed, for chan"e in tribal as in all societies, b-t the very slo1ness of s-ch chan"e 7and the insistence 1ith 1hich it is denied9 s-""est ho1 rare deviation fro. ancestral 1ays is. The chan"e instit-tionali>ed in rites of assa"e fro. one sta"e of life to another er.its, in its caref-lly deli.ited transitional hase, only sli"ht individ-al variation fro. socially established atterns: its "oal, -nlike that of the tr-e 8-est, is fi0ed in advance and all b-t infallibly obtained. Thro-"h rit-al, chan"e th-s beco.es a de endable constant in tribal reli"ion, 1hose rites re eatedly celebrate not so .-ch stasis as the re"-larity of a chan"e 1itho-t ast or f-t-re. This assi.ilation of cyclical chan"e 1ith no clearly distin"-ished f-B / 9F / t-rity .akes ro"ressive chan"es inad.issible 7T-rner 19&', DFF9, since *nor.s .-st be .aintained at the e0 ense of novel 1ays of thinkin" and actin".* ,n the end 71hich is very like the be"innin"9, the fl-idity and fle0ibility of ri.itive reli"ion, Bellah 1rites 719F$, D99, *is a barrier to radical innovation. Pri.itive reli"ion "ives little levera"e fro. 1hich to chan"e the 1orld*<and little sti.-l-s to the individ-al 8-est 1hich .i"ht "ive rise to chan"e. (or s-ch a 8-est co-ld only call societyHs val-es. in 8-estion if it led beyond the. to1ard others -nkno1n, as the assa"e .etic-lo-sly .a ed o-t in tribal rites, for all its enlar"in" otential, can never do. Th-s the li.inal hase of rites of assa"e is itself a transition bet1een the relative clos-re of confir.atory rit-al and the e0 loratory o enness of the 8-estJ its do.ain is the cyclical chan"e 1hich is si.-ltaneo-sly stasis and .ove.ent. *,n the li.inality of tribal societies,* 5ictor and Idith T-rner re.ark 7#9, *traditional a-thority ni s radical deviation in the b-d,* eli.inatin" *o enBendedness* and any * ossibility that the freedo. of tho-"ht inherent in the very rinci le of li.inality co-ld lead to .a:or refor.-lation of the social str-ct-re.* Myth, thro-"h the variability of lan"-a"e and oral trans.ission, .ay entail "reater o enness than rit-al to1ard the -ndeter.ined f-t-re. =et the vast .a:ority of .yths fro. every art of the 1orld are also concerned 1ith .ore .-ndane needs than ascent of the skies or con8-est of death. 2ere a"ain, the 8-est is latent or .ar"inal,N1O tho-"h even the earthiest trickster .ay so.eti.es incon"r-o-sly re.ind -s of his never 8-ite severed celestial connections. The heavenly s irits of tribal eo les, 1ho in so.e .ytholo"ies e.body at least a for.er ossibility of transcendin" ordinary h-.anity, are "enerally s-bordinated as ob:ects of 1orshi <8-ite a art fro. f-tile 8-estions of te. oral riority<to those of the earth and ancestral dead, :-st as .yth is often s-bordinated, in reli"io-s ractice, to rit-al, fro. 1hich it .ay be entirely severed as it shrivels to1ard

the ractically inconse8-ential and readily redictable fantasies of the fairy tale. Iven 1hen .yth is closely connected 1ith rit-al, as a.on" the Gava:o, it -s-ally re.ains secondary, a"ain s-""estin" that the o enin" to1ard the 8-est artic-lated by .yth is a otentiality a1aitin" f-lfill.ent, a for1ard thr-st restrained by the .assive inertia of the cere.ony to 1hich it is N1O ,n Tho. sonHs si0Bvol-.e Motif.;nde: , only tales of sections ($B(199 7*Cther1orld :o-rneys*9 and 21D$$B21#99 7*Tests of ro1ess: 8-ests*9 ertain directly to o-r the.e, and in .ost the ob:ect of the heroHs :o-rney is f-lfill.ent of a ractical need "ivin" little indication of a transcendent di.ension. 3-ch stories .i"ht be called .eta hors of the s irit-al 8-est, b-t 1hat .i"ht notK M-ch of the erennial char. 7and event-al .onotony9 of folktales lies in their fir. adhesion to the to-ches of -ntranscended nat-re that de endably .ake the 1hole 1orld kin. / 9' / ad:-nct. The .obility e.bodied, for e0a. le, by the sy.bolis. of the road and the .yth of e.er"ence in so for.ali>ed a reli"ion as the P-eblo is ke t to a 1ellBcontained .ini.-., since the road is identical for everyone and al1ays leads to the sa.e .iddle laceJ the only choice<1hich is virt-ally none at all<is to be"in the :o-rney, for once that is done, there is no other road to follo1. The 2o i, ;aters re.arks 719D9, *is content to .ove slo1ly and in -nison 1ith all aro-nd hi. in this attern into 1hich he has been ind-cted at birth.* Gava:o rit-al like1ise leads infallibly to1ard a reestablished "oal. +nd if .yths like that of the Gava:o t1ins "ive s lendid e0 ression to the 8-est, inf-sin" the see.in"ly all b-t .echanical chant1ays 1ith a .eas-re of variability and o enness, even these<beca-se they are so clearly handed do1n fro. a sacred ast and so closely associated 1ith chants held to be eternally chan"eless<dra1 their listeners as .-ch back1ard as for1ard. To the latterB day Gava:o the celestial 8-est and the ossible transfor.ation it sy.boli>es is forever closed e0ce t insofar as he identifies hi.self 1ith .ythical heroes of the ast .e.oriali>ed in the .onotono-s re etitions of rit-al. (or 1ithin his traditional reli"ion, the ast, .ade otentially variable by .yth, is the f-t-re, and adherence to it his only transcendence. The Gava:o, treadin" his ollen ath, th-s artakes vicario-sly in the indeter.inate 8-est of .yth 1hile scr- -lo-sly erfor.in" the rites 1hose efficacy the sli"htest deviation 1o-ld instantly ann-l. Rit-al is ra0is, -ndertaken to rod-ce a concrete res-lt. B-t it is also co..-nication a.on" its artici ants, and 1hat its -tative invariance co..-nicates is that nothin" is ne1. Rit-al, +. ;allace 1rites 719&&, D##9, is *co..-nication 1itho-t infor.ation,* since each rit-al *allo1s no -ncertainty, no choice, and hence . . . conveys no infor.ation fro. sender to receiver. ,t is, ideally, a syste. of erfect order and any deviation fro. this order is a .istake.* 3anctity itself, Ra a ort s-""ests 719F9, D$99, derives fro. the *!uality of un!uestiona,leness * i. -ted to -nverifiable ost-lates. (ro. this - dated )-rkhei.ian ers ective, the o ort-nity for 8-estin" 71hich res- oses 8-estionin", and ossible novelty and choice9 1o-ld a"ain see. to be .ini.i>ed or recl-ded. =et far fro. si. ly reaffir.in" the certit-de of stasis, the stereoty ed co..-nication of rit-al serves a *.obili>in" and coordinatin" f-nction* 7;allace 19&&, D#%M#&9 by re arin" the or"anis. to act .ore 8-ickly than less stereoty ed and .ore infor.ational co..-nication co-ld do, since this 1o-ld re8-ire ti.e and effort, beca-se of the novelty of its .essa"e, to be absorbed. *The acco. lish.ent of the rit-al reor"ani>ation of e0 erience is th-s,* ;allace 1rites 7D#99, not .ere indoctrination in societyHs reBestablished val-es b-t *a kind of / 99 /

learnin",* or at least a ro aede-tic to the intensified learnin" that action, once initiated, 1ill inevitably brin". ,t is even ossible that the sanctity associated 1ith the invariant re etitions of rit-al .ay have been, as Ra a ort s ec-lates 719F9, D#19, the stable fo-ndation 1itho-t 1hich lan"-a"e and social order co-ld not have develo ed d-rin" .anHs lon" evol-tionary rehistory. ,n this case an a arently ri"id str-ct-re 1o-ld a"ain have "iven rise to a fle0ible rocess ca able of selfBtranscendence thro-"h ada tation to novelty and chan"e: a rototy e of the conscio-s 8-est that 1o-ld event-ate fro. it. 4-ite a art fro. s-ch con:ect-res, ho1ever, the call to action co..-nicated by rit-al in ;allaceHs conce tion endo1s it 1ith a dyna.ic f-nction not in the distant .ythical ti.e of fo-ndations b-t in the -nfinished resent. The very -n8-estionableness of rit-al, 1hich see.s to recl-de the 8-est, .ay arado0ically foster it by servin" as the fi0ed s rin"board for other1ise i. ossibly bold initiatives 1hose intrinsic -ncertainties, o-tside the rotective clos-re of rit-al, de.and contin-al ada tiveness to chan"e and re eated choice a.on" -n redictable alternatives<8-alities inherent in every livin", thinkin", s eakin" h-.an bein", b-t foc-sed .ost intensely in the 8-estin" hero 1ho deliberately sets o-t to reali>e the transfor.ative as irations that re.ain otential in others. ,nas.-ch as riestly rit-al is conceived in tribal society as the ri.ary for. of co..-nication 1ith the s irit-al 1orld, it beco.es the indis ensable inter.ediary bet1een divine and h-.an. The role of the riest as the conservative "-ardian of established rit-al, (irth observes 719F$, #D9, is reaffir.ation of the e0istin" order and traditionally acce ted .eanin"s. Thro-"h this instit-tionali>ation of reli"io-s transcendence the dyna.ic otentiality of rit-al is safely contained and its o1ers channeled to1ard .aintenance of tested traditions rather than e0 osed to the ha>ards of -ntried innovation. + society contin-ally in 8-est of selfBtransfor.ation 1o-ld risk centrif-"al disinte"rationJ riestly rit-al, 1ith its orientation to1ard an -nchan"in" ast, offers the stabili>in" ass-rance 7as )-rkhei. and his school ri"htly stressed9 that 1hat has been fo-nd need not contin-o-sly be so-"ht ane1. ,ts invariance is no do-bt a fiction .askin" a latent i. et-s to1ard chan"e, b-t the fiction is s- re.ely val-able, insofar as -niversally shared, in - holdin" the contin-ity of co..-nal tradition on 1hich the very e0istence of social order lar"ely de ends. / 1$1 /

!ART T0REE. S!IRIT !OSSESSION AS A FORM OF T0E S!IRITUA QUEST

/ 1$# /

Chapter Ei&ht. The Varieties o' Spirit !ossession

Co..-nal rit-al and .ythic tradition are th-s "reat stabili>ers of social order. =et if this order, like every or"anic str-ct-re, is a dyna.ic e8-ilibri-. forever ada tin" to chan"e, and if .an is a 8-estin" ani.al o en to transcendence of his "iven condition, the very tendency of riestly rit-al and heroic

.yth to er et-ate an i..-table ast "-arantees their ins-fficiency. 5ariation cannot be so nearly e0cl-ded nor co..-nication confined to oneB1ay trans.ission of for.-laic chants and sacrificial offerin"s, nor can collective cere.onies 1holly satisfy the need for ersonal contact 1ith the indeter.inate and the 1ild. This -ncontrollable o1er, safely assi.ilated in the li.inal hase of rites of assa"e b-t never banished far fro. the clearin" or s-bd-ed for lon", can s-ddenly intr-de 1ith the shatterin" transfor.ative force of disease or .adness a"ainst 1hich c-lt-ral ro hyla0is and riestly e0orcis. .ay be, in the end, -navailin".

Spirit !ossession as ,ialo&ue/ Oceania an2 Asia

?-st as the 1ild irresistibly encroaches on .anHs laborio-sly tilled cro s, its -nta.ed s irits er et-ally .enace the c-ltivators the.selves, 1ho vie1 their onsla-"ht 1ith anic, fear, and tre.blin". (or not only in rit-ally hed"ed li.inality do these forces brin" o1er or destr-ctionJ the individ-al 1ho s-rvives their sei>-re and s-b.its to their s1ay .ay be endo1ed 1ith a ca acity for co..-nication 1ith the divine rivalin" that of the instit-tional riest. +.on" the @-"bara of U"anda, Eod *in his evil or i..anent as ect,* 1ho lives in 1aste laces o-tside the co. o-nd and is an inversion of both sky Eod and .an, * ossesses adolescent "irls and drives the. into the b-sh,* Middleton 1rites 719&$, D%&J / 1$4 / cf. 19&9, DD49, 1hence they e.er"e 1ith o1ers of divination. 3i.ilar e0 eriences are co..on in .any tribal c-lt-res, 1here -nforeseen ossession 7of both .en and 1o.en9 and ens-in" illness often initiate a divinerHs or .edi-.Hs vocation. *+ Tiko ia riest talked to his "ods and ancestors, b-t they did not talk back,* (irth observes 719F$, D&1M&D9J *an ordinary Tiko ia, thro-"h a s irit .edi-., co-ld hold t1oB1ay converse 1ith s-ch a s irit.* 2ere is a relationshi 1ith the s- erh-.an inherently .ore variable and dyna.ic than co..-nal rit-al can rovide, for by ina-"-ratin" a dialogue the .edi-. o ens a s ace, 1hich rit-al had caref-lly fenced off, in 1hich the -ne0 ected and -ndeter.ined have entry. 2ere too there 1ill be attern and str-ct-re, of co-rse, b-t no fiction of invariance and little coercive control: the s irit 1ho s eaks thro-"h a .edi-. can be 8-estioned b-t not co..anded, antici ated b-t never forekno1n. Co..-nication 1ith the divine thro-"h s irit ossession is 1ides read in tribal 7as in other9 societies fro. al.ost every art of the "lobe. 3o.eti.es, as a.on" the hi"hly centrali>ed +shanti of Ehana, the s irit s eaks thro-"h his riest 7B-sia, 1949. More co..only, in +frica and else1here, the office of .edi-. or diviner is distinct fro. the riestHs, altho-"h the sa.e erson .ay hold both. ,n so.e tribes the diviner is identical 1ith the .edi-., 1ho. so.e anthro olo"ists call *sha.an.* ;here the t1o are distin"-ished, it is thro-"h the .edi-. that the s irit s eaks directly, 1hereas the diviner, tho-"h he .ay at first be e. o1ered by -n redictable ossession, thereafter inter rets si"ns s-ch as the atterns of scattered stalks or 1inno1ed "rain in accord 1ith strict r-les and conventions. The office of .edi-., tho-"h not restricted by fa.ily or class 7as the riestHs fre8-ently is9, .ay be inherited by those of a "iven linea"e 1ho sho1 a tit-de for tranceJ so.eti.es different .edi-.s co..-nicate 1ith different classes of s irits, s-ch as ancestors or tribal "ods. +fter first bein" ossessed, the .edi-. .ay contract a lifelon" association, even a for.al .arria"e, 1ith a artic-lar s irit, or .ay beco.e a rece tacle o en to vario-s s irits as s-..oned. 2e or she .ay e0 erience trance alone, deliverin" orac-lar 1ords 1hich another inter rets, or .ay share the e0 erience 1ith others ca-"ht - , thro-"h rhyth.ic dance or rha sodic s eakin" in ton"-es, in the conta"io-s ra t-re of ossession. 3o.e ro hesy only on for.al occasions s-ch as festivals, others 1henever re8-ested and aidJ so.e convey advice or infor.ation abo-t the dead, others dia"nose and rescribe for disease,

or co.bat it by assa-ltin" the s irits that ca-se it. ,n nearly every case, ho1ever, ossession of the disci lined .edi-., in contrast to the de.onic f-ry of rando. sei>-re, is a co..-nication 1ith the beyond vol-ntarily solicB / 1$% / ited, in the interest of others, thro-"h the hei"htened condition of trance<ran"in" fro. ecstatic fren>y to catale tic tor or<in 1hich the .edi-.Hs ordinary self is either entirely dis laced by the s irit 1ho s eaks thro-"h her .o-th or strictly s-b:ected to the do.inant 1ill of the s irit 1ho *rides* her. + fe1 acco-nts of s irit .edi-.shi in tribal societies, and in the o -lar strata of *civili>ed* c-lt-res, 1ill s-""est both the heno.enolo"ical diversity and the -nderlyin" -nity of its for.s. 7The ethno"ra hic .aterial has been "reatly enriched since CesterreichHs classic st-dy, )ossession .9 ,n Polynesia, s irit ossession 1as no less ty ical of the ancient reli"ion than ancestor 1orshi , a"ric-lt-ral rites, and h-.an sacrifice, 1hich it co. le.ented by er.ittin" direct contact 1ith the "ods o-tside the elaborate yra.id that reached its a e0 in the sacrosanct chief thro-"h 1ho. all rit-al 1as -lti.ately channeled. By his .astery of .a"ic incantations and esoteric traditions, the aristocratic riest 7and a fortiori the chief9 of the Ge1 Tealand Maori 1as believed to res-rrect the dead or slay the livin"J yet des ite his lack of s-ch .irac-lo-s ca acities, not to .ention social resti"e, the h-.ble .edi-., 1hen ossessed, s oke 1ith no less a-thority, since the "od hi.self s oke thro-"h his .o-th. Iarly travelers in Polynesia, like ;illia. Illis in Tahiti, left vivid descri tions of seances.N1O Possessed by the "od, the orac-lar taura .edi-. *beca.e violently a"itated, and 1orked hi.self - to the hi"hest itch of a arent fren>y,* .-scles conv-lsed, feat-res distorted, eyes 1ild and strained. *,n this state he often rolled on the earth, foa.in" at the .o-th, as if labo-rin" -nder the infl-ence of the divinity by 1ho. he 1as ossessed, and, in shrill cries, and violent and often indistinct so-nds, revealed the 1ill of the "ods.* Transcendence of the everyday h-.an condition co-ld scarcely be .ore e. hatic. Thro-"ho-t Micronesia, too, s irit ossession is 1ides read. ,n Ulithi the .edi-., 1ho tre.bles and .ay fall into an e ile tic fit d-rin" ossession, is the channel thro-"h 1ho. the ancestors rovide infor.ation so-"ht by the livin" 7@essa 19&&b, %19. ,n Pala- *the "od .ay ossess the .edi-. at any ti.e, 1itho-t 1arnin". 2e or she 1ill sho-t lo-dly and then start s eakin" in the voice of the "od* 7@eonard, 1%F9. ,n Melanesia and Ge1 E-inea .anifestations of ossession trance are as varied as attit-des to1ard the "hosts and ancestors 1ho are its a"ents. ,n the 3olo.on island of (lorida, s-dden trance 1as a vehicle for ro hetic -tteranceJ a villa"er, *kno1n to have his o1n tindalo "host of ro hecy, 1o-ld N1O Illis, )olynesian Researches 7@ondon, 1'D99, D:D#%M#&, in Cliver, '$. Cf. Cliver, 94: *The distinction bet1een sha.an Ntaura O and riest Ntahu9a pure O is 8-ite clearBc-tJ the for.er served as a .edi-. thro-"h 1hich a s irit addressed h-.ans, 1hile the latter addressed s irits as a re resentative of h-.ans.* / 1$& / snee>e and be"in to shake, a si"n that the tindalo had entered into hi.J his eyes 1o-ld "lare, his li.bs t1ist, his 1hole body be conv-lsed, foa. 1o-ld b-rst fro. his li sJ then a voice, not his o1n, 1o-ld be heard in his throat, allo1in" or disa rovin" of 1hat 1as ro osed* 7Codrin"ton, D$99. +.on" the Man-s of the +d.iralty ,slands, as a.on" the eastern 6yaka of the Ge1 E-inea hi"hlands, the .edi-. co..-nicates bet1een "hosts and the livin" thro-"h 1histles, 1hich she then inter rets

7(ort-ne, #DJ B-l.er, 14%9. Ilse1here in hi"hland Ge1 E-inea, the Tse.ba"a *s.oke 1o.an* invoked by tobacco and rit-al son"s enters the .edi-.Hs body thro-"h the nostrils, after 1hich the .edi-. *dances abo-t the e.bers in a lo1 cro-ch, sobbin", chantin", and screa.in" in ton"-es* 7Ra a ort 19&', 119MD$9. (ro. the snee>in" and 1histlin", th-. in" and "ibberin", of Melanesia to the stately dances of Bali t1o tho-sand .iles 1est, the c-lt-ral distance co-ld hardly be "reaterJ yet s irit ossession is here far .ore central than a.on" the 1arlike i"Bbreeders of Ge1 E-inea or the r-""ed .ariners of the 1estern Pacific. The everyday behavior of the Balinese, Belo notes 719, *is .eas-red, controlled, "racef-l, tran8-il. I.otion is not easily e0 ressed. )i"nity and an adherence to the r-les of decor-. are c-sto.ary.* =et these eo le, defyin" BenedictHs bif-rcation of c-lt-res, sho1 a strikin" s-sce tibility to states of trance, ran"in" fro. rioto-s to 8-iescent, in 1hich the ordinary ersonality is transfor.ed by a transcendent s iritJ in so.e laces *they clai.ed that all the mem,ers of this villa"e "ro- , do1n to the s.allest children, co-ld and had entered into trance* 7%#9. Ero- trance .i"ht take violent for.s, as 1hen .askers i. ersonatin" Ran"da the ;itch or Baron" the )ra"on *1o-ld "o 1ild, r-sh o-t of the acc-sto.ed erfor.ance lace into the cro1d,. . . then fall -nconscio-s and have to be revived* 7#9. ,n Eian:ar district, the te. le co-rt 1o-ld at ti.es be filled 1ith 1ild fi"-res brandishin" krisses, lea in", and sho-tin", as they enacted the "iant Pi", @ion, or ;itch that ossessed the. 7&&M&F9, and the ra t follo1ers of Baron", .en and 1o.en alike, 1o-ld stab the.selves 1ith their krisses and fren>iedly *h-rl the.selves for1ard to s-ck the "-shin" blood* fro. a fello1 trancerHs 1o-nds 71&49. B-t individ-al .edi-.s also co..-nicated 1ith the "ods in .ore controlled 1ays. Those kno1n as sadegs dance, sho-t, ask 8-estions of the "ods or ans1er in their na.e, :-. - , s1ivel their heads, or h-rl the.selves back1ards into the ar.s of others. ,n arts of 3-.atra, as in the very different c-lt-res across the 3trait of Malacca, co..-nication 1ith s irits thro-"h a .edi-. is fre8-ently racticed des ite the infl-ence of B-ddhist, 2ind-, M-sli., Christian, and sec-lar I-ro ean civili>ations. ,n Chinese 3in"a ore a s irit of vast o1ers ossesses the body of the dang.ki .edi-. *and enables hi. to / 1$F / inflict in:-ry - on hi.self 1itho-t feelin" ain, and to s eak 1ith divine 1isdo., "ivin" advice to 1orshi ers and c-rin" their illnesses* 7Illiott, 1%9. )-rin" a seance 7&#M&49 the ossessin" shen s irit is s-..oned by deafenin" dr-.s, "on"s, and .onotono-s chants a.id b-rnin" incense 1hile the .edi-. sits 1ith icy body and bo1ed head, -ntil trance be"ins. @i.bs 8-iverin", body s1ayin", hair flyin", he sta""ers - as if into0icated, then slobbers and rolls his head as he rances and .-tters. +s fren>y .o-nts, he c-ts his ton"-e 1ith his s1ord, sticks s ikes thro-"h his cheeks, or cli.bs a s1ord ladder. Cons-ltations follo1 as an inter reter translates .-tterin"s s- osed to co.e fro. the shen into an intelli"ible dialect 7&F9. (inally the .edi-. lea s into the air and is ca-"ht by an assistant. *2e 1ill never ad.it that he has .ore than a fe1 va"-e .e.ories of 1hat has ha ened since he 1ent into trance* 7&%9. ,n the north Malaysian rovinces of Perak and 6elantan, a dancer enters a state of lupa , for"etf-lness, d-rin" 1hich he beco.es a s iritHs .edi-. 7Indicott 19F$, D$9 and rises - , ossessed by a ti"erBs iritJ he dra1s blood fro. his ar., fi"hts an invisible foe, sits, cla s, and lies do1n e0ha-sted. ,n B-ddhist Thailand and B-r.a, as in 2ind- Bali and M-sli. Malaya, this ancient for. of contact 1ith the divine by no .eans vanished 1ith the advent of *hi"her* reli"ionsJ its need is felt .ost intensely in ti.es of crisis. ,n northeast Thailand, the tiam .edi-. dia"noses disease by ans1erin" 8-estions in the na.e of the ossessin" "-ardian s irit 7Ta.biah 19F$, DF'MF99. I0tre.e .aladies, s-ch as .ali"nant s irit ossession, re8-ire the .ore otent services of a *.edi-. cum e0orci>er* 7#1#9 1ho learns an

inco. rehensible forei"n lan"-a"e d-rin" trance and s eaks in the voice of the B-ddhist an"els 1ithin hi. as he kicks and 1hi s the atient, or stabs hi. 1ith a ti"erHs tooth, so that the afflictin" s irit 1ill cry o-t and reveal its identity 7#DDMD99. The *nat 1ife* of villa"e B-r.a beco.es a .edi-. beca-se a nat falls in love and 1ishes to .arry her 73 iro, D$'9, even a"ainst her 1ill. +s c-rer, she either identifies the nat res onsible for an illness or learns in trance fro. her s irit h-sband the re.edy of the disease. 3evere .ental illness .ay re8-ire the services of an e0orcist, the *Master of the U er Path,* not a .edi-. b-t a .aster of esoteric lore 1ho ind-ces ossession of the atient by the offendin" nat 1ho. he atte. ts to co..and 7D#$M#&9. This 8-asiBB-ddhist Master see.s 7D419 to have taken over the ori"inal f-nction of the fe.ale .edi-., leavin" her role far .ore .ar"inal than in .any societies. +.on" the 6achins of hi"hland B-r.a, 1here .edi-.shi .ay coe0ist 1ith Catholic or Ba tist Christianity, *the .edi-. in a trance state is able to trans ort hi.self to the 1orld of the nats and cons-lt the nats in erson* 7@each, 19#9<a for. of s irit :o-rney re.iniscent of northern sha.anis.. Cn the ,ndian side of the .o-ntaino-s B-r.ese borB / 1$' / der, too, the .edicine .an of the +o Ga"as, on recoverin" fro. trance, s eaks of havin" seen the atientHs so-l in the heavens and visited friends a.on" the s iritBdo-bles d1ellin" there 7Mills, D4%9. +nd a.on" the 6onyak Ga"as, sha.ans 1ere believed to visit the land of the dead in trance, and to be able to brin" back a so-l kidna ed fro. a slee in" body 7([rerB2ai.endorf, 9#9. 3o-l fli"ht is e0ce tional on the ,ndian s-bcontinent, even a.on" .any Ga"a tribesJ b-t s irit ossession ervades the co-ntless *@ittle Traditions* of villa"e ,ndia. ,n .any re"ions, fro. the 2i.alayas so-th, co..-nication thro-"h .edi-.s in trance co. le.ents the less fle0ible instit-tions of the do.inant riestly reli"ions. The fren>ied 6achYri .edi-. of +ssa. *see.s for the ti.e to be lifted above the 1orld of ti.e and sense* as she deca itates a sacrificial "oat in search of kno1led"e concernin" the ca-se and c-re of disease 7Indle, 4$M419. +.on" the B-ddhist @e chas of 3ikki. in the 2i.alayas, everythin" in the la.aistic reli"ion is theoretically fi0ed, like the horosco es of the hereditary riesthood. By contrast, in the indi"eno-s M-n reli"ion, ossession of .edi-.s by a * rivate "od* is not astrally redestined b-t ina-"-rated by -n redictable sickness 7Eorer, D1%M199. ,n the .o-ntaino-s borderland bet1een ,ndia and Ge al, the Brah.in riest of the ,ndoB+ryan Paharis erfor.s or directs the *caref-lly rescribed, stereoty ed, hi"hly rit-ali>ed reli"io-s activity* of the learned or "reat tradition, above all thro-"h ann-al cere.onies and lifeBcycle rites 7Berre.an, %%M%&9. 2is actions are deter.ined by 1ellBkno1n recedents and his resti"e derives fro. inherited class stat-s and fro. elaborate reli"io-s ed-cation 7&$M&19. Co. le.entin" these riestly f-nctions, a variety of nonBBrah.anical reli"io-s ractitioners concern the.selves 1ith the 1orldly 1elfare of their clients, 1hich they ro.ote thro-"h ersonal contact 1ith the s- ernat-ral 1orld 7%&9. )-rin" cere.onies of the 1ild Bai"a tribe of tro ical central ,ndia, 1ho have been little affected by 2ind-is., .edi-.s fall into fren>y, Il1in 1rites 719#9, #'19, and *thro1 the.selves on the "ro-nd, their li.bs t1itch s as.odically, they 1a" their heads des erately to and fro* as the "od rides - on the.. +.on" the nei"hborin" 6ol, .any of 1ho. consider the.selves 2ind-s, acts of the Brah.in riest have .ore a social than a reli"io-s validity 7Eriffiths, 14F9, and 1orshi of the local "oddesses is cond-cted by a villa"e .edi-., the panda , 1ho in trance *be"ins to tre.ble, then sho-t, beat hi.self - on the "ro-nd, and beco.e in a earance a totally different erson* 71%99. The 2ind- riest of the sava"e Bondo of the Crissa hi"hlands is like1ise cons-lted for ro-tine .atters, the .edi-. for anythin" o-t of the ordinary. 2e dia"noses the tro-ble, Il1in 1rites 719%$, 1&19, *by .eans fa.iliar

thro-"ho-t abori"inal ,ndiaJ he falls into trance and ro hesiesJ he / 1$9 / co..ands the 1inno1in" fan and the "o-rdJ he "ets dr-nk and his ravin"s are inter reted as the voice of the "od.* +nother Crissa tribe st-died by Il1in, the 2ill 3aora, are noted for the co. le0ity of their indi"eno-s reli"io-s ractices. The .ale .edi-.Hs kno1led"e derives fro. s irit-al .arria"e to a 1ife fro. the Under ;orld 719%%, 1#$M#19, and the fe.ale .edi-. is si.ilarly 1edded, des ite initial ref-sal, to *a s-itor fro. the Under ;orld 1ho ro oses .arria"e 1ith all its ecstatic and n-.ino-s conse8-ences,* incl-din" birth of a s irit child 714F9. Both .ale and fe.ale .edi-.s *tor.ent the.selves 1ith clonic conv-lsionsJ they roll on the "ro-nd, tear at their hair, s1ay to and fro in co. lete abandon, dance on their knees* 7D1%9 1hen ossessed by the s- ernat-ral consorts 1ho endo1 the. 1ith kno1led"e of a condition transcendin" their o1n. ,n all these instances fro. tribal c-lt-res 7as in .any others, to be s-re, fro. 2ind- devotional c-lts of 3hiva or the Eoddess9, the contrast 1ith the ascetic selfBdenial of the learned brah.anical tradition of ,ndia co-ld hardly be .ore rono-nced.

Tribal an2 Intertribal Cults/ A'rica an2 A3erica

3o 1ides read is s irit ossession in tro ical +frica, and so f-lly doc-.ented in anthro olo"ical literat-re 7see Beattie and Middleton, and Taretsky and 3ha.ba-"h9, that a fe1 e0a. les 1ill stand for .any. +.on" the )inka of the Gilotic 3-dan, the *Po1ers* 7/ok 9 .ay ossess an -ns-s ectin" tribes.an, 1ho has little or no control over tranceJ a .edi-., on the other hand, translates the t1itterin" so-nds s oken by the divinity thro-"h hi. and th-s channels for the -blic "ood an e0 erience inter.ittently shared by others 7@ienhardt 19&1, %FMFD9. +.on" the nei"hborin" G-er, not the leo ardBskin chief or riest b-t the ro hetic .edi-., 1ho alone is the *o1ner or ossessor of 3 irit* 7IvansBPritchard 19%&, 449, 1ields "reatest infl-ence thro-"h charis.atic ins iration. The riestHs virt-e resides in his office, the ro hetHs in hi.self, and *1hereas in the riest .an s eaks to Eod, in the ro het Eod, in one or other of his hy ostases, s eaks to .an* 7#$49. Th-s the .edi-. of these no.adic and nearly anarchic cattleBbreeders, far fro. bein" secondary to the riest, takes on the a-thoritative di"nity of ro het. +.on" the Mandari of the so-thern 3-dan, ossession ran"es fro. .ental disorders ca-sed 1hen *3 iritBofBtheB+bove* falls - on the. to several clearly differentiated kinds of .edi-.shi e. loyed in healin" others. The .edi-.Hs call *is ty ified by .ental crisis involvin" 1ithdra1al to the b-sh, 1anderin" there ai.lessly, and ref-sal to eat, s eak, or take art in social life* 7B-0ton 19F#, 4%9J it is th-s an individ-al / 11$ / co-nter art to the tribal initiantHs li.inal se aration d-rin" rit-al e0 os-re to the 1ild. +t a seance for a atient the afflictin" Po1er 7/ok 9 .i"ht either s eak directly thro-"h the ossessed doctor or en"a"e in a dialo"-e after ossession<d-rin" 1hich the doctorHs body .i"ht be -ncontrollably conv-lsed and h-rled a"ainst a 1all, or the h-t .i"ht be"in to tre.ble<had r-n its co-rse. ,n arts of +frica 1here ancestor 1orshi is .ore ro.inent, s irit ossession is often closely associated 1ith it. +.on" the Tallensi of Ehana, to be s-re, do.ination of tribal tho-"ht by the ancestors leaves little roo. for other s- ernat-ral forces 7(ortes and Mayer, 119, and divination, thro-"h 1hich ancestral de.ands are revealed, is *a .atterBofBfact b-siness,* .akin" ossession by a

de arted ancestor or any other s- ernat-ral a"ency inconceivable. Ilse1here in ;est +frica, ancestors are often a.on" the s irits tho-"ht to ossess their devotees, es ecially at festivals in their honor. Th-s a.on" the (on of )aho.ey 7Benin9, the s irits of i. ersonated ancestors descend into the heads of dancers ossessed by the. 72erskovits 19#', 1:D1DM1'9. The 1ild behavior characteristic of ossession a.on" other eo les is lar"ely absent, ho1ever, in their cere.onies both for the ancestors and for the vodun , or "ods: *Iven d-rin" the stron"est fren>y it is evident that a dancer is .ost rarely, if ever, co. letely in a trance* 7D:1999. ,n this 1ellBordered for.er kin"do., 1here divine dis ensation 1as traditionally revealed not thro-"h ecstatic trance b-t thro-"h .etic-lo-s divination in the c-lt of (Y, or destiny, s irit ossession has been thoro-"hly assi.ilated to rit-al, in 1hich only the .ost .ar"inal variation can be "ranted entry. +.on" the Ga"oB=or-ba and other =or-ba tribes of Gi"eria, too 75er"er, %$9, ossession trances are the c-l.ination of elaborate festivals for the orisha , "ods 1idely held to be of h-.an ori"in, hence not f-nda.entally different fro. ancestors. The f-t-re is revealed thro-"h divinatory ractices s-ch as the fa.o-s ,fY, in 1hich the .-lti licity of oe.s and stories associated 1ith each fi"-re .akes it ossible for the divinerHs client to choose a.on" the. 7(inne"an, 1%49, b-t s irit ossession er.its a .ore ersonal co..-nication 1ith the divine than even the ins ired inter retation of al. n-ts or co1rie shells can rovide. ,n +shanti, and else1here in so-thern Ehana, less relentlessly re"-lated for.s of s irit ossession find lace, altho-"h the nor.al identification of .edi-. 1ith riest restrains their neverB-nbridled e0cess. +n +shanti sei>ed by an o,osom s irit in the e0cite.ent of a festival .ay s-ddenly r-n forth into the 1ilderness, 1hence he or she .ay e.er"e, if at all, as an o,osomfo riest, and even after beco.in" a trained .o-th iece of the s irits .ay -ne0 ectedly vanish into the b-sh for ho-rs or days at a ti.e, as if to rene1 ins iritin" contact 1ith the 1ild. 2ere ancestor 1orshi is lar"ely a rero"ative of the consecrated chiefJ a.on" / 111 / the nei"hborin" EX, 1here a .ore ty ically ;est +frican for. of ancestor 1orshi revails, the a"ent ossessin" a .edi-. at either an ann-al festival or a rivate seance .ay be not only a s irit or "od b-t one of the dead. ;hen ossessed, rarely .ore than once a year at her "odHs bi" dance, the .edi-. *s eaks 1ith a voice not her o1n and "reater than that of any h-.an bein"* 7(ield 19#F, 1$$9. 3everal 1eeks of e.otional dist-rbance ver"in" on .adness nor.ally follo1, and several yearsH trainin" .ay be re8-ired before she can reco"ni>e the s irit ossessin" her and s eak in its na.e. +t a dance she tre.bles and str-""les 1hile attendants dress herJ then a 1hole strin" of "ods co.e ra idly - on her: *3he .ay be a la.e .an or a h-nchback, she .ay ass-.e the "ait and ost-re of a re"nant 1o.an or a .ost a.-sin"ly co8-ettish yo-n" da.sel,* or .ay bark or "o on all fo-rs 1hen sei>ed by an ani.al "od, or s eak a lan"-a"e she does not kno1, -ntil she colla ses in her attendantsH ar.s 71$%M$F9. +frican s irit ossession re.ains for the .ost art tribal, yet a .edi-. 1ill often have a follo1in" nearby 7the .ost a-thoritative s irits fre8-ently s eak a forei"n ton"-e9, and the c-lt of one infl-ential tribe 1ill so.eti.es be ado ted, and ada ted, by another, as the /ok ossession of the )inka 1as by the Mandari. Iven 1hen s-ch a co. le0 crosses tribal borders, ho1ever, and is ackno1led"ed as forei"n in ori"in, it is -s-ally 7as diverse Gilotic -sa"es of /ok s-""est9 transfor.ed, far .ore 8-ickly than an international reli"ion *of the Book* s-ch as Christianity or ,sla. can nor.ally be, in accord 1ith e0istin" tribal beliefs and ractices, 1hich it transfor.s in t-rn. + notable instance is the C1e+i co. le0 of the Bant-Bs eakin" eo les bo-nded by lakes Tan"anyika, 5ictoria, and +lbert. +.on" the Banyoro of 1estern U"anda, traditional reli"ion centers on C1e>i s irits *associated 1ith a 1onderf-l race of eo le s- osed to have co.e to B-nyoro .any cent-ries a"o, to have r-led the co-ntry for a co- le of "enerations and erfor.ed .any 1onderf-l thin"s, and

then to have vanished as .ysterio-sly as they ca.e* 7Beattie 19&4, 14#9, leavin" behind the. the m,and1a .edi-.shi *thro-"h 1hich the Gyoro eo le still retain access to the .a"ical o1er and 1isdo. 1hich they re resented* 719&9, 1&$9. +.on" the Tin>a of northeastern Tan>ania, on the other hand, the C1e>i s irits 7,ac1e+i 9 are considered recent, forei"n, and .alevolent, in contrast to the old and beneficent m,and1a 7B:erke, 4DM4#9: *They are the s irits a ro riate to a chan"in" and ano.ic 1orld* 7%#9. Unlike the traditional 7-s-ally fe.ale9 m,and1a .edi-., the *sha.an* 1ho rotects the social order a"ainst the *,ac1e+i of the o-tside* can control the s irits 1ho ossess hi. 714$9, co.binin" the o1ers of .edi-. and .edicine .an, diviner and e0orcist. +t a seance he shakes his rattle, sin"s, and calls - on the ,ac1e+i to fall - on hi., / 11D / b-t in his *l-cid* ossession he conveys their 1ords in indirect disco-rse rather than assively s-rrenderin" hi.self to the.. 3o f-nda.entally do s irits bearin" the sa.e na.e differ that C1e>i ossession is no .ore a tr-ly intertribal c-lt a.on" Bant- eo les of this re"ion than is /ok ossession a.on" Gilotic eo les f-rther north. Cnly the +ar c-lt<diff-sed thro-"h .-ch of Ithio ia and the +frican horn, Gorth +frica, and the +rabian enins-la, 1here Christianity and ,sla. had lon" since breached the barriers of tribal reli"ion<deserves, for all its local variations, to be called international. 7The so.e1hat si.ilar ,ori c-lt of Gi"eria and north1est +frica also crosses national borders, b-t is .ainly concentrated a.on" the M-sli. 2a-sa.9 Th-s in Ithio ia, atients 7-s-ally .arried 1o.en9 afflicted by s-ch sy. to.s as sterility, conv-lsive sei>-res, or e0tre.e a athy, and tho-"ht to be ossessed by a.oral +ar 7or 1u!a,i 9 s irits, are treated by a healer 1ho has .astered their o1er. Thro-"h his offices, *the >arHs identity is revealed by the atientHs Hindivid-alH >ar dance 7H"-rriH9, 1hich the s irit obli"es his h-.an HhorseH to erfor. -blicly 1hile the doctor 1atches and directs,* 1itho-t hi.self enterin" trance 7Messin", D'&J cf. @eiris, 1%M 1'9. The roced-re is essentially identical in I"y t, 1here the ractitioner atte. ts to convert the >ar fro. evil to rotective s irits 7(akho-ri, %D9. Tar ossession th-s rese.bles e0orcis. in that the s ecialist ind-ces trance in the victi. of .ali"nant ossession, 1ith the cr-cial difference that here the s irit is not e0 elled b-t conciliated, so that the atient, by ind-ction into the c-lt, beco.es in effect a .edi-. ca able of co..-nicatin" in trance 1ith a s irit both 1ithin and beyond her, and th-s of brin"in" -nder her o1n control di.ensions of her e0istence revio-sly alien to her. Cnly 1ith the near disinte"ration of tribal ties in the cataclys. of overseas slavery, ho1ever, did black +frican s irit .edi-.shi find ne1 for.s of e0 ression, above all in the Caribbean and Bra>il, that necessarily transcended old tribal barriers. ,n 2aiti, the co. le0 a.al"a.ation kno1n in In"lish as voodoo 7fro. vodun 9 incor orated co. onents of +frican reli"ions, es ecially the )aho.ean, alon" 1ith others fro. Gative +.ericans and (rench Catholic coloni>ers, into a ne1 reli"ion in 1hich ossession trance is central. 2ere the s irit ossession fr-"ally .eted o-t at the ann-al festivals of )aho.ey is dis ersed, in very different de"rees, a.on" the *servitors* at lar"eJ as they dance and sin" to the beatin" of dr-.s in the eristyle of an hounfor te. le after sacrifice has been .ade, each .ay beco.e the *horse* of a loa <a divinity -s-ally tho-"ht of as h-.an in ori"in<1ho te. orarily dis laces the servitorHs so-l 7"rosBbonBan"e9 and ani.ates his or her body d-rin" ossession. 5ario-s de"rees of initiation se arate the lo1est "rade of hounsi <*s irit 1ife,* tho-"h fe1 are rit-ally 1edded to a loa 7Co-rlanB / 11# /

der, F1J cf. MAtra-0 19%9, D1DM199<fro. the fe.ale mam,o or .ale houngan .edi-. at the to of the hierarchy. B-t each is re eatedly ridden, reBe.inently by the loa lod"ed in the servitorHs head 71hether by birth or cere.onial initiation9 and kno1n as ma<t9 t8te , 1ho nor.ally takes ossession of the body 1hen sole.nly invoked in the ancestral langage of the pri=re $uin*e . +ny devotee can be ossessed, b-t for i. ortant .atters a trained ho-n"an or .a.bo sho-ld be cons-lted. Possession varies 1idely, not only 1ith the individ-alHs ca acity and sta"e of initiation b-t 1ith the nat-re of the loa, for these co. rise a colorf-l antheon of divinities fro. different *nations,* 1ho .anifest their characteristics in those they ride. Th-s a .a.bo ossessed, as MAtra-0 describes her 719%9, 1D%9, by the battle "od C"o-n, :a.s a saber into her sto.ach, d-els 1ildly 1ith the te. leHs .aster of cere.onies 7laplace 9, hacks at the center ost of the eristyle and chases the terrified hounsi: ossessed by another loa on another occasion she 1ill act in a 1holly different 1ay. The +.erican artist Maya )eren, 1ho fo-nd herself dra1n into the voodoo dances she attended in 194F, "ives an e0traordinary ersonal acco-nt 7D&$9 of the first occasion 1hen the "oddess of love, #r+ulie , .o-nted her head: There is no 1ay o-t. The 1hite darkness .oves - the veins of .y le" like a s1ift tide risin", risin"J it is a "reat force 1hich , cannot s-stain or contain, 1hich, s-rely, 1ill b-rst .y skin. ,t is too .-ch, too 1hite, too bri"htJ this is its darkness. *MercyL* , screa. 1ithin .e. , hear it echoed by the voices, shrill and -nearthly: *Ir>-lieL* The bri"ht darkness floods - thro-"h .y body, reaches .y head, en"-lfs .e. , a. s-cked do1n and e0 loded - 1ard at once. That is all. ,n 3 anishBs eakin" +.erica, the c-lt of Santer>a , centered in the Caribbean b-t 1ith offshoots as far north as Ge1 =ork, has also assi.ilated, alon" 1ith a .edley of .a"ical ractices, "ods 1orshi ed in the +frican ho.eland<.ainly =or-ba orishas identified 1ith Catholic saints<1ho are ca able of ossessin" their devotees 1hen s-..oned, at a fiesta or tam,or , by the sacred dr-.s. B-t it is in Bra>il that ossession c-lts of +frican ori"in have had the 1idest infl-ence, o-tside 2aiti, on the reli"io-s life of the 1estern he.is here. +s in 3anter\a, the )aho.ean vodun and above all the =or-ba orishas "enerally revailed over other tribal "ods and of co-rse over local ancestral s irits 7Bastide 19F', 1D'9, and 1ere syncreti>ed 1ith Catholic saints, beco.in" kno1n interchan"eably as ori:as or santos. ,n the candom,l*s of Bahia 3tate and its ca ital city, 3alvador, *the deities have +frican na.es and are tho-"ht to have er.anent residences in +frica, and all of the son"s the faithf-l sin" are in 1hat are s- osedly +frican lan"-a"es* 7@eacock and @eacock, D'4M'%9. +s in / 114 / )aho.ey and Gi"erian =or-baland, the trance states of artici ants in the -blic cando.blA cere.onies *are rarely if ever s ontaneo-sJ rather, .edi-.s al1ays "o into trance on c-e, they dance to"ether as the deities, then they co.e o-t of trance to"ether,* so that 1ith rare e0ce tions the cere.onies al1ays follo1 the e0 ected attern 7D'&9.NDO They "ive e0 ression not to a )-rkhei.ian *collective ecstasy* b-t to *an ordered set of individ-al trances,* each of 1hich, Bastide ar"-es 719F', D#FM#'9, has its o1n distinctive character. The infl-ence of +frican s irit ossession on Bra>ilian reli"ion er.eates other c-lts to 1hich vario-s nonB+frican eo les have .ore richly contrib-ted. Go shar distinction is ossible bet1een "ro- s kno1n in different re"ions as Mac-.ba, U.banda, Bat-8-e, and so forth, b-t in each the +frican n-cle-s has been enriched<or corr- ted<by ele.ents dra1n fro. Catholic lit-r"y, ,ndian folklore, and I-ro ean s iritis., es ecially in the .idBnineteenth cent-ry for. "iven it by 2i olyte Rivail,

1ho 1rote -nder the na.e of +llan 6ardec 7McEre"or, '&M1199. Mac-.ba is the a.or ho-s ter. .ost 1idely a lied to +froBBra>ilian c-lts, es ecially in their .ore o -lar for.s. 7,n Rio de ?aneiro, 1here .ac-.ba ori"inated, the 1ord is often -sed in de recation, like In"lish *.-.boB:-.bo,* bein" re laced by U.banda 1hen a .ore res ectable synony. is needed.9 The .edi-. in char"e of a terreiro , the c-lt center 1here sacrifice is .ade and initiates are ossessed to the beat of dr-.s, is kno1n as the m?e 7or .ore rarely pai 9 de santo , the .other 7or father9 of the *saint* or "od, translatin" the Ga"oB=or-ba ter.s e. loyed also in the Cando.blA. ,n the 1ords of one m?e de santo , MariaB?osA, as re orted by an enth-siastic (rench - il, *The terreiro re resents +frica, the so-rce* 7Bra.ly, 449, the land of life and ori"ins, force and o1er 71999. ;hen ossessed, *The .edi-. has no 1ill, no .e.ory, no ersonality,* and once the "od has left can re.e.ber nothin" that ha ened d-rin" trance 7#F9. B-t ossession is not rando., for the initiate< -s-ally fe.ale in .ac-.ba as in the cando.blAs<.akes *a kind of act 1ith a "od* 7%#9 1ho beco.es the .aster of her head, -ntil, thro-"h ro"ressive initiation, she beco.es his *bride* and e0 eriences her first controlled trance 7%%9, 1hich she 1ill henceforth enter at 1ill. ,n BelA. 7or 3alvador9, the lar"est city of the +.a>on Basin in northern Bra>il, the central feat-re of the *Bat-8-e*<a na.e also -sed for the c-lts of Rio Erande do 3-l half a continent to the so-th<is a kind NDO =et s irit ossession is .-ch .ore 1idely e0 erienced even in this .ost conservative +froB Bra>ilian c-lt than in the tribal festivals of ;est +frica, 1here *a s.all n-.ber of rivile"ed ersons* fall into trance 7Rodri"-es, 1$19. / 11% / of contract by 1hose ter.s, 3eth and R-th @eacock 1rite 7%D9, *the h-.an receives the s irit and allo1s it to artici ate in cere.onies, and in ret-rn the s irit looks o-t for the 1elfare of the h-.an bein".* Possession takes lace, as in other +froB+.erican reli"ions, to the beatin" of dr-.s, the shakin" of "o-rds, and the sin"in" of son"s and invocations at a -blic cere.ony 7,atu!ue 9 in the o en avilion of the terreiro, and its for.s a"ain vary 1idely in accord both 1ith the ossessin" s irit and the erson ossessed. =o-n"er and less e0 erienced initiates are es ecially rone to frenetic sei>-res. ;hen the de.onic s irits called #:us <after the divine inter.ediary of =or-ba .ytholo"y 1ho so.eti.es, like )aho.ean @e"bY, dis lays -n redictable .alice<are invoked at .idni"ht 7D#M D49, yo-n" eo le sei>ed by the. dance contortedly, roll on the "ro-nd, and bark like do"s to ra id cla in", dr-..in", and sin"in". B-t 1hat is .ost ad.ired in the acco. lished .edi-., the @eacocks affir. 71F1MFD9, *is very often the behavior that a ears the least fren>ied and the .ost nor.al to the o-tside observer.* (inally, the .er"er of +frican s irit ossession 1ith the .e"alo olitan 1orld finds e0 ression in U.banda, a ter. lastic eno-"h to be e0 ro riated by other sects, b-t referrin" .ore s ecifically to the syncretistic c-lt 1idely racticed in the "reat -rban centers of Rio and 3Xo Pa-lo. The vario-s U.banda sects, 1hose devotees in this vast .-ltiBracial co-ntry incl-de ed-cated .e.bers of the redo.inantly 1hite .iddle class, dra1 their core co. onents fro. other +froBBra>ilian c-lts like the des ised Mac-.ba, se"re"atin" the sacrificial rit-al and black .a"ic of the latter fro. itself as 4-i.banda 7its dark t1in and secret sharer9, syste.ati>in" the s irits of its oly"lot inheritance into an elaborately ordered hierarchy, and overlayin" the 1hole 1ith the s iritis. of 6ardec and the s irit-ality of ?es-s. Cf the five .a:or ty es of s irits distin"-ished in one acco-nt fro. 3Xo Pa-lo, the =or-ba orishas <syncreti>ed not only 1ith Christian saints b-t, in so.e versions, 1ith the Cly. ian "ods 7Pressel, ##%M#FJ McEre"or, 1'%M'&9<are considered *so o1erf-l that a .edi-. 1o-ld

e0 lode if ossession 1ere to occ-r*J they therefore send s irits of the dead fro. the other fo-r cate"ories in their lace 7Pressel, ##'9. Possession, des ite occasional fren>ies, is th-s "enerally less shatterin" than in other +froBBra>ilian c-lts, ta.ed to the oint of beco.in" nearly ro-tine. ,n a .odern U.banda cons-ltation, as Bastide s-.s it - 719F', ##D9, *each client has a n-.ber, handed o-t to hi. at the entrance. . . . The .edi-. is in aro0ys., b-t the initial violence has 1orn off. . . . The clients, also seated on lo1 benches, reco-nt their sad stories<-ne. loy.ent, a .issin" h-sband, a rebellio-s child, a ersistent illness. . . . The sAance ends 1ith a .oral ho.ily or a rayer.* +t a session in 3Xo Pa-lo described by Pressel 7#41M4%9, the directors collect d-es / 11& / and si"nat-res in a "-est book. *3o.e1here near the entrance there .ay be a b-lletin board on 1hich vario-s ite.s have been osted: a notice of a f-ndBraisin" icnicJ a re.inder that 1o.en are not er.itted to 1ear slacks in the centerJ and erha s a fe1 hoto"ra hs of .e.bers ossessed by their s irits, taken at a reli"io-s festa .* +fter a brief ser.on on Christian charity, so.e .edi-.s s in ro-nd 1hile s irits descend into their *horses.* ;hen the dr-..in" sto s, clients 1ishin" to cons-lt a s irit 1ait in line, so.eti.es takin" a n-.ber at the doorJ the cons-ltation .ay cover any s-b:ect fro. aches and ains to fa.ily diffic-lties, love roble.s, or even oor "rades. +fter receivin" advice the client *is rid of his bad fl-ids*<a 6ardecist herita"e<in a rit-al kno1n as passes . *+ s irit .ay occasionally,* des ite the "eneral decor-., * ossess a .e.ber of the a-dience, ca-sin" the individ-al to shriek and shake violently,* b-t the c-lt leader or an assistant, 1ho is not hi.self ossessed, restores cal.. Manifold tho-"h its variations .ay be, s irit .edi-.shi is every1here a otentially transfor.ative e0 erience of co..-nication 1ith a transcendent force that dis laces the everyday self. B-t here in U.banda a saniti>ed and re acka"ed, al.ost arodic ossession trance tailored for the .etro olitan .asses no lon"er threatens to shatter those 1ho. it ro-tinely sei>es or to co..-nicate anythin" of the -nkno1n that co-ld not have been easily conveyed by a co. etent "-idance co-nselor. )es ite its e0otic tra in"s and nostal"ic yearnin" for a .ysterio-s +frica that is in fact all aro-nd it, this synthesis of Christ and 6ardec 1ith a s irit .edi-.shi s.ackin" of the al.istHs salon if not of the dentistHs office see.s as distant fro. the ancestral +frica of vod-ns and orishas, bac1e>i and :ok, as it does fro. the a"eBold tribal and o -lar reli"ions of ,ndia, Thailand, Malaya, Bali, or Tahiti. ;hat is .issin" fro. s irit ossession in U.banda, for all its s innin" .edi-.s and batteries of "ods, for all its elaborate s iritis. and ostentatio-s s irit-ality, is recisely its s irit: the contin-al ossibility of a never 1holly redictable alteration of the "iven h-.an condition thro-"h the over o1erin" intr-sion of the divine. / 11F /

Chapter Nine. !ossession an2 Trans'or3ation

,n )el hic riestess, 2ebre1 ro het, M-sli. 3-fi, Christian Pentecostalist, and .any others o-tside tribal reli"ions, co..-nication thro-"h s irit ossession is co. le0ly inter.eshed 1ith diver"ent ideolo"ies of s irit-al ascentJ of salvation thro-"h adherence to la1, s-b.ission to Eod, or inf-sion of "raceJ of e.anci ation or e0tinction of the self. By contrast, the core belief of tribal s iritB ossession c-lts<that it is not .an 1ho raises hi.self to the heavens in these ost.ythical ti.es b-t the "ods 1ho descend, 1ith individ-ally variant and never f-lly redictable res-lts, - on .an<re.ains

consistent in .ost instances fro. the tro ical or s-btro ical re"ions 1e have been e0a.inin".

The Ar2ors o' !assi(it)

;hat connection does s irit ossession have 1ith the 8-estin" di.ension of reli"io-s e0 erienceK +t first bl-sh, very little, for the 8-ester actively seeks 1hat the .edi-.<re eatedly described as an instr-.ent, a vessel, a vehicle, a horse ridden by a o1er she cannot resist< assively a1aits. )-rin" .edi-.shi a erson loses his o1n bein", Mbiti 1rites 7DD&9, *and beco.es si. ly an instr-.ent of the s irit in hi.,* like a radio trans.ittin" .essa"es bet1een divine and h-.an 7D#$9. The initial call is ty ically conceived as an onsla-"ht of .adness or disease a"ainst 1hich the atient str-""les in vain before s-b.ittin" to a destiny, a tremendum , too "reat to 1ithstand. Iven if the call is initially re:ected, B-0ton 1rites of the Mandari 719F#, DFF9, *it is believed that the chosen individ-al .-st event-ally ac8-iesce.* The .edi-. is hel less before a vastly s- erior force and can only s-b.it to its dictatesJ she does not seek b-t is so-"ht and, bein" so-"ht, cannot ref-se. Choice is / 11' / th-s red-ced to a .ini.-. or ann-lled: in the Bat-8-e, the @eacocks observe 7%99<and the sa.e .i"ht be said far beyond Bra>il<*it is the encantado 1ho initiates the relationshi and not the h-.an bein". . . . Go .atter ho1 .-ch an individ-al .ay feel dra1n to a artic-lar encantado, or ho1 .-ch he .ay 1ant to be ossessed by it, there is no 1ay in 1hich this .ay co.e abo-t e0ce t thro-"h the volition of the s- ernat-ral.* The .edi-.Hs coerced 7tho-"h ossibly desired9 -nion 1ith a fa.iliar s irit is often a bond -ntil death, and 1here chan"e fro. one do.inant s irit to another is ossible, as in the 2aitian cere.ony of lav* t8te or *1ashin" of the head,* .ental deran"e.ent is a fre8-ent conse8-ence of so dan"ero-s a severance 7Co-rlander, D1MDD9. Gor is the .edi-.Hs selfBeffacin" s-b.ission li.ited to the initial callJ on the contrary, every e0 erience of ossession entails te. orary annihilation of the self. +ction, like choice, is indis ensable to the 8-est, b-t 1hat the ossessin" o1er re8-ires of his vessel is not activity<only the invadin" s irit can act<b-t assivity: not actions b-t, @ienhardt s-""ests 71%19, their ety.olo"ical o osite, passiones , *s-fferances* 71e .i"ht translate the ter.9 1hich "ive carte blanche to the s iritHs overridin" s- er ersonal 1ill. ,n this dissociated condition, as 1e have re eatedly seen, the .edi-. beco.es another, or a series of others, 1ho s eak and act thro-"h hi.J havin" *ceased to e0ist as a erson,* the entranced individ-al *is in no 1ay res onsible for his deeds or 1ords* 7MAtra-0 19%9, 1#D9. 3tri ed of initiative, action, 1ill, choice, and hence res onsibility, the .edi-. is less a 8-estin" voya"er than the road traveled by another<a notB-nco..on .eta hor to e0 ress her rece tive f-nction. The :o-rney is for the s irit to .ake, fro. his other1orldly ho.e to the 1orld of .en, and 1hatever e0ertion it involves is the s iritHs alone. *;hen a s irit co.es into a erson he .ay have to str-""le thro-"h beca-se,* (irth 1rites 719&Fa, #$19, *in Tiko ia ter.s the erson does not resent a clear ath or, as 1e sho-ld say, is not a "ood .edi-..* B-t altho-"h the ath .ay be blocked, the 1ill of the .edi-., as al1ays, has no effect on the o-tco.e: *The s irit :-st co.es all the sa.e,* and no .erely h-.an o1er can conceivably revent hi.. =et the racticed .edi-.Hs assivity is not the be1ildered neo hyteHsJ it is an achieved assivity in 1hich the .edi-.Hs e0ertions, tho-"h attrib-ted to another, find f-lfill.ent. The very 1ord assivity, insofar as it connotes inertness rather than assionate s-fferance, is .isleadin". Geither vehicle nor horse is static, and a vessel<the .ost co. rehensive .eta hor for the .edi-.<is characteri>ed by receptivity or openness , in this case to incor oration of the transfor.ative s irit that ne"ates the

everyday self by s-ddenly e0 andin" its otential act-ali>ations. This o enness to assi.ilation of the -nkno1n constit-tes the acco. lished / 119 / .edi-.Hs rece tiveness to the s irit: a trained assivity that is an act of vol-ntary s-rrender to the beyond thro-"h 1hich .an beco.es .o.entarily other and .ore. The literat-re of s irit ossession re eatedly e. hasi>es the contrast bet1een the conv-lsive s as.s of the disoriented novice and the controlled trances of the a-thoritative .edi-. 1ho is no lon"er, in the +froBBra>ilian distinction, an -ndisci lined child b-t a .other or father of the "od. The initial sei>-re is not al1ays a call to the .edi-.Hs vocation. Une0 ected enco-nters 1ith the 1ild can lead to destr-ction as 1ell as .astery, and .ali"nant ossession, 1hether fro. 1itchcraft or rando. de.ons of the b-sh, .ay res-lt in 1astin" illness, .adness, or death -nless the invadin" s irit is e0orci>ed or a eased. ,f the sei>-re is dia"nosed as a call, .oreover, the vocation to 1hich it s-..ons .ay be that of an e0orcist or diviner 1ho 1ill not thereafter enter ossession even if ind-cin" it in others. The early states of an inci ient .edi-.Hs *-ncontrolled* or *-nsolicited* ossession, to e. loy @e1isHs ter.s 7%%9,N1O are characteristically follo1ed by increasin"ly controlled states de.onstratin" a de"ree of .astery in s-..onin" s irits to 1hich the .edi-. then s-b.its. ,n so.e c-lt-res different cate"ories of ossession re resent clearly distin"-ished de"rees of control, as a.on" the Ton"a of Ta.bia 1here the ,asangu .edi-. lays a -blic role as channel to the divine lar"ely absent in less vol-ntary for.s of "host ossession 7Colson, F$MF19, or in Bali 1here the relatively sedate behavior of the dancin" sadeg .edi-.s contrasts 1ith that of the fren>ied selfBstabbin" .askers of Baron" the )ra"on. B-t the distinction in de"rees of control ertains above all to s-ccessive hases in a "iven ty e of .edi-.Hs career. Th-s the .ore s ectac-lar ele.ents of L6-n" B-sh.an trance erfor.ances, s-ch as fireB1alkin" and r-nnin" a.ok, @ee re.arks 7419, 1ere not ty ical of e0 erienced trancers b-t *1ere lar"ely confined to the yo-n" novices 1ho 1o-ld l-n"e into trance and e0hibit -ncontrolled reactions.* Mandari doctors *are controlled ersonalities, and it is the -ncontrolled, the nonB rofessional, the sick and the i..at-re 1ho s-ffer ina ro riate or adventitio-s ossession* 7B-0ton 19F#, 4D9. +.on" the Ga"oB=or-ba, *the first ossession fits, 1hich co.e before initiation, are often 1ild and violentJ b-t -nder the s- ervision of the head riest of the "od, they beco.e cal. and settled after a short eriod in his te. le* 75er"er, %19. ,n +froBBra>ilian c-lts s-ch as the Bat-8-e of BelA., the .ost ad.ired behavior is often the .ost a arently norB N1O @e1isHs *.ore ne-tral* ter.s uncontrolled controlled and unsolicited solicited or CesterreichHs co. rehensive involuntary voluntary 7D#&M4#9 are referable to Bo-r"-i"nonHs negative positive or pathological non.pathological 719&', &9. / 1D$ / .al, and in 2aiti, 1here elaborate rites s-ch as the kan>o or ,rul* +in 7*boilin" ot*9 .ark the assa"e to hi"her sta"es of control, *the ho-n"an event-ally establishes a conditioned, for.ali>ed res onse to ossession, and once this is achieved, the 1oa is re"arded as havin" been ta.ed* 7Co-rlander, 119.NDO The distinction bet1een controlled and -ncontrolled s irit ossession in tribal c-lt-res is si.ilar to that .ade in C-"ho-rlianHs sycholo"y of .i.etic desire bet1een ossession and hysteria. Possession, he 1rites 71F9M'$9, *-nderstood in the tr-e sense, that is, as adorcis.* 7in contrast to e0orcis.9,

is the reco"nition or ackno1led".ent Nreconnaissance O of the interindivid-al relation and the .i.etic character of desire. 2ysteria is its .is-nderstandin" Nm*connaissance O. . . . Conse8-ently, ossession is su,mission to the other, the takin" of the other as a model and as the ori"in of the selfHs desire. 2ysteria, in contrast, is revolt , strife, ins-rrection a"ainst the other. . . . Possession .anifests identification , 1hereas hysteria .anifests an ina,ility to identify . . . . Possession is acco. anied by catharsis. B-t no cathartic rocess is really ossible in hysteria. The .edi-.Hs tr-e .astery th-s lies in the f-llness of her reco"nition and acce tance of the otherness to 1hich she is 1illin"ly o en and 1hich she thereby incor orates into herself. The novice beco.es a .edi-. to the e0tent that she is able, thro-"h disci line and trainin", to t-rn initially invol-ntary s irit ossession to the use of others thro-"h controlled co..-nication 1ith the s irit 1orld<a -se re8-irin" that her behavior be *intelli"ible or able to be inter reted,* (irth 1rites 719&Fa, D9&9, and therefore that it *follo1 so.e fairly re"-lar, redictable attern, -s-ally of s eech.* Tho-"h not a tr-e *.aster of s irits* like the Gorth +siatic sha.an, the racticed .edi-. is far fro. a .erely assive instr-.ent of forces 1holly e0ternal to her and th-s alto"ether beyond the reach of her o1ers. The vocation thr-st - on her a"ainst her 1ill .-st thenceforth be re eatedly 1on, for in order to convert the otentially destr-ctive onsla-"ht of the -nta.ed s irit to advanta"eo-s ends, the .edi-. .-st actively seek and in so.e .eas-re co..and the transfor.ative infl-0 that 1ill no lon"er co.e -nbidden. To the e0tent that the G-er ro het, like every .edi-., is *the .o-th iece of a s irit* and *s eaks -nder its control,* IvansBPritchard re.arks 719%&, #$49, he .ay see. the .ere i. le.ent of anotherHs 1ill. B-t in contrast to the ordinary G-er, the ro het is a seeker: one 1ho *so-"ht ins iration, entry of 3 irit into NDO Cn the ,rul* +in and other 2aitian initiation rites, see Co-rlander, 41M44J MAtra-0 19%9, 19DMD1DJ and )eren, DD$MD4. / 1D1 / hi.self and its fillin" hi.J and in seekin" it, he co-ld not b-t have been a1are of the infl-ence it 1o-ld brin" hi.* 7#$F9. The .edi-. ossessed by a s irit cannot si. ly be considered, then, a assive cond-ctor of .essa"es ori"inatin" in -ndisci lined i. -lses fro. 1itho-t or 1ithin, fro. the hei"hts of the s irit or the de ths of the sycheJ her trained rece tivity to o1ers beyond and 1ithin her is a hardBso-"ht and al1ays erilo-s attain.ent. B-t this necessary disci linin" of initially -ncontrolled sei>-res raises the 8-estion of the .edi-.Hs s-sce tibility not to i. -lse b-t to the conventional e0 ectations of her social role: the ossibility, that is, of another kind of assivity. Clder inter retations of ossession trance 7 ro o-nded for +froBBra>ilian reli"ions by Gina Rodri"-es and Ra.os9 as fits of hysteria or even e ile sy have ri"htly "iven 1ay to the e. hasis of Bastide 7#$&9 and others on *the disci line of the c-lt, the control of ecstasy,* -nderstood as a nor.al social heno.enon 7#1$9. B-t does this re lace.ent of a sychiatric by a sociolo"ical thesis i. ly that the .edi-. has e0chan"ed one do.ination for another, beco.in" the instr-.ent not of ne-rotic fren>ies e0ternali>ed as s irits b-t of reBestablished behavior atterns re"-lated, like rit-al in "eneral, by an infle0ible co..-nal tradition to 1hich she -nconscio-sly confor.sK Bastide 1as 1ritin" in artic-lar abo-t ossession of dancers at styli>ed festivals like those of )aho.ey and the cando.blAs of Bra>il, in 1hich s irit trance shares in the -tative invariability of riestly rit-al. 2ere dance is ara.o-nt, and the dancerHs .ove.ents, attrib-ted to the ossessin" s irit,

are re"-lated al.ost as ri"oro-sly as other as ects of rit-al, leavin" slender if any .ar"in for individ-al e0 ression. U to a oint, si.ilar observations a ly to al.ost all s irit ossession, individ-al as 1ell as co..-nal, see.in"ly ecstatic no less than ri"idly controlled. +ll varieties of trance behavior in Bali, Belo 1rites 719, *bear the i. rint of c-lt-ral atternin"* in children and ad-lts, selfBstabbers and sadegs . +nd a.on" .others of sick children ossessed by /ok in fren>ied seances of the Gilotic +l-r scarcely less than a.on" erfor.ers at )aho.ean tribal festivities, *dancin" and trance alike are hi"hly styli>ed, even at their .ost violent, follo1in" a attern to 1hich all have been .entally and hysically conditioned fro. infancy, so that to beco.e ossessed is itself to "ive oneself - to a reB ordained attern* 73o-thall D4#9. ,n this li"ht the .edi-.Hs *controlled* s-rrender is not to erratic sychic i. -lses b-t<1ith e8-al servility<to redictable social nor.s. 3ociety .as8-eradin" as a "od 1o-ld a ear to ossess the .edi-., :-st as 3ociety is the hidden ob:ect of 1orshi , for )-rkhei., in all rit-al. 3o inert a confor.ity to collective e0 ectations can hardly be characteri>ed / 1DD / as a 8-est: not if the .edi-. can discover, albeit -n1ittin"ly, only 1hat 1as "iven to start 1ith. =et invol-ntary and vol-ntary ossession s-""est not .erely t1o s-ccessive hases of assivity< s-rrender to -ncontrollable o1ers of the *1ild* follo1ed by co. liance 1ith socially dictated behavior atterns<b-t a tension bet1een o osin" de.ands in 1hose inter lay lies the .edi-.Hs .ar"in of freedo. and o ort-nity for discovery. The *re.arkable "eneral si.ilarity* in the s eech and behavior of .edi-.s d-rin" trance a.on" the 2ill 3aora of ,ndia, as else1here, by no .eans e0cl-des an *endless diversity in detail* er.itted by absence of the ri"id ro"ra. of riestly rit-al, nor the ossibility that once a .edi-. enters trance *anythin" .ay ha en* 7Il1in 19%%, 4F$9. The c-lt-ral attern, ho1ever ervasive, is not the sole deter.inant of the ossessed .edi-.Hs behavior b-t the .atri0 "ivin" sha e to forces thro-"h 1hose conflict the -ne0 ected can arise. ;itho-t the c-lt-ral attern s irit ossession co-ld not beco.e a co..-nicable e0 erience, b-t if every i. -lse 1ere defined by that attern alone there 1o-ld be no e0 erience to co..-nicate, and the .edi-.Hs .essa"e, like that of rit-al, 1o-ld be a contin-o-sly re eated selfBreferential ta-tolo"y, *co..-nication 1itho-t infor.ation.* 3-ch 1o-ld be the case if the .edi-.Hs behavior 1ere totally controlled. +s (irth 1rites, ho1ever 719&Fa, #$&9, in .ost erfor.ances *there see.ed to be so.e kind of balance bet1een invol-ntary behavio-r and the e0ercise of ersonal control*J trance 1as -n redictable, b-t *.ost of the events 1ithin it follo1ed a fairly set attern.* Beca-se of this tension bet1een individ-al i. -lse and c-lt-ral attern the .edi-. co..-nicates, as she rofesses, so.ethin" beyond the socially constit-ted self that she shares 1ith others<hence so.ethin" transcendent. Th-s the .edi-.Hs ro"ression fro. lar"ely invol-ntary to increasin"ly controlled states of ossession need not be -nderstood as assive confor.ity 1ith social conventions, for these atterned states<like the see.in"ly selfBenclosed "eno.e, the re etitive (re-dian id, the fi0ed "ra..atical co. onent of lan"-a"e, and every other or"anic and c-lt-ral str-ct-re<are dyna.ic syste.s never 1holly closed to the o-tside 1orld. The behavior of both disci lined .edi-. and the erson sei>ed by a .ali"nant s irit *tends to be lar"ely stereoty ed, to confor. to a kind of code. B-t 1hat is artic-larly interestin" here,* (irth s-""ests 719&9, 0i9, *is that in .any societies the code of the .edi-. is -sed to rovide an inter retation of the code of the ossessed atient. Under ress-re of the social conventions, the .edi-. in his s irit ter.s 1orks o-t the stresses 1hich the atient dis lays in his ,* th-s t-rnin" to -rB

/ 1D# / osef-l -se, thro-"h the inter lay of codes as o en syste.s, an i. et-s that .i"ht other1ise re.ain destr-ctively -ndirected. The .edi-.Hs inter retive code is reBe.inently linguistic , since s eech d-rin" s irit ossession is a hall.ark of the .ost racticed .edi-.s: in others the s irit .ay .ove b-t thro-"h these it speaks . +nd -nlike the fi0ed .ove.ents of the dance, lan"-a"e, once released by the solvent of trance fro. the for.-laic re etitiveness of rit-al, can never be confined to the selfBreferential clos-re of co..-nicatin" absence of ne1ness, b-t by its assi.ilation of e0 erience 1ill contin-ally create the indeter.inate f-t-re to 1hich infor.ation alone ertains. Thro-"h the creative o1er of s eech the .edi-. th-s introd-ces into s irit ossession a di.ension of -r osef-l chan"e lackin" in its invol-ntary .anifestationsJ her *inter retation* ty ically takes the for. of ro"nosis, revealin" not only the atientHs c-rrent condition and its ca-ses b-t the otentiality for transfor.in" that condition as the .edi-. has already done. @an"-a"e, 8-intessentially atterned by c-lt-re, is therefore tr-ly a .anifestation of s irit, conceived recisely as the otential for -r osef-l selfBtranscendence inherent in all livin" thin"s: a otential a rehensible only thro-"h the sy.bol -nderstood 7in PeirceHs sense9 as esse in futuro . 3 irit ossession inter reted thro-"h the .edi-.Hs never 1holly stereoty ed lan"-a"e th-s o ens, like .yth, onto an -ndeter.ined f-t-re. To this de"ree the str-ct-re of ecstasy, Bastide observes 719&1, D%D9, *is e8-al to the str-ct-re of .yth, 1hich serves it as a .odel*J both co. le.ent the invariance of rit-al by e0tendin" its latent 7or li.inal9 dyna.ic di.ensions, and thereby reorient tribal reli"io-s activity a1ay fro. e0cl-sive concern 1ith affir.ation of the co..-nal ast to1ard incor oration of the variable and the ne1. Iven .ore than .yth, ho1ever, 1hose s-b:ect .atter looks back to a le"endary ast, verbal co..-nication attrib-ted to the s irit in trance ertains e0 licitly to resent and f-t-re needs of livin" individ-als in transition or crisis. +nd -nlike .yths, 1hich fre8-ently beco.e dissociated fro. rit-al, s irit .edi-.shi , 1here it e0ists a.on" tribal eo les, is an inte"ral art of reli"io-s ra0is<one 1hich .ay even 7as in Tiko ia9N#O briefly s-rvive .ore conservative for.s of rit-al lon" associated 1ith it in the dialectic of clos-re and o enness, stasis and chan"e. ,nas.-ch as the .edi-.Hs ractice finds c-l.inatin" e0 ression in s eech ascribed to s irit, then, her trance can by no .eans be dis.issed N#O Ret-rnin" to Tiko ia in 19%D, (irth 719&Fa, D94M9%9 fo-nd only s.all sectors of the lar"ely Christian co..-nity racticin" s-ch a"an rites as the ;ork of the Eods, yet s irit .edi-.shi 1as still flo-rishin" as in 19D'MD9. B-t d-rin" a third visit in 19&&, 1hen all a"an rit-al had la sed, everyone a"reed that .edi-.shi *had ceased co. letely and , co-ld find not the sli"htest evidence of any rivate or secret ractices of this order* 7#%&9. / 1D4 / as .ere co. liance 1ith reordained social nor.s b-t .-st be -nderstood as an actively -rs-ed state of indeter.inacy 1hose co..-nications ertain essentially not to 1hat is "iven b-t to 1hat re.ains to be fo-nd and .-st therefore, 1ith no certainty of its o-tco.e, be contin-ally so-"ht. Both that -ncertainty, that ossibility 7ri"oro-sly e0cl-ded fro. riestly rit-al in all b-t its caref-lly confined li.inal hases9 that the -ne0 ected may ha en, and the stereoty ed red-ndancy of .ost .essa"es a"ainst 1hich s-ch novelty can be .eas-red, are f-nda.ental to the .edi-.Hs ca acity to convey infor.ation held to derive fro. a real. of the s irit s-r assin" the everyday self: a transcendent real. .ade i..anent in the incarnated 1ord. To co..-nicate this *ne1s of the beyond* is the never f-lly attainable ob:ect of the s irit .edi-.Hs often ard-o-s 8-est.

,ancin& to4ar2 the Un8no4n

The 1ord *.edi-.* carries inevitable connotations in .odern 1estern lan"-a"es of d-bio-s if not fra-d-lent ractices ran"in" fro. tablet-rnin" to o-i:a boards and other for.s of fort-neBtellin". B-t in contrast to the s iritis. of .odern I-ro e and +.erica, 1hich "re1 - in reaction to both instit-tional Christianity and ositivistic science, the s irit .edi-.shi of tribal reli"ions is in its o1n conte0t by no .eans reactionary. Cn the contrary, as the co..-nally sanctioned co. le.ent to riestly rit-al, it has "enerally been associated 1ith an o enin" to1ard the -nkno1n, a otentially transfor.ative e0 loration of the ne1. This does not, ho1ever, i. ly that the clai.s of .edi-.s are -niversally believed by their cred-lo-s follo1ers, or that their ecstatic erfor.ances are al1ays free of the dece tions ra. ant in ;estern s iritis.<and not -nkno1n in ;estern science. Both tribes.an and anthro olo"ist .ay be ske tical 1ith "ood reason of ins ired rono-nce.ents, kno1in" ho1 easily trance can be disse.bled. =et the -ndo-bted 7and so.eti.es o enly ackno1led"ed9 retense noted by Gina Rodri"-es in his ioneerin" st-dy of +froBBra>ilian cando.b1As 71$#M$49< and by .any ethnolo"ists since<in no 1ay contradicts the * rofo-nd conviction* of their devotees. The concl-sion that for those 1ho e0 erience it *trance is very real* 7Bastide 19&1, D%19, tho-"h often retended, is reinforced ositively by .any instances of the ossessed .edi-.Hs increased hysical o1ers and i..-nity to ain, and ne"atively by occasional fail-re to achieve a condition so ardently so-"ht. *, .yself sa1 filhas.de.santo desire trance, do everythin", 1ith to-chin" "ood 1ill, to be ossessed by the "od,* Bastide 1rites 719F#, #$#M $49, *1itho-t achievin" anythin". . . . This roves that si.-lation is neither "eneral nor nor.al in +froB Bra>ilian reli"ion.* / 1D% / Got only initiates b-t e0 erienced .edi-.s .ay fail to enter trance: *)es ite everythin",* Colson 1rites 7F&9 of the Ton"a of Ta.bia, *the .edi-. .ay not be able to involve the s irit,* 1hich so.eti.es ref-ses to s eak. 3-ch instances, tho-"h very rare<nor.ally the acco. lished .edi-. can enter ossession al.ost at 1ill<contrast shar ly 1ith the s- osed infallibility of ro erly erfor.ed s ells and rit-als. 2o1ever "reat a de"ree of control the .edi-. has attained, a re.ote ossibility e0ists that the -n redictable s irit, 1ho can be s-..oned b-t not coerced by dr-.beat and son", .ay not dei"n, after all, to descend. More f-nda.entally, o-r reocc- ation 1ith distin"-ishin" retended fro. "en-ine states is lar"ely alien to tribal reli"ion. The )inka reco"ni>e that early sta"es of ossession .ay be co-nterfeited, @ienhardt observes 719&1, D#%9, b-t *-nlike -s they do not think that this vol-ntary coBo eration of the conscio-s erson in any 1ay invalidates his final state of ossession as co.in" fro. a so-rce other than hi.self.* Conscio-s .ani -lation th-s recedes and .ay even, - to a oint, acco. any the .edi-.Hs s-rrender to a transcendent and therefore -nkno1able o1er, s-""estin" a purposeful 8-est for an indeter.inate ob:ect. *Ivery ossession has a theatrical as ect,* MAtra-0 co..ents 719%9, 1D&9J in 2aiti as else1here the .edi-.Hs i. ersonation of a fa.iliar s irit is a skilled erfor.ance enhanced by elaborate cost-.es and ro s. ,n "reat festivals s-ch as the Bra>ilian cando.blAs 7Bastide 19&1, D49M%19, dances tend to1ard theatrical re resentation in 1hich vario-s trances follo1 a .ythic scenario. The fact of dra.atic i. ersonation need not, ho1ever, any .ore than occasional dissi.-lation, s-""est that s irit ossession is *only* an acted and not a "en-ine e0 erience. (or in this ri.itive theater there can be no arado0 of an actor selfBconscio-sly distinct fro. his role: erson and ersona are one, and to act <for dra.a is essentially ra0is, or action<is to ,e the "od. The theatrical as ect of ossession is not a si"n

of dece tion b-t of involve.ent, by both actors and a-dience, in a dra.a of roles vastly s-r assin" those of everyday life, a dra.a of s irit-al transcendence, of the h-.an ca acity for harborin" the divine. The *theater* of s irit ossession is not a theater of artifice only b-t, as @eiris 79$M919 calls the Ithio ian >ar, *a lived theater,* un th*@tre v*cu , 1hose life is that of the s irit 1hich inf-ses the body 1ith its -nbo-nded otentiality and th-s i..eas-rably e0 ands the .o.entarily n-llified self. The tribal riest, (irth 1rites 719F$, #D9, finds his role in *reaffir.ation of the e0istin" order and traditionally acce ted .eanin"s. 2e tends to be conservative.* The .edi-., 1ho res onds to a ersonal call, "enerally occ- ies a .ore a.bi"-o-s social ositionJ b-t as the riestHs instit-tional co-nter art does she, or the s irit ossessin" her, e8-ally reB / 1D& / affir., in the end, the ri"htness of the traditional orderK 2er atterned trance, as 2erskovits e. hasi>es for 2aitian voodoo 719&&, #%99, follo1s r-les 1ell -nderstood and acce ted by all. Possession, in BastideHs 1ords 719F#, #1$9, *is a nor.al heno.enon beca-se it is a social heno.enon.* Those s-b:ect to s irit ossession< reBe.inently racticed .edi-.s<a ear for the .ost art, to both ethno"ra hers and fello1Btribes.en, * hysically and .entally nor.al* individ-als, as Eelfand 71##9 1rites of the 3hona of Ti.bab1e, 1ell in control of their e.otions. ;ith cons ic-o-s e0ce tions, +frican .edi-.s, like .ost others, are not deviants, ho.ose0-als, e ile tics, or .isfits, Beattie and Middleton observe 700iiiM00iv9J *often indeed they are chosen e0 ressly for their .oral robity and virt-e,* and .ay even 7as a.on" the +shanti9 be riests. +ltho-"h attit-des to1ard the .edi-. vary 1idely both a.on" different c-lt-res and 1ithin a "iven c-lt-re, only rarely 1ill one be re"arded, like the *nat 1ife* of B-r.a 73 iro, D$9M1$9, 1ith 1ides read conte. t. +s a r-le, des ite the e0traordinary e0 eriences she -nder"oes d-rin" trance, the .edi-. is no dissenter, .-ch less a rebel, a"ainst a social order that readily acco..odates s-ch e0 eriences to its nor.sJ she in no 1ay threatens thin"s as they traditionally are. ,n contrast to riests, ho1ever, 1ho belon" to the - er classes in .ost socially differentiated societies, tribal .edi-.s are often dra1n fro. the lo1er orders. The riesthood is "enerally a closed cor oration allied 71hen not identical9 1ith the "overnin" class, b-t co..-nication thro-"h s irit ossession is often o en to all, incl-din" those 7like 1o.en9 nor.ally e0cl-ded fro. other resti"io-s activities. +.on" the Banyoro of 1estern U"anda, for e0a. le, 1o.en have lo1 social stat-s and are s-bservient to .en, b-t as .edi-.s, Beattie notes 719&9, 1&99, they can co..and res ect and earn a s-bstantial inco.e. The redo.inance of 1o.en is es ecially notable in c-lts like the Gorth +frican >ar and Bra>ilian cando.blA, 1here ossession is 1idely disse.inated a.on" the initiates. ,n Ithio ia, .e.bers of the lo1er classes, s-ch as the 3-danese M-sli. .inority, find social contact across reli"io-s barriers in the >ar c-lt, .ost of 1hose .e.bers are .arried 1o.en ne"lected in a .anHs 1orldJ even e0Bslaves fro. alien tribes are ad.itted to f-ll .e.bershi 7Messin", D'&9. +nd in Bahia, @andes re.arks in her e0traordinary .e.oir of a visit to Bra>il d-rin" 19#'M#9, The City of 6omen 714'9, *.others* and riestesses of the cando.blA did not .arry, since s-b.ission to a h-sband 1as inco. atible 1ith fe.ale do.inion. ,n this c-lt r-led by +frican +.erican 1o.en the hierarchy of the o-tside 1orld is t-rned decisively - side do1n. 3-ch facts led ,. M. @e1is to consider * eri heral* ossession c-lts of this kind as *thinly dis"-ised rotest .ove.ents directed a"ainst the do.inant se0* 7#19 by 1o.en channelin", thro-"h *rit-ali>ed .-tiny* / 1DF /

71149, the *revol-tionary fervo-r* 711&9 and * entB- resent.ent* 711F9 of *the 1eak and do1ntrodden* 7FD9 a"ainst their social and se0-al s- eriors<a f-nction dia.etrically o osed to the conservative role of the riesthood. + *fe.inist s-bBc-lt-re, 1ith an ecstatic reli"ion restricted to 1o.en and rotected fro. .ale attack thro-"h its re resentation as a thera y for illness* 7'99, as ires by *an obli8-e strate"y of attack* 711F9, in @e1isHs vie1, *to achieve entirely ne1 ositions of inde endence and o1er* 79F9. Many for.s of s irit .edi-.shi no do-bt serve as a rotest, or reco. ense, for those 1hose rank or se0 e0cl-des the. fro. a .ore a-thoritative role in societies 1hose i..-table order riestly rit-al insistently affir.s, b-t @e1isHs bellicose inter retation re8-ires, at the very least, 8-alification.N4O ,ndeed, altho-"h .edi-.shi is -s-ally o en to a broader social s ectr-. than the riesthood 71hen the t1o are distin"-ished9, .ost .edi-.s<both .ale and fe.ale<in tribal societies are not do1ntrodden o-tcasts rebellin" a"ainst their inferior stat-s b-t hi"hly res ected .e.bers of their co..-nity ad.ired by .en and 1o.en alike. Gor is the chan"e in condition effected by c-lts like the >ar al1ays liberatin", since *individ-al ade ts .ay beco.e involved in ne1 sit-ations of de endence* even .ore bindin" than the old 7Morton, 19'9. More f-nda.entally, insofar as s irit ossession can be called a channel of rotest at all, its .ain effect, as @e1is 1ell -nderstands 7'&9, is to - hold *the official ideolo"y* 7*.ale s- re.acy* or 1hatever9, since it *ventilates a""ression and fr-stration lar"ely 1ithin an -neasy acce tance of the established order of thin"s* 71D$MD19. N4O @e1isHs .ain e0a. les of se0-al olari>ation, the 2a-sa ,ori c-lt and the +ar of Ithio ia and Gorth +frica 7incl-din" 3o.aliland, 1here his field 1ork 1as done9, are far fro. ty ical of tribal reli"ions. ,n both cases the official reli"ion 7,sla. or Christianity9 is an international one introd-ced fro. 1itho-t and brin"in" .a:or social chan"es. @e1is 7'D9 8-otes Cn1-e:eo"1-Hs assertion 7D9$9 that *,n (ori , 1o.en find an esca e fro. a 1orld do.inated by .en, and thro-"h (ori the 1orld of fe.ales te. orarily s-bd-es and h-.iliates the 1orld of .en.* B-t Cn1-e:eo"1- also notes 7D'1M'D9 that before co. lete ,sla.i>ation of the 2a-sa in 1'$4M1$, 1o.en 1ere so.eti.es olitically e8-al to .en, servin" as r-lers and holdin" olitical office. +s M-sli.s, they lost their reBlsla.ic olitical, le"al, and econo.ic freedo., beco.in" co. letely de endent on h-sband or kin. The bori ossession c-lt, far fro. arisin" as a rotest .ove.ent, a arently occ- ied a central lace in 2a-sa reli"io-s life -ntil intensification of ,sla.ic belief thr-st it into a s-bsidiary osition as .en "ravitated to1ard .aleB do.inated M-sli. rit-als 7Cn1-e:eo"1-, D919. Cnly the loss of its for.er infl-ence .ade it a eri heral c-lt. 3e0-al olari>ation and rotest a"ainst it 7insofar as a c-lt in 1hich rostit-tion is co..on can be called a rotest a"ainst .ale do.inationL9 are th-s not inherent to the bori !ua ossession c-lt b-t robably arise fro. its recent historical stat-s as the re.nant of a reli"ion in 1hich .en and 1o.en once artici ated in .edi-.shi to"ether, as in .any tribal societies. Iven no1, .ale e0 erts in .edical or .a"ical ractices are fre8-ently cons-lted in the bori 7D9$M919, and in the Ithio ian >ar the healer in char"e of the cere.ony in 1hich ossessed 1o.en dance is often .ale. / 1D' / *2o.eostatic* reconciliation of social tensions by incor oratin" otential o-tsiders into co..-nal reli"io-s life is characteristic of tribal reli"ion in "eneral, 1hether in rites of assa"e or rit-als of stereoty ed rebellion. ,n the end the .edi-. too challen"es social nor.s 7if at all9 only to confir. the.. The Tiko ia .edi-.Hs 1ildest fantasy, (irth re.arks 719&Fa, #14J cf. 19F$, D99, -ses conventional conce ts and follo1s ordinary nor.s of eti8-ette and .orality, allo1in" hi. *to e0 ress his desire for self assertion . . . har.lessly in a .anner 1hich does not conflict 1ith e0istin" social rivile"es.* The .edi-.Hs relative freedo. of e0 ression -nder the s iritHs s1ay kno1s its li.its 1ithin a social order indis ensable to itJ it is not a rebellion or rotest a"ainst that order itself.

@e1isHs contention that ossession c-lts are a .eans of rotest a"ainst do.inant 7.ainly .ale9 social val-es has been both endorsed and dis -ted. Gone of the cases add-ced in s- ort of his thesis, ho1ever, concerns the .ore controlled and a-thoritative for.s of trance in 1hich the s irit is held to speak thro-"h the .edi-.. Th-s 2aitian voodoo, 1here both .ale ho-n"an and fe.ale .a.bo s eak 1ith f-ll a-thority of the "od, cannot ro erly be classified, as Bo-r"-i"non has de.-rred 719F&, #%J cf. %$, %#9, either as an *a.oral eri heral ossession* c-lt or a * rotest* reli"ion: for only c-lts un able to challen"e the retensions of alien beliefs need confine the.selves to so feeble a role. ,n .ost tribal sit-ations, 1here riest and .edi-. are allied 1hen not identical, (irthHs reco"nition of the interde endence of center and eri hery see.s a .ore :-dicio-s a raisal than @e1isHs dis ro ortionate e. hasis on .-tiny and attack. =et the o osite e. hasis can be e8-ally .isleadin". +s channels for ancestral 1isdo., s irit .edi-.shi c-lts .ay indeed be *a o1erf-l force for social confor.ity* 7Beattie 19&9, 1F$9J by their *dra.atic restate.ent of the -lti.ate val-es of co..-nity life* and de.and for co. liance 1ith the., they can lay a f-nda.entally conservative role in reventin" chan"es and - holdin" tradition 72orton, D&MDF9. ,n this conte0t s irit ossession is little .ore than an a enda"e of instit-tional rit-al, 1hose confir.ation of established tradition it colorf-lly reinforces. =et even if the .edi-.Hs rono-nce.ents 1ere *an elaboration rather than a criticis.* of val-es - held by riests and aristocrats in Tiko ia, s irit .edi-.s, (irth re.inds -s 719&Fa, #$99, 1ere al1ays *a ossible co-ntervailin" force* in a traditional syste. of checks and balances. ,ndeed, as @annoy 1rites 7D$19 of the ecstatic oracles of ,ndiaHs *@ittle Traditions*<the tribal reli"io-s inheritances that coe0ist 1ith the *Ereat Tradition* of 2ind-is.<the otentially -ncontrollable o1ers incarnated in the .edi-. not only *balance* b-t *in so.e cases .enace* 7hence check9 those of the Brah.in riest *by restorin" the ele.ent of / 1D9 / disorder 1hich nor.al re"-lation has o-tla1ed.* The relation of s irit .edi-.shi to riestly rit-al is not si. ly one of rotest or ins-rrection, then 7tho-"h this .ay arise 1hen *official* reli"ion is seen as alien9, b-t of interaction in 1hich the less for.-laic, .ore e0 loratory ecstatic c-lt at the instit-tional eri hery is contin-ally e0tendin" 7above all in ti.es of crisis9 the bo-ndaries of the .ore conservative riestly reli"ion to1ard assi.ilation of the -nkno1n. The creative role of .edi-.shi in tribal reli"ion finds e0 ression, (irth s-""ests 719F$, D'4M'%9, in e0 anded infor.ation abo-t the s irit 1orld, in creation of ne1 s irit entities, and in initiatin" social action. Beca-se the actions and 1ords of the ossessin" s irit, stereoty ed tho-"h they .ay be, are never for.-laically fi0ed as those of rit-al ideally are, they are s-b:ect to contin-o-s individ-al variations endo1ed 1ith the resti"e of the divine. The .edi-.Hs relative freedo. to i. rovise d-rin" trance<in contrast to the riestHs obli"ation to .aintain ancient traditions to the letter<.akes certain ossession c-lts, ho1ever conservative their social f-nction, *a ro.isin" channel,* 2orton observes 74&9, *for innovations in belief and doctrine 1hich .ay event-ally co.e to ass-.e i. ortance in the co..-nity at lar"e.* 3 irit ossession is th-s a rinci al .eans by 1hich .obility enters into tribal reli"ions other1ise over1hel.in"ly oriented, by rit-al, ancestor 1orshi , and the content 7if not the for.9 of .yth, to1ard the ti.eless ast. ,n a reli"ion like 2aitian voodoo to 1hich ossession trance is central, reli"io-s innovation arisin" fro. states of dissociation in trance is fre8-ent 7Bo-r"-i"non 19&%, %%9. The 2i.alayan Pahari .edi-., too, Berre.an observes 7%'9, *has considerable lee1ay for choice and ori"inality, a fact de.onstrated by the diversity and the constant and s-r risin"ly ra id t-rnover in "ods 1orshi ed in the

Pahari villa"e.* Unlike the fi0ed rites erfor.ed by the Brah.in 1ho .e.ori>es a"eBold for.-las, the details of each Pahari .edi-.Hs erfor.ance are -ni8-e 7&19, thereby introd-cin" constant novelty into the reli"io-s life of the eo le. ,nnovation alleviates the fr-strations of lo1erBcaste .edi-.sH ositions 7&#9 not thro-"h rotest a"ainst the e0istin" reli"io-s syste. b-t by incor oration of the variations 1hich "ive the., as o osed to the conservative Brah.ins, their a-thority. The otential for ada tation and "ro1th that characteri>es any reli"io-s<indeed, any livin"<syste., tho-"h latent in rit-al and .yth, th-s finds f-ll e0 ression in the instit-tion of .edi-.shi 1hich consistently ascribes it, ho1ever, not to any h-.an effort b-t to the inc-rsion of a o1er e0ternal to .an. The innovation characteristic of s iritB.edi-. c-lts is evident not only in the e0 anded o1ers and .-lti le identities e0 erienced<if not nor.ally re.e.bered<by the erson ossessed, b-t in the a-ra of ne1ness and forei"nness that often adheres to these c-lts as o osed to / 1#$ / re -tedly 7and so.eti.es de.onstrably9 older riestly instit-tions. The G-er ro het, the Mandari /ok doctor, the Tin>a ,ac1e+i doctor, like other .edi-.s, "ain resti"e not as - holders of a"eBold traditions b-t as innovators able to co..-nicate 1ith ne1ly assi.ilated forei"n s irits and to s eak, very often, in a forei"n ton"-e. This reachin" o-t to e.brace the alien and the ne1 e0e. lifies the e0 ansion of infor.ation, or e0tension of hori>ons, characteristic of s irit ossession in its orientation to1ard the -nkno1n f-t-reJ and the ossessin" s irits, beni"n or .ali"nant, .ay accordin"ly be far fro. traditional. The *black* m,and1a in B-nyoro, all of forei"n ori"in, incl-de s irits of tanks, air lanes, and I-ro eans 7Beattie 19&9, 1&19J and a.on" the masa,e s irits vie1ed by the Ton"a as *so.ethin" ne1, a earin" 1ithin livin" .e.ory,* are an +ir lane s irit and train dancers 1ho 1histle like a loco.otive 7Colson, 94, '&M''9. By no stretch of i.a"ination co-ld s-ch a ossession c-lt be considered a for. of rit-al i..-tably inherited fro. ancestral ti.esJ the ada tive incor oration of chan"e, indeed, is its essence. +s 1e .i"ht e0 ect, ne1 for.s of .edi-.shi tend to arise in res onse to crisis or ra id social chan"e. ,n s-ch sit-ations, 1here the erennial need to e0 lore the -nkno1n is dra.atically intensified, .edi-.shi , Beattie and Middleton observe 700viiiM00i09, is both a .eans to incor orate chan"e and a basis for le"iti.i>in" ne1 a-thority. To the Gilotic +l-r of north1est U"anda, /ok ossession, -nlike less fle0ible for.s of rit-al, assi.ilates the disr- tive chan"es that threaten the traditional, essentially closed society 1ith disinte"ration. By contrast to this clos-re, 3o-thall 1rites 7D&%9, the recently invadin" /ok s irits *are as .obile as .odern .an.* Beca-se the ne1 c-lts not only re resented the roble.s and an0ieties of a chan"in" 1orld b-t also, thro-"h controlled ind-ce.ent of ossession in those afflicted by these -ncertain s irits, rovided ne1 techni8-es of treat.ent 7D&&9, the .edi-. beca.e, as in .any other tribal societies, an a"ent of chan"e identified not 1ith the fi0ity of the old b-t 1ith the .obility of the ne1: no .ere rotester a"ainst the inherited ast b-t, in otential, a charis.atically ins ired ro het "-idin" his eo le in 8-est of an -n redictable f-t-re. The *essentially reci rocal ele.ent in .enHs relations 1ith the s iritB1orld* noted by Beattie and Middleton 700ii9 is ara.o-nt in ossession trance, 1ith its ra idly shiftin" roles and its c-l.inatin" e0chan"e of 8-estions and ans1ers channeled thro-"h the .edi-. fro. .an to s irit and fro. s irit to .an. ;hat .ost characteri>es the .edi-.Hs relation.1ith s irit, then, is not assivity b-t interaction, and in this dialo"-e at its f-llest *.an takes the initiative,* like the Mandari /ok doctor 7B-0ton 19F#, 94M9%9, *in establishin" a re -ted co..-nication 1ith araBnor.al forces, reversin" the order of traditional .anBs irit co.B

/ 1#1 / .-nication.* ,nstead of idly a1aitin" the s iritHs descent, or rit-ally co. ellin" its resence, he *deliberately sets o-t to call his Po1er, to 8-estion it and to discover its needs.*N%O @ackin" any .eans to coerce this rotean force, or any ass-rance 1here it 1ill lead 1hen it sei>es - on hi., the .edi-.Hs invocation of s irit is in essence a 8-est 1itho-t end. The .ar"inal -ncertainty of its o-tco.e .arks the .edi-.Hs solicitation of trance as a 8-est, for in a do.ain of .obility never s-b:ect to f-ll conscio-s control, no c-lt-ral attern, ho1ever in"rained, can recl-de the -ne0 ected. ,n .ost cases Tiko ia s irit .edi-.shi , in contrast to fi0ed rit-als, *related to sit-ations of -ncertainty,* (irth observes 719&Fa, D9#9J the .edi-.Hs f-nction 1as *to resolve a sit-ation of so.e an0iety and a.bi"-ity.* B-t the resol-tion can only be rovisional, for rec-rrent -ncertainty is itself a condition of any for. of co..-nication that 7-nlike the invariant re etitions of rit-al9 conveys infor.ation and hel s create a f-t-re distinct fro. the deter.inate ast. *+ .essa"e conveys no infor.ation -nless so.e rior -ncertainty e0ists in the .ind of the receiver abo-t 1hat the .essa"e 1ill contain,* ?ere.y Ca. bell 1rites 7&'9, s-..ari>in" the findin"s of t1entiethBcent-ry infor.ation theory: *+nd the "reater the -ncertainty, the lar"er the a.o-nt of infor.ation conveyed 1hen that -ncertainty is resolved.* To resolve this -ncertainty once and for all 1o-ld be to ann-l the essence of s irit ossession and red-ce it to rit-al. Cnly inas.-ch as it res onds to the -ncertainty of a chan"in" 1orld, then, can the s irit .edi-.shi of tribal reli"ion co..-nicate the ne1. The often a.oral s irits 1ith 1hich the .edi-. co..-nes *stand for .oral indeter.inacy and an -ncertain -niverse,* and their o-tlook, Gadel declares 7194&, #49, is *a hiloso hy of -ncertainty*J for s irit ossession *absorbs all that is -n redictable and .orally indeter.inate,* and th-s *saves the conce tion of an ordered -niverse fro. selfBcontradiction.* ,ts ractitioners e0 lore and assi.ilate the see.in" chaos of the -ndeter.ined 1itho-t 1hose controlled inf-sion the social order insistently affir.ed by rit-al to be i..-table co-ld not ada t or lon" s-rvive. The .edi-. *dancin" on the ed"e of the -nkno1n,* in 3eth and R-th @eacockHs hrase 7D9, is dancin" 1here she .-st, tho-"h she "ive the a earance, in doin" so, of folly or .adness: for on that ed"e, or :-st beyond it, the "oal of every s irit-al 8-est .-st contin-ally be so-"ht. N%O 3-ch interde endence and h-.an initiative characteri>e .edi-.shi ri.arily in its .ore vol-ntarily controlled .anifestations, like Mandari /ok ossession. ,n *orthodo0* Mandari ossession, B-0ton notes 79%9, *H+boveH falls - on a .an arbitrarily. To atte. t to s-..on the s irit 1o-ld be -nthinkable.* / 1## /

!ART FOUR. FORMS OF T0E S0AMANIC QUEST

/ 1#% /

Chapter Ten. Sha3anis3: !ossession: an2 Ecstas)/ Australia an2 the Tropics
@ike .yth, 1hich looks to the -ndeter.ined f-t-re as 1ell as the sacrosanct ast, s irit .edi-.shi , es ecially in less standardi>ed for.s c-l.inatin" in orac-lar s eech, rovides an essential co-nter art to the -tative clos-re of rit-al by its contin-al o enin" to1ard -nreali>ed otentialities of h-.an e0istence. The racticed .edi-.Hs vol-ntary solicitation of a condition that s-r asses her ordinary o1ers and leads her to1ard an intrinsically -n redictable "oal th-s e0hibits the for. of a s irit-al 8-est as a -r osef-l e0 loration of the transcendent -nkno1n. =et the -ncertainties of this for.ali>ed 8-est are severely circ-.scribed by its ractical f-nction 1ithin the instit-tional str-ct-re of tribal reli"ion. The infor.ation i. arted d-rin" trance .ost often ertains, as @essa 1rites of Ulithi 719&&b, %19, to s-ch i..ediate concerns as *the feasibility of an ocean voya"e, the safety of relatives a1ay fro. ho.e, the ca-se of an illness, the attit-de of a loved one, the a roach of a ty hoon.* The f-t-re revealed thro-"h the .edi-.Hs 1ords or the divinerHs inter retation of si"ns is a very constricted f-t-re holdin" o-t no ros ect of f-nda.ental chan"e beyond restoration of health or increase of fort-neJ for in tribal tho-"ht the f-t-re, as 1e have seen, is in "eneral an -nderdevelo ed for1ard e0tension of the overshado1in" ast. The .edi-.Hs ersonal transfor.ation by ossession trance is a te. orary chan"e 1itho-t .a:or conse8-ence 7in .ost instances9 for daily life. 2er selfB erce tion as the assive i. le.ent of a o1er beyond her control red-ces, .oreover, the e0tent to 1hich she actively artici ates in sha in" its res onses 7th-s in sha in" the f-t-re9, and increases / 1#& / her tendency to fall back on c-lt-ral stereoty es restrictin" both the -ncertainty that initiates the 8-est and the transfor.ative enco-nter 1ith the ne1 that is its "oal. Cnly in e0ce tional cases does the reco"ni>ed .edi-. fail to enter trance and trans.it the s iritHs 1ords<and 1itho-t risk of fail-re the 8-est thro-"h s irit ossession can never "o far to1ard transcendin" the ancestral certainties of rit-al to 1hich it re.ains, in .any tribal reli"ions, fir.ly linked.

The Sha3an as Ecstatic Master o' Spirits

,n so.e c-lt-res, ho1ever, instead of a1aitin" descent of a s irit s-..oned to ossess his body and s eak thro-"h his .o-th, the .edi-. hi.self sets o-t, or sends hel in" s irits -nder his co..and, to another 1orld in search of 1hat cannot be fo-nd in his o1n. This fi"-re, in 1ho. the s irit-al 8-est beco.es a f-lly active -rs-it of transcendence, 1e shall call the sha.an, -sin" a ter. 1hich for .any 1riters is synony.o-s 1ith .edi-.. Th-s for Gadel 7D%9 the sha.an *is a assive .edi-. 1hen ossessedJ b-t thro-"h his ability to ind-ce ossession, he is also a .aster of these s- ernat-ral o1ers.* This criterion derives fro. the st-dies of 6roeber 719$F, #DF9 and fro. those of 3hiroko"oroff 719#%a, DF19, 1ho sa1 the T-n"-s 7Ivenk9 sha.an, fro. 1hose lan"-a"e the 1ord derives, as *a master of spirits , at least of a "ro- of s irits.* B-t control over ossessin" s irits is characteristic of all disci lined .edi-.s, so that any distinction based on .astery alone is one of de"ree. To that e0tent, @e1is is :-stified in incl-din", like Gadel, the +frican .edi-. in his -nderstandin" of the sha.an 71''M'99 as *not the slave, b-t the .aster of ano.aly and chaos,* 1hose hardB1on control of affliction he re eatedly reBenacts. The sha.an, so

defined, is a .edi-. able to ind-ce ossession at 1ill and for controlled ends by s irits 1hose hel less victi. he, like others less in co..and of ano.aly, once 1as. 2e c-res othersH afflictions by .asterin" his o1n and th-s beco.es a doctor by havin" .inistered, 1hen a atient, to hi.self. This -nderstandin" of sha.anis., endorsin" its identification by earlier anthro olo"ists s-ch as (robeni-s 7D:%&19 1ith the *reli"ion of ossession* racticed, for e0a. le, in the ,ori c-lt, did not "o -n8-estioned. Th-s for Cesterreich 7#$%9 the *ori"inal 3ha.anis.* of northern +sia consisted not in ossession b-t in vis-al heno.enaJ to call ossession states sha.anis. 1as *a .is-se of 1ords* 7#$99. +nd Iliade, in his .on-.ental st-dy Shamanism , distin"-ished the sha.an 719&4, %9 not by visionary b-t by ecstatic trance, *d-rin" 1hich his so-l is believed to leave his body and ascend to the sky or descend to the -nder1orld.* / 1#F / Icstasy, as Iliade conceives it, is shar ly differentiated fro. ossession. The sha.anHs .astery is sho1n not in vol-ntarily ind-cin" ossession by s irits 1ho control him d-rin" trance b-t in his o1n control over s irits thro-"h 1ho. he co..-nicates 1ith the beyond 1itho-t beco.in" their instr-.ent. 3ha.ans do so.eti.es a ear to be ossessed, Iliade concedes 7&9, b-t these e0ce tional cases often t-rn o-t to be only a arent. The sha.an is al1ays an active a"ent and never .erely a vehicle, as is the .edi-., for anotherJ his ecstasy, far fro. ann-llin" the self, frees it to reali>e to the f-llest o1ers nor.ally beyond its reach. Th-s the *s ecific ele.ent* of sha.anis., Iliade concl-des 74999, is not the sha.anHs e.bodi.ent of s irits b-t the ecstasy of ascent to the sky or descent to the -nder1orld. This criterion has by no .eans been -niversally acce ted. (indeisen characteri>es the sha.an 7F9 as a ossession riest 7(esessenheitspriester 9J and @e1is takes e0 licit iss-e 7%$9 1ith IliadeHs division bet1een s irit ossession and sha.anis.. The t1o re"-larly occ-r to"ether, he re.arks 7%19, * artic-larly in the +rctic locus classicus of sha.anis.*J the T-n"-s evidence of 3hiroko"oroff, for e0a. le, *.akes nonsense of the ass-. tion that sha.anis. and s irit ossession are totally se arate heno.ena* 7%%M %&9. ,f the sha.an, as @e1is affir.s 1ith (irth, is a vol-ntarily ossessed .aster of s irits, all sha.ans are .edi-.s 1ho *f-nction as a Htele hone e0chan"eH bet1een .an and "od.*N1O B-t if ossession is so.eti.es art of the sha.anHs e0 erience 7as Iliade never denied9, it is not definitive as it is for the .edi-.. *There are certainly transitions 1ith co.binations of both heno.ena, sha.anis. and .edi-.is.,* Pa-lson 1rites in conc-rrence 1ith Iliade, *b-t basically there is a "reat difference in kind bet1een the.. Possession is .ore a characteristic of .edi-.is., the Hso-lB:o-rneyH 7the dis atchin" of the soBcalled freeBso-l, i.e., the erson hi.self9, ho1ever, a characteristic of sha.anis.* 7BZck.an and 2-ltkrant>, D19. The sha.an .ay a ear to be sei>ed by an alien s irit b-t he ty ically re.ains 1holly hi.self 1hile beco.in" other. ,n i.itatin" the voice and "est-res of his hel in" s irits or of the divinities he visits, he en"a"es in a dialo"-e in N1O The very assa"e fro. Iliade 7reaffir.in" his distinction bet1een ecstasy and ossession9 1hich @e1is dis.isses as *nonsense* on the basis of T-n"-s evidence occ-rs in the conte0t of IliadeHs ar"-.ent 719&4, 499M%$$9 that T-n"-s sha.anis. as ortrayed by 3hiroko"oroff is in its resent for. *stron"ly infl-enced by @a.ais.* and *cannot be considered a HclassicH for. of sha.anis., recisely beca-se of the redo.inant i. ortance it accords to the incarnation of Hs iritsH and the s.all role layed by the ascent to the sky.* ,n citin" (irthHs criterion of the sha.an as a *.aster of s irits,* @e1is like1ise fails to note that (irth referred to -se sha.anis. *in the li.ited Gorth +siatic sense* 719&4, D9'9, and fo-nd *s irit ossession and s irit .edi-.shi in Tiko ia b-t not sha.anis.* 719&Fa, D9&9.

/ 1#' / 1hich he is the central actorJ even if he falls into catatonic trance, his so-l is tho-"ht to retain its conscio-s e0istence in the s- ernat-ral re"ions to 1hich it has traveled. +fter 1akin", the sha.an can recisely describe his so-l :o-rney, Pa-lson observes 719&4, 1#'9, 1hereas a ossessed erson has no .e.ory of 1hat ha ened d-rin" ossession, since he 1as then a 1holly different bein". Medi-. and sha.an, then, tho-"h by no .eans cate"orically distinct, differ si"nificantly in the beliefs .ost ty ical of the.. The .edi-.Hs ersonality or self is tho-"ht to be obliterated by the s irit that dis laces it, even 1hen sei>-re is vol-ntarily ind-cedJ the sha.anHs is tho-"ht to re.ain intact and in char"e of its destiny even 1hen it assi.ilates the identities of others, and its .astery of s irits e0tends into trance itself, 1here it is al1ays an active a"ent, never .erely the instr-.ent of o1ers beyond it. ;here ossession lays an i. ortant role in sha.anis., as a.on" the T-n"-s and so.e other 3iberian eo les, it .ost often does so, as 2-ltkrant> re.arks 7BZck.an and 2-ltkrant>, D%9, d-rin" the f-t-re sha.anHs call, 1hen s irits 7often those 1ho 1ill beco.e his hel ers9 .ay see. to drive hi. insane and even *kill* hi. in order to res-rrect hi. as a ne1ly e. o1ered bein". )-rin" the sha.anistic seance, on the other hand, .ost a arent * ossession* is deliberate i. ersonation of s irits -nder the sha.anHs co..and, even if the ste bet1een i.itation and ossession, as 2-ltkrant> ca-tions, is very sli"ht. IliadeHs definition of the sha.an as one 1hose so-l ascends to the sky or descends to the -nder1orld e0cl-des, ho1ever, not only the .edi-. b-t CesterreichHs visionary sha.an, leavin" o-t *the .any cases in 3iberia and Gorth +.erica 1here the sha.an does not de art fro. his body, b-t 1aits for the arrival of the s irits* 72-ltkrant> 19F#, D99. 2-ltkrant> therefore s-""ests 7BZck.an and 2-ltkrant>, D$9 1idenin" the conce t of sha.anis. to incl-de not only e0traBcor oreal fli"ht b-t clairvoyant e0 erience, 1hich .ay acco. any or recede it. ,nas.-ch as these re.ain distinct, 1e .ay differentiate a *1eak* and a *stron"* for. of sha.anis. e.bodied res ectively by the visionary and the ecstatic 72-ltkrant> 19F9, 'F9. 5isionary ins iration res- oses the 1ides read ri.itive belief in .obile s irits, incl-din" h-.an so-ls ca able of 1anderin" abroad d-rin" slee or after deathJ the sha.an co..-nicates 1ith s-ch s irits not only s ontaneo-sly in drea.s, like others, b-t in trance -nder his disci lined control. Icstatic sha.anis. even .ore artic-larly rests on belief in so-l d-alis. and a detachable *freeBso-l* ty ical, 2-ltkrant> contends 719F#, #$9, of re"ions cons ic-o-s for *stron" sha.anis.,* since *only the sha.anHs free so-l can transcend the bo-ndaries of the dead / 1#9 / 1itho-t riskin" his life.*NDO The -lti.ate ecstasy of ret-rn fro. the dead is the f-llest e0 ression of the sha.anHs .astery of s irits: his ability, 1itho-t losin" his o1n identity, to assi.ilate the transcendent and thereby inf-se the act-ality of his 1orld 1ith the indeter.inate otentiality of others beyond it. 3ha.anis. .-st be re"arded, 2-ltkrant> 1rites 7BZck.an and 2-ltkrant>, D'9, as a contin-o-s historical co. le0 centered in northern.ost I-ro e, northern and central +sia, and the +.ericas< ho.es of the ancient h-ntin" and herdin" c-lt-res of +rctic and s-bB+rctic I-rasia and their e0tension, in recent .illennia, into the Ge1 ;orld. The fact of historical and "eo"ra hical contin-ity need not i. ly, ho1ever, that any -re or *ori"inal for.* of sha.anis. can be discovered or ever e0isted. + co. le0 entails coe0istence of .any co. onents, none of 1hich can be isolated as -ni8-ely essential. ;e can identify, in cases like the T-n"-s, intr-sions or accretions fro. 7for e0a. le9 @a.aist B-ddhis., b-t no ristine s-bstrat-. intr-ded - onJ for sha.anis. has never e0isted, so far as 1e kno1, 1itho-t the accretions. T-n"-s sha.anis., like any other, is *classic* in its very conta.ination.

The 1ides read revalence in the +.ericas of sha.anistic ractices clearly analo"o-s to those of 3iberia stron"ly s-""ests that for.s of sha.anis. 1ere bro-"ht to the Ge1 ;orld .illennia a"o, b-t this robability need not i. ly that historically attested 3iberian sha.anis.s are .ore nearly *ori"inal* than those of +.ericaJ indeed, the relative isolation -ntil recent cent-ries of .ost +.erican tribes o-tside the Per-vian and Me0ican s heres fro. infl-ence by *hi"her* a"ric-lt-ral civili>ations .akes the o osite hy othesis e8-ally la-sible, tho-"h no do-bt e8-ally .eanin"less and certainly no .ore verifiable. 3ha.anis. cannot be restricted, .oreover, to the *contin-o-s historical co. le0* of northern I-rasia and the +.ericas. Paintin"s of h-.an fi"-res in bird or ani.al "-ise fro. s-ch caves as @es Trois (rUres in (rance s-""est the tantali>in" ossibility that so.ethin" rese.blin" historical sha.anis. .ay have flo-rished in 1estern I-ro e d-rin" the last ,ce +"e or even 7as i.a"ination takes fli"ht9 that it .ay have been co..on to aleolithic h-ntin" c-lt-resJ if so, the *historical co. le0* NDO 2-ltkrant> 19%# and Pa-lson 19%' set forth the evidence for an ideolo"y of so-l d-alis. 7or *d-alistic l-ralis.*9 in Gorth +.erica and Gorth +sia, ar"-in" that the d-ality bet1een *body so-l* or *life so-l* and *free so-l* or *drea. so-l* 7the individ-al alter ego 1hich s-rvives after death9 is .ore ri.itive, es ecially in re"ions 1here sha.anis. revails, than belief in a -nitary and indivisible so-l. The tendency of these t1o s- osedly basic cate"ories to s-bdivide in .any different 1ays, ho1ever, and the e0istence of si.ilar beliefs in d-al or .-lti le so-ls in nonBsha.anistic re"ions, s-""ests that ca-tion is in order before acce tin" their i. ressively doc-.ented hy othesis. / 14$ / of sha.anis. .i"ht once have been coe0tensive 1ith the h-.an race. 3-ch a ossibility 7like hy otheses of -niversal ancestor 1orshi , .ana, tote.is., dyin" corn "ods, or ri.al hordes devo-rin" their fathers9 can no .ore be entirely disco-nted than roved. B-t the 8-estionable evidence of a fe1 ainted fi"-res no less la-sibly inter retable as "ods, sorcerers, or .edi-.s than as sha.ans hardly :-stifies so s1ee in" a con:ect-re as @a BarreHs 719F$, 1&#M&49 that the s- ernat-ral *is atterned si. ly NLO on the h-.an .aster of ani.als,* 1ho is *si. ly the h-.an sha.an hi.self,* th-s the -lti.ate ob:ect of all h-.an 1orshi . Cn the other hand, 1here no historical contin-ity 1ith I-rasianB+.erican sha.anis.s is robable, arallel ractices .ay have arisen alon" 1ith or after the a"ric-lt-ral rites and s irit ossession c-lts too easily ass-.ed by Iliade to be later intr-sions. Iven 1here .edi-.shi is so revalent as in tro ical ,ndia, the 2ill 3aora *sha.an,* like his 3iberian co-nter art, .ay send his t-telary on a *s iritB h-nt in the other 1orld* to find the a"ent res onsible for a sickness and ar"-e 1ith it in ro ria ersona 7Il1in 19%%, D4DM4#9. +nd in +frica, the only continent 1here ecstatic sha.anis. is rare, accordin" to Iliade 719&1, 1%#9, the sha.anis. of the Tin>a of Tan>ania<distin"-ished fro. traditional .edi-.shi by *l-cid* ossession in 1hich the sha.an en"a"es in dialo"-e 1ith the s irits and re orts 1itho-t loss of identity 1hat they tell hi.<is a recent develo .ent associated 1ith ne1ly introd-ced ,ac1e+i s irits 7B:erke, 1#9M4$, 14'M499. These e0a. les s-""est not only that s irit ossession and sha.anis. .ay coe0ist, as they often do, b-t that sha.anis. .ay develo fro. .edi-.shi and not only, as Iliade see.s to ass-.e in s eakin" of sha.anic *vesti"es* in Polynesian .edi-.shi , the other 1ay ro-nd. Both the recent ori"in of Tin>a sha.anis. o-tside any .a:or historical co. le0 and its ra id "ro1th d-rin" a fe1 decades of c-lt-ral crisis confir. the -ntenability of any search for a sin"le evol-tionary line -nitin" the vario-s sha.anis.s racticed in different arts of the 1orld since an anti8-ity lon" beyond a rehension. Go do-bt sha.anis. 1as once far .ore 1ides read than no1, b-t nothin" :-stifies the

ass-. tion that it -niversally receded other for.s of reli"ion.

Australia/ In Quest o' the in&erin& ,rea3

,f the ecstatic 8-est for transcendence is rare in +frica, 1here .edi-.shi develo ed in close connection 1ith ancestor 1orshi and a"ric-lt-ral rites, it is co..on a.on" the tote.ic h-ntin" and "atherin" tribes of abori"inal +-stralia. 2ere the s arsity, over cent-ries and .illennia, of e0ternal reli"io-s infl-ences 7e0ce t on northern coastal tribes by nonsha.anic Melanesians9 stron"ly s-""ests an ori"in indeB / 141 / endent of any kno1n co. le0 else1here<or a connection so i..e.orially ancient as to be ast all b-t hy othetical, not to say i.a"inary, reconstr-ction. The re.arkable conservatis. of +-stralian reli"ion, 1ith its *.eta hysical e. hasis on abidin"ness* 73tanner 19F9, #&M#'9, is rooted in the for.ative ti.e 1idely kno1n as the )rea.in". The tribal *ancestors* of this lon" "one yet ha-ntin"ly resent a"e, 1hether h-.an bein"s or tote.ic ani.als, 1ere endo1ed 1ith a ri.al creativity derivin" fro. ability to ro:ect their drea.s in a visible landsca e *considered to be an inte"ral art of the reality of eternity* 73trehlo1 19F$, 1#49. ,n this ancestral ti.e, the +randa alt/iringa, reality 1as as .obile as drea.. *The livin" +bori"inal, on the other hand,* Gancy M-nn 1rites 714F9, *is faced 1ith a fait accompli, * a fi0ed to o"ra hy offerin" no ossibility that his drea.s, too, .i"ht create or trans.-te reality. Thro-"h rit-al, 1hich er et-ates that ast by .akin" it resent, .an .aintains contact 1ith the ancestral bein"s 1ho have never abandoned the 1orld they for.ed. Th-s rit-al "ives -r ose to .enHs lives 7tho-"h far less to 1o.enHs9, b-t this -r ose no lon"er e.braces the ossibility of chan"in" an inherited 1orld that ad.its no variation, hence no f-t-re. =et the fact that creatively a-tono.o-s ancestral bein"s have never abandoned the tribal lands and .ay be reincarnated 7a.on" the +randa and so.e other tribes9 in livin" .en thro-"h initiation sho1s that even in societies so conservative as these the see.in" clos-re of rit-al does not recl-de transcendence. The -r osef-l 8-est of the (irst Peo le for a ho.eland is reBenacted by every livin" tribes.an both in his hysical 1anderin"s thro-"h a co-ntryside sat-rated by .yth and in the s irit-al :o-rney infallibly .a ed by rit-al. The o1ers of the .ythical ancestors, incl-din" selfBtransfor.ation, are latent in every .an 1ho, in tribal initiations nor.ally -nder"one by all ad-lt .ales, a roaches the creative otential of the ori"inal )rea.ers. +-stralian, like Polynesian and +frican, .yths tell of a ti.e no1 lost 1hen inhabitants of earth co-ld visit the sky and ret-rn. B-t 1hereas in .ost +frican tales the heavens, since that ri.al breach, have been inaccessible to all e0ce t an occasional halfBdivine trickster, and in Polynesia ascent to the sky 1as attrib-ted to .ythical b-t not livin" bein"s, in +-stralia a fe1 res ected elders desi"nated by s ecial initiation as .ost advanced in kno1led"e of the )rea.in", the *clever .en* called by Ilkin *abori"inal .en of hi"h de"ree,* 1ere tho-"ht in so.e tribes to be still ca able of :o-rneyin" to the skies in s irit as the (irst Peo le had lon" before done in the flesh. These .edicine .en are not only .edi-.s b-t sha.ans, able after their initial ossession to *fly thro-"h s ace -nseen, and ascertain 1hat is ha enin" at a distance* 7Ilkin 19F', D9'9. They are inter.ediaries 1ho retain their hardB1on .astery / 14D /

as they vent-re forth in 8-est of f-ller contact 1ith the s irits than is "iven, o-tside artici ation in rit-al, to their fello1 tribes.en. +ccordin" to 3 encer and EillenHs classic acco-nt 71'99, %D#MD%9 of the +randa 7+r-nta9 .edicine .an, in a cave so-th of +lice 3 rin"s a .an 1ho 1ishes to beco.e the s iritBdo-ble of a )rea. Ti.e ancestor lies do1n to slee . +t daybreak, a s irit ierces his neck and ton"-e 1ith an invisible lance, then re laces his internal or"ans and i. lants .a"ic stones in his body. Co.in" to life a"ain, the .an ret-rns to his eo le and after several days of odd behavior aints hi.self 1ith o1dered charcoal and fat: *+ll si"ns of insanity have disa eared, and it is at once reco"ni>ed that a ne1 .edicine .an has "rad-ated.* +ltho-"h in so.e res ects, s-ch as re lace.ent of the internal or"ans and insertion of .a"ic stones, the +randa .edicine .an rese.bles others in abori"inal +-stralia, sha.anic ele.ents are less ro.inent than in .any tribes. The celestial di.ension, to be"in 1ith, is al.ost entirely absent in the acco-nts of 3 encer and Eillen, 1ho took ains to reb-t the Rev. C. 3trehlo1Hs contention 73 encer and Eillen 19DF, D:%9#9 that the 1ord 3lt/ira 7fro. 1hich alt/iringa derives9 referred not to .-lti le *tote.B"ods* b-t to a *"ood Eod* 1hose soverei"nty e0tends over 2eaven. The findin"s of C. 3trehlo1, like those of 2o1itt, 1ho re orted si.ilar beliefs in a heavenly *+ll (ather* in so-theast +-stralia, 1ere th-s in lar"e .eas-re discredited by those 1ho held, 1ith 3 encer and Eillen, 2erbert 3 encer, and (ra>er, a"ainst the dissentin" voices of +ndre1 @an" and later ;ilhel. 3ch.idt, that belief in a 2i"h Eod 1as an evol-tionary constr-ct never achieved by ri.itive +-stralians 7see Iliade 19F1, ch. 19. ;hether or not C. 3trehlo1Hs re orts 1ere conta.inated, as 3 encer and Eillen tho-"ht, by .issionary infl-ence, at least so.e +randa shared the belief of .any tribes in a sky 1orld inhabited by s irits fro. 1hich .an had been c-t off in a distant ast. Th-s T. E. 2. 3trehlo1 719&4, D:FD%9 re orts an +randa belief *that .en had to die only beca-se all connections had been severed bet1een the sky and the earth.* ;hen aven"in" s irits cho ed do1n a tree linkin" the., the brid"e to -nendin" life 1as destroyed forever. Cnly in his initial 8-est for o1er does the +randa .edicine .an re.otely rese.ble the ecstatic sha.an, for as 3 encer and Eillen re.ark 71'99, %#$9, he is no .ore favored than other .e.bers of his tribe in co..-nicatin" 1ith s irits 1ho neither descend to ossess hi., nor a ear in visions, nor carry hi. off to the heavens. 2avin" obtained his o1ers, he beco.es not a sha.an b-t a .a"ician. + very different acco-nt 1as "iven by 2o1itt in his ro-"hly conte. orary st-dies of the ra idly vanishin" reli"ions of so-theast +-stralia, for .ore than a cent-ry the center of 1hite settle.ent on the continent. 2ere, a.on" the 6-rnai, ;irad:-ri, and other tribes, .edicine .en ac8-ired o1er not / 14# / only by drea.in", inheritance, or insertion of 8-art> crystals b-t by slee in" near a "rave or visitin" the *skyBland,* to 1hich they .a"ically ascended by a cord or s ider1eb to the heavens. Gor 1ere these feats confined to the so-theastern re"ionJ o-tside central +-stralia, accordin" to Ilkin 719%4, #$49, .ost ost-lant .edicine .en :o-rney to the sky. Th-s in the north1estern (orrest River district, a continent a1ay fro. 2o1ittHs tribes, a .edicine .an receives o1er fro. the rainbo1 snake, .ediator bet1een earth and sky, after ascendin" in the o-ch of an older .edicine .an in the for. of a skeleton. Unlike .ost .edi-.s 7and .any 3iberian sha.ans9, in this and other +-stralian tribes one beco.es a .edicine .an not by s-dden onsla-"ht of .adness, illness, or -nsolicited drea.s, nor by inheritance alone, b-t thro-"h a deliberate 8-est for transcendent o1er. + Band:elan" clever .an of northern Ge1 3o-th ;ales told Ilkin 719F', 1419 that in his .akin" he 1ent to the .o-ntains and fasted for t1o or three .onths. ,n tro ical +rnhe. @and, the .ain ob:ect of

the .edicine .anHs .akin" is to seek a vision of birdBlike s irit children 1hile fastin" alone in a solitary lace 7DDMD#9J else1here this lace is so.eti.es a to.b, 1ater hole, or 7as a.on" the +randa9 sacred cave. Iven 1hen his office c-sto.arily asses fro. father to son, the candidateHs o1ers are not si. ly "iven b-t .-st be 1on and contin-ally rene1ed by erilo-s :o-rneys to the 1orld beyond. To a "reat e0tent, es ecially in tribes like the +randa 1here ersonal co..-nion 1ith the s irits virt-ally ceases after his *.akin",* the abori"inal .edicine .an 7like the rarer .edicine 1o.an9 rese.bles the sorcerer in other tribal societies, dis layin" his o1ers thro-"h essentially .a"ical, therefore .echanically co. -lsive, techni8-es. B-t the f-nda.ental sha.anic co. onent of interchan"e bet1een the h-.an and s irit 1orlds, if not al1ays clearly do.inant over the .a"ical ele.ent 7as the +randa e0a. le re.inds -s9, er.eates +-stralian reli"ion. Cnly beca-se his o1ers are not innate and his .a"ic not a-to.atically effective, like those of .any 1itches and sorcerers, does the +-stralian .edicine .an so often rene1 his contact 1ith the s irits d1ellin" -nder the earth or in the sky. The doctor, Ilkin 1rites 7#D9, .-st hi.self be .a"ically c-red and res-rrected before he can c-re others by the s irit o1er he no1 e.bodies. 2is selfBtransfor.ation<in contrast to the ty ical s irit .edi-.Hs recovery of a self theoretically -naltered by the e0 erience of ossession<is e8-ivalent to death and rebirth, often rene1in" hi. in body as in s irit by re lace.ent of his internal or"ans. ,nsofar as he deliberately seeks to beco.e a .edicine .an, the +-stralian is therefore conscio-sly -rs-in" the indeter.inate "oal of his o1n transfor.ation into a bein" that he cannot, to be"in 1ith, f-lly envisa"e. This transfor.aB / 144 / tion, Ilkin re.arks 7#$&9, *e0 lains 1hy he see.s so stran"e 1hen he ret-rns to his eo le. 2e no1 lives on a different lane fro. the., tho-"h in all ordinary relationshi s there is nothin" s ecially noticeable abo-t hi..* 2e has "ained s irit-al o1er not thro-"h dr-"s or violent fren>ies 7149 b-t thro-"h 8-iet rece tivity, .editation, and recollectionJ his o1ers are not a sycho athic aberration b-t the e0tension to a *hi"h de"ree* of the sacred condition shared by all initiated .e.bers of his tribe. =et beca-se he has striven to "o beyond the "iven in his 8-est for a never 1holly redictable visionary kno1led"e that brin"s hi. into contact 1ith the tote.ic ancestors of the drea. ti.e, he d1ells on a different lane fro. those 1ho have never been dis.e.bered and rene1ed, nor left the body behind in the ra t-ro-s s iritHs heavenly fli"ht. The trans.-ted .edicine .an, Iliade re.arks 719F1, 1%F9, *lives si.-ltaneo-sly in t1o 1orlds: in his act-al tribal 1orld and in the sacred 1orld of the be"innin", 1hen the Pri.ordial Bein"s 1ere resent and active on earth.* 2e alone of the livin" is a link bet1een the.J he allo1s society to ad:-st to er et-al chan"e 1hile .aintainin" the a earance of sa.eness beca-se he incarnates, in his restless 8-est to s-r ass the "iven, the ri.al creativity that has never entirely vanished fro. the see.in"ly static 1orld to 1hich it "ave for. in the )rea.in". 2is is the real., in IlkinHs 1ords 719%$, D'D9, of *the a arently contin"ent and -ne0 ected, es ecially in the s here of sickness and death,* those inevitable accidents of h-.an life 1hose iss-e can be foreseen 1ith certainty by no .an.

Tropical Sha3ans o' Mala)sia an2 In2onesia

,n arts of the Pacific islands and so-theast +sia, 1here s irit .edi-.shi is 1idely racticed, the ecstatic 8-est for transcendence has like1ise flo-rished. ,n the isolated, -n-s-ally de.ocratic Polynesian island of Gi-e, the taula.atua .i"ht be ossessed by "ods or "hosts, b-t co-ld also send his o1n "ods to recover a sick ersonHs lost so-l 7@oeb 19D4, #9#M9F9<a tri-. h characteristic not of the

.edi-. as instr-.ent of the s irits b-t of the sha.an as their .aster. ,n several Melanesian societies, a rofessional drea.er 1as tho-"ht to visit the dead in slee and brin" back the so-l of a sick infant held by a deceased relative 7Codrin"ton, D$'M$99.N#O +nd in Ge1 Caledonia a 6anaka tribes.an .ay cli.b N#O Cn an e0tre.ely "eneral level, the flyin" 1itches of Melanesia 7and of +frica or I-ro e9 can be co. ared to sha.ans, as @ayard has done in arallelin" *flyin" tricksters* of the Ge1 2ebrides to 3iberian sha.ansJ co..on traits incl-de, in his vie1, initiatory death and res-rrection, .eta.or hosis into ani.al for., fli"ht thro-"h the air, e ile tic sy. to.s: and ho.ose0-ality. B-t sha.ans differ f-nda.entally, as @ayard notes, fro. 1itches in their vocation of healin" and fi"htin" a"ainst de.onic forces and death. Cne .i"ht s ec-late that 1itchcraft has been es ecially ro.inent in re"ions like Melanesia, +frica, I-ro e, and the P-eblo and Gava:o 3o-th1est 1here ecstatic transcendence, denied the co..-nally sanctioned e0 ression of sha.anis., has taken illicit for.s. / 14% / to a latfor. of his ho-se 1here he seeks visions in a deliberate 8-est for transcendent kno1led"e 7@eenhardt, D'9. B-t it is in the Malay enins-la and ,ndonesian archi ela"o that the revalent s irit .edi-.shi of these re"ions .ost strikin"ly inter.in"les 1ith ractices si.ilar to those of northern I-rasia. The Malay ,elian actively co.bats his s irit-al foes. ,f not 8-ite a .aster of s irits 7since the ossessin" ti"erBs irit is tho-"ht to act thro-"h hi.9, he is far .ore than a *tele hone e0chan"e* for their .essa"es, and altho-"h his fa.iliar s irit is inherited, he .ay establish co..-nication 1ith it thro-"h tuntut 7Indicott 19F$, 1&9, a vision 8-est involvin" solitary vi"il beside an o en "rave or in the dark forest. Possession by a ti"er .ay not be indi"eno-s to the Malay ,elian b-t borro1ed fro. the sha.anistic Ge"rito or 3enoi 7Indicott 19F$, DDJ cf. '19. The Ge"ritos belon" to a stock tho-"ht to have been a.on" the first inhabitants of so-theast +sia b-t confined in recent cent-ries to the +nda.an ,slands and ockets of enins-lar Malaysia and the Phili inesJ like the +-stralians, they are .ainly h-nters and "atherers. The +nda.anese, 1hen first observed by I. 2. Man in the late nineteenth and by RadcliffeBBro1n in the early t1entieth cent-ry, 1ere a.on" the .ost ri.itive eo les on earth, lackin" not only a"ric-lt-re and do.estic ani.als 7even the do" -ntil 1'%'9 b-t kno1led"e of .akin" fire. The sha.anis. of their .edicine .an is visionary rather than ecstaticJ thro-"h drea.s he co..-nicates 1ith s irits of the dead and erfor.s c-res 7RadcliffeBBro1n 19DD, 1FF9. +.on" the less isolated Ge"ritos or 3e.an" of the Malay enins-la, the crystalB"a>in" hala is in so.e res ects, like his +nda.anese co-nter art, a visionary sha.anJ in others, he .ore nearly rese.bles ecstatic sha.ans else1here. The 1ord hala si"nifies transfor.ation into a ti"er 73chebesta, 1D19J ability to chan"e into so otent a s irit betokens .astery of e0traordinary s irit-al o1er. +t noct-rnal cere.onies he ascends on incense to the sky 1hile sin"in" son"s in voices ascribed to celestial chenoi s irits 71#&M4$9J here he "ains o1er to transfor. hi.self into s irit bein"s 1itho-t loss of his o1n identity. 3ha.ans of nei"hborin" tribes 1ere able to free a ersonHs so-l carried off by disease, sendin" fa.iliar s irits to retrieve it fro. ca tivity 7Ivans, D19MD$9J th-s they erfor.ed the s- re.e sha.anic task of enetratin" and ret-rnin" fro. the 1orld of the dead. / 14& / Icstatic ascent to the heavens is es ecially ro.inent in Batek Ge"rito sha.anis.. The Batek,

Indicott 1rites 719F9, 91M9&9, believe that a ersonal shado1Bso-l can leave the body to .ake contact 1ith the s irits in drea.s. B-t the .ost effective co..-nication 1ith the hala9 asal 7*ori"inal s- erh-.an bein"s*9 is trancin" by a sha.an, 1hose shado1so-l can fly any1here in the -niverse 714%9, "-ided by son"s to its destination. ,t .ay also .ake earthly :o-rneys in its ti"erBbody in search of infor.ation fro. the s irits. +t a session held several ti.es a year 71%4M%%9, a Batek sha.an sinks into trance after sin"in" 1ith eyes sh-t ho1 his shado1Bso-l :o-rneys to the sky or thro-"h dee ools to the -nder1orld, 1here it visits the hala9 asal and the dead. *,t also :-st travels abo-t, .arvellin" at the 1onderf-l si"hts.* Unlike the drea.er 7or .edi-. of other c-lt-res9, the sha.an deter.ines 1hat hala H to visit and chooses the to ic of disc-ssion as his so-l ran"es in 8-est of transcendent kno1led"e. Chinese .edi-.s of 3in"a ore find a sha.anic co-nter art in the fe.ale *so-lBraiser* 7Illiott, 1#FM #99 1ho calls - the shen 6-an =in to hel her seek o-t the so-ls of the dead. Tre.blin" violently and s eakin" alternately in her o1n voice, the sin"Bson" chant of 6-an =in, and the *horrible "ro1l* of the dead, she re orts the "oddessHs ro"ress thro-"h the "r-eso.e -nder1orld and the "hostsH res onses to 8-estions fro. relatives, en"a"in" in dialo"-e 1ith her fa.iliar s irit. B-t it is in the ,ndonesian archi ela"o above all that the :-0ta osition of sha.anis. 7both visionary and ecstatic9 and s irit .edi-.shi reveals the .-lti licity of its for.s. The seer of the Menta1ei islands off 3-.atra ascends in a boat 7the co..-nal ho-se9 to the sky, borne by ea"les to the s irits 1ho are the sole so-rce of visionary kno1led"e 7@oeb 19D9, F'9. B-t the .ost strikin" instances of sha.anis. in this "reat island chain are fo-nd not in revalently M-sli. 3-.atra or ?ava,N4O b-t in tribal Borneo 7,ndonesian 6ali.antan and Malaysian 3ara1ak and 3abah9 and 3-la1esi 7Celebes9. ,n the .yths of the BareHeBs eakin" Torad:a of 3-la1esi st-died by +driani and 6r-yt, eo le co-ld visit the "ods 1hen heaven and earth 1ere close to"ether 7)o1ns, 1$9, and even no1 the - er1orld is so.eti.es accessible by a cocon-t al. or other .eans. +lon" 1ith elaborate a"ric-lt-ral rit-als and initiatory head h-ntin", ecstatic sha.anis. 1as central to Torad:a reli"ion, and 1as o en to all 1o.en 7and .en 1ho dressed and acted as 1o.en9 1ith talent for it, even an occasional slave N4O ,n the villa"e reli"ions of east central ?ava described by Eeert> 719&$, 19MD19, .ali"nant s irits .ay ans1er a c-rerHs 8-estions thro-"h the ossessed victi.Hs .o-th and a"ree to de art in ret-rn for food and drink, b-t neither s irit .edi-.shi nor sha.anis. a ears in hi"hly develo ed for.s co. arable to those of other islands, incl-din" nearby Bali. / 14F / 74F9.N%O 3ha.ans, 1hose chief f-nction here as else1here 1as to retrieve so-ls of the sick ca t-red by s irits, co-ld :o-rney in search of advice fro. celestial deitiesJ their e0c-rsions, described in *litanies* co. osed in a nearly inco. rehensible sha.anic lan"-a"e 74'9, beca.e co..on ro erty of the tribe. The ;ana of 3-la1esi, also visited by 6r-yt and recently st-died by +tkinson, dress in ra"s to search for forest s irits, since o1er ori"inates in the 1ilderness. Their sha.an sees in controlled 1akin" states 1hat others see only in drea.sJ in the elaborate ma,olong cere.ony he and his s irit fa.iliars *travel to distant real.s in -rs-it of lost as ects of a atientHs bein"* 7+tkinson, 1D#9, altho-"h :o-rneys to a celestial *C1ner,* +tkinson s-r.ises, .ay be a recent develo .ent infl-enced by Christianity and ,sla. 71%9, 19F9. ,n Borneo s irit ossession and ecstatic sha.anis. contin-ally inter.in"le. Iven 1here the for.er redo.inates, the .edi-., far fro. assively a1aitin" the s irit, .ay boldly set o-t to seek it in 1orlds re.ote fro. her o1n. Is ecially in the north1estern state of 3ara1ak, sha.anis. is hi"hly develo ed. (or the Bera1an 7Metcalf, %'M&D9, illness res-lts fro. loss of the so-l, 1hich the sha.an .-st recover. To the str-..in" of a strin"ed instr-.ent the sha.an enters a trance in 1hich her so-l

*.akes astral :o-rneys to locate the so-l of the sick erson and to 1rest it a1ay fro. 1hatever has sei>ed it.* Cther sha.ans o erate 1itho-t so-l fli"ht 7D&$M&19, b-t their skills derive fro. ersonal ins iration, and 1hat they teach of s irit 1orlds is not fi0ed do".a or invariant rit-al b-t in8-iry into 1hat can never, in a 1orld of intrinsic -ncertainty, be finally kno1n. +.on" the 3ea )ayaks or ,ban of 3ara1ak, Irik ?ensen 1rites 7%%9, reli"ion is al.ost synony.o-s 1ith divinely sanctioned rit-al order 7adat 9. B-t the ,ban, as Eeddes describes the. 7#9 in contrast to the @and )ayaks 7or to conservative eo les like the T-Wi, Tallensi, and +randa9, are *restless innovators for "ain, resti"e, or sheer en:oy.ent of chan"e.* This restlessly searchin" as ect of their e0 erience finds reli"io-s e0 ression in a sha.anis. based on divine revelation co..-nicated by a .obile so-l 7semengat 9 1anderin" to the s irit 1orld d-rin" slee 7). (ree.an 19&F, #1&9J for drea.s, as a basis for reli"io-s belief, rod-ce, as (ree.an observes 719F%, D'%9, *not Hordered attern,H b-t innovation and chan"e.* 3-ch revelations .ay be s ontaneo-sly co..-nicated, b-t 1hen the so-l is ca t-red by a .ali"nant s irit, the services of a sha.an 7manang 9 are re8-ired. 3ha.ans, both .ale and 7less co..only9 fe.ale, fall into three classes 7(ree.an 19&F, #1&, #D$9: novice, f-lly initiated sha.an, N%O )o1ns notes 74'n.9 that +driani and 6r-yt ter.ed those 1ho. he calls sha.ans * riestesses.* Cf. ;ales, &#. / 14' / and transvestite sha.an. The sha.anHs osition .ay be assed fro. father to son, b-t no one beco.es a sha.an 1itho-t bein" *s-..oned in a drea. 1hich is said to involve e0 eriencin" hi.self in a ne1 1ay, co..only the dress of the o osite se0. . . . The s irit callin" the ,ban,* ?ensen 1rites 71449, *re.ains his fa.iliar s irit, his contact, his "-ide, and hel er in the s irit 1orld.* ,n the last cent-ry .anan"s ranked second to villa"e chiefs, and .i"ht be chiefs the.selves 7@in" Roth, 1: D&%9, b-t their recent social standin" is .ore e8-ivocal. Most s-ffer fro. a hysical handica s-ch as blindness and are sti".ati>ed as fail-res in ter.s of nor.al ,ban val-es. 3ke ticis. to1ard the. is co..on, yet the .ost resti"io-s .anan"s are hi"hly res ected .e.bers of the co..-nity. The .anan"Hs treat.ent of disease takes vario-s for.s, of 1hich the ecstatic :o-rney to recover a atientHs de arted so-l is the .ost otent. )-rin" the pelian rit-al, held in the lon"ho-se at ni"ht, the .anan" :o-rneys over 1ater to the land of the dead in search of an errant so-l, 1hich he retrieves in trance and restores to the sick ersonHs head. ;hen all else fails, a victi. of serio-s illness .ay seek a ersonal enco-nter 1ith s irits to 1ho., in the visionB8-est kno1n as nampok, he offers food and sacrifices a cock on a solitary hillside or in a "raveyard. 2e beats o-t on his dr-. a s-..ons for the s irit, 1ho re1ards hi., if he stands his "ro-nd, 1ith a char. to "-ide hi. thro-"h life 7?ensen, 1D49. ,n this 1ay not only the sha.an b-t the ordinary ,ban co-ld ac8-ire divine o1er thro-"h ossession of a "-ardian s irit or ersonal tote.. Gor 1as recovery fro. illness the only "oal of the vision 8-est. *+ .an 1ho 1as fired 1ith a.bition to shine in deeds of stren"th and bravery, or one 1ho desired to attain the osition of chief, or to be c-red of an obstinate disease, 1o-ld, in olden ti.es,* @in" Roth observes 71: 1'%9, *s end a ni"ht or ni"hts by hi.self on a .o-ntain, ho in" to .eet a benevolent s irit 1ho 1o-ld "ive hi. 1hat he desired. To be alone 1as a ri.ary condition of the e0 ected a arition,* for societyHs la1s and conventions had to be left far behind in order to achieve this co..-nion 1ith the cos.ic order on 1hich all thin"s h-.an de end. 2ere the restless need for contin-al innovation er.eatin" ,ban c-lt-re 7if not indeed h-.an nat-re9 c-l.inates in a deliberate ersonal 8-est for transcendence of the individ-al self thro-"h solitary enco-nter 1ith a kindred if -lti.ately -nkno1able other.

/ 149 /

Chapter Ele(en. Sha3anic 0eartlan2/ Central an2 Northern Eurasia

+-stralia and arts of tribal so-theast +sia are one re"ion 1here sha.anistic ractices have s-rvived do1n to the resentJ +rctic and s-bB+rctic I-rasia fro. @a land east1ard thro-"h 3iberia 7and +laska to Ereenland9, alon" 1ith .-ch of Central +sia, is another. Bet1een these 1idely se arated areas e0ist traces, in the China of TaoistBins ired folk reli"ions, the hi"hlands of 6achin B-r.a and ,ndian Ga"aland, and above all 78-ite literally9 the .o-ntaino-s tableland of Tibet, of 1hat .ay once have been a far .ore 1idely disse.inated sha.anis. of rehistoric ti.es.

The Anti7uit) o' the Sha3an/ Tibet an2 0ints o' !rehistor)
Beliefs derived fro. the lar"ely sha.anistic Bon 7or BVn9 reli"ion of Tibet rior to the introd-ction of Tantric B-ddhis. in the seventh cent-ry +.). and its develo .ent into @a.ais. ervade folk reli"ion even no1, to the e0tent that *the soBcalled B-ddhist o -lation is ractically 3ha.anist* 7)avidBGeel, 99. 2ere too 1e find the tri artite cos.os, and a le"endary ti.e 1hen the kin", at least, co-ld ascend to heaven -ntil the cord linkin" it to earth broke 7T-cci, 1&F, DD%9. + detachable *do-ble* .ay leave the body invol-ntarily to 1ander abroad in drea.s, and the delog or Hdas logN1O 7*one 1ho has ret-rned fro. the beyond*9 can N1O 3o.e Tibetan ter.s are "iven in ro-"hly honetic for., so.e in the 1ildly -n honetic Tibetan ortho"ra hy. / 1%$ / travel in trance to farBoff laces. These incl-de vario-s aradises, -r"atories, and the bardo, 1here the dead a1ait reincarnation, as related in the (ar do thosgrol or *Tibetan Book of the )ead,* a @a.aist book of co-nsel robably infl-enced by Bon sha.anis. 7IvansB;ent>, F%9. The B-ddhist la.a 1ho 1his ers this sacred te0t into the dead .anHs ear is hi.self, like the tribal sha.an, a psychopompos or so-lB"-ide 7T-cci, 1949 1ho acco. anies the dead erson on his diffic-lt ath d-rin" the fortynine days of the inter.ediate state bet1een death and rebirth. Tales of Hdas log ret-rnin" fro. the beyond, 1hich closely recall sha.anistic :o-rneys of the so-l, th-s reinforce @a.aist teachin"s 7T-cci, 19'M999. Erave sickness and hall-cinations -s-ally recede the trance in 1hich the Hdas log, believin" hi.self dead, visits the other 1orld, so.eti.es risin" into the air on a horse 1hich s-ddenly a ears and takes hi. a1ay -nder the "-idance of invisible bein"s. Cther Tibetan ractices, 1hatever their so-rce, reflect the sha.anistic belief that the h-.an so-l .ay :o-rney to farBoff ho.es of the s irits in 8-est of s- erh-.an o1ers. $omchen ascetics can *kill .en at a distance and fly thro-"h the air* 7)avidBGeel, 4D9, and the ri"oro-sly trained lung.gom.pa r-n lon" distances barely to-chin" the "ro-nd, even 1earin" chains to revent the. fro. floatin" in the air 7D1$9. The le"end of 3ha.bhala tells of a P-re @and, at once on earth and in the .ind, tirelessly so-"ht by those on the road to Girvana in 8-est of a liberation that 1ill event-ally transfor. both travelers and the 1orld 7Bernba-., 1$#9. That 3ha.bhala .ay be reached by .a"ical fli"ht on horseback recalls Central +sian rit-als in 1hich sha.ans si.ilarly ascend to the heavens 71&%9.

,n the folk reli"ion evidently descended fro. the reBB-ddhist Bon 7)avidBGeel, #&M#F9, a .ale or fe.ale .edi-., dancin" to dr-. and bell, tre.bles conv-lsively as a ossessin" s irit of the dead fren>iedly co..-nicates its 1ishes. ,n contrast, sha.ans of yore s lendidly re"aled the.selves for bold fli"hts on a clay deer or a dr-., leavin" no do-bt, T-cci 1rites 7D419, of *si.ilarities bet1een the old Tibetan reli"ion and sha.anis.J the ride thro-"h the air, the .a"ical -se of the dr-., the callin" back of the so-ls of the dead or dyin".* +nd even no1, after thirteen cent-ries of B-ddhis., the Bon sorcerer is in essence a sha.an. +s observed by )avidBGeel 7#'M#99 a.on" the * ractically 3ha.anist* Tibetans of 3ikki., the sorcererHs *do-ble* travels in trance to the d1ellin" of a de.on holdin" a ca tive so-l, then obsc-rely describes his fi"ht to restore the so-l to its o1ner. ;ith the "rad-al s read of @a.aist B-ddhis. north1ard to Mon"olia and 3iberia, not only those 1ho ado ted 7and ada ted9 the ne1 reli"ion b-t others 1ho res-.ably retained ancestral sha.anistic ractices 1ere dee ly infl-enced by it. ,ndeed, so.e scholars<notably 3hiroko"oroff<attrib-te not only the T-n"-s 7Ivenk9 sha.anHs cost-.e, / 1%1 / .irror, and dr-. b-t the 1ord *sha.an*NDO and 3iberian sha.anis. itself to B-ddhist infl-ences fro. Tibet and Central +sia. Eiven the 1ide diff-sion of a clearly ancient sha.anic co. le0 fro. @a land east1ard to Ereenland 7hence far beyond B-ddhist infl-ences9, this concl-sion is -ntenableJ b-t the -ndo-bted i. act of @a.ais. on Mon"olian and T-n"-s sha.anis. s-""ests a co. le0 and reci rocal relation bet1een the.. (or the @a.aist B-ddhis. that s read to the north had already been rofo-ndly infl-enced, as 1e have seen, by ancient Tibetan Bon sha.anis.. ,ndeed, )avidBGeel 7D4#9 heard a learned la.a .aintain that bold Tibetan .ystical theories of a *3hort Path* to B-ddhahood by direct ascent in this life are *faint echoes of teachin"s that e0isted fro. ti.e i..e.orial in Central and Gorthern +sia.* ,n .ost of northern I-rasia and .-ch of Central +sia sha.anis. has been racticed either as a co. onent of tribal reli"ion or in con:-nction 1ith Christianity, ,sla., or B-ddhis. into recent ti.es. These eo les of t-ndra, tai"a, and ste e, 1hether @a or (innoBU"rian to the 1est, T-rcoBTatar, Mon"olian, or T-n"-sBManch- in +ltaicBs eakin" 3iberia and Central +sia, or the * aleoB3iberian* tribes 7Ch-kchee, 6a.chadal, 6oryak9 and others s-ch as the +in- in the (ar Iast, have for cent-ries or .illennia lived as no.adic h-nters, fishers, or herders of reindeer or cattleJ their sha.anis., in contrast to the fi0ed rites of a"ric-lt-ral eo les, is a central e0 ression of this .obile e0istence. The rof-sion of s lendid ani.als 7and a fe1 h-.an fi"-res in ani.al "arb9 ainted dee in nearly i. enetrable caves by reindeer h-nters of ,ce +"e (rance and 3 ain tantali>in"ly s-""ests the e0istence of a aleolithic sha.anis.. Iven evidence fro. Ereek and Chinese 1riters tho-sands of years later re.ains too scanty, ho1ever, to allo1 .ore than s ec-lative reconstr-ction of the reli"io-s ractices of s-ch ancient Central +sian no.ads as the 3cythians and 2-ns.N#O The .ost intri"-in" acB NDO Mironov and 3hiroko"oroff in 19D4 endorsed the derivation of T-n"-s shaman 71hich entered R-ssian in the seventeenth and ei"hteenth cent-ries9 fro. 3anskrit sramanaNSO 7via Pali samanaNSO 9, a 2ind- or B-ddhist ascetic. Mironov, after @evi, tho-"ht the 3anskritBPali ter. assed into China 7beco.in" sha.men 9 thro-"h ,ndoBI-ro ean 6-chean or Tokharian s eakers of north1est ,ndia before the T-rkish con8-est of the eleventh cent-ry. 3hiroko"oroff -ses this derivation to s- ort his theory 71DF9 that sha.anis. is *a relatively recent heno.enon* in 3iberia, be"innin" 1ith @a.ais.. Ilse1here 719#%b, 4D9 he s-""ests that it is only abo-t t1o or three cent-ries old a.on" so.e T-n"-s. Iliade 719&4, 49'9, tho-"h acce tin" B-ddhist sti.-l-s, ar"-es that T-n"-s, and "enerally +sian, sha.anis. *is not a creation of (uddhism .* Cthers, s-ch as )i]s>e"i and 2-ltkrant>, derive shaman

fro. an +ltaic root s-ch as T-n"-sBManch- saNSO or sa, *to kno1* 72-ltkrant> 19F#, D&9. +s far back as 191F @a-fer s-..ari>ed ar"-.ents for a native T-n"-sic derivation bearin" 1itness, he tho-"ht 7#F19, to *the "reat anti8-ity of the sha.anistic for. of reli"ion.* N#O MaenchenB2elfen 7D&99 thinks it certain that the 2-ns had sha.ans, b-t the evidence he cites is the co. onent kam 7T-rkic for *sha.an*9 in the na.es of hi"hBrankin" 2-ns. 2e also notes that in Chinese 1ritin"s kan 7ancient kam 9 is e8-ated 1ith Chinese 1u, -s-ally translated *sorcerer* or *sha.an.* References to 2-n 1u in s-ch Chinese annals as the Han Shu 7History of the %ormer Han 9 "enerally e. hasi>e their .a"ical o1ers, ho1ever, and "ive little indication of s ecifically sha.anistic attrib-tes. / 1%D / co-nt is 2erodot-sHs of the 3cythians, a .i"ratory ,ndoB,ranian or ossibly +ltaic eo le 1hose territory once stretched fro. near the Black 3ea to the borders of China, enetratin" 1est1ard into the Balkans and Pr-ssia and so-th1ard, for a brief ti.e, into Palestine and al.ost to I"y t. 3o.e of their soothsayers, 2erodot-s re.arks 7,5.&F9, belon" to *the class of effe.inate ersons called HInareesH,* 1ho s-ffer fro. 1hat he else1here 7,.1$%9 calls the *fe.ale disease.* +fter a b-rial 7,5.F#MF%9, the 3cythians cleanse the.selves in a va or bath for.ed by stretchin" 1oolen cloth over a fra.e1ork of sticks, and *inside this little tent they -t a dish 1ith redBhot stones in it. Then they take so.e he. seed, cree into the tent, and thro1 the seed on to the hot stones. +t once it be"ins to s.oke . . . The 3cythians en:oy it so .-ch that they ho1l 1ith leas-re.* (e1 tho-"h these details are, the andro"yno-s ro hets, -rification by stea. bath, into0ication by cannabis, and s-bse8-ent ho1lin" stron"ly s-""est affinities 1ith Central +sian, 3iberian, and +.erican sha.anis.s observed over t1o tho-sand years later. Transvestite sha.ans are fo-nd, Me-li notes 7D:'D&9, in .-ch of 3iberia and Gorth +.erica, es ecially a.on" the *PaleoB3iberians* and +siatic Iski.oJ s1eat baths s-ch as 2erodot-s described are 1idely -sed by Gative +.ericans for rit-al -rification, notably before vision 8-estsJ and narcotics ran"in" fro. tobacco to 3iberian flyB a"aric .-shroo.s and 3o-th +.erican ya"A ind-ce visions thro-"ho-t .-ch of the I-rasianB +.erican sha.anic co. le0. +nd since sha.ans often act as * sycho o. s,* cond-ctin" so-ls of the recently dead to the -nder1orld, Me-li la-sibly con:ect-res 7D:'D1MDD9 *that the 3cythian too in his s1eatBh-t 1as strivin" for the sa.e ob:ect, that his Hho1lin"H 1as a sin"in"Bover of the dead .anHs so-l <that the 3cythian,* in short, far fro. ho1lin" 1ith leas-re in his ri.itive sa-na, *1as sha.ani>in".* +ncient Central +sian sha.anis. .ay have rofo-ndly infl-enced reli"io-s ractice in Ereece, as )odds 7ch. %9 and Me-li believed, and conceivably in Persia, ,ndia, and China as 1ell. 3-ch heady s ec-lations aside, 1e have clear acco-nts of sha.anistic sessions fro. I-ro ean travelers to the co-rts of Een"his 6hanHs s-ccessors in T-rkestan, Mon"olia, and China. *The oracle 7cha.9 intendin" to invoke the s irits be"ins his sorcery and fren>iedly beats the "ro-nd 1ith a dr-.,* 1rote the (ranciscan .onk R-ysbroeck, 6in" @o-is ,^ of (ranceHs envoy to MonB / 1%# / "olia in 1D%#M%%. *+t last he be"ins to "et 1ild and lets hi.self be bo-nd. Then the evil s irit co.es in the dark, he "ives it .eat to eat, and it -tters the orac-lar ans1er.* 3-ch an acco-nt, 3iikala 1rites, * roves that the sAance has in the .ain re.ained al.ost -nchan"ed* for at least seven h-ndred years. N4O

3-bse8-ent acco-nts of Central +sian and 3iberian sha.ans e0 ress intense fascination 1ith their inco. rehensible fren>ies. Th-s Richard ?ohnson 7#%4M%&9 vividly describes the *devilish rites* of the northern 3iberian 3a.oyeds 1ho. he visited in 1%%&: first the Priest doeth be"inne to laye - on a thin" like to a "reat sieve, 1ith a skinne on the one ende like a dr-..e . . . Then hee sin"eth as 1ee -se heere in In"land to hallo1, 1ho e, or sho1te at ho-ndes, and the rest of the co. any ans1ere hi. 1ith this C1tis, ,"ha, ,"ha, ,"ha, and then the Priest re lieth a"aine 1ith his voyces. +nd they ans1ere hi. 1ith the selfe sa.e 1ordes so .anie ti.es, that in the ende he beco..eth as it 1ere .adde, and fallin" do1ne as hee 1ere dead . . . , asked the. 1hy hee lay so, and they ans1ered .ee, Go1 doeth o-r Eod tell hi. 1hat 1ee shall doe, and 1hither 1ee shall "oe. ,n the re.ainder of his erfor.ance the * riest* thr-st a heated s1ord *thro-"h his bodie, as , tho-"ht, in at his navill and o-t at his f-nda.ent,* and 1as deca itated 7behind a c-rtain9 by a dra1n cord, his head fallin" into a kettle of boilin" 1ater. *+nd , 1ent to hi. that served the Priest, and asked hi. 1hat their Eod saide to hi. 1hen he lay as dead. 2ee ans1ered Hthat his o1ne eo le doeth not kno1: neither is it for the. to kno1: for they .-st doe as he co..anded.H* ;ith e0 ansion of the R-ssian e. ire into T-rkestan and 3iberia, detailed acco-nts of sha.anistic erfor.ances roliferatedJ and tho-"h so.e observers re"ard sha.ans as .ere charlatans, others o enly ad.it the o1erf-l i. act of their 1ild behavior on i. erfectly civili>ed .odern .an. *Ivery ti.e that here or else1here , have seen sha.ans o erate they have left on .e a dark i. ression 1hich 1as lon" in fadin",* yon ;ran"el 1rites 7Cesterreich, D9%9 of his e0 eriences in 3iberia d-rin" the 1'D$s. *The 1ild "lance, bloodBshot eyes, ra-co-s voice 1hich see.ed to co.e forth 1ith e0tre.e effort fro. a chest racked by s as.odic .ove.ents, the -nnat-ral conv-lsive distortion of the face and body, the bristlin" hair, and even the hollo1 so-nd of the .a"ic dr-.<all this "ives to the scene a horrible and .ysterio-s character 1hich has "ri ed .e stran"ely every ti.e . . .* I0tensive observations in the ei"hteenth and nineteenth cent-ries, N4O 3iikala, FF, citin" Char entier, Ailhelms av Ruys,roeck resa genom 3sien BCDEFBCDD 73tockhol., 19199, D%'M%9. 3iikala 7FFM'F9 s-..ari>es acco-nts of sha.anis. since the thirteenth cent-ry. / 1%4 / and ethno"ra hical st-dies by 3hiroko"oroff, Bo"oras, ?ochelson, 3ternber", +nisi.ov, and others in the late nineteenth and early t1entieth, 1hen sha.anis. 1as in evident decline, are central to the .ass of .aterials in R-ssian, Eer.an, In"lish, (rench, (innish, 31edish, and 2-n"arian on 1hich s-ch t1entiethBcent-ry scholars as 2arva, Iliade, Pa-lson, and 2-ltkrant> have dra1n for their st-dies of Gorth I-rasian sha.anis.. (ro. these vol-.ino-s 1ritin"s one fact that e.er"es 7allo1in" -s to deal 1ith I-rasian sha.anis. as a 1hole rather than tribe by tribe9 is the e0traordinary e0tent to 1hich, des ite co-ntless variations, not only has sha.anis. re.ained *al.ost -nchan"ed* in .any res ects fro. the ti.e of R-ysbroeck 7if not 2erodot-s9 -ntil its recent decline, b-t des ite *the variety of races and the enor.o-s distances that se arate the.,* as Mikhailovskii 71%'9 lon" a"o observed, .any of its ractices are *re eated 1ith .arvello-s re"-larity.* ,nsofar as the sha.anis. of the h-nters and herders of northern I-rasia 7and beyond9 has reBe.inently e0 ressed the restlessly .obile, transcendently 8-estin" di.ension of ri.itive reli"ion, nothin" abo-t it has been .ore strikin" than its consistency and ersistence in these re"ions thro-"ho-t i..ense e0 anses of s ace and ti.e.

The Sha3anic Cos3os an2 the I3perious Call

The cos.olo"y co..on to .any Gorth I-rasian tribal eo les co. rises three re"ions linked to"ether by a central a:is mundi, 1hether illar or tree, .o-ntain or river 7Iliade 19&4, D%99J tho-"h not -ni8-e to sha.anistic c-lt-res, it is f-nda.ental to their vie1 of the 1orld, hi"hBli"htin" the transitional lace in the cos.os of .an in "eneral and the sha.an in artic-lar. 3i.ilar tri artite divisions are fo-nd in Tibet and as far a1ay as 3-la1esi, and so.e Gorth I-rasian tribes, like the Ch-kchee, distin"-ish five, seven, or nine vertical 1orlds 7Bo"oras, ##$9. The sacred and rofane, divine and h-.an, are not o osed in ins- erable d-alis. b-t linked by the a0is that rovides, for those bet1een, the er et-al o ort-nity of assa"e bet1een the.. ,n so.e cases the tri artite cos.os corres onds to a threefold so-lJ in every case a .obile so-l is believed to de art te. orarily fro. the body d-rin" drea.s and illness and er.anently at death 72arva 19DF, 4FDMF49. Beca-se of this eri atetic ca acity, those 1ho inhabit the .iddle 1orld can voya"e to the heavens or the 1orld of the dead: a latent otentiality contin-ally i. eded, ho1ever, by the li.its of the everyday h-.an condition. Th-s the 6oryak near the Berin" 3ea believe that in the .ytholo"ical a"e of Bi" Raven, *.en co-ld ascend to heaven, and "et do1n to the -nder"ro-nd 1orld, 1ith "reat ease. Go1 only sha.ans are ca able of / 1%% / doin" it* 7?ochelson 19$', 1D19. +s Iliade re.arks 719&4, D%99, the sha.an alone *kno1s the .ystery of the breakBthro-"h in lane* and can co..-nicate to those 1ho have half for"otten it this transcendent otentiality of everyone 1ho inhabits o-r li.inal 1orld. +ltho-"h sha.ans .ay erfor. riestly f-nctions, Mikhailovskii observes 7919, their chief i. ortance derives fro. d-ties 1hich distin"-ish the. shar ly fro. riests. Moreover, no1here 7a art fro. sha.ans 1ho contin-ed to ractice after a tribeHs conversion to @a.ais., ,sla., or Christianity9 do 1e find a shar dichoto.y, as in .any c-lt-res 1here s irit .edi-.shi is racticed, bet1een the sha.an and a .ore resti"io-s "-ardian of tribal rit-al. The sha.an, -nlike .ost .edi-.s, is the s- re.e and often the sole inter.ediary bet1een his eo le and the s irit 1orld. Cn the other hand, altho-"h .any sha.ans ractice .a"ic 7often a"ainst sha.ans of other clans9, they characteristically seek co..-nion 1ith s irits instead of atte. tin" to coerce it thro-"h .echanical for.-lasJ the sha.anHs erfor.ance, -nlike the .a"icianHs, is in theory a vent-re in the -nkno1n. 3ha.anic ecstasy is no .ere techni8-e, like .a"ic or rit-al, then, b-t a transcendent 7*ekBstatic*9 8-est to restore the har.ony shattered for the individ-al by illness or death, and for the eo le by loss of ri.ordial -nity 1ith kindred s irits in the heavens and fello1 creat-res on earth. The 1ides read conce tion of a so-l inherent in nat-ral ob:ects 1as closely connected, a.on" the +ltaic and other eo les, 1ith belief in an ins iritin" o1er identified as the o1ner or .aster of heno.ena ran"in" fro. forest or sea to s ecies of lants and ani.als. ,t 1as in "eneral this o1ner, not individ-al .e.bers of a s ecies, that cere.onies so-"ht to ro itiate after the killin" of a kindred ani.al, notably, a.on" Boreal h-ntin" eo les, the bear 72allo1ell 19D&, 1%49. ,n the (innish bear feast called *the 1eddin",* Bisho Rothovi-s observed in 1&4$ 72arva 19DF, 9FM9'9, *1hen they ca t-re a bear, they .-st hold a feast in the dark, drinkin" the health of the bear fro. its sk-ll, actin" and "ro1lin" like the bear, roc-rin" in this 1ay f-rther s-ccess*J si.ilar rites are co..on thro-"ho-t the I-rasianB +.erican co. le0. The sha.an can .ediate bet1een .en and s irits 7of ani.als or others9 beca-se he has been

e. o1ered by his o1n "-ardian s irit in the sha e of an ani.al or ancestral sha.an, the t1o bein" not clearly distinct. This t-telary s irit or "eni-s 7often assisted by vario-s hel in" s irits in bird or ani.al for.9 is no do-bt, as 2arva s-""ests 719DF, D'49, in essence the sha.anHs o1n .obile so-l, a -niversally latent o1er to 1hich the sha.an inter.ittently "ives rein, at the risk of .adness, 1hile others re"ard it as dan"ero-s and strive to hold it in check. The secret lan"-a"e of .any sha.ans, .oreover, is fre8-ently tho-"ht to be an ani.al lan"-a"e, and the sha.anHs cost-.e .ay be adorned 1ith bird / 1%& / and ani.al feat-res. 3-ch cost-.es, 2arva believes 719DF, %199, ori"inally re resented the sha.anHs so-lBani.al, to 1hich he re.ains inse arably :oined lon" after the cleava"e bet1een h-.an and ani.al has taken lace for others. Thro-"h the .eta.or hic ca acity of the .obile so-l, sha.ans are tho-"ht to be able, a.on" the 6oryak and else1here, to transfor. the.selves into other sha es 7?ochelson 19$', 11F9, above all into the ani.al for.s they ass-.e - on donnin" their cost-.es. 3-ch transfor.ations are a co..on .otif of .yths thro-"ho-t the 1orldJ the sha.an, even in a ti.e 1hen bodily transfor.ation, like bodily fli"ht, is no lon"er ossible, er et-ates the versatility of the .obile so-l shared by all ani.ate creat-res in the .ythic ast. *Iach ti.e a sha.an s-cceeds in sharin" in the ani.al .ode of bein",* Iliade 1rites 719&4, 949, *he in a .anner reBestablishes the sit-ation that e0isted in illo tempore, in .ythical ti.es, 1hen the divorce bet1een .an and ani.al had not yet occ-rred*: the lost aradise of the da1n of ti.e. To reBestablish this condition cannot be si. ly to reca t-re a ti.eless ast, ho1ever, for it is the ca acity for inherently -ncertain change that the restless sha.an re eatedly e.bodies in his endless 8-est to act-ali>e a -nity 1ith all creation that is no1 forever otential and th-s forever f-t-re. The vocation of sha.an in .ost of Gorth and Central I-rasia, like that of s irit .edi-.s in .-ch of the 1orld, is not vol-ntarily chosen b-t *inel-ctably and fatally deter.ined* 7Pa-lson 19&4, 1#%9. Predis osition to the call .ay be hereditary, b-t the *"ift* is nor.ally *acce ted as a heavy b-rden, 1hich .an takes - as the inevitable, s-b.ittin" to it 1ith a 1eary heart as of one doo.ed. ,t is not the sha.an 1ho elects the rotectin" s irit, b-t the rotectin" s irit 1ho elects the sha.an* 73ternber", 4F#9. This call, a"ain like the s irit .edi-.Hs, is characteristically co..-nicated by onsla-"ht of illness, 1hose often bi>arre sy. to.s led so.e observers to consider sha.anis. a atholo"ical condition: e ile sy, ne-rosis, or *+rctic hysteria* res-ltin" fro. lon" ni"hts, .aln-trition, and cold. +.on" the =ak-t, a erson destined to sha.anis., Mikhailovskii 1rites 7'%M'F9, s-ddenly *"abbles, falls into -nconscio-sness, r-ns abo-t the 1oods, lives on the bark of trees, thro1s hi.self into fire and 1ater, lays hold of 1ea ons and in:-res hi.self, so that he has to be 1atched by his fa.ilyJ by these si"ns they kno1 that he 1ill be a sha.an.* + f-t-re B-ryat sha.an, .arked by solitary tho-"htf-lness, Mikhailovskii contin-es, *be"ins to have fits of ecstasy, drea.s and s1oons beco.e .ore fre8-entJ he sees s irits, leads a restless life, 1anders abo-t fro. villa"e to villa"e and tries to kam, * that is, to be the sha.an he is beco.in". ,n these and other instances the transfor.ation into a sha.an is .ore rotracted than the s irit .edi-.Hs call, 1hich .ay be as s-dden as that / 1%F / of the +shanti 1ho r-shes 1ildly into the b-sh and e.er"es ho-rs or days later as a .edi-.B riest, even if 1eeks of disorientation and .onths or years of instr-ction follo1. The sha.an, too, receives

trainin" fro. other sha.ans, b-t it is ty ically by s irits the.selves<above all his "-ardian s irit< that he clai.s to be instr-cted d-rin" his lon" re aration. 2is relationshi 1ith a "-ardian s irit of the o osite se0 is fre8-ently 7like that of so.e .edi-.s9 a se0-al one. Th-s a sha.an of the Eold tribe told 3ternber" 74F&MFF9 of a s irit 1ho a roached hi., on his sick bed, in the sha e of a bea-tif-l 1o.an, sayin": *, love yo-, , have no h-sband no1, yo- 1ill be .y h-sband and , shall be a 1ife -nto yo-.* Threatenin" to kill hi. if he resisted, she has co.e to hi. ever since fro. her solitary .o-ntain h-t, so.eti.es as an old 1o.an, so.eti.es as a 1olf or 1in"ed ti"er, *and , slee 1ith her as 1ith .y o1n 1ife, b-t 1e have no children.* ,n this story, as in .any fro. 3iberia, the s irit takes the initiative in instr-ctin" the resistin" novice, 1ho a ears as assive as a ty ical .edi-.. 3o.eti.es, ho1ever, the sha.anHs vocation, tho-"h initially invol-ntary, takes on the sha e, as he "rad-ally identifies 1ith the transcendent s irit 1ithin, of an initiation or 8-est for reali>ation of hitherto -ns-s ected o1ers. ,n the vivid acco-nt of the Tav"i 3a.oyed sha.an 3ere tie ):ar-oskin re orted by Po ov 71#FM4#9, the novice .-st find o-t everythin" for hi.selfJ hence the 8-est is es ecially ro.inent. +fter ):ar-oskin felled the sha.anHs tree of 1hich he had drea.ed the revio-s ni"ht, *a .an s ran" o-t of its roots 1ith a lo-d sho-t,* co..andin" the terrified 1oods.an to co.e do1n thro-"h the root. @ike +lice follo1in" her therio.or hic "-ardian s irit in the ecstasy of 5ictorian drea., ):ar-oskin noticed a hole in the earth. *My co. anion asked: H;hat hole is thisK ,f yo-r destiny is to .ake a dr-. of this tree, find it o-tLH* Reco"ni>in" the hole thro-"h 1hich a sha.an "ained his voice, he descended and sa1 a river 1ith t1o strea.s flo1in" in o osite directions. *H;ell, find o-t this one tooLH said .y co. anion.* +nd so 1ith every stran"e si"ht, ):ar-oskin .-st divine its .eanin" and his destiny as a sha.an. To the re eated in:-nction *(ind it o-tL* he re eatedly "ives the correct ans1er, 1hich he had not kno1n before. *=o- 1ill be a "reat sha.an indeed, yo- find o-t everythin",* the s irit says, cla in" his hands,*. . . since yo- have seen all these thin"s*: ):ar-oskinHs o1n 1ish is of no acco-nt. (inally 7like 5ir"il cro1nin" )ante lord of hi.self ato Mo-nt P-r"atory9, *HGo1 that 1e have arrived here, , 1ill leave yo- alone,H said .y co. anion. . . . H3ha.ani>in", yo- 1ill find yo-r 1ay by yo-rself.H* 2ereafter the rel-ctantly 8-estin" sha.an 1ill "-ide others on a ath 1hich he hi.self .-st contin-ally discover, since it leads forever beyond hi.. The Ch-kchee co. are the re aratory eriod of a sha.anHs call, / 1%' / Bo"oras 1rites 74D19, *to a lon", severe illnessJ and the ac8-ire.ent of ins iration, to a recovery.* The call .ay be rel-ctantly sho-ldered at first, b-t d-rin" his lon" initiation by a "-ardian s irit the sha.an increasin"ly ac8-ires the s iritHs o1ers 71hich are those of his o1n .obile so-l9 and thereby control of the forces assa-ltin" hi.. 3ei>ed by s irits, 6rader says of the B-ryat sha.an 711%9, *he -ses the o1er th-s derived to sei>e the s irits . . . to his o1n ends.* 2is hardB1on ability to .ake -se of his o1n affliction is th-s the first and .ost cr-cial si"n of the .astery of s irits that defines hi. as a sha.an and enables hi. to .inister to the afflictions of others. Therefore the sha.an *is not only a sick .an,* Iliade ri"htly insists 719&4, DF9, b-t *a sick .an 1ho has been c-red, 1ho has s-cceeded in c-rin" hi.self.* By co-ra"eo-sly end-rin" affliction and transfor.in" it into s irit-al "race, he beco.es, to 8-ote @e1is a"ain 71''M'99, *the .aster of ano.aly and chaos. . . . ,n risin" to the challen"e of the o1ers 1hich r-le his life and by valiantly overco.in" the. in this cr-cial initiatory rite 1hich rei. oses order on chaos and des air, .an reasserts his .astery of the -niverse and affir.s his control of destiny and fate.* (ar .ore than .ost .edi-.s, 1hose ersonalities are -nchan"ed by eriodic ossession, the sha.anHs

e0traordinary e0 erience sets hi. a art fro. his 1orld. *, think it 1as .ine,* ):ar-oskin says of a tent seen in his vision 7Po ov, 14D9, stran"e tho-"h it see.ed: *, 1ent in, not as a .an b-t as a skeleton.* This sense of no lon"er f-lly belon"in" to a society 1hich he alone sees su, specie aeternitatis leaves the sha.an a cons ic-o-s o-tsider even after recovery fro. his initial *disease* has .ade hi. a socially honored 7if 1idely feared9 .a"ician and healer. )es ite the reverence, even osth-.o-s 1orshi , so.eti.es accorded hi., the 3iberian sha.an often see.s -nha y in a ersonal life *1holly isolated* and de rived of constant co..-nication 1ith h-.an bein"s 73hiroko"oroff 19#%b, '9M919. 2is startlin" nonconfor.ity is erha s a co-nter1ei"ht 7like the antics of the eri heral P-eblo clo1n9 to the intense collective ress-res of tribal societies: he is a *safety valve* 73hiroko"oroff 19D#, D4F9not only for sychic .aladies b-t for latent individ-alistic i. -lses of his tribes eo le, 1hich co-ld never be reali>ed by .ore than a fe1 1itho-t shatterin" their -nity. The B-ryat are divided, 6rader 1rites 71#D9, bet1een the aberrant sha.an and the social confor.ity of othersJ the sha.an th-s e.bodies *transcendence by the individ-al of the social nor..* +s s-ch, he re.ains er et-ally estran"ed fro. the society 1hose need for vicario-s transcendence he f-lfills: a fi"-re inherently in bet1een. Cne e0a. le of this transcendence of the socially "iven is the ado tion by so.e 3iberian sha.ans, es ecially in the (ar Iast 7as also a.on" the ,ban of Borneo and .any +.erican tribes9, of the dress and .anB / 1%9 / ners of the o osite se0: a otent e0 ression of the sha.anHs selfBtransfor.ative o1ers. By this -lti.ate .eta.or hosis he 7or less fre8-ently she9N%O s-bverts the conventions even of sha.anic society and end-res the isolation of havin" restored, in a divided 1orld, the lon"lost -nity not only of h-.an and ani.al, heaven and earth, b-t of the ri.al andro"yne in 1hich .ale and fe.ale, too, are one.

Ecstatic Ascent an2 ,escent/ In Quest o' a Soul

The sha.anHs co..-nication 1ith s irits can be conceived, as 1e have noted, in t1o 1ays: either his so-l :o-rneys in ecstasy to the 1orld beyond, or s irits enter and ins ire hi. 72arva 19#', %4$9. These are by no .eans e0cl-sive, since the "-ardian s irit .ay enter his body before de artin" as his alter e"o: in this case ossession or ins iration is reli.inary to ecstasy. To the e0tent that the second 1ay redo.inates, ho1ever, sha.ans .ay see. *entirely assive,* like those of the +in- 7Chn-kiBTierney, 11#9, and th-s indistin"-ishable fro. .edi-.s. (ar .ore distinctive of Gorth I-rasian sha.anis. is trance, ran"in" fro. catale tic st- or to ecstatic fren>y, in 1hich the sha.anHs o1n so-l 7often identified 1ith his "-ardian s irit9 in the co. any of his hel ers, or these alone at his co..and, set forth to the s irit 1orld in active 8-est of kno1led"e or to retrieve a so-l 1hose loss has endan"ered anotherHs life. ,n addition to hy notic sin"in" and beatin" of dr-.s, I-rasian sha.ans, to ind-ce visionary trance, fre8-ently .ake -se of sti.-lants and narcotics, incl-din" the indi"eno-s flyBa"aric .-shroo., eaten dry or dr-nk in a otion and recirc-lated by drinkin" the -rine. This hall-cino"en, Bo"oras 1rites 7D$%M$F9 of the Ch-kchee, .akes a .an *-nconscio-s of his s-rro-ndin"s, . . . 1alkin" or t-.blin" abo-t on the "ro-nd, so.eti.es ravin", and breakin" 1hatever ha ens to co.e into his hands* 1hile *the a"aric s irits take hi. thro-"h vario-s 1orlds and sho1 hi. stran"e si"hts and eo les.* )es ite the effects of this and other sti.-lants, the sha.an is not ty ically considered 7like the .edi-.9 a vehicle s1e t a1ay by over1hel.in" o1ers b-t is distin"-ished recisely by retainin" a

cr-cial .ar"in of selfBcontrol 1hich allo1s hi., at the hei"ht of see.in"ly deB N%O Cn transvestite 3iberian sha.ans, see 6rader, 11D, on the B-ryatJ 3ternber", 49#, on the EoldJ ?ochelson 19D&, 194, on the =-ka"hir and =ak-tJ and Bo"oras, 4%$M%#, on the Ch-kchee. ,n .-ch of northern I-rasia and Central +sia sha.ans have in recent historical ti.es been .ainly .ale. (e.ale sha.ans are also fo-nd, tho-"h in "eneral, 2arva observes 719DF, 4999, *these can in no 1ay be co. ared 1ith the .ale in o1er and i. ortance.* +s a r-le, only on the o-ter frin"es of the I-rasian sha.anic co. le0 7fro. the Ta:iks and U>beks of Central +sia to 6orea and the +in- of northern ?a an9, in .ainly a"ric-lt-ral c-lt-res, have fe.ale sha.ans redo.inated both in n-.ber and in resti"e. / 1&$ / .ented ecstasy, to orient his visionary e0 erience to1ard a -r osef-l "oal. +nyone can assi.ilate s irits, 3hiroko"oroff 1rites 719#%b, %$9, b-t only sha.ans *can s-bordinate the. to the.selves, doin" 1ith the. as they lease.* The sha.an can be "-ided by a "-ardian s irit that is both 1ithin and beyond hi. only inas.-ch as he does not s-rrender 1holly to itJ its very "-idance is th-s the roof of his .astery. By this "-idance, the sha.anHs trance beco.es a f-lly -r osef-l 8-est. ,n initiatory rites of Central +sia, 3iberia, and 7as Iliade e. hasi>esN&O 9 .-ch of the 1orld, his :o-rney often takes the for. of ascent to the sky. The elaborate cere.onies erfor.ed by the T-rkic +ltai for their celestial deity BaiB =-l"en, for e0a. le, as described by Radloff 7Mikhailovskii, F4MF'9, incl-de rit-al ascent by the kam of a birch tree in 1hich ste s have been carved. ;alkin" several ti.es ro-nd the tree laced in his y-rt, he beats his ta.bo-rine 1hile his body 8-ivers and he .-tters -nintelli"ible 1ords. ,n ecstasy he cli.bs the tree, one ste for each heaven, th-. in" his ta.bo-rine and sho-tin". *The .ore o1erf-l the kam is, the hi"her he .o-nts in the celestial re"ionsJ there are so.e, b-t fe1, 1ho can soar to the tenth, eleventh, t1elfth, and even hi"her. . . . +fter his conversation 1ith =-l"en, the ecstasy of the sha.an reaches its hi"hest oint, and he falls do1n co. letely e0ha-sted.* ,n .ost instances, ho1ever, the sha.anHs so-l travels to the heavens 1hile his body re.ains belo1. Cften he ascends by his .a"ical dr-., ainted 1ith sha.anistic ani.als or birds and so.eti.es de ictin" the sky above and the -nder1orld beneath. The Tofa sha.an 6ok-ev .odestly told )i]s>e"i 719&'b, #11M1D9 that he fle1 only abo-t fo-r .eters fro. the "ro-nd, *beca-se , 1as a s.all sha.an.* =et even at this farBfro.Bcelestial hei"ht he :o-rneyed astride his dr-. to sacred lakes and .o-ntains to learn fro. their s irit .asters 1hatever he 1anted to kno1. 3-ch ascents, in body or s irit, 1ere a.on" the rinci al .eans by 1hich I-rasian sha.ans co-ld "ain and rene1 the visionary kno1led"e indis ensable to their eo leHs 1ellBbein". ,n their central task, ho1ever, dia"nosis and treat.ent of disease, and in so.e others like safe cond-ct of the so-ls of the dead, their "oal 1as -s-ally not the - er b-t the lo1er 1orld, to 1hich sha.ans alone of the livin" co-ld enetrate and ho e to ret-rn. Intry to these s-bterranean real.s 7as to the heavens N&O 3ee es . 19&4, ch. 4. IliadeHs disc-ssion is do.inated by the hy othesis 719&1, 1%49 *that ecstasy as ascension receded ecstasy as descensus ad inferos * 7descent to the -nderB1orld9, on the "ro-nds that drea.s of ascent are *-niversally attested* 7are not drea.s of fallin"K9 and that fli"ht is *-niversally kno1n* in archaic .yths 7b-t so is enclos-re in caves9. To stress the te. oral or theoretical riority of one over the other is to for"et 1hat 2eraclit-s 7and T. 3. Iliot and Iliade hi.self9 1ell kne1, that *the 1ay - and the 1ay do1n are one and the sa.e.*

/ 1&1 / also9 .i"ht be by a hole in the .iddle of each vertically ordered lane thro-"h 1hich the 1orldBa0is asses fro. the Gorth 3tar to the center of the earth. +.on" the +ltaic eo les, 2arva 1rites 719#', #4FM4'9, everythin" in the lo1er 1orld *see.s to be other,* its day corres ondin" to o-r ni"ht and its ni"ht to o-r day. The son"s and cere.onies of sha.ans 1ho have ret-rned fro. this real. vividly describe its "eo"ra hy and its erilo-s roads over ra"in" rivers or strea.s of blood. The Reindeer Eold sha.anHs itinerary crosses hi"h .o-ntains and ri.eval s1a. s -ntil reachin" the villa"e of the dead, 1here s.oke rises *and reindeer feed as a.on" the livin" ReindeerBT-n"-s* 72arva 19#', 4'%M'F9. Many northern 3iberian eo les believe the real. of the dead lies to the north, at the .o-ths of rivers flo1in" into the +rctic Ccean or beyond the deathBsea, and .any in both Gorth and Central +sia tell of an evil rince 7IrlikB6han for the +ltai9 1ho r-les over the dead and carries off so-ls to his real.. Gor is this .irror 1orld a lace of eternal stasis: it .ay be a be"innin" as .-ch as an end of life, and th-s a so-rce of er et-al re"eneration. 3o.e eo les believe so-ls of the dead .ay be reborn in children of the sa.e fa.ily. The =enisei Cstiaks, or 6ets, *believe that the so-l can take - its d1ellin", or live a"ain in so.e ani.al, es ecially in bears, and also vice versa, * in a cycle of contin-al rene1al 72arva 19#', 4'19. =-ka"hir sha.ans often "o to the land of shado1s to re8-est a so-l for livin" childless relatives, or to sei>e one by force and -t it in a 1o.anHs 1o.b<tho-"h s-ch a so-l 1ill soon esca e fro. the body and ret-rn to the 1orld belo1 7?ochelson 19D&, 1&$9. Beca-se of this d-al nat-re of the -nder1orld, so.e sha.ans not only escort so-ls of the dead to their f-t-re ho.es b-t brin" back to the 1orld of the livin" so-ls of the -nborn. The other 1orld of 3iberian cos.olo"y is th-s no eternally chan"eless real. b-t artakes in a dyna.ic interchan"e of livin", dead, and -nborn, an interchan"e< ertainin" to the f-t-re as .-ch as the ast<in 1hich the sha.an, both sycho o. and .id1ife, lays the indis ensable role of .ediatin" bet1een the t1o 1orlds. The .ost co..on reason for a sha.anHs descent to the -nder1orld 1as not to escort so-ls of the dead, ho1ever, or re lenish the livin", b-t to retrieve the so-l of a sick erson feared to be in dan"er of death, or to "ain advice fro. the dead on ho1 to e0 el disease. This ha>ardo-s 8-est, in 1hich sha.ans .i"ht risk their o1n lives, occasioned their .ost elaborate erfor.ances as 1ell as dra.atic acco. anyin" narratives and retros ective sa"as co..e.oratin" their heroic achieve.ent. Many in the cent-ries since Richard ?ohnson have described cere.onies for recoverin" a sick ersonHs so-l. Th-s the old =-ka"hir 3a.sonov reBenacted for ?ochelson 719D&, 19&M999 the c-rin" rite of his clan. +fter beatin" a dr-. and con:-rin" - s irits of ani.als and birds, the / 1&D / sha.an lay .otionless 1hile his so-l descended thro-"h his dr-. to the 1orld belo1J he then described his :o-rney. 2avin" crossed a river and entered the tent of his ancestors, he resc-ed the sick .anHs so-l by force and st-ffed it - his ear to revent it fro. esca in". (inally, after t1o vir"ins revived hi. by r-bbin" his le"s, the sha.an, beatin" his dr-. and :-. in", ret-rned the so-l to the atient. The sha.an fre8-ently enacts his 8-est 7co..only in a darkened tent9 for his atient and others. +.on" the T-n"-s or Ivenk, erfor.ances 1ere es ecially stor.y, ?ochelson noted 719D&, 199MD$$9 after 1atchin" 3a.sonovHs sonBinBla1 *call forth his s irits 1ith s-ch 1ild ono.ato oetic screa.s, 1histlin", "rindin" of teeth and terrible facial contortions, that the =-ka"hir 1o-ld be terrified.* + "eneration later, +nisi.ov 719&#b, 1$$M1$19 1itnessed an Ivenk c-rin" session 1hich he describes in detail. 31ayin" slo1ly to the dr-., by a "li..erin" fire, the sha.an invoked s irit hel ers thro-"h

son", vividly describin" their res onses. ,n the silence after the dr-..in" ceased, *the voices of the s irits co-ld be clearly heard: the snortin" of beasts, birdBcalls, the 1hirrin" of 1in"s.* Then to th-ndero-s dr-..in" and a"itated son" the sha.anHs ani.al do-ble 7khargi 9 and attendant s irits descended to the lo1er 1orld by the 1orldBtree and learned fro. an ancestor the ca-se of the clans.anHs illness. ,f the sha.anic ancestor failed to rovide the needed infor.ation, the sha.an sent his khar"i to the s- re.e heavenly deity, the -lti.ate so-rce of kno1led"e to 1hich only he of the livin", by virt-e of his ecstatic vocation, had access. 3o vividly is the khar"iHs :o-rney evoked, 1ith *co.ic and dra.atic dialo"-es, 1ild screa.s, snorts, noises, and the like,* +nisi.ov recalls 71$1M$#9, *that it startled and a.a>ed even this far fro. s- erstitio-s onlooker.* +t the hei"ht of his ecstasy, the sha.an thre1 his dr-. to his assistant, sei>ed the thon"s connected to the tent ole, and danced a anto.i.e ill-stratin" ho1 the khargi r-shed on his dan"ero-s :o-rney at the sha.anHs co..and. ;hile the hy noti>ed a-dience *fell into a state of .ystical hall-cination, feelin" the.selves active artici ants in the sha.anHs erfor.ance,* he lea ed into the air 1ith the hel of the tent thon"s, i.itatin" the fli"ht of his s irits, *reached the hi"hest itch of ecstasy, and fell foa.in" at the .o-th on the r-".* Erad-ally revived by his assistant, he be"an to dance a anto.i.e sy.boli>in" the khar"iHs ret-rn to the .iddle 1orld. Then, rhyth.ically s1ayin" on the thon"s, he told in recitative of the khar"iHs deeds in the other 1orld, re orted the ancestral s iritsH advice on fi"htin" the disease s irit, -t the dr-. aside, and a-sedJ the first art of the erfor.ance had ended. +fter restin", the sha.an a"ain sei>ed the thon"s and be"an to 1hirl aro-nd the tent ole in a f-rio-s dance, atte. tin" to e0 el the s irit of the disease 7+nisi.ov, 1$#M$%9. ;hen all else failed, a contentio-s diaB / 1&# / lo"-e ens-ed, in 1hich the sha.an ers-aded the diseaseBs irit to ass into a sacrificial reindeerJ his hel ers then sho1ered the s irit 1ith :ibes and threats. Cnce .ore the sha.an sei>ed the thon"s and thre1 hi.self into a frantic dance, acco. anied by 1ild screa.s and snorts and flyin" coals and ashes. +s the ecstasy of sha.an and onlookers reached its hi"hest itch, the ca t-red diseaseBs irit 1as defecated into the abyss by one of the sha.anHs s irit birds. The sha.an and his s irits then ret-rned to the .iddle 1orld, barricadin" all assa"es fro. the 1orld belo1. +fter sacrificin" the reindeer and dancin" thro-"h vario-s heavens - to the s- re.e "od into 1hose safekee in" he "ave an i.a"e of the atientHs so-l, the sha.an, in a stren-o-s dance of ecstasy, celebrated his tri-. h and that of his eo le over the forces afflictin" the.<the al1aysB rovisional tri-. h of life over death 1hich .-st contin-ally be so-"ht ane1 beca-se it can never be final. (or both sha.an and a-dience s-ch a erfor.ance is no .ere theatrical re resentation b-t an -ndertakin" de.andin" s- re.e effort and entailin" ossible fail-re or even death fro. loss of the sha.anHs so-l. )ee trance, in 1hich the so-l is tho-"ht to leave the inani.ate body for the other 1orld, rese.bles a co.aJ 3hiroko"oroff 719#%b, F&MFF9 fo-nd that the -lse of a T-n"-s sha.aness ra idly dro ed in half, 1hile her body t-rned cold and sho1ed no vital si"ns. *The sha.an kno1s that his so-l is "oin" forth, he kno1s too that on its 1ay back to his body it can be robbed or detained, he kno1s that a life 1itho-t so-l is i. ossible, and if he has convinced hi.self that it has really not ret-rned, nothin" f-rther re.ains for hi. b-t to s-s end the action of his heart, and to die.* 6no1in" 1ell that transcendence of the here and no1 is no triflin" .atter, sha.ans try to avoid "oin" on s-ch dan"ero-s :o-rneys .ore than once a year.

Sha3anic Narration/ 0eroes o' the Spirit

More than .ost riests or .edi-.s, the sha.an is fre8-ently venerated by those 1hose as irations 7ho1ever 1orldly9 he strives to f-lfill thro-"h 8-ests to other 1orlds above and belo1. 2is dra.atic acco-nt of his advent-res, in story, son", or recitative, 1as no do-bt *a ri.ordial for. of oetry* descendin" fro. ancient ti.es, and very ossibly also, as Me-li s-""ests 7'499, a *"er.inal for.* for .yth, folktale, and oetry in "eneral. ,n the sha.anHs 1ild son"s, vividly describin" the stran"e si"hts and advent-res, trials and dan"ers e0 erienced on his diffic-lt :o-rneys in the s irit 1orld 72arva 19DF,%D#9, 1ith their erilo-s battles a"ainst de.onic foes, is one ossible kernel of f-llBblo1n e ic and dra.atic oetry 7see 6irby9 celebratin" the s irit-al 8-est of the con8-erin" hero. / 1&4 / Go lan"-a"e of Gorth or Central I-rasian sha.anistic eo les 1as 1ritten -ntil recently, b-t a lar"e body of oral oetry fro. these re"ions has been recorded in 1hich the sha.anic 8-est is central. Unlike .-ch early oral literat-re of I-ro e, Gora Chad1ick s-""ests 719#&, D919<tho-"h like 2o.erHs Gekyia 7Cdysse-sHs visit to the -nder1orld9 and so.e oe.s of the Ilder Idda<oral sa"as of the T-rkic eo les or *Tatars* of Central +sia, as collected by Radloff in the late nineteenth cent-ry, relate, insofar as the distinction can be .ade, *not to the act-al, b-t to the s irit-al e0 eriences of their heroes,* and the search .otif * lays erha s a lar"er art than any other sin"le the.e in these oe.s,* 1hose hero hi.self -s-ally erfor.s sha.anistic feats 7#D%9. The heroHs career in these oral e ics ty ically takes hi. over rivers and seas on a *hero horse* by 1hose aid, in RadloffHs s-..ation 7Chad1ick 19#&, D9D9,NFO *he cli.bs the .o-ntain rid"es 1hich to1er to 2eaven, and finally he .o-nts to the very sea of the "odsJ . . . dives do1n into the de ths of the nether 1orld and there does battle 1ith fearf-l "iants and s1an 1o.en.* The hero or heroine of the oe.s co..-nicates 1ith s irits thro-"h .-sic, the heroine often transfor.in" herself, like so.e sha.ans, into a bird, the hero ridin" a1ay, like others, on his .a"ical horse. 5isits to 1orlds above and belo1 are co..on the.es 7#$D9. 3everal oe.s describe heroic -nder1orld :o-rneys like that of the .aiden 6-bai 6o 1ho visits Irlik, kin" of the dead, to seek her brotherHs head, ret-rns 1ith it to earth, and 1ith the 1ater of life restores hi. to health 7#$&9. 5isits to the heavens are also fre8-ent, es ecially by 1o.en, on horseback or as birds, 1ith the -r ose of savin" so-ls. The hero or heroine of these T-rkic e ics is en"a"ed, for the eo leHs "ood, in a erilo-s 8-est o en to all in those farBoff ti.es, b-t in these latter 7and lesser9 days restricted to the sha.an alone. + art fro. narrations of their s irit-al travels, .ade by sha.ans the.selves and recorded by others d-rin" erfor.ances, acco-nts like these fro. Central +sia of :o-rneys to other 1orlds are seldo. fo-nd in the c-lt-res of abori"inal 3iberia. The i. act of sha.anis. is evident, ho1ever, in the oral e ics of s-ch 1idely se arated eo les as the (inns to the 1est and the +in- and Manch-s to the east. N'O Pro.inent NFO Chad1ick dra1s ri.arily on ;ilhel. Radloff 75. 5. Radlov9, )ro,en der Aolkslitteratur der T4rkischen St2mme und der Gsungarischen Steppe, -blished in 1$ vol-.es bet1een 1'&& and 19$FJ this citation is fro. %:vii. N'O 3ha.anistic ele.ents, incl-din" fli"hts thro-"h the air and atte. ted ascent of the sky, also ervade the Tibetan!Mon"olian e ic of Eesar of @in". *There is "ood reason to believe that the .ost ancient traditions relatin" to Eesar a eared a.on" the Bon Vs,* )avidBGeel 1rites 7)avidBGeel and =on"den, 199, *. . . and that s-bse8-ently a B-ddhist "loss 1as "iven to these traditions* in an e ic *i. re"nated 1ith sha.anis..* ,n e0tant versions, ho1ever, this -r ortedly sha.anistic s-bstrat-. has been over"ro1n by l-sh accretions of Tibetan .a"ic and B-ddhist .arvels.

/ 1&% / a.on" the fab-lo-s advent-res of the (innish hero 5ZinZ.Vinen handed do1n in the oral tales collected by @Vnnrot as the Halevala are descents to the dead in Poe.s 1& and 1F 79&M11D9. ,n order to fetch the char.s needed to co. lete the boat constr-cted by his .a"ic sin"in", 5ZinZ.Vnen visits the +bode of the )ead 1here *)eathHs st-. y da-"hter,* 1ashin" la-ndry in )eathHs dark river, 1arns hi. that *.any have co.e here, not .any ret-rned,* and l-lls hi. to slee . Isca in" the river of )eath by transfor.in" hi.self into an otter and a snake, 5ZinZ.Vinen 1arns a"ainst vol-ntarily "oin" to )eathHs )o.ain and tells of the evil 1a"es aid to 1ron"doers there. 2e ne0t seeks the needed char.s fro. the lon" dead +ntero 5i -nen, 1ho lies o-tstretched 1ith trees "ro1in" fro. hi., and 1hen this earthy cor se s1allo1s hi., b-ilds a s.ithy in his entrails and forces 5i -nen to reveal the char.s. 5ZinZ.Vinen then e.er"es fro. 5i -nenHs .o-th and co. letes the 1ondro-s boat of his travels. )es ite .otifs co..on to 1idely dis arate eo les, .-ch in these and other advent-res of the Halevala s-""ests that its stran"e heroes, *s.iths, sin"ers, and .a"icians,* .ay in essence, as Me-li s-""ests 7D: &9#M9%9, be sha.ans. Their chief 1ea on is son", s-ch as the *eternal sa"e* and .aster har ist 5ZinZ.Vinen learns fro. the dead 5i -nen thro-"h his sha.anistic initiation in the bo1els of the earthJ and 1hen he finally sets o-t in a co er boat *to1ard the - er reaches of the 1orld, to the lo1er reaches of the heavens* at the end of @VnnrotHs co. ilation 7##F9, he leaves his har behind as *the eternal so-rce of :oyo-s .-sic for the eo le, the "reat son"s for his children.* ,n short, Me-li concl-des, the advent-re 1ith 5i -nen and other e0 loits of 5ZinZ.Vinen *are sha.ansH :o-rneys* like those kno1n a.on" the 3iberian 3a.oyed tribes distantly related to the (inns. 3o.e five tho-sand .iles to the east, on ?a anHs northern.ost .ain island, 2okkaido, the +in- e ic tradition *is one of the richest and .ost interestin" bodies of archaic oral folklore in e0istence* 7Phili i, D19. Recorded .ainly in the early t1entieth cent-ry, 1hen the lan"-a"e 1as fast be"innin" to vanish, these re.arkable son"s have -n.istakable sha.anistic affinities. 2-.an, ani.al, and divine .in"le inse arably in oe.s narrated, like sha.ansH acco-nts, in the first erson sin"-lar, 1hether by a h-.an bein", a se.iBdivine c-lt-re hero, or a "od or "oddess associated 1ith an ani.al s ecies s-ch as the bear. +ltho-"h the e ic reciter, -s-ally a 1o.an 7like al.ost all +in- sha.ans9, *does not "o into a trance, the "ods borro1 the reciterHs li s in the sa.e 1ay as those of a sha.an* 7Phili i, #9. ,ndeed, so.e fe.ale reciters do-ble as sha.ans, and the heroines of e ic literat-re are nor.ally de icted as s-ch 74%9, s-""estin" that a"eBold north +siatic sha.anis. *is an allB ervasive infl-ence in +in- life* 7DF9. ,n the oe.s, / 1&& / sha.anistic feats are erfor.ed by divinities the.selves 7the active a"ents d-rin" sha.ansH trances9 or by ani.als incarnatin" divinity. Th-s the C1l Eod sends )i er Boy to re8-est the Eods of Ea.e and (ish to re lenish the food fro. 1hose lack h-.an bein"s<-ntil they learn to treat the slain ro erly< are dyin" 7111M149. ,n another son" a shebear obeys the (ire EoddessHs co..ands to c-re a chieftainHs da-"hter by lickin" her 1o-nds and blo1in" on the., like a sha.an 71D9M#1J cf. 6ita"a1a, 119MD19. Clearly sha.anistic tho-"h these oe.s are, they re.ain eri heral to o-r concerns, since the +insha.anHs ersonal self is tho-"ht to be assively dis laced by the "od ossessin" her rather than :o-rneyin" forth in ecstatic 8-est of transcendent kno1led"e. 7The 2okkaido +in- 1ere not no.ads b-t sal.on fishers 1ho in so.e 1ays .ore rese.bled sedentary a"ric-lt-ralists than the restless

h-nters and herders of Gorth +sia.9 T-rnin" to the Tale of the 0isanNSOShamaness <a Manch- folk e ic datin", in ori"in, to erha s the seventeenth cent-ry and s-rvivin" in three 1ritten redactions discovered in the early t1entieth<1e find a f-llBblo1n rendition, in rose inters ersed 1ith verse incantations, of the ecstatic other1orld 8-est .ost f-lly attested a.on" the kindred T-n"-s 1ho "ave the sha.an his international na.e. 2ere there can be no do-bt of sha.anistic infl-ence, since the heroine is a sha.aness resc-in" a so-l fro. the land of the dead. ,n the lon"est version, a son, 3er"-dai (iyan""o, is born to a 1ealthy villa"e official, Bald- Bayan, and his 1ife in their fiftieth year, after the loss of their revio-s son in a h-ntin" accident at a"e fifteen. ;hen 3er"-dai reaches fifteen he asks to "o h-ntin", for *none of -s esca es the fate that co.es brin"in" life and death to -s all* 74$9. (ever s-ddenly fells hi., and he dies. +t the f-neral, an old h-nchback tells the stricken father a skilled sha.an can brin" the boy back to life: *Eo 8-ickly and seek herL* 2avin" said this 7%$9, he 1alked leis-rely a1ay, *sat on a fiveBcolored clo-d and 1as lifted - 1ards*J Bald- Bayan :oyo-sly reco"ni>es that a "od has instr-cted hi.. + yo-n" 1o.an han"in" o-t clothes directs hi. to the other bank, 1here he learns that she herself 1as the sha.an he so-"ht. 2avin" th-s deceived hi., she yields to his tearf-l leas and be"ins her divination by thro1in" ob:ects in the 1ater and beatin" a ta.bo-rine 1hile *the s irit er.eated her body* 7%D9. ,n rhyth.ic .-tterin"s she reveals that 3er"-dai died 1hen ,l.-n 2an, @ord of the )ead, sent an evil s irit to sei>e hi., and divines that Bald- Bayan o1ns a do" born on the sa.e day as his son. B-t as to brin"in" the boy back to life: *2o1 1ill ,, a s.all and 1eak sha.an, be able to acco. lish thisK . . . ;hat do , kno1K* 7%%9. Cffered half of Bald- BayanHs ro erty, she consents to try, and is borne to his ho-se as 8-ickly as if she 1ere flyin"J there her old assistant, / 1&F / Gari (iyan""o, :oins her. +fter she dons her sha.anHs "ar.ents, bells, and ca , *her tall, slender body 1aved like a tre.blin" 1illo1* as *the s irit entered, er.eatin" her f-lly. 3-ddenly, "rittin" her teeth, she be"an to .-.ble* 7%FM%'9, callin" for rooster, do", l-. s of bean aste, and b-ndles of a er: *, a. "oin" to -rs-e a so-l into a dark lace. . . . Tr-ly try hard to revive .e 1hen , co.e back* 7%99. 2er assistant be"ins to .-tter, -sin" the dr-.stick to cond-ct the s irits, as the sha.an starts on her erilo-s 8-est. @eadin" the rooster and do", she sets o-t to seek ,l.-n 2an. + la.e oneBeyed .an ferries her over a river, infor.in" her that Mon""oldai Gakc-, kins.an of the @ord of the )ead, had assed the sa.e 1ay 1ith 3er"-daiHs so-l. Crossin" the Red River on her dr-. like a 1hirl1ind, she tells the "atekee ers, *, a. "oin" to seek Mon""oldai Gakc- in the real. of the dead* 7&#M&49. +t the third ass of the -nder1orld she shakes her skirt bells and calls on Mon""oldai Gakc- to restore, for a fee, one 1ho did not reach the f-ll len"th of his lifeJ b-t he scornf-lly ref-ses, sayin" that ,l.-n 2an has *.ade 3er"-dai his son and is raisin" hi. lovin"lyL Co-ld it be ossible to "ive hi. back to yo-K* 7&%9. The sha.aness an"rily says she is *finished* 7&&9 if she fails to retrieve hi.. 3he bids her bird and ani.al s irits fly into ,l.-n 2anHs city and brin" the boy to herJ they rise - like fo", and a "reat bird carries 3er"-dai a1ay. ,l.-n 2an an"rily sends Mon""oldai Gakc- in -rs-it, and after bar"ainin" 1ith the sha.aness he ro.ises, in ret-rn for rooster and do", to add ninety years to the boyHs life: *Until his hair t-rns 1hite, his teeth t-rn yello1, his 1aist beco.es bent, his eyes "ro1 di., and his feet be"in to la", let hi. -rinate standin" - and defecate s8-attin" do1n* 7F$9. +s she leads 3er"-dai back, a resentf-l s irit an"rily asks 1hy she has not revived *yo-r dear 1ar.

h-sband 1ho 1as .arried to yo- fro. yo-th* 7F19, and threatens boilin" oil if she ref-ses. 3he 8-ickly rids herself of hi.<*;itho-t a h-sband, , shall live ha ily* 7F49<and contin-es on her 1ay, *no1 1alkin" .errily as the bree>e, no1 r-nnin" 8-ickly as a 1hirl1ind* 7F%9. 3he sees an -"ly old 1o.an, C.osiB.a.a, distrib-tor of so-ls, *.an-fact-rin" s.all children* and lacin" the. in ba"s 7FF9J 1hen the sha.aness 1as born, C.osiB.a.a recalls, *, laced a sha.anHs ca on yo-r head, tied bells on yo-r skirt, -t a ta.bo-rine in yo-r hand, and ca-sin" yo- to act as a sha.an, , layf-lly bro-"ht yoto life.* C.osiB.a.a sho1s her -nish.ents of the -nder1orld to instr-ct her in conse8-ences of "ood and evil 1hile a bodhisattva, by a brid"e of so-ls, assi"ns f-t-re incarnations, fro. B-ddhas to 1or.s. The sha.aness bo1s and ro.ises to re ort these thin"s to the livin". +fter she ret-rns to the ho.e of Bald- Bayan, her assistant revives / 1&' / her, and she fans the so-l into 3er"-ddaiHs body, 1hich a1akens as fro. a lon" slee . 3he then lives res ectably, *.akin" a break 1ith all stran"e, dissol-te .atters* 7''M'99. ;hen her .otherBinBla1 acc-ses her of killin" her h-sband a second ti.e by ref-sin" to res-rrect hi., the I. eror, in s arin" her life, decrees that her sha.anHs ca and bells, ta.bo-rines and i. le.ents, be bo-nd 1ith steel ro e in a leather bo0 and thro1n into the villa"e 1ell. *@et -s,* the e icHs redactor io-sly concl-des, *overco.e and abstain fro. evil* 79$9. Profo-ndly infl-enced tho-"h this tale clearly is by o -lar Mahayana B-ddhis. in i. ortant details <its descri tions of hellish -nish.ents, its .oralistic endin", and above all its need to declare sha.anis. a thin" of the ast<its acco-nt of a sha.anHs -nder1orld :o-rney is s-rely an a-thentic reflection of the far older T-n"-sBManch- c-lt-re of reBB-ddhist ti.es. ,n this vivid Manch- folk e ic, as in those of T-rks and (inns 7and .ore .ar"inally of the +in-9, an -n.istakably sha.anic fi"-re en"a"es in the central -ndertakin" of sha.ans every1here, the 8-est in other 1orlds for .eans of restorin" h-.an life in this one. (or this 1orld, the here and no1 of i..ediate h-.an e0 erience, is not a-tono.o-s b-t can only attain f-lfill.ent thro-"h interaction 1ith 1hat lies beyond it<1ith the transcendent yet otentially i..anent 1orlds of the s irit. ,n the traditional c-lt-res of these vast re"ions the sha.an alone can brin" abo-t co..-nication bet1een the., thereby breachin" the clos-re of a 1orld in 1hich .an 1o-ld other1ise be less than h-.an. ,n .ythical ti.es, to be s-re, there 1ere others, as the 8-ests of the T-rkic and (innish e ic heroes attest, no less s irit-ally advent-ro-s than sha.ans the.selves, b-t since those farBoff days 1hen .en co-ld s eak the lan"-a"e of ani.als, chan"e sha e, and ascend to the heavens at 1ill, the sha.an alone, in the solit-de of his 7or her9 de.andin" vocation and the ha>ards of s irit-al :o-rneys on othersH behalf, has .ade of life, in 3hiroko"oroffHs 1ords 719#%b, 9&9, *a kind of heroHs e0istence,* contin-in" at 1hatever ersonal cost the indis ensable 8-est for ecstatic transcendence thro-"h co..-nication 1ith the beyond on 1hich the life and 1ellbein" of others de end no less than before. ,t is do-btf-l that any i. erial edict 1ill be able to silence this telltale dr-..in" forever or dis ense for lon" 1ith the visionary services of so.e 1ise one 7or fool9 s eakin" 1ith the indefeasible a-thority besto1ed by ca and bells. / 1&9 /

!ART FIVE. FORMS OF T0E QUEST IN NATIVE AMERICA

/ 1F1 /

Chapter T4el(e. The Arctic an2 +estern North A3erica

The -n.istakable affinity and robable co..on ancestry of I-rasian and +.erican sha.anis.s is es ecially strikin" in the case of the Iski.o 7or ,n-it9 and the tribes of the Gorth1est Pacific coast, the eo les closest to 3iberia. The Iski.o in artic-lar belon" to an +rctic c-lt-re circlin" the "lobe fro. @a land thro-"h 3iberia to +laska, Canada, and Ereenland, and their onceB-niversal sha.anis. 1as -ntil recently central to their c-lt-re.

Aurora 5orealis/ The Es8i3o

Eiven the i..ense e0tent of these s arsely o -lated barren lands, the -nifor.ity of a c-lt-re -n.istakably Iski.o in s ite of every re"ional variation is astonishin". The isolation of the traditional Iski.o fro. all b-t s oradic contact 1ith other eo les, and their constant str-""le 1ith a si"nally harsh environ.ent, fostered for cent-ries an e0traordinary conservatis. not only in lan"-a"e b-t in virt-ally every as ect of their life. 3-bsistin" lar"ely on fish and sea .a..als, even tribes that 1inter in fi0ed ho-ses of 1ood or sod are constantly on the .ove d-rin" .-ch of the year, and al1ays ready to ada t to -ne0 ected circ-.stances. Their conservatis. is therefore an e0 ression not of habit-ated ro-tines in a static 1orld b-t of inventive res onsiveness, in ti.eBtested 1ays, to a 1orld of contin-al chan"e. Their characteristic *sy.bolis. of fl-idity, chan"eability of life, even of -nreliability,* and their *lack of sy.bolis. indicatin" attach.ent to the land,* robably reflect, as @antis s-""ests 7##4M#%9, *the ancient as 1ell as .odern .obility of the Iski.os, 1ho .-st be contin-ally .ovin" abo-t in search of food and 1ho .ost often / 1FD / seek that food fro. the sea.* The reli"io-s e0 ression of this .obility cannot, of co-rse, be the invariant rit-al of the hierarchic riest, 1holly forei"n to the e"alitarian Iski.o, b-t the restless sha.anHs inherently -nfinished 8-est to ass-re the 1elfare of his eo le in a 1orld of constant fl-0. Iski.o cos.olo"ies are "enerally less develo ed than those of Cld ;orld sha.anistic eo les, 1ho 1ere often in contact both 1ith one another and 1ith forei"n civili>ations fro. 3candinavia to ?a an. Iven so, a tri artite division of the -niverse into heaven, earth, and -nder1orld is 1idely attested, 1ith the -nder1orld .ost often located beneath the sea. ;ithin this -niverse, the *ability of .en and ani.als to transfor. the.selves into other bein"s, 1hile al1ays retainin" their inuas Nso-ls or s iritsO, res-lts in an -n redictable 1orld in 1hich one cannot be s-re of the tr-e identity of any "iven creat-re* 7(it>h-"h and 6a lan, 1'F9. ,n earlier ti.es, the Canadian Getsilik and other tribes believed, h-.an

bein"s and ani.als chan"ed into one another at 1ill and s oke the sa.e ton"-e 7Balikci, D1$9. B-t since then only the sha.an can e0ercise this o1er and visit the -nder1orld in the sha e of a seal, or the sky in the sha e of a bird. Personal na.es 1ere often identified 1ith the so-ls 1hich .ost Iski.o, like .any 3iberian eo les, tho-"ht 1ere reborn in children na.ed after dead relativesJ belief in reincarnation, 2-ltkrant> asserts 7in Pa-lson et al., 4$99, is .ore characteristic of the Iski.o than of other Gorth +.erican eo les. +bsence of the .obile so-l fro. the body is 1idely held to be the .ain ca-se of illnessJ after death, 1hich its er.anent de art-re effects, it travels to one of several 1orlds in the sky or beneath the earth or sea. The n-.ber of these 1orlds varies "reatly, and Iski.o eschatolo"y is seldo. hi"hly syste.ati>ed. The .ost accessible of the inuat 7s irits or divinities9 to sha.anistic .ediation is the Cld ;o.an of the -ndersea 1orld co..only kno1n by the .ercif-lly short na.e of 3edna "iven to her on Baffin ,sland. *The Central Iski.o say that at one ti.e she had been a 1o.an 1ho esca ed in her fatherHs boat fro. her birdBh-sband, and 1ho, on bein" -rs-ed by her h-sband,* Boas 1rites 7194$, %$4M$%9, s-..ari>in" this 1ides read .yth, *1as thro1n overboard by her father. ;hen she cl-n" to the "-n1ale of her boat, her father cho ed off her fin"erB:oints one after another. These 1ere transfor.ed into seals, "ro-ndBseals, and 1hales. . . . +fter this had ha ened, she 1as taken to the lo1er 1orld, of 1hich she beca.e the r-ler.* 2ere she has o1er both to rovide and, 1hen an"ered, 1ithhold the sea beasts needed for food, bl-bber, and skins, and to raise stor.s, steal h-.an so-ls, and ca-se sickness. *,t is not stran"e therefore,* Ras.-ssen 1rites 719D9, 1D#MD49, *that it is / 1F# / re"arded as one of a sha.anHs "reatest feats to visit her 1here she lives at the botto. of the sea, and so ta.e and conciliate her that h-.an bein"s can live once .ore -ntro-bled on earth.N1O The sha.an, co..only kno1n by so.e variant of the 1ord angako! 7 l-ral angakut 9, 1as the reB e.inent Iski.o reli"io-s s ecialistJ as in 3iberia, his only h-.an rival 1as another sha.an. ,n a c-lt-re lackin" the hierarchical instit-tions of .ore sedentary eo les his resti"e<or, less fre8-ently, hersJ as in 3iberia the fe.ale sha.an 1as the e0ce tion<1as e0traordinarily "reat, even tho-"h he 1as "enerally an o-tsider. *2e .ay be an or han or a cri le 1ho is -nable to h-nt or other1ise contrib-te to ro-tine villa"e life,* (it>h-"h and 6a lan 1rite 71''9 of the Berin" 3ea sha.an. *2e .ay be rone to fits or sei>-res, s-re si"ns that s irits are at 1ork 1ithin.* The initial call, as in 3iberia, 1as invol-ntary, and its si"ns .i"ht be re.arked fro. early childhood if not birth. *+ .an does not beco.e an an"ako8 beca-se he 1ishes it hi.self, b-t beca-se certain .ysterio-s o1ers in the -niverse convey to hi. the i. ression that he has been chosen, and this takes lace as a revelation in a drea.* 7Ras.-ssen, 19DF, '19. 2ere too the vocation of sha.an tended to r-n in fa.ilies, b-t a ersonal vision 1as -s-ally essentialJ only rarely 1ere the sha.anHs o1ers ac8-ired in a .echanical fashion, as a.on" the 6ob-k of northern +laska 7C-rtis, D$:D11M1D9, 1here the son obtained his fatherHs s- ernat-ral "ifts by eatin" a iece of his flesh. The e0tent to 1hich the initiative for the visionary call 1as beyond the individ-alHs control is e. hasi>ed not only by sha.ansH acco-nts b-t by vario-s .yths, incl-din" several<fro. +laska to Ereenland<that tell of ersons 1ho beca.e sha.ans after bein" carried off to the .oon 7C-rtis, D$:D#%M#FJ Rink, 44$M419. B-t if the initial s-..ons 1as invol-ntary, the re aration that follo1ed often involved an ard-o-s 8-est. ,t 1as above all the Central and Iastern Iski.o, as o osed to those of 3iberia, the Berin" 3ea, and so-thern +laska, @antis s-""ests 7#1#9, 1ho *deliberately so-"ht o1er thro-"h solit-de, concentration, and hysical selfB.ortification.*NDO 2ere the classic acco-nts are those of Ras.-ssenHs

(ifth Th-le I0 edition N1O The ,"l-lik call this "oddess TakYna s_l-kJ here as else1here, even in 8-otations, , s-bstit-te the .ore fa.iliar na.e 3edna. (or other versions of this .yth see, e."., Ras.-ssen 19#1, DD%MDF, and Boas 19&4, 1F%M'#. NDO @antisHs "enerali>ation concernin" the Iski.o arallels BenedictHs abo-t the Gorth +.erican ,ndians 719D#, D&MDF9: *Iast of the Rocky Mo-ntains the e. hasis is - on the so-"ht vision ind-ced by h-n"er, thirst, -r"atives, and selfBlaceration. To the 1est of the Rockies, tho-"h 1e find there also the deliberate vision 8-est, a very 1ides read attit-de re"ards the vision as -nso-"ht, invol-ntary, a thin" of redis osition.* / 1F4 / across the Canadian +rctic by do"sled in the early 19D$s, 1hen sha.ans, 1ith 1ho. Ras.-ssen co-ld fl-ently converse in their o1n lan"-a"e, 1ere still racticin" even tho-"h already, erha s, in decline. ,n so.e cases, like that of the ,"l-lik 1o.an Uvavn-k, 1ho 1as str-ck by a ball of fire 1hile .akin" 1ater o-tside her ice h-t in the 1inter 7Ras.-ssen 19D9, 1DDMD#9, the sha.an .i"ht be the see.in"ly assive reci ient of a *s-dden enli"hten.ent* descendin" - on her -na1ares, .-ch as the s irit .i"ht sei>e a f-t-re .edi-. in the +frican b-sh. Eenerally, ho1ever, a Central or Iastern Iski.o co-ld ac8-ire sha.anic s irits only thro-"h a deter.ined 8-est involvin" ri"oro-s ordeals. Th-s ,":-"ar:-k of the Caribo- Iski.o 1as visited as a yo-n" .an by inco. rehensible drea.s, b-t his visionary election by a s irit 1as only the first ste in the diffic-lt rocess of .akin" hi.self a sha.an. ,n the de th of 1inter, he 1as carried on a s.all sled"e to a fara1ay s ot 1here his instr-ctor b-ilt a tiny sno1 h-t. 2ere he sat .editatin" 1itho-t food or 1ater for thirty days, he told Ras.-ssen 719DF, 'DM '4J cf. 19#$, %DM%%9, -ntil a hel in" s irit in the sha e of a 1o.an cro1ned his otentially lethal 8-est 1ith s-ccess. Iven 1ith this hard1on ac8-isition, his re aration 1as not endedJ five .onths of strict diet and se0-al abstention follo1ed, c-l.inatin" in five days of for.al initiation. This 8-est sets the sha.an a art fro. the co..-nity 1hose needs he 1ill serve, since *the best .a"ic 1ords are those 1hich co.e to one in an ine0 licable .anner 1hen one is alone o-t a.on" the .o-ntains. . . . The o1er of solit-de is "reat and beyond -nderstandin"* 7Ras.-ssen 19D9, 1149. ,n the .idst of his deliberate isolation, the ,"l-lik sha.an +-a recalls 711'M199, , 1o-ld so.eti.es fall to 1ee in", and feel -nha y 1itho-t kno1in" 1hy. Then, for no reason, all 1o-ld s-ddenly be chan"ed, and , felt a "reat, ine0 licable :oy, a :oy so o1erf-l that , co-ld not restrain it, b-t had to break into son", a .i"hty son", 1ith only roo. for the one 1ord: :oy, :oyL +nd , had to -se the f-ll stren"th of .y voice. +nd then in the .idst of s-ch a fit of .ysterio-s and over1hel.in" deli"ht , beca.e a sha.an, not kno1in" .yself ho1 it ca.e abo-t. B-t , 1as a sha.an. , co-ld see and hear in a totally different 1ay. , had "ained .y 8a-.ane8, .y enli"hten.ent, the sha.anBli"ht of brain and body, and this in s-ch a .anner that it 1as not only , 1ho co-ld see thro-"h the darkness of life, b-t the sa.e li"ht also shone o-t fro. .e, i. erce tible to h-.an bein"s, b-t visible to all the s irits of earth and sky and sea, and these no1 ca.e to .e and beca.e .y hel in" s irits. +-aHs enli"hten.ent, like ,":-"ar:-kHs, is the cli.a0 of a lonely 8-est entailin" *ine0 licable terror* and * eril of death* 71D19 fro. s irits 1ho beco.e hel ers only 1hen .astered by .astery of selfJ +-aHs l-B

/ 1F% / .ino-s :oy arises fro. victorio-s confrontation 1ith this .ortal dan"er that threatens all b-t the fe1 1ho by lookin" 1ithin can see thro-"h and beyond it, thereby "ainin" the transfor.ative s irit they have lon" so-"ht b-t co-ld not attain till it s-ddenly descended - on the.. The Iski.o sha.anHs rinci al -r ose 1as to re.edy disease and other .isfort-nes, incl-din" bad 1eather and bad l-ck in the h-nt. 3o.e of his erfor.ances rese.bled those of diviners or .edi-.s else1here. ,n the *headBliftin"* techni8-e, for e0a. le, a thon" held by the sha.an 1as tied to the head of a reclinin" erson to 1ho. 8-estions 1ere addressedJ 1hen the head co-ld not be lifted the ans1er 1as affir.ative 7Boas 19F%, 1#%J Balikci, DDF9. +nd the Getsilik, like so .any tribal eo les, believe that the s irit takes ossession of the sha.an and s eaks thro-"h his .o-th 7Ras.-ssen 19#1,D949. B-t in .any instances the Iski.o sha.an 1as by no .eans si. ly a assive i. le.ent of the s iritsJ his active 8-est for sha.anic o1ers contin-ed as an -nendin" search "iven dra.atic e0 ression in his -blic erfor.ances. (ar fro. bein" co. leted 1ith initiation, his 8-est for s irit-al kno1led"e in a 1orld of s-dden chan"e and radical -ncertainty 1as inherently o enendedJ 1hat he "ained by the ordeal of beco.in" a sha.an 1as not so .-ch kno1led"e itself as the re eatedly rene1ed i. et-s to seek it beyond the nor.al ro-nd of everyday tribal e0istence by 1hich others 1ere lar"ely sh-t off. Cne so-rce of s- erh-.an kno1led"e 1as the @and of the 3ky, in artic-lar the Moon, 1hich sha.ans of both .ythical and recent ti.es fre8-ently visited. ,n a le"end recorded by Boas 719&4, 19$M919, *+ .i"hty an"ako8, 1ho had a bear for his torna8 Nhel in" s iritO, resolved to ay a visit to the .oon. . . . 2e had his hands tied - and a thon" fastened aro-nd his knees and neck. Then he s-..oned his torna8, 1hich carried hi. ra idly thro-"h the air and bro-"ht hi. to the .oon,* 1here he "ained the favor of the .an of the .oon by assin" the diffic-lt test of not la-"hin" at his hollo1Bbacked 1ife as she danced. *)-rin" his visit to the .oon, his body had lain .otionless and so-lless, b-t no1 it revived. The thon"s 1ith 1hich his hands had been fastened had fallen do1n,* the story concl-des, *tho-"h they had been tied in fir. knots. The an"ako8 fell al.ost e0ha-sted, and 1hen the la. s 1ere reli"hted he related to the ea"erly listenin" .en his advent-res d-rin" his fli"ht to the .oon.* The roced-re by 1hich a sha.an seekin" hi"her kno1led"e 1as bo-nd in a dark roo. by thon"s fro. 1hich he so.eho1 freed hi.self d-rin" his erfor.ance 1as by no .eans only .ythical, b-t 1as a core co. onent of the *3 irit @od"e* or *3hakin" Tent* co. le0 thro-"ho-t .-ch of native Gorth +.erica 7and else1here9, associated by the Iski.o 1ith celestial fli"hts of the sha.anHs s irit 72-ltkrant> 19'1, / 1F& / &1M9$J cf. Boas 19&4, 1'&9. ,n the ,"l-lik sha.an +-aHs vivid acco-nt 7Ras.-ssen 19D9, 1D9M#19, stran"e so-nds are heard by the listenin" "-estsJ they hear a 1histlin" that see.s to co.e far, far - in the air, h-..in" and 1histlin" so-nds, and then s-ddenly the sha.an callin" o-t at the to of his voice: H2alala<halalale, halala<halalaleLH +nd at the sa.e .o.ent, all visitors in the ho-se .-st cry: H+le<ale<aleLHJ then there is a sort of r-shin" noise in the sno1 h-t, and all kno1 that an o enin" has been for.ed for the so-l of the sha.an, an o enin" like the blo1hole of a seal, and thro-"h it the so-l flies to heaven, aided by all those stars 1hich 1ere once h-.an bein"s. . . . ;hen the sha.an has a.-sed hi.self for a 1hile a.on" all the ha y dead, he ret-rns to his old villa"e. The

"-ests, 1ho are a1aitin" hi. 1ith closed eyes, hear a lo-d b-. at the back of the slee in" lace, and then they hear the thon" he 1as tied 1ith co.e r-shin" do1n. . . .+fter1ards he tells of all that he has seen and heard. 3-ch a s irit :o-rney .ay be .ade, +-a states, *for :oy alone,* b-t also for .ore ractical -r oses s-ch as dia"nosis of disease, or even res-rrection of the dead. Theories of disease a.on" the Iski.o incl-ded both intr-sion of a forei"n ob:ect 7or assa-lt by an ini.ical s irit9 and loss of the 1anderin" so-l, theories by no .eans inco. atibleJ belief in so-l loss 1as es ecially ro.inent. ;hatever the ca-se, disease 1as treated 7in a re"ion lackin" the .edicinal herbs of less ri"oro-s cli.ates9 not only by s-ckin" or e0traction b-t by so-l fli"hts to the sky or beneath the sea, and fre8-ently, as in .-ch of 3iberia, by direct co.bat bet1een the sha.an and the afflictin" s irit. 3ince disease and other .isfort-nes 1ere co..only tho-"ht to res-lt fro. infrin"e.ent of one or .ore of the .any taboos "overnin" Iski.o life, incl-din" the .-ch violated taboo a"ainst abortions, a sha.anistic seance 1as often follo1ed by co..-nal confession of trans"ressions<a ractice 1idely revalent in nonBIski.o native Gorth +.erica also, es ecially a.on" Iastern ,ndian tribes. This 1as ree.inently the case 1hen a sha.an :o-rneyed to the -nder1ater real. of 3edna to ref-rnish the tribal food s- ly, either at a re"-lar festival or a ti.e of fa.ine. The classic acco-nt of this -ncertain s irit-al 8-est on 1hich the life and 1ellbein" of the co..-nity de ended is a"ain Ras.-ssenHs 719D9, 1D4MDF9. +fter sittin" for a 1hile in silence, breathin" dee ly, the sha.an calls - on his hel in" s irits. *Then all kno1 that he is on his 1ay to the r-ler of the sea beasts,* on a erilo-s :o-rney over the sea floor ast rollin" stones to 3ednaHs ho-se or<for the "reatest sha.ans<directly do1n *thro-"h a t-be so fitted to his body that he can check his ro"ress by ressin" a"ainst the sides.* / 1FF / ;hen the sha.an enters the ho-se, he at once sees 3edna, 1ho, as a si"n of an"er, is sittin" 1ith her back to the la. and 1ith her back to all the ani.als in the ool. . . . +nd no1 he .-st "ras 3edna by one sho-lder and t-rn her face to1ards the la. and to1ards the ani.als, and stroke her hair, the hair she has been -nable to co.b o-t herself, beca-se she has no fin"ers. . . . The sha.an .-st no1 -se all his efforts to a ease her an"er, and at last, 1hen she is in a kindlier .ood, she takes the ani.als one by one and dro s the. on the floor, and then it is as if a 1hirl ool arose in the assa"e, the 1ater o-rs o-t fro. the ool and the ani.als disa ear in the sea. This .eans rich h-ntin" and ab-ndance for .ankind. . . . Those 1ho have been in attendance d-rin" his dan"ero-s :o-rney close the session by confessin" the breaches of taboo by 1hich the co..-nal 1elfare has been endan"ered. )es ite -ndo-bted ele.ents of co. -lsive or hortatory rit-al, these cere.onies<on 1hich there 1ere .any variations a.on" the Central Iski.o 7see Ras.-ssen 19#D, D4MD&J Boas 19F%, 1#'M#99<1ere not in essence coercive. The increase in the food s- ly or the restoration of health at 1hich they ai.ed co-ld be achieved, .ost notably for the ,"l-lik, not by re etition of .a"ic for.-las or actions b-t by the sha.anHs ha>ardo-s descent to the sea botto., in 1hich fail-re 1as al1ays at least theoretically ossible, to seek o-t the favor 1hich 3edna alone, "oddess, h-.an, and ani.al in one, co-ld decide to "rant or deny. ,t 1as above all the kno1led"e 1on thro-"h his solitary initial 8-est and rene1ed thro-"h f-rther 1anderin"s or fli"hts to the sky that no1 allo1ed the sha.an, on ret-rn fro. the 1ilderness, to -ndertake this "reater 8-est on behalf of the eo le. Their res-rrection co-ld be achieved only by one 1ho had looked -nflinchin"ly on his o1n skeleton and kne1 that des ite his a arthess fro. others and

transcendence of everyday e0 erience he 1as f-nda.entally one 1ith the., so that their 8-est 1as his. By his -nendin" search for 1hat he kne1 he 1as lackin" and .i"ht never find, the disoriented o-tsider beca.e the necessary "-ide 1ho inf-sed the fro>en resent 1ith a visionary if al1ays -ncertain li"ht 1itho-t 1hich life itself 1o-ld soon erish.

!riestl) Sha3ans/ The North4est Coast

)es ite the close affinities bet1een the eo les of the Gorth1est Pacific Coast and the sha.anistic c-lt-res of the Iski.o and 3iberia, 1hich led Benedict to cate"ori>e the 61aki-tl as *)ionysian* in their e0cess, the co..-nal cere.onies of these settled sal.on fishers reflect their stratified social str-ct-re and in this re"ard .ore nearly rese.ble the *+ ollonian* rites of a"ric-lt-ralists like the T-Wi. This strikin" .anifestation / 1F' / of conflictin" tendencies latent in every c-lt-re is one reason for the fascination their see.in"ly bi>arre traditions e0ert. Cnly rarely, as a.on" the Gootka of 5anco-ver ,sland, do a fe1 .yths<*i. orts fro. other eo les,* in )r-ckerHs vie1 719%1, 1%19<tell of heroes 1ho cli.bed to the sky or descended to the -nder1orldJ in "eneral the cos.olo"y of these eo les see.s less develo ed than in sha.anistic c-lt-res of I-rasia. B-t no1here 1ere .yths and rites affir.in" the inti.ate relation of h-.an and ani.al .ore ro.inent than in this land of tote. ole and .ask. The .ost 1idely diff-sed rite 1as the (irst 3al.on cere.ony, in 1hich this seasonal visitor 1as rit-ally ro itiated before bein" cooked and eaten. Th-s the creative o1er of ani.als 1as shared by all, even if it co-ld be f-lly ac8-ired by the sha.an alone. +.on" so.e tribes like the ;ishra. of the Col-.bia River, reli"ion centered al.ost 1holly in sha.anis. and there 1ere no cere.onials -nconnected 1ith it 73 ier and 3a ir, D#&9. B-t even to the north, 1here for.al rit-als 1ere hi"hly develo ed, sha.ans 1ere the essential inter.ediaries bet1een h-.an and nat-ral forces. 3ha.anis. 1as fre8-ently *the s-rest ro-te to resti"e for one 1ho fo-nd hi.self doo.ed to lo1 stat-s in a ri"id social syste.* 7)r-cker 19&%, 9D9. ;o.en co-ld beco.e sha.ans, and in .ost Gorth1est Coast tribes there see. to have been .ore fe.ale than .ale sha.ans, even tho-"h the .ost o1erf-l 1ere "enerally .en 7)r-cker 19%1, 1'#9. Male or fe.ale, noble or co..oner, ho1ever, the sha.an 1as the central reli"io-s fi"-re, ree.inently able 7as a.on" the 61aki-tl9 to *cross 1hat sho-ld be an absol-te divide and ret-rn safely*: the indis ensable *.ar"inal erson 1ho straddles the bo-ndaries bet1een his o1n kind and the -niverse of s irits* 7Eold.an 19F%, 1$$9, fosterin" reci rocal co..-nication bet1een these contin-ally interactin" real.s. The sha.anHs initial call 1as 1idely considered invol-ntary, even violent. +.on" the 61aki-tl, the sha.an .ay ac8-ire o1ers by killin" a s- ernat-ral bein" or by bein" taken to a lonely s ot 1here a s- ernat-ral hel er in:ects hi. 1ith sha.anistic o1er in the for. of a 8-art> crystal 7Boas 19&&b, 1#%9, as a.on" the +randa and other +-stralian tribes half a 1orld a1ay. B-t a.on" so.e eo les the sha.anBtoBbe is the s iritsH -n1illin" rey, vainly fleein" a s-..ons he cannot ref-se. Th-s ,saac Tens, sha.an of the Eitskan of northern British Col-.bia, told Barbea- 7#9M419 ho1 he strove to esca e fro. a lar"e o1l that tried to carry hi. a1ay and tall trees that cra1led after hi. like snakes, and ho1 he resisted the visionary sha.ans 1ho bade hi. :oin the., -ntil finally *, be"an to sin". + chant 1as co.in" o-t of .e 1itho-t .y bein" able to do anythin" to sto it.* + stron" tendency to1ard a-to.atic inheritance of sha.anic o1ers

/ 1F9 / e0isted a.on" several eo les like the 2aida 731anton 19$%, #'J C-rtis, 11:1#&9, es ecially in the north. Iven here, ho1ever, at least a ro for.a 8-est 1as re8-ired, and for .ost Gorth1est Coast sha.ans neither inheritance nor invol-ntary sei>-re 1as s-fficient re aration -nless follo1ed by a rolon"ed solitary 8-est c-l.inatin" in ersonal enco-nter 1ith the e. o1erin" s irits. Th-s a.on" the Coast 3alish of British Col-.bia, rit-al transfer of sha.anic o1er fro. father to son 1as reli.inary to the boyHs ersonal s irit enco-nter 7Barnett, 149M%$9. (or these eo les, and .any others of the +.ericas, the rit-ali>ed 8-est for s- ernat-ral o1ers 1as not li.ited<as it "enerally 1as, o-tside .yth and le"end, in I-rasia and the +.erican +rctic<to otential sha.ans b-t 1as o en to virt-ally all. Iven a.on" the northern Tlin"it and 2aida, 1ho tended to1ard ro-tine inheritance of s irit hel ers by the o -lation at lar"e, a resid-al 8-est for a s irit belon"in" to oneHs linea"e re.ained indis ensable, and a.on" .any tribes fro. so-thern British Col-.bia to northern Cre"on, notably the Coast 3alish, the 8-est 1as the central s irit-al e0 erience of each individ-alHs life, corres ondin" to tribal initiations of other eo les. ,ts ob:ect 1as ac8-isition of a ersonal "-ardian s irit, -s-ally in ani.al for.. ,n so.e 3alishan tribes, like the T1ana and U er 3ka"it of north1estern ;ashin"ton, sha.anic s irits 1ere shar ly differentiated fro. those of lay.en, b-t a 8-est 1as essential to the ac8-isition of both. ,t 1as f-nda.ental to this as to every 8-est that each erson, as Collins 1rites of the 3ka"it 749, *obtained his o1n s irit thro-"h his o1n efforts,* and that the vision, as +.oss 71#9 affir.s of the Gooksack, *1as his o1n and not "iven to hi. by anyone.* +.on" the T1ana and other Coast 3alish tribes, syste.atic trainin" .i"ht be"in at a"e five or si0, to be follo1ed in adolescence by solitary fasts in 8-est of a "-ardian s irit 7Il.endorf, 491M949. +fter this the seeker 1as *e0 ected to Hfor"etH the vision enco-nter -ntil the occasion of his first re ossession by the s irit at a 1inter s irit dance,* 1hich .i"ht take lace as lon" as t1enty years after the first vision 749%9. This dance dis layed the 8-esterHs s irit o1er, no1 revealed as -nder his or her controlJ it c-l.inated in ossession by the s irit, 1hich san" its son" 1hile the 8-ester rit-ally danced. Cleanliness 1as essential to the "-ardian s irit 8-est, of 1hich bathin" rit-als 1ere fre8-ently art. + Gootka 1ent o-t secretly at ni"ht to a bathin" lace in strea., lake, or ocean, 1here he san" a rayer 1hile .ortifyin" his flesh, then *entered the 1ater, in 1hich he re.ained as lon" as he co-ld stand the cold. 3o.e .en 1o-ld be al.ost -nable to 1alk by the ti.e they e.er"ed,* )r-cker 1rites 719%1, 1&F9, and others *have been fo-nd dead at their bathin" laces.* 3o f-nda.ental 1as the s irit 8-est to the Coast 3alish tribes of / 1'$ / the P-"et 3o-nd re"ion that children 1ho ref-sed to "o 1ere 1hi ed and de rived of foodJ .any seekers 1ent o-t in stor.y 1eather and l-n"ed into dee 1ater, 1ei"hted do1n by lar"e stones. Th-s the dan"ers of the 8-est 1ere intensely real, and s-ccess by no .eans "-aranteed. Cne P-"et 3o-nd boy 1as sent o-t thrice on solitary 8-ests, fastin" and bathin" for ten, fo-rteen, and fifteen days before attainin" a vision 72aeberlin and E-nther, &'M&99, 1hich to so.e never ca.e. ;hen it did a ear, a vision .i"ht be so terrifyin", as a.on" the 4-ina-lt of the ;ashin"ton coast, that *the faintB hearted -s-ally ran a1ay* 7Clson, 1#&9. Clearly, .astery of s-ch o1erf-l s irits res- osed the diffic-lt .astery of self, a rinci al "oal of the ard-o-s 8-est 1hich nearly everyone, a.on" Coast 3alish and so.e other tribes, -ndertook: for the "-ardian s irit 1as an alter e"o res-ltin" fro. -r osef-l selfBtransfor.ation, an e0 anded self ac8-irin" transcendent o1er thro-"h co..-nion 1ith a lar"er than h-.an 1orld, and therefore a self not "iven b-t created and fo-nd.

The sha.anHs 8-est rese.bled that of others, tho-"h directed to the ac8-isition of far "reater o1ers, incl-din" o1er to har. 7even kill9 and to c-re. +ccordin" to Bella Coola belief, .en -sed to be *so .-ch .ore o1erf-l than at resent, and so close to the s- ernat-ral, that all 1ere virt-ally sha.ans* 7Mc,l1raith, 1:%#99, b-t no1adays only sha.ans co-ld attain<thro-"h a 8-est that .i"ht re8-ire thirty years or .ore 7%4'9<1hat 1as once the birthri"ht of all. Iven a hereditary sha.an, as a.on" the =ak-tat Tlin"it of +laska, had to "o into the 1oods to enco-nter a s irit 7-s-ally in the for. of an ani.al or bird 1hose ton"-e he c-t o-t9, and thereafter stren"thened his o1er by re eated 8-ests for ne1 s irits 7(. de @a"-na, art D, &F&MFF9. Gootka 3ha.ans -nder1ent years of rit-al bathin" before confrontin" a s irit. 3o.e fainted, )r-cker re orts 719%1, 1'4M'F9, 1ith blood still tricklin" fro. .o-th, nose, and ears, and even fro. the te. les and hollo1s over the collar bones, so otent 1as the s irit o1er. . . . Go seeker after o1er dared to for"et, if he 1ished to avoid .isfort-ne, that the enco-nter 1ith a s irit 1as tre.endo-sly char"ed 1ith dan"er. . . . 2e .i"ht dro dead on the s ot, or he .i"ht last to .ake his 1ay ho.e, to colla se in front of his ho-se, 1ith ri"id li.bs and horribly contorted face. The ne1ly fo-nd s irit ta-"ht the f-t-re sha.an son"s of c-rin", and instr-cted hi. ni"ht after ni"ht. (-rther enco-nters 1ere re eatedly so-"ht, for this, like all tr-e 8-ests, 1as -nendin". )es ite his invol-ntary initial call, the Gorth1est Coast sha.anHs rofession fre8-ently re8-ired not only a 8-est b-t an active str-""le to .aster, even *kill,* the s irit 1hose o1er the sha.an so-"ht to acB / 1'1 / 8-ire<a str-""le re.iniscent of the conflicts of .yth. (or these Gorth1est Coast ,ndians sa1 no essential hiat-s bet1een the heroes of .yth and the livin" .an or 1o.an of s irit-al o1ers, de leted tho-"h these .ay have beco.e since the ti.e 1hen all 1ere heroes and sha.ans in one. + 61aki-tl or Tsi.shian sha.an .i"ht be desi"nated a"ainst his 1ill by s irits 1ho .ade hi. sick or -rs-ed hi. thro-"h the shado1y forest, b-t in .yth the h-.an bein" often tri-. hed over the s irits. Ty ical 61aki-tl stories, reco-nted by Boas 719&&b, #$99, tell of those 1ho s-cceed, by "-ile or force, in 1restin" o1er fro. the s- ernat-rals, even at the rice of death and rebirth. +nd a Tsi.shian .yth of the Eyilod>a- tribe relates the tri-. hant descent of the 1o-ldBbe sha.an CnlyBCne into a dark it 1here he learns to restore the dead to life 7Barbea-, F&MFF9. ,n .yth as in life e0traordinary o1ers 1ere besto1ed as the fr-it of co-ra"eo-sly -rs-ed efforts of indeter.inate o-tco.e. 2ere as else1here disease .i"ht be ca-sed either by intr-sion or so-l loss 7)r-cker 19&%, 'F9. The for.er 1as treated by e0traction, es ecially s-ckin", b-t a sha.an .ost f-lly de.onstrated his o1ers by recovery of a lost so-l, ty ically in a -blic erfor.ance. 3o.e techni8-es, indeed, 1ere .ore .a"ical than ecstaticJ th-s a.on" the 61aki-tl, a sha.an assed his -rifyin" rin" of he.lock branches over a atient -ntil the so-l reBentered his body. Iven this hi"hly rit-ali>ed cere.ony fre8-ently involved, ho1ever, at least a r-di.entary 8-est, as the sha.an ran abo-t lookin" for the atientHs so-l 7Boas 19&&, 1#FM#99. To travel to the s irit 1orld 1as a.on" the "reatest acco. lish.ents celebrated in the .yths of Gorth1est Coast eo les. Th-s a Bella Coola sha.an descended into the ocean by a ro e lo1ered fro. his canoe *-ntil he fo-nd hi.self in a land 1here everythin" 1as .-ch the sa.e as on this earth*J he resc-ed his 1ife and later revived the son 1ho had rotted a1ay to a skeleton d-rin" his fatherHs absence

of nearly a year 7Mc,l1raith, 1:%44M4&9. 3-ch feats 1ere tho-"ht to have been erfor.ed by livin" sha.ans into recent ti.es. C-rtis 711:499 describes ho1 a Gootka sha.anHs s irit a arently left his body to search for a sick .anHs so-l, *visitin" ho-se after ho-se in the land of the dead, -ntil it fo-nd the ob:ect of its search* in the for. of a s.all i.a"e 1hich *he retended to re lace in the atientHs head.* +.on" the Coast 3alish the sha.anHs rit-ali>ed :o-rney to other 1orlds 1as hi"hly develo ed. ,n British Col-.bia, a Coast 3alish sha.an searched for a lost so-l 1ith o-tstretched ar.s and closed eyesJ finally he received the so-l, cold and nearly dead, ble1 "ently on it, and restored it to its o1ner 7Barnett, D1%9. The U er 3ka"it sha.an, too, 1ent to the land of the dead to retrieve a lost so-l, describin" the events / 1'D / as he 1ent 7Collins, D$19. B-t the dan"ers 1ere "reat, and s-ccess -ncertain. +.on" the 4-ina-lt a "-ardian s irit fro. the *t1ice dead* dared acco. any the sha.an only to 1here he had stayed 1hile dead: *,f he vent-red farther both he and the sha.an died* 7Clson, 1&$9. ,f a so-l had "one too far, the sha.an re orted fail-re, for not even the boldest s irit-al 8-est co-ld no1 restore it. +.on" the .ost elaborate Gorth1est Coast cere.onies 1as the s,etetda! or *s irit canoe* rite erfor.ed by the Coast 3alish of P-"et 3o-nd and so.e nei"hborin" tribes. The cere.ony, as 2aeberlin describes it 7D%DM%F9 fro. infor.antsH .e.ories of a rit-al already def-nct in the early t1entieth cent-ry, took lace in .id1inter at ni"ht, since in the other 1orld it 1o-ld then be a bri"ht s-..er day. The sha.ans stood in t1o arallel ro1s, facin" 1est1ard as they oled their i.a"inary canoe to1ard the land of the dead, and east1ard for the ret-rn :o-rney. ,n the villa"e of the dead a fi"ht broke o-t 7dra.ati>ed by boys shootin" b-rnin" s lints9 bet1een the sha.ans and "hosts 1ho held a atientHs s irit ca tiveJ this contin-ed as the "hosts -rs-ed the canoe back to the land of the livin". ,n cr-cial res ects, then, incl-din" the :o-rney to another 1orld in search of a lost so-l, the sha.anistic 8-est of Pacific Gorth1est +.erica aralleled that of I-rasia and the +.erican +rctic. ,n others, ho1ever, the ractices of these hierarchical sal.onBfishers .ore nearly rese.bled the co..-nal rit-als characteristic of sedentary a"ric-lt-ralists like the T-Wi, to 1ho. Benedict so cate"orically o osed the *)ionysian* 61aki-tl. 3-ch rit-als are ro.inent a.on" both northern eo les like the 61aki-tl and eri heral California tribes to the so-th. The elaborate 61aki-tl or"ani>ation of the eo le, d-rin" the 1inter season, into "ro- s distin"-ished by de"rees of s irit-al o1er 7an or"ani>ation aralleled a.on" the Gootka and others9 carried collectivi>ation to a oint see.in"ly -nkno1n a.on" the .i"ratory and e"alitarian eo les of Central +sia and 3iberia. Unlike the individ-al 8-est, 1hich allo1ed for -ncertainty and variation, the 1inter cere.onials erfor.ed by these "ro- s 1ere dra.ati>ations of ancestral s- ernat-ral e0 eriences trans.itted, thro-"h sha.anistic societies, fro. the le"endary ast. ,nitiation of a sha.an is *analo"o-s in all details to that of artici ants in the 1inter cere.onial* 7Boas 19&&, 1#%9J and both the 61aki-tl *Cannibal )ance* and the Gootka *;olf )ance,* like the societies that erfor.ed the., 1ere kno1n in their very different lan"-a"es as *The 3ha.ans,* tho-"h .ost artici ants did not act-ally ractice sha.anis.. *The Cere.onial sha.an is the c-rin" sha.an translated,* Eold.an 1rites of the 61aki-tl 719F%, 999, *to the .ore "eneral and hence / 1'# / hi"her level of rit-al erfor.ance.* To this e0tent, the *sha.anis.* of the tribal cere.onials is a

collective re etition of ancestral tradition rather than a erilo-s search for never f-lly attainable kno1led"e. Cere.onial sha.anis. in these ri"idly str-ct-red c-lt-res th-s artially forfeited its 8-estin" di.ension, 1hich 1as nevertheless i. licit in its co..-nal endeavor to transcend nat-re thro-"h the sanctions of a recario-sly .aintained social order. (ar fro. fo.entin" ecstasy, the 61aki-tl rit-al transfor.ed the *CannibalHs* h-n"er *fro. a destr-ctive act to an affir.ation of selfBcontrol* 7;alens, 1&D9, since the 61aki-tl, .ore + ollonian than )ionysian, *seek not e0cess b-t order* 7419, 1hich can only be 1on by overco.in" its o osite. ,n conse8-ence their sha.an 1as al.ost riestly in the insistent rit-al correctness of his actions, able to s-..on the s irits *only beca-se he observes the correct rit-al taboos and erfor.s the correct rayers* 7D%9. The Gorth1est Coast sha.an not only rese.bled a riest in reliance on rit-al coercion, he also fre8-ently shared his o1er 7-nlike his 3iberian or Iski.o co-nter arts9 1ith still .ore for.alistic riests or rit-alists. Cn the so-thern frin"es of the Gorth1est Coast c-lt-re, a.on" the =-rok, 6arok, 2- a, and other s.all tribes of the 6la.ath River re"ion of northern California, only vesti"es re.ained of the 8-est for transcendent kno1led"e and o1er that had been a.on" the hall.arks of I-rasianB+.erican sha.anis. fro. @a land to P-"et 3o-nd and beyond. ,n north1estern California, the al.ost -niversal +.erican ,ndian association bet1een the sha.an and ersonal "-ardian s irits *is very 1eakly and indirectly develo ed,* 6roeber 1rites 719D%, #9. 3ha.ans, al.ost all 1o.en, dia"nosed disease not by co..-nicatin" 1ith s irits b-t thro-"h a clairvoyance attained by dancin" and s.okin", and c-red a atient not by :o-rneyin" forth in 8-est of his so-l b-t by s-ckin" o-t the intr-sive * ain* 1ithin hi.. Ma"ical techni8-es and conce ts 1ere *as ab-ndantly develo ed a.on" the =-rok and their nei"hbors as sha.anis. is narro1ed* 76roeber 19D%, 49, and the for.-laic character of their recitations s-""est that the =-rok, -nlike the intre id no.ads 1ho once bro-"ht a ri.eval sha.anis. to +.erican shores, *did not vent-re into the -nkno1n and had no desire to* 71#9. ,f this assive sha.anis. 1as restricted .ainly to 1o.en, .ale riests cond-cted cere.onies intended 7like the (irst 3al.on Rites of .ore northerly tribes9 *to rene1 or .aintain the established 1orld* 76roeber 19D%, %#9, and in the. the -ncertain 8-est for kno1led"e of an indeter.inate f-t-re "ave 1ay to rit-ally "-aranteed rolon"ation of a sacrosanct ast. These eo les, 6roeber concl-des on the evidence of their o1n state.ents 76roeber and Eifford, %9, *1anted their 1orld / 1'4 / s.all, co. act, closed, stable, er.anent, and fi0ed.* Their 8-est 1as not to transcend the 1orld as it is b-t forever.ore to re eat it as it 1as fro. the first and .-st al1ays 7-ntil it vanished co. letely9 re.ain.

Sha3anic Cults/ Cali'ornia

2o1ever .-ch the =-rok and their nei"hbors rese.bled so.e sal.onBfishin" tribes of the Gorth1est Coast in their shar division bet1een fe.ale c-rin" sha.an and .ale riest officiatin" over rene1al of the 1orld, they did not differ "reatly, in the relative assivity of a sha.anis. re.ote fro. any 8-est for transcendent kno1led"e, fro. other eo les of California. @ackin" riestly rivals in a re"ion 1here lentif-l acorns and ineBn-ts rovided little incentive, o-tside the far so-th, for a"ric-lt-re or hi"hly differentiated societies, Californian sha.ans 1ere "enerally -nrivaled in their a-thority. 3o.eti.es chief and sha.an 1ere one, so.eti.es they collaborated closelyJ in either case, the sha.anHs standin" 1as hi"h and his resti"e, tho-"h tin"ed 1ith a.bivalence, "reat. ;here for.ali>ed c-lts had not arisen, as a.on" the 3hasta in the north, virt-ally all rit-al centered in sha.ans and their cere.onialsJ

and even 1here collective rites had taken over f-nctions of individ-al sha.ans, the latter often re.ained, in the absence 7o-tside the so-thern.ost tribes9 of other reli"io-s officials, key fi"-res in their erfor.ance. ,n contrast to his co-nter arts in I-rasia and the +.erican +rctic, and in so.e Pacific Gorth1est tribes, ho1ever, this c-rin" sha.an did not in "eneral enter fren>ied trances or set o-t on fli"hts to the heavens or descents to the dead. 2is sha.anis. 1as not of the ecstatic b-t of a visionary kind: he did not :o-rney in 8-est of kno1led"e b-t solicited its co.in". ,n .ost of California, sha.ans c-red by s-ckin" o-t disease ob:ects 76roeber 19D%, '%19. + art fro. =-.anBs eakin" tribes of so-theastern.ost California, 1hose affinities 1ere .ainly 1ith c-lt-res of the desert 3o-th1est, so-l loss 1as very e0ce tionally a ca-se of disease, and conce tions of the so-l re.ained so.e1hat va"-e. 3ha.ans had no need to seek 1hat 1as not lost and co-ld devote the.selves, 1ith .-ch -nifor.ity thro-"ho-t .ost of the state, to sin"in", dancin", s.okin", a lyin" herbs, and s-ckin" forth intr-din" * ains.* 3o.eti.es their f-nctions 1ere divided. ,n northern California, 6roeber 1rites 7'%%9, a distinction 1as .ade bet1een sha.ans 1ho dia"nosed by sin"in", dancin", and s.okin" and those 1ho c-red by s-ckin". 3o.e s eciali>ed sha.ans 1ere concerned 1ith the 1eather, rattlesnake bites, or s ecific diseases. )es ite s-ch artition of f-nctions, the c-rin" sha.an re.ained a ara.o-nt fi"-re 1hose s- ernat-ral o1er 1as res ected and feared. Go1here 1as the .er"in" of sha.an and sorcerer carried f-rther than in central and so-thern California, / 1'% / 1here 1itchcraft and .edicine 1ere *indissol-bly bo-nd - to"ether* 7'%#J cf. 1#&9. 6illin"s of sha.ans for s-s ected .alice 1ere often re ortedJ the dan"ers of the rofession 1ere real. ;est of the Rockies, Benedict noted 719D#, D&MDF9, visions 1ere nor.ally -nso-"ht. ,n so.e California tribes, s-ch as the Pat1in, Po.o, and Gisenan, hereditary trans.ission of the sha.anHs office 1as so stron" that even invol-ntary visions 1ere dis ensed 1ith, .akin" trans.ission of o1er al.ost a-to.atic. 5isions see.ed -nkno1n to the Coast Central Po.o 7@oeb 19D&, #D$9, *and a .an beca.e a sha.an by inheritin" a lace in the secret society,* so that riest and sha.an 1ere one. Iven 1here visions 1ere necessary, as a.on" the 3hasta, a sha.anHs s irit or * ain* 1as hereditary 7)i0on 19$F, 4FF9. ,n .ost tribes one or several visions 7-s-ally invol-ntary9 1ere re8-ired for ac8-isition of sha.anic o1er, and deliberate 8-ests 1ere not -nkno1n. +.on" the northBcentral =ana, a sha.anHs 8-est rese.bled that of so.e Pacific Gorth1est tribes, or of the 6la.ath of Cre"on 73 ier 19#$, 94M1$$9. + 1o-ldBbe sha.an, 3a ir and 3 ier relate 7DF9M'$9, descended by "ra evine to ools 1here he s1a. -nder 1ater, then lived alone in the 1oods for si0 days to ac8-ire a son". @ike all tr-e 8-ests, this one 1as not finalJ the sha.an eriodically re eated it to rene1 his o1ers. Gor 1ere 8-ests confined solely to northern eo les like the =ana or +ts-"e1i, ossibly infl-enced by c-lt-res of the Gorth1est Coast. + ros ective Tachi sha.an of the 3an ?oa8-in 5alley *bathed ni"htly for a 1hole 1inter in a ool, s rin", or 1aterhole -ntil the creat-re d1ellin" in it .et hi. faceBtoBface and "ave s ecific instr-ctions* 7;. ;allace, 4%FM%'9. More ty ically, the California sha.an 1as s-..oned in a drea. or 1akin" vision, tho-"h fastin", abstinence, and instr-ction by older sha.ans .i"ht follo1. ,n a 1ild desolate lace, 6roeber reco-nts 719$F, 4DDMD#9, reca it-latin" .any si.ilar narrations, a erson s-ddenly falls -nconscio-s and receives s- ernat-ral o1er. *Cn his ret-rn to his eo le he is for a ti.e de.ented or hysically affected. +fter he a"ain beco.es nor.al he has control of his s- ernat-ral infl-ences,* and is th-s a .aster of s irits, or sha.an. Iven tho-"h bodily ossession<rare in abori"inal +.ericaN#O <seldo.

occ-rs, this over1hel.in" inf-B N#O Cesterreich 7D'&, D'9M9$9 fo-nd *not one sin"le acco-nt of s ontaneo-s ossession a.on"st the +.erican abori"ines* e0ce t on the Gorth1est coast. 3te1art cites other instances, b-t says that o-tside the Iski.o, Gorth1est Coast, and Platea-, s irit ossession of sha.ans in Gorth +.erica is *e0ce tional* or even *aberrant* 7##99. Mali"nant ossession 1as so rare that Teicher 711D9 fo-nd ossession by the cannibalistic 1indi"o of the Canadian +l"on8-ians -ni8-e in the +.ericas. To 2-ltkrant> 719F9, 9'9, * sycholo"ically s eakin" there is rarely a 8-estion of tr-e ossession*J cf. Bo-r"-i"nonHs statistical tables 719F#, 1&M1'9. / 1'& / sion of o1er thro-"h -nsolicited vision is si.ilar to initial sei>-re of s irit .edi-.s in .any c-lt-res, and the res-ltant sha.anis. is of a corres ondin"ly *1eak* ins irational for. in 1hich the ecstatic 8-est lays little or no art. + f-t-re 3hasta sha.an 7often fe.ale9 had a series of stereoty ed drea.s 7)i0on 19$F, 4F1MF&9, c-l.inatin" in s1ar.s of yello1B:ackets identified as * ains,* and a visionary .an threatened to shoot her if she ref-sed to sin". 3he danced, holdin" onto a ro e fro. the roof, like the T-n"-s sha.an cl-tchin" his tent thon"s, and re eated this cere.ony for three ni"hts, fallin" into a catale tic trance follo1ed by f-rther dancin" and fastin". B-t s-ch intricate cere.onies 1ere rareJ in .ost cases, re eated noct-rnal drea.s or visions<so.eti.es ind-ced by tobacco or, in the so-th, dat-ra 7:i.son1eed or toloache9<follo1ed by fastin", instr-ction, and initiation, co-ld ina-"-rate a sha.anHs career. ,n central California a sha.anHs "-ardian s irit 1as .-ch like those of the central and eastern United 3tates 76roeber 19D%, '%19, and in arts of so-thern California, too, as a.on" the Cah-illa 7Bean 19FD, 1$9M1$9, "-ardian s irits 1ere the so-rce of sha.anic o1er. 3-ch s irits .ost often took the sha e of an ani.al or h-.an bein". Celestial ins iration by an ea"le or other bird 7(oster 1944b, D1#9 1as e0ce tional, not only in California b-t a.on" .ost Gorth +.erican ,ndians, for 1ho., )i0on notes 719$', 99, the s irit-al fli"ht of 3iberian sha.ans *see.s on the 1hole rare.* ,n California, tho-"h stories of flyin" sha.ans s-rvive, even in .yth there are fe1 acco-nts of heroic visits to the s-n or other celestial o1ers. +n occasional .yth, like one fro. the Ch-.ash near 3anta Barbara 7Blackb-rn, 19'MD$19, .ay tell of a visit to the sky, here by Coyote, 1ho hitches a do1n1ard ride on an ea"le b-t is thro1n to earth and killed 1hen he l-cks its feathers. 7*B-t Coyote never dies,* as 3nyder re.arks N19FF, 4DFO, *he "ets killed lenty of ti.es, b-t he al1ays co.es back to life a"ain, and then he "oes ri"ht on travelin".*9 The sha.anic arallels re.ain i. licit, since there is no .ore a deliberate 8-est for celestial o1ers here than in si.ilar tales of +frican tricksters .o.entarily encroachin", like the Tande T-re, on the alien heavens. ,n .-ch of so-thern California, as in the 3o-th1est, the "-ardianBs irit idea basic to +.erican sha.anis. is lackin" or -ndevelo ed, ossibly, 6roeber believes 719D%, &'$M'19, beca-se P-eblo collectivis. *s read fro. this c-lt-rally .ost advanced "ro- to other so-th1estern tribes as far as the Pacific.* Be that as it .ay, once a-to.atic accretions of i. ersonal o1er re laced the individ-al "-ardian s irit, neither deliberate 8-est nor s ontaneo-s vision co-ld create the reci rocal relationshi bet1een h-.an and divine characteristic of sha.anistic reli"ions. / 1'F / 3o.e northern tribes, like the 3hasta, racticed fe1 rites a art fro. sha.ansH cere.onies, b-t in

vario-s arts of California hi"hly rit-ali>ed c-lts overla ed 1ith and artly dis laced the sha.anis. 1ith 1hich they 1ere no do-bt closely affiliated in ori"in. The 6-ks- and related northBcentral c-lts 1ere characteri>ed by .ale secret societies<into 1hich fe.ales 1ere so.eti.es ad.itted<and esoteric rites for initiatesJ these often involved, like 61aki-tl 1inter cere.onials and P-eblo .asked dances, i. ersonation of s irits by initiated .e.bers, and the enacted death and res-rrection of novices. The hesi c-lt of the River Pat1in incl-ded virt-ally all .ales, 1ho enacted s irit dances at eriodic erfor.ances, often attainin", 1ith a"e and thro-"h ay.ent to elders, esoteric kno1led"e or *.edicine* entitlin" the. to the rank of .aster 76roeber 19#D, ##1M#D9. Many northBcentral tribes racticin" variations of the 6-ks- also observed cere.onies for the dead. Be"innin" 1ith the northeastern Maid-, a "reat ann-al 7or biennial9 .o-rnin" cere.ony 1as "iven thro-"ho-t the 3ierra Gevada and so-thern California 76roeber 19D%, D99.N4O ,n the so-th these cere.onies often coe0isted 1ith initiatory c-lts in 1hich hall-cino"enic :i.son1eed 1as in"ested, and in so.e tribes coe0isted 1ith c-lts of a dyin" "od. Collective takin" of dat-ra d-rin" -berty initiations lastin" for days or 1eeks 1as differentiated fro. individ-al -sa"e to sti.-late ersonal visions, tho-"h the t1o f-nctions .i"ht overla , since, as in sha.anis., an individ-al s- ernat-ral relation 1as believed *to e0ist forever after bet1een the drea.er and the drea.* ind-ced in these rit-als 76roeber 19D%, &&9MF$9. Th-s these c-lts, 1hich .i"ht easily have hardened into rit-ali>ed instit-tions anta"onistic to individ-al ins iration, re.ained closely linked 1ith a sha.anis. 1hose ractices they co. le.ented. There 1as no ri"id division bet1een o -lace and sha.an, 1ho for all his e.inence 7and fearf-l o1er9 1as not set essentially a art fro. others. 2ere as else1here in Gorth +.erica, attain.ent of "-ardian s irits 1as not -s-ally confined to sha.ans, and the shar distinction bet1een sha.anistic and lay s irits fre8-ent a.on" so.e tribes to the north 1as "enerally absent. +s Mar"olin 71#F9 observes of Costanoan or Chlone life in the 3an (ranciscoBMonterey Bay area, *+ sha.an differed fro. ordinary eo le .ainly beca-se he or she l-n"ed dee er into the s irit 1orld.* The difference in o1er tended, as a.on" the =ok-ts and ;estern Mono, to be *of 8-antity rather than of 8-ality* 7Eayton 19#$, #'99, tho-"h the 8-antitative difference 1as often very lar"e. +.on" these N4O (or other acco-nts see Eayton 194', 1D4M#1J 3tron", assi.J and Bean 19FD, 1#%M#'. Cn "hostB i. ersonatin" cere.onies in north1estern California, see es . @oeb 19D&, ##'M%4. / 1'' / territorially stable, socially ho.o"eneo-s h-nterB"atherers, a hierarchical riesthood fo-nd no lace even 1hen initiatory c-lts arose. 3ha.anis. 1as too dee ly rooted in tribal ecolo"y to be readily dis lacedJ only e0ce tionally, as a.on" the Po.o, did a sha.anistic reli"ion see. to be evolvin" to1ard a riestly one like that of the P-eblos. (-rther so-th, a rit-al hierarchy artially distinct fro. the sha.an 1as in char"e of .ost :i.son1eed initiations. *Rit-als 1ere strictly "overned,* a.on" the @-iseWo and others, *by r-les and roced-res ad.inistered by reli"io-s chiefs and sha.ans, 1ho co. rised a hierarchical o1er yra.id* 7Bean and 3hi ek, %%&9. +lon" 1ith increasin" for.alis. 1e find a veneration, 1holly alien to sha.anistic e0 loration of the -nkno1n, of an i..-table ast. *Tradition 1as a-thority, and the ast 1as the referent for the resent and f-t-re,* Bean 1rites of the Cah-illa 719F', %'#J cf. Bean, 19FD, 1F$MF19J th-s *innovative actions 1ere seen as otentially dan"ero-s.* ;ith this attit-de, -tterly forei"n to the ecstatic 8-est for an indeter.inate f-t-re, 1e are closer to T-Wi or Gava:o cere.onialis., in 1hich individ-al variation had been lar"ely ecli sed, than to I-rasian or +rctic sha.anis.. To this e0tent, so-thern and central California reli"ions a roached the c-ltic rit-alis. of Gorth1est

Coast sal.on fishers and P-eblo a"ric-lt-ralists. =et :-st as 61aki-tl and Gootka 1inter cere.onies "ave collective e0 ression to sha.anic i. -lses, :i.son1eed and 6-ks- initiations both incor orated individ-al sha.ans as artici ants 7even 1hen others resided9 and allo1ed 1ide variation in visionary ac8-isition of "-ardian s irits by initiates 1ho, in their hall-cinatory transfor.ation into ani.als, reB enacted the sha.anHs individ-al e0 erience. The rit-alis. of these c-lts .ay reflect early sta"es of social stratification a.on" once no.adic eo les 1hose 1ay of life had chan"ed little for .illennia.N%O Th-s "radations of 1ealth in the 6-kss-""est an e.er"ent hierarchy, and the -se of dat-ra in so-thern cere.onies, far fro. bein" a "est-re of nonconfor.ity, *1as fre8-ently correlated 1ith leadershi ositions and al.ost al1ays 1ith rofessional orientation or social rank* 7Bean and 5ane, &&'9. =et beca-se of their close association 1ith sha.anis. these c-lts co-ld not .erely celebrate the ast b-t layed<as all rites of assa"e do< a dyna.ic f-nction as 1ell. ,n the so-th, Bean s-""ests 719F&a, 41F9, o1erf-l hereditary elites *1ere in contin-al conflict 1ith individ-als fro. beneath their ranks 1ho so-"ht to ac8-ire o1er, since o1er 1as otentially available to anyone.* 3-ch *control .echanis.s* as secret societies and initiations er.itted ca able erB N%O ,n the 3an (rancisco Bay re"ion, archaeolo"y s-""ests that *at a ti.e 1hen Troy 1as besie"ed and 3olo.on 1as b-ildin" the te. le, . . . the native Californian already lived in all essentials like his descendant of toBday* 76roeber 19D%, 9#$9. / 1'9 / sons to .ove - 1ard in society 1hile rotectin" its str-ct-re fro. disr- tion. Iven if the dichoto.y bet1een elites and others is too shar for .ost California tribes, it laces ro er e. hasis on reci rocal acco..odation, thro-"h rit-als of sha.anic rovenance, bet1een closed and o en, static and dyna.ic tendencies by 1hich social str-ct-re is both reserved and incessantly transcended. *,n s ite of their erfor.ance of co..-nal and often -blic rit-als,* 6roeber 1rites 719D%, '%99, *+.erican reli"io-s societies are never 1holly divorced fro. sha.anis., that is, the e0ercise of individ-al reli"io-s o1er.* =et the interde endence of individ-al sha.ans and collective c-lts fo-nd in .-ch of California co-ld only have occ-rred, erha s, 1here the sha.an, -nlike his ecstatic 3iberian or Iski.o co-nter art, 1as of a relatively assive kind no lon"er "iven to ard-o-s :o-rneys in 8-est of celestial kno1led"e or lost so-ls, and 1here the or"ani>ation of rit-al 1as relatively -ndevelo ed. ;ith f-rther elaboration of tribal cere.ony and its hierarchy of s ecialists, the sha.an, 1ho in California still .aintained his ara.o-nt resti"e, 1as likely to beco.e increasin"ly the re resentative of alternative and even .ar"inal ractices 7like the s irit .edi-. in so.e societies9 or to be confined, like the P-eblo clo1n, to the rotest of dissident individ-ality a"ainst the b-rdenso.e de.ands of a ri"id social order.

Cere3onialis3 an2 Ecstas)/ The South4est

3ha.anistic for.s of reli"ion revailed in the s arsely o -lated Ereat Basin fro. northeastern California thro-"h Gevada and Utah, to 1hich c-lts< ossibly of recent ori"in<like those of the Gorth1est Coast and central or so-thern California had not s read. Cther rites, Park observes 7149, * lay a .inor r`le in the reli"ion of the Paviotso,* or Gorthern Pai-te, *co. ared to sha.anistic beliefs and ractices.* )rea.s, 1hich are central to ac8-isition of s irit-al o1er, .ay either co.e -nsolicited or be so-"ht by 8-est, .ost co..only in a .o-ntain cave. The sha.an 1as the nat-ral leader of his eo le, and 1hen the bo-ndaries of the lon" -nenclosed 1orld of the 1estern ,ndian be"an to shrink -nder the 1hite .anHs ra acio-s i. act, it 1as a Paviotso

drea.er, ;ovoka or ?ack ;ilson, 1ho 7follo1in" the ath of his father9 1as taken - to the other 1orld and "iven the doctrine of the Ehost )ance: a .essianic faith roclai.in" that *the 1hole ,ndian race, livin" and dead, 1ill be re-nited - on a re"enerated earth, to live a life of abori"inal ha iness, forever free fro. death, disease, and .isery* 7Mooney 19&%, 199. By this o1erf-l vision of a bo-ndless f-t-re transcendin" a .ea"er resent the tribal sha.an beca.e a ro het to the nations 1ho ea"erly took - his 1ord and danced till they fell fro. / 19$ / e0ha-stion<or b-llets<in their fervent endeavor to brin" on the ne1 day. +t the o osite e0tre.e, Gava:o and es ecially P-eblo reli"ion e. hasi>e the rit-al and collective to near e0cl-sion of the sha.anistic and individ-al. Most of the lon" settled P-eblos .et the intr-sions of the 1hite .an, be"innin" 1ith Coronado, 1ith entrenched resistance and st-bborn contin-ation of ancient rites erfor.ed<even after for.al ado tion of Ro.an Catholicis.<1ith ne1ly -r"ent secrecy in the face of a .ilitantly hostile o-tside 1orld. ,n the ideolo"y of s-ch a co..-nity, as )o>ier 7a native of 3anta Clara P-eblo9 1rites of the Te1a -eblo of 2ano 719&&a, '19, *individ-al s-bordination to "ro- effort is believed to be an essential art of .aintainin" balance in the -niverse.* The ersonal and -n redictable are s- ressed 7tho-"h not, of co-rse, entirely9, and the or"ani>ation of reli"io-s life into cere.onial societies is nearly allBe.bracin". These societies vary fro. -eblo to -eblo b-t often incl-de an association res onsible for calendrical cere.oniesJ a society of .asked kachina dancers 1ho i. ersonate rain "ods so.eti.es conceived as ancestralJ one or several .edicine societiesJ a h-ntersH or 1arriorsH societyJ and at least one clo1n society 1hich rovides a co..-nally sanctioned o-tlet for other1ise re ressed antiBsocial i. -lses. )es ite its for.alis., .-ch so-th1estern rit-al sho1s stron" sha.anic affiliations. Masked kachina dances and calendrical rites are best kno1n to o-tsiders, b-t .ost secret societies, es ecially in eastern -eblos, are devoted rinci ally to c-rin", the sha.anistic rofession ar e0cellence, and even their relentlessly collective roced-res s-""est so.ethin" of the ecstatic sha.anHs -n redictable 8-est. ,n the c-rin" ractices of the 6eresan and Te1a .edicine societies the individ-al sha.an still lays a art, 1hen illness is not severeJ he is often called first, as in 3anto )o.in"o 7;hite 19#%, 1D1MDD9, even tho-"h he can do little .ore than dia"nose illness by feelin" the atientHs body, and ad.inister .edicinal otions. 3ha.anic arallels are .ost ro.inent in ractices of the society as a 1hole, 1hich attends a atient 1hen an individ-al sha.anHs efforts have failed. *The .edicine.en do not ossess o1er to c-re disease in and of the.selves,* ;hite 1rites 719D', &$'M$99 of the 6eresanJ *they receive it fro. ani.al s irit doctors 7the bear is the chief one, others are .o-ntain lion, bad"er, ea"le, etc.9,* ele.ental o1ers characteristic of an ancestral, reBa"ric-lt-ral sha.anis.. ,f 1itches have stolen a atientHs heart, .edicine .en "o o-t to fi"ht the. 7;hite 19D', &$9M1$9, ar.ed 1ith flint knives, 1earin" a bear a1, bear cla1 necklace, and 1histle of bear bone as they s eed forth, so.eti.es flyin" thro-"h the air. Cries and th-ds are heard in the darkness, and .edicine .en fo-nd tied - on the "ro-ndJ s.eared 1ith / 191 / blood, they fre8-ently fall into a trance. The atient s1allo1s a *heart* 7corn 1ra ed in ra"s9, and th-s his lost so-l is retrieved after a erilo-s 8-est and restored to the body 1hich cannot lon" s-rvive its absence.N&O C-rin" is .ore ro.inent than rainB.akin" in rit-als of the eastern -eblos 7I""an, 1FDJ )o>ier

19&&b, 1419, b-t is i. ortant also a.on" the T-Wi and 2o i to the 1est. +t T-Wi, t1elve of thirteen secret societies *f-nction as sha.ans in the c-rin" of individ-als or the -blic, besides artici atin" . . . in vario-s .asked cere.onies* 7C-rtis, 1F: 14&9. +s in eastern -eblos, c-res for critical illness are erfor.ed by the society as a 1hole. The Beast Eods, the .ost dan"ero-s in the T-Wi antheon 7B-n>el 19#D, %D'9, are the so-rce of both c-rative .a"ic and 1itchcraftJ .ost o1erf-l is the Bear, 1hose a1s, dra1n over the hands, are as otent as .asks of the "ods. ,n the 1inter solstice cere.ony, cost-.ed dancers *-tter the cries of ani.als and other1ise i.itate beasts, es ecially the bear,* and by "a>in" into a crystal discover hidden sickness 7%#1M#D9. Cn the isolated .esaBto s of the 2o i, 1ho fiercely resisted 3 anish Catholicis. after the P-eblo Revolt of 1&'$, s ectac-lar calendrical rites -r ortedly -nchan"ed 7des ite evident T-Wi accretions9 for .illennia absorbed the attention of nineteenth and t1entieth cent-ry observers.NFO Their ne"lect of c-rin" ractices res-lts fro. the fact, I. Parsons s-""ests 719##a, 99, that these are .ore esoteric than 1eather control and less readily co..-nicated to 1hites. 3ecretiveness is co..on to all -eblos, b-t lack of co..-nal c-rin" cere.onies or s ecific .edicine societies see.s ec-liar to the 2o i. (ar fro. bein" devoted e0cl-sively to contin-ation of the solar cycle and ind-ce.ent of rain, ho1ever, *nearly every one of the secret societies has a artic-lar for. of illness 1hich it controls* 7Titiev 1944, 1$&9. Their c-rin" ractices, tho-"h a arently far less sha.anistic than those of T-Wi and the eastern -eblos<c-res are "enerally erfor.ed by 1avin" ashes over a atient 1hile the societyHs son" is s-n" <.ay instit-tionali>e nearly for"otten sha.anistic healin" traditions no1 o enly er et-ated only by sorcerers 1ho transfor. the.selves into ani.als both to in:-re and to c-re. +.on" the sedentary P-eblo a"ric-lt-ralists, then, des ite nearBtotal absence of -n redictably visionary ins iration, a vesti"ial sha.anis. s-rvived even 1hen rele"ated, at the 2o i e0tre.e, to 1itchcraft. IlseB N&O 3ee ;hite on individ-al 6eresan -eblos 7e."., 19#%, 1DDMD'9, and I. Parsons 19D&a, 11'MDD, on @a"-na -eblo. NFO 3te hen, 1hose Hopi Iournal 1as .ainly 1ritten bet1een 1'91 and 1'94, 1as an initiate in several 2o i societiesJ ?. ;alter (e1kes dre1 on his acco-nts. ;atersHs (ook of the Hopi is based on re orts by Cs1ald ;hite Bear (redericks, 1hich +lbert =ava, a Te1aB2o i 1ho raises (e1kes, calls 7'$9 *a hod"e od"e of .isinfor.ation . . . f-ll of inacc-racies and so.eti.es . . . farfetched.* / 19D / 1here in the Ereater 3o-th1est *cere.onialis. s1in"s bet1een the t1o oles,* Underhill 1rites 7194', i09, *of -ncontrolled individ-al vision and standardi>ed rit-al,* 1ith vario-s de"rees of -neasy acco..odation. +.on" scattered se.iBno.adic + ache bands, both the visionary sha.anis. of their +tha ascan herita"e and the rit-ali>ed cere.onies of their settled Gava:o co-sins .in"led to"ether. The ;hite Mo-ntain + ache attains s- ernat-ral o1er *in both a .echanical and s irit-al 1ay* 7Eood1in 19#', DFMD99, by cere.ony or individ-al rayer, neither of 1hich e0cl-sively do.inates. The effectiveness of a rit-al, 6eith Basso 1rites 7%'9 of the Cibec-e + ache, de ends on * recise coincidence 1ith established attern,* so as not to *in:ect an -ne0 ected and -n1elco.e ele.ent of disorder*J yet tho-"h .ost cere.onies are .etic-lo-sly learned in ret-rn for ay.ent, those *based on ersonal e0 erience 1ith s- ernat-ral o1er are held in "reater estee. than the traditional* 7Eood1in 19#', #1M#D9. Cere.onies a.on" the .obile + ache 1ere associated, like those of the Gava:o, 1ith the individ-al life cycle, and 1ere in lar"e .eas-re rites of assa"e intended not to co..e.orate 1hat eternally is or ro.ote its cyclic rec-rrence b-t to facilitate chan"e in a 1orld 1here al.ost nothin", a art fro. these

rit-als, is stable and s-re. The sha.anHs ac8-isition of these cere.onies 1as not in every case si. ly a .atter of inheritance or -rchase, as a.on" the Gava:oJ it .i"ht even re8-ire a solitary 8-est. + candidate for .edicine .an, Bo-rke 1rites 71'9D, 4%DM%#9, .-st *sho1 that he is a drea.er of drea.s, "iven to lon" fasts and vi"ils, able to . . . 1ithdra1, at least te. orarily, fro. the society of his fello1s and devote hi.self to lon" absences, es ecially by ni"ht, in the Hhi"h lacesH . . .* ,n conse8-ence, C ler 1rites of the Chiricah-a + ache 71941, D%F9, there 1as no reli"io-s hierarchy and no t1o cere.onies 1ere e0actly alike, even tho-"h all confor. to a "eneral attern. The son"s .ay be invariant in any "iven cere.ony, b-t acco. anyin" rayers tend to be e0te. oraneo-s. +t the hei"ht of this rit-ali>ed erfor.ance, .oreover, the visionary co. onent often .anifests itself 1hen the sha.an hears a voice or sees a vision. Thro-"ho-t the rite, *a constant interchan"e bet1een the o1er and the sha.an takes lace* 7D$'9, a 8-estionin" and 8-estin" relationshi far fro. the *oneB1ay co..-nication* of standardi>ed rit-al. Th-s altho-"h the initiative .ay be anotherHs, the + ache sha.an .-st hi.self, thro-"h a vision 8-est or thro-"h ard-o-s a renticeshi , seek to ac8-ire the o1er that revealed itself to hi., and th-s establish a reci rocal co..-nion bet1een the.. ,n so.e cases, Cibec-e + ache say, * o1er finds yo-,* in others *yo- find o1er* 76. Basso, 4$9J these rocesses differ .ainly in startin" oint and e. hasis, for the sha.an .-st seek thro-"h .astery of rit-al the o1er that seeks hi. in / 19# / -nsolicited vision. Cere.ony re.ains er.eated 1ith an inveterate sha.anis., and for the + ache, -nlike the Gava:o and the P-eblos, ersonal vision is central: the essence of Mescalero reli"ion, to C ler 719&9, D49, 1as the individ-al 8-est. The co. onents of -n redictable vision and established rit-al, o enness and clos-re, .obility and re ose, 1ere inse arably interde endent, and the creative tension en"endered by their olarity 1as at the heart of + ache reli"ion. +.on" the =-.an tribes alon" the lo1er Colorado and Eila rivers in the far so-th1estern United 3tates and ad:acent re"ions of Me0ico, for 1ho. a"ric-lt-re 1as secondary to h-ntin" and "atherin", hi"hly stereoty ed drea.s 1ere the central or only so-rce of sha.anic o1er. )rea.s *cast in .ytholo"ical .old,* 6roeber 1rites 719D%, F%%M%&9, 1ere the fo-ndation of Mohave lifeJ recitations of lon" son" cycles *str-n" on the thread of .yth* 1ere al.ost their only cere.onies. These .yths related the :o-rney of a sin"le erson or a air of brothers fro. their be"innin" to their transfor.ation into an ani.al or a land.ark. Go 8-est, and no active effort, 1as involved in a Mohave sha.anHs ac8-isition of o1erJ on the contrary, Bo-rke noted 71''9, 1FD9, *they can talk to the s irits before they have left their .otherHs 1o.b,* and therefore had no need to seek 1hat 1as theirs to be"in 1ith. They believed a sha.an retrieved a atientHs *shado1* by drea.in" of the ri.al ti.e 1hen the "od Masta.ho re"-lated the 1orld. Cther =-.an tribes, s-ch as the =-.a, Coco a, and Marico a, follo1 a si.ilar attern, altho-"h none have s-ch elaborate .ythic cycles as the Mohave. ,n a olarity of so-th1estern c-lt-res bet1een visionary and cere.onial, the river =-.ans sho-ld belon" to the first, for no eo les "ave "reater i. ortance to individ-al drea.s in 1hich a s irit-al :o-rney or 8-est 1as often central. + =-.a drea. vision -s-ally involved a :o-rney to the scene of creation or to a .o-ntain visited by the =-.a creator "ods 7(orde 19#1, D$1J cf. ?. 2arrin"ton, #D&M DF9, and si.ilar ascents of a sacred .o-ntain to attain .edicinal instr-ction ty ified both the Coco a 7;. 6elly, F49 and Marico a 73 ier 19##, D4F9. =et if the reli"ion of these tribes s-""ests a close affinity 1ith visionary sha.anis. in its e. hasis on drea. and the s irit :o-rney, there 1as nor.ally nothin" active, nor anythin" -n redictable, even si"nificantly variable, in these drea. e0 eriences: no deliberation or choice in the so.na.b-listic ro"ression of the drea.er to s-..its of s irit-al revelation. The .ost strikin" characteristic of the drea.s is their -nifor. reflection of a traditional

aradi".. ;hat is drea.ed, es ecially a.on" the Mohave, is 1hat 1ill al1ays be in the eternally resent ast, so that the tr-th of a drea., and the validity of the .ythical cycle that "ives it -blic e0 ression, are deter.ined by strict adherence to a 1ellBkno1n rior .odel. Th-s if + ache cere.onialis. 1as er.eated by visionary sha.anis., / 194 / =-.an drea.in" 1as standardi>ed to the oint of beco.in", a.on" the Mohave, an all b-t invariant rit-al eternally re eatin", in the reconditioned e0 erience of each individ-al, the i..-table ast in 1hich everythin" no1 drea.ed 1as reality. +.on" the .ar"inally a"ric-lt-ral, se.iBno.adic Pi.a and Pa a"o of the so-thern +ri>ona desert, vision and rit-al a"ain coe0isted in fra"ile -nion. + Pi.a sha.an "enerally inherited office, b-t .i"ht also ac8-ire o1er by s-rvivin" a rattlesnake bite or receivin" a s-..ons in -nsolicited drea.s. To this e0tent, Pi.a reli"ion inclined to1ard the assive visionary sha.anis. of California, the Ereat Basin, and the river =-.ansJ their sha.an too c-red by sin"in", -ffin" tobacco s.oke, and s-ckin". 3-ch a sha.anis. 1as co. atible 1ith the hi"hly rit-ali>ed Gavich- c-lt, in 1hich .asked i. ersonators erfor.ed cere.onial c-res robably derived fro. P-eblo .edicine c-lts 7I. Parsons 19D', 4&1M&D9. ,nstead of bein" .er"ed in a sin"le co. le0, then, the sha.anic and cere.onial 7or rotoB riestly9 oles of Pi.a reli"ion e0isted side by side and, like the sha.an and the 6-ks- c-lts of central California, co.bined visionary ins iration and rit-al coercion. +.on" the Pa a"o, calendrical cere.onies coe0isted 1ith *the de.ocratic conce t of the "-ardian s irit, o enin" the o1er 8-est to everyone,* not to riests or sha.ans alone 7Underhill 194&, 1F9. Go clear de.arcation e0isted bet1een standardi>ed rit-al and individ-al vision. ,n the salt il"ri.a"e, visions 1ere all b-t a-to.atic for individ-als artici atin" in the co..-nal -ndertakin", and the rit-al act of killin" an ene.y or an ea"le like1ise infallibly bro-"ht o1er if follo1ed by a -rificatory ordeal. =et sha.ans, as seekers ar e0cellence of o1ers otentially accessible to all, actively so-"ht e. o1erin" drea.s, often by killin" an ea"le and s-b.ittin" to the ordeal that follo1ed. Their son"s, 1hich reco-nted not fi0ed tribal .ytholo"y b-t ersonal visions, 1ere .eant to ind-ce a trance in 1hich the ca-se of disease 1o-ld be revealed. 3o.e trace of the sha.anHs ecstatic 8-est for kno1led"e transcendin" ordinary h-.an o1ers th-s s-rvived in a tribal reli"ion do.inated by the all b-t 1holly redictable .ove.ents of seasonal rit-al. Iven in the 3o-th1est, then, sha.anis. 1as not 1holly dis laced by coercive rit-al, as a first i. ression of P-eblo and Gava:o cere.onialis. .i"ht s-""est, b-t contin-ed to e.body, in 1eakened for., the ossibility of transfor.ation thro-"h visionary access to the e0trah-.an that finds f-llest e0 ression in the ecstatic sha.anHs 8-est of s irit-al o1er. Both here and in California, sha.ans 1ere .ainly e. o1ered by invol-ntary drea.s. ,n conse8-ence, this relatively assive sha.anis., like divination and s irit .edi-.shi else1here, roved easily co. atible 1ith co..-nal rit-als that either coe0isted 1ith it, as in .-ch of California or a.on" the Pa a"o, or .ore or less absorbed it, as a.on" the / 19% / P-eblos, Gava:o, and 7less co. letely9 + ache. Iven 1here the individ-ally ins ired sha.an re.ained, like the Mohave drea.er, the redo.inant reli"io-s fi"-re, his visions, far fro. o enin" to1ard the -ne0 ected, 1ere .ade to confor. to a lar"ely invariant co..-nal .ytholo"y. =et in every case, ho1ever re etitio-sly for.ali>ed tribal cere.onies .i"ht be, es ecially a.on" the settled

a"ric-lt-ralists of the P-eblos, the need for visionary transcendence of rit-al tradition contin-ed to find e0 ression, 1hether in the bear "arb of the Te1a or T-Wi dancers, the 8-est of 6eresan doctors to recover a ca tive so-l, or even in the .enacin" transfor.ations of the ostraci>ed b-t still otent sorcerer on the frin"es of 2o i society. / 19& /

Chapter Thirteen. Mesoa3erica an2 South A3erica

,n .-ch of Middle +.erica, fro. the northern borders of Me0ico to the ,sth.-s of Pana.a, and es ecially in Mesoa.erica<the lar"e re"ions once do.inated by ancient Me0ican and Mayan civili>ations<native eo les 1ere Christiani>ed earlier than f-rther north, and o -lations .ore e0tensively .i0ed. Th-s 1hatever vesti"es of ancestral sha.anis. s-rvive 1ill be intert1ined, in .ost cases, 1ith hardly less ri.ordial rit-alis.s, abori"inal and Christian. Contin-ation of an i. -lse to1ard ersonal transcendence not f-lly satisfied by the fi0ed rites of these settled a"ric-lt-ralists bears 1itness to an -nsatisfied need to e0 and h-.an li.its thro-"h -rs-it of a s irit-al "oal indis ensable to the de"ree that it re.ains beyond attain.ent.

Ancient Mesoa3erica an2 its Trans'or3ations

(ro. earliest ti.es the Mesoa.erican archaeolo"ical record bes eaks hi"hly stratified societies in shar contrast to the "enerally .obile and e"alitarian c-lt-res of Gorth +.erica 71ith cons ic-o-s e0ce tions like the Pacific Gorth1est9. Corres ondin" to this hierarchical social str-ct-re 1as a ti"htly centrali>ed reli"ion 1hose riests so.eti.es 1ielded overt olitical a-thority. Their central f-nction 1as er et-ation of cos.ic and social order thro-"h erfor.ance of seasonal rit-als for an elaborate antheon of "ods in a contin-al effort to .ake the -niverse *ro-tine and redictable* 7;olf, '49. ,nter.eshed 1ith a hi"hly acc-rate solar calendar develo ed by the Cl.ec and Maya 1as a sacred calendar of t1o h-ndred si0ty daysJ the riests, 1ho alone kne1 its intricacies, 1ere the indis ensable inter reters of divine order. 3easonal festivals 1ere correlated 1ith the solar yearJ only their corB / 19F / rect erfor.ance<1ith increasin" bloodshed<*ass-red the re"-lar s-ccession of the seasons, the co.in" of the rains, the s rin"in" of the lants . . . and the res-rrection of the s-n* 7?. 3o-stelle, 14F9. The second calendar, the +>tec tonalamatl, 1as .ainly -sed to divine the destiny of individ-als born on artic-lar days. Ivery h-.an bein", 3o-stelle 1rites 7114M1%9, *1as "overned by redestinationJ neither his life nor his afterBlife 1as in his o1n hands, and deter.inis. r-led every hase of his short stay on earth.* There 1as no a arent lace for ersonal vision 1hen 1hatever 1o-ld be 1as i..-tably established, nor anythin" that a 8-est co-ld acco. lish or alter. =et this see.in"ly ri"id -niverse 1as e0tre.ely recario-s. Iven before the cataclys. of 3 anish con8-est, ancient Mesoa.ericans kne1 ho1 s-ddenly 1orldly "lory co-ld ass, as city after s lendid city fell to r-in. The le"end of the e0ile and e0 ected ret-rn of 4-et>alcoatl<the ancient l-.edB ser ent "od identified 1ith a Toltec kin" 1ho tried to abolish h-.an sacrifices to hi.<s-""ests both a challen"e to the bleak deter.inis. of this ho.icidal reli"ion and the lin"erin" ossibility of seekin" an

alternative to it: a ossibility ironically c-l.inatin" in the disastro-s identification of 4-et>alcoatl 1ith CortAs. The -niverse 1as in contin-al eril. C-r 1orld of the fifth s-n, the +>tec believed, 1ill be destroyed like its fo-r redecessorsJ all the rit-als of the calendrical ro-nd can only defer the s-nHs e0tinction, after a fiftyt1o year cycle, brin"in" the 1orld to an end. The 1orldHs instability tro-bled the oetBkin" of Te0coco, Ge>ah-alcoyotl: *;hat does yo-r .ind seekK ;here is yo-r heartK* he asked in the er le0ity of an inchoate 8-est that co-ld find no lace to be"in: *Can anythin" be fo-nd on earthK* 7@e]nBPortilla, 4M%9. +.on" his +>tec allies, h-.an sacrifice in .o-ntin" n-.bers 1as the only conceivable res onse to the insec-rity of a contin-ally threatened 1orld 7?. 3o-stelle, 999. ,f rit-al coercion is one res onse to the -ncertainties of a 1orld never f-lly confor.able to h-.an need, incor oration of .ore fle0ible .eans of transcendence thro-"h ersonal co..-nication 1ith the divine is another. ,n .ost Gorth +.erican tribes, even 1hen rit-ali>ed c-lts arose the sha.an either erfor.ed their rites or re.ained do.inant a.on" those 1ho did. Cnly in the P-eblos and tribes infl-enced by the. 1as sha.an clearly s-bordinated to riest, tho-"h even here 71ith the ossible e0ce tion of 2o i9 he fo-nd a lace as a .e.ber of a c-rin" or clo1n society, rovidin" an instit-tionali>ed alternative fro. 1ithin. I. Parsons 719##b, &1#9 s-""ests i. ortant arallels bet1een +>tec and P-eblo reli"io-s ractices both in i. ersonation of "ods and or"ani>ation of c-rin" societies. ,t 1o-ld not be s-r risin", then, if c-rers of sha.anic ori"in .ar"inally el-ded the des otis. of riestly rit-al in ancient Mesoa.erica also. 5ery little is kno1n of these -tative fi"-res, / 19' / ho1ever, since the 3 anish friars 1ho re.ain o-r rinci al so-rce of infor.ation 7alon" 1ith archaeolo"ical e0cavation and a fe1 codices in native lan"-a"es9 1ere concerned ri.arily 1ith recordin"<and e0tir atin"<the riestly reli"ion 1hich they sa1 as the devilHs 1ork. To 1hat e0tent sha.anic ractices rovided alternatives to the deathly ri"idity of a fatalistic rit-alis. therefore re.ains -ncertain. + fe1 si0teenthBcent-ry so-rces hint at Mayan and +>tec reli"io-s s ecialists other than riests. The =-catec Mayan chilans, *.o-th ieces* of the "ods 1ho. Bisho @anda .entions, .ay have been, To>>er s-""ests 711D9, diviners 1ho read the tonalamatls, or horosco esJ b-t a visionary co. onent is -n.istakable in a .an-scri t tellin" ho1 the ro het Chila. Bala. retired to a roo. 1here he lay in a trance 1hile the s irit erched on the rid"e ole of the ho-se s oke to hi. 7Roys 19&F, 1'D9. Iven if the chilan 1as *a kind of visionary sha.an 1ho received .essa"es fro. the "ods 1hile in a state of trance* 7Coe, 1%49, ho1ever, he had been so s-bordinated to riestly rit-al that in ti.es of crisis he .i"ht, @anda tells -s 7To>>er, 11%9, order h-.an sacrifice. Cnly after the 3 anish con8-est did the le"endary Chila. Bala., 1ho 1as said to have foretold it, achieve a osth-.o-s fa.e o-tlastin" the riesthood. +s for the c-rers, 1ho. @anda also .entions, they .ay have cast lots, or kernels of .ai>e, to .ake ro"noses<like the divine soothsayers of the )opol Auh 7#&9, the .ytholo"ical e ic of the 4-iche Maya, 1ho *co-ld tell the f-t-re by thro1in" beans*<s-cked disease ob:ects, a lied herbal re.edies, and recited .a"ical incantations 7Roys 19&%9, b-t there is little s-""estion of anythin" rese.blin" visionary 8-ests. +.on" the +>tec, as a.on" the 2o i, it 1as to sorcerers 7nahualli 9, 1ho co-ld chan"e the.selves into ani.als and kill fro. afar 7?. 3o-stelle, %F9, rather than to doctors that the re.nants of sha.anis. a ear to have been .ainly consi"ned. 2ere 1as no visionary alternative to the lethal e0actions of rit-al b-t only the dark -nderside of a sha.anis. laced effectively o-tside the ale of officially sanctioned reli"ion.

Cne .eans of transcendin" an intolerable resent 1as thro-"h hall-cino"ens, 1idely kno1n in ancient as in .odern Middle +.erica. The *divine food* of the +>tec described by )-rYn 711%M1&9 1as bre1ed fro. ashes of oisono-s beasts, -lveri>ed 1ith tobacco, live scor ions, s iders, and centi edes, and to ed 1ith "ro-nd .ornin"B"lory seed, *1hich the natives a ly to their bodies and drink to see visions.* Besides tobacco and .ornin"B"lory seed 7ololiuh!ui 9, 1hich into0icates those 1ho i.bibe it and .akes the. *see visions and fearf-l thin"s* 73aha"an, #:4$9, ancient Me0ican hall-cino"ens incl-ded the sacred .-shroo.s kno1n as teonacatl 7#:D9#9 or nanacatl 7#:4$9. The effect of these, too, in 3aha"anHs .etic-lo-s descri tions, 1as far fro. -nifor.ly e.anci atory: *3o.e sa1 in a vision that they 1ere dyin", and 1e t, others sa1 / 199 / that so.e 1ild beast 1as eatin" the., others that they 1ere takin" ca tives in 1ar,* and so forth. +nother visionary a"ent, the cact-s peyotl, "enerated *fearf-l or l-dicro-s visions* in those 1ho ate or drank it 7#:D9D9. ;e have no clear reason to believe that any of these layed a role, at the ti.e of the con8-est, in sha.anistic rites distin"-ishable fro. black .a"ic. Cn the ten-o-s basis of acco-nts by disa rovin" 3 anish friars, indeed, it 1o-ld see. that s-ch s-bstances did not rovide a liberatin" alternative co..-nication 1ith the beyond so .-ch as they confir.ed the ni"ht.arish clos-re relentlessly affir.ed by the .-rdero-s rites of the riestly reli"ion<that "ri. c-lt 1hich Br-nda"e 719F9, 1'&9 calls *a sta"ed hall-cination,* s-rely the .ost ni"ht.arish of all. This fanatically rit-ali>ed +>tec c-lt-re e ito.i>es a selfBenclosed 1orld 1ith no effective .eans of transcendence, a 1orld so ri"idly or"ani>ed as to recl-de any ossibility of a 8-est for so.ethin" beyond it, and th-s a 1orld doo.ed less fro. 1itho-t than fro. 1ithin: a 1orld that fascinates -s, as it did the con8-istadors and friars, by bein" so "rotes8-e a reflection of o-r o1n. ,n .odern Middle +.erica there is no abori"inal c-lt-re 1holly -ninfl-enced by Catholic Christianity. (ro. the ti.e of the 3 anish Con8-est, ho1ever, observers have noted that obliteration of reB Col-.bian reli"ions by 1orshi of Christ and the saints 1as far fro. co. lete. *, believe that, incited by the c-rsed devil,* (riar )-rYn re"retf-lly 1rote 71%DM%#9, *. . . these 1retched ,ndians re.ain conf-sed and are neither fish nor fo1l in .atters of the faith.* ,n the follo1in" cent-ry, ?acinto de la 3erna .ore stridently la.ented that the -nre entant ,ndians, *the better to disse.ble their oisono-s dece tion, . . . revere Christ C-r @ord and 2is .ost holy Mother and the saints 7so.e of 1ho. they hold as "ods9 1hile 1orshi in" their idols at the sa.e ti.e* 7E. 3o-stelle, 19D9. Clearly, a"an beliefs and ractices had not alto"ether vanished<ho1 co-ld theyK<1ith the advent of a >ealo-s ne1 faith. =et only in isolated ockets of Me0ico, .ainly .o-ntaino-s re"ions on the frin"es of ancient Mesoa.erican c-lt-re, did a fe1 scattered "ro- s o enly re:ect the Christian sacra.ents after their con8-est, and even these inevitably absorbed .any Christian beliefs. Gor co-ld the syste.atic dece tion feared by 3erna, or the *cabalistic "-ild* ro.antically i.a"ined by Brinton 7#F9, 1ith its lascivio-s *bands of naked Ga"-alists* 7%F9, la-sibly have s-rvived for lon" a.on" a lar"e se".ent of the o -lation. ,nstead, the ne1 .issionary faith assi.ilated, in different de"rees, reBCol-.bian ractices that s-rvived<often in stran"e "-ises<thro-"h increasin" toleration by riests 1ho referred an i. erfect Catholicis. to none. Th-s the dee ly venerated 5ir"in of E-adal- e, the atron saint of Me0ico, incor orated traits of the +>tec / D$$ / Mother Eoddess Tonant>in 7see @afaye9. Rites si.ilar to confession and ba tis. co-ld contin-e in the

ne1 reli"ion, and even the cross .i"ht be si.-ltaneo-sly Christian and * a"an.* The e0tent of reli"io-s f-sion varied "reatly even in relatively ho.o"eneo-s areas, as Redfield de.onstrated for the =-catec Maya 719419. (or the .ost art<e0ce t in cities 1here a"an rites s-rvived only as *s- erstitions,* or a fe1 re.ote tribes st-bbornly resistant to Christianity<ele.ents have inse arably .in"led. ,n Mayan areas a lon" tradition of coe0istence revails: the Chorti of E-ate.ala, ;isdo. 1rites 7194$, 1'9, reco"ni>e no *difference of ori"in of any reli"io-s or cere.onial ele.ents in the c-lt-re.* ,n for.erly +>tec real.s of central Me0ico, indi"eno-s ele.ents 1ere .ore co. letely s- ressed, s-rvivin" .ainly in c-rin" rites. ;ides read s-bstit-tion of saints for "ods has not .eant e8-ation bet1een the., as in so.e 2aitian and Bra>ilian c-ltsJ rather, E. 3o-stelle 1rites 71919 of the Gah-atl villa"e of Te8-ila, they have *taken the place of ancient divinities,* thereby fillin" the void their de art-re left behind. I0tensive tho-"h s-ch reli"io-s f-sion has been a.on" descendants of ancient Mayans and Me0icans, in so.e cases ethno"ra hy has revealed an indi"eno-s s-bstrat-. hardly affected by Christianity. The Tinacantecos of Chia as, 5o"t 1rites 719F$, 1D9, *1ere Maya tribes.en 1ith a 3 anish Catholic veneer* of increasin"ly evident thinness. Is ecially a.on" Mayan eo les, lar"e ele.ents of indi"eno-s rit-al, ecclesiastical hierarchies, and even 7as @a (ar"e and Byers discovered in ?acaltenan"o, E-ate.ala9 calendrical lore have s-rvived. ,ndeed, fro. researches in nearby 3anta I-lalia, @a (ar"e 71&1M&D9 fo-nd indications that the tonala.atl calendar of D&$ days 1as kno1n to the co..on eo le. +nd local syste.s of ann-ally rotated offices, or cargos, co.binin" cere.onial and sec-lar ad.inistration, f-nction .-ch like the native hierarchies they re laced 7see Carrasco 19&19. Gative rites of riestly ori"in co. le.ent Catholic cere.onies by assertin" the need for control of a artly redictable 1orld. B-t other s-rvivin" a"an rites are .ainly associated 1ith the li.itless do.ain beyond this i. erfectly closed circle, the -n redictable do.ain of the 1ild called in 3 anish el monte . Traces of h-ntin" rites to a ease s- ernat-ral o1ners of nat-ral heno.ena s-rvive a.on" lon"Ba"ric-lt-ral Mayan eo les 7@a (ar"e and Byers, 1#DJ ;isdo., FD9, and cent-ries of calendrical rites have not 1holly s- ressed the interde endence bet1een h-.ans and the -ndo.esticated bein"s that s-rro-nd the. on the o en .ar"ins of a 1orld finally beyond their control. ,n barren northern Me0ico and so-thern +ri>ona, the Mayo and =a8-i 7kno1n to"ether as the CYhita9, 1ho lay o-tside the ancient Mesoa.erican s here, contin-e to ractice, des ite fervent devotion to ChrisB / D$1 / tianity, a *Reli"ion of the ;oods,* in BealsHs hrase 7194%a, 19$9, associated 1ith h-ntin" rit-al, 1itches and 1i>ards, disease and its c-re. Geither ?es-s as c-rer nor 3aints attired in =a8-i "arb 1holly dis laced the -nba ti>ed ancestral s irits of the Monte, the so-rce of .ysterio-s .-sic for pascola dances. These s irits, 3 icer reco-nts 719%4, 1D#9, *are aro-nd and abo-t eternally in a sort of Hother 1orldH 1hich s-rro-nds and yet is an inte"ral art of the 1orld in 1hich ba ti>ed =a8-is live*<a .enacin" other 1orld beckonin", like "oatBfooted Pan or the IrlBkin", beyond the "iven 1orld 1e insistently rit-ali>e to .ake it safely, if never 1holly, o-r o1n. 3till .ore si"nificant than s-rvival of artic-lar s irits is this f-nda.ental o osition bet1een the "iven 1orld and *the other* beyond yet inse arable fro. it. ,n =a8-i belief, as 3 icer analy>es it 719'$, &4M&&9, the huya aniya, the *treeB1orld* of the monte, e.braced the yo aniya, the ancient real. of nat-re s irits 1ho conveyed their transfor.ative o1er thro-"h -nsolicited drea.s. +fter the co.in" of the ?es-its and the i. osition of to1n life, the once allBe.bracin" h-ya aniya *beca.e the other 1orld, the 1ild 1orld s-rro-ndin" the to1ns,*N1O to 1hose "eo.etrically ordered str-ct-re it 1as

consistently o osed. ,n contrast to the redictable re"-larity of 1ork and rit-al, the -ncontrollable o1er of the h-ya aniya ca.e -ne0 ectedly to individ-als fro. *a 1orld 1here there 1as .-ch -ncertainty, 1here there 1as .-ch over 1hich .en had no control, concernin" 1hich there 1ere no 1ellBdefined r-les.* The se"re"ation bet1een the real.s 1as never co. lete: 1hat re.ained 1as an *o ositional inte"ration,* as 3 icer calls it 719'$, F$9, involvin" contin-al interaction bet1een the re"-lar and the 1ild, the closed and the o en, the fi0ed co..-nal attern of rit-al re etition and the -n redictable individ-al variation of sha.anic vision 1hich transcends and otentially transfor.s it. ,n this dyna.ic o osition, as 1e have seen, the s irit-al 8-est is al1ays latent. N1O The huya aniya .ay recall the va"-e *nonordinary reality* s- osedly revealed by the =a8-i ,ru/o )on ?-an, accordin" to CastanedaHs increasin"ly d-bio-s acco-nts. =et eyote, dat-ra, and .-shroo.s, by 1hose aid )on ?-an and his - il alle"edly attained this condition, are not re orted by reliable ethno"ra hers to be -sed by the =a8-i for visionary -r oses, as eyote is by the 2-ichol and Tarah-.ara. +ccordin" to Beals 7194%a, 19%9, eyote 1as -nkno1n in any for., and toloache 7dat-ra9 -sed e0ternally only, as a .edicine. ,n a ca-stic 19FD 0e1 Jork Times revie1 of CastanedaHs second vol-.e, @a Barre, a-thor of The )eyote Cult, fo-nd CastanedaHs e iste.olo"y *too noodleheaded and naive to .erit co..ent. . . . The total effect is selfBdra.ati>in" and va"-e, and CastaWeda c-rio-sly .ana"es to be at once disin"en-o-s and naive. Iven as belles lettres the book is 1antin", for the 1ritin" is retentio-s.* The Times s-bstit-ted a revie1er 1ho co-ld not *even be"in to oint o-t all the deli"hts to be fo-nd in these books* 71hich by then 1ere three9, and 1ho la-ded *the e0cellence of CastaWedaHs 1ritin"* 7@a Barre 19F%, DF1MF#9. / D$D /

Curan2ero an2 Sha3an in Mo2ern Mesoa3erica

+.on" eo les still a1are of an -n redictable 1ild s-rro-ndin" the clos-re of rit-al 1e .i"ht e0 ect to find si"nificant traces of ancestral sha.anis.s. Many Mesoa.erican c-rers are indeed often characteri>ed as *sha.ans,* tho-"h .ost learn their technical craft, es ecially in Mayan areas, 1itho-t ersonal visions. Th-s in Ma.Bs eakin" 3antia"o Chi.altenan"o in E-ate.ala the chimKn, 1ith his ba"f-l of beans and rock crystals, is both soothsayer and c-rerJ thro-"h his divinations alone *can a Chi.alteco order his life to s-it the -nchan"eable f-t-re* 7;a"ley 1949, F19. Most divinatory techni8-es in E-ate.ala 7see Cakes, 1F'J ;isdo. 194$, #449 and thro-"ho-t Middle +.erica rod-ce a-to.atic res-lts thro-"h strict roced-res rather than individ-ally variant visions or ecstatic fli"hts of the s irit. The i. ersonal nat-re of the c-rerHs call in .ost of this re"ion is -nderscored by absence of the ersonal "-ardian s irit central to sha.anis. in .-ch of I-rasia and the +.ericas. The "-ardianBs irit conce t has a Mesoa.erican arallel, ho1ever, in the ani.al co. anion called nagual or tonal . 7The for.er ter., fro. +>tec nahualli, is also -sed of a 1itch ca able of transfor.ation into ani.als.9 +s early as 1%#$, +ntonio de 2errera y Tordesillas 7in (oster 1944a, '9M9$9 noted s-ch beliefs in the 2ond-ran .o-ntains: *The devil deceived these eo le and a eared in the for. of a lion, tigre N:a"-arO, coyote, alli"ator, bird, or ser entJ and these are called naguals, 1hich is to say H"-ardiansH or Hco. anionsHJ and 1hen the ani.al dies the ,ndian bo-nd to it also dies.* +c8-isition of this co. anion, as 2errera describes it, is strikin"ly si.ilar to "-ardian s irit 8-ests in .any Gorth +.erican tribes. The searcher 1ent to a secl-ded lace *and cried o-t to obtain the favors 1hich his ancestors had had.* +fter the ani.als he so-"ht a eared in a drea., he .ade a act that the first one he enco-ntered 1o-ld be his *nagual and co. anion for all ti.e.* ,t is a roced-re 1hich a Gootka or T1ana, Cro1 or 3io-0, 1o-ld instantly have -nderstood.

B-t in virt-ally no .odern acco-nt of Middle +.erican na"-al beliefs is any ersonal initiative fo-nd, .-ch less a -r osef-l 8-est nor even, in .any instances, a vision. The na.e tonal, by 1hich the ani.al co. anion is kno1n in arts of Me0ico, ste.s fro. +>tec tonalamatl, or calendrical book of fatesJ desi"nation of this alter e"o is al.ost al1ays invol-ntary and at least i. licitly redestined, fro. birth or before, by forces beyond individ-al control. The T>eltals and other Mayan eo les of E-ate.ala and Chia as believe that sha.ans assi"n na"-als *accordin" to the day of oneHs birth* 7@a (ar"e and Byers, 1##9J b-t even 1here no e0 licit connection 1ith the sacred calendar is .ade, a sense of fatality is "enerally stron". Beca-se no one, in .any Mayan villa"es, kno1s / D$# / the identity of his na"-al 7see ;a"ley 1949, &%9, the sickness or death of any ani.al at any ti.e .ay lead 1itho-t 1arnin" to oneHs o1n. ;hether the ani.al co. anionHs identity is kno1n or not, the individ-al al.ost never takes an active art in its ac8-isition. +.on" the Chatino of Ca0aca a s ecialist deter.ines 1hich ani.al has left its *tracks* in ashes aro-nd the ho-se of a ne1born child and ascribes the tracks to its tona 7Ereenber", 91M9D9. + Mi0e nagual .i"ht be kno1n fro. a birth.ark 7I. Parsons 19#&, DD%9, and in virt-ally every case, as E. 3o-stelle stresses 71D49 in disc-ssin" the Gah-atl villa"e of Te8-ila, the na"-al 7here identified 1ith a s ecies9 is not a "-ardian b-t only a co. anion to 1hose destiny the h-.an bein"Hs is bo-ndNDO in a assive relation fro. 1hich the individ-al derives no ne1 kno1led"e or o1er. Th-s the Mesoa.erican ani.al co. anion differs f-nda.entally 7des ite robable historical connection9 fro. the "-ardian s irit else1here in the +.ericas. Go 8-est and -s-ally no vision is needed to ac8-ire this shado1y and often -nreco"ni>ed *secret sharer* allotted by forces beyond h-.an ken. The na"-al, not -nlike the natal dayB"od of the ancient calendar, re resents, as B-n>el 1rites 719%D, DF%9 of the 4-iche Maya villa"ers of Chichicastenan"o, *an -tterly arbitrary and ca ricio-s destiny.* +ffliction of the ani.al co. anion, 1hich a-to.atically leads to oneHs o1n, is one ca-se of diseaseJ others 1ides read thro-"ho-t Mesoa.erica incl-de invasion by evil *airs,* 1itchcraft and the evil eye, s-dden fri"ht 7espanto 9, and i.balance bet1een hot and cold 7Redfield and 5illa Ro:as, 1&$J ;isdo. 19%D, 1D9M#D9. Most native c-rers rely rinci ally 7a art fro. herbal .edicines9 on .a"ical and th-s a-to.atically effective ractices in accord 1ith their .ostly invol-ntary vocation. Go visionary 8-est is involved in their c-res any .ore than in their call, and they are th-s *sha.ans* in only a resid-al sense, by distinction fro. the riestly officials res onsible for co..-nal cere.onies. ,t is hardly s-r risin", "iven their fatalistic le"acy, that .ost c-rers, instead of erilo-sly vent-rin" into the -nkno1n, rely on infallible techni8-es to dis el disease fro. the atientHs body. Th-s the Mayan h.men of =-catYn, far fro. bein" a 3iberian sha.an of the so-thern :-n"le, recites rayers, offers food to the "ods, and c-res by e0orcis., herbal .edicine, and bleedin" 7Redfield and 5illa Ro:as, F%9. +nother ancient Mayan techni8-e, racticed by the Chorti of E-ate.ala and the villa"ers of 3an +ntonio in Beli>e, is to *sei>e* the forei"n .atter fro. the atientHs body by a lyin" an ob:ect s-ch as a fish or tortilla, chicken or tobacco leaf, 1hich dra1s the sickness into itself NDO B-t in 3an Pedro Chenhalh], so.e ani.al Hso-ls * rotect the so-ls of their co. aWeros* 7E-iterasB 2ol.es, D4'9. / D$4 / 7?. Tho. son, F1MF#J ;isdo. 194$, #4FM499. Cther co..on c-rin" .ethods are blo1in" tobacco

s.oke, s ittin", and s-ckin". Iven if Mesoa.erican c-rers descend fro. ri.eval sha.ans, lon" cent-ries of settled a"ric-lt-re, stratified societies, and rit-ali>ed reli"ions 7abori"inal and Catholic9 have .ade the., in .ost cases, not ecstatic e0 lorers of the -nkno1n b-t diviners, herbalists, and rit-alists, *sha.anB riests* e. o1ered by birth and trainin", not ersonal vision, to ractice standard c-rin" techni8-es. The 8-estin" di.ension has not vanished b-t has been lar"ely confined 7as in the P-eblos9 to set for.s, so that c-rers e.body less a visionary alternative to riestly he"e.ony than an e0tension of its do.inant o-tlook fro. -blic to rivate s here. @ar"ely confined, b-t not entirely: in so.e re"ions sha.anistic traits re.ain ro.inent, 1hether s-rvivin" fro. rea"ric-lt-ral ti.es or "enerated ane1 by historical and ecolo"ical chan"es. 2erreraHs acco-nt of na"-al ac8-isition in si0teenthBcent-ry 2ond-ras testifies to a reBCol-.bian "-ardian s irit 8-est on the frin"es of Mesoa.erican civili>ations, and far to the north, a.on" the a"an CYhita, *the so-rce of c-rin" o1er 1as the drea. or vision, thro-"h 1hich the individ-al ac8-ired the assistance of a s irit, in ani.al for. -s-ally, 1hich hel ed hi. or over 1hich he had a certain control* 7Beals 194#, &49. +.on" Mayan descendants of erha s the oldest contin-o-s Ge1 ;orld civili>ation, e. hasis on hereditary office does not recl-de a ersonal bond bet1een c-rer and s irit, even 1itho-t a vision. ,n Todos 3antos, E-ate.ala, this bond takes the for. of a .etal chain tho-"ht to be *the act bet1een the chimKn and the 3 irit* 7Cakes, 11$J cf. 1%19J if the latter fails hi., the chi.Yn can "o to its .o-ntain ho.e and break his chain and th-s his connection 1ith it. The bond sy.boli>ed by the chain distin"-ishes the sha.anBc-rer, even in a c-lt-re so re.ote fro. ecstasy as the Maya, fro. the riest 1ho derives a-to.atic a-thority fro. his office and 1hose rit-als de end not on relationshi to a artic-lar s irit b-t on their o1n efficacy, e: opere operato . ,n the 5alley of Me0ico, the center of +>tec rit-alis. and 3 anish .issionary >eal, Madsen 719%%, 49M %&J cf. 19&$, 1'1M'&9 re orted in the 19%$s an e0traordinary arallel to 3iberian sha.anis. a.on" Gah-atl s eakers in 3an (rancisco Tecos a so-th of Me0ico City. 2ere )on 3oltero Pere>Hs vocation 1as no .ere .atter of birth or trainin". Cne ni"ht in 191' li"htnin" str-ck, s-b:ectin" hi. to rec-rrent loss of conscio-sness. )-rin" these s ells, *his s irit 1as kidna ed by the Henanitos,H d1arfBsi>e rain deities 1ho have e0isted in the 5alley of Me0ico since +>tec ti.es,* and detained in .o-ntain caves -ntil he a"reed to beco.e a c-rer. +fter si0 .onths he consented and 1as "iven a s irit 1ife by 1ho. he had children. 2e *and all other Hc-randeros de aireH die t1ice a yearJ their s irits then "o to a cave of the enanitos 1here they / D$% / receive instr-ctions for c-rin".* ,n his coercive call and ability to enter the other 1orld 1hen s-..oned, this c-rer, Madsen s-""ests, rese.bles 3iberian 7and es ecially Eold9 sha.ans, even tho-"h his treat.ent of disease re.ains ty ically Mesoa.erican in its reliance on .a"ical techni8-es. +.on" so.e eo les, .ainly in isolated .o-ntain re"ions, disease and its c-re are tho-"ht to involve loss and recovery of the .obile so-l. Th-s the 3ierra Po ol-ca of 5eracr-> believe that in cases of espanto a ersonHs so-l 1ill leave his body, ca t-red by d1arfish *.asters* of fish and "a.e, -ntil the c-rer retrieves it by leadin", s-ckin", or both 7(oster 194%, 1'%9. +.on" the 2i"hland Totonac, a c-rer *"oes, in s irit, beneath the earth, to ne"otiate ranso.* for a so-l held ca tive by evil airs 7,. 6elly, 4$DM$#9J the attern is that of the visionary sha.anHs :o-rney to the 1orld of the dead. ,n northern Me0ico, a.on" the Tarah-.ara of the 3ierra Madre Cccidental, so-l loss is the .ain ca-se of disease, and the c-rer .-st brin" it back by ro:ectin" his o1n so-l in a drea. 76ennedy, 1D9M#1J

Bennett and Tin"", D%99. Tho-"h he o1es his office to birth or -rchase, his o1er iss-es, @-.holt> 1rites 71: #DD9, *fro. the li"ht of his heart, 1hich 1as "iven hi. by Tata )ios 7Eod the (ather9,* and this visionary enli"hten.ent enables hi. not only to descend to the 1orld belo1 b-t *to see Tata )ios hi.self, to talk to hi., to travel thro-"h s ace at 1ill, for the sha.ans are as bri"ht as the s-n.* Contrib-tin" to Tarah-.ara visionary ecstasy are into0icants, es ecially tesgi4no corn beer 7Bennett and Tin"", D%#9, 1idely -sed for ins iration by others, incl-din" so.e "enerally sober Mayan "ro- s. Use of alcohol before sacred erfor.ances in 3anta I-lalia, @a (ar"e re.arks 71&19, see.s *a .ild a roach to1ard ecstasy, a .eans of achievin" a state in 1hich the li.ited h-.an bein" can .ore readily consort 1ith divinity.* 3o.e trace of the 3iberian sha.anHs fren>ied ra t-res a ears to s-rvive even in for.ali>ed rit-als of the sedate and lon" civili>ed Maya. More i. ortant to traditional ractices of Middle +.erican eo les are hall-cino"ens fa.iliar for cent-ries. Tobacco, eyote, .-shroo.s, and .ornin"B"lory seeds 1ere, ;asson says 719&&, #D99, *the fo-r "reat divinatory lants of Me0ico at the ti.e of the Con8-est,* .ediatin" bet1een .en and "odsJ all are 1idely -sed today for .edicinal, narcotic, or visionary ends, both by sha.ans and the eo le at lar"e. There is little indication in )-rYn and 3aha"an, as 1e have seen, that s-ch s-bstances 1ere e. loyed at the ti.e of the Con8-est to transcend the clos-re of this 1orld thro-"h visionary access to another, b-t their contin-ed -se by 1idely scattered conte. orary eo les, .ainly of the .o-ntains, .ay reflect that sha.anistic -r ose. +.on" the Mi0e of northern Ca0aca, the .-shroo.s called *C-r / D$& / @ords* are believed to "ive visionary kno1led"e of c-res. B-t the vision *is al1ays the sa.e* 7Miller, #1'9: a d1arf 1ho ans1ers 8-estions. (ar .ore varied are visions of the nearby Ma>atec. ,n 3oyalte ec an a rentice c-rer "oes to the 1ild to "ather seeds of a vine called *3eed of the 5ir"in* 75illa Ro:as, 11'9J he drinks a otion re ared fro. it and 1ithdra1s to a1ait a vision. +fter re eated doses, he is trans orted to the sky, 1here he sees C-r @ord and converses 1ith c-rers already dead. Be"innin" in 19%%, 1hen ;asson first attended a vi"il by the *1ise 1o.an* Maria 3abina, the Ma>atec .-shroo. c-lt "ained a notoriety that .ay have contrib-ted, he r-ef-lly confessed 7Istrada, D$9, to -nder.inin" a ossibly ancient c-rative ractice. Iver since hearin" a ;ise Man sin" for her sick -ncle at a vi"il 1ith the *saint children* 7as the .-shroo.s are called9, Mar\a 3abina 1as attracted by a .ysterio-s lan"-a"e *that s oke of stars, ani.als, and other thin"s -nkno1n to .e* 7#99, and dre1 her beyond the li.its of her i. overished e0istence. +fter eatin" the .-shroo.s she heard voices *fro. another 1orld* 74$9 and, tho-"h illiterate, read fro. a Book of ;isdo. 1hich ta-"ht her to s-..on the @ord of the Mo-ntains, to *see fro. the ori"in,* and to *c-re 1ith @an"-a"e* and the 1isdo. it besto1s 7%&9. ,n her vi"ils she 1as transfor.ed into Eod and entered another 1orld, the vision of 1hich "ives .eanin" to this one. The Ma>atec .-shroo. e0 erience th-s .akes e0 licit the dee affinity bet1een ecstatic vision and lan"-a"e: both breach the clos-re of the "iven 1orld and o en contin-ally to1ard one bein" for.ed. *The Ma>atecs say that the .-shroo.s s eak,* 2. M-nn 1rites 7''9. *The sha.ans 1ho eat the. . . . are the oral oets of their eo le, the doctors of the 1ord.* By .eans of *.-shroo.s that liberate the fo-ntains of lan"-a"e* 79D9, the Ma>atec sha.an *has a conce tion of poesis in its ori"inal sense as an action*: the .-shroo.s ins ire hi. 1ith lan"-a"e and *transfor. hi. into an oracle* 79#9 of the .obile s irit. The rocess is by nat-re a er et-al 8-est: *;e are "oin" to search and 8-estion,* the doctor 1o.an says 7949, and 1hat she seeks are tracks to1ard *the -ne0 lored, the -nkno1n and -nsaid into 1hich she advent-res by lan"-a"e, the seeker of si"nificance, the 8-estioner of

si"nificance, the artic-lator of si"nificance.* (ar to the north1est, a.on" the Tarah-.ara, eyote ind-ces visionary transcendence, and the 8-est takes for. as a il"ri.a"e for the sacred cact-s. The christiani>ed Tarah-.ara, @-.holt> observed 71:#%F9 in the 1'9$s, re"ard the h>kuli 7as both they and the lin"-istically -nrelated 2-ichol call the cact-s kno1n to the +>tec as peyotl 9 as a de.iB"od to 1ho. sacrifices are offered as the brother of Tata )ios 7#&$9. By the 19#$s, the eyote sha.an 1as rare, b-t the h>kuli il"ri.a"e, lastin" as lon" as a .onth, contin-ed 7Bennett and Tin"", D91M9D9. / D$F / B-t it is the nearby 2-ichol, erha s *the least acc-lt-rated .a:or conte. orary ,ndian o -lation in Mesoa.erica* 7(-rst, %9, 1ho have develo ed the eyote il"ri.a"e .ost f-lly. The 2-ichol sha.anB riest, as de icted by Myerhoff 794M1$$9, is s-..oned s ontaneo-sly in a vision revealed to a solitary yo-n" boy 7or rarely "irl9J only after he has -nder"one ri"oro-s robation and led as .any as five eyote il"ri.a"es 1ill he ass-.e office. @ike I-rasian sha.ans, he can transfor. hi.self into vario-s ani.als, .ake the .a"ical fli"ht to the land of the "ods, and follo1 so-ls to the -nder1orld. 2e divines ca-ses of illness, 1hich he treats by blo1in" s.oke, s ittin", and s-ckin", b-t he is also a riest 1ho resides, in the absence of both Catholic cler"y and a car"o syste., over -blic cere.onies, *e.bodyin" and ro.otin" traditional val-es, :ealo-sly "-ardin" the 2-ichol c-lt-ral herita"e and identity.* (i0ed a"ric-lt-ral rit-als and ancestral celebrations are not antitheses of the 8-est b-t its rel-de, by 1hich the sha.an inc-lcates his follo1ers 1ith the itinerary of the eyote il"ri.a"e, th-s fir.ly rootin" this visionary :o-rney in the co..-nal resent and inherited ast. ,ts "oal is ;irik-ta, the sacred ho.e of the eyote in 3an @-is Potos\, so.e three h-ndred .iles fro. the 2-ichol ho.eland. +fter -rification and confession, the il"ri.s the.selves beco.e the +ncient Cnes 7Myerhoff, 1#&9, reBenactin"<in the li.inal co..-nitas that binds the. to"ether thro-"ho-t their :o-rney<the ri.eval 8-est of the "ods for rene1al of life. 2enceforth everythin" once redictable is *- side do1n and back1ard* 71499, so that 1ords and actions take on si"nificances hilario-sly reversin" the nor.al. +fter travelin" to a lace called 5a"ina and follo1in" the trail sanctified by the .ythical first il"ri.s, these h-nters of the )eerB eyote reach the oasis of C-r Mothers 71&F9 and track the lifeB"ivin" cact-s. The sha.an shoots arro1s to1ard a eyote cl-ster identified as the )eer and i. lores this Ilder Brother not to be an"ry, for it 1ill rise a"ain. 2avin" shared the lants they have shot, the il"ri.s leave the dan"ero-s lace at a r-n, *as tho-"h -rs-ed and in "reat eril* 71%'9. The sha.an, after eatin" eyote, receives .essa"es fro. the "ods and learns the na.es of thin"s, as he does 1hen he dr-.s and sin"s at sacred cere.onies. The ard-o-sly h-nted eyote th-s reveals kno1led"e of other 1orlds 1hich he shares 1ith those to 1ho. hall-cinations ind-ced by the cact-s co-ld other1ise co..-nicate nothin" transcendent. The 2-ichol co. le0 of .ai>e, deer, and eyote entails contin-al interaction bet1een the sha.anis. redo.inantly racticed by no.adic h-nters and the riestly rites of a"ric-lt-ralists: 1ays of life .ediated thro-"h the sha.anB riest 1ho reBenacts the h-nt for eyote that ori"inated in the .ythical ti.es celebrated in a"ric-lt-ral rit-al. The eyote h-nt ai.s *to ret-rn to the birth lace of the "ods, to ;irik-ta, / D$' / 1here all 1ill be a -nity, to "ather h>kuri, 1hich is the .ai>e and the deer, so that H1e .ay have o-r lifeH * 7D4$9, beco.in" the "ods 1ho first so-"ht the eyote that each .-st no1 find for hi.self. B-t this

il"ri.a"e, -nlike rites for the corn, looks not to1ard a fi0ed ancestral ast b-t to1ard a never co. leted f-t-reJ by o enness to this 8-intessentially sha.anic di.ension the 2-ichol *acco..odate to ne1 sit-ations* 71D%9 1ith an innovative fle0ibility that hel s er et-ate their c-lt-re. To a 2-ichol sha.an, -nlike the onceB.i"hty riests of abori"inal Mesoa.erica, *ans1ers 1ere not selfBevident or a-to.atically rovided* by rit-al: for this reason he contin-es to 8-estion, and to 8-est, lon" after the ancient riestsH confident ans1ers have been for"otten. The Mi0e and Ma>atec, Tarah-.ara and 2-ichol e0a. les s-""est the ada tive s-rvival 7and re eated rene1al9 in these .o-ntaino-s re"ions of the sha.anic 8-est for transcendent kno1led"e. These eo les 1ere .ar"inal, ho1ever, to the civili>ations of reBCol-.bian Mesoa.erica, a.on" 1hose MayaB and Gah-atlBs eakin" s-ccessors 7and others in the Me0ican c-lt-ral s here9 1e find only scattered traces of ractices .ore ecstatic than the traditional curandero Hs rit-ali>ed c-res. ,n at least one c-lt-re descended fro. the ancient civili>ations, ho1ever<the T>ot>il Mayan municipio of Tinacantan<the c-rerHs role, des ite .illennia of riestly rit-al, sho1s stron" affinities 1ith the ri.ordial 8-est of earlier sha.ans. ;hile car"oholders of the reli"io-s hierarchy erfor. the ann-al ro-nd of .ainly Catholic cere.onies in Tinacantan Center, the h9iloletik or sha.ans ractice in the ha.lets. These too have their hierarchy, and .any of their -blic f-nctions are riestly 7tho-"h only s- erficially Catholic9, res-.ably ada ted fro. ractices of their ancient forebears. B-t in other res ects the Tinacantec h9ilol e.bodies not riestly cere.onialis. b-t the 8-estin" s irit of the sha.an searchin" for 1hat can never be finally fo-nd. The .ost co..on 1ay of beco.in" a sha.an is not thro-"h heredity or instr-ction alone, b-t thro-"h a divine call in a series of three drea.s over several years. ,n these the f-t-re sha.anHs so-l is s-..oned by the s- ernat-ral alcalde 7corres ondin" to the hi"hest officer of the car"o syste.9 inside *3enior @ar"e Mo-ntain,* 1here he a"rees to be a sha.an and erfor.s his first c-res 75o"t 19F$, D&MDF9.N#O ,n c-rin" rites above all, the ervasive cere.onialis. of Tinacantec life reveals its contin-ed affiliation 1ith the s irit-al 8-est. ,n addition to an ani.al s irit co. anion, each Tinacanteco ossesses a ch9ulel, an indestr-ctible ersonal so-l 1hose identity is learned in a childhood drea. voya"e to 3enior @ar"e Mo-ntain, and 1hoever loses N#O Cn Tinacantec drea.s see @a-"hlinHs introd-ction and collection of drea. acco-nts. (or variants of the sha.anHs call see (abre"a and 3ilver, #1M#D. / D$9 / one or .ore of its thirteen arts re8-ires a s ecial cere.ony to recover the. 75o"t 19&9, #F$9. +ll sha.anis. inherently allo1s for -n redictable variations on its acc-sto.ed atterns, o enin" a s ace of indeter.inacy for a s irit-al 8-est that co-ld never take lace if everythin" sacred 1ere "iven once for all and retrievable only by re etition of an i..-table ast. ,t is hi"hly si"nificant, then, that -blic cere.onies erfor.ed by the Tinacantec h9ilol in his riestly role, like calendrical rit-als of the car"oholders, *take lace 1itho-t "reat variation,* 1hereas his rivate cere.onies, 3ilver 1rites 714%M 4&9, *are s-b:ect to no s-ch adherence to "enerally held notions of ro er roced-re,* .akin" ossible a de"ree of innovation that riestly rit-al in theory denies and in ractice retards. *The basic atterns of or"ani>ation rese.ble a synta0,* 3ilver s-""ests, and the rit-al sy.bols a vocab-lary: *The cere.onial e0 ressions that res-lt fro. the interaction of the t1o are si.ilar to the sentences of a lan"-a"e in their co.bination of atternin" and variability.* ,t is an interaction f-nda.ental, as 1e have seen, to the s irit-al 8-est. The .ost elaborate of the Tinacantec sha.anHs variable cere.onies, *the Ereat 5ision,* is a 8-est to recover the ani.al s irit co. anion, e.bodyin" the so-l, 1hich has "one astray fro. its corral.

(or.ali>ed tho-"h the roced-re is, 1ith its nineteen ste s, fi0ed rayers, set arran"e.ents of candles, ine bo-"hs, and flo1ers, rit-al baths and .eals, and sacrifices of black chickens, the sha.anHs ancient search re.ains its reco"ni>able core. The 8-est takes the for. of a il"ri.a"e, lastin" ho-rs or even days, as the c-rin" arty travels - and do1n .o-ntain trails fro. the atientHs ha.let to the Cere.onial Center, then to a series of shrines at each of 1hich the sha.an rays to the +ncestral Eods inside the .o-ntain, and finally, after sacrificin" a chicken, back to the atientHs ho.e. 2ere the sha.an roceeds 7if *fri"ht* is involved9 to call back the atientHs ersonal so-l, sho-tin" *Co.e, co.eL* as he strikes the "ro-nd 1ith a staff. The arts of the so-l are "athered - , 5o"t 1rites 719F$, 9&9,N4O and led back into the atientHs body, ter.inatin" the cere.ony by the archety al sha.anic deed of retrievin" life fro. the 1orld of the dead. (ar as the sober Tinacantec sha.anHs 8-est .ay be fro. the visionary ecstasies of his 2-ichol or Ma>atec 7not to .ention his Iski.o or 3iberian9 co-nter art, it testifies to a contin-ed need for transcendence even a.on" so rit-ali>ed a eo le as the .odern Maya. ,ntervie1s by E-iterasB2ol.es 1ith Man-el +rias, a for.er c-rer of the T>ot>ilBs eakin" Mayan villa"e of 3an Pedro Chenalh] near Tinacantan, s-""est ho1 esB N4O (or f-ller acco-nts see 3ilver, 1%#MD$%J (abre"a and 3ilver, 1FDM''J 5o"t 19&9, 4D%M4&, and 19F&, &1M'#. / D1$ / sential the ha>ardo-s 8-est of the .obile s irit re.ains des ite cent-ries of native and Christian rit-al. The settled 1orld .ay be a s8-are and the cere.onial center its navel, and rites inherited fro. a .ythical ast .ay er et-ate its sacred order, b-t Man-el kno1s that this 1orld is not a selfBs-fficient 1hole. Unlike the c-ltivated fields, the forest is dark and dan"ero-s: yet this halfBalien 1orld of the monte, too, belon"s to the e0 erience of bein" h-.an. ;hen 1e fall aslee o-r chH-lel, or so-l, esca es to fara1ay laces 1here the ani.al co. anion roa.s. B-t those all-rin" real.s are hostile to h-.an life insofar as they, too, threaten to be s-fficientJ the healer, in his effort to resc-e the atientHs so-l fro. e0cl-sive alle"iance to this 1orld of the "ods and the dead, cannot rely on coercive rit-als alone b-t *str-""les a"ainst o1erf-l forces in order to recover the chH-lel that has been lost, e0 osin" hi.self to dan"er by sendin" o-t his o1n chH-lel in search, and by co.batin" the forces of evil* 71#F9. ,n this f-nda.ental task he roves tr-e to the sha.anHs ri.ordial callin" as heroic e0 lorer of the bo-ndless -nkno1n in 1hich the o enBended 8-est of i. erfectly sa ient .an to e0 and his intrinsically li.ited kno1led"e and o1er incessantly takes lace.

Ci(ili9ation an2 Sa(a&er)/ Fro3 the An2es to Tierra ,el Fue&o

The artistic "rande-r of +ndean civili>ations recedin" that of the ,nca, 1ho had do.inated the area for less than a cent-ry 1hen Pi>arro bro-"ht a br-tal end to their vast e. ire, 1holly belies the ,nca Earcilaso de la 5e"aHs clai. 7#$9 after the 3 anish Con8-est that these eo les 1ere little better than beasts. 3o co. letely did the ,nca i. ose their c-lt-re, i. erial reli"ion, and ado tive 4-ech-a lan"-a"e d-rin" their brief do.inion, ho1ever, that it is only of their beliefs, recorded .ainly by 3 anish 1riters, that 1e can s eak 1ith any confidence. The hi"hly efficient ,nca e. ire *1as one of the .ost thoro-"hly re"i.ented societies the 1orld has ever kno1n* 73te1ard and (aron, %M&9. @ocal o -lations 1ere or"ani>ed into fa.ily "ro- s 7ayllus 9, and all o1er and land belon"ed in theory to the ,nca hi.self, 1ho as descendant of the 3-n held absol-te a-thority by divine ri"ht. *(or.al reli"io-s or"ani>ation 1ith riests, as distinct fro. .edicine .en* 7Bennett, 99, revailed in this hi"hly stratified a"ric-lt-ral state. The "ods 1ere

hierarchically ordered, 1ith the heavenly Creator 5iracocha or PachacY.ac at the s-..it, and the 3-n, divine ancestor of the ,nca dynasty, as his re"ent. 7The ,nca a ear to have fatally conf-sed Pi>arro 1ith 5iracocha, as the Me0icans conf-sed CortAs 1ith 4-et>alcoatl, and viracocha contin-ed to be a co..on no-n for the 1hite .an.9 ,n addition to other .a:or deities officially 1orshi ed thro-"ho-t the e.B / D11 / ire, like Pacha.a.a, the Iarth Mother, and Ma.acocha, Mother 3ea, co-ntless nat-ral and .anB .ade ob:ects 1ere venerated as sacred huacas 7or 1akas 9: anythin" e0traordinary 1as huaca . The bones of lineal ancestors 1ere also reveredJ and every fa.ily see.s to have had its ho-sehold "ods, called conopas or chancas . N%O +n i. osin" riestly hierarchy for.ed 1hat Mason 7D$D9 calls *the only instance in abori"inal +.erica of an established ch-rch,* 1ith the 2i"h Priest of the 3-n in C->co, a brother or -ncle of the ,nca, at the to . ,nca reli"ion *e. hasi>ed rit-al and or"ani>ation rather than .ysticis. and s irit-ality, and its chief interests 1ere for food s- ly and c-rin"* 7Ro1e, D9#9, 1hich an elaborate cere.onial cycle ai.ed to ro.ote. +s in Mesoa.erica and intervenin" kin"do.s, h-.an sacrifice 1as racticed, at least at ti.es of crisis, and as .any as t1o h-ndred children .i"ht be stran"led at a coronationJ other victi.s, as in Me0ico, had al itatin" hearts torn fro. their chests.N&O ,n its e. hasis on sin 7-nderstood as violation of rit-al or nat-ral order9, confession 7often individ-al and secret9, and -rification, ,nca reli"ion rese.bled the Catholic, as 3 anish riests 1ho deno-nced it -nco.fortably reco"ni>ed. The confessor belon"ed to the riestly hierarchyJ es ecially heino-s sins .i"ht be confessed to the 2i"h Priest. C-rin" too ertained in lar"e art to the riestly order. +t the s-..er festival of Situa, as Molina 7D$M#49 described it in the si0teenth cent-ry, the eo le of C->co 1ent to the Te. le of the 3-n callin" on sickness to de art, and ar.ed .en ran to distant destinations 1here they bathed to -r"e evils ca-sin" disease. The eo le li"hted torchesJ days of sacrifice and rayer, feastin" and sin"in" follo1ed. Got only co..-nal b-t individ-al c-rin" a ears to have been lar"ely erfor.ed by riests. B-t the c-rerBdiviner, tho-"h incor orated<insofar as the i. recise ter.inolo"y of 3 anish so-rces er.its -s to :-d"e<into the lo1er ranks of the riestly hierarchy, nevertheless retained traces of his -tatively sha.anic ori"in, to the e0tent that Br-nda"e 719&#, %%M%&9 even s-""ests that *a f-nda.ental sha.anis. lies behind all sacred offices in ancient Per-.* This c-rer, -nlike hi"her riests, received a ersonal s- ernat-ral call to his or her office. Molina 7149 s eaks of a class of *1i>ards* called camascas, *1ho declared that their "race and virt-e 1as derived fro. the th-nder,* and Cobo 7D:DDFM D'9 s ecifies that .ost healers called camasca or soncoyoc said that so.eone a eared in drea.s and ta-"ht the. to c-re. Both li"htB N%O 3ee, e."., +rria"a, D'J also Cobo, D:1&#M&%, on 1orshi of the dead, and Earcilaso, F&MFF, on huacas . N&O (or early acco-nts of h-.an sacrifice in Per-, 1hich the ,nca a olo"ist Earcilaso 7'&M'F9 vi"oro-sly denies 1ere erfor.ed by his eo le, see Molina, %4M%9, and Cie>a de @e]n, 1%$M%1, 1'$. Cn the ,nca calendar, see Ro1e, #$'M11, and the so-rces he cites. / D1D / nin" and drea.s are co..on for.s of the sha.anHs 7or .edi-.Hs9 call, and an ,nca c-rerHs initial vision .ay have re.ained the "-ardian s irit fro. 1hich his or her o1er derived.

C-res for diseases ca-sed by .alevolent s irits, evil 1inds, and so-l loss thro-"h fri"ht 7Mason, D199 incl-ded<besides confession<.assa"e and s-ckin", sacrifice and rayer, a rich variety of herbal .edicines 7.any of 1hich I-ro eans ado ted9, and so histicated s-r"ical .ethods s-ch as tre anation. + relative absence of horrified den-nciations s- orts Ro1eHs contention 7D919 that narcotics 1ere -ni. ortant in ,nca c-lt-re, -nlike that of Me0ico. Coca, 1hose dried leaves 1ere che1ed 1ith li.e to release cocaine, 1as less 1idely -sed before than after the 3 anish Con8-est 7von 2a"en, 11$M1D9J its .ain reli"io-s -se 1as in divination and sacrifice, and far fro. rod-cin" fren>ied visions it ass-a"ed h-n"er and "ave stren"th to those 1ho che1ed it, s-bstit-tin" for food 7Cie>a de @e]n, D%9M&$9. Cther visionary s-bstances, s-ch as hall-cino"enic cact-ses, 1ere robably kno1n to ancient +ndean eo les 73haron, 4$9, and into0ication 1ith chicha beer 1as co..on on festive occasions, b-t nothin" indicates that ecstatic trance 1as an i. ortant ele.ent, even for c-rers or diviners, in the hi"hly rit-ali>ed ,nca c-lt-re. )ivination 1as lar"ely .echanical, by "rains of .ai>e, beans, or colored stones, s idersH le"s, .asticated coca, or l-n"s of sla-"htered birds or ani.als 7Cobo, D:DD&MDF9. + .ore sole.n for. of divination on critical occasions co..-nicated 1ith s irits ans1erin" 8-estions o-t of fla.in" bra>iers aro-nd 1hich food and drink 1ere set 7Ro1e, #$DM$#J cf. Molina, 149. +nd a 1ide ran"e of *oracles,* fro. the 2i"h Priest to local ractitioners, carried on the sha.anic tradition, in very constricted for., of direct co..-nication 1ith the divine. +t the ann-al festival of Ca accocha, at 1hich t1o .ale and t1o fe.ale infants 1ere said to be sacrificed, the 2i"h Priest and his assistants 8-estioned the rinci al *idols* abo-t the f-t-re of the ,nca eo leJ dr-nken riests, Cie>a de @e]n scornf-lly 1rites 7199, *invented 1hat they sa1 1o-ld .ost lease those 1ho asked the 8-estions, assisted by the devil.* +t .-ch lo1er levels *sorcerers* in char"e of inn-.erable h-acas talked inco. rehensibly 1ith s irits in the dark in order to find lost articles or learn 1hat 1as ha enin" at a distance 7Ro1e, #$DJ cf. Molina, 14M1%J +rria"a, #DM##J Polo de Cnde"ardo, D&M#49. ,n s-ch 1ays, and by inter retation of drea.s, an -n redictable ele.ent lin"ered at the o-ter .ar"ins of the ,ncasH ri"idly ordered 1orld, as if to re.ind the. of a resid-al sha.anic 8-est or to resa"e the dark -ncertainty soon to descend ine0 licably - on the. fro. beyond the farthest borders of this fo-rBcornered e. ire of the 3-n. Got s-r risin"ly, +ndean c-lt-res since colonial ti.es have continB / D1# / -ed, des ite the shatterin" i. act of 3 anish Con8-est, to reflect attit-des already ancient, no do-bt, 1hen the ,nca r-led. The ri"idity of indi"eno-s 7no1 o-t1ardly Catholic9 rit-al has been .aintained and intensified a.on" the 4-ech-a of Per- and the +y.ara and other eo les of hi"hland Bolivia in reaction to cent-ries of e0 loitation in the .ines and enco.iendas. The +ndean villa"e is a *closed cor orate co..-nity* in 1hich the ayll-, a "ro- of fa.ilies clai.in" co..on descent, is the basic -nit of social or"ani>ation as it 1as for the ,nca and ossibly their redecessors. +bori"inal social stratification has been hei"htened by olari>ation bet1een natives and I-ro eans, and here as in Mesoa.erica cere.onial life in .any co..-nities is directed by holders of rotatin" *car"os* ranked by e0 ense and resti"e 7B-echler, 44M499. Clos-re and i..obility, tho-"h never total, ty ify both the reality of these societies as erceived by o-tsiders and the ideal of .any ,ndians: to be left to the.selves. ,n s-ch societies rit-al tends to be stereoty ed and invariant. Besides -blic festivals of the Catholic calendar, ersonal rites are erfor.ed, b-t no i. ortant c-lts of ancient "ods have o enly s-rvived. (or the +y.ara aro-nd @ake Titicaca, as for the Colla before the., *reli"ion 1as and is,* @a Barre 1rites 7194', 1&%9, *a 1orshi of stron"ly locali>ed, so.eti.es ancestral and tote.ic, laceBdeities.* ,n the 4-ech-a co..-nity of 4otoba.ba in so-thern Per-, too, deities of earth and .o-ntains inti.ately

artake of the life of the eo le 7G-We> del Prado, D4DM499. ,f ,nca riests vanished, or ado ted a ne1 faith, diviners, c-rers, and sorcerers flo-rish .-ch as before. +y.ara diviners e. loy ancient techni8-es of readin" coca leavesJ they .ay clai. o1er fro. li"htnin" b-t learn .echanical .ethods by observation 7Tscho ik, %&#M&49. The .ost o1erf-l of the. can converse 1ith a dead ersonHs so-l 7Radin 194D, D'%M949. These diviners are so.eti.es called sha.ans, b-t there is little of visionary trance in their roced-res: their rit-als, like those of their ancestors, are hardly less standardi>ed than a riestHs. C-rers too *belon" rather to a H riestlyH than to a Hsha.anisticH tradition,* Tscho ik 7%%'9 notes of the +y.araJ tho-"h acco. anied by herbal .edicines, c-res are essentially .a"ical, e. loyin" blood sacrifice, libations, and food offerin"s to restore the individ-al or co..-nal har.ony 7MAtra-0 19&F, DF&M'$J Bastien, 1D9M499. Central +ndean reli"ion th-s a ears to e0cl-de ecstatic sha.anis., yet 1ithin this closed 1orld, o enness to an indeter.inate beyond has s oradically .ade itself felt. The late si0teenthBcent-ry .illenarian Taki Cn8oy 7*)ancin" 3ickness*9, like other Gative +.erican revivalist c-lts, ai.ed to re lace the Christian Eod 1ith native h-acas, 1hich s1e t do1n and sei>ed its follo1ers, ca-sin" the. *to shake, tre.ble, fall, and / D14 / dance insanely* 73tern, %D9 in a fren>ied contact 1ith the divine that 1as lar"ely forei"n to the sober reli"ion it strove to reinstate. 3-ch revitali>ation .ove.ents arise, +. ;allace notes 719&&, 1%F9, 1hen .e.bers of a traditional co..-nity no lon"er ractice the val-es they rofess and .-st therefore seek ne1 ones, 1hich they e8-ate 1ith the old. Their nearly inevitable fail-re to restore a vanished ast ro:ected into the f-t-re often event-ates in e.bittered acce tance of a once a"ain closed and no1 de.onstrably i..-table order. Cn the north coast of Per-, 1here Moche civili>ation flo-rished, folk healin" has reserved .-ch of its res-.ably sha.anistic content. +t a session observed in the 194$s 7Eillin, 119MDD9, the ,ru/o s-..oned s irits by shakin" his rattle, chantin", and 1histlin" -ntil he sank into trance and learned fro. the saintHs ict-re on his table ho1 to treat a atient, 1hile his hel er attacked hostile s irits 1ith a knife. ,n Tr-:illo, north1est of Moche, the folk healer Id-ardo Calder]n Palo.ino 1as ed-cated in a Catholic se.inary, b-t his ractices 1ere over1hel.in"ly indi"eno-s. )en-nciations by Catholic riests in the seventeenth cent-ry 73haron, 4#9 attest to ancient -se of the 3an Pedro cact-s and other hall-cino"ens by .eans of 1hich the .odern curandero, too, is able to transcend .ortal li.its, voya"e to s- ernat-ral real.s, divine the f-t-re<*in short, to attain Hvision,H to HseeH* 74%9. 2is so-l sets forth in *ecstatic .a"ical fli"ht* 74&9 to sacred la"oons 1here it learns the ca-ses of illness and so.eti.es battles s irits, erfor.in" so.ersa-lts 1ith s1ord in hand. 3-ch a fi"-re, brid"in" ancient tribal and .odern -rban 1orlds, e.bodies not the closed conservatis. of the rit-alistic +ndean healer b-t the *restless search for .eanin"* 7119 and *constant innovation and "ro1th* 7DD9 characteristic of the a"eB old sha.anic 8-est. The vast ,nca e. ire do.inated only a fraction of 3o-th +.erica, and beyond its confines sha.ans contin-ed to flo-rish, often 1itho-t riestly rival. Go1here so-th of +laska are arallels 1ith I-rasian sha.anis. .ore strikin" than a.on" the +ra-canian eo les of the so-thern +ndes, 1ho for cent-ries resisted both ,nca and 3 aniard -ntil driven over the cordillera to +r"entina or herded onto reservations in Chile. The +ra-canians have lon" racticed a"ric-lt-re, and a.on" the Ma -che, the lar"est +ra-canian "ro- , riestly rit-al robably infl-enced by ancient +ndean civili>ations re.ains central. ,ndeed, in contin-in" to 1orshi "ods of 3-n and Moon, Iarth and 3ea, the Ma -che have 8-ite ossibly er et-ated rites lon" vanished in the ,ncaHs o1n do.ains. ,n their 1orshi of ancestral

deities, too, the Ma -che rese.ble the ,nca and other a"ric-lt-ral eo les. Their .ost elaborate f-neral rit-al in recent ti.es is the Lillatun, in 1hich rayers to ancestors 1ere robably once the central co. onent. (ar fro. bein" strictly calendrical, ho1ever, this cere.ony, as Titiev 719%1, 1D9M#$9 observed it in / D1% / the late 194$s, 1as characteri>ed by lack of standardi>ation. (or.-laic invariance 1as a arently forei"n to this traditionally 1arlike eo le. The rit-al riestHs o1er derives fro. social standin" and kno1led"e of rit-al. The machi, on the other hand, tho-"h she too has fre8-ently taken a leadin" role in the Willat-n *lar"ely by defa-lt* 7(aron 19&4, 1$D9, is in .any 1ays an archety al sha.an sho1in" e0traordinary affinities 1ith co-nter arts in I-rasia and the +.erican +rctic. +ltho-"h no1 -s-ally fe.ale, the .achi 1as for.erly .ore often, as in so.e 3iberian and Iski.o tribes, a transvestite .aleJ nineteenthBcent-ry re orts s-""est that -nlike .ost of his fe.ale s-ccessors, he often rese.bled classic 3iberian sha.ans in bein" ne-rotic, e ile tic, or other1ise sickly or defor.ed 7MAtra-0 19&F, 1'#M'4J cf. Titiev 19%1, 11FM1'9. + vision, so.eti.es in con:-nction 1ith a serio-s illness or handica , is a nor.al si"n of sha.anic vocation 7(aron 19&4, 141M4#9, and a ears to have been standard for cent-ries ast. This initial vision often involves ecstatic ascent to the heavens and revelation fro. the ancestral sky "od benechen or his Christian co-nter artJ trainin" by an e0 erienced elder follo1s election and c-l.inates in an initiation cere.ony strikin"ly arallel to those of so.e 3iberian eo les. The .achi ind-ces trance not rinci ally by the "o-rd rattle nearly -niversal in the Ge1 ;orld b-t by the shallo1 1ooden dr-. co..on in I-rasia b-t rare in +.erica so-th of the Pacific Gorth1est. + still .ore cons ic-o-s sha.anistic a -rtenance is the re1e, a s8-ared tree tr-nk three .eters hi"h 1ith a h-.an head carved at the to and a stair1ay he1n into the back. Cn the c-l.inatin" second day of a cere.ony, havin" de.onstrated her c-rative o1ers and entered trance, dancin" to dr-., rattle, and chant, a .achi 1ildly str-""les to esca e those restrainin" her, then slo1ly cli.bs the re1e <.-ch as the +ltaic kam cli.bed his birch tree<stands s1ayin" on a latfor. at its to , then descends to the half1ay oint fro. 1hich, shakin" her bells, she falls -nconscio-s into a yo-n" .anHs ar.s.NFO The +ra-canian .achi rese.bles s irit .edi-.s and .any 3iberian sha.ans, in contrast to .ost +.erican sha.ans o-tside the Gorth1est Coast, in bein" ossessed by a s irit<-s-ally a s- ernat-ral ani.al or bird hel er or the so-l of a dead sha.an<and co..-nicatin" thro-"h an inter reter 1hat 1as revealed d-rin" trance. ;hile ossessed, she *is -na1are of 1hat she says and does and often -ses a secret lan"-a"e* 7(aron 19&4, 1#99J she so.eti.es handles hot coals and asses her ar.s thro-"h fire. B-t .achis not only incor orate ossessin" s irits b-t *visit NFO Based on Robles Rodr\"-e>Hs acco-nt s-..ari>ed in MAtra-0 19&F, 19#M9%. 3ee also MAtra-0, 19%MD$1. / D1& / the. in the lands 1here they stay in order to obtain fro. the. the kno1led"e they need* 7MAtra-0 19&F, D$'M$99. The sha.an, an old and blind .ale .achi told (aron 719&', F99, *is inbet1een,* linkin" this 1orld to another both by rece tively o enin" herself and by settin" actively forth in search of 1hat transcends her. Possession and ecstasy are th-s co. le.entary .o.ents in the -nendin" 8-est to enlar"e the "iven h-.an condition thro-"h interchan"e 1ith 1hat is forever beyond yet inse arable fro. it.

The .ost dan"ero-s illnesses are ca-sed by so-l loss 7(aron 19&4, 14&9, -s-ally inflicted by a 1itch hostile to the sha.an. +t the cli.a0 of the machitun c-rin" cere.ony, in another strikin" arallel to 3iberian ractice, the .achi drinks co io-sly of -rine, then sin"s and beats the dr-., :-. s over the atient, and 1orks herself - to a fren>y of ossession. 3he s eaks in the ossessin" s iritHs voice 1itho-t revealin" its na.e, be"ins a violent dance, often r-shin" o-t to cli.b her re1e, then dances aro-nd the ole, acco. anied by a yo-n" .an char"ed 1ith catchin" her 1hen she falls 7Titiev 19%1, 11%M1&9. The .achi .ay also directly co.bat the 1itch res onsible for the disease, or the de.ons -nder her co..and, thro-"h o1ers 1on fro. the heavens she is tho-"ht to revisit d-rin" trance 7MAtra-0 19&F, D1&9. The i. ressive arallels bet1een +ra-canian and 3iberian sha.anis. .-st s-rely be attrib-ted, as MAtra-0 contends 7D#49, to *s-rvival of a "reat n-.ber of traits 1hich else1here have been retained in a artial or inco. lete fashion and 1hich here have ersisted in a coherent co. le0.* ,n contrast to hi"hly rit-ali>ed Mesoa.erican and ,ncan riests, the .achi<1hether fe.ale or transvestite .ale<is an o-tsider to do.inant hierarchies, and the hi"h estee. besto1ed on her 1itho-t re"ard to se0 or birth rovides *co. ensation for the over1hel.in" attention "iven to .ales in both the .-ndane and the s irit-al se".ents of the Ma -che 1orld* 7(aron 19&4, 1%D9. By reservin" .-ch of the ri.ordial sha.anHs .obility in an increasin"ly sedentary 1orld, +ra-canian .achis ass-red that their eo leHs reli"ion 1o-ld not be only an invariant ro-nd of re etitive rit-al oriented to1ard a sacrosanct ast b-t 1o-ld re.ain o en to the -ncertainties of a chan"in" resent and indeter.inate f-t-re. 5ariant roced-res characteri>e even riestly cere.onies, and healin" rites, Titiev notes 719%1, 11F9, leave a. le roo. for *individ-al 1hi.s.* @ike rites of other .edi-.s or sha.ans 1ho o en the.selves to the -nkno1n, they are not a-to.atically effective, as .a"ic and for.al rit-al are tho-"ht to be, b-t de end - on -n redictable dialo"-e 1ith s irits 1ho can never be infallibly coerced or co..anded. This dialo"ic o enness to the -ne0 ected acco-nts for the .achiHs e0hilaration in e0 lorin" ne1 real.s of the s irit, b-t also for the sense / D1F / of eril that often attends it. *;hen , a. ossessed by a s irit, , a. close to death,* one of (aronHs infor.ants told hi. 719&4, 14D9: *,t is dan"ero-s, and , do not like to do it,* e0citin" tho-"h she fo-nd it 1hen yo-n". Both the dan"er and the e0cite.ent derive in lar"e .eas-re fro. the intrinsic incertit-de of the a-thentic sha.anHs interaction 1ith a 1orld of bo-ndless transfor.ative otentiality that is not "iven and cannot be 1holly forekno1n. (ar to the so-th the 3elkHna. 7or Cna9 and =a.ana 7or =ah"an9 eked o-t a livelihood by h-ntin", fishin", and "atherin" on the fri"id islands of Tierra del (-e"o at the so-thern.ost ti of the inhabited 1orld. +.on" the no1 nearly e0tinct 3elkHna. of the .ain island, society 1as *e"alitarian and individ-alistic* 7Cha .an, 4$9, 1ith no chiefs, co-ncil of elders, or "overnin" instit-tionsJ the seafarin" =a.ana of the s.aller islands so-th to Ca e 2orn, 1ho. h-n"er ke t er et-ally on the .ove, like1ise reco"ni>ed no e0ternal a-thority. *+n inner -nrest .oves these eo le,* E-sinde re.arks 719&1, D:#&# c 19#F, &1D9, *1hich they the.selves cannot acco-nt for, beca-se they 1ere born 1ith it.* Re elled by these *.iserable, de"raded sava"es* 719&D, D$'9 d-rin" the visit of the (eagle in 1'#DM##, )ar1in co-ld hardly think the. inhabitants of the sa.e 1orld 7D1#9, or attrib-te to the. belief *in 1hat 1e sho-ld call a Eod* 719#&, 4F$9 or ractice of any reli"io-s rites e0ce t *the .-tterin" of the old .an before he distrib-ted the -trid bl-bber to his fa.ished arty* 719&D, D1&9. @ater .issionaries and scientists like1ise fo-nd that the (-e"ians *have no kno1led"e 1hatever of Eod* and *are

co. letely lackin"* in reli"io-s ideas.N'O 3-ch o inions arose fro. .isconceived identification of reli"ion 1ith the riestly rit-als of .ore settled eo les, rele"atin" the sha.an, if noticed at all, to the eri heral role of *1i>ard or con:-rin" doctor* 1hose e0istence )ar1in noted 719&D, D1&9 b-t *1hose office 1e co-ld never clearly ascertain.* B-t the sha.an, ho1ever si. le his ractices, 1as central to (-e"ian reli"ion. + 3elkHna. received the sha.anic s irit of a dead relative fro. a livin" sha.an 1ho r-bbed his bodyJ thereafter he co-ld acco. lish nothin" 1hen not ossessed by this s irit 7E-sinde 19#1, F4$9. Ivery =a.ana sha.an .aintained an inti.ate connection 1ith a "-ardian s irit invoked 1ith son"s learned in his vision. ;hile treatin" disease he san" hi.self into a se.iBtrance d-rin" 1hich he took co-nsel 1ith his s irit 719&1, %:1#4$M4' c 19#F, 141%MD19. The 3elkHna. sha.an likeB N'O 4-oted fro. E. P. )es ard 71'&#9 and C. 3 e"a>>ini 71''D9 by E-sinde 719&1, 4:9%1 c 19#F, 1$#%9J cf. @othro , #%. (or )ar1in the distinction 1as not racialJ tho-"h rankin" the (-e"ians *a.on"st the lo1est barbarians* 719#&, 44%9, he 1as s-r rised *ho1 closely the three natives on board 2. M. 3. HBea"leH, 1ho had lived so.e years in In"land, and co-ld talk little In"lish, rese.bled -s in dis osition and in .ost of o-r .ental fac-lties.* Cn )ar1inHs attit-des to1ard the (-e"ians, see Eo-ld 199#, D&FMF4. / D1' / 1ise cons-lted 1ith the s irit 1ho entered hi. d-rin" trance, and c-red by sin"in", .assa"in", and s-ckin" 719#1, F%FM&D9. These fa.iliar roced-res sho1 little rese.blance to ecstatic :o-rneys by 3iberian, Iski.o, or +ra-canian sha.ans, for transcendence of the (-e"iansH harsh conditions 1as diffic-lt to envisa"e. =et even in this eri heral o-t ost of +.erican sha.anis., indications re.ained of a once<and, -ntil their e0tinction, al1ays a otentially<lar"er role for (-e"ian sha.ans. +ccordin" to a 3elkHna. .yth, the first .an and 1o.an descended fro. the sky by a ro e 1hich broke behind the. 7@othro , 9'9J in other .yths the c-lt-re hero 6en]s ca.e do1n fro. the heavens, then near the earth, to .ediate bet1een the 2i"hest Bein" and inhabitants of this 1orld 7E-sinde 19#1, %F#J cf. 19F%, D19. 3-ch .yths s-""est a lin"erin" .e.ory of s irit real.s to 1hich (-e"ian sha.ans, like s irit .edi-.s of Polynesia or +frica, no lon"er had access. ,f access to the heavens 1as not in his o1er<had it been lost in the distant a"e 1hen .en sla-"htered the 1o.en 1ho once r-led over the., drivin" their ri.ordial sha.an, the Moon, to the skies in an"er at her h-sband, the 3-nK<the vast real. of the f-t-re .i"ht still reveal itself to the rare 3elkHna. sha.an 1ho beca.e a *father of the 1ord,* a ro het able, thro-"h kno1led"e of celestial lore, to foretell events 7Cha .an, 44M4F9.N9O 2ere .astery of the li.itless heavens is a"ain associated 1ith the dyna.is. of lan"-a"e thro-"h 1hich the indeter.inate f-t-re can be a rehended. The restless =a.ana *believe that their .edicine .en can see into the f-t-re and that they have infallible rescience* 7E-sinde 19&1, %:1#$ c 19#F, 14DD9. ,n this orientation, as in their access to drea. and .yth, both =a.ana and 3elkHna. sha.ans contin-ed to e.body, in ho1ever atten-ated a for., the a"eBold sha.anic vocation of enlar"in" the bo-ndaries of the bleak and see.in"ly inel-ctable here and no1.

Tropical Quest/ Sha3ans o' the A3a9on

Cn the hi"h lains and 1estern slo es of the +ndean cordillera and its narro1 Pacific stri , fro. the Colo.bian tro ics to the fri"id 1astes of Tierra del (-e"o, sha.anistic ractices either coe0isted 1ith riestly ritB

N9O (e1 3elkHna. sha.ans 1ere ro hets, and not all ro hets 1ere sha.ansJ so.e ro hets 1ere *.others of the 1ord.* ;ith the 3elkHna. .yth of .enHs sei>-re of o1er fro. 1o.en 7Cha .an, &&M F$9, cf. the =a.ana .yth in E-sinde 19&1, %:1D#FM49 c 19#F, 1##FM4%. 3i.ilar .yths of 1o.enHs ri.ordial reBe.inence 7for +-stralian e0a. les, see Berndt 19%1, 1'M19, and 3trehlo1 194F, 9#M949 "ave rise to theories of abori"inal .atriarchy 1hich Bachofen s- osed, .ainly on the basis of classical literary so-rces, to be a f-nda.ental sta"e in the develo .ent of civili>ation. / D19 / -alis.s or contin-ed, as a.on" the (-e"ians, in de leted for.. ,n the s arsely o -lated re"ions east of the +ndes, on the other hand, above all in the rain forests and hi"hlands 1atered by the vast +.a>on and Crinoco syste.s, co. le0 sha.anis.s s-rvived into the resent as the redo.inant, if not -nrivaled, e0 ression of tribal reli"ion. ;ith its s.all se.iB.i"ratory bands co.binin" h-ntin" and "atherin" 1ith slashBandBb-rn hortic-lt-re, the +.a>on Basin has been for the .ost art, in contrast to Mesoa.erica and the Central +ndes, *a re"ion of the sha.an and of .inor c-lts rather than of riests and of the 1orshi of i. ortant deities* 7Eold.an 19&#, 49. Got that co..-nal rit-als of fertility, healin", or initiation 1ere absentJ on the contrary, st-dies of T-kanoan eo les of the Colo.bian 5a- As in north1est +.a>onia have de.onstrated the e0tent to 1hich intricate rit-als of these relatively settled lon"ho-se co..-nities restore the e8-ilibri-. of *an ordered cos.os created in the ancestral ast* 7C. 2-"hB?ones, 19 and allo1 artici ant .ales to be identified 1ith .ythical forebears. ,n the He 2o-se rites of the .enHs =or- ary c-lt a.on" the Barasana, *Re"-lar contact 1ith the 1orld of s irits and ancestors . . . ens-res that the h-.an 1orld is att-ned to a 1ider and .ore e.bracin" cos.ic order* 73. 2-"hB?ones, #'9. B-t here, as in central and so-thern California, the rinci al officiant is nor.ally a sha.an 71ho is so.eti.es the head.an9, not a riest of a rival order, and the -se of hall-cino"ens transfor.in" celebrants into ani.als able to traverse cos.ic layers is distinctly sha.anistic. The festivals rovide the o ort-nity for artici ants * artially to e0 erience 1hat sha.ans e0 erience<to HseeH beyond everyday reality* 7?ackson, D$D9. Mythical ro"enitors are venerated, b-t there is no lineal *ancestor 1orshi * as in +frica, and fe1 si"ns of shar division bet1een sha.an and riest s-ch as @AviB3tra-ss 719F#, D&99 fo-nd a.on" the d-alistic Bororo of Bra>il. 3 irit ossession, tho-"h attested in so.e tribes, is relatively infre8-ent. 3ha.ans, MAtra-0 observes 71944, 1:19F9, dis lay *re.arkable -nifor.ity in the entire tro ical >one e0tendin" fro. the +ntilles to the Eran Chaco* t1oBthirds of a continent to the so-th. @ike the Ta ira A of northern Mato Erosso in central Bra>il 7;a"ley 19FF, 1F49, .any of these eo les had no tr-e reli"io-s rit-als and therefore no riests, b-t sha.ans 1hose ersonal characteristics "ave direct access to the s- ernat-ral. )ifferences in reli"io-s ractice are "reat, b-t in so vast a re"ion it is a"ain, as in northern I-rasia, si.ilarities that are .ost strikin". The near -niversality of ecstatic sha.anis. bears 1itness to the -r"ency of the s irit-al 8-est a.on" these tro ical eo les. 3o.e +.a>onian eo les divide the cos.os into three layers, others into fo-r or .ore, b-t .any "ive the i. ression, as the 3havante of / DD$ / eastern Mato Erosso did to Mayb-ryB@e1is 7D'49, *of havin" co. aratively little s ec-lative interest* in its str-ct-re or ori"in. C inions concernin" the so-l vary "reatly, and often see. contradictory to o-tsiders. Belief in a "-ardian s irit or na"-al attached to an individ-al for life is fairly rare 7Cha"non,

4'M%$J Mont"o.ery, 1D49, b-t belief in a .obile so-l ca able of travelin" forth in sickness or drea.< the recondition of visionary sha.anis.<is very 1ides read. The headh-ntin" ?\varo of the Ic-adorian +.a>on have develo ed a rich doctrine of .-lti le so-ls in 1hich the 8-est has a cr-cial role. Cf their three so-ls, the visionary arutam 1hich rotects a"ainst violent death is not "iven at birth b-t .-st be ac8-ired. + boy 7rarely a "irl9 be"ins seekin" it at abo-t a"e si0. +cco. anied .ost co..only by his father 72arner 19FD, 1#&M#99, he .akes a il"ri.a"e to a sacred 1aterfall 1here these 1anderin" so-ls .eet. By day the vision seekers bathe, by ni"ht they fast, drink tobacco 1ater or datura, and a1ait an ar-ta. for as lon" as five days, de artin" if -ns-ccessf-l. ,f the seeker is fort-nate, he 1akens to find the earth tre.blin" and a "reat 1ind fellin" trees a.id th-nder and li"htnin"J 1hile he "ras s a tree tr-nk the ar-ta. a ears as a air of creat-res, a dise.bodied head, or a ball of fire. The seeker boldly to-ches the ar-ta., 1hich e0 lodes and disa earsJ he then ret-rns ho.e, tellin" no one he f-lfilled his 8-est. +fter ni"htfall, the ar-ta. he to-ched co.es as a drea. in the for. of an old ancestor 1ho ro.ises s-ccess and enters his body. Unlike the "-ardian s irit of .any +.erican eo les the ?\varo ar-ta. de arts each ti.e a .an kills an ene.y, so that ne1 ar-ta.s .-st contin-ally be so-"ht by s-ccessf-l 1arriors. +.on" .ost other 3o-th +.erican tribes the visionary so-l is not ac8-ired thro-"h a 8-est or drea. enco-nter b-t is a otentiality inborn in every 1o.an and .an. Iarly and recent 1riters alike have re.arked on the ro.inence of belief a.on" these eo les in the o1er of the .obile so-l, above all the sha.anHs, to transfor. itself into a bird or ani.al. ,n central Bra>il, von den 3teinen observed a cent-ry a"o 7#%19, h-.an bein"s, birds, ani.als, and fish *are all only ersons of different a earance and different attrib-tes* into any of 1hich the sha.an can transfor. hi.self *and -nderstand all lan"-a"es that are s oken in the forest or in the air or in the 1ater*J and .yths of the EQ, Bororo, and other +.a>onian eo les co. iled in @AviB3tra-ssHs Mythologi!ues bear 1itness to this allBb-tB-niversal conviction of the interchan"eability of h-.an and ani.al artic-larly characteristic of sha.anistic eo les. The sha.an is the selfBtransfor.er ar e0cellence, and the ani.al into 1hich he es ecially chan"es hi.self thro-"ho-t the forested re"ions of 3o-th +.erica is the s1ift and o1erf-l :a"-ar. / DD1 / ,f transfor.ation into ani.al for. is one .eans of transcendin" the nor.al h-.an condition, contact 1ith the heavens is another. The sky, the ancestral land 1here history be"an for the Bakadri of central Bra>il, * revio-sly lay near the earth, and one co-ld easily cross over to it* 7von den 3teinen, #49M%$9J b-t after .en .i"rated to earth it rose to its resent distance. 3o.e eo les 1orshi ed an astral antheon based on caref-l observation of the skies 7;. Roth, D%4MF$9, and a starBdivinity .i"ht a ear in a vision, Gi.-enda:a re orted 7194D, '&9 for the central Bra>ilian 3herente, to reveal s- ernat-ral kno1led"e. +t their Ereat (east, already a thin" of the ast 1hen Gi.-enda:a visited in 19#$ 79FM9'9, a .an carried a 1ad of rosino-s bast to the to of a ole called *road to the sky* and raised it to be i"nited by a heavenly s ark. Cthers cli.bed - to learn fro. dead kin ho1 lon" they 1o-ld liveJ finally, an official received a .essa"e fro. the 3-n "od. ,n this 1ay the ri.ordial connection bet1een the earthly and heavenly s heres 1as restored. 3 irits of the dead are 1idely believed to reside in the sky, in or beyond the Milky ;ay, 1hich the livin"<es ecially sha.ans<are tho-"ht to visit in 8-est of kno1led"e or o1er. +.on" the )esana of north1est +.a>onia, the Milky ;ay is the >one of contact, thro-"h dr-"Bind-ced visions, bet1een terrestrial and s- ernat-ral bein"s, incl-din" the divine Master of +ni.als 7ReichelB)ol.atoff 19F1, 4#J cf. 6ochBEr[nber", 1F#J M-r hy and 4-ain, F%9. 2ere ani.al and celestial transcendence intersect in a co. le0 reali>ation of the transfor.ative s irit-al 8-est.

T1ins, so.eti.es identified 1ith 3-n and Moon, 1ere ro.inent 3o-th +.erican c-lt-re heroesJ and altho-"h the 8-est is often s-b.er"ed in a tan"le of other .otifs rather than bein" fo-nd in the * ractically -n.i0ed for.* of Gava:o and P-eblo .yths 7Radin 194D, '19, it finds strikin" e0 ression in tales fro. 1idely dis ersed T- \BE-aran\Bs eakin" eo les. ,n a .yth of the lon"Be0tinct T- ina.ba of coastal Bra>il, reco-nted by MAtra-0 7194', 1#DJ cf. 19D', #1M4#9, t1ins of the c-lt-re hero Maira by C oss-. seek their father, 1ho i. oses a series of tasks before ackno1led"in" the. as his children. Iach is killed and revived by the other d-rin" these ordeals, b-t in the end Maira reco"ni>es both.N1$O 3-ch 1idely disse.inated tales "ive .ythical e0 ression to the ard-o-s 8-est reB enacted by the sha.an and indeed by every erson 1ho co.bines celestial and ani.al o1ers otentially s-r assin" the nor.ally h-.an. N1$O (or .ore recent T- \BE-aran\ versions, see ;a"ley and EalvXo, 1#FM4$, and Bartolo.A, 1&M4$. Myths of t1ins e0ist a.on" .any other "ro- sJ see, e."., the Carib versions fro. the E-ianas and Bra>il recorded in ;. Roth, 1#$M#&, and I. Basso, 1$M1D. / DDD / 3ha.ans ac8-ire their o1ers in several 1ays. ,n the E-ianas, the office 1as a arently hereditary 7;. Roth, ###9, and a.on" the ?\varo, 1here 1arriors .-st seek a visionBso-l, a sha.an obtains o1er thro-"h -rchase 72arner 19FD, 11'9. B-t in .ost cases a visionary call, follo1ed by isolated a renticeshi , is necessary. Th-s a.on" the Mehinak- of Mato Erosso a .onkey de.on offers to be the drea.erHs * et*J instr-ction in s.okin" and three .onths of secl-sion and taboos follo1 7Ere"or, ##%9. +.on" the Ta ira A, all yo-n" .en 1ho 1ished to be sha.ans "athered each evenin" to seek drea.s, s1allo1in" s.oke and fallin" into trance. Those 1ho s-cceeded 7as not all did9 later took art in a rit-ali>ed *fi"ht a"ainst the bein"s of Th-nder* and erfor.ed c-res alon"side their .entors 7;a"ley 19FF, 19FM999. Tobacco and other hall-cino"ens<notably the otent concoction of the (anisteriopsis caapi vine 1idely kno1n as yag* or ayahuasca <are fre8-ently -sed to ind-ce the sha.anHs visionary call. Iven ?\varo candidates, 1hose -rchase of sha.anic o1ers is nearly ro-tine 7abo-t one of fo-r .en is a sha.anL9, .ake contact 1ith the *real* or s- ernat-ral 1orld 72arner 19FD, 1%49 only after i.bibin" the drink. Ilse1here the a renticeshi is nor.ally .ore ard-o-s and -ncertain. 2elena 5alero, a Bra>ilian easant "irl ca t-red by the 3ha.atari of north1est +.a>onia, observed the ri"ors of a secl-ded yo-n" initiate 7Biocca, F1MF#9 1ho beca.e so dr-nk 1ith hall-cino"enic epenK, inhaled day and ni"ht, that he co-ld not stand 1hile learnin" to re eat his teacherHs chants. ,f he s-rvived this ordeal of - to a .onth, the initiate 1o-ld have .astered the s irits and beco.e a tr-e sha.an: an e0 erience e8-ated 1ith death and rebirth. Govice sha.ans of the Colo.bian )esana, secl-ded for a year or .ore, strove in a slo1 and diffic-lt 8-est to attain *1ea ons* in a dr-"Bind-ced visit to the celestial 2o-se of Th-nder 7ReichelB)ol.atoff 19F%, F'MF99, -ntil finally *they 1ill see a tree, a iece of 1ood, or a stone and 1ill s-ddenly kno1: this is .ine, this is 1hat th-nder sent .eL* ;ith this, the lon" search to transcend the "iven by -nitin" o1ers of earth and sky e.bodied in the .ost fa.iliar ob:ects attains fr-ition. )isease is tho-"ht to be ca-sed by intr-sion or so-l loss, evil s irits, sorcerers, or broken taboos. MAtra-0 71944, D:#D%9 finds belief in so-l loss 1ides read in the +ndes and Eran Chaco b-t rare in tro ical +.erica, even s-""estin" 719&F, 1##9 that its revalence in the Chaco .ay derive fro. +ndean civili>ations rather than native traditions. Many acco-nts testify, ho1ever, to ersistence of this ancient belief in 1idely se arated arts of the i..ense +.a>onian re"ion. Cnly 1hen the so-l has been robbed does the other1ise *sin"-larly -nifor.* sha.anistic treat.ent of illness chan"e, MAtra-0 re.arks 71944, D:#D%9, as

/ DD# / the 1ides read .ethods of .assa"in", blo1in" tobacco s.oke or s1allo1in" tobacco :-ice, and s-ckin" o-t intr-sive ob:ects, alon" 1ith sin"in", dancin", and shakin" of rattles, are s- le.ented by s irit ossessionN11O and ecstatic fli"ht. 3o.e +.a>onian sha.ans, .oreover, directly en"a"e hostile s irits in dialo"-e or battle. Cne dra.atic instance is the c-re ,. Th-rn 7##&M#F9 -nder1ent in the 1''$s, 1hen s-fferin" fro. fever, by a Mac-si sha.an of E-yana. +s he lay in total darkness, roars filled the ho-seJ the sha.an th-ndered 8-estions and disease s irits sho-ted ans1ers: *, see.ed to be s-s ended so.e1here in a ceaselessly s-r"in" dinJ and .y only tho-"hts 1ere a hardlyBfelt 1onder as to the ca-se of the noise, and a "entle, fr-itless effort to re.e.ber if there had once been a ti.e before the noise 1as.* Many +.a>onian eo les believe, like the ?\varo, that the *real* 1orld can be seen only 1ith the aid of hall-cino"ens 72arner 19FD, 1#4J cf. 6arsten 19#%, 444M4%9. )rinkin" of ya"A and si.ilar s-bstances, not only by sha.ans b-t in co..-nal celebrations like those of the T-kanoans 7C. 2-"hB?ones, D$99, *creates an alternative e0 erience of ti.e and s ace.* The thin shell bet1een the t1o 1orlds can be traversed only in hall-cinatory trance, and * eo le say they have visited this other di.ension and have seen its inhabitants* 7ReichelB)ol.atoff 19F%, 19D9. ;hether dr-nk, s.oked, or inhaled thro-"h a blo1 i e in the for. of sn-ff, the dr-" enables the so-l to co..-nicate 1ith s irits, and so.eti.es frees it to rise above this 1orld to another. Th-s tobacco not only attracts s irits, ;ilbert observes 7#49, b-t trans orts .an into their real., *1here he can learn ho1 Hto seeH thin"s that are beyond his hysical field of vision.* +fter drinkin" ya"A 7kno1n as ayah-asca in Per-9, the nineteenthBcent-ry Ic-adorian "eo"ra her 5illavicencio re orted 72arner 19F#a, 1%%M%&9, natives *feel verti"o and s innin" in the head, then a sensation of bein" lifted into the air and be"innin" an aerial :o-rney,* tho-"h elevated visions of lakes, forests, and birds are follo1ed by terrible horrors. (or the )esana of Colo.bia, hall-cino"enic sn-ff, or its s- ernat-ral .aster, is the inter.ediary thro-"h 1hich those chosen by it *ascended to the Milky ;ay and t-rned into :a"-ars* allo1in" the. to roa. in the forest -nreco"ni>ed 7ReichelB)ol.atoff 19F%, 1$99. N11O MAtra-0 71944, D:#DD9 notes, contrary to @oeb, that sha.artistic ossession is far fro. -nkno1n in 3o-th +.erica. 3o.eti.es the sha.an is ossessed, so.eti.es another s ecialist 7see Ere"or, ##9, on the Mehinak-9. ,n .ost tro ical tribes, ho1ever, as ReichelB)ol.atoff 1rites of the )esana and other T-kanoan eo les 719F%, 1$49, *the conce t of s iritB ossession see.s to be co. letely lackin". . . . + ayA Nsha.anO is al1ays hi.selfJ never is he sei>ed or invaded by a s iritJ he si. ly inter rets and trans.its 1hat this s irit sho1s hi. or tells hi..* / DD4 / +.on" so.e T-kanoan tribes only "reat sha.ans of the ast co-ld travel to the sky 7C. 2-"hB?ones, &D9, b-t belief in celestial ascent by livin" sha.ans has ersisted else1here. + Ta ira A sha.an co-ld travel to villa"es of the dead by t-rnin" hi.self into a bird 7;a"ley 19FF, 1'%9, and certain sha.ans traveled to the sky in their canoes or visited the Pleiades as *?a"-ars of the 3kies.* 3-ch celestial :o-rneys are a 8-est for rene1al of s- erh-.an o1ers lost by the ri.ordial schis. of earth and sky, b-t still ossessed by ha1k, :a"-ar, and other ani.als. The heavenly 8-est is central to c-res for so-l loss. ,n the Eran Chaco, 1here this dia"nosis is co..on, the sha.an sends his o1n so-l in 8-est of his atientHs, travelin" in the sky and -nder the

earth to discover and restore it 7MAtra-0 19&F, 1##M#49. ;hen a Ta-li Yn" sha.an of north1est +.a>onia 1ishes to co..-nicate 1ith the Mauar>, or s irits, d-rin" a c-rin" session, 6ochBEr[nber" re orted 7D11M1D9 in the early t1entieth cent-ry, he c-ts so.e ieces fro. a vine rese.blin" a ladder and drinks the bre1 concocted fro. the.: *,n this 1ay this vine . . . beco.es a ladder for hi. to cli.b - to the land of the Mauar> .* ;hen her baby a eared to be dyin" a.on" the Ga.oeteri, 2elena 5alero recalls 7Biocca, D11M1#9, the old shapori or sha.ans, havin" inhaled epenK sn-ff, so-"ht his shade, e0a.inin" the vario-s aths it .i"ht have taken. The chief sha.an then anno-nced that s irits of the 3-n had stolen hi., and bade the others follo1 hi. to the 3-n, for 1hen dr-nk 1ith epenK *they really believe they are risin" into the air.* (inally, havin" s-n", s-cked, invoked the s irits, and s rinkled invisible 1ater, the chief 1ent a1ay. The child, as his .other re.e.bers, *had tr-ly i. roved.* The sha.anistic 8-est for kno1led"e of a transcendent heavenly real. th-s lays an i. ortant art in tro ical 3o-th +.erica. =et the ro.inence of hall-cino"enic dr-"s in ind-cin" these visions both di.inishes the heroic effort re8-ired of the s irit-al 8-est<the sha.an .ay be less e0ce tion than nor., so easily attained are his visions<and red-ces its indeter.inate e0 loration of the beyond. *,n s ite of the individ-al nat-re of the hall-cino"enic e0 erience,* 6ensin"er notes 71D9 of ayah-asca a.on" the Cashinah-a of eastern Per-, *there is a hi"h de"ree of si.ilarity . . . fro. individ-al to individ-al d-rin" any one ni"ht of drinkin",* "ivin" their visions a re etitively standardi>ed 8-ality. +.on" the )esana, the sha.an *is not a .ystic, and the .echanis.s he e. loys are not sacred* 7ReichelB)ol.atoff 19F%, D$1M$D9. +s .echanis.s they share the invariability of co. -lsive rites, and to that e0tent do not so .-ch o en to1ard the -nkno1n as "-arantee a re etition of the e0 ected. =et like atterns of rit-al or s irit ossession, -se of hall-cino"ens / DD% / does not recl-de the e0 loratory 8-est b-t "-ides it in restricted channels to1ard a finally -n redictable "oal. ,ts initial effect is often disorientin"<*,t can r-in a .anHs .ind,* the +.ah-aca sha.anBchief ^-.- 1arned his Per-vian ca tive, C]rdovaBRios [email protected], 1#19<if he cannot control his visionsJ s-ccessf-l effort to "ain an al1ays i. erfect control distin"-ishes the sha.an fro. those 1ho s-b.it to stereoty ed hall-cinations. ,n ^-.-Hs chant, as his - il later re.e.bers it, the e. hasis is on incessant search for kno1led"e [email protected], '9M9$9: ;e are here a"ain to seek 1isdo. "ive -s tran8-illity and "-idance to -nderstand the .ysteries of the forest the kno1led"e of o-r ancestors . . . to translate the ast into the f-t-re . . . To transcend ast in f-t-re is to enter a real. of indeter.inate dan"er, as .yths of sha.anic fli"ht re eatedly stress. The sha.an is th-s far .ore than a channel for .onotono-s hall-cinationsJ indeed his social role, as a.on" the 3haranah-a of eastern Per-, .ay be the only one not deter.ined by kinshi or .arria"e 73iskind, %D9. 2e is therefore -ni8-ely 8-alified to e0 lore the -nkno1n, so that ne1 son"s created fro. his observations and e0 eriences .ay beco.e as .-ch a art of traditional kno1led"e as the old son"s had been 71&D9, e0 andin" tribal hori>ons and effectin" chan"e 1ithin a fra.e1ork of erceived contin-ity. The ecstatic sha.an is no .ere technician, then, b-t an e0 lorer as 1ell: *the refor.er of received traditions, the reserver and innovator alike* 7BVdi"er, %49. The 8-asiB.echanical effect of co..-nally shared hall-cino"ens .ay indeed di.inish individ-al endeavor and constrict the

indeter.inacy of the 8-est by channelin" it, like rit-al for.-las, into e0 ected atterns. B-t 1herever -n redictable chance revails<as a.on" se.iBno.adic forest tribes it often does<the Ta ira A and other eo les of the +.a>on basin *de ended .arkedly - on their sha.ans* 7;a"ley 19FF, 19%9 to assi.ilate the ne1 and -nkno1n. +s reli"io-s leader of his eo le, the sha.an is often not only c-rer b-t ro het or even .essiahJ and it is rare, MAtra-0 re.arks 719&F, #'9, *that a .essianic .ove.ent, even if it ai.s at reBcreatin" the ast, is not at the sa.e ti.e innovative.* The close relation bet1een +.a>onian .essianic .ove.ents and native .yths of a c-lt-re hero 1ho leads his eo le to a aradise on earth or beyond it stron"ly indicates, 3chaden asserts 71FD9, that .illenarian conce tions 1ere indi"eno-s to these c-lt-res<above all to the 1anderin" T- \BE-aran\ tribes dis ersed in historical ti.es fro. the +tlantic / DD& / coast of Bra>il to the Per-vian .ontaWa, and in artic-lar to the + a oc-va of so-thern Bra>il and their nei"hbors.N1DO (or these eo les the 8-estin" c-lt-re heroes of .yth 1ere no .ere le"end of lon" a"o b-t a resent reality e.bodied by the sha.an as leader of his eo le. Maira, father of the .ythical t1ins, accordin" to the Tenetehara of northeastern Bra>il, ca.e to earth in search of a *Bea-tif-l @and,* and there created .an and 1o.an, and ta-"ht the. to rocreate, lant, and re are .anioc before he ret-rned to his carefree *5illa"e of the Eods* 7;a"ley and EalvXo, 1$$M$19. ,n 1idely se arated arts of the +.a>onian forests his eo le have contin-ed his 8-est. The classic acco-nt of their 1anderin"s 1as 1ritten by a yo-n" Eer.an, C-rt Unkel, ado ted by the + a oc-va as C-rt Gi.-enda:a. +t the be"innin" of the nineteenth cent-ry sha.ans fro. this and other E-aran\ tribes ro hesied i..inent destr-ction of the 1orld, "athered disci les, and 1ith dances and chants set off *in search of the H@and 1itho-t Ivil,H 1hich . . . .ost tho-"ht 1as in the east, over the sea* 7Gi.-enda:a 1914, 'F9. The roots of s-ch .ove.ents, in 1hich 1hole tribes .i"rated h-ndreds of .iles thro-"h hostile terrain, "o back at least to the si0teenth cent-ryJ to Gi.-enda:a 7##%9 the a ocaly tic belief of the + a oc-va e0 ressed the *disconsolate essi.is.* of a dyin" tribe 1hich had lost its faith in the f-t-re. =et by his o1n acco-nt 7#%FM&$9, it is their -nshaken erseverance in this des erate 8-est that is .ost co. ellin". (or as lon" as a year after the sha.anHs visionary s-..ons his eo le stren-o-sly danced to elicit a revelation of the 1ay to the east, de.onstratin" *an -tterly astonishin" deter.ination and ersistence* and end-rin" the harshest rivations 1ith no tho-"ht of retreat: for1ard 1as the only direction they kne1. Reachin" the coast, they danced a"ain in ho e of bein" lifted thro-"h the air to the @and 1itho-t Ivil beyond the sea, -ntil *the 1ay to the beyond had been sh-t off forever.* + s.all band of Para"-ayan E-aran\ 1ho. Gi.-enda:a .et, to his a.a>e.ent, near 3Xo Pa-lo in 191D sho1ed ho1 ersistent this 8-est co-ld be. *They 1ished to "o over the sea to the east, and their confidence in the s-ccess of this lan,* he 1rites 7#&1M&#9, *bro-"ht .e al.ost to des air.* Cnly after -tter fail-re of chants and dances on the shore had at last bro-"ht disill-sion.ent did they rel-ctantly follo1 hi. to a reservation 1est of the coastJ b-t 1hen he ret-rned a .onth later he sa1 the. ackin" - their belon"in"s and settin" o-t once .ore, *very robably a"ain to the seaJ , have never heard of the. a"ain.* This N1DO +.on" the +vYBChiri Y or +vYB6ataBItA, a E-aran\ tribe that ret-rned to the Para"-ayan forest after 1%$ years -nder the ?es-its, Bartolo.A 7F$9 s-""ests that *little or no interr- tion took lace in the trans.ission of .ythical narratives and of tribal cos.olo"ical conce ts inside the Missions.*

/ DDF / s.all band of -nda-nted seekers, like other T- \BE-aran\ s eakin" tribes over cent-ries of recorded history 7cf. MAtra-0 19&F, 9M41J Iliade 19&9, 1$1M119, and erha s lon" before, had taken the sha.anHs vision of another 1orld in the literal sense and -nstintin"ly co..itted the.selves to its reali>ation, ho1ever lon" it .i"ht take, and 1hatever rice they .-st ay for their intransi"ent resolve in the face of ins- erable odds. The s irit-al 8-est had beco.e too vital a art of their life as a eo le to conceive of abandonin" one 1itho-t s-rrenderin" the other as 1ell. / DD' /

Chapter Fourteen. Eastern North A3erica an2 the -reat !lains

To the e0tent that hall-cinatory dr-"s .ake the visions they ind-ce redictable or even stereoty ed, it is not in the +.a>onian tro ics that the 8-est for an indeter.inate transcendence fo-nd f-llest reali>ation so-th of the +rctic, b-t a.on" the .obile h-nters and "atherers of eastern and central Gorth +.erica, 1here the solitary vision 8-est racticed in arts of the Pacific Gorth1est took on an i. ortance in tribal reli"io-s life erha s -n aralleled else1here in the 1orld.

Ritualis3 an2 Vision in the Southeast

The tribes of so-theastern Gorth +.erica ossessed, in econo.ic, olitical, and cere.onial ter.s, *the richest c-lt-re of any native eo le north of Me0ico* 72-dson, #9<a c-lt-re stron"ly infl-enced by Mesoa.erican civili>ations. Most tribes co.bined h-ntin" and "atherin" 1ith intensive far.in" of .ai>e, beans, and s8-ashJ their societies 1ere hierarchically ranked by a"e or achieve.ent 7D$#9. These lin"-istically diverse b-t c-lt-rally si.ilar eo les 1ere or"ani>ed into hi"hly centrali>ed chiefdo.s: *not only as 6in",* Ca tain ?ohn 3.ith 1rote of the 5ir"inia Po1hatan chief 7#19, *b-t as half a "od they estee. hi..* The Gatche> of the lo1er Mississi i, 1ho venerated their hereditary leader as the *Ereat 3-n,* .ay have been er et-atin" a tradition of *tr-ly o1erf-l chiefdo.s or ri.itive states* 7D$&9 that had flo-rished cent-ries before de 3oto set o-t in 1%#9 to e0 lore these territories for the 6in" of 3 ain. Rit-al s ecialists e0ercised "reat o1ers. +ltho-"h often called * ro hets,* *doctors,* and *sha.ans,* they are ro erly desi"nated riests 7##F9 beca-se they 1ere val-ed for their trainin" *rather than for / DD9 / so.e innate ability or o1er.* Cffice 1as often hereditary 7+dair, '19, b-t so.eti.es, as a.on" the Chickasa1 of Mississi i and Tennessee, a riest 1as elected for life 73 eck 19$F, %19. Candidates -nder1ent lon" st-dy to "ain the kno1led"e of sacred .ysteries that 8-alified the. for office 7+dair, #&49, and so.e tribes, like the Creek 7or M-sko"ee9 of Eeor"ia and +laba.a, reco"ni>ed de"rees of e0 ertise .arked by distinctive insi"nia. The roced-re 1as rit-ally for.ali>ed 1ith .-ch e. hasis on tradition and sacred for.-las e0cl-din" as far as ossible the variable and -ne0 ected. Bartra. 7#9$9 s-..ari>ed a riestHs f-nctions in the 1FF$s, notin" that he e0ercises "reat olitical infl-ence, artic-larly in .ilitary affairs, co..-nes 1ith invisible s irits, can *foretel rain or dro-"ht, and retend to brin" rain at leas-re, c-re diseases, and e0ercise 1itchcraft, invoke or e0 el evil s irits,

and even ass-.e the o1er of directin" th-nder and li"htnin".* Ca tain ?ohn 3.ith 7D99 re orts that riests, like chiefs, 1hen dead, *"o beyond the .o-ntains to1ard the settin" of the s-n, and ever re.ain there . . . doin" nothin" b-t dance and sin", 1ith all their redecessors. B-t the co..on eo le they s- ose shall not live after death, b-t rot in their "raves like dead do"s.*N1O This riestly reli"ion 1as racticed in the .ost elaborate sanct-aries north of Me0ico. +t Cofitache8-i in 3o-th Carolina de 3oto visited 7and l-ndered9 an i..ense elevated te. le decorated 1ith shells and earls and containin" stat-es, ar.or, and chests 1ith *re.ains of dead notables* 72-dson, 1119. 3anct-aries like those de icted in 2ariotHs (rief and True Report of the 0e1 %ound &and of Airginia of 1%'' 7@orant, D&FM&99 contained *idols* or e.bal.ed bodies of dead chiefs dis layed on a hi"h scaffoldJ so.e of these sanct-aries 1ere so holy, both Ca tain 3.ith 7DF9 and Bartra. 7#&$n.9 re ort, that only chiefs or riests co-ld enter the.. + art fro. "rand str-ct-res s-ch as these and the Gatche> te. les 731anton 1911, 1%'M&F9, every i. ortant to1n a ears to have had its holy lace for erfor.ance of cere.onies intended to ro.ote fertility of the cro s on 1hich tribal livelihood de ended. The Gatche> celebrated each ne1 .oon 1ith a cere.onial feast, and thro-"ho-t the re"ion .a:or rites 1ere associated 1ith ri enin" of the corn. +.on" the ;a0ha1 of Gorth Carolina, as early as 1F$1, @a1son 7##9 attended a feast co..e.oratin" the harvest, and +dair 799M1119 later described *the "rand festival of the ann-al e0 iation of sin* at the first ri enin" of the corn. +s Bartra. 7#999 s-..ari>ed the ann-al *b-sk* 7a Creek 1ord9, or "reen corn dance, the eo le cleansed their ho-ses and the 1hole to1n of filth, 1hich they b-rned, e0tin"-ishin" N1O (ro. $enerall Historie of Airginia 71&D49J cf, the version in 3 Map of Airginia 71&1D9, r t. in Barbo-r, D:#&'M&9. / D#$ / the fire after three days of fastin". The hi"h riest then li"hted a ne1 fire, and 1o.en bro-"ht ne1ly harvested "rain fro. the fieldsJ after a -blic feast the eo le danced, san" and re:oiced all ni"ht for days thereafter. Cere.onial li"htin" 7as in ancient Me0ico9 of the ne1 fire si"nified tribal rene1al thro-"h *the be"innin" of a ne1 year 1ith a -rified social order* 72-dson, #1'J cf. 31anton 194&, FF%9. The near -niversality of the Ereen Corn Cere.ony thro-"ho-t the kno1n history of so-theastern tribes 7and .ost others of the eastern United 3tates9 .akes this *by far the .ost i. ortant of their seasonal cere.onies* 72-dson, #&&9. 2-.an sacrifice, rarely attested 7e0ce t for ca tives in 1ar9 else1here in Gorth +.erica, is another arallel 1ith Me0ico. Iven allo1in" for horrified e0a""eration and ossible conf-sion of initiatory 1ith bodily death, acco-nts are too fre8-ent to be dis.issed. Th-s the artist @e Moyne affir.s 7@orant, 1$#9 that (lorida ,ndians *offer their firstBborn son to the chief,* cl-bbin" hi. to death on a st-. aro-nd 1hich *the 1o.en 1ho have acco. anied the .other dance in a circle . . . 1ith "reat de.onstrations of :oy.* +nd 2enry 3 el.an, after ca t-re by the Po1hatan and Poto.ac ,ndians of 5ir"inia, re orts 731anton 194&, F4#9 that *once in the yeare, ther reests 1hich are ther coni-rers 1ith ye .en, 1eo.en, and children doe "oe into the 1oods, 1her ther reests .akes a "reat cirkel of fier in ye 1hich after .any obser-anses in ther coni-rations they .ake offer of D or # children to be "i-en to ther "od.* Many Gatche> s-b.itted to be stran"led to death, or stran"led their children to death, at the f-neral of a Ereat 3-n or a .e.ber of his fa.ily. 3o do.inant 1as co..-nal rit-alis. that even healin", the sha.anHs reBe.inent do.ain, 1as often a riestly activity. Most i. ortant to s-ccessf-l treat.ent, 31anton asserts 7194&, F'D9<alon" 1ith the -s-al herbal .edicines, s-ckin", and blo1in"<1as *re etition of the ro er .a"ical for.-lae,* s-ch

as the invocations .etic-lo-sly recorded by Cherokee doctors 7in the scri t devised by 3e8-oiah9 and -blished by Mooney 71'91 and 19#D9. The riestly Chickasa1 *sha.an* ad.inistered an e.etic and san" a for.-laic son", then ble1 .edicine on the atientHs head, a treat.ent *ke t - 1ith little variation for three days* 73 eck 19$F, %%9. ,n the Chickasa1 )icMfa, or *fast,* a co..-nal c-rin" cere.ony .ainly consistin" of ro itiatory son"s and dances erfor.ed in -nison, the for.-laic rit-alis. of so-theastern ,ndian life reached an a e0, all b-t recl-din" any ecstatic 8-est to recover a 1anderin" so-l fro. the -ncirc-.scribed beyond. Traces of sha.anistic beliefs s-rvived, ho1ever, as they did in the riestly c-lt-res of the 3o-th1est, Mesoa.erica, and the +ndes. The / D#1 / so-theastern cos.os consisted of an orderly U er ;orld, an Under ;orld e ito.i>in" disorder and chan"e, and a 1orld bet1een 72-dson, 1DD, 1D%9. To the e0tent that e. hasis fell not on celestial deities 1idely 1orshi ed thro-"ho-t the 3o-theast 731anton 194D, D1$9 b-t on .anHs inter.ediate osition in this 1orld and otential connection 1ith the others above and belo1, the 8-est for transcendence re.ained a ossibility not 1holly foreclosed. Cri"in .yths of the Caddo 731anton 194D, D%9 and Chocta1 731anton 19#1, %9, like those of the 3o-th1est, told of the eo leHs e.er"ence fro. the earth, b-t so.e tribes, incl-din" the Creeks 731anton 19D', 4'$9, told also of descent fro. the sky, a transcendent 1orld otentially accessible to the h-.an. 3everal .yths of the +laba.a 731anton 19D9, 1#'M4#9 reco-nted celestial :o-rneys. ,n one, eo le descended fro. above in a canoe, sin"in" and la-"hin", layed ball on earth, then ret-rned to the skyJ a .an 1ho observed the. sei>ed one of the 1o.en, .arried her, and had children by her. ;hen the 1ife and children reascended, the father atte. ted to follo1 b-t fell and 1as killed. ,n a Chocta1 .yth fro. Bayo- @aco.b, @o-isiana 7B-shnell, #%9, t1o brothers set o-t to"ether at a"e fo-r to follo1 the 3-nJ as .en, they traversed a 1ide 1ater and entered his ho.e. 3-n asked *1hy they had follo1ed hi., as it 1as not ti.e for the. to reach heaven. They re lied that their only reason for follo1in" hi. 1as a desire to see 1here he died.* Iven in riestly societies of the 3o-theast, the ancient 8-est to s-r ass h-.ankindHs "iven li.its th-s re.ained a theoretical ossibility, at least for heroes of .yth. +ltho-"h c-rin" re.ained ri.arily a riestly f-nction, early 1riters often noted a distinction bet1een riests and *con:-rers or 1onder 1orkers* 731anton 194&, F4#9, also called sorcerers, ro hets, soothsayers, or .edicine .en. Creek *6no1ers* co-ld ro hesy and dia"nose diseasesJ their abilities 1ere inborn, and .e.bers of certain "ro- s, s-ch as t1ins, 1ere .ost likely to :oin their n-.ber 7FF49. 3ee.in"ly ecstatic behavior 1as not -nkno1n: in Gorth Carolina aro-nd 1F$$ a doctor, after chantin" and s-ckin", be"an *to c-t Ca ers and cla his 2ands on his Breech and 3ides,* 1ith *Eri.aces, and antick ost-res, 1hich are not to be .atched in Bedla.* 7@a1son, DDF9. The *:-""ler* 7/ongleur 9, the ei"hteenthBcent-ry (rench traveler Boss- re orted 731anton 19D', &1&9, entered a skinB covered cabin entirely naked and s oke inco. rehensible 1ords to invoke the s irit: *after 1hich he rises, cries, is a"itated, a ears beside hi.self, and 1ater o-rs fro. all arts of his body. The cabin shakes, and those resent think that it is the resence of the 3 irit.* The contrast bet1een t1o ty es of s ecialist is ill-strated by t1o of de / D#D / BryHs en"ravin"s: in one 7@orant, D#%9 an elderly riest stands di"nified and erect, in the other 7D4F9 a

*sorcerer* or H:-""ler* r-ns .akin" *stran"e "est-res* as if ossessed: *(or they are very fa.iliar 1ith devils, fro. 1ho. they obtain kno1led"e abo-t their ene.iesH .ove.ents.* @e Moyne described a sorcerer cons-lted by a (lorida chief 1ho 1his ered -nintelli"ible 1ords and .ade ani.ated "est-res: *his a earance beca.e so fri"htf-l that he looked scarcely h-.anJ he t1isted his li.bs -ntil the bones sna ed o-t of lace and did .any other -nnat-ral thin"s* 7@orant, %99. Got e0 ertise in rit-al b-t direct access to the divine 1as the so-rce of s-ch ro hetsH kno1led"e. 3ha.anistic visions 1ere not li.ited to sorcerers or soothsayers, .oreover, b-t .i"ht be re8-ired of riestly doctors also. + novice riest of the Creek 1as e0 ected to have a drea. 731anton 19D', &199, and in so.e tribes a visionary 8-est .ay have been essential to a riestHs callin". + Chickasa1 candidate 1ent into the 1oods for three days, naked and alone, and ke t the kno1led"e he "ained secret 73 eck 19$F, %&9, and a.on" the rit-alistic Gatche>, accordin" to the anony.o-s early ei"hteenthBcent-ry *@-0e.bo-r" Me.oir* 731anton 1911, 1F'9, a novice fasted alone in a cabin for nine days. 3hakin" his rattle, he invokes the 3 irit, rays 2i. to s eak to hi. and to receive hi. as a doctor and .a"ician, and that 1ith cries, ho1ls, contortions, and terrible shakin"s of the body, -ntil he "ets hi.self o-t of breath and foa.s in a fri"htf-l .anner. This trainin" bein" co. leted at the end of nine days, he co.es o-t of his cabin tri-. hant and boasts of havin" been in conversation 1ith the 3 irit and of havin" received fro. 2i. the "ift of healin" .aladies, drivin" a1ay stor.s, and chan"in" the 1eather. 3o-theastern rit-alis. had th-s not alto"ether obliterated the ancient tradition of direct co..-nion 1ith the divine. ,n at least one tribe, the Chiti.acha of @o-isiana<and f-ller observation before the forced re.oval or e0tinction of so-theastern eo les .i"ht s-rely have revealed si.ilar ractices else1here<not only the sha.an 71hether * riest* or *sorcerer*9 b-t *Iach yo-th -nder1ent solitary confine.ent in so.e ho-se -ntil he obtained a "-ardian s irit, and this is also affir.ed of each "irl* 731anton 194&, F'19. 2o1ever i. ortant co..-nal cere.onies, -blic sacrifices, and standardi>ed for.-las had co.e to be for eo les of these hierarchically str-ct-red a"ric-lt-ral societies, they re.ained h-nters, "atherers, and 1arriors, too, and had not entirely relin8-ished the need for individ-al 8-ests by their leaders, or even by all, for visionary e0 erience of a never 1holly redictable or co..-nicable reality transcendin" the established ro-tines of their everyday 1orld. / D## /

Co33unal an2 !ersonal Quests o' the Northeastern +oo2lan2s

@ar"ely s-bordinated to riestly rit-al in sedentary c-lt-res of the 3o-theast, the sha.anic 8-est re.ained central to .ore .obile eo les of the northeastern United 3tates and ad:acent re"ions of Canada. +s early as 1&1D the ?es-it (ather Pierre Biard described the 1ild Monta"nais and other +l"on8-ian tribes of a ne1ly discovered Ge1 (rance 76enton, 1:D#MD49 as racticin" a reli"ion of *incantations, dances and sorcery* in 1hich *.edicine .en . . . cons-lt the evil 3 irit re"ardin" life and death and f-t-re events.* Cther +l"on8-ian and es ecially ,ro8-oian eo les lived in settled co..-nities and c-ltivated corn, beans, and s8-ashJ for the ,ro8-ois @ea"-e, Mor"an reco"ni>ed 71999, h-ntin" had beco.e *a secondary, altho-"h a necessary .eans of s-bsistence.* =et even in their st-rdy lon"ho-se villa"es the restless .obility of a recent ast lin"ered on, es ecially for .ore nearly no.adic .ales 1ho rided the.selves on do.inion in 1ar. Co..-nal val-es 1ere stron", as in all tribal societies, b-t .any northeastern eo les, es ecially in the +l"on8-ian h-ntin" tradition, 1ere

nonetheless stron"ly individ-alistic: the traditional C:ib1a, @andes observes 719&', 149, *brooked no la1s that clashed 1ith his 1hi.s* and took :oy *in sabota"in" the social "a.e.* Collective cere.onies layed a .a:or role here as else1here in Gorth +.erica. The ,ro8-ois in artic-lar .a ed o-t a fa.iliar trail a.id the -ncertainties of daily e0istence in an ancient cycle of calendrical rites rene1ed in the early nineteenth cent-ry by the 3eneca ro het Eaneodiyo, or 2andso.e @ake. +.on" less co. le0ly or"ani>ed +l"on8-ian tribes co..-nal festivals 1ere seldo. so elaborate, b-t so.e, like the ann-al Bi" 2o-se of the )ela1are 7or @ena e9, 1ith its re resentation of the so-lHs :o-rney alon" the Milky ;ay after death and its kindlin" of ne1 fire sy.boli>in" rene1al of life, 1ere hi"hly develo ed 73 eck 19#19. Both ,ro8-oian and +l"on8-ian rit-als ro.inently incl-ded -blic cere.onies by c-rin" societies. The ,ro8-ois Co. any of (alse (aces not only healed individ-ally b-t *cond-cted a -blic e0orcis. of disease . . . and ill l-ck of all kinds* each s rin" and fall, sho-tin" terrifyin" cries as they visited each ho-se in "rotes8-ely carved .asks and fri"htened a1ay disease s irits 7+. ;allace 19F$, '1M'D9. The 2-ron, 1ho see. never to have racticed re"-lar calendrical rites 71hich the kindred ,ro8-ois .ay have ado ted fro. so-theastern tribes since the seventeenth cent-ry9, devoted the 1inter Cnonharoia, or *- settin" of the brain,* to c-rin" illness by co..-nal enact.ent of drea.s, and several societies erfor.ed -blic dances to heal disease 7Tri""er 19&9, 9&M999. / D#4 / 3-ch collective rites, bearin" clear traces of ancient sha.anic ractices, contin-ed to be erfor.ed by the ,ro8-ois des ite the initial o osition of 2andso.e @ake, into 1hose refor.ed reli"ion they 1ere event-ally assi.ilated. +.on" +l"on8-ian eo les, 1ho al.ost entirely lacked fi0ed a"ric-lt-ral cere.onies, co..-nal rit-al centered on the society the C:ib1a called the MidA1i1in, 1hose initiatory rites cli.a0ed in shootin" each candidate 1ith the sacred shell that killed and revived hi.. MidA riests inscribed their .yths in icto"ra hic characters on birch bark scrolls 7see )e1dney9, and these, like the sacred for.-las of the Cherokee, "ave 1ritten sanction for cere.onies held to date back to the ori"in of the 1orld. Co..-nal rit-al, tho-"h .-ch less develo ed than in the so-thern United 3tates and Mesoa.erica, th-s layed an i. ortant role in the Gortheast, b-t both a"ric-lt-ral and c-rin" rites .ay in fact have been recent develo .ents. The s- osedly ancient +l"on8-ian MidA1i1in .ay have been a relatively late codification of ancient sha.anic ractices in res onse to I-ro ean dislocations. +.on" .any eo les, incl-din" Chi e1a,NDO Ctta1a, and (o0, evidence s-""ests that -ntil the ei"hteenth cent-ry, 1hen the MidA1i1in e.er"ed as a solidifyin" tribal tradition for C:ib1a "ro- s dis ersed by the I-ro ean f-r trade, *.edicinal and .a"ical ractices 1ere in the hands of sha.ans, individ-al ractitioners* 72ickerson, F&MF99. ,ro8-ois .edicine societies, too, "ive rit-al for. to *sha.anistic behavior once free and innovative,* as described in seventeenthBcent-ry acco-nts of the 2-ron before s-ch societies re"-lated individ-al sha.ans 7(enton 19F', #1'9. The co..-nal rit-als recorded d-rin" the last three cent-ries by 1hite observers .ay therefore have been in lar"e art a defensive res onse to disr- tions introd-ced by the 1hites the.selves. Ma:or central +l"on8-ian rites -n.istakably s-""est sha.anistic affinities. The )ela1are traced their Bi" 2o-se cere.ony to drea.s revealed to ancient tribal leaders 73 eck 19#1, 1'9, and recitation of drea.s 1as central to it 7'%9. ,ts leader, as observed by M. R. 2arrin"ton in Cklaho.a 719D1, 9D9, 1as not a hereditary c-stodian of tradition b-t a visionary *in co..-nication 1ith the s- ernat-ral 1orld.* The MidA1i1in, too, not only see.s to have ori"inated later than the "-ardian s irit 8-est a.on" the

C:ib1a 71hose northern tribes seldo. erfor.ed it9, b-t retained i. ortant affinities 1ith it. 2off.an 71'91, 19D9 noted that its son"s, far fro. bein" fi0ed, vary 1ith the sin"erHs ins iration, NDO *Chi e1a,* a corr- tion of *C:ib1a* acce ted by the B-rea- of +.erican Ithnolo"y, is either a synony. for C:ib1a or .ore s ecifically desi"nates so-th1estern C:ib1a tribes livin" in the United 3tates. / D#% / and )ens.ore re.arked 7191$, 1#9 that e0actness is not obli"atory in a rit-al 1hose details vary in different localities. The MidA1i1in, @andes s-""ests 719&', 4D9, 1as th-s *an acade.y of sha.ans* 1hose resti"e rested .ainly on visions 7F99. Iven the relatively fi0ed a"ric-lt-ral rites of the ,ro8-ois .ay have been ori"inally dictated by drea.s and co-ld be altered by the. 7Tooker 19F$, ##9, and des ite its sacrosanct *code,* 2andso.e @akeHs Eos el has no one canonical te0t b-t varies 1ith each recitation 7)eardorff, 1$19. B-t the .obility< and the i. -lse to transcend the socially "iven<of the sha.anistic 8-est s-rvived above all, a.on" the ,ro8-ois, in rites of the c-rin" societies 1hich 2andso.e @akeHs refor.s co-ld not abolish. The "rotes8-e .asks of the (alseface Co. any 1ere .odeled on drea.s, and like sacred clo1ns else1here, these erfor.ers deli"hted in sat-rnalian inversion of their c-lt-reHs val-es. ,n this .as8-erade, Id.-nd ;ilson re.arked 7D#'9, yo-n" and old, .ale and fe.ale, inse arably .in"le 1ith *a certain sense of liberation.* ,n a cere.ony observed by ;ilson 7D9$M#$F9 on the Tona1anda 3eneca reservation in ?-ne 19%9, the 8-estin" i. -lse of sha.anis. .anifests itself still .ore clearly. Me.bers of the @ittle ;ater Co. any, kee ers of a .edicine able to revive the dyin", sin" to"ether several ti.es a year to kee its stren"th. 3-ddenly the li"hts are s1itched off: *The roo. 1ith its Corn (lakes had vanished: yo1ere at once in a different 1orld.* + .an and a 1o.an are searchin" for the @ittle ;ater by 1hich the ani.als have bro-"ht back to life the .ythical Eood 2-nter kno1n for kindness to the., and ta-"ht hi. a 1onderf-l son" in their lan"-a"e. The ani.als con"re"ate, and in *the cli.a0 of the sy. hony* "-ide the 8-esters to a .o-ntainto fro. 1hich the .arvelo-s son" e.anates: *at the to they find a "reat stalk of corn "ro1in" o-t of the barren rock, and fro. this stalk co.es the son" that has dra1n the..* ,ts bleedin" root instantly heals, and the seekers learn fro. the ani.als to .i0 the .irac-lo-s .edicine. *,n each of the first t1o se8-ences, the son"s all follo1 a atternJ b-t in the third, they be"in on -ne0 ected notes and follo1 -nfa.iliar co-rses. This is .a"ic, a force beyond nat-re is tearin" itself free,* and 1ith this cli.actic liberation *a aean is let loose: it fills the roo. 1ith its vol-.e. Cne finds oneself s-rro-nded, al.ost st- efied.* The 8-est for the @ittle ;ater th-s rit-ally enacts a eo leHs contin-in" transcendence of its "iven condition thro-"h co..-nal search for its dee est so-rces. The ade ts of this ancient .edicine society 1hose rites ;ilson fo-nd flo-rishin" in t1entiethBcent-ry Ge1 =ork 3tate *have .astered the rinci le of life, they can s-..on it by the cere.ony itself. Thro-"h this, they s-r ass the.selves* 7#1$9. ;ilson re.arks 7#1$9 on the closeness of the ,ro8-ois, even today, to / D#& / the ani.al 1orld, and .any for.s of h-ntin" .a"ic, incl-din" bear cere.onials, have been 1ides read, as a.on" the C:ib1a 72allo1ell 19&$, 1%99, thro-"ho-t the Gortheast. Transfor.ation bet1een h-.an and ani.al 1as tho-"ht to have fre8-ently taken lace, at least in .ythical ti.es, as enacted in .asked dances and c-rative rites of secret societies s-ch as those, a.on" the ,ro8-ois, of the

otter, b-ffalo, and bear. 2ealin" as 1ell as h-ntin" .i"ht derive fro. identification of h-.ans, thro-"h rit-al ro itiation, 1ith beneficent ani.al o1ersJ this too 1as a co..on for. of the 8-est for transcendence. (rench ?es-its re eatedly .arvel at the credence "iven to drea.s in Ge1 (rance. (ather BrAbe-f, in the ?es-it Relation of 1&#& 76enton, 1: D&4M&%9, calls the drea. the *oracle* and * rinci al Eod of the 2-rons.* +.on" both 2-ron and ,ro8-ois, drea.s 1ere tho-"ht to e0 ress 1ishes of the so-l, and atte. ts 1ere .ade to carry o-t their co..ands to the letter, so.eti.es by c-rative cere.onies 1hose overt se0-ality dis.ayed (rench visitors. ,n the 2-ron andac1ander cere.ony recorded by (ather @ale.ant in 1&#9 76enton, 1:#''M'9J cf. Tri""er 19&9, 11'M199, a dyin" old .anHs drea.s 1ere f-lfilled by -blic co -lation of t1elve "irls and yo-n" .en, 1ith a thirteenth "irl for hi.self. )rea. s irits, often in ani.al for., 1ere so.eti.es tho-"ht to trans ort the so-l to distant lands, b-t even 1hen the so-l did not leave the body, drea.s "ave vent to its desires in accord *1ith the the.e of freedo. in the c-lt-re as a 1hole* 7+. ;allace 19F$, F49. 5ariation 1as contin-ally introd-ced into co..-nal rit-al by individ-al drea.s, introd-cin" a *vibrant and creative* di.ension into c-lt-res s-ch as the 2-ron 7Tri""er 19&9, 11'9. Thro-"h the .ediation of drea., rit-al itself shared in the .obility of a so-l forever bein" for.ed and transfor.ed. (ather @e ?e-ne re orts in the ?es-it Relation of 1&#9 76enton, 1:#FFMF'9 that the ,ndians of Canada distin"-ish several so-ls. *3o.e of the. i.a"ine a Paradise abo-ndin" in bl-eberries. . . . Cthers say that the so-ls do nothin" b-t dance after their de art-re fro. this lifeJ there are so.e 1ho ad.it the trans.i"ration of so-ls, as Pytha"oras did*J b-t all believe it is i..ortal. +.on" so.e tribes the :o-rney to the land of the dead beca.e a dan"ero-s 8-est across a roarin" river brid"ed by a slender tree tr-nk 7Blair, 1:#FFMF'9, ast a "iant stra1berry and over a shakin" lo" brid"e 76ohl, D14M1&9, or thro-"h other erils. 3 irit real.s 1ere otentially accessible not only to so-ls of the dead b-t, on rare occasions, to a darin" fe1 of the livin", 1hose .ythical 8-ests bear elo8-ent 1itness to contin-ation a.on" recently .i"ratory eo les of the search for kno1led"e and o1er thro-"h ersonal co..-nication 1ith the -nkno1able beyond. / D#F / *Tales of the recovery of a beloved erson fro. the land of the dead are co..on in Gorth +.erican .ytholo"y,* and ho1ever .-ch they vary in detail, *they are one and the sa.e story,* Eayton contended 719#%, D&#9. ,n a 2-ron le"end reco-nted by BrAbe-f in 1&#& 76enton, 1: D%'M&$9, three .onths after her death a .an sei>ed his rel-ctant sisterHs so-l in the -nder1orld and corked it into a -. kin, lacin" her brains in another. Ret-rnin" ho.e, he retrieved her body fro. the ce.etery and had al.ost revived it 1hen a c-rio-s onlooker broke the rohibition a"ainst raisin" his eyes: *+t that .o.ent the so-l esca ed, and there re.ained to hi. only the cor se in his ar.s.* ,n a tale of the Mic.ac of the Eas A Penins-la and Ge1 Br-ns1ick, recorded by (ather @e Clerc8 in 1&91 7D$'M1#9, a "iant "ives a father his sonHs so-l to carry ho.e fro. the land of the dead in a little ba"J b-t a c-rio-s 1o.an o ens it, *and the so-l esca ed i..ediately and ret-rned 1hence it had co.e.* Co-ntless s-ch le"ends, .any strikin"ly si.ilar to the Ereek .yth of Cr he-s and I-rydice, have been recorded in .-ch of Gorth +.erica, indicatin" the hi"h i. ortance attrib-ted to ersonal co..-nication 1ith the s irit 1orld. Gor 1ere s-ch :o-rneys ossible only in a .ythical ast. *Many of o-r tribe have been there and ret-rned,* 6ohlHs C:ib1a infor.ants told hi. 7DD$MD%9, citin" a livin" h-nter 1ho had overco.e "reat obstacles in ret-rnin" fro. the dead to care for his childrenJ nearly a cent-ry later 2allo1ell 719%%, 1%1MF19 fo-nd that visits to the s irit 1orld by the dead or dyin" still layed a .a:or art in the life of the Berens River 3a-ltea-0, a h-ntin" eo le of C:ib1a derivation livin" east of @ake ;inni e" in Manitoba.

These tales er et-ate ancient sha.anistic beliefs and ossibly even seances ai.ed at revivin" a dead erson: accordin" to 2-ltkrant> 719%F, D4$9, *the Cr he-s tradition .ay in its core be re"arded as the te0t to a sha.anistic act.* ,n contrast to rit-alistic a"rarian ideolo"ies, *its basic tone is individ-alistic, not collectivisticJ it is fo-nded on a sha.anHs ecstatic e0 eriences, not - on the .ore sober thera e-tic .ethods of a .edicine society* 7D&#9, and it has been ke t alive in Gorth +.erica<.ore erha s than any1here else<by the 1ides read "-ardianBs irit 8-est 1hose f-nda.ental ass-. tions closely rese.ble its o1n. The land of the dead in *Cr he-s* .yths is "enerally located near the settin" s-n. ,t is *a ha y land* in a tradition created, 2-ltkrant> s-""ests 719%F, 9DM9#9, by eo les 1ith a har.onio-s vie1 of life and little terror of death. +t least e8-ally ro.inent in Gorth +.erican .yth and rit-al is a s irit-al real. connected 1ith the sky, and this real., like the other 71hich is so.eti.es the sa.e9, .ay be the "oal of a 8-est by the livin". / D#' / The Cnonda"a and 3eneca, t1o of the five 7or si09 ,ro8-ois nations, believe they s ran" fro. the "ro-nd 7Mor"an, &MF9, b-t s-ch ori"in .yths are as rare in the Gortheast as they are co..on in the 3o-th1est. The 2-ron *have reco-rse to the 3ky in al.ost all their necessities,* BrAbe-f 1rote in 1&#& 76enton, 1 :D&19, and a.on" +l"on8-ian eo les the Ereat 3 irit and his dele"ates lived in the sky, and stories 1ere told, Co 1ay 1rote in the .idBnineteenth cent-ry 71%D9, *of so.e of these hi"h born ersona"es co.in" to earth to d1ell a.on" the eo leJ also of .en "oin" - and beco.in" inhabitants of the skies.* The Monta"naisBGaska i of @abrador believe, 3 eck 1rites 719#%, %$9, that so-ls are transfor.ed into stars -ntil they beco.e reincarnated in babies. The livin", too, have access to this real., and one .ain -r ose of certain +l"on8-ian rit-als 1as to raise artici antsH so-ls to the heavens. Iach dayHs erfor.ance of the t1elveBday )ela1are Bi" 2o-se *lifts the 1orshi a sta"e hi"her in the series of t1elve s-ccessive sky levels -ntil on the final day it reaches the Ereat 3 irit hi.self* 73 eck 19#1, &19. +nd the C:ib1a MidA1i1in incor orated *ei"ht s-ccessive "rades of c-rin"<the first fo-r called Iarth "rades and the second fo-r called 3ky "rades< the H o1erH risin" 1ith the "rade,* that is, 1ith closeness to its so-rce in the heavens 7@andes 19&', %D9. Most ,ro8-oian eo les, BrAbe-f 1rote of the 2-ron 76enton, 1: D%$9, trace their ori"in to the fall of a 1o.an fro. the skies. ,n one version 7D%1M%D9, +atensic thre1 herself after a heavenly tree 1hose fellin" her sick h-sband drea.ed co-ld c-re hi.. T-rtle then bade other a8-atic ani.als dive do1n, brin" - soil, and -t it on her shell, so that +atensic dro ed "ently on an ,slandJ her da-"hter thereafter bro-"ht forth t1o boys, one of 1ho. killed the other. ,n later ,ro8-ois le"ends the t1ins, *Eood Mind* and *Ivil Mind* in ParkerHs version, contend for infl-ence in the h-.an 1orld, b-t the story is basically the sa.e.N#O ,ts .a:or ele.ents<the fall of a h-.an ro"enitor fro. the skies, the creation of land fro. the 1aters by an *earth diver,* and the e0 loits of heavenly t1ins<are 1idely aralleled in .yths fro. different re"ions of Gorth +.erica. +lon" the * ath of so-ls,* or Milky ;ay, the so-l ret-rns after death to its ho.e, the transcendent s here fro. 1hich it has been artly c-t off d-rin" life. +.on" the ,ro8-ois, *a bea-tif-l c-sto. revailed in ancient ti.es, of ca t-rin" a bird, and freein" it over the "rave on the N#O (or ,ro8-ois versions see, e."., 2e1itt 19$# and 19D'J Parker, *+ 3eneca Cos.olo"ical Myth* 719D#9, in Tooker 19F9, #%M4FJ and (enton 19&D. Cn the *earthBdiver* .yth see )-ndes 19&D. / D#9 /

evenin" of the b-rial, to bear a1ay the s irit to its heavenly rest*J on the invisible road to the sky, Mor"an re orts 71F4MF&9, *the so-l ascended in its heavenly fli"ht -ntil it reached its celestial habitation.* @ike its terrestrial co-nter art this heavenly ho.e co-ld in e0ce tional cases be visited by the livin" 7at least by .ythical heroes9 as 1ell as the dead. + 3eneca .yth told to Parker 71#DM#%9 by Id1ard CornB lanter, a descendant of 2andso.e @akeHs brother, "ives clearer e0 ression to the so-lHs 8-est for its celestial ho.e than 1e have fo-nd in other Gative +.erican stories o-tside the 3o-th1est. ,n old ti.es, the yo-n"est of three brothers s-""ested that they travel to the ed"e of the earth, 1here sky to-ches sea. ;atchin" the s-n sli -nder the ri. of the sky, the t1o yo-n"er brothers ran -nder in ti.e b-t the oldest 1as cr-shed, *and his s irit shot ast the other t1o* 7like 2o.erHs Il enor9, .eetin" the. on the far side 1here *everythin" is different.* The father of the 3ky eo le -rified the. by skinnin" the. and 1ashin" their or"ans, and his son 2a1en\io sent the. back to their co-ntry by the ath of the s-n. *The brothers did not care for the earth no1, b-t 1ished the.selves back in the - er 1orld*J they 1ere later str-ck by li"htnin", and killed. ,n this .yth of a real. beneath the 1estern ri. of the sky, the t1o see.in"ly distinct after1orlds of Gorth +.erican ,ndian .yth are fo-nd to be oneJ at the li.inal hori>on earth and sky .eet. This is the celestial 7or s-bterranean9 real. to 1hich sha.ans, reBe.inently of the livin", have been tho-"ht to have access fro. ti.e i..e.orial, and even reli"io-s leaders 1ho re -diated traditional sha.ans clai.ed a heavenly so-rce for their revelations. Th-s the )ela1are Pro het of 1F&DM&# drea.ed of receivin" a divine .essa"e fro. the heavenly *Master of @ife* 7+. ;allace 19F$, 11F9. 2andso.e @ake in 1F99 envisioned a sky :o-rney to the after1orld 1here he 1as told the .oral lan of the cos.os on 1hich his refor.ed reli"ion 1as based 7D4#9. +nd the 3ha1nee Pro het, transfor.ed into Tensk1ata1a, *the C en )oor* for his eo leHs salvation, 1as borne to a s irit 1orld and sa1 ast and f-t-re in a aradise of ab-ndant "a.e and fertile fields 1here s irits of virt-o-s 3ha1nees co-ld flo-rish 7Id.-nds, ##9. 2o1ever .-ch Christian doctrine .ay have infl-enced these visions, their core a ears to be the indi"eno-s 8-est for s irit-al transcendence vario-sly e0 ressed in .edicinal rites, initiation cere.onies, and ori"in .yths of +l"on8-ian and ,ro8-oian eo les thro-"ho-t the northeastern 1oodlands. 5ario-s classes of traditional sha.an coe0isted a.on" northeastern eo les, so.e obtainin" o1er thro-"h visions, others by -rchase. +.on" the Minnesota C:ib1a, 2off.an 71'91, 1%&M%'9 distin"-ished not only the MidA riest b-t the 1a,eno, a visionary healer and fireBhandler often associated 1ith evil s irits, and the ecstatic /essakkid *seer / D4$ / and ro het* co..only called a /ongleur' si.ilar distinctions have been .ade for vario-s +l"on8-ian "ro- s.N4O +ll e0ce t the MidA riests ractice alone and a ear to e.body traditions of individ-al sha.anis. older than the MidA1i1in, 1hich by co..-nally sanctionin" ersonal vision "-ided the 8-estin" i. -lse into .ore redictable channels. Iarly (rench acco-nts .ake it clear that individ-al ecstatic ractices as 1ell as collective cere.onies 1ere a 1ides read .eans of c-rin" disease and robin" the f-t-re. ;hen a 2-ron is sick, (ather 3a"ard re orts 7D$$M$19, the .edicine .an .ani -lates hot stones and che1s hot coals 7*the deed of an -nchained devil*9 and r-bs, blo1s, or s its on the atientJ both .edicine .an and sick erson *.ake "ri.aces and -tter incantations and thro1 the.selves into contortions* -ntil *the sick .an a ears 8-ite .ad, 1ith eyes flashin" and fri"htf-l to see, . . . thro1in" abo-t everythin" that co.es in his 1ay, 1ith a din and da.a"e and o-tra"eo-s behavio-r that have no e8-al.*

+ fe1 years later, in the ?es-it Relations of 1&## and 1&#4 76enton, 1:114M1%9, (ather @e ?e-ne described ho1 a Monta"nais sorcerer treated both a sick child and hi.self. ,n .inisterin" to the child he *ho1led i..oderately* 1hile 1hirlin" his ta.bo-rine, then ble1 on the atientHs body, *as , con:ect-red, for , co-ld not see 1hat he 1as doin"* in the s-rro-ndin" darkness. +nd in treatin" hi.self he *acted like a .ad.an,* 1ith tr-ly 3iberian fren>ies, *sin"in", cryin", and ho1lin", .akin" his dr-. rattle 1ith all his .i"htJ 1hile the others ho1led as lo-dly as he.* +fter hissin" like a snake, h-rlin" the dr-. to the "ro-nd, and r-nnin" ro-nd the fire, *he 1ent o-t of the cabin, contin-in" to ho1l and bello1* in a dis lay, the ?es-it .issionary asserted, of *foolishness, nonsense, abs-rdity, noise and din.* Both the (ranciscan 3a"ard and the ?es-it @e ?e-ne are a.on" those 1ho noted the -se of s1eat baths to ind-ce ecstasy by ,ro8-oian and +l"on8-ian tribes. @e ?e-neHs descri tion of 1&#4 76enton, 1: 11%J cf. 3a"ard, 19FM9', and Ra-dot in 6iniet>, #&%9 is es ecially re.iniscent of 2erodot-sHs acco-nt of 3cythian va or baths t1o tho-sand years before. *They lant so.e sticks in the "ro-nd, .akin" a sort of lo1 tent,* and after heatin" it 1ith redBhot stones, *sli entirely naked into these s1eat bo0es,* 1here they sin", cry, "roan, and .ake s eeches 1hile the *sorcerer* beats his dr-. and ro hesiesJ nor co-ld the ske tical re.onstrances of the *black robes* di.inish belief in their *oracle.* N4O 3ee @andes 19#', 1##, and ?enness, &$. 2off.an 71'9&, 1#'M&19 distin"-ishes three classes of Meno.ini sha.an: *:-""lers,* 1K,eno, and *drea.ers.* Eenerally in the Gortheast, Rit>enthaler and Rit>enthaler 1rite 71$19, *there 1ere t1o ty es of sha.ans, 1hose concerns 1ere ri.arily those of healin", and a third, 1hose art see.ed to lean to1ard the darker side*J the first t1o 71ho so.eti.es coincided9 1ere the con:-rer or *:-""ler* and the s-ckin" doctor, and the third 1as the 1K,eno . / D41 / 3-ch descri tions confir. that c-rin" and ro hecy in northeastern Gorth +.erica re8-ired s- ernor.al o1ers attained thro-"h ecstatic trance. ;hether this condition i. lies de art-re of the sha.an to distant real.s in 8-est of o1er, or of errant so-ls, is less clear fro. o-r so-rces, in 1hich fren>ies of *sorcerers* tend to be considered diabolic ossession. B-t the fre8-ency of 8-ests to the -nder1orld or the skies in *Cr he-s* tales and other .yths s-""ests that the sha.anHs s irit 1as indeed tho-"ht to :o-rney to transcendent 1orlds in search of a dead or dyin" ersonHs so-l, and si.ilar beliefs ersisted a.on" so.e +l"on8-ian eo les into the t1entieth cent-ry. *,f an ,ndian dies and a "ood .edicine .an starts after hi. 8-ickly eno-"h he .ay be bro-"ht back,* 2allo1ellHs C:ib1a infor.ant clai.ed 719%%, 1F4MF%9J th-s one sha.an restored a dead "irl to life by follo1in" her to the @and of the )ead and catchin" her so-l *:-st in ti.e.* The so-lHs :o-rney to distant laces is .ost evident in the *shakin" tent* seance of +l"on8-ian *:-""lers* attested since the earliest I-ro ean observers. *,n all their enca. .ents,* Cha. lain 71%99 1rote of his +l"on8-ian and 2-ron allies, describin" his :o-rney of 1&$9 fro. the 3aint @a1rence to the lake that no1 bears his na.e, one of their *soothsayers* b-ilds a cabin and laces hi.self inside, so as not to be seen at all, 1hen he sei>es and shakes one of the osts of his cabin, .-tterin" so.e 1ords bet1een his teeth, by 1hich he says he invokes the devil, 1ho a ears to hi. in the for. of a stone. . . . They fre8-ently told .e that the shakin" of the cabin, 1hich , sa1, roceeded fro. the devil, 1ho .ade it .ove, and not the .an inside, altho-"h , co-ld see the contrary. . . . These ro"-es co-nterfeit also their voice . . . and s eak in a lan"-a"e -nkno1n to the other sava"es. To the io-s Cha. lain, s-ch *i. ostors,* as he called .edicine .en in "eneral 79&9, 1ere defra-din" beni"hted eo les 1ho *do not reco"ni>e any divinity, or 1orshi any Eod and believe in anythin"

1hatever, b-t live like br-te beasts* 7#D19.N%O @e ?e-ne in 1&#4 76enton, 1:1$&M$F9 tells ho1 a Monta"nais :-""ler ho1led like a (rench - eteer and *fell into so violent an ecstasy, that , tho-"ht he 1o-ld break everythin" to ieces,* s eakin" several lan"-a"es 1hile others -r"ed the s irits to enter. 3o.e i.a"ined he *had been carried a1ay, 1itho-t kno1in" 1here or ho1. Cthers said that his body 1as lyin" on the "ro-nd, and that his so-l 1as - above the tent.* (inally, *the 3ava"es believin" that the Eenii or Hichikouai had entered, the sorcerer cons-lted the.,* and to his 8-estions the s irits, *or rather N%O Park.an, 1ho also described the *.a"ic lod"e* rite 719'#, 1: D%4 and #9'9, believed t1o and a half cent-ries after Cha. lain that the ,ndian con:-rerHs re.edies *1ere to the last de"ree re ostero-s, ridic-lo-s, or revoltin"* 71:#&D9. / D4D / the :-""ler 1ho co-nterfeited the.,* "ave ans1er. *, co-ld have said as .-ch .yself,* the ske tical 7and ossibly envio-s9 ?es-it re.arks of his sava"e rivalHs orac-lar rono-nce.ents. The +l"on8-ian *shakin" tent* or *s irit lod"e* has re.ained essentially the sa.e in the cent-ries since @e ?e-ne. 7,n one co..on variation, the sha.an is ti"htly bo-nd at the be"innin" of his erfor.ance and frees hi.self, like his Iski.o co-nter art, by the end.9N&O +.on" the 3a-ltea-0 of the Berens River, Manitoba, a sha.an seeks s- ernat-ral revelation d-rin" the -berty fast 72allo1ell 19F1, 199, and so-l abd-ction is the *characteristic modus operandi * of the con:-rer 7%99, 1ho occasionally en"a"es a rivalHs "-ardian s irits in *a dra.atic str-""le to the death* 1hile the a-dience 1atches the tent shaken by s irits th-. in" 1ithin it, so.eti.es 1ith fatal res-lts to one of the anta"onists 7&DM&#9. 2is other .ain f-nctions are ro hecy and location of lost articles thro-"h his s irit co. anion, the t-rtle 7&&M&'9. The +l"on8-ian con:-rer is no .ere charlatan, 2allo1ell stresses 7F#M'#9, b-t an e0 lorer of the li.inal >one bet1een the "iven condition of h-.an bein"s and the 1orld of -ndeter.ined otentialities<the 1orld of the s irit<to 1hich they like1ise belon". +.on" the relatively settled ,ro8-oian eo les 1e find only traces of individ-al vision 8-ests, by sha.ans or others. *Ti.e 1as 1hen it 1as necessary to fast thirty entire days, in a Cabin a art,* BrAbe-f 1rote of the 2-ron in 1&#& 76enton, 1:DF49J b-t those ti.es 1ere vanishin" 1hen the (rench arrived, and a .odern scholar can only infer that 2-ron sha.ans robably obtained o1er thro-"h visions 7Tooker 19&4, 9FJ cf. Tri""er 19&9, &%9. +.on" ,ro8-ois of the (ive Gations, the vision 8-est see.s once to have been .ore ro.inent. +t -berty so.e boys 1ithdre1 to the 1oods -nder s- ervision of an elder, fasted, abstained fro. se0-al activity, and .ortified the flesh 7+. ;allace 19F$, #FM#'9J drea.s at s-ch ti.es *1ere a t to be re"arded as visitations fro. s- ernat-ral s irits 1ho .i"ht "rant orenda, or .a"ical o1er, to the drea.er, and 1ho 1o-ld .aintain a s ecial sort of "-ardianshi over hi.* thro-"h a char. or talis.an associated 1ith the drea.. +.on" +l"on8-ian eo les the individ-al 8-est see.s to have been nearly -niversal, at least for boysJ 1e find it a.on" the )ela1are, for e0a. le 7M. 2arrin"ton 191#, D14M1%J cf. 19D1, &1M'$9, and above all a.on" the C:ib1a, 1ho retained .any of their indi"eno-s ractices after eastern +l"on8-ian tribes had been e0ter.inated or dis laced. +n N&O )ens.ore 19#Da, 4%M4&J 19#Db, 1$4M$%. 2-ltkrant> 719'1, F99 considers s-ch seances *for.s of a :-""lerin" co. le0* ran"in" fro. northern +sia and the +.ericas to 3o-theast +sia. / D4# /

C:ib1a father, the ?es-it )ablon re orted aro-nd 1&F$ 76iniet>, #D&MDF9, .ade his son fast -ntil he sa1 a vision of *3-n, or Th-nder, or so.ethin" else*J .ore recent descri tions have richly elaborated on this early acco-nt. Eirls too, ?enness 1rites of the C:ib1a of Parry ,sland, Cntario 719#%, %$9, fasted -nder their .othersH s- ervision. B-t a "irlHs 8-est coincided 1ith first .enstr-ation, tho-"ht 7as in .any tribal societies9 to brin" oll-tionJ therefore, -nlike a boyHs *ho ef-l strivin" for broader hori>ons,* her -berty cere.ony *is a conscientio-s 1ithdra1al of her .ali"nant self* 7@andes 19#', %9. The 8-est 1as .ore central for boys than "irls, Barno-1 s-""ests 7D$9, beca-se *a .anHs activities<h-ntin" and 1arfare, etc.< involved -n redictable ele.ents in 1hich .a"ical s- ort 1as essential for s-ccess.* ;o.en .i"ht be .ore o en to s ontaneo-s visions, b-t .astery of s irits thro-"h the disci lined 8-est 1as an over1hel.in"ly .ale rero"ative. +n C:ib1a boy driven o-t to fast in a lonely s ot 7@andes 19&', 'M119 .i"ht lie naked on the "ro-nd or .ake hi.self a h-"e *nest* in a tree as he fasted for as .any as ten days. *;hen he s1ooned, the C:ib1a said he 1as bein" carried to the s here of the .anitos,* or s irits. + s-ccessf-l visionary ke t his drea. secret and contin-ed fastin" in later yearsJ over ti.e he 1o-ld co.e to rese.ble his "-ardian s irit<.oose, bear, or other<and at ni"ht *1o-ld leave his h-.an sha e on his bed to stalk the co-ntry* in its sha e. + sha.an .i"ht event-ally identify hi.self 1ith the .anito, even at the rice of .adness or death. +s the *nest* s-""ests, a connection 1ith the sky is characteristic of C:ib1a visions. Th-s the Christian convert Eeor"e Co 1ay, a friend of @on"fello1 and Park.an, tells ho1 his visionary s irit .ade a lofty ine, *reachin" to1ards the heavens,* heave as he san", and told the yo-th, *, a. fro. the risin" s-n* 7Tolla, D#'M#99. + decade or t1o later, one of 6ohlHs C:ib1a infor.ants recalled 7D$4M$F9 cli.bin" a tall tree after his .otherHs death and bein" escorted thro-"h the air above hi"h .o-ntain to s and o-t into the s-nshine, 1here the 3-n revealed earth, sky, and his o1n i.a"e, and "ave hi. rotectin" s irits. +n old C:ib1a told 6ohl 7D#DM4D9 ho1 his "randfather took hi. as a boy into the forest and .ade hi. a bed hi"h - in a ine. 2is first atte. t to fast failed, and the ne0t s rin", deter.ined not to ret-rn *till .y ri"ht drea. had co.e to .e,* he a"ain bedded hi.self in a ine and after days of de rivation fell into a drea. in 1hich he follo1ed a s irit thro-"h the air to a .o-ntainto . There fo-r .en disclosed the earth and the *"lorio-s si"ht* of the sky, and bade hi. choose his destination: *, 1ill "o - ,* he re lied. (o-r 1hiteBhaired .en revealed the "ifts of EodJ fro. then on he 1as *a erfect .an.* 3i.ilarly 7#F%MF&9, a "reat / D44 / chief, *the @ittle Pine,* follo1ed a visionary ath *hi"her and hi"her into heaven,* and 1as told he 1o-ld be a .i"hty hero: *+nd the drea. 1as really f-lfilled.* (e1 early I-ro ean acco-nts of vision 8-ests s-rvive, no do-bt lar"ely beca-se of their individ-al nat-re 7since observers lar"ely tho-"ht of reli"ion in ter.s of co..-nal rites9 and beca-se visions 1ere nor.ally ke t secret -ntil old a"e or death 7?enness, %$9. B-t on the basis of later evidence, 8-ests a ear to have been nearly -niversalJ a sha.an 1as not set a art by his -ni8-e call, as in 3iberia, b-t by intensification of a visionary e0 erience co..on in so.e de"ree to every .e.ber of the co..-nity, es ecially a.on" the .obile and *hi"hly individ-alistic society* 7@andes 19#', 1199 of the C:ib1a and other +l"on8-ian h-ntin" eo les. The first 7and rinci al9 8-est nor.ally took lace in early adolescence, and others co-ld be occasioned by any ersonal crisisJ they 1ere individ-al rites of assa"e s-bstit-tin" for the collective cere.onies of .ore settled eo les.

,ndivid-ality and -n redictability 1ere characteristic also of visions the.selves, 1hich des ite rec-rrence of co..on .otifs 1ere by no .eans as standardi>ed as the dr-"Bind-ced hall-cinations of tro ical 3o-th +.erica. The o-tco.e of the 8-est co-ld not be kno1n in advance, and the ossibility of fail-re ratified its inherent -ncertainty. =ears of re aration 1ere re8-ired, and tho-"h *co. lete fail-res 1ere very rare* 7)ens.ore 19#Da, F19, re eated and increasin"ly ri"oro-s fasts .i"ht be necessary before a vision ca.eJ it 1as far fro. a-to.atic. C:ib1a .en 1ho never attained visions 1ere disdained by fello1 tribes.en, and on the .odern reservation, 1here s-icide is ende.ic to so.e C:ib1a co..-nities, this onceBe0ce tional fail-re .ay see. to characteri>e a 1hole society fro. 1hich the vision 8-est *.oldin" a childHs sense of identity* has vanished, leavin" nothin" in its lace 73hkilnyk, '&M''9. (or the "-ardian s irit 8-est is *no assive relationshi ,* @andes observes 719&', 99, b-t re8-ires lifelon" selfBdisci line, and in the solitary individ-alHs -ncertain endeavor to s-r ass his "iven condition lies a herois. all the .ore e0traordinary, 6ohl re.arks 7DD'9, in that *every ,ndian, 1itho-t e0ce tion,* dis lays it. 3.all 1onder that in the absence of that otentially transfor.ative ho e for a f-t-re differin" fro. the resent, life .i"ht cease to have .eanin".

Visionaries o' the -reat !lains

The vision 8-est is .ost f-lly doc-.ented not a.on" northeastern +l"on8-ians, 1ho 1ere soon - rooted by invadin" 1hites, b-t a.on" the .i"ratory b-ffalo h-nters 1ho briefly b-t .e.orably do.inated the Ereat Plains. These ti iBd1ellin" horse.en<3io-0, Cro1, Cheyenne, / D4% / and others<1ere 8-intessential e0e. lars of the visionary sha.anis. once racticed by h-nters and no.ads in .-ch of the 1orld. =et the .obility of Plains life 1as not an i..e.orial inheritance. The tribes that entered this re"ion in the cent-ries after the horse 1as introd-ced fro. I-ro e a ear to have been dis laced a"ric-lt-ralists driven 1est1ard by the C:ib1a and others -nder ress-re fro. the 1hites. 3io-an and +l"on8-ian eo les 1ho had revio-sly c-ltivated the land no1 e.braced a no.adic life .ade ossible by the horse and the see.in"ly ine0ha-stible b-ffaloJ so.e, s-ch as the Mandan and Pa1nee, co.bined a"ric-lt-re 1ith seasonal h-ntin". Pro.inence of the Plains vision 8-est th-s reflects not si. ly ersistence b-t rene1al, -nder conditions of hei"htened instability, of an o enness to the -nkno1n never 1holly s-bordinated to the invariance of rit-al. *The +.erican ,ndian 1as an individ-alist in reli"ion as in 1ar,* the .i0edBblood ;ah eton 3io-0 Charles Iast.an, or Chiyesa, declared 7Iast.an, DF9. Cn the Plains, above all, this 8-ality dee ly i. ressed o-tsidersJ th-s every Co.anche *co-ld be his o1n riest and his o1n ro het<the individ-al inter reter of the 1ills and 1ays of the s irits* 7;allace and 2oebel, 1%%9. 3-ch *individ-alis.* did not, of co-rse, i. ly lack of co..-nal affiliation: a rof-sion of or"ani>ations 1ith elaborate cere.onies e.braced al.ost everyone in a net1ork of tribal traditions 7;issler 191&J Mails 19F#9. =et fe1 c-lt-res have .ore e. hasi>ed individ-al achieve.ent, and to none has the vision 8-est been .ore central. + visionary di.ension is evident in .any co..-nal rites. The 2ako of the Caddoan Pa1nee differs fro. fi0ed calendrical cere.onies in its collective 8-est for Mother CornJ other tribes, s-ch as the C.aha 7(letcher and @a (lesche, 1:F49 and Teton 3io-0 7)ens.ore 191', &'MFFJ ?. I. Bro1n, 1$1M#9, .ay have derived a si.ilar rite fro. the Caddoan +rikara. +.on" the Teton 3io-0, this rit-al, 1ith its *son" of search* for children, 1as associated not 1ith Mother Corn b-t 1ith the ;hite B-ffalo ;o.an 1ho "ave the sacred i e 7)orsey 19$&J ;alker 19'$, 1$9M1D, 14'M%$J Bro1n, #M99. P-rification by

s1eat bath<Teton 3io-0 inipi, considered their *oldest and .ost revered cere.ony* 7;alker 19'$, 1$4J cf. Black Ilk in Bro1n, #1M4#, and @a.e )eer and Irdoes, 1F4M'D9<1as no1here .ore i. ortant than on the PlainsJ this rit-al of kinshi a.on" those in the tiny s1eat lod"e and their *relatives* beyond 1as often a rel-de to the vision 8-est. +.on" e0 licitly sha.anistic -blic cere.onies on the Plains 1ere *shakin" tent* rites like those of the northeastern +l"on8-ians, in 1hich a *con:-rer* learned of hidden .atters fro. s irits 1ho freed hi. fro. his thon"s. ,n the Teton 3io-0 yu1ipi 7*1ra ed*9 rit-al, a holy .an versed in bird and ani.al lan"-a"es both c-res and locates lost ob:ects / D4& / 7Po1ers 19'D, D19. ,n a c-rin" session 7)ens.ore 191', D4&9, a .edicine .an bo-nd inside a dark tent san" a.id flyin" ob:ects and ani.al noises -ntil he 1as fo-nd *1ed"ed bet1een the oles near the to of the ti i, 1ith all the restrainin" cords cast fro. hi.*J ascent of the ole, like ventrilo8-is., flyin" ob:ects, and ani.al lan"-a"e, is re.iniscent of I-rasian sha.anis.. Us-ally the yu1ipi sha.anHs so-l does not set forth in search of visionsJ th-s s irits ca.e to (ools Cro1 and sho1ed hi. 1here to find the .edicine of 1hich they told hi. 7Mails 19F9, 949. B-t for.erly a yu1ipi sha.an like Black Th-nder learned the cere.ony after lon" fastin" in the hills 72-rt and 2o1ard, D9#9, and yu1ipi s irits the.selves 1ere tho-"ht to set forth 1ith o-ndin" noises fro. the darkened roo. of the seance and fly to caves, clo-ds, 1oods, or 1ater to brin" o1er to the sha.an freed fro. his bonds 7(eraca, #49. B-t by far the .ost elaborate Plains cere.ony is the festival co..only kno1n 7fro. its )akota na.e9 as the 3-n )ance and 1idely considered, as by (ools Cro1 7Mails 19F9, 449, *the hi"hest e0 ression of o-r reli"ion.* @ike the C:ib1a MidA1i1in or the ;inneba"o Medicine Rite 7Radin 194%, FD9, the 3-n )ance .ay have develo ed as a reaffir.ation of tribal solidarity in res onse to .assive c-lt-ral disr- tions since the seventeenth cent-ry. Black Ilk of the C"lala 3io-0 ascribes its ori"in to a revelation fro. the Ereat 3 irit, 6akan.Tanka, *.any, .any 1inters after o-r eo le received the sacred i e fro. the ;hite B-ffalo Co1 ;o.an* 7Bro1n, &F9. 3o.e for. of the cere.ony 1as all b-t -niversal on the PlainsJ its rinci al feat-res 1ere already a arent 1hen Catlin 719F#, 1:1%%J cf. 19&F9, in the 1'#$s, ortrayed the *a allin" scenes* he 1itnessed a.on" the Mandan of the U er Misso-ri shortly before their deci.ation by s.all o0. 3ince Catlin, .any have described the 3-n )ance, es ecially in its 3io-0 versions.NFO ,n settin" - the t1entyBei"ht oles of the lod"e aro-nd a central tree on the third day, Black Ilk e0 lained to Bro1n 7'$9, *1e are really .akin" the -niverse in a likeness,* the circle re resentin" creation and the tree 6akan.Tanka, the center of everythin". The n-.ber of oles is the n-.ber of days in the l-nar .onth, of a b-ffaloHs ribs, and of feathers in the 1ar bonnet: *=o- see, there is a si"nificance in everythin".* Cn the fo-rth day, artici ants be"in their ard-o-s dance 1ith hands and eyes stretched to1ard the s-nJ the dancerHs intense .ental concentration, C-rtis 1rites 7#:9%M9&9, * rod-ces that state of s irit-al e0altation in 1hich visions are seen and the f-t-re is revealed.* Bleedin" rof-sely fro. 1ooden ske1ers fastened fro. his chest by NFO 3ee, e."., on the 3io-0, C-rtis, #:'FM99J ;alker 19D1J +le0ander, 1#&M&9J Bro1n, &FM1$$J and Mails, 11'M#'. 7(or st-dies of the 3-n )ance of other eo les, see ;issler 19D1.9 / D4F / thon"s to the 3-n Pole, the chief dancer l-n"es to free hi.self 1hile others dance and sin"J finally he tears loose and colla ses before risin" a"ain to res-.e the dance. + feast, s1eat bath, and rayer

concl-de the cere.ony. Catlin 719&F, #9J cf. ;iedBGe-1ied 19$&, D#:#D4M#49 s-r.ised that the Mandan 3-n )ance, the *CB keeB a,* 1as an ann-al cere.ony to 1hich the eo le o1ed their e0istence thro-"h increase of the b-ffalo on 1hich life de endedJ in a folium reservatum for scholars 7'#M'%9 he described a b-ffalo dancer retendin" to i. re"nate others 1ith a colossal red 1ooden enis. To the e0tent that these rites ai.ed to re lenish the ani.al food s- ly, they rese.bled Ereen Corn cere.onies of so-thern a"ric-lt-ralists and bloodier rit-als of the Pa1nee, 1ho as recently as 1'#' sacrificed a .aiden to the Mornin" 3tar to ro.ote the fertility of the corn.N'O ,n contrast to this riestly rit-alis., ho1ever, individ-al visions re.ained indis ensable to .ost Plains 3-n )ances, 1hich 1ere set in .otion not by the infle0ible calendar b-t by the led"e of the chief dancer. 2is ordeals 1ere ro. ted, +le0ander observes 71&D9, by *a 8-est of -nderstandin"* c-l.inatin" in a vision of an ani.al o1er that 1o-ld henceforth be his ersonal hel er. ,n for.er ti.es, (ools Cro1 re.arks 7Mails 19F9, 1D$9, *every led"er 1as re8-ired to "o on a vision 8-est before he did the 3-n )ance,* and so stron" did the connection bet1een individ-al vision and co..-nal rit-al re.ain, even after that ractice la sed, that @a.e )eer 71999 describes the cere.ony as the han,lechia, or vision 8-est, *of the 1hole 3io-0 nation.* The close relation bet1een vision and rit-al is cons ic-o-s in t1o .ore recent .ove.ents, the .essianic Ehost )ance of 1'9$ 7Mooney 19&%9 and the visionary * eyote c-lt* that beca.e the Gative +.erican Ch-rch 7@a Barre 19F%9. Both ori"inated to the so-th and 1est 7the Ehost )ance a.on" the Pai-te of Gevada, the eyote c-lt -lti.ately in Me0ico9, both incor orated Christian ele.ents, and neither 1as by any .eans li.ited to the Plains. B-t each attained artic-lar intensity in this re"ion, 1here d-rin" the crisis of the old tribal c-lt-re both the fren>ies of the Ehost )ance 7before its bloody s- ression at ;o-nded 6nee9 and the hall-cinations of eyote "atherin"s fo-nd a lace denied or severely restricted by rit-alistic cere.onialis.s of the 3o-th1est. Cn the Plains the Ehost )ance reached its c-l.ination, and on the Plains eyote *facilitated obtainin" visions already so-"ht* 73honle, %99 by allo1in" the ,ndian to *"et into i..ediate to-ch 1ith the s- ernat-ral 1itho-t N'O 3ee ;eltfish, 1$&M1'. The Caddoan Pa1nee, -nlike the 3io-an Mandan 71ho also co.bined a"ric-lt-re 1ith b-ffalo h-ntin"9, had no f-lly develo ed 3-n )ance, and their cere.onies<even the 2ako<retained .-ch of the riestly rit-alis., c-l.inatin" in h-.an sacrifice, characteristic of a"ric-lt-ral reli"ions. / D4' / the lon" eriod of fastin"* de.anded by the vision 8-estJ for this reason it took stron" root. The individ-al 8-est is central to a rare celestial .yth of the Blackfoot reco-ntin" the ori"in of the 3-n )ance, or Medicine @od"e 7Erinnell 1'9D, 9#M1$#9. 7+nother Blackfoot tale N11#M1&O on the ori"in of the .edicine i e relates a rare Plains *Cr he-s* .yth.9 ,n earliest ti.es, the story of *3carface* relates, a bea-tif-l "irl told her arents the 3-n had said she co-ld .arry none b-t hi.. ;hen a oor scarfaced boy asked her to be his 1ife, she said he .-st "ain the 3-nHs er.ission and ask hi. to re.ove his scar as a si"n. 2e traveled .any days, askin" ani.als to hel find his ho.e, -ntil he finally .et a yo-n" .an, Mornin" 3tar, 1hose .other, Moon, rotected 3carface 1hen his father 3-n ret-rned. +fter 3carface saved Mornin" 3tar fro. "reat birds that had killed his brothers, 3-n er.itted hi. to .arry, told hi. ho1 to b-ild a .edicine lod"e, and re.oved his scarJ he "ave the co- le lon" life 1itho-t sickness, and at last their shado1s de arted to"ether for the 3and 2ills, 1here the dead reside.N9O ?-st as 3carface ret-rned to earth enli"htened by the 3-n, so.e tribes attrib-ted a heavenly ori"in to

sha.ansJ a Canadian )akota .edicine .an 1as said, for e0a. le, to have d1elt 1ith Th-nders before bein" born on earth 7;allis, '19. B-t .ost of their o1er, like that of fello1 tribes.en, derived not fro. birth b-t fro. "-ardian s irits re eatedly so-"ht. 3ha.ans .i"ht fast for a vision at least once a year, and this ersistent devotion to a 8-est shared by all 1as 1hat set the. a art. ,f riestly infle0ibility 1as lar"ely forei"n to the Plains, es ecially a.on" 1anderin" h-nters s-ch as the 3io-0, visionary e0 erience 1as lavishly develo ed. Many 3io-0 1ere e. o1ered by visions, incl-din" heyokas or *contraries* and *berdaches* 1ho dressed and lived as 1o.en. B-t the rinci al sha.an 1as the *holy .an* 71icasa 1akan 9<less co..only *holy 1o.an* 71inyan 1akan 9<1ho "ained transcendent insi"ht thro-"h re eated contact, above all by .astery of the vision 8-est, 1ith the s- ernat-ral. 5ision, the C"lala Eeor"e 31ord told ;alker 719'$, F99,N1$O .ay co.e at any ti.e to anyone, -nso-"ht or by seekin". The vision 8-est 7han,le. N9O (or t1o other versions see ;issler and )-vall, &1M&&J in one of these, 3carface and Mornin" 3tar *looked alike* 7&#9 and 1ere .istaken for each other by the 3-n. 7,n 2i"h1aterHs retellin" the hero is +n ao, )akota for da1n.9 (or a ;inneba"o analo"-e, see Radin 19%4, F%M'$J here ascent to the heavens is effortless. N1$O This vol-.e consists of doc-.ents ;alker collected as a"ency hysician of the C"lala branch of the Teton division of the 3io-0 bet1een 1'9& and 1914J other doc-.ents are incl-ded in ;alker 19'D and 19'#. Gakota, 1hich ro erly refers to the 3io-0 language, is s-bdivided into three dialects, )akota, Gakota, and @akota, the last of 1hich is that of the Teton 3io-0 7tho-"h ;alker -sed *@akota,* as others have .ore co..only -sed *)akota,* to refer to the 3io-0 in "eneral9. 3ee Po1ers 19FF, #M 14. / D49 / ceya or han,leyapi, *cryin"* or *la.entin"* for a vision9 is a .eans for seekin" 1hat does not co.e -nso-"ht, or follo1in" - the *call* of a drea.. @ike the inipi s1eat lod"e, 1ith 1hich it is closely linked, the 3io-0 vision 8-est antedated the "ift of the sacred i e, accordin" to Black Ilk 7Bro1n, 44J cf. ;alker 19'$, 1$49, and is therefore tho-"ht to be far older than the 3-n )ance and other cere.onies infl-enced by itJ it is an ancient sha.anistic herita"e< ossibly revived by rene1al of .i"ratory life on the Plains since the seventeenth cent-ry<that re.ains, for traditional 3io-0, central to their reli"ion. N11O Gative +.ericans of the ;oodlands and Plains *de.ocrati>ed sha.anis.,* @o1ie con:ect-red 7194$, #1D9, by .akin" the vision 8-est<else1here often the rero"ative of reli"io-s s ecialists or secret societies<o en to all. ;hatever the historical se8-ence .ay have been, a.on" .any Plains eo les s-ch as the Cro1 *there 1as no li.itation either as to a"e or se0,* and even little boys so.eti.es 8-ested in i.itation of their elders 7@o1ie 19DD, ##D9. ;here co..-nal -berty rit-als 1ere "enerally lackin", as in .-ch of Gorth +.erica, the vision 8-est .i"ht be a boyHs rite of assa"e to .anhoodJ th-s a.on" the ;inneba"o, on the eastern frin"es of Plains c-lt-re, it *constit-ted the only -berty rite* for boys 7Radin 19F$b, 'F9. B-t this 1as not its sole nor al1ays .ain f-nctionJ both east and 1est of the Plains the vision 8-est, Benedict 1rote 719DD, DJ cf. 6roeber 19'#, 41', on the +ra aho9, is *a rit-al at entrance to .at-rity,* b-t on the Plains *it is mature men 1ho characteristically seek the vision,* not once alone on the threshold of ad-lthood b-t re eatedly thro-"ho-t it, es ecially in ti.es of crisis. *Ivery Cro1, battered by fort-ne, 1rithin" -nder h-.iliation, or cons-.ed 1ith a.bition,* @o1ie 1rites 719#%, D#F9, so-"ht a vision 1hich 1as by nat-re a contin-ally varyin" res onse to the -n redictable ha>ards of life.

The o-tco.e of the 8-est de ended in art on the character of the seeker, -rified in body and .ind by the s1eat bath that receded it. The 8-ester so-"ht a vision alone<often on a solitary hillto <b-t not -nassistedJ a sha.an or relative instr-cted hi. before the 8-est and inter reted its .eanin" after1ard, and no 8-est, of co-rse, co-ld s-cceed 1itho-t hel fro. the s irits. These .i"ht be s- re.e o1ers 76akan Tanka or the Erandfathers for the 3io-09,N1DO b-t 1ere -s-ally erB N11O *The oldest and .ost revered cere.ony,* ;alkerHs infor.ants told hi. 719'$, 1$49, *is the ;nipi 7s1eat bath9. The ne0t oldest is Han,lepi 7seekin" a vision9.* N1DO Cn 1akan 7ro-"hly, *sacred*9 and 6akan Tanka 7*the Ereat 3 irit*9, see ;alker 19D1, 1%1M%D, and 19'$, &'MF%, 9'M99J Po1ers 19FF, 4%M4FJ and )eMallie, '$M'D. Cf. (letcher and @a (lesche, D:%9FM99, on C.aha 1akonda . Cn the Erandfathers 7Tunkashila 9, see Po1ers 19FF, D$$MD$1. +ltho-"h both 6akan Tanka, often identified 1ith the Christian Eod 7Mails, 1D$9, and Tunkashila are sin"-lar in recent 3io-0 acco-nts, it see.s robable 7)eMallie, 919 that the Erandfathers 1ere al1ays l-ral -ntil reinter reted by Black Ilk -nder Catholic infl-ence, and al.ost certain that 6akan Tanka *1as a collective ter., e.bodyin" vario-s 1akan bein"s in .any different as ects.* (or a brief s-..ary of the lon" controversy over s- osed affinity of )akota 1akan, +l"on8-ian manitou, and ,ro8-ois orenda 1ith Cceanic mana as a reBani.istic force at the ori"in of reli"io-s e0 erience, see 2-ltkrant> 19F9, 1$M14. / D%$ / sonal "-ardian s irits<ani.als or other nat-ral forces<in their o1n or in h-.an for.. +s early as 1'4F Park.an noted 71949, D4FM4'9 that the ,ndianHs "-ardian s irit *is -s-ally e.bodied in the for. of so.e livin" thin": a bear, a 1olf, an ea"le, or a ser ent.* Most i. ortant of all, for Black Ilk 7Bro1n, %'M%99, are the birds or *1in"eds* nearest to the heavens: for like the., *1e h-.ans .ay also leave this 1orld, not 1ith 1in"s, b-t in the s irit.* The vision 8-est, he declares 7Bro1n, 4&9, *hel s -s to reali>e o-r oneness 1ith all thin"s, to kno1 that all thin"s are o-r relatives*J thro-"h it, (ools Cro1 too believes 7Mails 19F9, 1'#9, 1e re"ain the ri.ordial h-.an ability to co..-nicate 1ith birds and ani.als. Po1er "ained by the 8-est 1as not "iven once for all, as in 8-asia-to.atic rites of assa"eJ on the contrary, a Plains visionaryHs 8-est al1ays laced hi. at risk. *, .istr-st visions co.e by in the easy 1ay<by s1allo1in" so.ethin". The real insi"ht, the "reat ecstasy,* @a.e )eer rotests 7D1FJ cf. &4M &%9, co.es fro. *the hard, ancient 1ay* of the vision 8-est, 1ith its de.andin" ri"ors and intrinsic -ncertainty. 3-ccess 1as by no .eans "-aranteed, and a * ersistent record of fail-re* 7Benedict 19D#, D%9 ty ifies .any Plains acco-nts. *3o.eti.es .en 8-est and donHt see or e0 erience a thin". ,n fact,* (ools Cro1 says 7Mails 19F9, '&9, *not .any eo le do .ana"e it s-ccessf-lly.* 3o.e ackno1led"ed lifelon" fail-reJ others retended visions not seenJ still others s-cceeded after several tries. Gor 1ere s-ccess and fail-re, sincerity and retense, al1ays clearly distinct, es ecially once tribal traditions be"an to cr-.ble. + dis laced ;inneba"o 1hose a-tobio"ra hy Radin recorded confessed 719D&, D&9 he had seen *nothin" -n-s-al* d-rin" a fo-rBday 8-est in 1hich he clai.ed a visionJ b-t after learnin" his boasts had hel ed a niece in labor, *, 1as really convinced that , ossessed sacred o1er* and *the a-thority of a "reat .edicine .an* 71#F9. The s irit .oves in -n redictable 1ays, and 1ho can be certain 1hen<or 1hether<he 1as deceivin" hi.self, or othersK The basic attern of the Plains 8-est, si.ilar 71ith .any variations9 to that of the northeastern +l"on8-ians, is a arent in the earliest descri tions. *;hen they 1ish to choose their .edicine or "-ardian s irit,* Prince Ma0i.ilian of ;iedBGe-1ied re.arked 7D#:#1'9 of the Mandan after his :o-rney of 1'#DM#4,

/ D%1 / they fast for three or fo-r days, and even lon"er, retire to a solitary s ot, do enance, and even sacrifice :oints of their fin"ersJ ho1l and cry to the lord of life, or to the first .an, beseechin" hi. to oint o-t their "-ardian s irit. They contin-e in this e0cited state till they drea., and the first ani.al or other ob:ect 1hich a ears to the. is chosen for their "-ardian s irit or .edicine.N1#O + Blackfoot boy of fo-rteen or fifteen, Catlin 1rote a fe1 years later 719F#, #%M#F9, e0 lainin" ac8-isition of the *.edicineBba"* 1hich Catlin considered *hoc-s oc-s, 1itchcraft, and ani.al .a"netis.,* 1anders off for several days, *lyin" on the "ro-nd in so.e re.ote or secl-ded s ot, cryin" to the Ereat 3 irit, and fastin" the 1hole ti.e.* The first ani.al or bird of 1hich he drea.s 7*or retends to have drea.ed*9 beco.es his lifeti.e rotectorJ he later sets forth to roc-re its skin, 1hich he kee s to brin" "ood fort-ne in battle, act as his "-ardian s irit in death, and *cond-ct hi. safe to the bea-tif-l h-ntin" "ro-nds, 1hich he conte. lates in the 1orld to co.e.*N14O The basic acc-racy of these early acco-nts has been lar"ely confir.ed by later observers. C-rtis "ives a vivid descri tion of the Teton 3io-0 vision cry 71hich he believed had *not been erfor.ed 1ithin very recent years*9 in the third vol-.e 7&%MF$9 of The 0orth 3merican ;ndian, in 19$'. ;hoever led"es to -rs-e the 8-est sole.nly asses a i e to others, and a holy .an raises it to the fo-r 1inds, sky, and earth. 2oly .an and 8-ester -rify the.selves and others in a s1eat bath, and the 8-ester cries alo-d as the holy .an sin"s. Taken to a distant hill, the 8-ester stands 1ith - lifted face, holdin" the i e - to the s-n and rayin", as he stands -ntil s-nset and lies -ntil da1n, to s irits of the fo-r directions to "rant hi. a vision. +t so.e ti.e d-rin" his fo-rBday vi"il a s- ernat-ral bein"<bird or ani.al, tree, rock, or ancestral s irit<a ears, if his rayers are "ranted, reveals the f-t-re, and oints o-t a otent .edicine: *Th-s every .an 1ho has seen s-ch a vision N1#O R t. in ;iedBGe-1ied 19F&, D4&, a vol-.e of selections fro. the Travels and acco. anyin" 1atercolors by 6arl Bod.er. + still earlier .ention of the Mandan vision 8-est occ-rs in @e1is and ClarkHs entry for )ece.ber 4, 1'$4 719$D, 1: 14'9, in BiddleHs edition of their History, first -blished in 1'14: *Iach individ-al selects for hi.self the artic-lar ob:ect of his devotion, 1hich is ter.ed his .edicine, and is either so.e invisible bein" or .ore co..only so.e ani.al, 1hich thencefor1ard beco.es his rotector or his intercessor 1ith the "reat s irit, to ro itiate 1ho. every attention is lavished, and every ersonal consideration is sacrificed.* This assa"e, lackin" in ClarkHs brief entry in the "riginal Iournals edited by Th1aites 719%9, 1:D##9, 1as res-.ably added by Biddle on the basis of his s- le.entary so-rces. N14O (or*Erinnell 71'9D, DF%9 the Blackfoot 1orld of the dead 1as a .onotono-s, -nendin", *alto"ether -nsatisfyin" e0istence.* 2ad Catlin ro.antici>ed their eschatolo"y, or had they learned 1ith the vanishin" of the b-ffalo ho1 bleak the f-t-re co-ld beK / D%D / beco.es, to a certain de"ree, a .edicine .an.* Back in the s1eat lod"e, the holy .an inter rets his vision and the t1o a"ain -rify the.selves. ;ith .any variations, this -nderlyin" attern< -rification, selfBdenial, and solitary co..-nion 1ith transcendent forces c-l.inatin", if s-ccessf-l, in an -n redictable vision follo1ed by ret-rn 1ith .a"nified o1ers<has re.ained re.arkably constant since the earliest acco-nts. The vision 8-est of the Teton 3io-0 and Cro1 1as o en to both se0es, .oreover, 1hereas .ost "irls a.on" the Plains

Cree, as a.on" their distant +l"on8-ian co-sins, the Blackfoot, Cheyenne, and +ra aho, *never deliberately so-"ht visions b-t 1ere a t to ac8-ire o1er d-rin" .enstr-al secl-sion* or fro. -nsolicited drea.s 7Mandelba-., 1%9M&$9.N1%O The Plains vision 8-est, above all in its Teton 3io-0 version, th-s re resents the f-rthest e0tension of *de.ocrati>ed sha.anis.* in Gorth +.erica, offerin" a ossibility of deliberate visionary selfBtranscendence, confined in .any c-lt-res to sha.ans alone, to .at-re ad-lts as 1ell as adolescents and to 1o.en no less than .en. P-rification by s1eat bath and fastin" in solit-de, -s-ally for fo-r days and ni"hts b-t so.eti.es for as .any as ten, 1ere virt-ally -niversal to the Plains vision 8-est, b-t i. ortant variations fro. the Teton 3io-0 attern occ-rred in the selfB.ortifications end-red. The Teton 3io-0 8-ester, like his co-nter art a.on" the northeastern +l"on8-ians, *cried* for s irits to take ity and "rant a visionJ b-t a art fro. fastin" in isolation, standin" for ho-rs facin" the s-n, and lyin" -nsheltered thro-"h cold ni"hts, he nor.ally -nder1ent no e0tre.e afflictions. +ttain.ent of a vision no .ore de ended on bodily .-tilation or intense ain than on .ental disorientation by dr-"s, for in his a eal to o1ers beyond hi. he strove to brin" his o1n f-ll o1ers to bear. The so-thern Co.anche 1ent f-rther still in re:ectin" not only hysical tor.ents b-t every for. of selfBabase.ent as he 8-ietly a1aited 1hatever .i"ht co.e 7;allace and 2oebel, 1%F9. +.on" so.e other Plains tribes, ho1ever, the 8-ester inflicted selfBtort-re to si"nal his resolve in seekin" a vision. 3everin" the :oint of a fin"er 1as a 1ides read racticeJ a.on" the Cro1, @o1ie 1rites 719#%, N1%O (e.ale sha.ans are ro.inent in .any +l"on8-ian tribes of both Gortheast and Plains, b-t vision 8-ests are lar"ely confined to .en. Mandelba-. fo-nd *.any 1o.en doctors* a.on" the Plains Cree 71&D9, b-t their o1er ca.e .ainly fro. s ontaneo-s visions like that of (ineBday 71&$M&19<1hose initial drea. 1as follo1ed, ho1ever, by ei"ht days of fastin" as she stood facin" the s-n: a 8-est as ri"oro-s as any .anHsL + .edicine 1o.an lays the leadin" role in the Blackfoot Medicine @od"e 73-n )ance9, b-t her o1er derives not fro. a vision 8-est b-t fro. a vo1 to the s-n in a ti.e of fa.ily crisis 7Erinnell 1'9D, D&#M&4J I1ers, 1F%9. +ndre1s clai.s 719'1J 19'49 to relate the teachin"s of a Plains Cree .edicine 1o.an. ;o.en are re eatedly said to have taken art in vision 8-ests of nonB +l"on8-ian Plains tribes s-ch as the Teton 3io-0 and Cro1, b-t firsthand acco-nts are s arseJ @inder.an, e."., contains al.ost nothin" on the s-b:ect. / D%# / D4$J cf. Gabokov, &DM&%9, *c-ttin" off a fin"erB:oint 1as so o -lar a for. of selfB.ortification that in 19$F .ost of the old eo le , .et 1ere disfi"-red in this 1ay.* + Cro1 8-ester .i"ht also choose to stand on a hill ainted 1ith 1hite clay and r-n aro-nd a forked ole to 1hich he 1as fastened by thon"s iercin" his chest or back. + Cheyenne 8-ester, too, 1hile *starvin"* for a vision, .i"ht be tied to a ole by thon"s fro. ske1ers iercin" his skin, 1hich he atte. ted to tear by l-n"in" a"ainst his bonds 7Erinnell 19D#, 1:'4J 19D$, F9M'D9. This selfBtort-rin" search of a vision 1as incor orated into the 3-n )ance not only of the Cro1 and Cheyenne b-t of the Teton 3io-0 and othersJ 1hether it ori"inated in co..-nal cere.ony or solitary 8-est, it bears 1itness to their close connection and to the s- re.e i. ortance ascribed to visionary revelations by eo les 1illin" to s-ffer s-ch an"-ish to attain the.. ,n chiefs and holy .en of the Plains the visionary e0 erience shared 1ith everyone in his tribe attained its "reatest intensity. ,t is a"ain fro. the Teton 3io-0, es ecially the C"lala branch, that the .ost detailed acco-nts have s-rvived. +ccordin" to Black Ilk 7Geihardt, F$9, the "reat C"lala 1arrior Cra>y 2orse, 1ho led the 3io-0 and Cheyenne a"ainst C-ster at the @ittle Bi" 2orn, *beca.e a chief beca-se of the o1er he "ot in a vision 1hen he 1as a boy.* ,n traditional Plains belief, e0traordinary

acco. lish.ent of any kind derived fro. ersonal vision 7s ontaneo-s or so-"ht9 vo-chsafed by s irits 1itho-t 1hose assistance no .an co-ld ever s-r ass hi.self. 3everal Teton 3io-0 holy .en, incl-din" (rank (ools Cro1 and ?ohn (ire @a.e )eer, have told their stories to observers, b-t the classic testi.onial re.ains that "iven by Gicholas Black Ilk to the Gebraska oet ?ohn E. Geihardt and -blished as (lack #lk Speaks .N1&O Born in 1'&#, Black Ilk 1as thirteen 1hen Cra>y 2orse defeated C-ster and t1entyBseven 1hen the last ar.ed revolt of his eo le ended at ;o-nded 6nee: *+ eo leHs drea. died there. ,t 1as a bea-tif-l drea.* 7Geihardt, D#$9. 2e 1as si0tyBseven 1hen Geihardt, then fortyBnine, .et hi. at Pine Rid"e in 19#$, and he lived another t1enty years. ,n 19#1 Geihardt transcribed and retold the story of Black IlkHs life, feelin" it 70ii9 *a sacred obli"ation* to be tr-e to his .eanin" and .anner. 73i0teen years later, in 194F, ?. I. Bro1n N0ivO fo-nd Black Ilk on a Gebraska far. still ho in" *to tell of the sacred thin"s before they all assed a1ay.*9 GeihardtHs book, ne"lected for years, is itself a *8-est for -nderstandin"* 7)eMallie, 999 by t1o +.ericans, Black Ilk and Geihardt 7or (la.in" N1&O )eMallieHs The Si:th $randfather contains transcri ts of the intervie1s on 1hich Geihardt based both (lack #lk Speaks and his novel 6hen the Tree %lo1ered . , .ainly follo1 (lack #lk Speaks, 1ith occasional reference to the transcri ts. 73ee, e."., )eMallie, 94M99, for co. arison of the t1o acco-nts of Black IlkHs Ereat 5ision.9 Geihardt 1isely kne1 that the tr-th of Black IlkHs story did not rely on literal transcri tion of his 1ords. / D%4 / Rainbo19, 1ho brid"ed 1idely s-ndered 1orlds and fo-nd the. essentially one. +s a child Black Ilk heard a ro hecy .ade lon" before the co.in" of the ;asich-s, or 1hite .en, that *yo- shall live in s8-are "ray ho-ses, in a barren land, and . . . shall starve* 7Geihardt, '9. Bleak confir.ation of this ro hecy soon intensified, for those 1ho fo-"ht des air, their dee Brooted need to transcend the "iven conditions of a 1orld in 1hich no abidin" f-lfill.ent co-ld be fo-nd. The s irit-al o1er "iven to the eo le by the 1hite b-ffalo 1o.an thro-"h the sacred i e co-ld be attained by anyone 1ho co-ra"eo-sly so-"ht and follo1ed his drea., b-t in its absence nothin" 1as 1orth attainin". ,n old a"e, *as fro. a lonely hillto ,* Black Ilk considered his life *the story of a .i"hty vision "iven to a .an too 1eak to -se itJ of a holy tree that sho-ld have flo-rished in a eo leHs heart 1ith flo1ers and sin"in" birds, and no1 is 1itheredJ and of a eo leHs drea. that died in bloody sno1* 71MD9. Black Ilk re.e.bered 71%M1&9 hearin" voices 1hen he 1as fo-r. + year later, a kin"bird 7*This 1as not a drea., it ha ened*9 called hi., and he sa1 t1o .en co.in" fro. the clo-ds like arro1s, sin"in" a sacred son" to the dr-..in" of th-nderJ they 1heeled to1ard the s-nset, t-rned to "eese, and 1ere "one. These voices later rec-rred 71FMD19, *b-t 1hat they 1anted .e to do , did not kno1.* Then at a"e nine a voice said, *,t is ti.e,* and as he lay sick he sa1 the sa.e t1o .en descend headfirst fro. stor. clo-ds and heard the. say, *=o-r Erandfathers are callin" yo-L* ,n the "reat vision that beca.e the for.ative e0 erience of his life, he follo1ed these .en to the skies, 1here a bay horse sho1ed hi. *a 1hole skyf-l of horses dancin" ro-nd .e.* The bay then led hi. 7D1MD&9 thro-"h a rainbo1 door into a ti i in 1hich si0 .en 1ere sittin", old as the hills or starsJ in fear, Black Ilk reco"ni>ed the Po1ers of the ;orld: the fo-r directions, 3ky, and Iarth. Iach of the Erandfathers e0horted hi., and before chan"in" to a bird or ani.al "ave a "ift able to bless or c-re: a bo1l of 1ater and a bo1, a 1hite 1in", a i e, a branchin" red stick, and a red road. The si0th Erandfather, 3 irit of the Iarth, slo1ly t-rned to a boy, and Black Ilk reco"ni>ed *that he 1as .yself 1ith all the years that 1o-ld be .ine at last.* Cld a"ain, he started to1ard the east, not on the red road of salvation b-t the

black road of tro-bles and 1ar. )escendin" to earth 7DFM#%9, the boy sle1 dro-"ht and lanted a red stick 1hich "re1 into a cotton1ood tree. Then the eo le, chan"in" to ani.als and birds, set o-t on the red road, led by the t1elve horse.en and follo1ed by the boy, 1ho beca.e a s otted ea"le, ridin" the bay. +s they ascended the third "eneration, they 1ere travelin" the black road and each *see.ed to have his o1n little vision that he follo1ed and his o1n r-les,* and every1here the 1inds 1ere at 1ar like 1ild beasts fi"htB / D%% / in". +to the third hill, *the nationHs hoo 1as broken* and the holy tree stri ed of birds. B-t a herb s ran" - 1here a bison had been and the tree flo1ered a"ainJ a.id "atherin" stor. clo-ds *a son" of o1er ca.e to .e and , san" it there in the .idst of that terrible lace. . . .,t 1as so bea-tif-l that nothin" any1here co-ld kee fro. dancin".* + fla.in" rainbo1 arose and all aro-nd the earth 1as "reen 7#%M#99. *, 1as standin" on the hi"hest .o-ntain of the. all, and ro-nd abo-t beneath .e 1as the 1hole hoo of the 1orld.* (ro. this hei"ht *, sa1 .ore than , can tell and , -nderstood .ore than , sa1J for , 1as seein" in a sacred .anner the sha es of all thin"s in the s irit, and the sha e of all sha es as they .-st live to"ether like one bein".* The eo leHs sacred hoo 1as one of .any that .ade a circle, 1ide as dayli"ht and starli"ht, in 1hose center "re1 a .i"hty flo1erin" tree to shelter all children of one .other and father: *+nd , sa1 that it 1as holy.* The 3i0 Erandfathers cried *2e has tri-. hedL* as he reBentered their ti i, and the oldest bade hi. ret-rn 1ith o1er to the lace fro. 1hich he ca.e. 2e looked belo1 and sa1 his eo le 1ell and ha y e0ce t one<*and that one 1as .yself.* This Ereat 5ision sha ed the life of Black Ilk, reBe.inent holy .an of his eo le d-rin" the terrible decades to follo1. ,ts co. onents are inevitably dra1n fro. tribal archety es<the 3i0 Erandfathers, fo-r horses, sacred i e, red and black aths, th-nderstor.s and ea"le, flo1erin" tree, and sacred hoo <endlessly inter retable 7as by Black Ilk hi.self9 in ter.s of 3io-0 traditions, to say nothin" of recondite ;asich- theories. B-t the visionHs force co.es fro. f-sion of these artic-lars into so.ethin" transcendin" the.: a revelation as vivid and -niversal as the biblical + ocaly se, tho-"h 1itho-t the destr-ctive fren>y of that co-nter art fro. an earlier ti.e of crisis and rene1al. ;hatever inter retations 1e "ive it, Black IlkHs Ereat 5ision is the s-..onin" of an individ-al<1eak and isolated like -s all<to s-r ass hi.self by absor tion of s- er ersonal o1ers e.bodied in nat-ral forces and tribal s irits, and th-s to f-lfill his o1n as irations thro-"h a vision of his eo leHs otential <tho-"h ossibly -nattainable<-nity 1ith the.selves and the 1orld. Black IlkHs vision 1as the be"innin" of his 8-est: not a ossession to be hoarded b-t a "oal to be reali>ed in his life and his eo leHs. +t first, like the 3iberian sha.an, he fo-nd hi.self alien fro. others: *Iverythin" aro-nd .e see.ed stran"e and as tho-"h it 1ere far a1ay . . . and it see.ed , did not belon" to .y eo le* 74D9. 3everal ti.es d-rin" the years e.bracin" @on" 2air C-sterHs defeat, tribal dis ersal, and the death of Cra>y 2orse, he a"ain had a *8-eer feelin"* resa"in" ret-rn to his vision, b-t only disorientation see.ed to have co.e fro. his invol-ntary s irit-al enco-nters. (inally 71#&M4%9, at seventeen, he told / D%& / his vision to an elderly holy .an, 1ho instr-cted hi. to erfor. a dance for his eo le. Thro-"h dra.atic enact.ent of his vision, in 1hich .e.bers of his tribe layed the t1elve horse.en, si0

"randfathers, and others 1hile Black Ilk layed hi.self, he esca ed fro. his i. risonin" isolation. *, looked abo-t .e, and co-ld see that 1hat 1e then 1ere doin" 1as like a shado1 cast - on the earth fro. yonder vision in the heavens, so bri"ht it 1as and clear.* Th-s Black Ilk learned that a .an "ains o1er over his vision only after he has erfor.ed it on earth for the eo le to see 71F#9. By .akin" his rivate e0 erience co..-nal, he transfor.ed an -nsolicited inc-rsion of s irits into a deliberate 8-est for .astery of their transcendent o1ers. This erfor.ance 1as follo1ed 71%DM%F9 by the yo-n" .anHs first vision 8-est ato a hi"h hill. (ro. the nation of th-nder bein"s, heads of do"s chan"ed into ;asich-s, and Black Ilk kne1 the Erandfathers 1anted hi. to erfor. the do" vision *1ith heyokas, . . . doin" everythin" 1ron" or back1ards to .ake the eo le la-"h.*N1FO Cnly after enactin" this cere.ony and discoverin" the herb of his visions did Black Ilk erfor. his first c-re and beco.e a holy .an. 2is life 1as no1 a dedicated 8-est to reali>e in this 1orld the visionary oneness he had "li. sed in the other. +s in any 8-est the o-tco.e 1as -ncertain and fail-re al1ays ossible<all the .ore so in these fearf-l years 1hen the b-ffalo vanished as relentlessly as the ;asich-s advanced. +t this ho eless ti.e, *, felt like cryin", for the sacred hoo 1as broken and scattered* 71'D9J the eo le *1ere travelin" the black road, everybody for hi.self and 1ith little r-les of his o1n, as in .y vision* 71'#9. ,n I-ro e he traveled 1ith B-ffalo BillHs ;ild ;est sho1 *like a .an 1ho had never had a vision,* and ret-rned to find his eo le near starvation, * itif-l and in des air* 719&9 after the ;asich-s had robbed half their land. ,n these years 71''9M9$9 ne1s of the Pai-te MessiahHs Ehost )ance, 1hich 1o-ld brin" back both bison and ,ndians fro. the dead, reached the 3io-0J Black Ilk, tho-"h ske tical, deter.ined to artici ate in it: *, believed .y vision 1as co.in" tr-e at last, and ha iness overca.e .e* 7D$1M$D9. @ookin" back, he sa1 he had .istakenly follo1ed lesser visions, for *it is hard to follo1 one "reat vision in this 1orld of darkness and of .any chan"in" shado1s* 7D1DM1#9. The b-tchery at ;o-nded N1FO Cf. )eMallie, DDFM#D. Thro-"ho-t his book Geihardt altered transcri ts of his intervie1sJ a.on" o.issions at this oint are the 1ords *Many are called b-t fe1 are chosen,* a biblical echo deleted in accord 1ith consistent s- ression of any reference to Black IlkHsH lon"standin" Catholic faith. The shorthand transcri ts by GeihardtHs da-"hter Inid 7o.itted fro. the ty escri t9 noted that *the do" in this vision 1as a sy.bol of any ene.y and all ene.ies sho-ld be killed 1itho-t ity like do"s.* / D%F / 6nee see.ed 7as Geihardt entitled his final cha ter9 *the end of the drea..* =et Black Ilk lived si0ty years .ore, and his 8-est had not co.e to an end. Perha s no -ndertakin" by this Gative +.erican sha.an 7and Ro.an Catholic catechist9 de.anded .ore co-ra"e than the decision to co..-nicate his visions to the ;asich- 1ho visited hi. in 19#$. *,t has .ade .e very sad to do this at last, and , have lain a1ake at ni"ht 1orryin" and 1onderin" if , 1as doin" ri"htJ for , kno1 , have "iven a1ay .y o1er 1hen , have "iven a1ay .y vision, and .aybe , cannot live very lon" no1. B-t , think , have done ri"ht to save the vision in this 1ay* 71F49. 2e co-ld redee. his vision beca-se he no1 kne1 that the sacred hoo e.braced not only the C"lala, nor only the ,ndian 7as the Ehost )ancers tho-"ht9, b-t the 1hite .an as 1ellJ his visionary 8-est, he no1 -nderstood, 1as theirs no less than his. ,n the e0traordinary ostscri t to GeihardtHs testi.onial, Black Ilk 7D#1M#49 stands in the flesh on 2arney Peak, 1here the s irits had lon" a"o sho1n hi. the sacred hoo of the 1orldJ dressed and ainted as in his "reat vision over si0ty years before, he holds the sacred i e as clo-ds "ather ro-nd and rays to the Ereat 3 irit, his Erandfather, to *.ake .y eo le live* 7see )eMallie, late '9. 2e had

ersisted in strivin" to reali>e for the "ood of his eo le<and no1 of others as 1ell<an e0alted vision that see.ed 7as every transcendent "oal .-st see.9 beyond attain.entJ in beseechin" the blessin" of life at the center of earth the old .an is contin-in" the 8-est he be"an as a boy and has never relin8-ished. ,t 1as *ne0t to i. ossible,* he 1ell kno1s 7)eMallie, D9#9, *b-t there 1as nothin" like tryin".* / D%9 /

!ART SI1. T0E T0EORY OF T0E QUEST SOME C OSIN- CONSI,ERATIONS

/ D&1 /

Chapter Fi'teen. A Ternar) !rocess

Icstatic or visionary sha.anis. is not a discrete heno.enon<.-ch less a distinct reli"ion<b-t the for. of tribal reli"io-s e0 erience in 1hich the 8-estin" i. -lse co..on in so.e .eas-re to all finds f-llest e0 ression. ,t c-sto.arily coe0ists 1ith calendrical rites, sacrifice, divination, or s irit ossession, and even 1hen the sha.an has been dis laced by riestly officiants, he or 7fre8-ently9 she .ay rea ear on the frin"es as the stillBindis ensable, if .ore and .ore s-s ect, e0orcist or .edi-., sorcerer or 1itch, clo1n or soothsayer, storyteller or oet. B-t 1hereas the rinci al e. hasis of riestly rit-al is on the invariant and collective, and on the ast as i..-table archety e for the resent<on the assive * ress-re* of re etitive habit in 1hich Ber"son discerned one so-rce of .orality and reli"ion<sha.anistic vision "ives e0 ression to the individ-ally variant, actively -rs-ed, f-t-reBdirected *as iration* of Ber"sonHs second so-rce: the *for1ard thr-st* and *de.and for .ove.ent* that s-b:ect the recario-s entities of self and society in an -ncertain 1orld to inherently -n redictable transfor.ation. )ivination and s irit ossession, like the li.inal hase of co..-nal rites of assa"e, like1ise serve to o en the clos-re of rit-al to1ard e0 loration of the enco. assin" -nkno1n, the 1ildness that can never 1holly be ta.ed. B-t in both 7as in .ore assive for.s of visionary or dr-"Bind-ced sha.anis.9 the ractitioner, ho1ever skilled in a diffic-lt art, .ay be seen as a rece tive vessel rather than a artici ant in search of kno1led"e by 1hich she too 1ill be transfor.edJ she re.ains a vehicle or at best a *technician* of the sacred rather than one 1ho takes active art in its discovery or invention. Cnly in redo.inantly sha.anistic for.s of reli"ion does the individ-al deliberately -ndertake, in .oB / D&D / .ents of ecstatic .astery, to leave the fa.iliar 1orld behind in search of a visionary transcendence she can never kno1 in advance or attain in co. letion: a o1er she reco"ni>es as her o1n only insofar as

it forever s-r asses her. The sha.anistic vision 8-est is ri.arily associated, as 1e have seen, 1ith relatively .obile tribal c-lt-res of h-nters, fishers, and herders rather than 1ith a"ric-lt-ralists 1hose settled ro-tines and str-ct-red societies .ore readily s-it the re etitive ro-nds and hierarchical or"ani>ation of riestly rit-al. The sha.anHs connection 1ith a o1erf-l ani.al like the bear or :a"-ar, or a bird of rey like the ha1k, as his "-ardian s irit or hel er, tote. or na"-al, s-""ests the sy.biosis 7at least in recent .e.ory9 of .an and beast in a 1orld 1here each 1as both h-nter and h-nted, and 1here the ani.al slain for food 1as honored 1ith rit-al ro itiation. ,ndeed, the h-nt 1as a contin-al rototy e for the sha.anHs ecstatic 8-est in societies 1here ani.als vividly e.bodied transcendence of h-.an li.its. *The basic ro"ra. of the H8-est,H h-ntin" as a 1ay to H"etH food, is, 1hen th1arted by fail-re,* B-rkert hy othesi>es 7919, *transfor.ed into a sy.bolic H8-est,H e0 lorin" the -ne0 lorable, ho in" for the -ne0 ectable, overco.in" des air by deto-r* of attention fro. act-al to visionary ani.als like those de icted in aleolithic caves of (rance and 3 ain. N1O @ike the food 8-est itself, the s-bli.ated vision 8-est 1as s-b:ect to fail-reJ for this reason, -nlike less fle0ible rit-als, it f-lfilled an i. erative need in a 1orld fro. 1hich -ncertainty co-ld never be banished. Both in .i"ratory c-lt-res 1here it flo-rished and in sedentary s-ccessors 1here it s-rvived, the sha.anistic 8-est contin-ally affir.ed that invariance and stability 1ere al1ays rovisional, since the sacred s ace fenced off by rit-al co-ld never be her.etically sealed fro. the .enacin" dan"ers and into0icatin" ossibilities of the s-rro-ndin" 1orld. Priestly rit-al and sha.anistic 8-est, far fro. bein" e0cl-sive o osites, are co. le.entary as ects of tribal .an and 1o.anHs -nendin" effort to sha e and control the -nkno1n aro-nd and beyond the.: the first revailin" in sedentary c-lt-res and ti.es of a arent sec-rity, the second a.on" .i"ratory eo les and in ti.es of hei"htened eril. Rit-al, des ite its characteristic affir.ation of invariance, can be not only corroborative of the inherited ast b-t ada tive to a chan"in" resent, and the ecstatic 8-est, 1hile rovidin" an o-tlet for .ore ersonal and variant as irations, re.ains itself a rit-ali>ed activity -n.istakably N1O ,n B-rkertHs vie1, both h-ntin" .a"ic and cave aintin"s are *evidence linkin" the 8-est for ani.als 1ith the Beyond* 7''9, so that *enterin" s-ch a cave .-st have .eant a diffic-lt :o-rney to another 1orld 1here one co-ld .eet ani.als* 79$9. / D&# / akin<as the close connection bet1een vision 8-est and 3-n )ance on the Plains re.inds -s<to others .ore ri"idly atterned b-t not essentially dissi.ilar. The o osition is not of kind, bet1een closed rit-al and o en 8-est, b-t of de"ree, bet1een .ore or less closed or o en for.s of the 8-est e.bodied in rit-als ran"in" fro. calendrical or ancestral cere.onies to co..-nal rites of assa"e and fro. see.in"ly .echanical divination to s irit .edi-.shi and the individ-al search for transcendence thro-"h drea.s, visions, or ecstatic fli"ht of the so-l. The 8-est derives, 1e have seen fro. the o-tset, not fro. the second ole alone 7for neither e0ists in isolation9 b-t fro. the er et-al interaction bet1een the. by 1hich -r osef-l transcendence is both en"endered and channeled into a rehensible and co..-nicable for.s, so that the individ-al 8-est latent in co..-nal rit-al is al1ays otentially transfor.ative of it. This dialectic, 1hose varied e0 ressions 1e have e0tensively observed, is no1here .ore strikin" than in the shiftin" interrelations of co..-nal rit-al and ersonal vision in indi"eno-s +.erican c-lt-res fro. the +rctic to Per- and fro. the +.a>onian :-n"les to the Ereat Plains. (or the 8-est to transcend the "iven finds e0 ression not only at olar e0tre.es 1here the sha.an 1as .ost nearly -nrivaled, as

a.on" the .i"ratory Iski.o or the .ar"inal tribes of Tierra del (-e"o, nor only a.on" .obile +l"on8-ian or 3io-an h-ntin" bands, b-t a.on" the sal.onBfishin" Gootka and the recently a"ric-lt-ral Ma -che, 1ith their elaborate reli"io-s societies and calendrical cere.onies, and even, in .ore vesti"ial for., a.on" the hi"hly rit-ali>ed P-eblos of the 3o-th1est and lon"Bsettled eo les of central Me0ico and hi"hland Per-. The 8-est is not si. ly an established instit-tion 7for like everythin" livin", it is constantly s-b:ect to chan"e9 b-t re eatedly rises ane1 fro. the varie"ated inter lay of collective and individ-al, inertial and dyna.ic di.ensions of reli"io-s e0 erience. The inti.ate connection of rit-al and vision in the kaleidosco ic anora.a of Gative +.erican reli"io-s e0 erience th-s richly de.onstrates the ran"e and co. le0ity of this contin-ally vital interaction. The variety of for.s the 8-est has taken in the tribal c-lt-res 1e have e0a.ined as a res-lt of this interaction is one of its rinci al characteristicsJ nothin" co-ld be .ore f-tile, or .ore contrary to the o enBended nat-re of the 8-est itself, than to try to red-ce this vital diversity to a constrictively sin"le attern. B-t in accord 1ith the -nderlyin" contin-ity bet1een for.al rit-al and ersonal vision as t1o oles of one rocess, the sha.anistic 8-est corres onds closely in str-ct-re to the .ost inherently o en for. of co..-nal cere.ony, the rite of assa"e fro. one biosocial condition to another, for 1hich the vision 8-est can be a f-nctional e8-ivalent, s-bstit-tin", for e0a. le, for collective .ale -berty / D&4 / rites a.on" .any eo les of native Gorth +.erica. The three hases of se aration, transition, and incor oration characteri>e not only rites of assa"e, as van Eenne discerned, b-t the sha.anHs vision 8-est 7and the s irit .edi-.Hs ossession trance9 also. This tri artite str-ct-re is evident in Black IlkHs search for s irit-al o1er d-rin" the crisis of his eo le. The visionary call co.es to a boy already inclined to solitary drea.iness and se arates hi. f-rther fro. those 1ho cannot -nderstand 1hat he has seen, .akin" hi. 7like the 3iberian sha.an9 a stran"er a.on" his o1n eo le, *ho.esick for the lace 1here , had been* 7Geihardt, 4D9. C-t of this se aration co.es a transitional eriod of terrible -ncertainty 1hen the disoriented yo-n" .an, str-""lin" 1ith the inco. rehensible destiny of bein" bet1i0t and bet1een, is -nable to t-rn his vision to advanta"e either for hi.self or others -ntil he shares it and .akes it f-lly art of hi.self by incor oratin" it, thro-"h -blic erfor.ance, 1ith his eo leHs traditions. This initially invol-ntary rocess of se aration, transition, and incor oration is one that he then deliberately re eats by -ndertakin" a for.al vision 8-est in 1hich isolation fro. his tribe after rit-al -rification a"ain ina-"-rates a li.inal assa"e fro. hel less *cryin"* for a vision to attain.ent of transcendent o1er fro. th-nder bein"sJ and a -blic erfor.ance a"ain incor orates his ersonally ac8-ired s irit-al kno1led"e 1ith that of his tribe, 1hich it thereby enlar"es. Cnly no1, after -r osef-lly o enin" hi.self to transfor.ation by the transcendent -nkno1n and ret-rnin" 1ith kno1led"e of it to a 1orld to 1hich he 1ill never a"ain 1holly belon", can he beco.e a holy .an and besto1 his c-rative blessin" on his tribe. ?-st as rites of assa"e .ay be considered a co..-nal for. of the 8-est, the sha.anistic vision 8-est .ay be -nderstood as an individ-al rite of assa"e be"innin" 1ith se aration fro. a state of inco. letion and roceedin" thro-"h a li.inal re"ion of -ndeter.ined ossibilities 7the real. of the 8-est itself9 to a ne1 condition reinte"ratin" the selfBtranscendent seeker 1ith a 1orld 1hich she can no1 hel , by virt-e of her o1n transfor.ation, to rene1. B-t the vision 8-est differs cr-cially fro. rites of assa"e analy>ed by van Eenne and T-rner. )es ite the -ncertainties of the li.inal hase, the final o-tco.e of these rites is deter.inate and th-s kno1n 7tho-"h not e0 erienced9 in advanceJ thro-"h -berty rites, for e0a. le, the boy asses all b-t inevitably fro. childhood to the established obli"ations and rivile"es of .anhood. B-t the res-lt of the vision 8-est is never f-lly redictableJ the

nat-re of the vision and of the o1er it besto1s, tho-"h of co-rse defined in lar"e art by tribal traditions, cannot be recisely forekno1n and .ay vary "reatly fro. individ-al to individ-al and occasion to occasion. This intrinsic variability of o-tco.e is a ri.e characteristic of / D&% / the 8-est and the reason 1hy it can never be 1holly red-ced to a sin"le infle0ible attern. ;hereas rites of assa"e, .oreover, like .ost collective rit-als, are "enerally tho-"ht to be infallible 1hen correctly erfor.ed, the ossibility of fail-re is essential to the 8-est, 1hose s-ccess de ends not only on transcendent o1ers b-t on the 8-esterHs o1n i..ensely fallible endeavors. +nd -nlike rites of assa"e, each of 1hich is nor.ally sin"le and final for the individ-al or "ro- erfor.in" it 7one is born, asses thro-"h -berty, and dies once only9, the 8-est cannot be final b-t .ay be re eated, in ne1 1ays and 1ith -nantici ated res-lts, a"ain and a"ain. (or a reBe.inent holy .an like Black Ilk it is an activity that cannot be abandoned, for ho1 co-ld this "reat vent-re of e0tendin" the bo-nds of the "iven thro-"h o enness to the -ndeter.ined co.e to an end 1hile life contin-esK The vision 8-est th-s e ito.i>es the selfBtranscendence of animal !uaerens not only in the -n8-iet *(a-stian* ;est<it 1o-ld be fat-o-s arro"ance to think that the 8-est to s-r ass o-r "iven condition sets one society a art fro. the rest of o-r s ecies<b-t thro-"ho-t the 1orld fro. the be"innin"s of recorded ti.e. ;e are biolo"ically ro"ra..ed 7like all livin" thin"s9, b-t o-rs above all others is an o en ro"ra.J o-r "enetic and es ecially c-lt-ral syste.s are o en syste.s, o-r lin"-istic and social str-ct-res are selfBtransfor.ative str-ct-res, rocesses 1itho-t redeter.ined end. ,n the er et-al dialectic bet1een clos-re and o enness, stasis and chan"e, inertial ress-re of the ast and the for1ard thr-st of as iration for an indeter.inate f-t-re<that is, the dialectic of life<the s irit-al 8-est for transcendence of the here and no1 thro-"h assi.ilation of the beyond is the indis ensable co-nter art to rit-al affir.ation of an i..-tably sacred ast. This dialectic is one 1hich so.e .odern hysicists find characteristic not only of life b-t even of the *inor"anic* .atter of 1hich life is co. osed: for the t1o are not, after all, discontin-o-s. The deter.inis. of classical hysics 7and .athe.atics9<a deter.inis. 1hich, in e0tre.e @a lacean for., 1o-ld red-ce any 8-est for the -nkno1n to i"norance or del-sion<has been badly shaken since the nineteenth cent-ry by the develo .ent of robability theory, nonBI-clidean "eo.etries, 2eisenber"Hs -ncertainty rinci le and EVdelHs inco. leteness theore., relativity theory, and above all 8-ant-. .echanics. +.on" recent scientists none has ar"-ed .ore forcibly for a creatively indeter.inate -niverse, and for essential contin-ity of the or"anic and inor"anic real.s, than ,lya Pri"o"ine, 1inner of the Gobel Pri>e in che.istry for his 1ork in none8-ilibri-. ther.odyna.ics and his theory of dissi ative str-ct-res, in his rovocative book, coBa-thored 1ith ,sabelle 3ten"ers, "rder "ut of Chaos . / D&& / *;e find o-rselves in a 1orld,* Pri"o"ine and 3ten"ers declare 7'9, *in 1hich reversibility and deter.inis.,* cardinal ost-lates of Ge1tonian hysics, *a ly only to li.itin", si. le cases, 1hile irreversibility and rando.ness are the r-les,* and in s-ch a 1orld the total redictability ass-.ed by @a lace and others to be theoretically attainable in the Ge1tonian tradition has no lace. ,n artic-lar, *;hen 1e .ove a1ay fro. e8-ilibri-. to farBfro.Be8-ilibri-. conditions, 1e .ove a1ay fro. the re etitive and the -niversal to the s ecific and the -ni8-e* 71#9. ,f .atter near e8-ilibri-. behaves in a redictably re"-lar 1ay, farther fro. e8-ilibri-. vario-s ty es of dissi ative str-ct-res .ay occ-r

1hose behavior is intrinsically -n redictable. ,n these farBfro.Be8-ilibri-. conditions st-died by ther.odyna.ics, *ne1 selfBor"ani>ational rocesses arise* 7'49 that antici ate, in the *inor"anic* real., the rocesses of lifeJ here, 1here instability is ossible, fl-ct-ations .ay lead to ne1 behavior radically different fro. any observed in conditions at or near e8-ilibri-.. ,n s-ch cases, not only the ideal deter.inis. of Ge1tonian dyna.ics b-t any statistical redictions based on ther.odyna.ic robability are no lon"er valid. The interaction of a syste. 1ith the o-tside 1orld 7for s-ch a syste., in conditions of none8-ilibri-., is inherently o en and can no lon"er be treated as selfBs-fficient9 .ay beco.e *the startin" oint for the for.ation of ne1 dyna.ic states of .atter<dissi ative str-ct-res. . . . There is no lon"er any -niversally valid la1 fro. 1hich the overall behavior of the syste. can be ded-ced. Iach syste. is a se arate case* 714#M4%9. The o-tco.e of s-ch hysical or che.ical rocesses cannot be kno1n, even theoretically, in advanceJ it is @a laceHs drea. of a 1holly redictable -niverse that t-rns o-t to have been the del-sion. The instability of farBfro.Be8-ilibri-. conditions is the so-rce of a directional selfBor"ani>ation of .atter essentially involved 1ith ti.e. C-r 1orld, in contrast to that of Ge1tonian 7or indeed Iinsteinian9 hysics, is one in 1hich ti.e and chan"e have ri.acy, fro. the ele.entary articles of 8-ant-. .echanics to evol-tion of the cos.os fro. the Bi" Ban". *Both at the .acrosco ic and .icrosco ic levels, the nat-ral sciences have th-s rid the.selves of a conce tion of ob:ective reality that i. lied that novelty and diversity had to be denied in the na.e of i..-table -niversal la1s* 7#$&9. The *arro1 of ti.e,* the irreversibility that e.er"es thro-"h selfBor"ani>ation fro. the instability of farBfro.Be8-ilibri-. states, res- oses an indeter.inate, tho-"h not a directionless, -niverseJ for *1hat co-ld an arro1 of ti.e .ean in a deter.inistic 1orld in 1hich both f-t-re and ast are contained in the resentK* 7DFF9. ,t is beca-se the f-t-re is not contained in the resent b-t evolves fro. it that the irreversible rocess of ti.e, thro-"h interaction of an / D&F / o en syste. 1ith its environ.ent, re eatedly transfor.s a .obile resent to an -n redictable f-t-re. ,f s-ch directional rocesses are the nor. 7no lon"er .ar"inal e0ce tions9 in hysics and *inor"anic* che.istry, they are above all characteristic of life, 1hich e.er"es fro. the. and e0tends the. to ne1 di.ensions. *,n this conte0t life,* Pri"o"ine and 3ten"ers re.ark 71F%9, *far fro. bein" o-tside the nat-ral order, a ears as the s- re.e e0 ression of the selfBor"ani>in" rocesses* occ-rrin" thro-"ho-t nat-re, fro. the ato.ic n-cle-s to the cos.os at lar"e. Biolo"ical syste.s, as rod-cts of evol-tion, *have a past * 71%#9, and are therefore inse arably involved 1ith the transitional assa"e of irreversible ti.e: for only 1hat has a ast can have a f-t-re. ,n the rocesses of life, as at every level fro. .icrosco ic to .acrocos.ic, *,rreversibility is the .echanis. that brin"s order o-t of chaos* 7D9D9. Ti.e .oves not only to1ard increasin" entro y or disorder 7as it ine0orably does, in accord 1ith the second la1 of ther.odyna.ics, for closed syste.s at e8-ilibri-.9 b-t to1ard those critical .o.ents of dise8-ilibri-. 1hen the s ontaneo-sly ada tive selfBor"ani>ation of the o en syste.<above all the livin" syste.<co.es into lay and f-t-re str-ct-re is "enerated fro. the fl-0 of a li.inal resent. 3-ch a conce t 1as antici ated, as so .-ch in the .odern hiloso hy of science has been, by Charles 3anders Peirce, for 1ho. 7&:19F9 *the idea that chance be"ets order* 1as *one of the cornerBstones of .odern hysics* as 1ell as biolo"y. ,n evol-tionary biolo"y, )ar1inHs "reat insi"ht 1as to reco"ni>e the directional or"ani>ation, thro-"h ti.e, of .-tations arisin" by chance: *The sol-tion of )ar1inHs arado0,* as Mayr observes 719F&, 4#9, *is that nat-ral selection itself t-rns accident into desi"n.* The *ne1 alliance* achieved by ostBGe1tonian science, as Pri"o"ine and 3ten"ers conceive it 7D'&M'F9, has e0tended this conce t of for.ative ti.e to every di.ension of the -niverse: *+t all levels, be it the

level of .acrosco ic hysics, the level of fl-ct-ations, or the .icrosco ic level, none!uili,rium is the source of order. 0one!uili,rium ,rings 9order out of chaos .H* Perha s, as ancient 1isdo. declared, Chaos 1as indeed<and contin-es to be<the .atri0 of all that co.es into bein" thro-"h the "enerative o1er of ti.e. ,n this ti.eBoriented hysics of beco.in", the str-ct-re of chan"e is inherently tri artite, antici atin" the attern of the h-.an 8-est for transcendence to 1hich only an indeter.inate -niverse in the rocess of contin-al selfBfor.ation co-ld -lti.ately have "iven rise. The disr- tion of a steady state at or near e8-ilibri-. 71here statistical redictability rei"ns9 brin"s .atter increasin"ly far fro. e8-ilibri-. to a *bif-rcation oint* 7Pri"o"ine and 3ten"ers, 1&$M&19 at 1hich a *choice* / D&' / bet1een alternative ossibilities rando.ly resented by its environ.ent takes lace, a *choice* res-ltin" in its -nforeseeable reor"ani>ation, its e.er"ence in novel for.J and this rocess of se aration, transition, and reinte"ration 7in van Eenne Hs ter.s9 is re eated 1henever the rovisional stability of a ne1 e8-ilibri-. is interr- ted. *The HhistoricalH ath alon" 1hich the syste. evolves . . . is characteri>ed by a s-ccession of stable re"ions, 1here deter.inistic la1s do.inate, and of -nstable ones, near the bif-rcation oints, 1here the syste. can HchooseH bet1een or a.on" .ore than one ossible f-t-re. . . . This .i0t-re of necessity and chance constit-tes the history of the syste.* 71&9M F$9, 1hich a art fro. this history can never be -nderstood. *,n a sense,* Pri"o"ine re.arks 719'$, 1$&9, *the bif-rcation introd-ces history into hysics and che.istry, an ele.ent that for.erly see.ed to be reserved for sciences dealin" 1ith biolo"ical, social, and c-lt-ral heno.ena.* + si.ilar b-t accelerated rocess occ-rs in the evol-tion of biolo"ical syste.s, notably as conceived by Ildred"e and Eo-ld in their theory of * -nct-ated e8-ilibria,* accordin" to 1hich *the history of evol-tion is not one of stately -nfoldin",* as in the classic )ar1inian version, *b-t a story of ho.eostatic e8-ilibria, dist-rbed only HrarelyH . . . by ra id and e isodic events of s eciation.*NDO Ivol-tionary develo .ent, on this acco-nt, is not a steady rocess of "rad-al chan"e by slo1 accretions over .illions of years 7for the fossil record reveals that .ost s ecies re.ain stable thro-"ho-t .ost of their history9 b-t one in 1hich "eo"ra hic se aration, hence re rod-ctive isolation, of a co..-nity .ay be follo1ed by relatively ra id chan"e, thro-"h nat-ral selection in res onse to altered ecolo"ical conditions, c-l.inatin" after a fe1 tho-sand years in for.ation of a ne1 s ecies distinct fro. the arent "ro- , 1hich it .ay dis lace if its ada tation to its environ.ent, or its re rod-ctive ca acities, "ive it a s-fficient advanta"e. 2ere too rando. chance offers a *choice* at a rec-rrent threshold or *bif-rcation oint* bet1een stable states, and ti.e, thro-"h the slo1 1inno1in" of nat-ral selection, brin"s abo-t a reorderin" 1hose direction beco.es a arent, as the rocess is re eated 1ith co-ntless -n redictable variations, only after the event. This dyna.ic of che.ical and biolo"ical e8-ilibria disr- ted and reestablished in ne1 for. thro-"h intensified interchan"e 1ith the e0ternal 1orld d-rin" a li.inal eriod of hei"htened -ncertainty is characteristic also, as 1e have seen, of h-.an conscio-sness and lan"-a"e, and of social and c-lt-ral instit-tions. +.on" the latter, reli"io-s ractices NDO *P-nct-ated I8-ilibria: +n +lternative to Phyletic Erad-alis.* 719FD9, in Ildred"e, 19#. ,n his book, Ildred"e describes develo .ent of this theory thro-"h st-dy of t1o Middle )evonian trilobites. / D&9 / 7in artic-lar, .ove.ents of revitali>ation9 "ive e0 ression to a *dialectic of disor"ani>ation and

or"ani>ation,* accordin" to +. ;allace 719&&, #'9, for 1ho. the *str-""le* bet1een entro y and or"ani>ation is *1hat reli"ion is all abo-t.* This dialectic res- oses disr- tion of a rior e8-ilibri-., transition to1ard an -nkno1n o-tco.e, and reinte"ration into a rene1ed and transfor.ed e8-ilibri-. <a rocess .ade ossible by a directional b-t indeter.inate -niverse contin-ally en"enderin" ne1 order fro. chaos. The tri artite str-ct-re of the rite of assa"e and vision 8-est is dee ly rooted, therefore, in a reality sha ed and resha ed by ti.e<the reality of str-ct-red rocess, of selfB transcendence thro-"h re eated transfor.ation of an intrinsically .obile e8-ilibri-. in a direction that can never be kno1n. This ternary str-ct-re of the 8-est is by no .eans arbitrary, for tho-"h the n-.ber of its hases co-ld easily be .-lti lied 7three bein" the root of an endless l-rality9, it co-ld not be less. +bsol-te d-ality recl-des transition bet1een olari>ed o osites :-st as absol-te -nity, the eternally static Cne of Par.enides, recl-des be"innin" or endJ three is the infinitely e0 andable n-.ber bet1een one and t1o, the n-.ber of .ove.ent, relation, and chan"e, and for this reason, erha s, it has been the .ystic n-.ber ar e0cellence thro-"ho-t .-ch of the 1orld. Cnly inas.-ch as syste.s are vie1ed as closed, static, and deter.ined can the *binary o ositions* of 3a-ss-rean str-ct-ralis.N#O have their restricted validityJ the o en syste., -nder the as ect not of eternity b-t of ti.e, .-st be -nderstood in ter.s not of binary o ositions b-t of ternary relations. 2ere the e. hasis is not on fi0ed antitheses b-t on the rocess that connects 7and transfor.s9 the.J not on the ra1 and the cooked, b-t on the cookin", on the resent active artici le that converts one str-ct-re to another, the "iven to the .ade, and thereby creates a f-t-re transcendin" the ast. The binary .odel has been a lied not only to lan"-a"e and other c-lt-ral for.s res-.ed by str-ct-ralists to be lin"-istically atterned b-t to the brain and co..-nication itself. +tte. ts to e8-ate the brain 1ith a di"ital co. -ter 7in 1hich binary o ositions rei"n s- re.e9, on the "ro-nds that the ne-ron can only fire or not fire, si"nalin" either e0citation or inhibition, fail to take acco-nt of the .-lti le syna ses conB N#O The ter. ,inary opposition ste.s fro. ?akobsonHs analysis of the aired *distinctive feat-res* str-ct-rin" the hone.eJ b-t as 1e have seen, ?akobson reco"ni>ed an *ascendin" scale of freedo.* in the co.bination of lin"-istic -nits, to none of 1hich beyond the hone.e the deter.inis. of binary o ositions a lied. ,t 1as 3a-ss-re, 1ith his ri"id antitheses of langue and parole , si"nifier and si"nified, diachronic and synchronic, to 1ho. the (rench str-ct-ralists harked back 1hen they ado ted ?akobsonHs ter. as a shibboleth for disci lines far re.oved fro. honolo"y. / DF$ / nectin" these cells: the transition oints 1hose f-nction cannot be red-ced to .erely trans.ittin" a redeter.ined *on* or *off* .essa"e. The a0on leadin" fro. the cell body to the syna ses *has no choice b-t to fire. +t the syna ses bet1een cells,* ho1ever, Rose 1rites 7F99, *lies the choice oint 1hich converts the nervo-s syste. fro. a certain, redictable and d-ll one into an -ncertain, robabilistic and hence interestin" syste..* The intricate s ecificity of the h-.an brain is co-nterbalanced by its no less essential lasticity, 1hich differentiates its o erations fro. the closed ro"ra.s of ants or bees 7to say nothin" of co. -ters9J it follo1s, therefore, in RoseHs vie1 71F99, that h-.an conscio-sness is not a static condition b-t *a process involvin" interaction bet1een individ-al and environ.ent.* The syna tic str-ct-re of the nervo-s syste., Rose re.arks 79#M949, .akes it *only artially redictable,* since the .ode of its co. -tation *a ears to have a .eas-re of indeter.inacy b-ilt into it.* (or this and other reasons, Idel.an concl-des 7DDF9, *little or nothin" of val-e can be "ained fro. the a lication of this failed analo"y bet1een the co. -ter and the brain.*

The binary .odel 1as f-nda.ental to develo .ent of the .athe.atical infor.ation theory that -nderlies the o eration of the di"ital co. -ter, 1ith its ass-. tion that any .essa"e e0 ressible in lan"-a"e can be co..-nicated by .eans of binary di"its, or bits. (ar fro. bein" deter.inistic in its i. lications, ho1ever, infor.ation theory is concerned 1ith discri.ination of .eanin"f-l infor.ation fro. -ninfor.ative *noise,* not 1ith s ecification of individ-al .essa"es. The trans.ission of all infor.ation cr-cially res- oses un certainty, since, as Cherry 1rites 71F$9, *infor.ation can be received only 1here there is do-btJ and do-bt i. lies the e0istence of alternatives<1here choice, selection, or discri.ination is called for.* +nd altho-"h this selection rocess .ay be lo"ically red-cible 7like all choices9 to a series of binary o ositions, on the level of act-al h-.an co..-nication and individ-al choices<the *realBlife* level 1here -ncertainty can never be eli.inated, and the .eanin" and tr-th of infor.ation are *.eanin" to so.ebody, on a certain occasion* and *tr-th a,out so.e reality or e0 erience* 7DD&9<choice entails no si. le s1itchin" bet1een binary alternatives b-t contin-al sortin" o-t of .-lti le ossibilities by the h-.an brain to 1hich the *deter.inate and absol-tely errorBfree calc-lations* 7#$19 of the di"ital co. -terHs closed ro"ra. are intrinsically forei"n. This rocess s-""ests, ?ere.y Ca. bell 1rites 7D&%9, that an o en syste. 71hether or"anis., lan"-a"e, or society9 follo1s *the arro1 not of entro y b-t of history,* 1hich *distin"-ishes ast fro. f-t-re, by .ovin" a1ay fro. the si. le, the -nifor., and the rando., and to1ard the "en-inely ne1, the endlessly co. le0 rod-cts of nat-re and / DF1 / .ind.*N4O Co..-nication, like life 7the rod-ct of re eatedly trans.itted "enetic infor.ation9, conscio-sness, and the s irit-al 8-est that strives to transcend their "iven li.its, is th-s a selfB transfor.ative rocess that ro"resses, by -n redictable act-ali>ations of .-lti le ossibilities, thro-"h li.inal indeter.inacy to1ard an evolvin" "oal. Iven in the o eration of the brain and the trans.ission of infor.ation, then, to 1hich the binary .odel has been 1idely a lied, a connectin" third ter.<the for.ative li.inal hase<is essentialJ d-ality is an e0 lanatory rinci le of the closed and static that can never be ade8-ate to a syste. e.bedded in ti.e 7as all -lti.ately are9 and o en to chan"e. Cnly an ideal *synchrony* c-t off fro. both ast and f-t-re can lend la-sibility to the binary .odel of 3a-ss-rian se.iolo"yJ the ass-. tion that s-ch an ideali>ation is re8-isite to a ri"oro-s science is a retro"ression to an earlier scientific .ytholo"y. ,n contrast to this deter.inistic tendency in t1entiethBcent-ry tho-"ht, the se.iotic of 3a-ss-reHs older conte. orary Peirce<1ho. ?akobson 719F1, #4&9 and Po er 719F9, D1D9 res ectively reco"ni>ed as *the .ost inventive and versatile a.on" +.erican thinkers* and *one of the "reatest hiloso hers of all ti.e*<f-lly ackno1led"es the critical role in h-.an co..-nication 7as in cos.ic evol-tion9 of ti.e and chance, and finds an e0 lanatory rinci le not in binary o osition b-t in the ternary relation by 1hich clos-re is contin-ally transcended and si"nification beco.es .eanin". (-nda.ental to PeirceHs lo"ic 1as the triadic relation bet1een a si"n, its ob:ect, and its inter retant, the latter<the si"n created in the .ind of the erson 1ho. the si"n addresses<bein" the essential third ter. .ediatin" bet1een first and second. *To "ive a "ood and co. lete acco-nt of the dyadic relations of conce ts 1o-ld be i. ossible,* Peirce concl-des 7#:#'F9, *1itho-t takin" into acco-nt the triadic relations 1hich, for the .ost art, -nderlie the..* 2ence re resentation by a si"n or *re resenta.en* cannot be red-ced 7like 3a-ss-rian si"nification9 to a static binary str-ct-re b-t is by nat-re a rocess. The triadic relation of 3i"n, Cb:ect, and ,nter retant 7or (irst, 3econd, and Third9 *does not consist in any co. le0-s of dyadic relations* 7D: 1%&9.N%O ,t is not co.B

N4O 3ee Ca. bellHs s-..ary 7''M9$9 of )avid @ay>erHs ar"-.ent that *even for a @a lacean s- erintelli"ence, total infor.ation abo-t the 1hole -niverse on the scale of its individ-al .olec-les is i. ossible,* since *the resent .o.ent al1ays contains an ele.ent of "en-ine novelty and the f-t-re is never 1holly redictable.* 3ee also Ca. bellHs +fter1ord, *+ristotle and )G+,* in 1hich he s-""ests 7D&99 that *,nfor.ation is in essence a theory,* like +ristotleHs, *of .akin" the ossible act-al.* N%O Cn the i. ortance of PeirceHs triadic theory of the si"n, in contrast to the dyadic si"n 1hich eli.inates the h-.an -ser, and th-s the ossibility of deter.inate .eanin", in the str-ct-ralis.s and ostBstr-ct-ralis.s descendin" fro. 3a-ss-re to )errida, see 3heriff. 2e"elHs lo"ic is also triadic b-t his ,dealis. is .ore abstract than PeirceHs ra".aticis., 8-irky tho-"h PeirceHs .-lti lication of ter.s often see.s. Peirce, 1ho ad.ired 2e"el, re.arked that *he has co..itted the triflin" oversi"ht of for"ettin" that there is a real 1orld 1ith real actions and reactions* 7see (eible.an, DFMD' and 1%#M%&J and cf. Peirce and ;elby, D%9. / DFD / osed of binary o erations, like a co. -ter ro"ra., b-t is irred-cibly triadic. 3o basic 1as this relation to PeirceHs hiloso hy that it ervades not only lo"ic b-t sycholo"y and .eta hysics. The ideas of first, second, and third *are d-e to con"enital tendencies of the .ind* 71: 19'9, cate"ories inherent in the str-ct-re of conscio-sness. 4-ality and Reaction, PeirceHs first t1o cate"ories, are connected by Cate"ory the Third, or Thirdness, 1hich *e.bodies Bet1eenness or Mediation in its si. lest and .ost r-di.entary for.* 7%:&'9. ,n s-., *(irst is the conce tion of bein" or e0istin" inde endent of anythin" else. 3econd is the conce tion of bein" relative to, the conce tion of reaction 1ith, so.ethin" else. Third is the conce tion of .ediation, 1hereby a first and a second are bro-"ht into relation* 7&: D%9. +ny f-rther .-lti lication of cate"ories is al1ays red-cible to these three, b-t these three are not f-rther red-cible. *, see a "reat .any thinkers,* he la.ented late in life 7Peirce and ;elby 19FF, D'9, *1ho are tryin" to constr-ct a syste. 1itho-t -ttin" any thirdness into it,* and 1ho th-s never "o beyond the binary o osition. Cnly by this .ediatory third ter. can the static olarity of 8-ality and reaction be overco.e in the transfor.ative otentiality of an -nreali>ed f-t-reJ only *thro-"h the .edi-. of thirds* 71: 1&#9 does the f-t-re act - on the ast and infl-ence the resent. Thirdness finds reBe.inent e.bodi.ent in the sy.bol, 1hich differs fro. icon and inde0 in bein" *a la1, or re"-larity of the indefinite f-t-re*J for Peirce 7D:4&9, *To say that the f-t-re does not infl-ence the resent is -ntenable doctrine.* The .ediatin" sy.bol en"enders the indeter.inate b-t deter.inative f-t-re thro-"h 1hich the "iven d-ality of ast and resent desi"nated by icon and inde0 is contin-ally transcended and "iven .eanin"J for .eanin" is *obvio-sly a triadic relation* 71:1F%9. The search for tr-th by 1hich scientist and hiloso her are .otivated is th-s an endeavor to overco.e the constrictive clos-re of binary o osition, the do-bt 1hose very derivation fro. @atin duo ha,eo 7*hold as t1o*9 *e0hibits its binarity. ,f 1e did not str-""le a"ainst do-bt,* and th-s a"ainst d-ality, Peirce concl-des 7D:4%9, *1e sho-ld not seek the tr-th.* +s in every 8-est, every rite of assa"e, and -lti.ately every biolo"ical and hysical chan"e, the rocess is ternary: once division has occ-rred, the only assa"e fro. d-ality to1ard a ne1 and al1ays rovisional -nity / DF# / is the -ncertain b-t indis ensable 1ay of the Third, that is, not of the d-al b-t of the trial . *The irritation of do-bt ca-ses a str-""le to attain a state of belief. , shall ter. this str-""le,* this

cr-cial transitional hase bet1een division and inte"ration, *;n!uiry ,* Peirce 1rites 7%:D#19. 3cientific in8-iry as a 8-est for tr-th 1as a constant concern 1hich distin"-ished hi. 7a summa cum laude in Che.istry9 fro. .any conte. orary thinkers. Unlike .ost scientists in his ositivistic a"e, ho1ever, Peirce 71:%'9 fir.ly re:ected the ossibility of attainin" *absol-te certainty, absol-te e0actit-de, absol-te -niversality. ;e cannot be absol-tely certain that o-r concl-sions are even a ro0i.ately tr-e.* 2ence science, ro erly -nderstood, desi"nates not an -lti.ately chi.erical attain.ent of kno1led"e b-t *the -rs-it of those 1ho are devo-red by a desire to find thin"s o-t* 71:09. Consistent 1ith this conviction, Peirce held fir. to falli,ilism , *the doctrine that o-r kno1led"e is never absol-te b-t al1ays s1i.s, as it 1ere, in a contin--. of -ncertainty and of indeter.inacy* 71:F$9J he once noted his *beatific* leas-re 1hen *a critic said of .e that , did not see. to be a,solutely sure of my o1n conclusions * 71:0i9. This doctrine is s-ited to a -niverse 1here chance rei"ns no less than la1, and the forces of nat-re 7here a"ain Peirce antici ates a later hysics9, far fro. bein" -nchan"eable, .ay have *nat-rally "ro1n - * 71:FD9 in a cos.ic evol-tion 1hose o-tco.e .-st forever be -nkno1n. B-t the final -nattainability of kno1led"e does not di.inish o-r desire to attain itJ thro-"h in8-iry 1e re eatedly transcend resent -ncertainty in a lar"er -ncertainty forever beyond it. This desire<1e .i"ht call it the 8-estin" i. -lse<is innateJ for *all h-.an kno1led"e, - to the hi"hest fli"hts of science, is b-t the develo .ent of o-r inborn ani.al instincts* 7D:4FF9. The characteristic .ethod of scientific in8-iry is the for.-lation and testin" of hy otheses that Peirce called abd-ction or retrod-ction, 1hich for.s a link 7a"ain the cr-cial third ter.9 bet1een ind-ctive e0 eri.entation and ded-ctive reasonin". *Peirce differed fro. the ositivists,* (eible.an 1rites 7D9$9, *in his re"ard for the reality of hy othesisJ he did not seek the least hy othetical of ro ositions b-t the .ost.* ,n his vie1 7&:14F9, every scientific ro osition is a rovisional hy othesis s-b:ect to ref-tation, *ado ted in accordance 1ith a .ethod 1hich .-st lead to the tr-th in the lon" r-n.* Beca-se one hy othesis leads to another and none can ever be final, scientific in8-iry is a selfBtranscendent 8-est for a "oal as el-sive as it is necessary: the -nreachable "oal of an indeter.inate tr-th that "ives direction to o-r instinctive -rs-it of kno1led"e. *,n8-iry ro erly carried on,* Peirce believed 71:D%'9, *1ill reach so.e definite and fi0ed res-lt or,* since the res-lt can never be absol-te certainty, 1ill *a ro0i.ate indefinitely to1ard that li.it.* Belief in a "oal to be -rs-ed is no less f-nda.ental in the 8-est for tr-th / DF4 / than a1areness that no "oal can be finally attained: *,ndeed, o-t of a contrite fallibilis., co.bined 1ith a hi"h faith in the reality of kno1led"e, and an intense desire to find thin"s o-t,* Peirce elo8-ently 1rites 71:119, *all .y hiloso hy has al1ays see.ed to .e to "ro1.* 3.all 1onder, in an a"e do.inated by selfBconfident scientific ositivis. and do".atic affir.ations of an in fallible *scientific .ethod* leadin" inel-ctably to1ard attain.ent of incontrovertible tr-th, that Peirce, 1hose -nderstandin" of science 1as "enerations ahead of his ti.e, never received an acade.ic a oint.ent and 1as i"nored so 1idely and 1ith s-ch co. lacent ease. The conce tion of scientific in8-iry as an endless 8-est 1as not entirely ne1. (rancis Bacon, as 1e have already re.arked, 1as very .-ch a .an of the Renaissance 1hen he affir.ed 7#FJ 0ovum "rganum 4'9, in 1ords re.iniscent of Eiordano Br-no or Marlo1eHs Ta.b-rlaine, that the -n8-iet h-.an -nderstandin" *cannot sto or rest, and still resses on1ard, b-t in vain.* B-t for Bacon this -r"e for *so.ethin" beyond* threatened to lead the .ind astray fro. "eneral rinci les that *o-"ht to be held .erely ositive.* )-rin" s-bse8-ent cent-ries .ost scientific thinkers held that in8-iry ro"resses by .etic-lo-s a lication of an essentially .echanical ind-ctive .ethod. Th-s )ar1in, in an a"e 1hen ?ohn 3t-art Mill had codified e0 eri.ental ind-ction, rofessed 1ith retros ective

orthodo0y that he had *1orked on tr-e Baconian rinci les, and 1itho-t any theory collected facts on a 1holesale scale,* reachin" his concl-sions by ainstakin" adherence to ind-ctive roced-res. =et as Peter Meda1ar, 1ho 8-otes this assa"e 7'$9, observes, else1here in his 1ritin"s and every1here in his ractice )ar1in reveals the *selfBdece tion* of this assertion and the irresistible attraction he fo-nd in for.in" hy otheses. )es ite s-ch occasional 7and .ainly rivate9 confessions, for.ation of hy otheses<the *abd-ction* central, for Peirce, to the search for tr-th<1as 1idely dis.issed as -nscientific, 1ith the sanction of Ge1tonHs ha-"hty 7if d-bio-s9 hypotheses non fingo . (e1 scientists, 1hatever their ractice, o enly endorsed, 1ith the hysiolo"ist Cla-de Bernard, the i. ortance of hy otheses as the startin" oint of e0 eri.ental reasonin". ,n an a"e of tri-. hant ositivis. 1hen science, like the Po e, 1as decreed infallible so lon" as its rit-als 1ere ro erly erfor.ed, Bernard 1as as rare a.on" scientists as Peirce 1o-ld be a.on" hiloso hers in seein" theories for.-lated fro. fallible hy otheses as *only artial and rovisional tr-ths 1hich are necessary . . . to carry the investi"ation for1ard* to1ard a "oal contin-ally bein" transfor.ed by science itself. 73ee Meda1ar, 1D4, 1#$, 1#4, 1ith 8-otations fro. Mill, ;he1ell, and Bernard.9 +.on" t1entiethBcent-ry thinkers 1ho have develo ed PeirceHs conB / DF% / ce tion of scientific in8-iry as a fallible search for tr-th thro-"h re eated testin" of hy otheses, and therefore as a tireless 8-est for an ob:ect forever beyond attain.ent, the fore.ost has been 6arl Po er, in a series of 1ritin"s be"innin" 1ith the &ogik der %orschung of 19#4. Re:ectin" the soBcalled ind-ctive .ethod as a .eans of discoverin" tr-th, Po er ro oses instead a rocess of contin-al con:ect-re follo1ed by ri"oro-s testin" c-l.inatin" either in rovisional confir.ation 7for no final confir.ation can e0ist9 or in *falsification* leadin" to for.-lation of alternative hy otheses: a rocess 1itho-t end. ,n his vie1 719&', 4$9, *not the verifia,ility b-t the falsifia,ility of a syste.,* its s-sce tibility to ref-tation, de.arcates a theory as scientific, for no theory can ever, in the nat-re of thin"s, be concl-sively verified. Po erHs ro ositions have been dis -ted on .any "ro-nds, incl-din" s- osed inconsistency 1ith the -rs-it of 1hat 6-hn has called *nor.al* as o osed to *revol-tionary* science.N&O B-t Po er is concerned not 1ith the dayBtoBday ractice b-t 1ith the -nderlyin" logic of scientific research. Ref-tation is not an end in itself, b-t one hase in a rocess of con:ect-re and ref-tation that leads not to -niversal ske ticis. b-t to "en-ine, if al1ays rovisional, scientific discovery . Moreover, tho-"h e. irical science .ay be de.arcated by the criterion of testable falsifiability, it is not, Po er re eatedly e. hasi>es, different in kind fro. other h-.an 7and ani.al9 -rs-its characteri>ed by a si.ilar if less syste.atic rocess of trial and error. Both ani.als and h-.an bein"s are born 1ith a o1erf-l need to seek re"-larities even 1here none can be fo-nd, and in *the 1ellBkno1n .ethod of trial and errorBeli.ination* co..on to h-.an and ani.al sycholo"y alike, *the vario-s trials corres ond to the for.ation of co. etin" hy otheses* in scientific in8-iry, *and the eli.ination of error corres onds to the eli.ination or ref-tation of theories by 1ay of tests* 719F9, D%9. =et altho-"h both the a.oeba and Iinstein *.ake -se of the .ethod of trial and error eli.ination, the a.oeba dislikes errin" 1hile Iinstein is intri"-ed by it: he conscio-sly searches for his errors in the ho e of learnin" by their discovery and eli.ination* 719F9, F$9.NFO The critical N&O 3ee 6-hn 19F$, 14&M4F. ,n a later a er 719FF, DFD9, 6-hn says Po er *characteri>ed the entire scientific enter rise in ter.s that a ly only to its occasional revol-tionary arts,* as o osed to nor.al science. B-t Ildred"e 74F9 re.arks that des ite their ideali>ation Po erHs vie1s coincide 1ith

dayBtoBday science *in the collective effort. . . . ,t is the rivals 1ho can be co-nted on to falsify an hy othesis.* ,t is in this conte0t of the scientific enter rise as a 1hole, not of the isolated theory or individ-al researcher, that the lo"ic of con:ect-re and ref-tation ertains to *nor.al* science, 1hich is not erha s so radically different fro. *revol-tionary* science as 6-hn ro oses. NFO Cf. @oren> 19FF, D4: *The .ethod of the "eno.e, er et-ally .akin" e0 eri.ents, .atchin" their res-lts a"ainst reality, and retainin" 1hat is fittest, differs fro. that ado ted by .an in his scientific 8-est for kno1led"e in only one res ect, and that not a vital one, na.ely that the "eno.e learns only fro. its s-ccesses, 1hereas .an learns also fro. his fail-res.* Peirce and Po er 1o-ld consider the difference so.e1hat .ore vital. / DF& / .ethod of science is not 8-alitatively different fro. the .ethod of search and discovery thro-"h e0 erience co..on to all livin" thin"sJ for ani.als and even lants, in Po erHs vie1 714%9, *are roble.solvers. +nd they solve their roble.s by the .ethod of co. etitive tentative sol-tions and the eli.ination of error.* Iven PavlovHs do", far fro. actin" on a *conditioned refle0* 1hose e0istence Po er denies 7Po er and Iccles, 1#&M#F9, *invents a theory either conscio-sly or -nconscio-sly, and then tries it o-t,* th-s e0hibitin" an e0 loratory instinct akin to the scientistHs conscio-s investi"ation of the -niverse. By their very nat-re, then, *or"anis.s are roble. solvers and e0 lorers of their 1orld* 71#'9: .an is b-t the roble. solver and e0 lorer ar e0cellence. (or Po er 719F9, #F9, then, as for Peirce, *the 8-est for certainty, for a sec-re basis of kno1led"e, has to be abandoned* in a -niverse r-led not only 7if at all9 by strict Ge1tonian la1s or re"-lar .ove.ents of *clocks* 7D1#9 b-t by la1s of chance or statistical robability, the rando. .ove.ents of *clo-ds* 7Po er 1rites in antici ation of recent *chaos* theory9 1hose confi"-rations in any individ-al instance cannot even theoretically be redicted. 3trict deter.inis. ertains only to an ideally selfBcontained and static syste., b-t in the o en syste. of the evolvin" -niverse 7and of the evolvin" or"anis. and h-.an conscio-sness9 it has no laceJ for -s, e0 lorin" these 1orlds, *the "ro1th of kno1led"e .-st be -n redictable in rinci le* 7D9'9. 2ence the -rs-it of kno1led"e, in science as in the trial and error of ordinary e0 erience, is essentially 7as Po er entitled his intellect-al a-tobio"ra hy9 an *-nended 8-est.* (or *1e are searchers at best,* he 1rites 719F9, 419, *and at any rate fallible.* ,n the 1ords of the reB3ocratic hiloso her ^eno hanes, as Po er 8-otes the. 719&%, D&9: The "ods did not reveal, fro. the be"innin", +ll thin"s to -sJ b-t in the co-rse of ti.e, Thro-"h seekin", .en find that 1hich is the better. B-t as for certain tr-th, no .an has kno1n it, Gor 1ill he kno1 it . . . =et tho-"h certain tr-th cannot be kno1n, tr-th<or at least verisi.ilit-de, the rovisional a ro0i.ation to an ideal of tr-th forever beyond o-r reach<re.ains the contin-ally evolvin" "oal 1itho-t 1hich the 8-est co-ld never be"in and never contin-e. 3-ch a "oal is indis ensable to scientific research 7since all research is search, and every search has a "oal9, *(or 1itho-t this idea, there can be no ob:ective standards of inB / DFF / 8-iryJ no criticis. of o-r con:ect-resJ no "ro in" for the -nkno1nJ no 8-est for kno1led"e* 7#$9.

Thro-"h s-ch a 8-est, as .-ch in the h-.an as in the nat-ral sciences, and indeed in every activity of o-r lives<inas.-ch as *1e live .ore for the f-t-re . . . than in the ast* 7Po er and Iccles, 1$49<1e -rs-e the contin-al selfBtranscendence 1hich, in Po erHs vision 719F9, 14F9, *is the .ost strikin" and i. ortant fact of all life and all evol-tion, and es ecially of h-.an evol-tion.* ,t is this 8-est that has .ade -s, and contin-es to .ake -s, 1hat 1e are by holdin" -r osef-lly before -s the el-sive, indeter.inate, indis ensable "oal of 1hat 1e are in the rocess of beco.in". / DF' /

Chapter Si;teen. The Realit) o' Transcen2ence

B-t 1hat is the ob:ect of this 8-est, the "oal incessantly -rs-ed b-t never f-lly attainedK ,s the -rs-it no .ore, erha s, than a sycholo"ical need, a s-stainin" ill-sion, and the "oal a .ira"e that is different for every observer and that .ockin"ly vanishes, like the Cheshire cat, as 1e a roach it, revealin" the e. tiness of the ho es 1e have fondly attached to this evanescent 1illBoHBtheB1is K M-ch t1entiethBcent-ry tho-"ht has tended to1ard s-ch concl-sions, vie1in" *reality* as a s-b:ective constr-ct or a fabric of rhetorical ill-sions: a s-b:ect for sychoanalysis or deconstr-ction. Iven in the hiloso hy of science, that for.er bastion of confident ositivis., disinte"ration of the onceo.ni otent Ge1tonian synthesis has -nder.ined faith in an ob:ective reality ca able of bein" discovered thro-"h disinterested search for tr-th. =et both Peirce and Po er, in contrast to the relativistic tendency differently e.bodied by 6-hn and (eyerabend, see indeter.inis. as f-lly co. atible 1ith belief in an ob:ective reality 1itho-t 1hich the 8-est for kno1led"e and selfB transcendence co-ld have no .eanin".N1O N1O 6-hn s-""ested 719F$, 1F$MF19 abandonin" the idea that aradi". chan"es brin" scientists closer to tr-th: *Geed there be any s-ch "oalK* 2e later so-"ht 7cf. 19FF, D9#M#199 to .odify the relativistic i. lications of his clai. 719F$, 1%$M%19 that ro onents of inco..ens-rable aradi".s * ractice their trades in different 1orlds,* chan"in" aradi".s not beca-se one fits reality better b-t beca-se of a *"estalt s1itch* or *conversion e0 erience*J b-t he contin-es 7D$&9 to find the notion of a .atch bet1een theory and a *real* co-nter art in nat-re *ill-sive in rinci le.* +.on" .any criti8-es of 6-hnHs and (eyerabendHs *thesis of inco..ens-rability* see es . P-tna., 191M9F. 6-hn and the .ore -nabashedly relativistic (eyerabend have fo-nd a 1ide follo1in" a.on" literary h-.anists, 1hereas Po erHs tho-"ht has a ealed both to h-.anists like Eo.brich and to leadin" scientists s-ch as Iccles in ne-rolo"y, @oren> in etholo"y, Meda1ar in .edicine, and Pri"o"ine in che.istry. / DF9 / *, a. .yself,* Peirce 1rote 7%:#D#9, *a scholastic realist of a so.e1hat e0tre.e stri e,* an ad.irer of )-ns 3cot-s 1ho conde.ned conte. orary no.inalis. and affir.ed *the corres ondence of a re resentation 1ith its ob:ect* 7%:#9$9, the belief that na.es refer to reality and ro ositions to tr-th 7cf. (eible.an, %4M&DJ 2ook1ay, #FMF99. 3cientific research co-ld not take lace 1itho-t this ass-. tion of an ob:ective 7tho-"h never finally certain9 tr-th: *The o inion 1hich is fated to be -lti.ately a"reed to by all 1ho investi"ate, is 1hat 1e .ean by the tr-th, and the ob:ect re resented in this o inion is the real* 7%:D&'9. B-t for Peirce, as for the scholastic realists and Plato before the., *reality* did not consist in i..ediate artic-lars or .aterial ob:ects. +bove all, *reality consists in the f-t-re* 7':1999, the never f-lly reali>ed otentiality to 1hich only the *"eneral,* or -niversal, can refer,

thro-"h the .edi-. of thirdness e.bodied in the sy.bol. ,t is the 8-est of hiloso hy, as of all tho-"ht and lan"-a"e 7for all lan"-a"e is sy.bolic and refers beyond itself9, and .ost es ecially of o-r re eatedly for.-lated hy otheses or abd-ctions, to a ro0i.ate ever .ore closely to this ob:ective reality. ,n contrast to the Platonists, ho1ever, Peirce e. hatically does not conceive of ideas or "enerals as i..-table and eternal<his conce t of thirdness, as 1e have seen, is relational and dyna.ic, and he vie1s even nat-ral la1s as a rod-ct of evol-tion<nor as e0istin" in a se arate real. fro. the concrete realities of i..ediate e0 erience: the ra".aticist, he 1rites 7%:D'99, *does not .ake (or.s to be the only realities in the 1orld.* ,n this res ect he is closer to +ristotleHs conce tion of reality as act-ali>ation or activation 7energeia 9, thro-"h for., of the otentiality of .atter than to PlatoHs theory of *ideas,* at least in its .ore -nco. ro.isin" versions. (ar fro. bein" a chan"eless ob:ect of hiloso hical conte. lation, tr-th is the ob:ective corres ondence 1ith reality that .-st be contin-ally 7tho-"h it can never be f-lly9 act-ali>ed by the neverBendin" in8-iry, or 8-est for kno1led"e, of fallible h-.an bein"s 1orkin" alone and to"ether to1ard an end that 1ill al1ays s-r ass the.. (or Peirce the 8-est for kno1led"e is a 8-est, as (eible.an 1rites 7D1#9, *to advance fro. the s-b:ective to the inde endently real,* fro. the artic-larity of individ-al e0 erience to the "eneral that e.braces it in a .ore co. rehensive f-t-re reality. *,n this 1ay, the e0istence of tho-"ht no1 de ends on 1hat is to be hereafterJ so that it has only a otential e0istence, de endent on the f-t-re tho-"ht of the co..-nity* 7%:1'99. P-rs-it of this transcendent "oal is an ethical obli"ation f-nda.ental to bein" h-.an, and it follo1s 1ith ine0orable lo"ic 7D:#9'9 that *o-r interests shall not be li.ited. They .-st not sto at o-r o1n fate, b-t .-st e.brace the 1hole co..-nity,* an -nli.ited co..-nity e0tendin" to all races and even *beyond all bo-nds.* The heroic 8-est to / D'$ / discover and act-ali>e an ob:ective reality s-r assin" the li.itations of o-r artic-lar e0istence is therefore the ro er "oal of every h-.an bein" in this life, the cate"orical i. erative of PeirceHs reli"ion. (or Po er, too, science res- oses realis., and tr-th defined as corres ondence 1ith reality is the -lti.ate ai. 7tho-"h verisi.ilit-de is the only attainable "oal9 of scientific in8-iry, as of every h-.an 8-est for kno1led"e. *Meta hysical realis. . . . for.s a kind of back"ro-nd that "ives oint to o-r search for tr-th* 719'#, '$9. The very conce t of tr-th 1as one the yo-n"er Po er, like others of the 5ienna Circle, vie1ed as va"-e if not .eanin"less. +ll this chan"ed, ho1ever, 1hen Tarski *reB established a corres ondence theory of absol-te or ob:ective tr-th 1hich sho1ed that 1e are free to -se the int-itive idea of tr-th as corres ondence 1ith the facts* 719&%, DD#9. Cnly s-ch a conce t *allo1s -s to say<1ith ^eno hanes<that 1e search for tr-th, b-t .ay not kno1 1hen 1e have fo-nd itJ that 1e have no criterion of tr-th, b-t are nevertheless "-ided by the idea of tr-th as a regulative principle 7as 6ant or Peirce .i"ht have said9J and that, tho-"h there are no "eneral criteria by 1hich 1e can reco"ni>e tr-th<e0ce t erha s ta-tolo"ical tr-th<there are so.ethin" like criteria of ro"ress to1ards the tr-th* 7DD&9. ,n conse8-ence of this hiloso hical rehabilitation of a conce t indis ensable to the realist osition, *1e too,* Po er affir.s 719&%, DD99, *see science as the search for tr-th, and . . . are no lon"er afraid to say so. ,ndeed, it is only 1ith res ect to this ai., the discovery of tr-th, that 1e can say that tho-"h 1e are fallible, 1e ho e to learn fro. o-r .istakes. . . . Th-s the very idea of error<and of fallibility <involves the idea of an ob:ective tr-th as the standard of 1hich 1e .ay fall short.* 3ince certainty concernin" tr-th is intrinsically -nattainable, ho1ever, the ractical "oal of scientific in8-iry is rather

a ro0i.ation to tr-th, or verisi.ilit-de, thro-"h ri"oro-s falsification and ro"ressive refine.ent of o-r hy otheses. B-t if o-r 8-est for kno1led"e res- oses the "oal, to 1hich 1e can only a ro0i.ate thro-"h trial and error, of a finally -nattainable tr-th corres ondin" to ob:ective reality, 1hat is the nat-re, the ontolo"ical and e iste.olo"ical stat-s, of this realityK 3o f-nda.ental 1as the triadic relation to Peirce that he s eaks 7Peirce and ;elby 19FF, '19 of his three cate"ories as *three Universes, 1hich are distin"-ished by three Modalities of Bein"*J of these it is the .ediatin" -niverse of Thirdness that is oriented 7DF9 not to1ard the ast, *1hich is absol-tely deter.inate, fi0ed, fait accompli , and dead,* b-t the f-t-re, *1hich is livin", lastic, and deter.inable,* and rovides the 8-est for kno1led"e 1ith its "oal. Po er, in his later hiloso hy 719F9, 1%4J cf. 19F9, F4J 19F&, 1'$M'#J Po er and Iccles, #&M #'9, ro oses a not dissi.ilar triad of interactin" 1orlds, the first of hysical ob:ects, the second of s-b:ective .ental e0B / D'1 / erience, the third of ob:ective rod-cts of the h-.an .indJ it is in this non.aterial and relational third .odality, the 1orld of * ossible ob:ects of tho-"ht* that re.ain to be act-ali>ed, and are th-s otential and f-t-re, that the search for tr-th, or a ro0i.ation to tr-th, finds its contin-ally evolvin" ob:ect. + 1orld of *ideas in the ob:ective sense* 719F9, 1$99 to1ard 1hich the 8-est for kno1led"e is directed, an a-tono.o-s 1orld of theory, of *kno1led"e 1itho-t a kno1in" s-b:ect,* inevitably recalls the 1orld of (or.s ost-lated by Plato, a thinker to 1ho. Po er has not al1ays been 1ell dis osed. The si.ilarity is real, since Po er like Plato re:ects the soli sistic conce tion of for.s or ideas as havin" only sycholo"ical e0istence, hence no ob:ective realityJ b-t the differences are cr-cial. *PlatoHs third 1orld 1as divineJ it 1as -nchan"in" and, of co-rse, tr-e,* Po er 1rites 71DD9, 1hereas *.y third 1orld is .anB.ade and chan"in". ,t contains not only tr-e theories b-t also false ones, and es ecially o en roble.s, con:ect-res, and ref-tations.* ,t is th-s a 1orld not of -lti.ate Tr-th or absol-te Bein", like PlatoHs to ontNs on , b-t of verisi.ilit-de and beco.in", a 1orld that rovides not only the "oal of the individ-al 8-est 7the ob:ective and th-s transcendent kno1led"e 1e seek9 b-t its .edi-. and the attern on 1hich it is .odeled: a er et-ally develo in" 1orld<like PeirceHs thirdness<of interaction and chan"eJ a rod-ct of h-.an activity that ob:ectifies process directed to1ard an indeter.inate "oal. The ob:ective reality of 1orld three is th-s the reality of the 8-est itself. This evolvin" 1orld of ob:ective ideas, 1hich contin-ally interacts 1ith the 1orlds both of hysical ob:ects and of sycholo"ical states, en"enders and "ives sha e to the 8-est 7rather than .erely servin", like PlatoHs i..-table (or.s, as its ob:ect9 beca-se it is both the rod-ct of the h-.an .ind and transcends it: both the activity and the "oal to1ard 1hich the activity is directed. *, s-""est that it is possi,le to accept the reality or Oas it may ,e calledP the autonomy of the third 1orld, * Po er 1rites 719F9, 1%99, *and at the same time to admit that the third 1orld originates as a product of human activity . Cne can even ad.it that the third 1orld is .an.ade and, in a very clear sense, s- erh-.an at the sa.e ti.e. ,t transcends its .akers,* and in doin" so contin-ally leads the. to -ne0 ected discoveries. (or Po er no less than Peirce the 8-est to transcend s-b:ective e0 erience thro-"h ob:ective kno1led"e of a lar"er reality is the -r ose and obli"ation of fallible .an. ,n a -niverse 1here *no clai. can be .ade for absol-te certainty, 1e are seekers for truth ,ut 1e are not its possessors * 74&M 4F9. The 8-ester 1ho relin8-ishes the chi.erical ho e of finality finds in deter.ined -rs-it of the 8-est the f-llest e0 ression of a h-.an freedo. that is no less essential beca-se, like all thin"s h-.an,

/ D'D / it can never be absol-te. ;e f-lfill o-r h-.anity not by ret-rnin" to the -tative har.ony of a lost state of nat-re in 1hich 1e 1ere beasts a.on" beasts, nor by b-ildin" -to ias desi"ned to 1rite finis to o-r tro-bles at last, b-t by "oin" *into the -nkno1n, the -ncertain and insec-re* 719F1, D$19, 1here the "oal of o-r -nended 8-est 1ill al1ays lie. The scientific 8-est thro-"h re eated trial and error for kno1led"e of an ob:ective, and th-s a transcendent, reality that can never be f-lly a rehended finds a co-nter art 7ho1ever different in a earance and .ethod9 in tribal e0 loration of the -nkno1n, the -ncertain, and the insec-re thro-"h s irit .edi-.shi or the ecstatic sha.anic 8-est. B-t 1hat kind of tr-th or verisi.ilit-de, ob:ectivity or indeed reality, if any, can 1e ascribe to the visions in 1hich this 8-est c-l.inatesK 3i. le e0 lanations have often been ro osed, and the si. lest<as for .any reli"io-s heno.ena< is dece tion. @ike .edi-.s, ro hets, and other ractitioners, sha.ans have been 1idely kno1n for trickery and ill-sion, ran"in" fro. e0hibition of forei"n bodies s- osedly e0tracted fro. atientsH 1o-nds to elaborate theatrical rod-ctions co. lete 1ith ventrilo8-is., shakin" tents, and esca e fro. bonda"e P la 2o-dini. Cn occasion sha.ans have o enly confided their rivalsH tricks to o-tsiders, and on rare occasion even their o1n. B-t to see the sha.anic rofession itself, and the 8-est for s irit-al kno1led"e central to it, as no .ore than an artf-l fra-d intended to hood1ink a cred-lo-s a-dience 1o-ld be to .isconstr-e it entirely. Many 1itnesses of traditional sha.anic erfor.ances have echoed the :-d".ent of von ;ran"el, 1ho re.arked after visitin" northern 3iberia in the early nineteenth cent-ry that the tr-e sha.an, far fro. racticin" dece tion, acts -nder *the invol-ntary and irresistible infl-ence of his intensely sti.-lated i.a"ination* 7Cesterreich, D9%J cf. Mikhailovskii, 1#&M#'9. Gor is -se of tricks of the trade inco. atible 1ith "en-ine beliefJ indeed, sha.ans and other tribal doctors al.ost invariably call - on their collea"-es, 1hose arts they 1ell kno1, in their o1n ti.e of sickness or need. B-t if a sha.an is so.ethin" .ore than a sha., 1hat reality, if any, do his visions ossessK Iarly observers s-ch as the ?es-its "enerally conc-rred 1ith the *sava"es* in attrib-tin" to their visions an ob:ective reality derivin" fro. a o1er, albeit diabolic, beyond the.: the visions 1ere real, b-t del-sions. More recently, 1hen faith in both "-ardian s irits and devils has a reciably 1aned, s-ch visions have been 1idely vie1ed as .erely s-b:ective, the hall-cinatory rod-ct either of .ental deran"e.ent by dr-"s or hysical tor.ents, or of se0-al re ressions. The *+rctic hysteria* of 3iberian sha.ans is an e0a. le of the first e0 lanation, as the se0-al * erversion* of transvestite sha.ans is of the second. B-t visionary sha.anis. is too varied to be e0 lained by cli.ate or / D'# / dr-"s alone, and the te. era.ent of tribal visionaries too diverse 7and often too close to the c-lt-ral nor.9 to be cate"ori>ed as sycholo"ically deviant. More "enerally, s-b:ective e0 lanations "ive ins-fficient 1ei"ht to the co. ellin" a-thority these visions have not only for the visionary b-t for others no less inclined to ascribe ob:ective e0istence<and s- re.e i. ortance<to the.. Both )-rkhei.Hs *collective re resentations,* 1hich red-ce reli"io-s for.s to assive reflections of a static social order, and ?-n"Hs archety es of a va"-e *collective -nconscio-s,*NDO on the other hand, locate the reality of visions in an a-tono.o-s 1orld of c-lt-ral or sychic for.s rather than in a contin-ally chan"in" relation bet1een the vision and the envisionin" s-b:ect. The latter conce tion, in contrast, not only accords 1ith the *native* inter retation of visionary e0 erience as a lifelon" interaction bet1een the visionary and a s irit both o-tside and inti.ately art of herself 7a tenacio-sly ancient inter retation

s-rely entitled to res ect in o-r a"e of transitory is.s9J it conc-rs far .ore closely than -rely sociolo"ical or sycholo"ical conce tions 1ith PeirceHs or Po erHs vie1 of in8-iry itself as the 8-est for kno1led"e of a relational or otential third .odality of bein" en"endered by yet transcendin" the individ-al. The s irit-al 8-est, as a contin-al interrelation bet1een the individ-al and a lar"er reality in 1hich she transcends her ersonal e0istence<*transcends* not by leavin" it behind for so.e se arate real. of e0istence b-t by reali>ation of its enlar"in" and transfor.ative otentiality<is no less characteristic of tribal visionary e0 erience than of scientific in8-iry, or any creative endeavor. The sha.anistic 8-est for kno1led"e differs, of co-rse, fro. scientific research in f-nda.ental res ects: .ost f-nda.entally, erha s, in the -n8-estionin" credence it "enerally "rants to visionary in:-nctions 1hose a-thority lies beyond 8-estion, tho-"h not beyond re eated robin" thro-"h rene1al of the never co. leted 8-est. *2o e and belief are as i. ortant in science as they are else1hereJ the difference,* Idel.an observes 7D$'9, *is that in science they .-st yield to e0 eri.ent,* and both e0 eri.ent and the theory it tests are s-b:ect not only, like the vision 8-est, to initial fail-re b-t to re eated testin" and otential disconfir.ation by f-rther e0 eriB NDO (or an atte. t to redefine ?-n"ian archety es in a fra.e1ork of )-rkhei.ian social sycholo"y, see Geedha., 4%M49. Both the * ri.ary factors* of a co. le0 i.a"e like the 1itch and the * rocess of synthesis that co.bines the co. onents into the characteristic i.a"e* can be inter reted as *s ontaneo-s .anifestations of ro erties of the brain*J th-s *co. le0 i.a"es are the rod-cts of "enetically inherited redis ositions.* 2y othetical tho-"h this notion is, it s-""ests an inter retation of 1idely disse.inated archety al i.a"es that esca es 7beca-se they are co. le0 and synthetic, th-s s-b:ect to rene1ed syntheses9 both the narro1 deter.inis. of )-rkhei.Hs collective re resentations and the va"-e absol-tis. of ?-n"Hs archety es of a collective -nconscio-s that is every1here and no1here if it e0ists at all. / D'4 / .ents, and by the e0 eri.ents 7and alternative theories9 of others. =et strikin" as their differences are, the affinities bet1een the. are no less i. ortant, for each is a stren-o-s search for an o,/ective kno1led"e<kno1led"e of a reality beyond yet inse arable fro. the erceivin" self<that enlar"es both the individ-al seeker and those 1ith 1ho. she shares the res-lts of her e0 loration. The reality of the vision 8-est is th-s the reality of transcendence itself: transcendence of the envisionin" s-b:ect not in a cate"orically distinct Cther b-t in a lar"er ob:ect cons-bstantial 1ith herself. This reality is located neither in hysical thin"s nor in s-b:ective e0 erience alone b-t in a *third 1orld* of contin-ally e0 andin" tho-"h inherently rovisional ob:ective kno1led"e that relates these other t1o as ects of e0istence and, by relatin", transfor.s the.. ,t is this distinctively h-.an, intrinsically otential, and al1ays f-t-re reality<transitory by nat-re inas.-ch as its .anifestation at any one .o.ent 1ill al1ays be re laced, at the ne0t, by another<that every 8-est to s-r ass the li.itations of self ost-lates and affir.s, no less in o-r o1n ti.e and lace than in that of the abori"inal +-stralian, 3iberian, or Bra>ilian .edicine .an. The artic-lar sha e of the vision or theory that is the "oal of the 8-est 7for every theory, the Ereek ori"in of the 1ord re.inds -s, is inherently a vision9, like the ath the 8-est follo1s, 1ill chan"e fro. c-lt-re to c-lt-re and .o.ent to .o.ent, b-t the need for visionary transcendence of the "iven 1hich the 8-est e.bodies, and in 1hich its tr-th lies, re.ains -ndi.inished. ;illia. ?a.es, to1ard the end of The Aarieties of Religious #:perience 749FM9'9, boldly oses 8-estions evaded by lesser thinkers: *(irst, is there, -nder all the discre ancies of the creeds, a co..on

n-cle-s to 1hich they bear their testi.ony -nani.o-slyK +nd second, o-"ht 1e to consider the testi.ony tr-eK* +ll reli"io-s e0 erience, be1ilderin" tho-"h its varieties be, "ives e0 ression, ?a.es concl-des, to an uneasiness arisin" fro. *a sense that there is something 1rong a,out us as 1e nat-rally stand,* and all s-""est a ossible salvation thro-"h *.akin" ro er connection 1ith the hi"her o1ers.* This f-nda.ental -neasiness leads to a need, and thence to a search, for transcendence linkin" s-b:ect and ob:ect 1hen the individ-al 749'M999 *,ecomes conscious that this higher part Nof hi.selfO is conterminous and continuous 1ith a More of the same !uality, 1hich is operative in the universe outside of him .* ,n this *fact that the conscious person is continuous 1ith a 1ider self through 1hich saving e:periences come * 7%$%9 is *a ositive content of reli"io-s e0 erience 1hich, it see.s to .e, is literally and o,/ectively true as far as it goes .* The *ob:ective* tr-th of reli"io-s e0 erience th-s lies not in a chan"eless entity o-tside or beyond the h-.an b-t in the contin-ity or interrelation bet1een the individ-al and a kindred other<call it f-t-rity, otentiality, / D'% / or s irit<thro-"h 1hich the individ-al self is e0 andedJ this very transcendence is the ob:ect of a s irit-al 8-est contin-ally en"endered by -neasiness or dissatisfaction 1ith the "iven. Gor is this i. -lse to transcend the "iven thro-"h a ro0i.ation to a less narro1ly ersonal reality characteristic of reli"ion aloneJ it takes e8-ally -r"ent for., Peirce and Po er re.ind -s, in scientific in8-iry, and in every search for an enlar"in" tr-th. To as ire to1ard a broader and .ore f-lly ob:ective kno1led"e than 1e no1 ossess, and to kno1 that o-r as iration can have no definitive end, nor rod-ce any certain or final res-lt, is as .-ch a s irit-al 8-est for the scientist, artist, or scholar 1ho -rs-es it today, 1itho-t heed for the risk of fail-re that every tr-e 8-est .-st r-n or the indifference of those 1ho re.ain content 1ith the "iven, as Black IlkHs lonely vi"il on 2arney Peak 1as in a lace and ti.e not so far fro. o-r o1n. *,t is necessary to co.bine the reco"nition of o-r contin"ency, o-r finit-de, and o-r contain.ent in the 1orld 1ith an a.bition of transcendence,* a conte. orary hiloso her, Tho.as Ga"el, 1rites 799, *ho1ever li.ited .ay be o-r s-ccess in achievin" it,* for only by tirelessly seekin" to kno1 a transcendent reality that can never be 1holly e0ternal beca-se it is al1ays contin-o-s, as ?a.es reco"ni>ed, 1ith o-r inner.ost selves, can 1e tr-ly beco.e 1hat ;e otentially are. This ob:ective reality of transcendence to1ard 1hich the 8-est ai.s is a rod-ct of h-.an conscio-sness at its f-rthest e0tension in lan"-a"e, for thro-"h lan"-a"e the .odality of the otential arises and the transcendent di.ension of the f-t-re is born. The vision, like scientific or .athe.atical int-ition, oetic or artistic ins iration, or .ystical revelation, 1hether it a ears s ontaneo-sly or after laborio-s 8-est, .ay initially see. inco..-nicableJ only thro-"h the .ediatin" ob:ectification of a sy.bolic lan"-a"e, ho1ever, can it beco.e a shared reality transcendin" the evanescence of the s-b:ective. ,t is therefore not a reality si. ly o osed to *fiction,* for fictions too are ob:ective and hence co..-nicable rod-cts of lan"-a"e. The difference bet1een a scientific theory and a 1ork of fiction, Po er 1rites 719F9, D'99, *is not . . . that the theory is ossibly tr-e 1hile the descri tions in the story are not tr-e, altho-"h tr-th and falsity have so.ethin" to do 1ith it,* b-t *that the theory and the story are e.bedded in different critical traditions.* +s +ristotle erceived 1hen he characteri>ed oetry 7)oetics 14%1 aMb9 as .ore hiloso hical than history, fictional .i.esis entails an act-ali>ation of the otential 7of *1hat .ay be* in accord 1ith robability or necessity9, and is th-s not a dece tion, as Plato tho-"ht, b-t a .anifestation, like hiloso hical in8-iry itself, of a tr-th that transcends the i..ediately "iven. Poetic fictions, like hiloso hical s ec-lations, allo1 -s to investi"ate the di.ensions of * ossible 1orlds* rese.blin" o-r

/ D'& / o1nJ they are e0 loratory hy otheses that cannot, ho1ever, be falsified, like those of science, by contradiction 1ith the conditions of o-r "iven reality.N#O (iction, Ricoe-r 1rites 719F9, 1%DM%#9, *addresses itself to dee ly rooted otentialities of reality to the e0tent that they are absent fro. the act-alities 1ith 1hich 1e deal in everyday life -nder the .ode of e. irical control and .ani -lation.* @ike the sy.bolically e0 ressed vision 71hich differs fro. it in bein" ascribed, as oetry lon" 1as, to a rivile"ed e0ternal so-rce9, fiction co. le.ents b-t can never, beca-se its reality is otential, contradict the 1orld e0 lored by the kindred 8-est of scientific investi"ation. Cf the .any tro es or fi"-res of s eech that fiction, like all lan"-a"e, e. loys, .eta hor .ost directly ertains to the 8-est for transcendence. (or .eta hor 7the Ereek 1ord .eans a transfer or carryin" over9 is inherently relational and li.inal, so that every .eta hor is a 8-est to "o beyond the ordinary li.its of lan"-a"e. To the e0tent that all lan"-a"e s eaks of 1hat is absent and oints beyond itself 7since all lan"-a"e is sy.bolic, in PeirceHs sense, and *refers to the indefinite f-t-re*9, .eta hor is a f-rther e0tension that *"est-res to1ard 1hat transcends lan"-a"e* 72arries, 'D9. ,t is a strate"y of disco-rse, Ricoe-r 1rites 719FF, &9, that * reserves and develo s the heuristic o1er 1ielded by fiction *J it is no .ere adorn.ent, b-t an instr-.ent for the discovery and e0 loration of other1ise -nact-ali>ed 7and to that de"ree, transcendent9 otentialities of o-r 1orld. (or *.eta hor ty ically involves a chan"e,* in Eood.anHs 1ords 719F&, FDMF#9, *not .erely of ran"e b-t also of real.,* a.o-ntin" to *an e0 edition abroad. . . . ;hat occ-rs is a transfer of a sche.a, a .i"ration of conce ts, an alienation of cate"ories* by 1hich o-r co. lacent ass-. tion of a fa.iliar given reality<a reality that is o-rs 1itho-t seekin"<is called into 8-estion as o-r latent kno1led"e of the never f-lly reali>ed ossibilities of the 1orld and o-rselves is enriched and transfor.ed. B-t for Ricoe-r in artic-lar the f-nction of .eta hor as he-ristic fiction "oes far beyond disr- tin" e0 ectations or .akin" the old a ear N#O The conce t of * ossible 1orlds* "oes back to @eibni>, for 1ho. 711%9 *the possi,ility of thin"s, even of those that have no act-al e0istence, has itself a reality fo-nded in the divine e0istence.* This idea 7b-rles8-ed by 5oltaire after @eibni> fo-nd that the best ossible 1orld 1as o-r o1n9 1as revived by 6ri ke as a .eans of testin" hiloso hical notions in co-nterfact-al b-t ossible sit-ationsJ in 6ri keHs conce tion 71'9, ossible 1orlds *are total H1ays the 1orld .i"ht have beenH, or states or histories of the entire 1orld*J they *are stipulated , not discovered by o1erf-l telesco es* 7449. P-tna. 7&F9 defends the conce t so lon" as its lan"-a"eBrelative character is clearly reco"ni>ed. +nd Pavel notes the rese.blance of this notion to that of fictional 1orlds in literary theory b-t re.arks 7499 that *the resence of contradictions effectively revents -s fro. considerin" fictional 1orlds as "en-ine ossible 1orlds and fro. red-cin" the theory of fiction to a 6ri kean theory of .odality.* / D'F / ne1: the *calc-lated cate"oryB.istake* 1ith 1hich Eood.an 7ada tin" a ter. fro. Ryle9 identified .eta hor co. le.ents, for Ricoe-r 719FF, DD9, a lo"ic of discovery at 1ork in the .eta horical rocess itself. ,n Ricoe-rHs vie1 7F49, the selfBreferential langue of 3a-ss-rean se.iotics, 1hose do.ain is that of the si"n, * asses o-tside itself* in the sentence, 1here reference to e0traBlin"-istic reality 7(re"eHs (edeutung 9 .arks the selfBtranscendence of langue J se.antics, as o osed to se.iotics, concerns itself 1ith the relation bet1een lan"-a"e and the 1orld 714%9. Meta hor, too, o erates by redication and reference, b-t thro-"h living .eta hor, *everyday reference to the real .-st be abolished in order that another sort of reference to other di.ensions of reality .i"ht be liberated* 7D#$9.

Transcendence and innovation, therefore, are the essence of .eta hor, 1hose ostensible cate"ory .istake *clears the 1ay to a ne1 vision* 7D#&9, an *other reference,* 1hich is *the ob:ect of o-r search*<clears the 1ay to ob:ectively e0istent relational otentialities, that is to say, beyond the deadenin" stasis of the already "iven. ,n conse8-ence 7D44M4%9, oetry *has a referential f-nction :-st as .-ch as does descri tive disco-rse,* and oetic .i.esis 7in a sense a ro0i.atin" +ristotleHs9 is not a *co y* b-t a *redescri tion* of reality thro-"h the .eta horical lo"ic of invention and discovery. @ivin" .eta hor has cognitive val-eJ it is a 8-est for ne1 ob:ective kno1led"e<the ob:ective kno1led"e of fictionBby 1hich the s-b:ect 1ho brin"s the .eta hor into bein", or 1ho i.a"inatively reBcreates it, is herself transfor.ed, :-st as a sha.an is transfor.ed by the vision of a "-ardian s irit 1ith 1hich she beco.es .eta horically 7b-t no less *really*9 identified recisely to the de"ree that it transcends and 1ill al1ays transcend her. The visionary reality so-"ht thro-"h the 8-est is that of livin" .eta hor, then, the .ediatin" *thirdness* by 1hich self beco.es .ore and th-s other. +nd if this .eta horical tr-th, this ob:ective reality of selfBtranscendence act-ali>ed by lan"-a"e, is its "oal, the 8-est, as it -nfolds in ti.e, takes for. as a narrative or lot 7+ristotleHs mythos 9,N4O in 1hich .eta hor finds a te. oral analo"-e. @eadin" theorists s-ch as @-kYcs have noted the close association bet1een the novel, the do.inant for. N4O The narrative, .ythos, or lot<here -sed synony.o-sly<is not the -nderlyin" se8-ence of events 7or *story*9 in itself, b-t the recounting of these events, as sha ed by the narratorJ it is th-s an o,/ective reality at one re.ove fro. the *real* or fictional events to 1hich it refers: an artistic .i.esis. This distinction is one of the fo-ndations of t1entiethBcent-ry narrative theory. The R-ssian for.alists differentiated story 7fa,ula 9 fro. lot 7syu+het 9 73hklovsky, %FJ To.ashevsky, &&MF$9, and Eenette added to story 7histoire 9 and narrative 7r*cit 9 a third ter., narratin" 7narration 9, the action that rod-ces the narrative. ,n EenetteHs sche.e narrative disco-rse is the ob:ective inter.ediary connectin" story and narratin". / D'' / of narrative in the .odern a"e, and the 8-est, by both hero and novelist, for a "oal intrinsically beyond reali>ation. (or Bakhtin 7#99, the novel is *a "enre that is ever 8-estin", ever e0a.inin" itself and s-b:ectin" its established for.s to revie1*J for @-kYcs 7&$9, *the f-nda.ental for.deter.inin" otential of the novel is ob:ectivised as the sycholo"y of the novelHs heroes: they are seekers.* Got only the novel, ho1ever, b-t every narrative, incl-din" s-ch conventional for.s as oral .yth, folktale, and e ic, is in so.e .eas-re a 8-est. (or narrative, like .eta hor, is a vehicle, as Ricoe-r observes 719'4, i09, for se.antic innovation , and by its lace.ent in ti.e narrative reveals the te. oral process fro. 1hich this innovation res-lts. Ivery 8-est, beca-se it -nfolds in ti.e, takes sha e as a narrative, and every narrative, insofar as it does have sha e, is i. licitly a 8-est for the .eta horical tr-th in 1hich it finds, for the .o.ent 7since no tr-th can be .ore than rovisional9, its f-lfill.ent. Ivery 8-est, Todorov s-""ests 71419, .ay -lti.ately, like that of the Erail, be the 8-est for a narrative, since narrative is the form of the 8-est, the for. thro-"h 1hich it beco.es a co..-nicable e0 erience. B-t 1itho-t a Erail<or a "-ardian s irit, or so.e other livin" .eta hor of transcendence, so.e other fiction .ade ob:ective as vision<to "ive it direction, there co-ld be no 8-est, and th-s no narrative, to be"in 1ith. Garrative and .eta hor, 8-est and vision are as inse arably interde endent as rocess and str-ct-re, .ove.ent and stasis, beco.in" and bein". +s +lasdair Mac,ntyre, disc-ssin" the f-nda.ental i. ortance in h-.an lives of narratives co.binin"

*both an -n redictable and a artially teleolo"ical character* 7D1&9, has observed 7D199: *The -nity of a h-.an life is the -nity of a narrative 8-est. 4-ests so.eti.es fail, are fr-strated, abandoned or dissi ated into distractionsJ and h-.an lives .ay in all these 1ays also fail. B-t the only criteria for s-ccess or fail-re in a h-.an life as a 1hole are the criteria of s-ccess or fail-re in a narrated or toBbeB narrated 8-est.* (or s-ch a 8-est, Mac,ntyre adds, *is al1ays an ed-cation both as to the character of that 1hich is so-"ht and in selfkno1led"e.* B-t 1hat sha e can 1e ascribe to narrative in "eneral and the 8-est narrative in artic-larK ,n his Morphology of the %olktale , -blished in R-ssian in 19D' and translated into In"lish thirty years later, Pro ro osed 719&', D#9 that all R-ssian fairy tales 7or *1ondertales*9N%O *are of N%O Pro Hs intended title for his book 1as *Mor holo"y of the H(airy TaleH or H;ondertaleH* 7volshe,naya ska+ka 9, chan"ed by his -blisher to *Mor holo"y of the (olktale* 7ska+ka 9 719'4, F$9. The ter.inolo"y is f-rther conf-sed in In"lish not only by alternative translations 7*fairy tale* or *1onder tale*9 of his ter. for a s ecifically R-ssian ty e of folktale<and by Pro Hs fre8-ent -se of the .ore "eneral ter. ska+ka <b-t by the fact that, e0ce t in the title, the translator of the Morphology 7as revised in 19&'9 renders ska+ka as *tale* and narodnaya ska+ka as *folktale.* These inconsistencies have serio-sly affected inter retations of Pro by @AviB3tra-ss and others, es ecially since the In"lish translation of 19%' 1as the first in any lan"-a"e. / D'9 / one ty e in re"ard to their str-ct-re,* 1hen classified not by the.es b-t by functions . 2e distin"-ished thirtyBone of these, and observed that altho-"h not all occ-r in every tale, those that do so al1ays occ-r in the sa.e order: *The se8-ence of ele.ents . . . is strictly uniform * 7DD9. ,n Pro Hs analysis 7#4M#&9, the tale is set in .otion 1hen the villain har.s a fa.ily .e.ber, or 1hen a fa.ily .e.ber lacks or desires so.ethin"J the latter *sit-ation of ins-fficiency or lack . . . leads to 8-ests analo"o-s to those in the case of villainy.* Both f-nctions, 1hich are variations of one another, res-lt in a 8-est to re air the initial da.a"e or lack, the first by a *victi.i>ed hero* strivin" to -ndo an in:-ry, the second 7the e0 licit 8-est narrative9 by a *seeker* as irin" to a ease his -nsatisfied yearnin"s. Beca-se the folktale is a nearly -niversal for. of oral narrative 7if so.ethin" so illBdefined can be desi"nated a *for.*9, rovidin", alon" 1ith sacred .yths, a aradi". for the e ics and tales of literate c-lt-res, Pro Hs analysis has often been treated as an anato.y of narrative str-ct-res in "eneral. 3-ch an atte. t soon reveals, ho1ever, the abstractness and for.-laic ri"idity of red-cin" every narrative to a -nifor. se8-ence of thirtyBone 7"ive or take a fe19 f-nctions. This 1as one ob:ection @AviB3tra-ss 719F&, 1#DM##9 bro-"ht a"ainst Pro in his criti8-e of 19&$: *%ormalism destroys its o,/ect . ;ith Pro , it res-lts in the discovery that there e0ists in reality b-t one tale. . . . Before for.alis., 1e 1ere certainly -na1are of 1hat these tales had in co..on. 3ince for.alis., 1e have been de rived of any .eans of -nderstandin" ho1 they differ.* B-t Pro Hs intention, as he 1rites in res onse 719'4, F$9, *1as not to st-dy all the vario-s and co. le0 ty es of the folktaleJ , e0a.ined only one strikin"ly distinctive ty e, vi>., the folk 1ondertale* of R-ssian oral tradition, 1hich evinces the standardi>ation characteristic of .any for.-laic "enres of storytellin". Cnly 1hen his caref-lly deli.ited f-nctional ty olo"y is -n:-stifiably e0tended to other ty es of folk narrative, or 1hen still .ore s1ee in" clai.s are .ade, as by Ca. bell in The Hero 1ith a Thousand %aces or (rye in 3natomy of Criticism , to co. rehend all .yth in a sin"le archety e or *.ono.yth,* a co. osite 8-est narrative in .-lti le sta"es fo-nd thro-"ho-t a be1ilderin" s ectr-. of literary "enres,N&O do the char"es of abstraction and ri"idity, to say nothin" of N&O Ca. bell asserts 7#''9, 1ith the e0tre.e "enerality characteristic of his book, that *the .odern

heroBdeed .-st be that of 8-estin" to brin" to li"ht a"ain the lost +tlantis of the coBordinated so-l.* 2is association of the 8-est 1ith a arade of ?-n"ian archety es and cos.o"onic .yths tends to be .ore hortatory than analytic. (or (rye 71'F9, the 8-est is initially *the ele.ent that "ives literary for. to the ro.ance,* one of his fo-r archety es, or mythoi 7the others are co.edy, tra"edy, and ironyL satire9. B-t since each sta"e of ro.ance is later associated 719D9 1ith one of the archety es, 1hich all beco.e as ects of a *central -nifyin" .yth,* it a ears that the 8-est, 1hich e0tends thro-"h all fo-r sta"es 7each s-bdivided into si0 hases9, "ives for. not only to ro.ance b-t to a -nifyin" .ono.yth 7to ado t Ca. bellHs ter.9 in t1entyBfo-r hases. The red-ction of all .yths to one entails, for both Ca. bell and (rye, a kaleidosco ic .-lti lication of cate"ories 1hich does little to confir. or el-cidate the .ythHs -tative -nity. / D9$ / va"-eness and arbitrary citation of evidence, a ear validJ Pro .akes no s-ch clai.s. ,t is not Pro Hs linear or *synta".atic* analysis of the se8-ence of f-nctions co. osin" the R-ssian 1ondertale b-t @AviB3tra-ssHs * aradi".atic* analysis of oral .yths, 1ith its clai., based on a shaky lin"-istic analo"y, to discover -nderlyin" binary o ositions bet1een ra1 and cooked, nat-re and c-lt-re, and so on, that st-dents of folklore s-ch as )-ndes 719&4, 4DM4F, and 19&', 0iiM0iiiJ cf. @iber.an, 0i0M0liv9 have fo-nd arbitrary, s-b:ective, and i. ossible to verify. By contrast, Pro Hs contrib-tion, for )-ndes, is a .a:or theoretical breakthro-"h in the t1entiethBcent-ry st-dy of folklore, and one not e0cl-sively li.ited to the R-ssian 1ondertale. ,ts broader relevance is evident, ho1ever, only 1hen Pro Hs thirtyBone f-nctions are 1hittled do1n to the t1o rinci al *.otife.es* that )-ndes 719&4, &DM&#9, in a binary distinction of his o1n, finds essential: @ack 7@9 and @ack @i8-idated 7@@9, in a .ove.ent *fro. dise8-ilibri-. to e8-ilibri-..* 2ere is a sche.a, abstracted fro. Pro Hs, broad eno-"h to describe, on a very hi"h level of "enerality, the str-ct-re characteristic not only of Gorth +.erican ,ndian folktales b-t of the 8-est narrative<if not of narrative itself<in "eneral: a str-ct-re involvin" transcendence of initial ins-fficiency thro-"h attain.ent of a ne1, tho-"h al1ays rovisional, e8-ilibri-., in 1hich that ins-fficiency is .o.entarily overco.e. =et 1hat is sli"hted in )-ndesHs si. lified binary sche.a is recisely the indis ensable .ediation, or thirdness, of the 8-est itself: the movement by .eans of 1hich the hero either overco.es lack or fails 7as in .any Gorth +.erican *Cr he-s* tales9 to reach a "oal that lies, des ite his best efforts, beyond hi.. The .odel .ini.ally ade8-ate to the 8-est narrative .-st therefore be not a binary b-t a ternary .odel. ,t .-st have a .iddle 7as +ristotle -nderstood9 as 1ell as a be"innin" and an endJ and if the be"innin" is ty ically a dise8-ilibri-., ins-fficiency, or lack, and the end its resol-tion in a ne1 e8-ilibri-., or the reali>ation that s-ch a condition is -nattainable 7the alternative co.ic / D91 / and tra"ic o-tco.es of narrative9, the .iddle is the transitional state of the stillB-ndeter.ined 8-est, the necessary li.inal assa"e, in van Eenne Hs ter.s, fro. se aration, or disr- ted e8-ilibri-., to reinte"ration thro-"h -r osef-l transcendence of the initially "iven condition of thin"s. Garrative .ay be"in in lack and end in lack li8-idated 7or reaffir.ed9, b-t its cr-cial .iddle ter. is the -ncertain 8-est to transcend that initial deficiency: the eternal deficiency, erha s, of thin"s as they are. The str-ct-re of this .ediatin" 8-est, to 1hich the narrative o1es its .ove.ent in ti.e and th-s its e0istence, can no .ore be rescribed in advance or red-ced to a sin"le .odel or an infle0ible se8-ence of f-nctions or sta"es than the o-tco.e of the 8-est can be redictedJ the li.inality in 1hich the 8-est

takes lace is an *antiBstr-ct-ral* inbet1eenness, and atterned variability, as 1e have re eatedly seen, is essential to it. Garrative, like .eta hor, "ives rise to se.antic innovation , a rocess, Ricoe-r s-""ests 719'4, 99, that no redeter.ined str-ct-re can ever 1holly deli.itJ for the only str-ct-res ade8-ate to a "en-ine 8-est are the ne1 ones it brin"s into bein". The 8-est is narrative .ove.entJ its reality a he-ristic fictionJ its "oal a livin" .eta hor of transcendence. +nd the s ace of this erennial narrative e.braces its a-dience no less than its hero: in this, too, the 8-est is a .ediatin" thirdness. The reader of a story, like the hearer of a .yth or s ectator of a sha.anistic erfor.ance, *1ill only be"in to search for 7and so act-ali>e9 the .eanin",* ,ser 1rites 74#9, *if he does not kno1 it, and so it is the -nkno1n factors in the te0t that set hi. off on his 8-est,* a 8-est for .eanin" that -nites hi. 7thro-"h the narrative to 1hich he too is essential9 1ith the 8-est of his .a"nified alter e"o, the .ythic sha.an or hero, 1ho like1ise cannot f-lly kno1 in advance the "oal for 1hich he is searchin". The heroHs 8-est arallels and atterns that of the reader or listener, 1ho beco.es an active 7and indis ensable9 artici ant in a narrative that 1o-ld have no e0istence 1itho-t herJ in the heroHs 8-est she finds a aradi". for her o1n, 1hich only no1 beco.es 7intel9le"ible to her. (or fiction, ,ser too -nderstands 7%#9, *is a .eans of tellin" -s so.ethin" abo-t reality*: a reality that each reader .-st constr-ct by the creative interaction that constit-tes the search for .eanin", not of the te0t alone, b-t 7thro-"h the te0t that links the.9 of self and 1orld. The act of readin", like the s eech act, transcends the selfBreferential clos-re of "ra..atical or te0t-al sense 7(re"eHs Sinn 9 in the .eanin" 7(edeutung 9 o ened for each s eaker or reader by reference to the 1orld. *The ceaseless and inevitable 8-est for the .eanin" sho1s that in asse.blin" the sense 1e o-rselves beco.e a1are that so.ethin" has ha ened to -s, and so 1e try to find o-t its .eanin". . . . Meanin" is / D9D / the readerHs absor tion of the sense into his o1n e0istence* 71%$M%19JNFO and in this transfor.ative assi.ilation<corres ondin" to van Eenne Hs third sta"e of the rite of assa"e<the readerHs or listenerHs 8-est, like that of the hero or sha.an 1ho sho1s the 1ay, finds f-lfill.ent. To say that the 8-est is a narrative and its tr-th a fiction, its reality a .eta hor of transcendence, is not to red-ce it to a .ere rhetorical fi"-re, then, 1ith reference only to itselfJ for thro-"h this .ediatin" narrative the artici ant reader or listener, to 1ho. it is al1ays addressed and 1itho-t 1ho. it 1o-ld re.ain an -nact-ali>ed otentiality, beco.es herself the 8-estin" hero 1ho "oes beyond her "iven reality to seek the never f-lly deter.ined .eanin" of her o1n e0istence. Go narrative can f-lfill its f-nction 1itho-t res onse by a listener or readerJ no 8-est can attain its ob:ect 1itho-t "ivin" rise to f-rther 8-ests 1itho-t endin". This incessant res onse is the -lti.ate 7beca-se never final9 act of transcendence by 1hich the 8-est as narrative "oes on achievin" its transfor.ative "oal, th-s esca in" the clos-re that 1o-ld end and, by endin", ann-l it. To conte. orary deconstr-ctionist rhetoricians, the last sad heirs of a 3a-ss-rean str-ct-ralis. 1hose si"ns co-ld si"nify only the.selves, narrative .ove.ent, like rod-ction of .eanin", is a selfB defeatin" ill-sion that invariably r-ns a"ro-nd on the i. asse or *a oria* of lan"-a"e tra ed by its o1n inesca ably fi"-rative nat-re. Rhetoric, by allo1in" for t1o .-t-ally selfBdestr-ctive oints of vie1, * -ts an ins-r.o-ntable obstacle,* de Man 1rites 71#19, *in the 1ay of any readin" or -nderstandin".* The deconstr-ctionist arado0es, like those of *cr-el Teno* of Ilea in ancient ti.es, red-ce the a earance of .ove.ent to the 1eariso.e rec-rrence of stasis and reveal the ins- erable f-tility of any atte. ted transcendence, hence of any 8-est for the -n redictable or the ne1. Un.askin" of the lin"-istic or rhetorical a orias by 1hich 1e are eternally obstr-cted in o-r vain

search for a .eanin"less *.eanin"* beco.es in itself the one le"iti.ate "oal of o-r bleak intellect-al endeavors: the end beyond 1hich is nothin" b-t .ore of the sa.e. =et the a oria 1hich o-r .odern so hists see as the -nifor. end oint of .eanin"s -n.asked as verbal ill-sions is only the startin" oint, the indis ensable i. et-s, for the s irit-al 8-est, by 1hich the ne1 and -n redictable is bro-"ht into bein". Cnly after reco"ni>in" that 1e have co.e to an a arent i. asse 7 erha s thro-"h o-r o1n acedia or inertia9 that i. edes -s fro. .ovin" f-rther or fro. .ovin" at all, a labyB NFO , have chan"ed ,serHs *si"nificance* to *.eanin"* and his *.eanin"* to *sense,* to corres ond to the translations of (edeutung and Sinn , res ectively, -sed in citin" (re"e else1here. / D9# / rinth or dark 1ood in 1hich the ri"ht 1ay is lost<for in findin" .eta hors for o-r li"ht 1e have already be"-n to .ove beyond it<can 1e effect the diffic-lt se aration that initiates the ternary assa"e fro. o-r acc-sto.ed state to another that can never be kno1n till 1e have crossed the -ncertain threshold that links and divides the.. The s- re.e .aster of a oria, the -nchallen"ed s inner of see.in"ly inesca able verbal er le0ities, in o-r 1estern hiloso hical tradition is PlatoHs ironical 3ocrates, 1hose re -tation 7as Meno says and 3ocrates ackno1led"es9 1as to brin" others to the see.in"ly inesca able aralysis in 1hich he contin-ally fo-nd hi.self.N'O B-t the er le0ity of a .ind confronted by its o1n reso-rceless i. asse 1as never, for 3ocrates, an end to intellect-al endeavor b-t a necessary first ste to1ard the a1areness of i"norance that se arates the tr-ly 1ise fro. others and insti"ates the transfor.ative search for tr-th <as it does 7Meno '4c9 for the ->>led slave boy 1ho can only be"in to correct the fallacies of co..on sense after *he has fallen into a oria by reali>in" he does not kno1,* and, in conse8-ence of this cr-cial reali>ation, has only no1, for the first ti.e, 1anted to kno1. The 8-est is the active .indHs res onse to reco"nition of i. asse, yet its ob:ect 73ocrates says in e0 o-ndin" MenoHs dile..a9 can be neither the kno1n nor the 1holly -nkno1n 7Meno '$e9: *=o1o-ld not seek 1hat yo- kno1, for if yo- kno1 it yo- have no need to seek itJ nor 1hat yo- are i"norant of, for then yo- do not kno1 1hat to seek.* 3ocratesHs i..ensely fr-itf-l ost-late that the i..ortal so-l strives to re.e.ber 1hat it had revio-sly kno1n b-t has lar"ely for"otten 1as one resol-tion to this a oria of a oriasJ anamn8sis, or re.e.brance of an all b-t i..e.orial hylo"enetic ast, .ade it ossible for the hiloso hically trained .ind to seek an other1ise ina rehensible kno1led"e of bein". C-r alternative s-""estion that the s irit-al 8-est "ives sha e to a selfB transcendent i. -lse inherent in life, or in .atter itself<to their otential, that is, for directional develo .ent to1ard an evolvin" and al1ays -n redictable "oal<is erha s an - dated variation on PlatoHs: a variation fir.ly oriented, ho1ever, in its f-lly -r osef-l h-.an for., to1ard individ-ally variant e0 loration of the indeter.inate f-t-re rather than di. recollection of a chan"eless s- er ersonal ast. ,n either case, every hindrance is otentially a oint of de art-re, every a oria an o ort-nity to rene1 the 8-est for an ob:ect that cannot be kno1n 7to add to 3ocratesHs arado09 even 1hen fo-nd, since it is contin-ally bein" transfor.ed, and only th-s can satisfy the h-.an need for a transcendence that has no ter.in-s this side of death. ConB N'O Meno '$a 7*a-tos te a oreis kai to-s allo-s oieis a orein*9 and '$c 7*a-tos a or`n ho-t`s kai to-s allo-s oi` a orein*9J cf. Theaetetus 149a 7* oi` to-s anthr` o-s a orein*9.

/ D94 / tradictions and er le0ities there 1ill al1ays be once the so-l has se arated itself fro. the i. risonin" i"norance of the cave 1hich .-st be left behind if the 8-est is ever to be"in. *To reach an i. asse and to seek,* aporein kai +8tein, are for 3ocrates one and the sa.e, for the so-l that kno1s its o1n a oria *stirs - tho-"ht in itself* 7Repu,lic 5,,, %D4e9, thereby be"innin" the rocess that 1ill lead beyond initial aralysis and isolation thro-"h creative li.inal in8-iry to1ard a ne1, if al1ays rovisional, reinte"ration 1ith the -ncertain beyond. *To reco"ni>e a otential li.it,* Eo-ld 1rites 7199#, DF$9, *is to think abo-t tools of ossible transcendence.* This is the rocess of the s irit-al 8-est for sha.an and scientist, slave boy and hiloso her alike: the rocess thro-"h 1hich o-r evolvin" h-.anity, resol-tely trans"ressin" the contin-al i. asse of the "iven, ste s re eatedly forth in 8-est of the transfor.ative and al1ays f-t-re -nkno1n. *Gothin" to be done,* Istra"on tells 5ladi.ir at the be"innin" of 3a.-el BeckettHs tra"ico.edy 6aiting for $odot , 1hich ends 1ith the sta"e direction: *They do not move .* *6no1in" that nothin" need be done,* Eary 3nyder observes 719F4, 1$D9, *is 1here 1e be"in to .ove fro..* / D9% /

5I5 IO-RA!0Y
Abbre(iations
+++ Me.oirs Me.oirs of the +.erican +nthro olo"ical +ssociation

+MG2 B-lletin B-lletin of the +.erican M-se-. of Gat-ral 2istory +MG2 Pa ers +nthro olo"ical Pa ers of the +.erican M-se-. of Gat-ral 2istory B-lletin of the 3.ithsonian ,nstit-tion B-rea- of +.erican Ithnolo"y +nn-al Re ort of the 3.ithsonian ,nstit-tion B-rea- of +.erican Ithnolo"y Iournal of 3merican %olk.&ore Iournal of the Royal 3nthropological ;nstitute of

B+I B-lletin

B+I Re ort

I3% IR3;

$reat (ritain and ;reland SI3 UCP++I South1estern Iournal of 3nthropology University of California P-blications in +.erican +rchaeolo"y and Ithnolo"y

+or8s Consulte2
+arsleff, 2ans. 19'D. %rom &ocke to Saussure: #ssays on the Study of &anguage and ;ntellectual History . Minnea olis: University of Minnesota Press. +dair, ?a.es. 19&'. The History of the 3merican ;ndians: )articularly those 0ations ad/oining to the Mississippi, #ast and 6est %lorida, $eorgia, South and 0orth Carolina, and Airginia . Ge1 =ork: ?ohnson Re rint. 71st ed. @ondon, 1FF%.9 +driani, G. 3ee )o1ns, Richard Irskine. +lekseenko, I. +. 19&'. *The C-lt of the Bear a.on" the 6et 7=enisei Cstyaks9.* ,n )i]s>e"i 19&'a, 1F%M91. / D9& / +le0ander, 2artley B-rr. 19%#. The 6orld9s Rim: $reat Mysteries of the 0orth 3merican ;ndians . @incoln: University of Gebraska Press. +.oss, Pa.ela. 19F'. Coast Salish Spirit Gancing: The Survival of an 3ncestral Religion . 3eattle: University of ;ashin"ton Press. +ndre1s, @ynn 5. 19'1. Medicine 6oman . 3an (rancisco: 2ar er e Ro1. <<<. 19'4. %light of the Seventh Moon: The Teaching of the Shields . 3an (rancisco: 2ar er e Ro1. +nisi.ov, +. (. 19&#a. *Cos.olo"ical Conce ts of the Peo les of the Gorth.* ,n Michael, 1%FMDD9. 7Translation of Hosmologicheskiye predstavleniya narodov.Severa . Mosco1 and @enin"rad, 19%9.9 <<<. 19&#b. *The 3ha.anHs Tent of the Ivenks and the Cri"in of the 3ha.anistic Rite.* Trans. fro. Trudy lnstituta etnografii 3kademii nauk SSSR 1' 719%D9: 199MD#'. ,n Michael, '4M1D#. +rria"a, (ather Pablo ?ose h de. 19&'. The #:tirpation of ;dolatry in )eru . Trans. @. Clark 6eatin". @e0in"ton: University of 6ent-cky Press. 7Translation of &a e:tirpaciMn de la idolatr>a en el )erQ . @i.a, 1&D1.9 +tkinson, ?ane Monni". 19'9. The 3rt and )olitics of 6ana Shamanship . Berkeley and @os +n"eles: University of California Press. +-den, ;. 2. 19&1. *The 4-est 2ero.* Te:as Quarterly 4, no. 4: '1M9#. +-stin, ?. @. 19&D. Sense and Sensi,ilia . Reconstr-cted fro. .an-scri t notes by E. ?. ;arnock. C0ford: ClarendonJ r t. C0ford University Press, 19&4. +1olal-, ?. C.osade. 19F9. Joru,a (eliefs and Sacrificial Rites . @ondon: @on".an. +yala, (rancisco ?. 19F$. *Teleolo"ical I0 lanations in Ivol-tionary Biolo"y.* )hilosophy of Science

#F: 1M1%. Bachofen, ?.?. 19&F. Myth, Religion, and Mother Right: Selected 6ritings of I. I. (achofen . Trans. Ral h Manhei.. Princeton: Princeton University Press. 7Translation of Mutterrecht und -rreligion , ed. R-dolf Mar0. 3t-tt"art, 19D&.9 BZck.an, @o-ise, and fke 2-ltkrant>. 19F'. Studies in &app Shamanism . +cta Universitatis 3tockhol.iensis: 3tockhol. 3t-dies in Co. arative Reli"ion 1&. 3tockhol.: +l.8vist e ;icksell ,nternational, 19F'. Bacon, (rancis. 19#9. 0ovum "rganum . ,n Id1in +. B-rtt, ed., #nglish )hilosophers from (acon to Mill . Ge1 =ork: Modern @ibrary, D4M1D#. 7(irst -blished 1&D$.9 Bakhtin, M. M. 19'1. The Gialogic ;magination: %our #ssays . Id. Michael 2ol8-ist. Trans. Caryl I.erson and Michael 2ol8-ist. +-stin: University of Te0as Press. 7Translation of Aoprosy literatury i estetiki . Mosco1, 19F%.9 Balikci, +sen. 19F$. The 0etsilik #skimo . Earden City, G.=.: Gat-ral 2istory Press. Barbea-, Mari-s. 19%'. Medicine.Men on the 0orth )acific Coast . Gational M-se-. of Canada B-lletin no. 1%D, +nthro olo"ical 3eries no. 4D. Ctta1a: )e art.ent of Gorthern +ffairs and Gational Reso-rces. Barber, 6arin. 19'1. *2o1 Man Makes Eod in ;est +frica: =or-ba +ttit-des To1ards the Crisa.* 3frica %1: FD4M4%. Barbo-r, Phili @., ed. 19&9. The Iamesto1n Aoyages -nder the %irst Charter, BRSRFBRST . D vols. ;orks ,ss-ed by the 2akl-yt 3ociety, Dd ser., no. 1#F. Ca.brid"e: Ca.brid"e University Press. Barnett, 2o.er. 19%%. The Coast Salish of (ritish Colum,ia . University of Cre"on / D9F / Mono"ra hs, 3t-dies in +nthro olo"y, no. 4. I-"ene: University of Cre"on Press. Barno-1, 5ictor. 19%$. 3cculturation and )ersonality among the 6isconsin Chippe1a . +++ Me.oirs, no. FD. Barth, (redrik. 19F%. Ritual and Hno1ledge among the (aktaman of 0e1 $uinea . Ge1 2aven: =ale University Press. Bartolo.A, Mi"-el +lberto. 19FF. "rekuera Royhendu Olo !ue escuchamos en sueLosP: shamanismo y religiMn entre los 3vK HatQ #t* del )araguay . 3erie +ntro ol]"ica 3ocial 1F. Me0ico: ,nstit-to ,ndi"enista ,ntera.ericano. Bartra., ;illia.. 19D'. Travels of 6illiam (artram . Id. Mark 5an )oren. Ge1 =ork: )overJ r t. 19%%. 71st ed., Travels through 0orth and South Carolina, $eorgia, #ast U 6est %lorida . . . . Philadel hia, 1F91.9 Basso, Illen B. 19F#. The Halapalo ;ndians of Central (ra+il . Ge1 =ork: 2olt, Rinehart and ;inston. Basso, 6eith 2. 19F#. The Ci,ecue 3pache . Ge1 =ork: 2olt, Rinehart and ;inston. Bastide, Ro"er. 19&1. " Candom,l* da (ahia ORito 0agNP . Trans. Maria ,sa-ra Pereira de 4-eiro>. 3Xo Pa-lo: Co. anhia Iditora Gacional. 7Translation of &e Candom,l* de (ahia . Paris, 19%1.9 <<<. 19F#. #studos 3fro.(rasileiros . 3Xo Pa-lo: Iditora Pers ectiva.

<<<. 19F'. The 3frican Religions of (ra+il: To1ard a Sociology of the ;nterpenetration of Civili+ations . Trans. 2elen 3ebba. Balti.ore: ?ohns 2o kins University Press. 7Translation of &es Religions 3fro.(r*siliennes . Paris, 19&$.9 Bastien, ?ose h ;. 19F'. Mountain of the Condor: Metaphor and Ritual in an 3ndean 3yllu . 3t. Pa-l: ;est. Bates, Ili>abeth. 19F&. &anguage and Conte:t: The 3c!uisition of )ragmatics . Ge1 =ork: +cade.ic Press. Bateson, Ere"ory. 19%'. 0aven: 3 Survey of the )ro,lems Suggested ,y a Composite )icture of a 0e1 $uinea Tri,e Gra1n from Three )oints of Aie1 . Dd ed. 3tanford, Calif.: 3tanford University Press. 71st ed. @ondon, 19#&.9 Beals, Ral h @. 194#. The 3,original Culture of the CKhita ;ndians. ;,ero.3mericana 19. <<<. 194%a. The Contemporary Culture of the CKhita ;ndians . B+I B-lletin 14D. <<<. 194%b. *Ithnolo"y of the ;estern Mi0e.* UCP++I 4D, no. 1, 1M1#9. Bean, @o1ell ?. 19FD. Mukat9s )eople: The Cahuilla ;ndians of Southern California . Berkeley and @os +n"eles: University of California Press. <<<. 19F&a. *Po1er and ,ts + lications in Gative California.* ,n Bean and Blackb-rn, 4$FMD$. <<<. 19F&b. *3ocial Cr"ani>ation in Gative California.* ,n Bean and Blackb-rn, 99M1D#. <<<. 19F'. *Cah-illa.* ,n 2ei>er, %F%M'F. <<<, and Tho.as C. Blackb-rn, eds. 19F&. 0ative Californians: 3 Theoretical Retrospective . Ra.ona, Calif.: Ballena Press. <<<, and (lorence C. 3hi ek. 19F'. *@-iseWo.* ,n 2ei>er, %%$M&#. <<<, and 3ylvia Brakke 5ane. 19F'. *C-lts and Their Transfor.ations.* ,n 2ei>er, &&DMFD. / D9' / <<<. 3ee also Blackb-rn, Tho.as C. Beattie, ?ohn. 19&4. *The Ehost )ance C-lt in B-nyoro.* #thnology #: 1DFM%1. <<<. 19&9. *3 irit Medi-.shi in B-nyoro.* ,n Beattie and Middleton, 1%9MF$. <<<, and ?ohn Middleton, eds. 19&9. Spirit Mediumship and Society in 3frica . Ge1 =ork: +fricana. Beckett, 3a.-el. 19%4. 6aiting for $odot: Tragicomedy in T1o 3cts . Ge1 =ork: Erove. Beidel.an, T. C. 19&#. *;itchcraft in Uka"-r-.* ,n Middleton and ;inter, %FM9'. Bellah, Robert G. 19%9. *)-rkhei. and 2istory.* 3merican Sociological Revie1 D4: 44FM&1. <<<. 19F$. (eyond (elief: #ssays on Religion in a )ost.Traditional 6orld . Ge1 =ork: 2ar er e Ro1. Belo, ?ane. 19&$. Trance in (ali . Ge1 =ork: Col-.bia University Press. Benedict, R-th (-lton. 19DD. *The 5ision in Plains C-lt-re.* 3merican 3nthropologist , n.s., D4: 1MD#. <<<. 19D#. *The Conce t of the E-ardian 3 irit in Gorth +.erica.* +++ Me.oirs, no. D9, #M9F. <<<. 19#4. )atterns of Culture . Boston: 2o-"hton Mifflin.

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=ork: Basic Books. <<<. 3ee also 3ylva, 6athy. B-echler, 2ans C. 19'$. The Masked Media: 3ymara %iestas and Social ;nteraction in the (olivian Highlands . The 2a"-e: Mo-ton. B-l.er, R. G. 2. 19&%. *The 6yaka of the ;estern 2i"hlands.* ,n @a1rence and Me""itt, 1#DM&1. B-n>el, R-th. 19#D. *,ntrod-ction to T-Wi Cere.onialis.*J *T-Wi Cri"in Myths*J *T-Wi Rit-al Poetry*J *T-Wi 6atcinas.* ,n (ortyB3eventh B+I Re ort for 19D9M#$, 4&FM%44J %4%M&$9J &11M'#%J '#FM1$'&. <<<. 19%D. Chichicastenango: 3 $uatemalan Aillage . P-blications of the +.erican Ithnolo"ical 3ociety DD. @oc-st 5alley, G.=.: ?. ?. +-"-stin. B-rkert, ;alter. 19F9. Structure and History in $reek Mythology and Ritual . Berkeley and @os +n"eles: University of California Press. B-shnell, )avid ,., ?r. 19$9. The Chocta1 of (ayou &acom,, St. Tammany )arish, &ouisiana . B+I B-lletin 4'. B-sia, 6. +. 19%4. *The +shanti.* ,n (orde 19%4, 19$MD$9. B-tt, +-drey. 19&D. *RAalitA et ,dAal dans la rati8-e cha.ani8-e.* &9Homme: Revue franWaise de l9anthropologie D, no. # 73e t.M)ec. 19&D9: %M%D. B-0ton, ?ean. 19&#. *Mandari ;itchcraft.* ,n Middleton and ;inter, 99M1D1. <<<. 19F#. Religion and Healing in Mandari . C0ford: Clarendon. Cabrera, @ydia. 19F%. #l Monte: ;g,o.%inda. #1e "risha. Aititi 0finda . 7Gotas sobre las reli"iones, la .a"ia, las s- ersticiones y el folklore de los ne"ros, criollos y el -eblo de C-ba.9 4th ed. Mia.i: Idiciones Universal. Ca. bell, ?ere.y. 19'D. $rammatical Man: ;nformation, #ntropy, &anguage, and &ife . Ge1 =ork: 3i.on and 3ch-ster. Ca. bell, ?ose h. 19%9. The Masks of $od: )rimitive Mythology . Ge1 =ork: 5ikin". <<<. 19&'. The Hero 1ith a Thousand %aces . Dd ed. Princeton: Princeton University Press. 71st ed. Princeton, 1949.9 Ca. bell, Robin G., and Phili T. 3.ith, eds. 19F'. Recent 3dvances in the )sychology of &anguage: &anguage Gevelopment and Mother Child ;nteraction . Proceedin"s of the first half of the 3tirlin" Psycholo"y of @an"-a"e Conference . . . , 19F&. Ge1 =ork and @ondon: Plen-. Press. Carneiro, Idison. 19&1. Candom,l*s da (ahia . #d ed. Rio de ?aneiro: Con8-ista. Carrasco, Pedro. 19&1. *The CivilBReli"io-s 2ierarchy in Mesoa.erican Co..-nities: PreB3 anish Back"ro-nd and Colonial )evelo .ent.* 3merican 3nthropologist , n.s., &#: 4'#M9F. <<<. 19F$. *Tarascan (olk Reli"ion, Christian or Pa"anK* ,n ;alter Eoldsch.idt and 2arry 2oi:er, eds., The Social 3nthropology of &atin 3merica: #ssays / #$D / in Honor of Ralph &eon (eals . @atin +.erican 3t-dies 14. @os +n"eles, #M1%. Cassirer, Irnst. 19%%. The )hilosophy of Sym,olic %orms . 1: &anguage . D: Mythical Thought . Trans. Ral h Manhei.. Ge1 2aven: =ale University Press. 7Translation of )hilosophie der sym,olischen

%ormen: Gie Sprache' Gas mythische Genken . Berlin, 19D#, 19D%.9 Castaneda, Carlos. 19&'. The Teachings of Gon Iuan: 3 Ja!ui 6ay of Hno1ledge . Berkeley and @os +n"eles: University of California PressJ r t. Ge1 =ork: Pocket Books, 19F4. Catlin, Eeor"e. 19&F. ".kee.pa: 3 Religious Ceremony, and "ther Customs of the Mandans . Ge1 2aven: =ale University PressJ r t. @incoln: University of Gebraska Press, 19F&. 71st ed. @ondon and Philadel hia, 1'&F.9 <<<. 19F#. &etters and 0otes on the Manners, Customs, and Conditions of the 0orth 3merican ;ndians. 6ritten during #ight Jears9 Travel OBXECFBXETP amongst the 6ildest Tri,es of ;ndians in 0orth 3merica . D vols. Ge1 =ork: )over. 71st ed. @ondon, 1'44.9 Ca-dill, Iileen. 3ee Br-ner, ?ero.e 3. Chad1ick, Gora 6. 19#&. *The 3 irit-al ,deas and I0 eriences of the Tatars of Central +sia.* IR3; &&: D91M#D9. <<<. 19&9. *The I ic Poetry of the T-rkic Peo les of Central +sia.* ,n 2. M-nro Chad1ick and Gora 6. Chad1ick, The $ro1th of &iterature , vol. # 7Ca.brid"e: Ca.brid"e University Press, 194$9, 1MDD&J rev. in Gora 6. Chad1ick and 5ictor Thir.-nsky, "ral #pics of Central 3sia . @ondon: Ca.brid"e University Press, 1MD&F. 7Cri"inal title: *The Cral @iterat-re of the Tatars.*9 Cha"non, Ga oleon +. 19FF. JanomamY: The %ierce )eople . Dd ed. Ge1 =ork: 2olt, Rinehart and ;inston. 71st ed. 19&'.9 Cha. lain, 3a.-el de. 19$F. Aoyages of Samuel de Champlain . Id. ;. @. Erant. Ge1 =ork: 3cribnerHs. 7(irst -blished 1&1#M1&#D.9 Cha .an, +nne. 19'D. Grama and )o1er in a Hunting Society: The Selk9nam of Tierra del %uego . Ca.brid"e: Ca.brid"e University Press. Cherry, Colin. 19&&. "n Human Communication: 3 Revie1, 3 Survey, and a Criticism . Dd ed. Ca.brid"e, Mass.: M,T Press. 71st ed. 19%F.9 Cho.sky, Goa.. 19%F. Syntactic Structures . The 2a"-e: Mo-ton. <<<. 19&4. Current ;ssues in &inguistic Theory . The 2a"-e: Mo-ton. <<<. 19&%. 3spects of the Theory of Synta: . Ca.brid"e, Mass.: M,T Press. <<<. 19&&. Cartesian &inguistics: 3 Chapter in the History of Rationalist Thought . Ge1 =ork: 2ar er e Ro1. <<<. 19F1. )ro,lems of Hno1ledge and %reedom . The R-ssell @ect-res. Ge1 =ork: Pantheon. <<<. 19FDa. &anguage and Mind . Inlar"ed edition. Ge1 =ork: 2arco-rt Brace ?ovanovich. <<<. 19FDb. Studies on Semantics in $enerative $rammar . The 2a"-e: Mo-ton. <<<. 19F#. %or Reasons of State . Ge1 =ork: Pantheon. <<<. 19F%. Reflections on &anguage . Ge1 =ork: Rando. 2o-se. <<<. 19FF. #ssays on %orm and ;nterpretation . Ge1 =ork: Gorth 2olland. <<<. 19F9. &anguage and Responsi,ility . Based on conversations 1ith Mitso/ #$# /

Ronat. Trans. ?ohn 5iertel. Ge1 =ork: Pantheon. 7Translation of Gialogues avec Mitsou Ronat . Paris, 19FF.9 <<<. 19'$. Rules and Representations . Ge1 =ork: Col-.bia University Press. <<<. 3ee also PiattelliBPal.arini, Massi.o. Ch-kovsky, 6ornei. 19&#. %rom T1o to %ive . Trans. and ed. Miria. Morton. Berkeley and @os +n"eles: University of California Press. 7Translation of Malen9kie deti Z&ittle Children[ . @enin"rad, 19D'.9 Cie>a de @e]n, Pedro de. 19%9. The ;ncas . Trans. 2arriet de Cnis. Id. 5ictor ;olf"an" von 2a"en. Gor.an: University of Cklaho.a Press. 7Translation of &a CrMnica del )erQ . Part 1, 3eville, 1%%#J art D, Madrid, 1''$.9 Clarke, 6enneth ;endell. 19%'. 3 Motif.;nde: of the %olktales of Culture 3rea A, 6est 3frica . Ph.). diss., )e art.ent of (olklore, ,ndiana University. +nn +rbor, Mich.: University Microfil.s, 19&4. Cobo, P. BernabA. 19%&. ",ras . D vols. Biblioteca de +-tores Is aWoles 91M9D. Madrid: +tlas. Codrin"ton, R. 2. 1'91. The Melanesians: Studies in Their 3nthropology and %olk &ore . C0ford: ClarendonJ r t. Ge1 =ork: )over, 19FD. Coe, Michael ). 19&&. The Maya . Ge1 =ork and ;ashin"ton: Prae"er. Collins, ?-ne McCor.ick. 19F4. Aalley of the Spirits: The -pper Skagit ;ndians of 6estern 6ashington . 3eattle: University of ;ashin"ton Press. Colson, Ili>abeth. 19&9. *3 irit Possession a.on" the Ton"a of Ta.bia.* ,n Beattie and Middleton, &9M1$#. Coo er, ?ohn M. 1944. *The 3hakin" Tent Rite a.on" Plains and (orest +l"on8-ians.* )rimitive Man 1F: &$M'4. Co 1ay, E. 1'%$. The Traditional History and Characteristic Sketches of the "/i,1ay 0ation . @ondon: Charles Eil inJ r t. Toronto: Coles P-blishin" Co., 19FD. Co-rlander, 2arold. 19&$. The Grum and the Hoe: &ife and &ore of the Haitian )eople . Berkeley and @os +n"eles: University of California Press. Cra an>ano, 5incent, and 5ivian Earrison, eds. 19FF. Case Studies in Spirit )ossession . Ge1 =ork: ?ohn ;iley e 3ons. C-rtis, Id1ard 3. 19$FM19#$. The 0orth 3merican ;ndian: (eing a Series of Aolumes )icturing and Gescri,ing the ;ndians of the -nited States, the Gominion of Canada, and 3laska . Id. (rederick ;ebb 2od"e. D$ vols. R t. Ge1 =ork and @ondon: ?ohnson Re rint, 19F$. C-shin", (rank 2a.ilton. 19F9. 5uLi: Selected 6ritings of %rank Hamilton Cushing . Id. ?esse Ereen. @incoln: University of Gebraska Press. C>a licka, M. +. 1914. 3,original Si,eria: 3 Study in Social 3nthropology . C0ford: Clarendon. )ar1in, Charles. 1'%9J r t. 19&'. The "rigin of Species ,y Means of 0atural Selection' or, The )reservation of %avoured Races in the Struggle for &ife . Id. ?. ;. B-rro1. 2ar.onds1orth: Pen"-in. <<<. 19#&. The Gescent of Man and Selection in Relation to Se: . 7Printed 1ith The "rigin of Species .9 Ge1 =ork: Modern @ibrary. 71st ed. @ondon, 1'F1.9 <<<. 19&D. The Aoyage of the (eagle . Id. @eonard In"el. Earden City, G.=.: )o-bleday +nchor. 71st ed. @ondon, 1'#9J rev. 1'4%, 1'&$.9

)avidBGeel, +le0andra. 19#1. Magic and Mystery in Ti,et . @ondon: The Bodley / #$4 / 2eadJ r t. Ge1 =ork: Pen"-in, 19F1. 7Cri"inal title: 6ith Mystics and Magicians in Ti,et . Translation of )armi les mysti!ues et les magiciens du Ti,et . Paris, 19D9.9 <<<, and the @a.a =on"den. 19##J rev. ed. 19%9. The Superhuman &ife of $esar of &ing . Trans. 1ith the collaboration of 5iolet 3ydney. @ondon: Rider and Co. )eardorff, Merle 2. 19%1. *The Reli"ion of 2andso.e @ake: ,ts Cri"in and )evelo .ent.* ,n ;illia. G. (enton, ed., Symposium on &ocal Giversity in ;ro!uois Culture . B+I B-lletin 149. de @a"-na, (rederica. 19FD. -nder Mount Saint #lias: The History and Culture of the Jakutat Tlingit . # arts. 3.ithsonian Contrib-tions to +nthro olo"y, vol. F. ;ashin"ton, ).C.: 3.ithsonian ,nstit-tion Press. de @a"-na, Erace +ndr-s. 19DF. Speech: ;ts %unction and Gevelopment . Ge1 2aven: =ale University PressJ r t. Bloo.in"ton: ,ndiana University Press, 19&#. )eMallie, Ray.ond ?., ed. 19'4. The Si:th $randfather: (lack #lk9s Teachings $iven to Iohn $. 0eihardt . @incoln: University of Gebraska Press. de Man, Pa-l. 19F9. 3llegories of Reading . Ge1 2aven: =ale University Press. )ens.ore, (rances. 191$. Chippe1a Music . B+I B-lletin 4%. <<<. 191'. Teton Siou: Music . B+I B-lletin &1. <<<. 19#Da. Chippe1a Customs . B+I B-lletin '&. <<<. 19#Db. Menominee Music . B+I B-lletin 1$D. )eren, Maya. 19%#. Givine Horsemen: Aoodoo $ods of Haiti . @ondon: Tha.es e 2-dsonJ r t. Ge1 =ork: )ell, 19FD. 7Cri"inal s-btitle: The &iving $ods of Haiti .9 )e1dney, 3el1yn. 19F%. The Sacred Scrolls of the Southern "/i,1ay . Toronto: University of Toronto Press, for the Elenbo1B+lberta ,nstit-te, Cal"ary, +lberta. )i]s>e"i, 5., ed. 19&'a. )opular (eliefs and %olklore Tradition in Si,eria . Bloo.in"ton: ,ndiana University. <<<. 19&'b. *The Proble. of the Ithnic 2o.o"eneity of Tofa 76ara"as9 3ha.anis..* ,n )i]s>e"i 19&'a, D#9M#D9. )i0on, Roland B. 19$F. *The 3hasta.* +MG2 B-lletin 1F, art %, #'1M49'. <<<. 19$'. *3o.e +s ects of the +.erican 3ha.an.* ?+( D1: 1M1D. )ob>hansky, Theodosi-s. 19F$. $enetics of the #volutionary )rocess . Ge1 =ork and @ondon: Col-.bia University Press. <<<. 19F4. *Chance and Creativity in Ivol-tion.* ,n (rancisco ?osA +yala and )ob>hansky, eds., Studies in the )hilosophy of (iology: Reduction and Related )ro,lems . @ondon: Mac.illan, #$FM#'. )odds, I. R. 19%1. The $reeks and the ;rrational . 3ather Classical @ect-res, vol. D%. Berkeley and @os +n"eles: University of California Press. )onner, (lorinda. 19'D. Sha,ono . Ge1 =ork: )elacorte PressJ r t. Ge1 =ork: )ell, 19'#.

)orsey, Eeor"e +. 19$4. Traditions of the Skidi )a1nee . Boston: 2o-"hton Mifflin, for the +.erican (olkB@ore 3ociety. <<<. 19$&. *@e"end of the Teton 3io-0 Medicine Pi e.* ?+( 19: #D&MD9. )o-"las, Mary. 19&&. )urity and Ganger: 3n 3nalysis of Concepts of )ollution and Ta,oo . @ondon: Ro-tled"e. )o1ns, Richard Irskine. 19%&. The Religion of the (are9e.Speaking Torad/a of Cen. / #$% / tral Cele,es . The 2a"-e: I0celsior. 73-..ary and analysis of G. +driani and +. C. 6r-i:t, Ge (are9e. Sprekende Torad/as van Midden.Cele,es . Batavia, 191DJ Dd ed. +.sterda., 19%1M%D.9 )o>ier, Id1ard P. 19&&a. Hano: 3 Te1a ;ndian Community in 3ri+ona . Ge1 =ork: 2olt, Rinehart and ;inston. <<<. 19&&b. The )ue,lo ;ndians of 0orth 3merica . Ge1 =ork: 2olt, Rinehart and ;inston. )reyf-s, 2-bert @. 19F9. 6hat Computers Can9t Go: The &imits of 3rtificial ;ntelligence . Rev. ed. Ge1 =ork: 2ar er e Ro1. 71st ed. 19FD.9 )r-cker, Phili . 19%1. The 0orthern and Central 0ootka Tri,es . B+I B-lletin 144. <<<. 19%%. ;ndians of the 0orth1est Coast . Ge1 =ork: McEra1B2illJ r t. Earden City, G.=.: Gat-ral 2istory Press, 19&#. <<<. 19&%. Cultures of the 0orth )acific Coast . 3an (rancisco: Chandler. )-Bois, Constance Eoddard. 19$'. *The Reli"ion of the @-iseWo ,ndians of 3o-thern California.* UCP++I ', no. #, &9M1'&. )-Bois, Cora. 19#%. *;int- Ithno"ra hy.* UCP++I #&, no. 1: 1M14F. )-..ett, Michael. 19F#. %rege: )hilosophy of &anguage . @ondon: )-ck1orth. )-ndes, +lan. 19&D. *IarthB)iver: Creation of the Mytho oeic Male.* 3merican 3nthropologist , &4: 1$#DM%1. R t. in @essa and 5o"t, DF'M'9. <<<. 19&4. The Morphology of 0orth 3merican ;ndian %olktales . 2elsinki: 3-o.alainen Tiedeakate.ia, +cade.ia 3cientiar-. (ennica. <<<. 19&'. *,ntrod-ction to the 3econd Idition* of Pro 19&', 0iM0vii. )-rYn, (ray )ie"o. 19F1. (ook of the $ods and Rites and the 3ncient Calendar . Trans. 2ernando 2orcasitas and )oris 2ayden. Gor.an: University of Cklaho.a Press. 7Translation of Ritos y fiestas de los antiguos me:icanos . ;ritten 1%F&MF'J -b. Madrid, 1'%4.9 )-rkhei., I.ile. 191%. The #lementary %orms of the Religious &ife . Trans. ?ose h ;ard 31ain. @ondon: +llen e Un1inJ r t. Ge1 =ork: (ree Press, 19&%. 7Translation of &es %ormes *l*mentaires de la vie religieuse . Paris, 191D.9 Iast.an, Charles +le0ander 7Chiyesa9. 1911. The Soul of the ;ndian: 3n ;nterpretation . Boston: 2o-"hton MifflinJ r t. @incoln: University of Gebraska Press, 19'$. Idel.an, Eerald M. 199D. (right 3ir, (rilliant %ire: "n the Matter of Mind . Ge1 =ork: Basic Books. Id.-nds, R. )avid. 19'#. The Sha1nee )rophet . @incoln: University of Gebraska Press.

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Ivans, ,vor 2. G. 19D#. Studies in Religion, %olk.&ore, and Custom in (ritish 0orth (orneo and the Malay )eninsula . Ca.brid"e: Ca.brid"e University PressJ r t. @ondon: (rank Cass, 19F$. IvansBPritchard, I. I. 19D9. *The Mor holo"y and (-nction of Ma"ic: + Co. arative 3t-dy of Trobriand and Tande Rit-al and 3 ells.* 3merican 3nthropologist , n.s., #1: &19M41. <<<. 19#F. 6itchcraft, "racles and Magic among the 3+ande . C0ford: Clarendon. <<<. 19%&. 0uer Religion . Ge1 =ork: C0ford University Press. <<<. 19&F. The 5ande Trickster . C0ford: Clarendon. IvansB;ent>, ;. =., ed. 19&$. The Ti,etan (ook of the Gead' or, The 3fter.Geath / #$F / #:periences on the (ardo )lane, according to &ama Ha+i Ga1a.Sandup9s #nglish Rendering . @ondon: C0ford University Press. I1ers, ?ohn C. 19%'. The (lackfeet: Raiders on the 0orth1estern )lains . Gor.an: University of Cklaho.a Press. (abre"a, 2oracio, ?r., and )aniel B. 3ilver. 19F#. ;llness and Shamanistic Curing in 5inacantan: 3n #thnomedical 3nalysis . 3tanford, Calif.: 3tanford University Press. (akho-ri, 2ani. 19&'. *The Tar C-lt in an I"y tian 5illa"e.* 3nthropological Quarterly 41: 49M&%. (aron, @o-is C. 19&4. Ha1ks of the Sun: Mapuche Morality and ;ts Ritual 3ttri,utes . Pittsb-r"h: University of Pittsb-r"h Press. <<<. 19&'. The Mapuche ;ndians of Chile . Ge1 =ork: 2olt, Rinehart and ;inston. <<<. 3ee also 3te1ard, ?-lian 2. (eible.an, ?a.es 6. 194&. 3n ;ntroduction to the )hilosophy of Charles S. )eirce: ;nterpreted as a System . Ge1 Crleans: 2a-serJ r t. Ca.brid"e, Mass.: M,T Press, 19F$. 7Cri"inally titled 3n ;ntroduction to )eirce9s )hilosophy .9 (enton, ;illia. G. 19&D. *This ,sland, the ;orld on the T-rtleHs Back.* ?+( F%: D'#M#$$. <<<. 19F'. *Gorthern ,ro8-oian C-lt-re Patterns.* ,n Tri""er 19F', D9&M#D1. <<<. 3ee also Parker, +rth-r C. (eraca, 3te hen I. 19&#. 6akinyan: Contemporary Teton Gakota Religion . M-se-. of the Plains ,ndian 3t-dies in Plains +nthro olo"y and 2istory, no. D. Bro1nin", Mont.: B-rea- of ,ndian +ffairs, )e art.ent of the ,nterior, Blackfeet +"ency. (er., 5er"ili-s, ed. 19%$. %orgotten Religions O;ncluding Some &iving )rimitive ReligionsP . Ge1 =ork: The Philoso hical @ibrary. (ia1oo, ). 6. 19F&. *Characteristic (eat-res of I1e +ncestor ;orshi .* ,n Ge1ell, D&#M'1. (ield, M.?. 19#F. Religion and Medicine of the $? )eople . @ondon: C0ford University Press. <<<. 19&$. Search for Security: 3n #thno.)sychiatric Study of Rural $hana . Ivanston, ,ll.: Gorth1estern University Press. <<<. 19&9. *3 irit Possession in Ehana.* ,n Beattie and Middleton, #M1#. (ien- BRiordan, +nn. 19'#. The 0elson ;sland #skimo: Social Structure and Ritual Gistri,ution .

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<<<. 19D$. 6hen (uffalo Ran . Ge1 2aven: =ale University PressJ r t. Gor.an: University of Cklaho.a Press, 19&&. <<<. 19D#. The Cheyenne ;ndians: Their History and 6ays of &ife . D vols. Ge1 2aven: =ale University PressJ r t. @incoln: University of Gebraska Press, 19FD. Eroos, 6arl. 19F&. *The Play of Man: Teasin" and @oveBPlay.* (ro. The )lay of Man . Trans. Ili>abeth @. Bald1in. @ondon: 2eine.ann, 19$1. ,n Br-ner, ?olly, and 3ylva, &'M'#. E-iterasB2ol.es, C. 19&1. )erils of the Soul: The 6orld Aie1 of a T+ot+il ;ndian . Ge1 =ork: (ree Press of Elencoe. E-sinde, Martin. 19#1. Gie %euerland ;ndianer: #rge,nisse meiner vier %orschungsreisen in den Iahren BTBX ,is BTC], unternommen in 3uftrage des Ministerio de ;nstrucciMn pQ,lica de Chile . 5ol. 1: Gie Selk9nam: Aom &e,en und Genken eines I2gervolkes auf der grossen %euerlandinsel . MVdlin" bei ;ien: 5erla" der internationalen Teitschrift *+nthro os.* <<<. 19#F. Gie %euerland ;ndianer . 5ol. D: Gie Jamana: Aom &e,en und Genken der 6assernomaden am Hap Hoorn . MVdlin" bei ;ien: 5erla" der internationalen Teitschrift *+nthro os.* / #1D / <<<. 19F%. %olk &iterature of the Selknam ;ndians: Martin $usinde9s Collection of Selknam 0arratives . Id. ?ohannes ;ilbert. @os +n"eles: UC@+ @atin +.erican Center P-blications. 7Trans. fro. Gie %euerland ;ndianer , vol. 1.9 <<<. 19&1. The Jamana: The &ife and Thought of the 6ater 0omads of Cape Horn . % vols. Trans. (rieda 3ch[t>e. Ge1 2aven: 2-.an Relations +rea (iles. 7Translation of Gie %euerland ;ndianer , vol. D.9 2aberland, Iike, Meinhardt 3ch-ster, and 2el.-t 3tra-be, eds. 19F4. %estschrift f4r 3d. #. Iensen . D vols. M-nich: 6la-s Renner. 2aeberlin, 2er.an 6. 191'. 3BITIT)+4, + 3ha.anistic Perfor.ance of the Coast 3alish.* 3merican 3nthropologist , n.s., D$: D49M%F. 2aeberlin, 2er.ann, and Irna E-nther. 19#$. *The ,ndians of P-"et 3o-nd.* -niversity of 6ashington )u,lications in 3nthropology 4, no. 1: 1M'#. 2aile, (ather Berard, C.(.M. 19'1. The -p1ard Moving and #mergence 6ay . Id. 6arl ;. @-ckert. @incoln: University of Gebraska Press. 2alliday, M. +. 6. 19F#. #:plorations in the %unctions of &anguage . @ondon: Id1ard +rnoldJ r t. Ge1 =ork: Ilsevier GorthB2olland, 19FF. <<<. 19F%. &earning Ho1 to Mean: #:plorations in the Gevelopment of &anguage . @ondon: Id1ard +rnoldJ r t. Ge1 =ork: Ilsevier, 19FF. 2allo1ell, +. ,rvin". 19D&. *Bear Cere.onialis. in the Gorthern 2e.is here.* 3merican 3nthropologist , n.s., D': 1M1F%. <<<. 194D. The Role of Con/uring in Saulteau: Society . P-blications of the Philadel hia +nthro olo"ical 3ociety, vol. D. Philadel hia: University of Pennsylvania PressJ r t. Ge1 =ork: Ccta"on, 19F1. <<<. 19%%. Culture and #:perience . Philadel hia: University of Pennsylvania Press.

<<<. 19&$. *C:ib1a Cntolo"y, Behavior, and ;orld 5ie1.* ,n 3tanley )ia.ond, ed. Culture in History: #ssays in Honor of )aul Radin . Ge1 =ork: Col-.bia University Press, 19%D. R t. in )ennis Tedlock and Barbara Tedlock, eds., Teachings from the 3merican #arth: ;ndian Religion and )hilosophy . Ge1 =ork: @iveri"ht, 19F%, 141MF'. <<<. 19F&. Contri,utions to 3nthropology: Selected )apers of 3. ;rving Hallo1ell . Chica"o: University of Chica"o Press. 2all ike, C.R. 19FD. The Honso of #thiopia: 3 Study of the Aalues of a Cushitic )eople . C0ford: Clarendon. <<<. 19FF. (loodshed and Aengeance in the )apuan Mountains: The $eneration of Conflict in Tauade Society . C0ford: Clarendon. <<<. 19F9. The %oundations of )rimitive Thought . C0ford: Clarendon. <<<. 19''. The )rinciples of Social #volution . C0ford: Clarendon. 2andy, I. 3. Crai"hill. 19DF. )olynesian Religion . Bernice P. Bisho M-se-. B-lletin #4. 2onol-l-: The M-se-.. 2arner, Michael ?. 19FD. The I>varo: )eople of the Sacred 6aterfalls . Earden City, G.=.: Gat-ral 2istory PressJ r t. Earden City, G.=.: )o-bleday +nchor, 19F#. <<<. 19F#a. *Co..on The.es in 3o-th +.erican ,ndian =a"A I0 eriences.* ,n 2arner 19F#b, 1%%MF%. <<<, ed. 19F#b. Hallucinogens and Shamanism . @ondon: C0ford University Press. 2arries, 6arsten. 19F9. *Meta hor and Transcendence.* ,n 3acks, F1M''. / #1# / 2arrin"ton, ?ohn P. 19$'. *+ =-.a +cco-nt of Cri"ins.* ?+( D1: #D4M4'. <<<. 3ee also Blackb-rn, Tho.as C. 2arrin"ton, M. R. 191#. *+ Preli.inary 3ketch of @enY e C-lt-re.* 3merican 3nthropologist , n.s., 1%: D$'M#%. <<<. 19D1. Religion and Ceremonies of the &enape . ,ndian Gotes and MonoB"ra hs, Ge1 =ork: M-se-. of the +.erican ,ndian, 2eye (o-ndation. 2arris, Marvin. 19F4. Co1s, )igs, 6ars, and 6itches: The Riddles of Culture . Ge1 =ork: Rando. 2o-se. 2arva 72ol.ber"9, Uno. 19DF. %inno.-gric Nand O Si,erian Mythology . 5ol. 4 of Canon ?ohn +rnott MacC-llock, ed., The Mythology of 3ll Races . Boston: +rchaeolo"ical ,nstit-te of +.erica, Marshall ?ones Co. <<<. 19#'. Gie religiYsen Aorstellungen der altaischen AYlker . (( Co..-nications %D, no. 1D%. 2elsinki: 3-o.alainen Tiedeakate.ia. 7(irst -blished in (innish, 19##.9 2eide""er, Martin. 19%#. Sein und 5eit . Fth ed. T[bin"en: Ma0 Gie.eyer 5erla". 71st ed. 19DF.9 <<<. 19%9. 3n ;ntroduction to Metaphysics . Trans. Ral h Manhei.. Ge1 2aven: =ale University Press. 7Translation of #inf4hrung in die Metaphysik . T[bin"en, 19%#.9 <<<. 19&Da. (eing and Time . Trans. ?ohn Mac8-arrie and Id1ard Robinson. Ge1 =ork: 2ar er e

Ro1. 7Translation of 2eide""er 19%#.9 <<<. 19&Db. Hant and the )ro,lem of Metaphysics . Trans. ?a.es 3. Ch-rchill. Bloo.in"ton: ,ndiana University Press. 7Translation of Hant und das )ro,lem der Metaphysik . (rankf-rt, 19D9.9 <<<. 19&'. 6hat ;s Called Thinking^ Trans. (red ). ;ieck and ?. Elenn Eray. Ge1 =ork: 2ar er e Ro1. 7Translation of 6as Heisst Genken^ T[bin"en, 19%4.9 <<<. 19F1. )oetry, &anguage, Thought . Trans. +lbert 2ofstadter. Ge1 =ork: 2ar er e Ro1. 2ei>er, Robert, ed. 19F'. Hand,ook of 0orth 3merican ;ndians , ed. ;illia. C. 3t-rtevant. 5ol. ': California . ;ashin"ton, ).C.: 3.ithsonian ,nstit-tion. 2erdt, Eilbert 2. 19'1. $uardians of the %lute: ;dioms of Masculinity . Ge1 =ork: McEra1 2ill. <<<, ed. 19'D. Rituals of Manhood: Male ;nitiation in )apua 0e1 $uinea . Berkeley and @os +n"eles: University of California Press. 2erodot-s. 19FD. The Histories . Trans. +-brey de 3Alinco-rt. Revised by +. R. B-rn. 2ar.onds1orth: Pen"-in, 19FD. 7Translation first -blished 19%4.9 2erskovits, Melville ?. 19#F. &ife in a Haitian Aalley . Ge1 =ork: 6no fJ r t. Ge1 =ork: Ccta"on, 19&4. <<<. 19#'. Gahomey: 3n 3ncient 6est 3frican Hingdom . D vols. Ge1 =ork: ?. ?. +-"-stin. <<<. 19&&. The 0e1 6orld 0egro: Selected )apers in 3froamerican Studies . Id. (rances 3. 2erskovits. Bloo.in"ton: ,ndiana University Press. <<<, and (rances 3. 2erskovits. 19%'. Gahomean 0arrative: 3 Cross.Cultural 3nalysis . Ivanston, ,ll.: Gorth1estern University Press. 2e1itt, ?. G. B. 19$#. *,ro8-oian Cos.olo"y, (irst Part.* T1entyBfirst B+I Re ort for 1'99M19$$, 1DFM##9. / #14 / <<<. 19D'. *,ro8-oian Cos.olo"y, 3econd Part.* (ortyBthird B+I Re ort for 19D%M19D&, 449M'19. 2ickerson, 2arold. 19&#. *The 3ociohistorical 3i"nificance of T1o Chi e1a Cere.onials.* 3merican 3nthropologist &%: &FM'%. 2i"h1ater, ?a.ake. 19FF. 3npao: 3n 3merican ;ndian "dyssey . Ge1 =ork: @i incottJ r t. Ge1 =ork: 2ar er e Ro1, 19'$. 2ocart, +.M. 19F$. Hings and Councillors: 3n #ssay in the Comparative 3natomy of Human Society . Id. Rodney Geedha.. Chica"o: University of Chica"o Press. 7(irst -blished Cairo, 19#&.9 2off.an, ;alter ?a.es. 1'91. *The Mide1i1in or HErand Medicine 3ocietyH of the C:ib1a.* 3eventh B+I Re ort for 1''%M1''&, 14#M#$$. <<<. 1'9&. The Menomini ;ndians . (o-rteenth B+I Re ort for 1'9DM1'9#J r t. Ge1 =ork and @ondon: ?ohnson Re rint, 19F$. 2off.ann, 2el.-t. 19&1. The Religions of Ti,et . Trans. Id1ard (it>"erald. Ge1 =ork: Mac.illan. 7Translation of Gie Religionen Ti,ets . (reib-r", 19%&.9 2o"bin, 2. ,an. 19#9. #:periments in Civili+ation: The #ffects of #uropean Culture on a 0ative Community of the Solomon ;slands . @ondon: Ro-tled"eJ r t. Ge1 =ork: 3chocken, 19F$.

<<<. 194FM4'. *Pa"an Reli"ion in a Ge1 E-inea 5illa"e.* "ceania 1': 1D$M4%J r t. in Middleton 19&Fa, 41MF%. 2ol.ber", Uno. 3ee 2arva. 2ook1ay, Christo her. 19'%. )eirce . @ondon: Ro-tled"e e 6e"an Pa-l. 2orton, Robin. 19&9. *Ty es of 3 irit Possession in 6alabari Reli"ion.* ,n Beattie and Middleton, 14M 49. 2ose, Charles, and ;illia. Mc)o-"all. 191D. The )agan Tri,es of (orneo: 3 Gescription of Their )hysical, Moral and ;ntellectual Condition 1ith Some Giscussion of Their #thnic Relations . D vols. @ondon: Mac.illan. 2o1itt, +. ;. 1''F. *Cn +-stralian Medicine MenJ or, )octors and ;i>ards of 3o.e +-stralian Tribes.* Iournal of the 3nthropological ;nstitute of $reat (ritain and ;reland 1&: D#M%9. <<<. 19$4. The 0ative Tri,es of South.#ast 3ustralia . @ondon: Mac.illan. 2-dson, Charles. 19F&. The Southeastern ;ndians . 6no0ville: University of Tennessee Press. 2-"hB?ones, Christine. 19F9. %rom the Milk River: Spatial and Temporal )rocesses in 0orth1est 3ma+onia . Ca.brid"e 3t-dies in 3ocial +nthro olo"y D&. Ca.brid"e: Ca.brid"e University Press. 2-"hB?ones, 3te hen. 19F9. The )alm and the )leiades: ;nitiation and Cosmology in 0orth1est 3ma+onia . Ca.brid"e 3t-dies in 3ocial +nthro olo"y D4. Ca.brid"e: Ca.brid"e University Press. 2-ltkrant>, fke. 19%#. Conceptions of the Soul among 0orth 3merican ;ndians: 3 Study in Religious #thnology . 3tockhol.: The Ithno"ra hical M-se-. of 31eden. <<<. 19%F. The 0orth 3merican ;ndian "rpheus Tradition: 3 Contri,ution to Comparative Religion . 3tockhol.: The Ithno"ra hical M-se-. of 31eden Mono"ra h 3eries, no. D. <<<. 19F#. *+ )efinition of 3ha.anis..* Temenos 9: D%M#F. / #1% / <<<. 19F9. The Religions of the 3merican ;ndians . Trans. Monica 3etter1all. Berkeley and @os +n"eles: University of California Press. 7Translation of Ge 3merikanska ;ndianernas Religioner . 3tockhol., 19&F.9 <<<. 19'1. (elief and 6orship in 0ative 0orth 3merica . Id. Christo her 5ecsey. 3yrac-se, G.=.: 3yrac-se University Press. <<<. 3ee also BZck.an, @o-iseJ Pa-lson, ,var. 2-.boldt, ;ilhel. von. 1'DF. -e,er den Gualis . ,n 6erke in f4nf (2nden #: Schriften +ur Sprachphilosophie . 3t-tt"art: Cotta, 19&#, 11#M4#. <<<. 19FD. &inguistic Aaria,ility and ;ntellectual Gevelopment . Trans. Eeor"e C. B-ck and (rith:of +. Raven. Philadel hia: University of Pennsylvania Press. 7Translation of -e,er die Aerschiedenheit des menschlichen Sprach,aues und ihren #influss auf die geistige #nt1ickelung des Menschengeschlechts . Berlin, 1'#&.9 2-rt, ;esley R., ?r., and ?a.es 2. 2o1ard. 19%D. *+ )akota Con:-rin" Cere.ony.* SI3 ': D'&M9&. ,do1-, I. Bola:i. 19&#. "lMd_mar=: $od in Joru,a (elief . Ge1 =ork: Prae"er. ,. Th-rn, Iverard (. 1''#. 3mong the ;ndians of $uiana: (eing Sketches Chiefly 3nthropologic from

the ;nterior of (ritish $uiana . @ondon: 6e"an Pa-l, Trench, e Co. ,ser, ;olf"an". 19F'. The 3ct of Reading: 3 Theory of 3esthetic Response . Balti.ore: ?ohns 2o kins University Press. 7Translation of Ger 3kt des &esens: Theorie 2thetischer 6irkung . M-nich, 19F&.9 ?ackson, ?ean I. 19'#. The %ish )eople: &inguistic #:ogamy and Tukanoan ;dentity in 0orth1est 3ma+onia . Ca.brid"e 3t-dies in 3ocial +nthro olo"y #9. Ca.brid"e: Ca.brid"e University Press. ?acob, (rancois. 19'D. The )ossi,le and the 3ctual . Ge1 =ork: Pantheon. ?akobson, Ro.an. 19&D. Selected 6ritings 1: )honological Studies . The 2a"-e: Mo-ton. <<<. 19F1. Selected 6ritings D: 6ord and &anguage . The 2a"-e: Mo-ton. <<<. 19F#. Main Trends in the Science of &anguage . @ondon: +llen e Un1inJ r t. Ge1 =ork: 2ar er e Ro1, 19F4. ,ncor orates the a ers *Retros ect* 719FD9 and *@in"-istics in Relation to Cther 3ciences* 719&F9 rinted in Selected 6ritings D: F11MDD and &%%M9&. <<<. 19F'. Si: &ectures on Sound and Meaning . Trans. ?ohn Me ha.. Ca.brid"e, Mass.: M,T Press. 7Translation of Si: leWons sur le son et le sens . Paris, 19F&, re rintin" lect-res delivered in Ge1 =ork, 194DM4#.9 <<<. 19'$. (rain and &anguage: Cere,ral Hemispheres and &inguistic Structure in Mutual &ight . ;ith the assistance of 6athy 3antilli. Col-.b-s, Chio: 3lavica P-blishers. <<<, and @inda ;a-"h. 19F9. The Sound Shape of &anguage . +ssisted by Martha Taylor. Bloo.in"ton: ,ndiana University Press. ?a.es, ;illia.. 19$D. The Aarieties of Religious #:perience: 3 Study in Human 0ature . The Eifford @ect-res on Gat-ral Reli"ion delivered at Idinb-r"h in 19$1M19$D. Ge1 =ork: @on".ans, EreenJ r t. Ge1 =ork: Modern @ibrary, n.d. ?enness, )ia.ond. 19#%. The "/i,1a ;ndians of )arry ;sland, Their Social and Reli. / #1& / gious &ife . Gational M-se-. of Canada B-lletin no. F'. Ctta1a: ?.C. Patena-de. ?ensen, +dolf. 19&#. Myth and Cult among )rimitive )eoples . Trans. Marianna Ta0 Choldin and ;olf"an" ;eissleder. Chica"o: University of Chica"o Press. 7Translation of Mythos und Hult ,ei 0aturvYlkern . ;iesbaden, 19%1.9 ?ensen, Irik. 19F4. The ;,an and Their Religion . C0ford: Clarendon. ?ett.ar, 6arl. 3ee Pa-lson, ,var. ?ochelson, ;alde.ar. 19$'. The Horyak . The ?es- Gorth Pacific I0 edition, vol. &. @eiden: I.?. BrillJ r t. Ge1 =ork: +M3 Press, 19F%. <<<. 19D&. The Jukaghir and the Jukaghiri+ed Tungus . The ?es- Gorth Pacific I0 edition, vol. 9. @eiden: I.?. Brill. ?ohansen, ?. Pryt>. 19%4. The Maori and His Religion in ;ts 0on.Ritual 3spects . Co enha"en: M-nks"aard. <<<. 19%'. Studies in Maori Rites and Myths . Co enha"en: M-nks"aard. ?ohnson, Richard. 19$F. *Certaine notes -n erfectly 1ritten by Richard ?ohnson servant to Master Richard Chancelo-r, 1hich 1as in the discoverie of 5ai"at> and Gova Te.bla, 1ith 3teven B-rro1e in

the 3erchthrift 1%%&. and after1arde a.on" the 3a.oedes, 1hose devilish rites hee describeth.* ,n Richard 2akl-yt, ed., The )rincipal 0avigations . . . . @ondon: )ent, 19$F, 1: #%DM%&. 71st ed. 1%'9.9 ?-n", C. E. 19%&. Sym,ols of Transformation: 3n 3nalysis of the )relude to a Case of Schi+ophrenia . D vols. Trans. R. (. C. 2-ll. Ge1 =ork: PantheonJ r t. Ge1 =ork: 2ar er, 19&D. 7Translation of Sym,ole der 6andlung . T-rich, 19%D.4th ed., re1ritten, of 6andlungen und Sym,ole der &i,ido . @ei >i", 191D.9 <<<. 19&D. *Co..entary.* ,n Richard ;ilhel., trans. The Secret of the $olden %lo1er: 3 Chinese (ook of &ife . Rev. ed. Ge1 =ork: 2arco-rt Brace ?ovanovich. 7In"lish translation by Cary (. Baynes of Richard ;ilhel.Hs Eer.an translation, Gas $eheimnis der goldenen (l4te: #in chinesisches &e,ens,uch , of the Chinese T9ai ; Chin Hua Tsung Chih . M-nich, 19D9.9 <<<. 19F1. The )orta,le Iung . Id. ?ose h Ca. bell. Trans. R. (. C. 2-ll. Ge1 =ork: 5ikin"J r t. 2ar.onds1orth: Pen"-in, 19F&. <<<, and C. 6erAnyi. 19&#. #ssays on a Science of Mytholog9y: The Myths of the Givine Child and the Givine Maiden . Rev. ed. Trans. R. (. C. 2-ll. Ge1 =ork: 2ar er e Ro1, 19&#. 7Translation of #inf4hrung in das 6esen der Mythologie . +.sterda., 1941.9 6ant, ,..an-el. 19%1. Criti!ue of Iudgment . Trans. ?. 2. Bernard. Ge1 =ork and @ondon: 2afner. 7Translation of Hritik der -rteilskraft . Berlin, 1F9$.9 6a lan, 3-san +. 3ee (it>h-"h, ;illia. ;. 6ar.iloffB3.ith, +nnette. 19F'. *The ,nter lay bet1een 3ynta0, 3e.antics and Phonolo"y in @an"-a"e +c8-isition Processes.* ,n Ca. bell and 3.ith, 1MD#. <<<. 19F9. 3 %unctional 3pproach to Child &anguage: 3 Study of Geterminers and Reference . Ca.brid"e: Ca.brid"e University Press. 6arstenJ Rafael. 19#%. The Head.Hunters of 6estern 3ma+onas: The &ife and Culture of the Ii,aro ;ndians of #astern #cuador and )eru . 2elsin"fors: 3ocietas 3cientiar-. (ennica. / #1F / <<<. 19%%. The Religion of the Samek: 3ncient (eliefs and Cults of the Scandinavian and %innish &apps . @eiden: I.?. Brill. 6eesin", Ro"er M. 19F$. *3hrines, +ncestors, and Co"natic )escent: The 61aio and Tallensi.* 3merican 3nthropologist , n.s., FD: F%%MF%. <<<. 19'Da. *,ntrod-ction* to 2erdt 19'D, 1M4#. <<<. 19'Db. H1aio Religion: The &iving and the Gead in a Solomon ;sland Society . Ge1 =ork: Col-.bia University Press. 6elly, ,sabel T. 19&&. *;orld 5ie1 of a 2i"hlandBTotonac P-eblo.* ,n Po. a y Po. a, #9%M411. 6elly, ;illia. 2. 19FF. Cocopa #thnography . +nthro olo"ical Pa ers of the University of +ri>ona, no. D9. T-cson: University of +ri>ona Press. 6ennedy, ?ohn E. 19F'. Tarahumara of the Sierra Madre: (eer, #cology, and Social "rgani+ation . +rlin"ton 2ei"hts, ,ll.: +2M. 6ensin"er, 6enneth M. 19F#. *(anisteriopsis Usa"e a.on" the Per-vian Cashinah-a.* ,n 2arner 19F#b, 9M14.

6enton, Idna, ed. 19DF. The ;ndians of 0orth 3merica . D vols. Ge1 =ork: 2arco-rt, Brace. 73elections fro. Re-ben Eold Th1aites, ed. The Iesuit Relations and 3llied Gocuments . F# vols. Cleveland, 1'9&M19$1.9 6essler, Clive 3. 19FF. *Conflict and 3overei"nty in 6elantanese Malay 3 irit 3eances.* ,n Cra an>ano and Earrison, D9%M##1. 6ierke"aard, 3oren. 1941. Concluding -nscientific )ostscript to the )hilosophical %ragments: 3 Mimic.)athetic.Gialectic Composition, 3n #:istential Contri,ution, ,y Iohannes Climacus . Trans. )avid (. 31enson and ;alter @o1rie. Princeton: Princeton University Press. 7Translation of 3fsluttende uvidenska,elig efterskrift . Co enha"en, 1'4&.9 6iev, +ri, ed. 19&4. Magic, %aith, and Healing: Studies in )rimitive )sychology Today . Ge1 =ork: (ree Press of Elencoe. 6in", ?eff. 19&F. 6here the T1o Came to Their %ather: 3 0avaho 6ar Ceremonial . Te0t and Paintin"s Recorded by Ma-d Cakes. Co..entary by ?ose h Ca. bell. Dd ed. Princeton: Princeton University Press. 71st ed. 194#.9 6iniet>, ;. 5ernon. 194$. The ;ndians of the 6estern $reat &akes, BRBDFB`RS . +nn +rbor: University of Michi"an Press. 6irby, Irnest Theodore. 19F%. *3ha.anistic Theatre: Cri"ins and Ivol-tion.* (ro. -r.Grama: The "rigins of Theatre . Ge1 =ork: Ge1 =ork University Press, 1M#1. I0cer ted in Rothenber" and Rothenber", D%FMF$. 6irk, E.3. 19F$. Myth: ;ts Meaning and %unction in 3ncient and "ther Cultures . 3ather Classical @ect-res, vol. 4$. Berkeley and @os +n"eles: University of California Press. 6ita"a1a, ?ose h M. 19&1M&D. *+in- Bear (estival 7lyo.ante9.* History of Religions 1: 9%M1%1. 6lah, 2asteen. 194D. 0ava/o Creation Myth: The Story of the #mergence . Recorded by Mary C. ;heel1ri"ht. Gava:o Reli"ion 3eries, vol. 1. 3anta (e, G.M.: M-se-. of Gava:o Cere.onial +rtJ r t. Ge1 =ork: +M3 Press, 19'$. 6l-ckhohn, Clyde. 194D. *Myths and Rit-als: + Eeneral Theory.* Harvard Theological Revie1 #%: 4%M F9. R t. in @essa and 5o"t, 9#M1$%. / #1' / <<<. 1944. 0avaho 6itchcraft . Ca.brid"e, Mass.: 2arvard University PressJ r t. Boston: Beacon, 19&F. <<<, and )orothea @ei"hton. 19&D. The 0avaho . Rev. ed. Earden City, G.=.: )o-bleday +nchor. 71st ed. Ca.brid"e, Mass., 194&.9 6ochBEr[nber", Theodor. 19D#. Aom Roroima +um "rinoco: #rge,nisse einer Reise in 0ord,rasilien und Aene+uela in den Iahren BTBBFBTBE , vol. #: Ithno"ra hie. 3t-tt"art: 3trecker -nd 3chrVder. 6ohl, ?. E. 1'&$. Hitchi.$ami: 6anderings Round &ake Superior . @ondon: Cha .an and 2allJ r t. Minnea olis: Ross and 2aines, 19%&. 7Translation of Hitchi.$ami . Bre.en, 1'%9.9 6o ytoff, ,"or. 19F1. *+ncestors as Ilders in +frica.* 3frica 41: 1D9M4D. 6rader, @a1rence. 19%4. *B-ryat Reli"ion and 3ociety.* SI3 1$: #DDM%1. R t. in Middleton 19&Fa, 1$#M#D.

6ri ke, 3a-l +. 19'$. 0aming and 0ecessity . Ca.brid"e, Mass.: 2arvard University Press, 19'$. 7@ect-res "iven at Princeton UniversityJ first -blished in ). )avidson and E. 2ar.an, eds., The Semantics of 0atural &anguage , D%4M#%%. )ordrecht, 19FD.9 6roeber, +lfred @. 19$F. *The Reli"ion of the ,ndians of California.* UCP++I 4, no. &: #1$M%&. <<<. 19D%. Hand,ook of the ;ndians of California . B+I B-lletin F'J r t. Ge1 =ork: )over, 19F&. <<<. 19#D. *The Pat1in and Their Gei"hbors.* UCP++I D9, no. 4, D%#M4D#. <<<. The 3rapaho . 19'#. @incoln: University of Gebraska Press. 7(irst -blished in # arts in the +MG2 B-lletin. Ge1 =ork, 19$D, 19$4, 19$F.9 <<<, and I. ;. Eifford. 1949. *;orld Rene1al: + C-lt 3yste. of Gative Gorth1est California.* -niversity of California )u,lications in 3nthropological Records 1#, no. 1: 1M1%%. 6r-i:t 76r-yt9, +lb. C. 3ee )o1ns, Richard Irskine. 6-hn, Tho.as 3. 19F$. The Structure of Scientific Revolutions . Dd ed. ,nternational Incyclo edia of Unified 3cience D, no. D. Chica"o: University of Chica"o Press. 71st ed. 19&D.9 <<<. 19FF. The #ssential Tension: Selected Studies in Scientific Tradition and Change . Chica"o: University of Chica"o Press. @a Barre, ;eston. 194'. The 3ymara ;ndians of the &ake Titicaca )lateau, (olivia . +++ Me.oirs, no. &'. <<<. 19F$. The $host Gance: "rigins of Religion . Ge1 =ork: )o-bledayJ r t. Ge1 =ork: )ell, 19FD. <<<. 19F%. The )eyote Cult . 4th ed., enlar"ed. Ge1 =ork: 3chocken. 7(irst -blished as =ale University P-blications in +nthro olo"y, no. 19 N19#'O, 1ith ne1 .aterials a ended in 19&$, 19&9, and 19F%.9 @a (ar"e, Cliver. 194F. Santa #ulalia: The Religion of a CuchumatKn ;ndian To1n . Chica"o: University of Chica"o Press. <<<, and )o-"las Byers. 19#1. The Jear (earer9s )eople . The T-lane University of @o-isiana Middle +.erican Research 3eries P-blication no. #. Ge1 Crleans: The )e art.ent of Middle +.erican Research, The T-lane University of @o-isiana. / #19 / @afaye, ?ac8-es. 19F&. Quet+alcMatl and $uadalupe: The %ormation of Me:ican 0ational Consciousness BDEBFBXBE . Trans. Ben:a.in 6eene. Chica"o: University of Chica"o Press. 7Translation of Quet+alcMatl et $uadalupe . Paris, 19F4.9 @a (lesche, (rancis. 3ee (letcher, +lice C. @a.b, (. Br-ce. 19F4. 6i+ard of the -pper 3ma+on: The Story of Manuel CMrdova.Rios . Dd ed. Boston: 2o-"hton Mifflin. @a.e )eer 7?ohn (ire9, and Richard Irdoes. 19FD. &ame Geer, Seeker of Aisions . Ge1 =ork: 3i.on and 3ch-ster. @a.in", +nnette. 19%9. &ascau:: )aintings and #ngravings . Trans. Ileanore (rances +r.stron". 2ar.onds1orth: Pen"-in.

@anda, Bisho )ie"o de. 3ee To>>er, +lfred M. @andes, R-th. 19#'. The "/i,1a 6oman . Ge1 =ork: Col-.bia University Press. <<<. 194F. The City of 6omen . Ge1 =ork: Mac.illan. <<<. 19&'. "/i,1a Religion and the Mid*1i1in . Madison: University of ;isconsin Press. @annoy, Richard. 19F1. The Speaking Tree: 3 Study of ;ndian Culture and Society . @ondon: C0ford University Press. @antis, Mar"aret. 19%$. *The Reli"ion of the Iski.os.* ,n (er., #$9M#9. @a-fer, Berthold. 191F. *Cri"in of the ;ord 3ha.an.* 3merican 3nthropologist , n.s., 19: #&1MF1. @a-"hlin, Robert M. 19F&. "f 6onders 6ild and 0e1: Greams from 5inacantKn . 3.ithsonian Contrib-tions to +nthro olo"y, no. DD. ;ashin"ton, ).C.: 3.ithsonian ,nstit-tion Press. @a1rence, Peter, and M. ?. Me""itt, eds. 19&%. $ods, $hosts, and Men in Melanesia: Some Religions of 3ustralian 0e1 $uinea and the 0e1 He,rides . Melbo-rne: C0ford University Press. @a1son, ?ohn. 19%1. &a1son9s History of 0orth Carolina . Rich.ond: Earrett and Massey. 71st ed. @ondon, 1F$9.9 @ayard, ?. ;. 19#$. *Malek-la: (lyin" Tricksters, Ehosts, Eods, and I ile tics* and *3ha.anis.: +n +nalysis Based on Co. arison 1ith the (lyin" Tricksters of Malek-la.* IR3; &$: %$1MD4, %D%M%$. @each, I. R. 19%4. )olitical Systems of Highland (urma: 3 Study of Hachin Social Structure . @ondon: E. Bell and 3ons, for the @ondon 3chool of Icono.ics and Political 3cience, University of @ondon. @eacock, 3eth, and R-th @eacock. 19FD. Spirits of the Geep: 3 Study of an 3fro.(ra+ilian Cult . Earden City, G.=.: )o-bleday Gat-ral 2istory Press. @e Clerc8, (ather Chrestien. 191$. 0e1 Relation of $aspesia, 1ith the Customs and Religion of the $aspesian ;ndians . Trans. ;illia. (. Eanon". Cha. lain 3ociety P-blications %. Toronto: The Cha. lain 3ocietyJ r t. Ge1 =ork, Ereen1ood Press, 19&'. 7Translation of 0ouvelle relation de la $asp*sie . Paris, 1&91.9 @ee, Richard B. 19&'. *The 3ociolo"y of L6-n" B-sh.an Trance Perfor.ances.* ,n Prince, #%M%4. @eenhardt, Ma-rice. 19F9. Go Hamo: )erson and Myth in the Melanesian 6orld . Trans. Basia Miller E-lati. Chica"o and @ondon: University of Chica"o Press. 7Translation of Go Hamo: &a personne et le mythe dans le monde m*lan*sien . Paris, 194F.9 / #D$ / @eibni>, Eottfried ;ilhel. von. 19&%. Monadology and "ther )hilosophical #ssays . Trans. Pa-l 3chrecker and +nne Martin 3chrecker. ,ndiana olis: BobbsBMerrill. @eiris, Michel. 19%'. &a )ossession et ses aspects th*@trau: che+ les #thiopiens de $ondar . Paris: Plon. @e.on, @ee T., and Marion ?. Reis, ed. and trans. 19&%. Russian %ormalist Criticism: %our #ssays . @incoln: University of Gebraska Press. @enneber", Iric 2. 19&F. (iological %oundations of &anguage . Ge1 =ork: ?ohn ;iley e 3ons. @e]nBPortilla, Mi"-el. 19&#. 3+tec Thought and Culture: 3 Study of the 3ncient 0ahuatl Mind . Trans. ?ack I.ory )avis. Gor.an: University of Cklaho.a Press. 7+da tation of &a %ilosof>a 0Khuatl .

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2anson. @ink, Mar"aret 3chevill. 19%&. The )ollen )ath: 3 Collection of 0ava/o Myths Retold ,y Margaret Schevill &ink . 3tanford, Calif.: 3tanford University Press. @ocke, ?ohn. 19&4. 3n #ssay Concerning Human -nderstanding . Id. ?ohn ;. =olton. D vols. @ondon: )ent. 7R t. of %th ed. of 1F$&J 1st ed. -blished 1&9$.9 @oeb, Id1in M. 19D4. *The 3ha.an of Gi-e.* 3merican 3nthropologist , n.s., D&: #9#M4$D. <<<. 19D&. *Po.o (olk1ays.* UCP++I 19, no. D: 14FM4$&. <<<. 19D9. *3ha.an and 3eer.* 3merican 3nthropologist , n.s., #1: &$M'4. @Vnnrot, Ilias, ed. 19&#. The Halevala' or )oems of the Haleva Gistrict . + Prose Translation 1ith (ore1ord and + endices by (rancis Peabody Ma"o-n, ?r. Ca.brid"e, Mass.: 2arvard University Press. 71st -blished in (innish 1'#%J enlar"ed 1'49.9 @orant, 3tefan, ed. 19&%. The 0e1 6orld: The %irst )ictures of 3merica . Rev. ed. Ge1 =ork: )-ell, 3loan and Pearce. 71st ed. 194&.9 @oren>, 6onrad. 19&&. "n 3ggression . Trans. Mar:orie 6err ;ilson. Ge1 =ork: 2arco-rt. 7Translation of Gas sogenannte (Yse: 5ur 0aturgeschichte der 3ggression . 5ienna, 19&#.9 <<<. 19FF. (ehind the Mirror: 3 Search for a 0atural History of Human Hno1ledge . Trans. Ronald Taylor. @ondon: Meth-enJ r t. Ge1 =ork: 2arco-rt Brace ?ovanovich, 19F'. 7Translation of Gie R4ckseite des Spiegels . M-nich: Pi er, 19F#.9 @othro , 3a.-el 6irkland. 19D'. The ;ndians of Tierra del %uego . Contrib-tions fro. the M-se-. of the +.erican ,ndian, 2eye (o-ndation, vol. 1$. Ge1 =ork: M-se-. of the +.erican ,ndian, 2eye (o-ndation. @o1, 2-"h Brooke. 3ee @in" Roth, 2enry. @o1ie, Robert 2. 19DD. *The Reli"ion of the Cro1 ,ndians.* ,n 3M0H )apers D%. Ge1 =ork: +.erican M-se-. Press. <<<. 19#%. The Cro1 ;ndians . Ge1 =ork: 2olt, Rinehart and ;inston. <<<. 194$. 3n ;ntroduction to Cultural 3nthropology . Inlar"ed ed. Ge1 =ork: (arrar e Rinehart. @-ck.ann, Tho.as. 3ee Ber"er, Peter @. @-kYcs, Eeor". 19F1. The Theory of the 0ovel: 3 Historico.)hilosophical #ssay on the %orms of $reat #pic &iterature . Ca.brid"e, Mass.: M,T Press. 7Translation of Gie Theorie des Romans . Berlin, 19D$.9 @-.holt>, Carl. 19$D. -nkno1n Me:ico: 3 Record of %ive Jears9 #:ploration among / #DD / the Tri,es of the 6estern Sierra Madre' in the Tierra Caliente of Tepic and Ialisco' and among the Tarascos of Michoacan . D vols. Ge1 =ork: 3cribnerHsJ r t. Elorieta, G.M.: The Rio Erande Press, 19F#. @yon, Patricia ?., ed. 19F4. 0ative South 3mericans: #thnology of the &east Hno1n Continent . Boston: @ittle, Bro1n. Mc)o-"all, ;illia.. 3ee 2ose, Charles.

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University of Toronto Press. 7Translation of &a M*taphore vive . Paris, 19F%.9 <<<. 19F'. The )hilosophy of )aul Ricoeur: 3n 3nthology of His 6ork . Id. Charles I. Rea"an and )avid 3te1art. Boston: Beacon, 19F'. <<<. 19F9. *The Meta horical Process as Co"nition, ,.a"ination, and (eelin".* ,n 3acks, 141M%F. / ##1 / <<<. 19'4. Time and 0arrative 1. Trans. 6athleen Mc@a-"hlin and )avid Pella-er. Chica"o: University of Chica"o Press. 7Translation of Temps et r*cit 1. Paris, 19'#.9 <<<. 19'%. Time and 0arrative D. Trans. 6athleen Mc@a-"hlin and )avid Pella-er. Chica"o: University of Chica"o Press. 7Translation of Temps et r*cit D. Paris, 19'4.9 Rink, 2enrik. 1'F%. Tales and Traditions of the #skimo, 1ith a Sketch of Their Ha,its, Religion, &anguage and "ther )eculiarities . Id. Robert Bro1n. Idinb-r"h: ;illia. Black1ood and 3onsJ r t. Montreal: McEillB4-eens University Press, 19F4. Rit>enthaler, Robert I., and Pat Rit>enthaler. 19F$. The 6oodland ;ndians of the 6estern $reat &akes . Earden City, G.=.: Gat-ral 2istory Press. Rodri"-es, Gina. 1'9&. " 3nimismo %etichista dos 0egros (ahianos. Revista (rasileira , & and FJ r t. 71ith reface and notes by +rth-r Ra.os9 Rio de ?aneiro: Civili>aRXo Brasileira, 19#%. Roe, Peter E. 19'D. The Cosmic 5ygote: Cosmology in the 3ma+on (asin . Ge1 Br-ns1ick, G.?.: R-t"ers University Press. Rose, 3teven. 19F&. The Conscious (rain . Rev. ed. Ge1 =ork: 5inta"e Books. 7lst ed. Ge1 =ork, 19F#.9 Rosenfield, ,srael. 199D. The Strange, %amiliar, and %orgotten: 3n 3natomy of Consciousness . Ge1 =ork: 6no f. Roth, 2enry @in". 3ee @in" Roth, 2enry. Roth, ;alter I. 191%. *+n ,n8-iry into the +ni.is. and (olkB@ore of the E-iana ,ndians.* Thirtieth B+I Re ort for 19$'M19$9. Rothenber", ?ero.e, and )iane Rothenber", eds. 19'#. Symposium of the 6hole: 3 Range of Giscourse To1ard an #thnopoetics . Berkeley and @os +n"eles: University of California Press. Ro1e, ?ohn 2o1land. 194F. *,nca C-lt-re at the Ti.e of the 3 anish Con8-est.* ,n 3te1ard D: 1'#M ##$. Roys, Ral h @., trans. 19&%. Ritual of the (aca,s . Gor.an: University of Cklaho.a Press. <<<. 19&F. The (ook of Chilam (alam of Chumayel . Rev. ed. Gor.an: University of Cklaho.a Press. 7lst ed. ;ashin"ton, ).C.: Carne"ie ,nstit-tion, 19##.9 R-ssell, (rank. 19$'. *The Pi.a ,ndians.* T1entyB3i0th B+I Re ort for 19$4M19$%, #M#'9. 3acks, 3heldon, ed. 19F9. "n Metaphor . Chica"o: University of Chica"o Press. 3a"ard, (ather Eabriel. 19#9. The &ong Iourney to the Country of the Hurons . Id. Eeor"e M. ;ron", trans. 2. 2. @an"ton. Cha. lain 3ociety P-blications D%. Toronto: Cha. lain 3ocietyJ r t. Ge1 =ork: Ereen1ood Press, 19&'. 7Translation of &e grand voyage du pays des Hurons . Paris, 1&#D.9 3aha"an, (ray Bernardino de. 19%&. Historia general de las cosas de 0ueva #spaLa . 4 vols. Id. +n"el

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31anton, ?ohn R. 19$%. Contri,utions to the #thnology of the Haida . The ?es- Gorth (acific I0 edition %. @eiden: I.?. Brill. <<<. 1911. ;ndian Tri,es of the &o1er Mississippi Aalley and 3d/acent Coast of the $ulf of Me:ico . B+I B-lletin 4#J r t. Ge1 =ork: ?ohnson Re rint, 19F$. / ##% / <<<. 19D'. *Reli"io-s Beliefs and Medical Practices of the Creek ,ndians.* (ortyB3econd B+I Re ort for 19D4M19D%, 4F#M&FD. <<<. 19D9. Myths and Tales of the Southeastern ;ndians . B+I B-lletin ''. <<<. 19#1. Source Material for the Social and Ceremonial &ife of the Chocta1 ;ndians . B+I B-lletin 1$#. <<<. 194D. Source Material on the History and #thnology of the Caddo ;ndians . B+I B-lletin 1#D. <<<. 194&. The ;ndians of the Southeastern -nited States . B+I B-lletin 1#FJ r t. ;ashin"ton, ).C.: 3.ithsonian ,nstit-tion Press, 19F9. 3ylva, 6athy, ?ero.e 3. Br-ner, and Pa-l Eenova. 19F4. *The Role of Play in the Proble.B3olvin" of Children #M% =ears Cld.* ,n Br-ner, ?olly, and 3ylva, D44M%F. Taine, 2i olyte. 1'FF. *M. Taine on the +c8-isition of @an"-a"e by Children.* Mind D: D%DM%9. 7Translated fro. Revue philosophi!ue , no. 1 N1'F&O.9 Tale of the 0isanNSOShamaness, The: 3 Manchu %olk #pic . 19FF. ,ntrod-ction by Mar"aret Go1ak. Trans. 3te hen )-rrant. 3eattle: University of ;ashin"ton Press. Ta.biah, 3tanley ?erara:a. 19F$. (uddhism and the Spirit Cults in 0orth.#ast Thailand . Ca.brid"e 3t-dies in 3ocial +nthro olo"y, no. D. Ca.brid"e: Ca.brid"e University Press. <<<. 199$. Magic, Science, Religion, and the Scope of Rationality . Ca.brid"e: Ca.brid"e University Press. Tarski, +lfred. 19'#. &ogic, Semantics, Metamathematics: )apers from BTCE to BTEX . Dd ed. Id. ?ohn Corcoran. ,ndiana olis: 2ackett. 71st ed. C0ford, 19%&.9 Teicher, Morton ,. 19&$. 6indigo )sychosis: 3 Study of a Relationship ,et1een (elief and (ehavior among the ;ndians of 0ortheastern Canada . Proceedin"s of the 19&$ +nn-al 3 rin" Meetin" of the +.erican Ithnolo"ical 3ociety, ed. 5erne (. Ray. 3eattle: +.erican Ithnolo"ical 3ociety. Tho. son, ?. Iric. 19#$. *Ithnolo"y of the Mayas of 3o-thern and Central British 2ond-ras.* %ield Museum of 0atural History, 3nthropological Series 1F, no. D: D#MD1#. Tho. son, 3tith, ed. 19%%. Motif.;nde: of %olk.&iterature: 3 Classification of 0arrative #lements in %olktales, (allads, Myths, %a,les, Mediaeval Romances, #:empla, %a,liau:, Iest.(ooks and &ocal &egends . Rev. edition. & vols. Bloo.in"ton: ,ndiana University Press. Th1aites, Re-ben Eold. 3ee 6enton, IdnaJ @e1is, Meri1ether, and ;illia. ClarkJ ;iedBGe-1ied, Ma0i.ilian. Titiev, Mischa. 1944. "ld "rai,i: 3 Study of the Hopi ;ndians of Third Mesa. )apers of the )ea,ody Museum of 3merican 3rchaeology and #thnology DD. <<<. 19%1. 3raucanian Culture in Transition . Cccasional Contrib-tions fro. the M-se-. of +nthro olo"y of the University of Michi"an, no. 1%. +nn +rbor: University of Michi"an Press.

Todorov, T>vetan. 19FF. The )oetics of )rose . Trans. Richard 2o1ard. ,thaca: Cornell University Press. 7Translation of &a )o*ti!ue de la prose . Paris, 19F1.9 To.ashevsky, Boris. 19&%. *The.atics.* ,n @e.on and Reis, &1M9%. 7Translation of *Te.atika.* @enin"rad, 19D%.9 / ##& / Tooker, Ilisabeth. 19&4. 3n #thnography of the Huron ;ndians, BRBDFBR]T . B+I B-lletin 19$. <<<. 19F$. The ;ro!uois Ceremonial of Mid1inter . 3yrac-se, G.=.: 3yrac-se University Press. <<<, ed. 19F9. 0ative 0orth 3merican Spirituality of the #astern 6oodlands: Sacred Myths, Greams, Aisions, Speeches, Healing %ormulas, Rituals and Ceremonials . Ge1 =ork: Pa-list Press. To>>er, +lfred M., ed. 1941. &anda9s RelaciMn de las Cosas de Jucatan: 3 Translation . Pa ers of the Peabody M-se-. of +.erican +rchaeolo"y and Ithnolo"y, 2arvard University. Ca.brid"e, Mass.: The M-se-.. Tri""er, Br-ce E., ed. 19&9. The Huron: %armers of the 0orth . Ge1 =ork: 2olt, Rinehart and ;inston. <<<. 19F'. Hand,ook of 0orth 3merican ;ndians 1%: 0ortheast . ;ashin"ton, ).C.: 3.ithsonian ,nstit-tion. Tscho ik, 2arry. 194F. *The +y.ara.* ,n 3te1ard D: %$1MF#. T-cci, Ei-se e. 19'$. The Religions of Ti,et . Trans. Eeoffrey 3a.-el. Berkeley and @os +n"eles: University of California Press. 7Translation fro. Ei-se e T-cci and ;alter 2eissi", Gie Religionen Ti,ets und der Mongolei . 3t-tt"art, 19F$.9 T-rnb-ll, Colin. 19&D. The %orest )eople . Ge1 =ork: 3i.on and 3ch-ster. <<<. 19F&. Man in 3frica . Earden City, G.=.: )o-bleday +nchor. T-rner, Idith. 3ee T-rner, 5ictor. T-rner, 5ictor. 19%F. Schism and Continuity in an 3frican Society: 3 Study of 0dem,u Aillage &ife . Manchester: Manchester University Press. <<<. 19&F. The %orest of Sym,ols: 3spects of 0dem,u Ritual . ,thaca: Cornell University Press. <<<. 19&'. The Grums of 3ffliction: 3 Study of Religious )rocesses among the 0dem,u of 5am,ia . C0ford: ClarendonJ r t. ,thaca: Cornell University Press, 19'1. <<<. 19&9. The Ritual )rocess: Structure and 3nti.Structure . The @e1is 2enry Mor"an @ect-res, 19&&. Chica"o: +ldineJ r t. ,thaca: Cornell University Press, 19FF. <<<. 19F4. Gramas, %ields, and Metaphors: Sym,olic 3ction in Human Society . ,thaca: Cornell University Press. <<<. 19F%. Revelation and Givination in 0dem,u Ritual . ,thaca: Cornell University Press. <<<, and Idith T-rner. 19F'. ;mage and )ilgrimage in Christian Culture: 3nthropological )erspectives . C0ford: Black1ell. T->in, )onald. 19'$. The Aoice of the Tam,aran: Truth and ;llusion in ;lahita 3rapesh Religion . Berkeley and @os +n"eles: University of California Press. Tylor, Id1ard. 19%'. Religion in )rimitive Culture . Cha ters 11M19 of )rimitive Culture . Ge1 =ork: 2ar er e Ro1J r t. Elo-cester, Mass.: Peter 3.ith, 19F$. 71st ed. @ondon, 1'F1.9

Underhill, R-th M. 194&. )apago ;ndian Religion . Col-.bia University Contrib-tions to +nthro olo"y, no. ##. Ge1 =ork: Col-.bia University PressJ r t. Ge1 =ork: +M3 Press, 19&9. / ##F / <<<. 194'. Ceremonial )atterns in the $reater South1est . Mono"ra hs of the +.erican Ithnolo"ical 3ociety 1#. Ge1 =ork: ?. ?. +-"-stin. 5ane, 3ylvia Brakke. 3ee Bean, @o1ell ?. van Eenne , +rnold. 19&$. The Rites of )assage . Trans. Monika B. 5i>edo. and Eabrielle @. Caffee. Chica"o: University of Chica"o Press. 7Translation of &es Rites de passage . Paris, 19$'.9 5er"er, Pierre. 19&9. *Trance and Convention in Ga"oB=or-ba 3 irit Medi-.shi .* ,n Beattie and Middleton, %$M&&. 5illa Ro:as, +lfonso. 19%%. &os Ma+atecos y el pro,lema de la cuenca del )apaloapan. Memorias del ;nstituto 0acional ;ndigenista F. 5o"t, Ivon T. 19&9. 5inacantan: 3 Maya Community in the Highlands of Chiapas . Ca.brid"e, Mass.: 2arvard University Press. <<<. 19F$. The 5inacantecos of Me:ico: 3 Modern Maya 6ay of &ife . Ge1 =ork: 2olt, Rinehart and ;inston. <<<. 19F&. Tortillas for the $ods: 3 Sym,olic 3nalysis of 5inacanteco Rituals . Ca.brid"e, Mass.: 2arvard University Press. von den 3teinen, 6arl. 1'94. -nter den 0aturvYlkern 5entral.(rasiliens . Berlin: )ietrich Rei.erJ r t. Ge1 =ork: ?ohnson Re rint, 19&'. von 2a"en, 5ictor ;. 19%F. Realm of the ;ncas . Ge1 =ork: Ge1 +.erican @ibrary. 5y"otsky, @.3. 19F&. *Play and ,ts Role in the Mental )evelo .ent of the Child.* Soviet )sychology 1D: &DMF&J r t. in Br-ner, ?olly, and 3ylva, %#FM%4. 7(ro. a lect-re of 19##.9 <<<. 19&D. Thought and &anguage . Id. and trans. I-"enia 2anf.ann and Eertr-de 5akar. Ca.brid"e, Mass.: M,T Press. ;adley, 3-san 3. 19F&. *The 3 irit HRidesH or the 3 irit HCo.esH: Possession in a Gorth ,ndian 5illa"e.* ,n Bharati, D##M%1. ;a"ley, Charles. 1949. The Social and Religious &ife of a $uatemalan Aillage . +++ Me.oirs, no. F1. <<<. 19FF. 6elcome of Tears: The Tapirap* ;ndians of Central (ra+il . Ge1 =ork: C0ford University Press. <<<, and Id-ardo EalvXo. 1949. The Tenetehara ;ndians of (ra+il: 3 Culture in Transition . Col-.bia University Contrib-tions to +nthro olo"y, no. #%. Ge1 =ork: Col-.bia University Press. ;alens, 3tanley. 19'1. %easting 1ith Canni,als: 3n #ssay on H1akiutl Cosmology . Princeton: Princeton University Press. ;ales, 2. E. 4-aritch. 19%F. )rehistory and Religion in South.#ast 3sia . @ondon: Bernard 4-aritch. ;alker, ?a.es R. 19D1. *The 3-n )ance and Cther Cere.onies of the C"lala )ivision of the Teton )akota.* ,n ;issler 19D1, %1MDD1. <<<. 19'$. &akota (elief and Ritual . Id. Ray.ond ?. )eMallie and Ilaine +. ?ahner. @incoln:

University of Gebraska Press. <<<. 19'D. &akota Society . Id. Ray.ond ?. )eMallie. @incoln: University of Gebraska Press. <<<. 19'#. &akota Myth . Id. Ilaine +. ?ahner. @incoln: University of Gebraska Press. / ##' / ;allace, +nthony (. C. 19&&. Religion: 3n 3nthropological Aie1 . Ge1 =ork: Rando. 2o-se. <<<. 19F$. The Geath and Re,irth of the Seneca . ;ith the assistance of 3heila C. 3teen. Ge1 =ork: 6no fJ r t. Ge1 =ork: 5inta"e, 19FD. ;allace, Irnest, and I. +da.son 2oebel. 19%D. The Comanches: &ords of the South )lains . Gor.an: University of Cklaho.a Press. ;allace, ;illia. ?. 19F'. *3o-thern 5alley =ok-ts.* ,n 2ei>er, 44'M&1. ;allis, ;ilson ). 19%D. *The Canadian )akota.* 3M0H )apers 41: #MDD%. ;asson, R. Eordon. 19&&. *Cloli-h8-i and the Cther 2all-cino"ens of Me0ico.* ,n Po. a y Po. a, #D9M4'. <<<. G.d. 7ca. 19&'9. Soma: Givine Mushroom of ;mmortality . IthnoBMycolo"ical 3t-dies, no. 1. NGe1 =orkO: 2arco-rt Brace ?ovanovich. ;aters, (rank. 19&#. (ook of the Hopi . Ge1 =ork: 5ikin"J r t. 2ar.onds1orth: Pen"-in, 19FF. ;eber, Ma0. 194&. %rom Ma: 6e,er: #ssays in Sociology . Trans. and ed. 2. 2. Eerth and C. ;ri"ht Mills. Ge1 =ork: C0ford University Press. ;elby, 5ictoria. 3ee Peirce, Charles 3anders. ;eltfish, Eene. 19&%. The &ost -niverse: )a1nee &ife and Culture . Ge1 =ork: Basic BooksJ r t. @incoln: University of Gebraska Press, 19FF. ;erner, +lice. 19##. Myths and &egends of the (antu . @ondon: 2arra . ;hite, @eslie +. 19D'. *+ Co. arative 3t-dy of 6eresan Medicine 3ocieties.* )roceedings of the ;nternational Congress of 3mericanists D#: &$4M19. <<<. 19#%. The )ue,lo of Santo Gomingo, 0e1 Me:ico . +++ Me.oirs, no. 4#. ;hitehead, +lfred Gorth. 19D&. Religion in the Making . Ge1 =ork: Mac.illanJ r t. Ge1 =ork: ;orld, 19&$. <<<. 19D9. )rocess and Reality: 3n #ssay in Cosmology . Ge1 =ork: Mac.illanJ r t. Ge1 =ork: 2ar er e Ro1, 19&$. ;hitney, ;illia. )1i"ht. 1'F%. The &ife and $ro1th of &anguage: 3n "utline of &inguistic Science . Ge1 =ork: + letonJ r t. Ge1 =ork: )over, 19F9. ;horf, Ben:a.in @ee. 19%&. &anguage, Thought, and Reality: Selected 6ritings of (en/amin &ee 6horf . Id. ?ohn B. Carroll. Ca.brid"e, Mass.: M,T Press. ;iedBGe-1ied, Ma0i.ilian +le0ander Phili , Prince of. 1'#9M41. Reise in das ;nnere 0ord.3merica in den Iahren BXEC ,is BXE] . D vols. Coblen>: ?. 2oelscherJ r t. (rankf-rt: Bender, 19F$. <<<. 19$&. Travels in the ;nterior of 0orth 3merica, BXECFBXE] . Trans. 2annibal Ivans @loyd. ,n Re-ben Eold Th1aites, ed., #arly 6estern Travels, B`]XFBX]R . Cleveland: +rth-r 2. Clark, 19$&,

vols. DDMD4. 71st ed. @ondon, 1'4#. Translation of ;iedBGe-1ied 1'#9M41.9 <<<. 19F&. )eople of the %irst Man: &ife 3mong the )lains ;ndians in Their %inal Gays of $lory. The %irsthand 3ccount of )rince Ma:imilian9s #:pedition up the Missouri River, BXEEFE] . ;atercolors by 6arl Bod.er. Id. )avis Tho.as and 6arin Ronnefeldt. Ge1 =ork: )-tton. 7Contains selections fro. ;iedBGe-1ied 19$&.9 ;ilbert, ?ohannes. 19F9. *Ma"icoBReli"io-s Use of Tobacco a.on" 3o-th +.erican ,ndians.* ,n Bro1.an and 3ch1ar>, 1#M#'. ;ildsch-t, ;illia.. 3ee Gabokov, Peter. / ##9 / ;ilson, Id.-nd. 19&$. 3pologies to the ;ro!uois , Ge1 =ork: (arrar, 3tra-s, and Eiro-0J r t. Ge1 =ork: 5inta"e, 19&&. ;ilson, Monica. 19%1. $ood Company: 3 Study of 0yakyusa 3ge.Aillages . @ondon: C0ford University Press, for the ,nternational +frican ,nstit-te. ;inter, Id1ard 2. G.d. (1am,a: 3 Structural.%unctional 3nalysis of a )atrilineal Society . Ca.brid"e: ;. 2effer, for the Iast +frican ,nstit-te of 3ocial Research. <<<. 19&#. *The Ine.y ;ithin: +.ba ;itchcraft and 3ociolo"ical Theory.* ,n Middleton and ;inter, DFFM99. ;isdo., Charles. 194$. The Chorti ;ndians of $uatemala . Chica"o: University of Chica"o Press. <<<. 19%D. *The 3- ernat-ral ;orld and C-rin".* ,n 3ol Ta0, et al., Heritage of Con!uest: The #thnology of Middle 3merica . Elencoe, ,ll.: (ree Press, 119M#4. ;issler, Clark, ed. 191&. Societies of the )lains ;ndians. 3M0H )apers 11. <<<, ed. 19D1. Sun Gance of the )lains ;ndians. 3M0H )apers 1&. <<<, and ).C. )-vall. 19$9. *Mytholo"y of the Blackfoot ,ndians.* ,n 3M0H )apers D, art 1: 1M 1&#. ;olf, Iric R. 19%9. Sons of the Shaking #arth . Chica"o: University of Chica"o Press. ;y.an, @eland C. 19F$. (lessing1ay . T-cson: University of +ri>ona Press. =ava, +lbert. 19F'. (ig %alling Sno1: 3 Te1a.Hopi ;ndian9s &ife and Times and the History and Traditions of His )eople . Id. 2arold Co-rlander. Ge1 =ork: Cro1n. =on"den, @a.a. 3ee )avidBGeel, +le0andra. Taretsky, ,rvin" ,., and Cynthia 3ha.ba-"h. 19F'. Spirit )ossession and Spirit Mediumship in 3frica and 3fro.3merica: 3n 3nnotated (i,liography . Ge1 =ork: Earland. Tin"", Robert M. 3ee Bennett, ;endell C. Tolla, IlA.ire. 19F#. The 6riter and the Shaman: 3 Morphology of the 3merican ;ndian . Trans. Ray.ond Rosenthal. Ge1 =ork: 2arco-rt Brace ?ovanovich. 7Translation of ; &etterati e lo sciamano . Milan, 19&9.9 / #41 /

IN,E1
A
+arsleff, 2ans, #& n +cedia 7s irit-al a athy, sloth9, %& , D9D +dair, ?a.es, DD9 +da tation: biolo"ical, D# , D4 , 4% , %D , %# J lin"-istic, 4F , 49 J hysical, D&F J reli"io-s, 1D9 B#$J social, 94 B9%, 99 , 1#1 . See also ,nnovation, creativity +driani, G., 14& , 14F n +frica, c-lt-res and reli"ions of. See +ka.baJ +l-rJ +r-baJ +ncestor 1orshi and 1orshi of the deadJ +shantiJ +>andeJ BanyoroJ (ori c-ltJ C1e+i co. le0J )aho.eyJ )inkaJ )o"onJ Ihan>-J EXJ 2a-saJ Iok J 6a"-r-J 6onsoJ L6-n"J @-"baraJ MandariJ Gde.b-J Gs-kka ,"boJ G-erJ Py".iesJ 3acrificeJ 3 irit ossessionJ 3honaJ 31a>iJ TallensiJ Ton"aJ =or-baJ 5ar c-ltJ Tin>aJ T-l+fter1orld, conce tions of, 14& 73in"a ore9, 1&1 73iberia9, 1&% 7(inns9, 1&F 7Manch-9, 1'1 B'D 7Gorth1est Coast9, D#& B#9 and D41 7northeastern Gorth +.erica9, D%1 and D%1 n.14 7Blackfoot9. See also Milky ;ayJ Myths, of ascent to heavensJ Myths, of descent to and ret-rn fro. 1orld of deadJ 3ha.an, ascent of, to heavensJ 3ha.an, descent of, to -nder1orldJ 3ha.an, recovery of so-ls of sick or dead by +"ric-lt-ralists: connected 1ith h-nters thro-"h sha.anB riest 72-ichol9, D$F J ortrayed as a""ressive, F1 J sacrifice and slayin" of deity by, F1 BFDJ settled ro-tines of, s-ited to riestly rit-al, 19& , D$4 7Mesoa.erica9, D$F 72-ichol9, D1$ 7,nca9, D14 7Ma -che9, DD9 B#$ 7so-theastern Gorth +.erica9, D&D . See also 2-ntersJ Rit-al, a"ric-lt-ral +in- 7of 2okkaido, ?a an9, 1%9 , 1%9 n, 1&% B&& +ka.ba 7of 6enya, Iast +frica9, F9 +laba.a 7of so-theastern Gorth +.erica9, D#1 +le0ander, 2artley B-rr, 'F , D4& n, D4F +l"on8-ian eo les of Gorth +.erica, 1'% n, D## , D#4 , D#' B4D, D44 , D4% , D%$ , D$D n, D%D , D%D n, D&# .

See also +ra ahoJ BlackfootJ CheyenneJ Chi e1aJ )ela1areJ (o0J Meno.iniJ Mic.acJ Monta"naisJ C:ib1aJ Ctta1aJ Poto.acJ Po1hatanJ 3a-ltea-0J 3ha1nee +ltai 7T-rkic eo le of Central +sia9, 1&$ , 1&1 , D1% +l-r 7of Gilotic 3-dan, +frica9, 1D1 , 1#$ +.ah-aca 7of +.a>onian Per- and Bra>il9, DD% +.a>onian and other tro ical c-lt-res and reli"ions of 3o-th +.erica, D19 BDF, D&# . See also +.ah-acaJ + a oc-vaJ Bakadr\J BarasanaJ BororoJ CaribJ Cashinah-aJ )esanaJ EQJ Eran ChacoJ E-aran\J ?\varoJ Mac-siJ Mehinak-J Ga.oeteriJ 3ha.atariJ 3haranah-aJ / #4D / 3havanteJ 3herenteJ Ta ira AJ Ta-li Yn"J T-kanoansJ T- \BE-aran\J T- ina.ba +.ba 7of U"anda, Iast +frica9, F4 , F% +.oss, Pa.ela, 1F9 +ncestor 1orshi and 1orshi of the dead, &# J absence of, in +.a>on, D19 J absence of, a.on" + ache, &4 J in +frica, &# B&%, &# n, &4 n, FD BF#, 11$ B11J in +-stralia, &F B&'J conce tion of ti.e in, &% J connection of, 1ith blood and fertility, FD BF#J *f-t-re orientation* of, F$ , 9% J by ,nca, D11 , D11 n.%J by Ma -che, D14 J in Melanesia and Polynesia, && B&FJ Gde.b- association of, 1ith the 1ild, FF J and 1itchcraft, F% J in T-Wi, &# +nda.an ,slanders 7of eastern ,ndian Ccean9, &F , 14% +ndean c-lt-res and reli"ions of 3o-th +.erica, D1$ B1'. See also +ra-caniansJ +y.araJ ,ncaJ Ma -cheJ MocheJ 4-ech-aJ 3elkHna.J =a.ana +ndre1s, @ynn 5., D%D n 3nimal !uaerens 7*the 8-estin" ani.al*9, # , 1' , 4% , %# , %& , D&% +ni.als: as ancestors, &F 7+nda.an ,slanders9J as divinities, 1&& 7+in-9, 19$ B91 7P-eblos9, DD4 7+.a>on9, D#% B#& 73eneca9J

in ,ce +"e cave aintin"s, 1#9 , 1%1 , D&D , D&D nJ lan"-a"es of, 1%% , 1&' , D4% B4&J ro itiation of, 1%% , 1&& 7+in-9, 1FF 7Iski.o9, 1F' 7Gorth1est Coast9, D$F 72-ichol9, D#& 7northeastern Gorth +.erica9, D&D J reincarnation of so-l in, 1&1 J rit-als of, in relation to h-.an rit-al, & , ' J re resentation of, in sha.anic cost-.e, dr-., and lan"-a"e, 1%% B%&, 1&$ , 1&' J ti"erBs irit of Malaysia, 1$F , 14% , 14& J transfor.ative interchan"e of, 1ith sha.ans and others, 1%& , 1&' , 1FD 7Iski.o9, 1F' 7Gorth1est Coast9, 1'' 7California9, 191 7T-Wi9, 19# 7Mohave9, 19' 7+>tec9, D$F 72-ichol9, D19 BD1 and DD# 7+.a>on9, D#& 7northeastern Gorth +.erica9. See also BearJ BirdsJ E-ardian s iritJ 2-ntersJ 0agual J 3ha.an, as *.aster of ani.als*J 5ision 8-estJ ;hite B-ffalo ;o.an +nisi.ov, +. (., 1&D B&# +no.aly, assi.ilation of, in rit-al, 11 B1D +o Ga"as 7of northeast ,ndia9, 1$' + ache 7+tha ascan eo le of so-th1estern Gorth +.erica9, &D J fear of dead a.on", &4 J .yth of ascent to heavens, 9D , 9D nJ .yth of e.er"ence, 91 J sha.anis. and cere.onialis. of, 19D B9#. See also Chiricah-a + acheJ Cibec-e + acheJ Mescalero + acheJ ;hite Mo-ntain + ache + a oc-va 7T-kanoan tribe of so-thern Bra>il9, DD& + oria 7reso-rcelessness, er le0ity, i. asse9, 0v , %& B%F, %& n, D9D B94, D9# n +randa, or +r-nta 7of central +-stralia9, &F B&', 141 B4#, 1F' +ra aho 7+l"on8-ian eo le of Ereat Plains9, D49 , D%D +ra-canians 7of so-thern +ndes9, D14 B1F. See also Ma -che +rias, Man-el 7T>ot>il Maya c-rer9, D$9 B1$ +rikara 7Caddoan eo le of Ereat Plains9, D44 +ristotle: on the a oria of the 8-estion of bein", %& nJ on for. as act-ali>ation of the otentiality of .atter, 0ii , %4 , DF1 n.4, DF9 , D'% J on oetic .i.esis and lot 7mythos 9, D'% , D'& , D9$ J teleolo"y of, 1' n, 19 , D9 , 4'

+rria"a, (ather Pablo ?ose h de, D11 n.%, D1D +shanti 7of Ehana, ;est +frica9, &4 B&%, 1$4 , 11$ B11, 1D& , 1%F +tkinson, ?ane Monni", 14F +ts-"e1i 7of northern California9, 1'% +-den, ;. 2., %4 +-"-stine, 3t., ## , && +-stin, ?. @., #9 n.4 +-stralia, c-lt-res and reli"ions of, % J .ytholo"ical *)rea. Ti.e* in, &F B&', 141 J sha.anis. in, 14$ B44. See also +randaJ Band:elan"J 6-rnaiJ M-rinbataJ ;irad:-ri +vYBChiri Y, or +vYB6ataBItA 7E-aran\ tribe of Para"-ay9, DD& n +1olal-, ?. C.osade, &4 , &4 n / #4# / +yah-asca. See Garcotics and hall-cino"ens, ya"A +yala, (rancisco ?., 1' , 1' n +y.ara 7of hi"hland Bolivia9, D1# +>ande 7of central +frica9, F# , 'D +>tec 7of ancient Mesoa.erica9, 19F BD$D

5
Bachofen, ?. ?., D1' n Bacon, (rancis, #$ , DF4 Bai"a 7of central ,ndia9, 1$' Bakadr\ 7of central Bra>il9, DD1 Bakhtin, Mikhail, D'F B'' Bakta.an 7of Ge1 E-inea9, F' BF9, F9 n Bali 7,ndonesia9, 1$& , 119 , 1D1 Balikci, +sen, 1FD , 1F% BaMb-ti 7Py".ies of Con"o re"ion9, F1 . See also Py".ies Band:elan" 7of northern Ge1 3o-th ;ales, +-stralia9, 14# Banyoro 7of U"anda, Iast +frica9, 111 , 1D& , 1#$

Barasana 7T-kanoan eo le of north1est +.a>onia9, D19 Barbea-, Mari-s, 1F' , 1'1 Barber, 6arin, &4 n Barbo-r, Phili @., DD9 Barnett, 2o.er, 1F9 , 1'1 Barno-1, 5ictor, D4# Barth, (redrik, F9 , F9 n Bartolo.A, Mi"-el +lberto, DD1 n, DD& n Bartra., ;illia., DD' Basso, Illen B., DD1 Basso, 6eith 2., 19D Bastide, Ro"er, 114 , 11% , 1D1 , 1D# BD& Bastien, ?ose h ;., D1# Batek 7Ge"ritos of enins-lar Malaysia9, 14& . See also Ge"ritos Bateson, Ere"ory, F9 n Bat-8-e. See Bra>il, s irit ossession c-lts of Beals, Ral h @., D$1 , D$1 n, D$4 Bean, @o1ell ?., 1'& , 1'F n, 1'' Bear, as ob:ect of rit-al or 1orshi , 1%% 7Boreal h-nters and (inns9, 1&1 7=enisei Cstiaks9, 1&% B&& 7+in-9, 19$ B91 and 19% 7P-eblos9, D#& 7northeastern Gorth +.erica9, D%$ 7Ereat Plains9 Beattie, ?ohn, 1$9 , 111 , 1D& , 1D' , 1#$ Beckett, 3a.-el, D94 Beidel.an, T. C., F4 Bella Coola 7of British Col-.bia, Gorth1est Coast9, 1'$ , 1'1 Bellah, Robert G., % n, 9F Belo, ?ane, 1$& , 1D1 Benedict, R-th, &D , F$ BFD, 1$& , 1F# n.D, 1FF , 1'D , 1'% , D49 , D%$ Bennett, ;endell C., D$% , D$& , D1$ Bera1an 7of 3ara1ak, Borneo9, 14F Ber"er, Peter @., 4 , 14 B1% Ber"son, 2enri, 4 , ' , 11 , 1# , 1& , 1& n, %$ B%1, %# , &D , '4 , D&1 Bernard, Cla-de, DF4 Bernba-., Id1in, 1%$

Berndt, Ronald M., &' , D1' n Bernste:nNSO , G. +., 1' , D# n Berre.an, Eerald )., 1$' , 1D9 Bertalanffy, @-d1i" von, DD , D9 , 4' Best, Ilsdon, '' B91 Biard, (ather Pierre, D## Biddle, Gicholas, D%1 n.1# Bi" 2o-se cere.ony of )ela1are, or @ena e, '% , D## , D#4 , D#' Binary o osition, or d-ality, 1& , %1 , D&9 BF1, D&9 n, D9$ . See also Clos-re and o ennessJ 3tatic and dyna.icJ 3tr-ct-re and rocessJ Ternary relation Biocca, Ittore, DDD Biolo"y, 1' BD4, 4' , D&F B&'J and co. le0ity, D# n. See also +ristotle, teleolo"y ofJ Clos-re and o ennessJ )ar1in, CharlesJ )irectionalityJ Ivol-tionJ (-t-re and f-t-rityJ Eeno.eJ Eo-ld, 3te hen ?ayJ 2istoryJ Mayr, IrnstJ Monod, ?ac8-esJ Pia"et, ?eanJ P-r oseJ 3tr-ct-re and rocessJ Teleono.y Birds, as divinities or "-ardian s irits, 1%4 B%&, 1&$ , and 1&1 73iberia9, 1&& 7+in-9, 1&F 7Manch-9, 1FD 7Iski.o9, DD$ 7+.a>on9, DD4 7Ta ira A9, D4% and D%$ 73io-09, D%1 7Blackfoot9, D%4 and D%% 7in Black IlkHs vision9, D&D B:erke, 3vein, 111 B1D, 14$ Blackb-rn, Tho.as C., 1'& Black Ilk, Gicholas 7C"lala holy .an9, D4% , D4F , D49 , D%$ , D%$ n, D%# B%F, D%# n, D%& n, D&4 , D&% , D'% Blacker, Car.en, 0ii Blackfoot 7+l"on8-ian eo le of Ereat Plains9, D4' , D%1 , D%1 n.14, D%D , D%D n Blair, I..a 2elen, D#& / #44 / Boas, (ran>, 1FD , 1F# n.1, 1F% BFF, 1F' BVdi"er, Ute, DD% Bod.er, 6arl, D%1 n.1# Bo"oras, ;., 1%4 , 1%' , 1%9 , 1%9 n Bon 7BVn9 reli"ion of Tibet, 149 B%$ Bondo 7of Crissa, east central ,ndia9, 1$' B9 (ori c-lt 7of Gi"eria and north1est +frica9, 11D , 1DF n, 1#&

Borneo, 14& B4' Bororo 7of Bra>ilian +.a>on9, D19 , DD$ Boss-, M, D#1 Bo-r"-i"non, Irika, 119n, 1D' , 1D9 , 1'% n Bo-rke, ?ohn E., F$n, 19D , 19# Brain, lasticity of, D&9 BF$ Brain, ?a.es @., &4 n Bra.ly, 3er"e, 114 Bra>il, s irit ossession c-lts of: +frican and other infl-ences on, 11# B1%J Bat-8-e, 114 B1%, 11F B1', 119 BD$J Cando.blA, 11# B14, 114 n, 1D1 , 1D4 BD&J Mac-.ba, 114 , 11% J U.banda, 114 B1&. See also +.a>onian and other tro ical c-lt-res and reli"ions of 3o-th +.erica BrAbe-f, (ather ?ean de, D#& B#', D4D Brinton, )aniel E., 199 Bro1n, ?ason ;., 4# , 4F , 49 Bro1n, ?ose h I es, D4% , D4& , D4& n, D4' , D%# Br-nda"e, B-rr Cart1ri"ht, 199 , D11 Br-ner, ?ero.e, 41 B4& Br-no, Eiordano, DF4 B-ddhis.. See 3ha.anis., relation of @a.aist and Mahayana B-ddhis. to B-echler, 2ans C., D1# B-l.er, R. G. 2., 1$& B-n>el, R-th, &D , &# , FD , 191 , D$# B-rkert, ;alter, D&D , D&D n B-r.a, 1$F , 1D& . See also 6achins B-ryat 7of so-thern 3iberia9, 1%& , 1%' , 1%9 n B-sa.a 7of Ge1 E-inea9, F9 B'$ B-shnell, )avid ,, ?r., D#1 B-sia, 6. +., 1$4 B-0ton, ?ean, F4 , '' n.4, 1$9 , 11F , 119 , 1#$ B#1, 1#1 n

Byers, )o-"las, D$$ , D$D

C
Caddo 7of +rkansas, @o-isiana, and eastern Te0as9, D#1 Caddoan eo les, D4% , D4F n. See also +rikaraJ CaddoJ Pa1nee CYhita 7co. risin" Mayo and =a8-i of northern Me0ico and so-thern +ri>ona9, D$$ BD$1, D$4 . See also MayoJ =a8-i Cah-illa 7of so-thern California9, 1'& , 1'' Calder]n Palo.ino, Id-ardo 7coastal Per-vian c-rer9, D14 Calendar, of ancient Mesoa.erican and +ndean eo les, 19& B9F, D$$ , D$# , D11 n.& California, c-lt-res and reli"ions of, 1'D B'9, 19# B94. See also +ts-"e1iJ Cah-illaJ Ch-.ashJ 2- aJ 6arokJ 6-ks- and other c-lts of north central CaliforniaJ @-iseWoJ Maid-J MohaveJ MonoJ GisenanJ ChloneJ Pat1inJ Po.oJ 3hastaJ TachiJ =anaJ =ok-tsJ =-.aJ =-rok Ca. bell, ?ere.y, 1#1 , DF$ , DF1 n.4 Ca. bell, ?ose h, D'9 , D'9 n.& Cando.blA. See Bra>il, s irit ossession c-lts of Cannibalis., FD , F4 Car"os 7rotatin" offices in Mesoa.erica and +ndes9, D$$ , D1# Carib 7of E-ianas and Bra>il9, DD1 n, DDD Caribo- Iski.o 7of Canada9, 1F4 Carna , R-dolf, #9 n.# Carrasco, Pedro, D$$ Cashinah-a 7of +.a>onian eastern Per-9, DD4 Cassirer, Irnst, F , 4$ n.%, '% n Castaneda, Carlos, D$1 n Catlin, Eeor"e, D4& , D4F , D%1 , D%1 n.14 Ca-ses of disease and death: affliction of ani.al co. anion, D$# 7Mesoa.erica9J evil 1inds or *airs,* D$# 7Mesoa.erica9, D1D 7,nca9J fri"ht 7espanto 9, D$# , D$% , and D$9 7Mesoa.erica9, D1D 7,nca9J intr-sion of forei"n ob:ect, 1F& 7Iski.o9, 1'1 7Gorth1est Coast9, 1'# 7north1est California9, 1'4 7California9, DDD 7+.a>on9J so-l loss, 14F 7Bera1an9, 1FD and 1F& 7Iski.o9, 1'1 7Gorth1est Coast9, 1'4 7California9, D$% 7Mesoa.erica9, D$9 B1$ 7T>ot>il Maya9, D1D 7,nca9, DDD 73o-th +.erica9, DD4 7Eran Chaco and

+.a>on9, D4D 73a-ltea-09. See also C-rin" .ethodsJ Myths, of descent to and / #4% / ret-rn fro. 1orld of deadJ 3ha.an, recovery of so-ls of sick or dead byJ ;itchcraft and sorcery Cave aintin"s, ,ce +"e, 1#9 B4$, 1%1 , D&D Celebes. See 3-la1esi Chad1ick, Gora, 1&4 , 1&4 n.F Cha"non, Ga oleon +., D19 Cha. lain, 3a.-el de, D41 , D41 n Chance: in biolo"ical evol-tion, D$ BD1, D4 , D&F J in h-.an co..-nication, DF1 J in hysics, D&F B&', DF# Chan"e. See +da tationJ Conflict and chan"e, in reli"ion and societyJ ,nnovation, creativityJ 3tatic and dyna.icJ Transition Cha .an, +nne, D1' , D1' n Chatino 7of Ca0aca, Me0ico9, D$# Cherokee 7,ro8-oian eo le of Gorth Carolina and Eeor"ia9, D#$ , D#4 Cherry, Colin, #9 n.#, DF$ Cheyenne 7+l"on8-ian eo le of Ereat Plains9, D%D , D%# Chichicastenan"o 74-iche Maya villa"e, Mesoa.erica9, D$# Chickasa1 7M-sko"ean eo le of MissisB si i and Tennessee9, DD9 , D#$ , D#D Chi e1a 7+l"on8-ian eo le of northeastern and .id1estern Gorth +.erica9, D#4 , D#4 n. See also C:ib1a Chila. Bala., ro het of ancient Maya, 19' ChimKn 7Mayan soothsayer and c-rer9, D$D , D$4 China, 149 , 1%1 B%D, 1%D n Chiricah-a + ache 7of so-th1estern Gorth +.erica9, 19D Chiti.acha 7of @o-isiana9, D#D Chocta1 7M-sko"ean eo le of Mississi Cho.sky, Goa.: affinities and differences bet1een his and 3a-ss-reHs lin"-istics, #4 B#%J i and +laba.a9, D#1 *Choice,* at bif-rcation oint bet1een biolo"ical or hysical states, D1 , D&F B&', DF$

on a-tono.y of "ra..ar, #4 , #F J on creativity of lan"-a"e, #& , 4$ B41, 4% J on inco. arability of lan"-a"e 1ith str-ct-ralist ta0ono.ies, '% nJ on innately ro"ra..ed -niversal "ra..ar, #4 , 4$ J on interactin" syste.s of lan"-a"e, #' B4$J on lan"-a"e ac8-isition, 41 B4#J on lin"-istic intentionality, #4 , #& B#F, 4F J on lin"-istic reference to e0tralin"-istic reality, #' J on "ra..ar as rocess, #4 B#%, %1 Chorti Maya 7of E-ate.ala9, D$$ Ch-kchee 7of eastern 3iberia9, 1%4 , 1%F B%9, 1%9 n Ch-kovsky, 6ornei, 4% n Ch-.ash 7of so-thern California9, 1'& Cibec-e + ache 7of so-th1estern Gorth +.erica9, 19D Cie>a de @e]n, Pedro, D11 , D11 n.& Cla arUde, I., %4 Clark, ;illia., D%1 n.1# Clarke, 6enneth ;., '' n.4 Closed syste.. See Clos-re and o enness Clos-re and o enness, o in binary o osition and interaction of, ' , 1& , %$ B%#, %& , D&1 J ositions and ternary relations, D&9 , DF1 J

biolo"ical, DD BD#, %1 , D&% J in California rit-al and sha.anis., 1'9 J in Central +ndean reli"ion, D1# B14J in cere.onialis. and sha.anis. of so-th1estern Gorth +.erica, 19D B9#J co"nitive and sycholo"ical, D% BD&, D9 B#1J in co. -ters and brains, DF$ J in evolvin" -niverse, DF& J in :o-rney into the 1ild, FF J in lan"-a"e, ## 73a-ss-re9, #' , 4$ B41 7Cho.sky9, 4# , 44 72eide""er9, 4% 7Cho.sky and 2-.boldt9, 4& 7de @a"-na and Br-ner9, 4F , D$& 7Ma>atec .-shroo. visions9J in Ma -che sha.anis., D1& J in hysical syste.s, D&& B&FJ in readerHs res onse to narrative, D9D J

in rit-al and 8-est, 9F , D&# , D&% J in s ells and .yths, 'D B'4J in s irit .edi-.shi , 1DD BD#, 1#$ , 1#% J in =a8-i reli"ion, D$$ BD$1J in Tinacanteco cere.onials, D$9 . See also Ber"son, 2enriJ C-ltivated and 1ildJ 3tatic and dyna.icJ 3tr-ct-re and rocess Clo1ns: ,ro8-ois (alse (aces, D## , D#% J of P-eblos, F$ , F$ BF1n, FD , F# , 1'9 , 19F J 3io-0 heyokas , D4' , D%& Coast 3alish 7of British Col-.bia and P-"et 3o-nd, Gorth1est Coast9, 1F9 B'D Cobo, BernabA, D11 , D11 n.% Cochiti P-eblo 7of so-th1estern Gorth +.erica9, F% Coco a 7=-.an eo le of so-th1estern Gorth +.erica9, 19# / #4& / Codrin"ton, R. 2, && , 1$% B&, 144 Coe, Michael )., 19' Cofitache8-i 73o-th Carolina9, DD9 Collins, ?-ne McCor.ick, 1F9 , 1'D Colson, Ili>abeth, 119 , 1D% , 1#$ Co.anche 7UtoB+>tecan eo le of so-thBern Ereat Plains9, D4% , D%D Co..-nitas, T-rnerHs conce t of, 1$ B 1D , '# Co. -ters. See )i"ital co. -ters Confession, 1F& 7Iski.o9, 199 7Mesoa.erica9, D11 and D1D 7,nca9 Conflict and chan"e, in reli"ion and society, &' B'1 *Con:-rer.* See *?-""ler* Conscio-sness: as develo in" interactive rocess, D' , DF$ J differentiation of, fro. -nconscio-s in (re-d and ?-n", DF BD'J relation of, to s irit, %4 B%%J triadic nat-re of, DFD . See also Brain Co 1ay, E., D#' , D4#

C]rdovaBRios, Man-el, DD% Corn lanter, Id1ard, D#9 CortAs, 2ernYn, 19F , D1$ Cos.olo"ies, sha.anistic and other, 149 7Tibet9, 1%4 B%% and 1&$ B&1 7Gorth I-rasia9, 1FD 7Iski.o9, 1F' 7Gorth1est Coast9, D19 BD$ 7+.a>on9, D#$ B#1 7so-theastern Gorth +.erica9 Costanoan. See Chlone Co-rlander, 2arold, 11D B1#, 11' , 1D$ , 1D$ n Coyote 7Gorth +.erican trickster9, 1'& Cra>y 2orse 7C"lala chief and holy .an9, D%# , D%% Creativity. See ,nnovation, creativity Cree. See Plains Cree Creek, or M-sko"ee 7M-sko"ean eo le of Eeor"ia and +laba.a9, DD9 , D#1 Cro.er, Richard, 4# Cro1 73io-an eo le of Ereat Plains9, D49 , D%D , D%D n, D%# C-ltivated and 1ild, o osition and interaction of, F& B'1, 1$# , D&1 J in )inka o1ers of ho.estead and 1ild, F& J in initiation rites, F9 B'$J in @-"bara divinity, F& J in Gava:o chant1ays, 91 B9DJ in T>ot>il Maya reli"ion, D1$ J in =a8-i reli"ion, D$$ BD$1. See also Clos-re and o ennessJ )e.onic s irits of the 1ildJ 3tatic and dyna.icJ 3tr-ct-re and rocessJ ;itchcraft and sorcery C-rin" .ethods, of sha.ans and other c-rers: blo1in" tobacco s.oke, 1'4 7California9, 194 7Pi.a9, D$4 7Mesoa.erica9, D$F 72-ichol9, DD# 7+.a>on9J e0traction and s-ckin", 1'1 7Gorth1est Coast9, 1'# 7north1est California9, 1'4 7California9, 194 7Pi.a9, 19' 7ancient Maya9, D$4 7Maya9, D$F 72-ichol9, D1D 7,nca9, D1F 73elkHna.9, DD# BD4 7+.a>on9, D#1 and D#D 7so-theastern Gorth +.erica9, D4$ n 7northeastern Gorth +.erica9J assin" ob:ect over atient, 1'1 761aki-tl9, 191 72o i9, D$# B4 7Maya9J sin"in" and dancin", 1'4 7California9, 194 7Pi.a9, D1' 73elkHna.9, DD# BD4 7+.a>on9, D#D 7so-theastern Gorth +.erica9. See also C-rin" societiesJ I0orcis.J 3hakin" TentJ 3ha.an, recovery of so-ls of sick or dead byJ 3 irit .edi-. C-rin" societies, 1'D B'# 7Gorth1est Coast9, 1'F B'9 7California9, 19$ B91 and 19F 7P-eblo9, 194 7Pi.a9, D## B#& and D#' 7northeastern Gorth +.erica9 C-rtis, Id1ard 3.: on Iski.o sha.anis., 1F# J

on 2aida, 1F9 J on Gava:o .yth of ascent to heavens, 9D nJ on ossible T-Wi le"erde.ain, F1 nJ on 3io-0 3-n )ance, D4& , D4& nJ on Teton 3io-0 vision 8-est, D%1 J on T-Wi secret societies, 191 C-shin", (rank, F$ C-ster, Eeor"e +r.stron", D%# , D%% C1e+i co. le0 7of Bant- Iast +frica9, 111 B1D, 1#$ , 14$

,
)ablon, Cla-de, D4D )aho.ey 7Benin, ;est +frica9: divination in, 11$ J fate and .obility in, F# J h-.an sacrifices in, F# J infl-ence of, on Caribbean and Bra>ilian ossession c-lts, 11D B14J rites for .ythical ancestors in, &4 J s irit ossession in dances a.on" the (on of, 11$ , 1D1 J trickster of, F# , 11% )akota 7lan"-a"e of 3io-09, D4& , D4' , D4' nn.9, 1$ , D%$ n )ar1in, Charles, 19 BD1, D# BD4, D1F , D1F n, D&F , D&' , DF4 / #4F / )at-ra 7:i.son1eed, or toloache9. See Garcotics and hall-cino"ens, dat-ra )avidBGeel, +le0andra, 149 B%1, 1&4 n.' )eardorff, Merle 2., D#% de Bry, Theodore, D#1 B#D )ece tion, or ill-sion: in initiation rites, '$ J in sha.anis., 1## , D'D J in s irit .edi-.shi , 1D4 J in vision 8-ests, D%$ )econstr-ction, D9D de @a"-na, (rederica, 1'$

de @a"-na, Erace, 4& , 4F , 49 )ela1are, or @ena e 7+l"on8-ian eo le of northeastern Gorth +.erica9, '% , D## , D#4 , D#' , D4D )ela1are Pro het, D#9 )eMallie, Ray.ond ?., D49 n.1D, D%# , D%# n, D%& n, D%F de Man, Pa-l, D9D )e.onic s irits of the 1ild, F& , 1$# , 11% . See also C-ltivated and 1ildJ TrickstersJ ;itchcraft and sorcery )ens.ore, (rances, D#% , D4D n, D44 B4& )eren, Maya, 11# , 1D$ n )errida, ?ac8-es, DFD n )esana 7of Colo.bia, north1est +.a>onia9, DD1 BD4, DD# n de 3oto, 2ernando, DD' , DD9 )es ard, E. P., D1F n )e1dney, 3el1yn, D#4 )i"ital co. -ters, D&9 BF$ )inka 7of the Gilotic 3-dan, +frica9: distinction bet1een o1ers of ho.estead and 1ild a.on", F& J /ok ossession and .edi-.shi a.on", 1$9 , 111 , 1D% J .yth of broken connection bet1een earth and sky, '' )i]s>e"i, 5., 1%1 n.D, 1&$ )irectionality: of biolo"ical syste.s, 19 BD4J of hysical syste.s, D&& B&9J of lay, "est-res, and lan"-a"e, 4& , 49 J of s irit-al 8-est, %& , D9# . See also Clos-re and o ennessJ 2istoryJ P-r oseJ 3tr-ct-re and rocessJ Teleolo"y )isease. See Ca-ses of disease and deathJ C-rin" .ethodsJ C-rin" societiesJ 3ha.anJ 3 irit .edi-.J ;itchcraft and sorcery )iviners, 11$ 7Tallensi, (on, =or-ba9, 19' 7ancient Maya9, D$D 7conte. orary Maya9, D1D 7,nca9, D1# 7+y.ara9 )i0on, Roland B., 1'% , 1'& ):ar-oskin, 3ere tie 7Tav"i 3a.oyed sha.an9, 1%F , 1%' )ob>hansky, Theodosi-s, D4 )odds, I. R., 1%D )o"on 7of B-rkina (aso and Mali, ;est +frica9, &4

)orsey, Eeor"e, D4% )o-bt, as recondition of infor.ation and kno1led"e, DF$ , DFD BF# )o-"las, Mary, 11 , F& , FF )o1ns, Richard Irskine, 14& B4F, 14F n )o>ier, Id1ard P., 19$ , 191 )rea.s 7or visions9: of ascent and descent, 1&$ nJ of Mohave and other =-.an tribes, 19# B94J revelation thro-"h inter retation of, 1F# 7Iski.o9, D1D 7,nca9J in rit-als of northeastern Gorth +.erica, D## B#&J as sha.anic call, 1'% B'& 7California9, 19D 7+ ache9, 194 7Pi.a9, D$4 7CYhita9, D$' 7Tinacanteco9, D11 B1D 7,nca9, D1% 7Ma -che9, D49 73io-09, D%1 7Blackfoot9J as so-rce of innovation, 14F 7,ban9, D#' 72-ron and ,ro8-ois9. See also MythsJ 3ha.an, visionary variety ofJ 5ision 8-est )r-cker, Phili , 1F' B'1 )r-. or ta.bo-rine, of sha.an, 1%$ 7Tibet9, 1%1 ,1%9 7I-rasia9, 1&$ 7+ltai9, 1&1 B&D 7=-kha"ir, T-n"-s9, 1&& B&' 7Manch-s9, D1% B1& 7Ma -che9 )-ality. See Binary o osition )-..ett, Michael, #9 n.4, 4$ n.% )-ndes, +lan, D#'n, D9$ )-rYn, (ray )ie"o, 19' , 199 , D$% )-rkhei., I.ile, % B', %n, 1# , ## , %$ , &9 , F& , FF , '1 , 99 , 1D1 , D'# , D'# n )-vall, ). C., D4' n.9 )yna.ics. See 3tatic and dyna.ic

E
*Iarth diver,* D#' , D#' n Iast.an, Charles 7Chiyesa9, D4F Iccles, ?ohn C., DF& , DFF , DF' n, D'$ Icstasy. See Myths, as .odels for ecstasyJ 3ha.an, ecstatic trance ofJ ;ord, in rit-al and .yth, and ecstasy Idda, Ilder, 1&4 Idel.an, Eerald M., DF$ , D'# Id.-nds, R. )avid, D#9 I""an, (red, 191

/ #4' / Ihan>- 7of Tan>ania, Iast +frica9, FF Iinstein, +lbert, and Iinsteinian hysics, D&& , DF% . See also PhysicsJ Relativity theory Ildred"e, Giles, D&' , D&' n, DF% n.& Iliade, Mircea: on +.a>onian .essianic 8-est, DDF J on anteriority of sha.anis. to s irit ossession, 14$ J on +-stralian initiations, &' J on B-ddhist sti.-l-s to sha.anis., 1%1 n.DJ on chan"e of ontolo"ical stat-s thro-"h initiation, F' J on ecstatic sha.anis., 1#& B#', 1#F nJ on *2i"h Eod* controversy, 14D J on rarity of ecstatic sha.anis. in +frica, 14$ J on sha.anistic ascent to sky, 1&$ , 1&$ nJ on sha.anistic cos.olo"y, 1%4 B%%J on sha.anHs c-re of hi.self, 1%' J on sha.anHs habitation of t1o 1orlds, 144 J on sha.anHs transfor.ation into ani.al, 1%& Iliot, T. 3., 1&$ n Ilkin, +. P., &' , 141 , 14# B44 Illiott, +lan ?., 1$& BF, 14& Illis, ;illia., 1$% Il.endorf, ;illia. ;., 1F9 Il enor, D4$ Il1in, 5errier, 1$' B9, 1DD , 14$ Indicott, 6irk Michael, 1$F , 14% B4& Indle, 3idney, 1$' Intro y, D# , D&F , D&9 , DF$ . See also Ther.odyna.ics I8-ilibri-. and e8-ilibration: biolo"ical, DD , %D , D&' , and D&' nJ .aintained by enco-nter 1ith the 1ild, '$ J narrative .ove.ent fro. dise8-ilibri-. to, D9$ J hysical, D&& B&'J

sycholo"ical, #$ , #$ n, %1 J reli"io-s, D&9 J social, 1$# Irdoes, Richard, D4% Iski.o, or ,n-it 7of +.erican +rctic9, 1F1 BFF, D4D , D&# . See also Caribo- Iski.oJ ,"l-likJ 6ob-kJ Getsilik Istrada, +lvaro, D$& Ivans, ,vor 2. G., 14% IvansBPritchard, I. I., on +frican .yths, '' n.#J on +frican 1itchcraft, F4 J on )-rkhei., % J on G-er rayer, 'D J on G-er riest and ro het, 1$9 J on G-er 1ord for s irit, %% J on red-ction of reli"io-s to social conce tions, &9 , &9 nJ on Tande rit-al, 'D J on Tande trickster, F# IvansB;ent>, ;. =., 1%$ Ivenk. See T-n"-s Ivol-tion, biolo"ical, 19 BD4, %D , %& , D&F , D&' and D&' n. See also Clos-re and o ennessJ )ar1in, CharlesJ )irectionalityJ (-t-re and f-t-rityJ 3tr-ct-re and rocess I1ers, ?ohn C., D%D n I0orcis., 1$F 7Thailand9, 11D 75ar c-lt9, D$# 7Maya9, D## 7,ro8-ois9J call to, 119

F
(abre"a, 2oracio, ?r., D$' n, D$9 n (ail-re in 8-est, %# , 1'$ and 1'D 7Gorth1est Coast9, DDD 7Ta ira A9, D4# B44 7C:ib1a9, D%$ 7Ereat Plains9, D%& 7Black Ilk9, D&D 7 aleolithic h-nters9, D&% , D'# , D'% , D'' . See also (allibilis. and fallibilityJ 3 irit .edi-., fail-re to enter tranceJ Uncertainty and indeter.inacy (airy tales and folktales, 9F , 9F n, D'' B9$. See also MythsJ Garratives (akho-ri, 2ani, 11D (allibilis. and fallibility, DF# , DF9 B'1, D'# .

See also (ail-re in 8-estJ Uncertainty and indeter.inacy (ar.ers. See +"ric-lt-ralists (aron, @o-is C., D1$ , D1% B1F (eible.an, ?a.es 6., DFD n, DF# , DF9 (enton, ;illia. G., D#4 , D#' n (eraca, 3te hen I., D4' (e1kes, ?. ;alter, 191 n.F (eyerabend, Pa-l, DF' (iction, reality of, D'% B'&, D91 , D9D (ield, M. ?., &% , 11$ B11 (indeisen, 2ans, 1#F (inne"an, R-th, 11$ (inns, 1&4 B&% (irth, Ray.ond: on ada tive f-nction of rit-al, & BFJ on creative role of .edi-., 1D9 J on i. ortance of individ-al in reli"io-s transfor.ation, 94 J on interde endence of center and eri hery, 1D' J on riest as "-ardian of rit-al, 99 , 1D% J on sha.an as .aster of s irits, 1#F , 1#F nJ on Tiko ia ancestralis., &F J on Tiko ia s irit .edi-.shi , 1$4 , 11' , 1D# , 1D# n, 1D' , 1#1 , 1#F nJ on Tiko ia *;ork of the Eods,* && B&F, &9 , &9 n, 1D# nJ on verbal codes of s irit .edi-.shi , 1D$ , 1DD BD#. See also Tiko ia / #49 / (ischer, Michael M. ?., 0iv (it>h-"h, ;illia. ;., 1FD , 1F# (letcher, +lice C., '& B'F, D4% , D49 n.1D (lorida 73olo.on ,slands9, 1$% B& (lorida 7so-theastern Gorth +.erica9, ,ndians of, D#$ , D#D (olktales. See (airy tales and folktales (on. See )aho.ey

(ood 8-est, as rototy e of s irit-al 8-est, D&D (ools Cro1, (rank 7C"lala holy .an9, D4& , D4F , D%$ , D%# (orde, C. )aryll, 19# (ortes, Meyer: on +frican ancestor 1orshi , &# , &# n, &% J on ancestor 1orshi and society of Tallensi, &% , FF J on +shanti 1orshi of deceased linea"e heads, &4 B&%J on divination of Tallensi, 11$ J on *f-t-re orientation* of ancestor 1orshi , F$ , 9% J on rayers of Tallensi, 'D B'# (ort-ne, R. (., 1$& (oster, Eeor"e M., 1'& , D$D (o0 7+l"on8-ian eo le of northeastern Gorth +.erica9, D#4 (o0, ?. Robin, F% (ra>er, ?a.es Eeor"e, FD , '# , 14D (redericks, Cs1ald ;hite Bear, 191 n.F (ree.an, )erek, 14F (re"e, Eottlob, #9 B4$, #9 n.4, 4$ n.%, D'F , D91 , D9D n (re-d, 3i".-nd, D% BDF, 4' , 1DD (robeni-s, @eo, 1#& (rye, Gorthro , D'9 , D9$ n (-e"ians 7natives of Tierra del (-e"o, 3o-th +.erica9, D1F B19, D1F n, D1' n. See also 3elkHna., =a.aha ([rerB2ai.endorf, Christo h von, 1$' (-rst, Peter T., D$F (-t-re and f-t-rity: biolo"ical *invention* of, 4' 7?acob9, %4 J and (re-dian e"o, DF , 4' J created by sy.bolis., lan"-a"e, co..-nication, D9 , 4F B49, 4' n, 1#1 , D'% , D'& J evol-tion of, in hysical and biolo"ical syste.s, D&& BF1J for1ard thr-st or restless drive to1ard, 1& , D& , D&% J as "oal of 8-est, %D B%4, %& B%F, &1 , 1#$ , DFF , D9# , D94 J infl-ence of, on the resent, 4' n.9, DFD J lack of, in +frican sense of ti.e, &% J o enness of Ma -che sha.anis. to1ard, D1& J orientation of ancestor 1orshi to1ard, F$ , 9% J orientation of 2-ichol il"ri.a"e to1ard, D$' J orientation of PeirceHs and Po erHs third .odalities to1ard, D'$ B'1J

orientation of 3iberian other 1orld to1ard, 1&1 J orientation of 1ord to1ard, in .yth and s irit .edi-.shi , '4 , 9% , 9F , 1D# J ro:ection of ast onto, in revitali>ation .ove.ents, D14 J reality as, DF9 , D'4 J s-bordination of, to ast and cyclical chan"e, && , &' , 9& B9F, 9' , 1#% J transcendence of ast and resent by, DD% 7+.ah-aca9, D44 7C:ib1a9J -n redictability of, DF1 J vision into, by 3elkHna. and =a.ana sha.ans, D1' . See also 3tatic and dyna.icJ Ti.e, +frican conce tions of

EX 7of Ehana, ;est +frica9, &% , 111 Eada.er, 2ans Eeor", %# B%4 Eah-k- 7of hi"hland Ge1 E-inea9, && , F# BF4 EalvXo, Id-ardo, DD1 n, DD& Eaneodiyo. See 2andso.e @ake Earcilaso de la 5e"a, the ,nca, D1$ , D11 nn.%, & Eayton, +. 2., 1'F , 1'F n, D#F EQ 7of Bra>ilian +.a>on9, DD$ Eeddes, ;. R., 14F Eeert>, Clifford, 0ii , 0iv , 14& n Eelfand, Michael, 1D& Eenette, EArard, D'F n Eenne , +rnold van. See van Eenne , +rnold. Eeno.e, D1 BDD, DD n, D4 , 4$ , 4% , %1 , 1DD , DF% , DF% n.F Eesar of @in" 7Tibetan!Mon"olian e ic hero9, 1&4 n.' Ehost )ance, 1'9 B9$, D4F , D%& , D%F Eifford, I. ;., 1'# Eillen, (.?. See 3 encer, Bald1in Eillin, ?ohn, D14 Eitskan 7of northern British Col-.bia, Gorth1est Coast9, 1F' El-ck.an, Ma0, &% , F4 , FF , 9% EVdel, 6-rt, %% , D&% Eoethe, ?ohann ;olf"an" von, DF n

Eold, or Ganay 7of 3iberia9, 1%F , 1%9 n, 1&1 , D$% Eold.an, ,rvin", 1F' , 1'D B'#, D19 Eo.brich, I. 2., DF' n / #%$ / Eood.an, Gelson, 44 , D'& , D'F Eood1in, Erenville, 9D n, 19D Eorer, Eeoffrey, 1$' Eo-ld, 3te hen ?ay: on )ar1in and (-e"ians, D1F nJ on )ar1inHs vie1 of i. erfection, D1 J on evol-tionary co. le0ity, D# J on evol-tionary str-ct-re, %D J on fl-idity of "eno.e, DD nJ on li.its and transcendence, D94 J on -nct-ated e8-ilibria, D&' Eran Chaco 73o-th +.erica9, D19 , DDD , DD4 Ereat Plains of Gorth +.erica, c-lt-res and reli"ions of, D44 B%F, D&# . See also +rikaraJ BlackfootJ CheyenneJ Co.ancheJ Cro1J MandanJ C"lalaJ C.ahaJ Pa1neeJ 3io-0J Teton 3io-0 Ereece, 1%D Ereenber", ?a.es B., D$# Ere"or, Tho.as, DDD , DD# n Erey, Eeor"e, 9$ B91 Eriffiths, ;alter E., 1$' Erinnell, Eeor"e Bird: on Blackfoot tale of *3carface,* D4' J on Blackfoot 1orld of dead, D%1 n.14J on Cheyenne vision 8-est, D%# J on ossible Me0ican ori"in of Pa1nee, '& J on role of Blackfoot .edicine 1o.an, D%D n E-arani 7of +.a>onian re"ion9, DD& , DD& n. See also T- \BE-aran\ E-ardian s irit, of sha.an or others, 14' 7,ban9, 1%% , 1%F 7Eold9, 1%' , 1&D 7T-n"-s9, 1F9 B'D 7Gorth1est Coast9, 1'# 7north1estern California9, 1'& B'F 7California9, 194 7Pa a"o9, D$D B#

7Mesoa.erica9, D$' B1$ 7T>ot>il Maya9, D1D 7,nca9, D1F 7=a.ana9, DD$ 7+.a>on9, D4# 7C:ib1a9, D4' and D%$ B%1 7Ereat Plains9, D%1 n.1# 7Mandan9, D&D , D'F . See also +ni.alsJ BearJ BirdsJ 0agual' 3ha.anJ 5ision 8-est E-iterasB2ol.es, C., D$# n, D$9 B1$ E-nther, Irna, 1'$ E-sinde, Martin, D1F B1', D1F n, D1' n Eyilod>a- 7Tsi.shian tribe9, 1'1

0
2aeberlin, 2er.an, 1'$ , 1'D 2aida 7of +laska and British Col-.bia, Gorth1est Coast9, 1F9 2aile, (ather Berard, &D 2aiti, 11D B1#, 11' , 1D$ , 1D% , 1D& , 1D' , 1D9 2ako 7cere.ony of Pa1nee9, '& B'F, D4% 2allo1ell, +. ,rvin", 1%% , D#& , D#F , D41 , D4D 2all ike, C. R., &9 , F& 2all-cino"ens. See Garcotics and hall-cino"ens 2andso.e @ake, D## B#%, D#9 2andy, I. 3.C., '9 B9$ 2ano 7Te1a P-eblo of so-th1estern Gorth +.erica9, 19$ 2ariot, Tho.as, DD9 2arner, Michael ?., DD$ , DDD , DD# 2arries, 6arsten, D'& 2arrin"ton, ?ohn P., 19# 2arrin"ton, M. R., D#4 , D4D 2arrison, ?ane, '# 2arva 72ol.ber"9, Uno, 1%4 B%&, 1%9 , 1%9 n, 1&1 , 1&# 2a-sa 7of Gi"eria and north1est +frica9, 11D , 1DF n 2eavens. See Myths, of ascent to heavensJ Myths, of broken connection bet1een earth and skyJ 3ha.an, ascent of, to heavensJ 3o-l fli"ht by .edi-.s or sha.ans 2e"el, Eeor" ;ilhel. (riedrich, DFD n 2eide""er, Martin, 44 , %# , %& n 2eisenber", ;erner, %% , D&% 2eraclit-s, 1&$ n 2erdt, Eilbert 2., F9 n

2erodot-s, 0iv , 1%D , 1%4 , D4$ 2errera y Tordesillas, +ntonio de, D$D , D$4 2erskovits, Melville ?., F# , 11$ , 1D& 2e1itt, ?. G., D#' n 2ickerson, 2arold, D#4 2i"h1ater, ?a.ake, D4' n.9 2ill 3aora 7of Crissa, east central ,ndia9, 1$9 , 1DD , 14$ 2ind- devotional c-lts 7of 3hiva or the Eoddess9, 1$9 2istory: in biolo"ical and hysical evol-tion, DD , D&' , DF$ J and develo .ent of e"o, D& J as o en syste., '4 . See also )irectionalityJ (-t-re and f-t-rity 2ocart, +. M., & 2oebel, I. +da.son, D4% , D%D 2off.an, ;alter ?a.es, D#4 , D#9 , D4$ n 2o"bin, 2. ,an, '$ 2o.er, 1&4 , D#9 2ook1ay, Christo her, DF9 / #%1 / 2o i 7of so-th1estern Gorth +.erica9: calendrical rit-als of, &D B&#, 9' , 191 J c-rin" ractices of, 191 , 191 n.F, 19F J .yth of e.er"ence of, '% , 9' J sorcerers a.on", 191 , 19% , 19' 2ori>on, as li.inal real. of the 8-est, 9$ B91 7Polynesia9, D#F and D#9 7northeast Gorth +.erica9 2orton, Robin, 1D' , 1D9 2o1ard, ;esley R., ?r., D4& 2o1itt, +. ;., % , 14D , 14# Huacas 7,nca sacred ob:ects9, D11 B1#, D11 n.% 2-dson, Charles, DD' B#1 2-"hB?ones, Christine, D19 , DD# , DD4 2-"hB?ones, 3te hen, D19

2-ichol 7of 3ierra Madre Cccidental, Me0ico9, D$1 n, D$& B' 2-ltkrant>, fke: on derivation of*sha.an,* 1%1 n.DJ on Iski.o reincarnation, 1FD J on Gorth +.erican *Cr he-s* .yths, D#& J on 3hakin" Tent cere.ony, 1F% , D41 nJ on sha.anic co. le0, 1#9 J on sha.anis. and ossession, 1#' , 1'% nJ on so-l d-alis. and free so-l, 1#' B#9, 1#9 nJ on sosed affinity of 1akan and mana , D%$ nJ on *1eak* and *stron"* sha.anis., 1#' 2-.boldt, ;ilhel. von, #& , 4$ , 41 , 44 , 4% 2-ns, 1%1 , 1%1 n.# 2-nters: association of, 1ith sha.anis. of .obile c-lt-res, 1#9 , D$F 72-ichol9, D19 7+.a>on9, D4% 7Ereat Plains9, D&D J food 8-est of, as rototy e of s irit-al 8-est, D&D J o osite stereoty e of, to that of a"ric-lt-ralists, F1 . See also +"ric-lt-ralistsJ +ni.als 2- a 7of north1estern California9, 1'# 2-ron 7,ro8-oian eo le of northeastern Gorth +.erica9, D## , D#4 , D#& B#', D4$ B4D 2-rt, ;esley R., D4& 2-0ley, ?-lian, D4 2y otheses in scientific in8-iry, DF# BF%, DF9

I
,ban 7of 3ara1ak, Borneo9, 14F B4', 1%' ,do1-, I. Bola:i, &4n ,"l-lik 7Canadian Iski.o9, 1F# n.1, 1F4 , 1F& , 1FF ,lahita +ra esh 7of Ge1 E-inea9, F' BF9, F9 n ,ll-sion. See )ece tion ,. Th-rn, Iverard, DD# ,nca 7of central +ndes9, D1$ B14. 3ee also Huacas ,ndeter.inacy. See Uncertainty and indeter.inacy

,ndia: so-l fli"ht e0ce tional in, 1$' J s irit ossession in, 1$F B9, 1DD , 1D' BD9. See also +o Ga"asJ Bai"aJ BondoJ 2ill 3aoraJ 2ind- devotional c-ltsJ 6achYriJ 6olJ 6onyak Ga"asJ @e chasJ Paharis. ,ndonesia. See BaliJ BorneoJ ?avaJ Ge1 E-ineaJ 3-la1esiJ 3-.atra ,nfor.ation and infor.ation theory, 9' , 1#1 , DF$ BF1 ,nitiation rites, F' B'$, 1'F , D49 , D&# B&4. See also Rites of assa"e ,nnovation, creativity: of +.a>onian sha.ans and .essianic .ove.ents, DD% J attrib-ted to ancestral ast in +-stralia, &' , 141 J of biolo"ical evol-tion, D4 J considered dan"ero-s by the Cah-illa, 1'' J thro-"h drea.s, 14F , D#& J of ,ban c-lt-re, 14F B4'J i. eded in traditional tribal reli"ion, 9F , 99 J of lan"-a"e, #% B#F, 4$ B4F, 'D J thro-"h li.inality of rites of assa"e, '$ B'1J thro-"h .eta hor, D'F J thro-"h .yth, '4 , 91 J thro-"h narrative, D'' , D91 J thro-"h 8-est 7by sha.ans and others9, 4% , %# , %4 , %F , D14 , D#4 , D9D J thro-"h rit-al, & BF, D# , &9 J thro-"h sacred ob:ects of rit-al, '# J thro-"h s irit .edi-.shi , 1D9 B#1J of Tinacanteco sha.anic rit-als, D$9 . See also +da tationJ Clos-re and o ennessJ (-t-re and f-t-rityJ RestlessnessJ 3tatic and dyna.icJ Uncertainty and indeter.inacy ,nstinct, ' , D% BDF ,ntentionality. See )irectionalityJ P-r ose ,n-it. See Iski.o ,olofZth 7trickster of Ulithi +toll9, '' ,ro8-oian eo les of eastern Gorth +.erica, D## , D#' B4$, D4D . See also CherokeeJ 2-ronJ ,ro8-ois

,ro8-ois, of the (ive 7or 3i09 Gations of the ,ro8-ois @ea"-e 7northeastern Gorth +.erica9, D## B#&, D#' , D#' n, / #%D / D4D , D%$ n. See also ,ro8-oian eo les of eastern Gorth +.ericaJ Cnonda"aJ 3eneca ,ser, ;olf"an", D91 B9D, D9D n

<
?ackson, ?ean I., D19 ?acob, (ranRois, D1 BDDn, 4' ?akobson, Ro.an, 44 B4', D&9 , DF1 ?a.es, ;illia., 4' n, D'4 , D'% ?a an, 0ii , 1&% B&& ?ava, 14& , 14& n ?enness, )ia.ond, D4$ n, D4# , D44 ?ensen, +dolf, FD ?ensen, Irik, 14F B4' ?i.son1eed 7dat-ra, or toloache9. See Garcotics and hall-cino"ens, dat-ra ?\varo 7of Ic-adorian +.a>on9, DD$ , DDD ?ochelson, ;alde.ar, 1%% , 1%& , 1%9 n, 1&1 , 1&D ?ohansen, ?. Pryt>, && ?ohnson, Richard, 1%# , 1&1 Iok 7*Po1ers*9, 1$9 B1D, 1D1 , 1#$ B#1, 1#1 n ?okin" relationshi s, F# ?o-rney. See Road or :o-rney *?-""ler* 7Iongleur 9, or *Con:-rer,* D#1 , D#9 , D4$ n, D41 B4D, D41 n, D4Dn, D4% B4&. See also 3hakin" TentJ 3ha.an ?-n", Carl E-stav, DF BD', D'# , D'# n, D9$ n

*
6achYri 7of +ssa., northeast ,ndia9, 1$' 6achins 7of hi"hland B-r.a9, 1$F 6a"-r- 7of Tan>ania, Iast +frica9, F4 Halevala 7(innish e ic9, 1&% 6ali.antan. See Borneo

6anakas 7of Ge1 Caledonia, Melanesia9, && , 144 6ant, ,..an-el, 19 , D1 , D'$ 6a lan, 3-san +., 1FD , 1F# 6ardec, +llan 72i olyte Rivail9, 114 B1& 6arok 7of north1estern California9, 1'# 6arsten, Rafael, DD# 6eesin", Ro"er M., && , F9 n 6elly, ;illia. 2., 19# 6ennedy, ?ohn E., D$% 6ensin"er, 6enneth M., DD4 6enton, Idna, D## , D#& B#', D4$ B4D 6eresan P-eblos 7of so-th1estern Gorth +.erica9, 19$ B91, 191 n.&, 19% 6ets. See =enisei Cstiaks 6ierke"aard, 3oren, 1% 6in", ?eff 7Gava:o chanter9, 9D B9#, 9D n 6iniet>, ;. 5ernon, D4$ , D4D 6irby, Irnest Theodore, 1&# 6irk, E. 3., '# 6ita"a1a, ?ose h M., 1&& 6lah, 2osteen 7Gava:o chanter9, &D , 9D n 6la.ath 7of Cre"on9, 1'% 6l-ckhohn, Clyde, & , F , &1 , F% 6ob-k 7+laskan Iski.o9, 1F# 6ochBEr[nber", Theodor, DD1 , DD4 6ohl, ?. E., D#F , D4# , D44 6ol 7of central ,ndia9, 1$' 6onso 7of Ithio ia, Iast +frica9, &9 6onyak Ga"as 7of northeastern ,ndia9, 1$' 6o ytoff, ,"or, &4 n 6oryak 7of eastern 3iberia9, 1%4 , 1%& 6rader, @a1rence, 1%' , 1%9 n 6ri ke, 3ol +., D'& n 6roeber, +lfred @.: on +ra aho vision 8-est, D49 J

on California tribes, 1'# B'F, 1'' n, 1'9 J on Mohave drea.s, 19# J on sha.anis. as .astery of s irits, 1#& 6r-yt 76r-i:t9, +. C., 14& , 14F , 14F n 6-hn, Tho.as, %% , DF% , DF% n.&, DF' n 6-ks- and other c-lts of north central California, 1'F B'9, 194 L6-n" 7*B-sh.en* of 6alahari desert, so-thern +frica9, 119 6-rnai 7of so-theast +-stralia9, 141 61aio 7of Malaita, 3olo.on ,slands9, && 61aki-tl 7of British Col-.bia, Gorth1est Coast9, 1FF , 1F' , 1'1 B'# 6yaka 7of hi"hland Ge1 E-inea9, 1$&

@a Barre, ;eston, 14$ , D$1 n, D1# , D4F @ack: a1areness of, as so-rce of 8-est, 1& B1F, D' , 4' , D'9 J and lack li8-idated, as attern of 8-est narrative, D9$ B91 @a (ar"e, Cliver, D$$ , D$D , D$% @afaye, ?ac8-es, D$$ @a (lesche, (rancis, D4% , D49 n.1D @a"-na P-eblo 7of so-th1estern Gorth +.erica9, 191 n.& @akota 7lan"-a"e of Teton 3io-09, D4' n.1$ / #%# / @ale.ant, (ather ?ero.e, D#& @a.arck, ?ean Ba tiste Pierre +ntoine de Monet, Chevalier de, D1 @a.b, (. Br-ce, DD% @a.e )eer, ?ohn (ire 7C"lala holy .an9, D4% , D%$ , D%# @anda, Bisho , 19' @andes, R-th, 1D& , D## , D#% , D#' , D4$ , D4# , D44 @and of the dead. See +fter1orldJ Myths, of descent to and ret-rn fro. 1orld of deadJ 3ha.an, descent of, to -nder1orldJ 3ha.an, recovery of so-ls of sick or dead by @an", +ndre1, 14D @an"-a"e, #D B49J

childrenHs ac8-isition of, 41 B4&J as constr-ct, 4D B4#J creativity of, #& , 4$ B41, 4# , 4% , 4& J and dialo"-e, 41 B4DJ and evocation of f-t-re, 4F B49, D&9 , D'% J he-ristic f-nction of, 44 J as .anifestation of s irit, 1D# J and .eanin", #9 B41J and lay, 4# , 44 , 4& , 4& nJ and -r ose, ## B#4, #& B#F, 4& B49. See also Bro1n, ?ason ;.J Br-ner, ?ero.eJ Cho.sky, Goa.J Clos-re and o enness, in lan"-a"eJ de @a"-na, EraceJ (re"e, EottlobJ 2-.boldt, ;ilhel. vonJ ?akobson, Ro.anJ Peirce, Charles 3andersJ Pia"et, ?eanJ 3a-ss-re, (erdinand deJ 3 irit .edi-., i. ortance of lin"-istic code forJ ;ord, in rit-al and .yth @antis, Mar"aret, 1F1 , 1F# , 1F# n.D @a lace, Pierre 3i.on, .ar8-is de, D&% , D&& , DF1 @a-fer, Berthold, 1%1 n.D @a-"hlin, Robert M., D$' n @a1rence, Peter, 9& @a1son, ?ohn, DD9 , D#1 @ayard, ?. ;., 144 B4%n @ay>er, )avid, DF1 @each, I. R., 1$F @eacock, 3eth, and R-th @eacock, 11# B1%, 11F B1', 1#1 @e Cler8, (ather Chrestien, D#F @ee, Richard B., 119 @eenhardt, Ma-rice, && , 14% @e"bY 7)aho.ey trickster9, F# , 11% @eibni>, Eottfried ;ilhel. von, #& , D'& n @ei"hton, )orothea, &1 @eiris, Michel, 11D , 1D% @e ?e-ne, (ather Pa-l, D#& , D4$ B4D @e Moyne de Mor"-es, ?ac8-es, D#$ , D#D @ena e. See )ela1are @enneber", Iric, 4$

@eonard, +nne P., 1$% @e]nBPortilla, Mi"-el, 19F @e chas 7of 3ikki., northeastern ,ndia9, 1$' @essa, ;illia. +., '' B'9, 1$% , 1#% @AviB3tra-ss, Cla-de: on Bororo and EQ of Bra>il, D19 , DD$ J on co"nitive 8-ality of str-ct-re, 11 J on interaction of .yth and rit-al, '# J on .ytholo"y as assive closed syste., '4 B'%, '% nJ on Pro and analysis of folktales, D'9 , D'9 n, D9$ @AvyBBr-hl, @-cien, 9 , 1D @e1is, ,. M., 119 , 119 n, 1D& BD', 1DF n, 1#& , 1#F , 1#F n, 1%' @e1is, Meri1ether, D%1 n.1# @iber.an, +natoly, D9$ @ienhardt, Eodfrey: on )inka distinction bet1een o1ers of ho.estead and 1ild, F& J on )inka /ok ossession and .edi-.shi , 1$9 , 1D% J on )inka .yth of broken connection bet1een earth and sky, '' J on s irit .edi-.Hs assivity, 11' @i.inality, 1$ B1D, F9 B'$, 9F . See also 2ori>onJ Transition @inder.an, (rank B., D%D n @in" Roth, 2enry, 14' @in"-istics. See @an"-a"e @ink, Mar"aret, 9D n @ittle ;ater cere.ony of 3eneca, D#% @oeb, Id1in M., 144 , 14& , 1'% , 1'F n, DD# n @on"fello1, 2enry ;ads1orth, D4# @Vnnrot, Ilias, 1&% @orant, 3tefan, D#$ B#D @oren>, 6onrad, & BF, D# , DF% n.F, DF' n @othro , 3a.-el 6irkland, D1F n, D1' @o1ie, Robert 2., D49 , D%D @-"bara 7of U"anda, Iast +frica9, F& , '' , 1$# B4

@-iseWo 7of so-thern California9, 1'' @-kYcs, Eeor", D'F B'' @-.holt>, Carl, D$% , D$&

M
McClintock, Barbara, DD n McEre"or, Pedro, 114 , 11% / #%4 / Mc,l1raith, R. (., 1'$ , 1'1 Mac,ntyre, +lasdair, D'' McGeley, ?a.es, %% Mac-.ba. See Bra>il, s irit ossessionn c-lts of Mac-si 7of E-yana9, DD# Maddock, 6enneth, &F Madsen, ;illia., D$4 , D$% MaenchenB2elfen, ?. Ctto, 1%1 n.# Maid- 7of north central California9, 1'F Mails, Tho.as I., D4% B4F, D4& n, D%$ Malaysia 7 enins-lar9, 1$F , 14% Malino1ski, Bronisla1: on .yth as *sociolo"ical charter,* '4 J on relation of reli"ion to society and individ-al, % , ' B9J on Trobriand ,aloma s irits, && Man, I. 2., 14% Mana 7Melanesian and Polynesian s- ernat-ral o1er9, && , '9 , D%$ n Manch-s 7of Iast +sia9, 1&& B&' Mandan 73io-an eo le of the Ereat Plains9, D4% B4F, D4F n Mandari 7of Gilotic 3-dan, +frica9, F4 , 1$9 B11, 11F B1', 119 , 1#$ B#1, 1#1 n Mandelba-., )avid E., D%D , D%D n Mannhel., 6arl, 94 Man-s 7of +d.iralty ,slands, Melanesia9, 1$& Maori 7of Ge1 Tealand, Polynesia9, && , '9 B91, 1$% Ma -che 7+ra-canian tribe of so-thern +ndes9, D14 B1F, D&#

Marc-s, Eeor"e I., 0iv Mar"olin, Malcol., 1'F Marico a 7=-.an tribe of so-th1estern Gorth +.erica9, 19# Marlo1e, Christo her, DF4 Marria"e of .edi-. or sha.an 1ith s irit, 1$4 , 1$F 7B-r.a9, 1$9 7,ndia9, 11D 72aiti9, 114 7Bra>il9, 1%F 7Eold of 3iberia9, D$4 7Mesoa.erica9 Mar0, 6arl, 4 , % , F Mason, ?. +lden, D11 , D1D Matthe1s, ;ashin"ton, &D n, 9D n Ma-i of a tho-sand tricks, 9$ B91, 9% Maya: of ancient Mesoa.erica, 19& , 19' J of conte. orary Mesoa.erica, D$$ , D$D B4, D$' B1$. See also Chichicastenan"oJ ChimKn J Chorti MayaJ 4-iche MayaJ 3an +ntonioJ 3antia"o Chi.altenan"oJ Todos 3antosJ T>eltal MayaJ T>ot>il MayaJ =-catec MayaJ Tinacantan Mayb-ryB@e1is, )avid, DD$ Mayer, )orothy =., 11$ Mayo 7of northern Me0ico and so-thern +ri>ona9, D$$ Mayr, Irnst, 1'n, D1 , 4% , %1 , D&F Ma>atec 7of Ca0aca, Me0ico9, D$& , D$' Mbiti, ?ohn 3.: on absence of restless search in +frican tribal reli"ions and .yths, && , '' J on +frican conce tions of ti.e 7Sasa and 5amani 9, &% B&&J on +frican .yths of broken connection bet1een earth and sky, '' n.4J on ancestors in +frican 1orshi , &4 , &% J on s irit .edi-. as *radio,* 11F Mead, Eeor"e 2erbert, 1# B14 Meanin": in Cho.skyHs lin"-istics, #' B41J (re"eHs distinction bet1een sense and, #9 B4$, #9 n.4, D91 , D9D nJ ill-sory to deconstr-ctionists, D9D J in lan"-a"e develo .ent and co..-nication, 49 , DF$ J in livin" creat-res, D4 J as ob:ective relation, #$ J 8-est for, D91 B9D

Meda1ar, ?. 3., 4% Meda1ar, Peter, 4% , DF4 , DF' n Medi-.. See 3 irit .edi-. Me""itt, M. ?., 9& Mehinak- 7of Mato Erosso, Bra>il9, DDD , DD# n Melanesia, && , 1$% B&. See also 6anakasJ 61aioJ Man-sJ Ge1 E-ineaJ 3olo.on ,slandsJ Trobriand ,slanders Meno 7in PlatoHs dialo"-e9, D9# , D9# n Meno.ini 7+l"on8-ian eo le of the Ereat @akes re"ion9, D4$ n Menta1ei 7,ndonesia9, 14% Mescalero + ache 7of so-th1estern Gorth +.erica9, 19# Mesoa.erica, c-lt-res and reli"ions of, 19& BD1$, DD' . See also +>tecJ CYhitaJ 2-icholJ MayaJ Cl.ecJ Tarah-.araJ ToltecJ =a8-i Messen"er, ?ohn C., &4 n Messianic and .illenarian revitali>ation .ove.ents: as dialectic of or"ani>ation and disor"ani>ation, D&9 J Ehost )ance 7of Ereat Basin and Ereat Plains9, 1'9 , D4F J Taki Cn8oy 7of Central +ndes9, D1# B14J of T- \BE-aran\ 7+.a>on9, DD% BDF / #%% / Messin", 3i.on )., 11D , 1D& Meta hor, D'& B'', D91 B9# Metcalf, Peter, 14F MAtra-0, +lfred: on Central +ndean c-rers, D1# J on 2aitian voodoo, 11D B1#, 1D$ , 1D$ nJ on Ma -che sha.anis., D1% B1&, D1% nJ on sha.anistic ossession in 3o-th +.erica, DD# nJ on 3o-th +.erican .essianic .ove.ents, DD% , DDF J on 3o-th +.erican so-l loss beliefs and c-rin" .ethods, DDD BD4J on s irit .edi-.Hs assivity, 11' J on theatrical as ect of s irit ossession, 1D% J on tro ical 3o-th +.erican sha.anis., D19 J

on T- ina.ba .yth of t1ins, DD1 Me-li, 6arl, 1%D , 1&# , 1&% Me0ico. See Mesoa.erica, c-lt-res and reli"ions ofJ =-.an tribes Mic.ac 7+l"on8-ian eo le of Eas A Penins-la and Ge1 Br-ns1ick9, D#F Micronesia, 1$% . See also Pala-, Ulithi +toll Middleton, ?ohn: on +frican s irit ossession, 1$9 , 1D& , 1#$ J on +frican 1itchcraft, F4 , F% J on @-"bara divinity, F& J on @-"bara .yth, '' J on @-"bara s irit ossession, 1$# B4 MidA1i1in cere.ony of C:ib1a, D#4 B#%, D#9 B4$ Mikhailovskii, 5. M., 1%4 B%&, 1&$ , D'D Milky ;ay, as ath or re"ion of so-ls of the dead, '% and D## 7)ela1are9, DD1 and DD# 7)esana9, D#' 7,ro8-ois9 Mill, ?ohn 3t-art, DF4 Millenarian .ove.ents. See Messianic and .illenarian revitali>ation .ove.ents Miller, ;alter 3., D$& Mills, ?. P., 1$' Mironov, G. )., 1%1 n Mi0e 7of Ca0aca, Me0ico9, D$# , D$% B&, D$' Mobility, .ove.ent. See 3tatic and dyna.icJ Transition Moche 7of coastal Per-9, D14 Mohave 7=-.an tribe of so-th1estern Gorth +.erica9, 19# B9% Molina, Christoval 7Crist]bal9 de, D11 , D11 n.&, D1D Mon"olia, Mon"ols, 1%D B%#, 1&4 n.' Mono 7of east central California9, 1'F Monod, ?ac8-es, D$ BD4 Monta"nais 7+l"on8-ian eo le of northeastern Gorth +.erica9, D## , D4$ , D41 Monta"naisBGaska i 7of @abrador9, D#' . See also Monta"nais Mont"o.ery, Ivelyn ,na, DD$ Mooney, ?a.es, 1'9 , D#$ , D4F

Mor"an, @e1is 2enry, D## , D#' , D#9 Morton, +lice, 1DF M-nn, 2enry, D$& M-nn, Gancy, 141 M-rinbata 7of northern +-stralia9, &F , &9 M-r hy, Robert (., DD1 M-shroo.s. See Garcotics and hall-cino"ens, .-shroo.s M-sko"ee. See Creek Myths: of ascent to heavens, '' , '' n.4 7rare in +frica9, '9 B91 7Polynesia9, 9D B9# and 9D n 7Gava:o, + ache, P-eblo9, 141 7+-stralia9, 14& 7Torad:a9, 1F' 7Gootka9, 1'& 7rare in California9, DD1 , DD1 n, and DD% 7+.a>on9, D#1 7so-theastern Gorth +.erica9, D#' B#9 and D41 7northeastern Gorth +.erica9, D4' and D4' n.9 7Blackfoot and ;inneba"o9J of broken connection bet1een earth and sky, '' 7@-"bara, )inka9, ''n 7+frica9, '9 7Maori9, 14D 7+randa9, 149 7Tibet9, D1' 73elkHna.9, DD1 7Bakadr\9, DD4 7+.a>on9J concern of, 1ith ractical needs, 9F , 9F nJ of descent to and ret-rn fro. 1orld of dead, 1&F B&' 7Manch-9, D#F and D41 7*Cr he-s* .yths of northeastern Gorth +.erica9, D4' 7Blackfoot9J of *earth diver,* D#' , D#' nJ of e.er"ence fro. -nder"ro-nd, '% and 9' 7P-eblo9, 91 7Gava:o9, D#1 7Caddo and Chocta19, D#' 7Cnonda"a and 3eneca9J as instr-.ent of e0 loration and transfor.ation, '4 J of .essianic c-lt-re heroHs 8-est, DD% BD&J as .odels for ecstasy, 1D# J as assive closed syste., '4 B'%, '% nJ attern of rites of assa"e in, 91 B9DJ of 8-est in Pa1nee 2ako cere.ony, '& B'FJ relation of, to drea.s, 19# B9% 7Mohave9J relation of, to rit-al, '# B'&, 91 , 9F B9'J as *sociolo"ical charter,* '4 , 91 J variability of, '4 B'%, 9% J as verbal inter retation of rit-al sy.bols, '# J of 1o.enHs ri.ordial reBe.inence over .en, D1' , D1' n. See also +fter1orldJ +ni.alsJ )rea.sJ GarrativesJ Rit-alJ 3ha.an, ascent of, / #%& /

to heavensJ 3ha.an, descent of, to -nder1orldJ 3ha.an, recovery of so-ls of sick or dead byJ TrickstersJ T1ins, .yths ofJ ;ord, in rit-al and .yth

N
Gabokov, Peter, D%D Gadel, 3. (., F4 , 1#1 , 1#& Ga"as. See +o Ga"asJ 6onyak Ga"as Ga"el, Irnest, 1' n Ga"el, Tho.as, D'% Ga"oB=or-ba 7of Gi"eria, ;est +frica9, 11$ , 114 , 119 . See also =or-ba 0agual 7ani.al s irit co. anion of Mesoa.erica9, D$D B4, D$# n, D$' B1$, DD$ , D&D . See also +ni.alsJ E-ardian s iritJ 5ision 8-est Gah-atlBs eakin" villa"es of Me0ico, D$$ , D$# , D$4 B% Ga.oeteri 7of north1est +.a>onia9, DD4 Garcotics and hall-cino"ens, -se of by sha.ans and others, 1%D J absence of, a.on" =a8-i, D$1 nJ alcohol, D$% 7Mesoa.erica9, D1D 7,nca9J in +.a>onia, D19 , DD1 BD%J coca, D1D 7,nca9J dat-ra 7:i.son1eed, toloache9, 1'& B'' 7so-thern California9, DD$ 7?\varo9J .ornin" "lory and other seeds, 19' and D$% B& 7Mesoa.erica9J .-shroo.s, 1%D , 1%9 7Ch-kchee9, 19' B99 and D$% B& 7Mesoa.erica9J eyote and other cact-ses, 199 7ancient Mesoa.erica9, D$1 n and D$% B' 72-ichol and Tarah-.ara9, D1D 7,nca9, D14 7coastal Per-9, D4' 7Ereat Plains9J tobacco, 1%D , 1'& 7California9, 19' and D$% 7Mesoa.erica9, DD$ 7?\varo9, DD# 7+.a>on9J ya"A 7ayah-asca, e enYJ Banisterio sis caa i9, 1%D , DDD BD4 7+.a>on9 Garratives: as co..-nicable for. of 8-est, D'F B9DJ of sha.ansH heroic e0 loits, 1&1 , 1&# B&'. See also Myths Gatche> 7of lo1er Mississi i, so-thBeastern Gorth +.erica9, DD' B#$, D#D Gat-ral selection. See )ar1in, CharlesJ Ivol-tion, biolo"icalJ Eo-ld, 3te hen ?ay Gava:o 7+tha ascan eo le of so-th1estern Gorth +.erica9: chant1ays 7rit-als and .yths9 of, &1 B&D, '% , 91 B9#, 19D J

.yth of search by t1in boys for their father, the 3-n, 9D B9#, 9D n, 9% , 9' , DD1 J rayers of, 'D J *sand aintin"s* of, &D , '% J sy.bolis. of road or :o-rney in rit-als of, '% , 9' J 1itchcraft a.on", F% J 1ord of, for s irit, %% Gde.b- 7of Ta.bia, so-thern +frica9: Chiham,a rite of affliction a.on", '$ J Mukanda rite of .ale circ-.cision a.on", F' J schis. and contin-ity of society and rit-al a.on", FF BF'J 6u,1ang9u t1inshi rit-al of, F# Geedha., Rodney, D'# n Ge"ritos, 14% B4&. See also Batek Geihardt, ?ohn E., or (la.in" Rainbo1, D%# B%F, D%# n, D%' n, D&4 Gelson, 6eith I., and 6atherine Gelson, 4% n Getsilik 7Canadian Iski.o9, 1FD , 1F% Ge1co.b, (ranc ?ohnson, &D , '% Ge1 E-inea 7Melanesia9: ancestor 1orshi in, && J initiation rites and c-lts of, F' B'$J reli"ion as technolo"y in, 9& J s irit ossession in, 1$% B&. See also Bakta.anJ B-sa.aJ Eah-k-J ,lahita +ra eshJ 6yakaJ Ta-adeJ Tse.ba"a Ge1ton, ,saac, and Ge1tonian hysics, D&& , D&F , DF4 , DF' . See also Physics Ge>ah-alcoyotl 7kin" of ancient Te0coco, Mesoa.erica9, 19F Gi.-enda:a, C-rt, DD1 , DD& Gisan sha.aness 7heroine of Manch- folk e ic9, 1&& B&' Gisenan 7of north central California9, 1'% Gi-e 7Polynesia9, 144 Gooksack 7of north1estern ;ashin"ton, Gorth1est Coast9, 1F9 Gootka 7of 5anco-ver ,sland, Gorth1est Coast9, 1F' B'D, D&# Gorth +.erica, c-lt-res and reli"ions of. See CaliforniaJ Iski.oJ Ereat Plains of Gorth +.ericaJ Mesoa.ericaJ Gortheastern Gorth +.ericaJ Gorth1est Coast of Gorth +.ericaJ 3o-theastern Gorth +.ericaJ 3o-th1estern Gorth +.erica Gortheastern Gorth +.erica, c-lt-res and reli"ions of, D## B44.

See also )ela1areJ (o0J 2-ronJ ,ro8-oisJ C:ib1aJ Cnonda"aJ Ctta1aJ 3a-ltea-0J 3eneca Gorth1est Coast of Gorth +.erica, c-lt-res and reli"ions of, 1FF B'4. See also / #%F / Bella CoolaJ Coast 3alishJ EitskanJ 2aidaJ 61aki-tlJ GooksackJ GootkaJ 4-ina-ltJ Tlin"itJ Tsi.shianJ T1anaJ U er 3ka"itJ ;ishra. Govel, as 8-estin" "enre, D'F B'' Gs-kka ,"bo 7of Gi"eria9, &4 G-er 7of Gilotic 3-dan, +frica9: conce tion of Eod irred-cible to social order, &9 J infre8-ency of ancestor 1orshi a.on", &# J .edi-. or ro het of, 1$9 , 1D$ BD1, 1#$ J rayers of, 'D J 1ord for s irit, %% G-We> del Prado, ?-an 5ictor, D1#

O
Cakes, Ma-d, 9Dn, D$4 Cceania. See MelanesiaJ MicronesiaJ Polynesia Cdysse-s, 1&4 Cesterreich, T. 6., 1$% , 119 n, 1#& , 1#' , 1%# , 1'% n, D'D C"lala 7branch of Teton 3io-0, Ereat Plains9, D4& , D4' , D4' n.1$, D%# Chiyesa 7Charles +le0ander Iast.an9, D4% Chlone 7of 3an (ranciscoBMonterey Bay area, California9, 1'F Chn-kiBTierney, I.iko, 1%9 C:ib1a 7+l"on8-ian eo le of northeastern and .id1estern Gorth +.erica9, D## , D#4 , D#4 n, D#& B#9, D41 B4& Cliver, )o-"las @., 1$% Cl.ec 7of ancient Mesoa.erica9, 19& Clson, Ronald @., 1'$ , 1'D C.aha 73io-an eo le of the Ereat Plains9, D4% , D49 n.1D Cna. See 3elkHna. Cnonda"a 7,ro8-ois nation of northeastern Gorth +.erica9, D#F Cn1-e:eo"1-, Michael, 1DF n

C enness, o en ro"ra., o en syste.. See Clos-re and o ennessJ 3tr-ct-re and rocess C ler, Morris I., 9D n, 19D , 19# *Cr he-s* .yths, D#F , D4' , D9$ Crte"a y Eassett, ?osA, 44 Cstiaks. See =enisei Cstiaks Ctta1a 7+l"on8-ian eo le of northeastern Gorth +.erica9, D#4 C-"ho-rlian, ?eanBMichel, 1D$

!
Paharis 7of northern ,ndia and Ge al9, 1$' , 1D9 Pai-te 7of Ereat Basin, Gorth +.erica9, 1'9 , D4F , D%& . See also Paviotso Pala- 7Micronesia9, 1$% Pa a"o 7of so-th1estern Gorth +.erica9, 194 Park, ;illard T., 1'9 Parker, +rth-r C., D#' , D#' n, D#9 Park.an, (rancis, D41 n, D4# , D%$ Par.enides, D&9 Parsons, Ilsie Cle1s: on 2o i c-rin" ractices, 191 J on @a"-na P-eblo, 191 n.&J on Mi0e, D$# J on arallel bet1een +>tec and P-eblo reli"io-s ractices, 19F J on Pi.a, 194 J on P-eblo .yth of ascent to heavens, 9D nJ on road of s irits in P-eblo .yths, '% Parsons, Talcott, % n, 1# Pat1in 7of north central California9, 1'% , 1'F Pa-lson, ,var, 1#F B#', 1#9 n, 1%& Pavel, Tho.as E., D'& n Paviotso, or Gorthern Pai-te 7of Ereat Basin, Gorth +.erica9, 1'9 . See also Pai-te Pa1nee 7Caddoan eo le of Ereat Plains9, '& , D4% , D4F , D4F n Peirce, Charles 3anders:

on fallibilis. and scientific in8-iry, DF# BF4, DF& , DF& n, D'# , D'% J on f-t-re orientation of sy.bol as distin"-ished fro. icon and inde0, 4' B49, 4' n, 1D# , DFD , D'& J on "eneration of order by chance, D&F J on nat-re of reality, DF' B'$J on *thirdness* in triadic relation of si"n, ob:ect, and inter retant, DF1 BF#, DF1 BFDn, D'$ , D'1 Peyote. See Garcotics and hall-cino"ens, eyote and other cact-sesJ Peyote c-lt Peyote c-lt 7Gative +.erican ch-rch9, D4F B4' Phili i, )onald @., 1&% B&& Physics, D&% B&', DF& Pia"et, ?ean: on biolo"ical evol-tion, D1 BDD, D1 n, %1 J on childHs 8-estionin"s, D9 , %4 J on develo .ent of r-les thro-"h lay, 4& nJ on "ro1th of conscio-sness thro-"h differentiation and e8-ilibration, D' B#$, #$ n, %1 J on lan"-a"e ac8-isition, 41 , 4D n, 4# J on str-ct-ral transfor.ation, %D J on sy.bolical f-nction and intentionality, D9 , 4& , 4F / #%' / PiattelliBPal.arini, Massi.o, 4D n Pil"ri.a"e: of Pa a"o, 194 J and 8-est, %# J of Tarah-.ara and 2-ichol, D$& B'J of Tinacantecos, D$9 Pi.a 7of so-th1estern Gorth +.erica9, 194 Pi>arro, (rancisco, D1$ Plains Cree 7+l"on8-ian eo le of Ereat Plains9, D%D , D%D n Plato, %& , %& n, DF9 , D9# Plot. See Garratives Polo de Cnde"ardo, el licenciado ?-an, D1D Polynesia: ancestral rit-al in, && B&FJ

.yths of ascent to heavens in, '9 B91J s irit ossession in, 1$% . See also MaoriJ Gi-eJ TahitiJ Tiko ia Po.o 7of central California9, 1'% , 1'' )opol Auh , e ic of ancient Maya, 19' Po ov, +. +., 1%F , 1%' Po er, 6arl, %% , DF1 , DF% BFF, DF& n, DF' n, D'# , D'% Possession. See 3 irit ossession *Possible 1orlds,* D'% B'&, D'& n Poto.ac 7+l"on8-ian eo le of 5ir"inia9, D#$ Po1ers, ;illia. 6., D4& , D4' , D49 n.1D Po1hatan 7+l"on8-ian eo le of 5ir"inia9, DD' , D#$ Prayer, 'D B'#, 19D Pressel, Isther, 11% B1& Priest, as conservative "-ardian of rit-al, 99 , 1D% , 1'# 7Gorth1est Coast, north1estern California9, 19& 7ancient Mesoa.erica9, D$4 7Maya9, D11 7,nca9, D1% 7Ma -che9, DD' B#$ 7so-theastern Gorth +.erica9. See also Rit-alJ 3ha.anJ 3 irit .edi-. Pri"o"ine, ,lya, D&% B&', DF' n Process. See 3tr-ct-re and rocess Pro , 5ladi.ir, D'' B9$, D'' n.% Pro-st, Marcel, %F Psycholo"ical fo-ndations of 8-est, D4 B#1. See also Conscio-snessJ (re-d, 3i".-ndJ ?-n", Carl E-stavJ Pia"et, ?ean P-eblo ,ndians 7of so-th1estern Gorth +.erica9: calendrical rit-als of, &D B&#, 19$ J cere.onial c-rin" societies of, 19$ B91J .yth of ascent to heavens by t1ins of, 9D , 9D n, DD1 J .yth of e.er"ence of, '% , 9' J arallels bet1een reli"io-s ractices of, and those of +>tecs, 19F J ossible infl-ence of, on California tribes, 1'& , 1'' J sy.bol of road in rit-als of, '% . See also Clo1ns, of P-eblosJ Cochiti P-ebloJ 2anoJ 2o iJ 6eresan P-ebloJ @a"-na P-ebloJ 3anto )o.in"oJ Te1aJ T-Wi P-r ose:

biolo"y and, 1' BD4, 4' J lan"-a"e and, ## B#4 73a-ss-re9, #4 , #& B#F 7Cho.sky9, 4& B49J in -rs-it of "oal of 8-est, # , %# , %& . See also )irectionalityJ Teleolo"y P-tna., 2ilary, DF' n, D'& n Py".ies 7of Con"o re"ion, central +frica9, &# , F1

Q
4-ain, B-ell, DD1 4-ant-. .echanics, D&% , D&& 4-ech-a 7lan"-a"e and eo le of central +ndes9, D1$ , D1# 4-est: a oria as so-rce of, %& , %& n, D9D B94J as creative rocess, %F J definitions of, 0ii , # , D4 , %4 , %& , D91 J diversity of, &1 , D&# J "oal of, 1F , %# , %% , D'$ , D'F , D'' , D91 , D9# J narrative for. of, D'F B9DJ and il"ri.a"e, %# J -r osef-l -rs-it of, # , %# , %& J and 8-estion, %# B%4J reality of, D'4 J and rites of assa"e, %# J tri artite str-ct-re of, D&# B&%. See also Clos-re and o ennessJ Conscio-snessJ )o-btJ (ail-re in 8-estJ (ictionJ (-t-re and f-t-rityJ ,nnovation, creativityJ @an"-a"eJ @i.inalityJ Meanin"J Meta horJ MythsJ GarrativesJ Reli"ionJ Restlessness, dis8-ietJ Rites of assa"eJ Rit-alJ 3cience and scientific in8-iryJ 3ha.anJ 3 iritJ 3 irit .edi-.J 3tatic and dyna.icJ 3tr-ct-re and rocessJ Ternary relationJ TranscendenceJ TransitionJ Tr-thJ Uncertainty and indeter.inacyJ 5ision 8-est 4-estion, 8-estionin": in + ache sha.anis., 19D J of children, D9 , %4 J relation of, to 8-est, %# B%4, D$' 4-et>alcoatl 7 l-.ed ser ent "od of ancient Mesoa.erica9, 19F , D1$ 4-iche Maya 7of Mesoa.erica9, 19' , D$# 4-ina-lt 7of north1estern ;ashin"ton, Gorth1est Coast9, 1'$ , 1'D

4-ine, ;illard 5an Cr.an, #9 n.# 4otoba.ha 74-ech-a co..-nity of so-thern Per-9, D1# / #%9 /

R
RadcliffeBBro1n, +. R.: on ancestor 1orshi , &# J on ancestral le"ends of +nda.an ,slanders, &F J on +nda.anese sha.anis., 14% J on :okin" relationshi s, F# J on social f-nction of reli"ion and rit-al, % , F , 1# , F% , FF , '1 J on variability of .yths, '4 Radin, Pa-l: on +frican .yths of ascent to heavens, '' n.4J on a-tobio"ra hy of a dis laced ;inneba"o, D%$ J on +y.ara diviners, D1# J on 3o-th +.erican t1in .yths, DD1 J on ;inneba"o Medicine Rite, D4& J on ;inneba"o .yth of ascent to heavens, D4' n.9J on ;inneba"o vision 8-est as -berty rite, D49 Radloff, ;ilhel. 75. 5. Radlov9, 1&$ , 1&4 , 1&4 n.F Ra"lan, @ord, '# Ra.os, +rth-r, 1D1 Ra a ort, Roy +.: on .aintenance of str-ct-ral ho.eostasis thro-"h chan"e, 9% J on sanctity and -n8-estionableness, 9' B99J on s irit ossession of Tse.ba"a *s.oke 1o.an,* 1$& Ras.-ssen, 6n-d, 1FD BFF, 1F# n.1 Ra-dot, +ntoine )enis, D4$ Read, 6enneth I., && , F4 Reader, role of, D91 B9# Reality: lin"-istic reference to, #' B4$, #9 B4$ nn.#B%, 44 J

nat-re of, DF' B'F, D91 B9D. See also Meanin"J Tr-th Redfield, Robert, D$$ , D$# Reichard, Eladys +., &D , 'D , 91 , 9D n ReichelB)ol.atoff, Eerardo, DD1 BD4, DD# n Reincarnation: in +-stralia, &F B&', 141 J a.on" Iski.o, 1FD J in Manch- folk e ic, 1&F J a.on" Monta"naisBGaska i,D#' J in 3iberia, 1&1 J in Tibet, 1%$ J in Trobriands, && Relativity theory, D&% . See also Physics Reli"ion: Ber"sonHs t1o so-rces of, ' , 9 , 1% B1F, %$ B%1, D&1 J as conversation 1ith 1orld, 14 B1%J individ-al and solitary di.ensions of, ' B9J as ne-rosis, D% J as sychothera e-tic syste., D' J as ratification of social order, 4 B', 1D J as so-rce of social chan"e, 1# , 1% J as *str-""le* bet1een entro y and or"ani>ation, D&9 J 1orldly concerns of, 9& . See also PriestJ Rites of assa"eJ Rit-alJ 3acrificeJ 3ha.anJ 3ha.anis.J 3 irit .edi-.J 3 irit ossession Restlessness, dis8-iet: absence fro. +frican tribal reli"ions, && 7Mbiti9J con:ect-ral evol-tion of, D# 7Monod9J of h-nters and herders, 1%4 J of ,ban, 14F , 14' J of ,ro8-ois, D## J of .an as 8-estin" ani.al, %# , 14' J

of or"anis., D4 J sycholo"ical, D& 7(re-d9, #$ 7Bacon9J of reli"io-s e0 erience, D'4 B'%J of s irit, %& J of =a.ana, D1F , D1' Revitali>ation 7or revivalist9 .ove.ents. See Messianic and .illenarian revitali>ation .ove.ents Ricoe-r, Pa-l: on a oria and the 8-est, %& J on conscio-sness, #$ B#1J on "oal of lan"-a"e, #F J on lan"-a"e as .ediation, 4$ n.%J on .eta hor, D'& B'FJ on narrative as vehicle for se.antic innovation, D'' , D91 J on restlessness of s irit, %& Rink, 2enrik, 1F# Rites of assa"e, 9 B1D, D' J in + ache cere.onial, 19D J i. ortance of .ove.ent and transition in, 9 B1$J nor.alcy reinforced by, 9& B9FJ as aradi". of 8-est, %# , '& , 91 B9D, 9F J three hases of, 9 , F' , 91 B9D, D&4 , D&9 J vision 8-ests as, D44 7C:ib1a9, D49 7;inneba"o9, D&# B&%. See also ,nitiation ritesJ @i.inalityJ Ternary relationJ TransitionJ T-rner, 5ictorJ van Eenne , +rnold Rit-al: as affir.ation of nor.s, & B', 9& B9FJ as a"ent of ada tation, & B', 1# , D# , D&D J a"ric-lt-ral, &D , &4 , FD BF#, D$F 72-ichol9, DD9 B#$ 7so-theastern Gorth +.erica9, D#4 and D#% 7northeastern Gorth +.erica9J of ani.als and h-.ans, & , ' J assi.ilation of ano.aly in, 11 B1D, 9& J as *co..-nication 1itho-t infor.ation,* 9' , 1DD J co. le.entary to 8-est, D&D B&#J conflict and chan"e in, &' B'1J invariance and re etitio-sness of, & , F , &1 B&D and &Dn 7Gava:o9, 'D , 9' 7Gava:o9, 99 , 19D 7+ ache9, 19# B9% 7Mohave, Pi.a, Pa a"o9, D$9 7Tinacantecos9, D1# 7Central +ndes9, D1& 7Ma -che9, D&D J

as o-tlet for fears and desires, FD J as er et-ation of ast, F , &1 B&D, 'D , 99 , 1$# J of rotest F4 , 9% J ro.otion of stability / #&$ / 1itho-t inertia in, F$ J relation of, to .yth, '# B'&, 9F B9'J for re lenish.ent of ani.als, 1&& 7+in-9, 1F& BFF 7Iski.o9, D4F 7Mandan9J of slayin" a deity, FD J of stat-s reversal, 1D , F# BF4 7Gde.b-, Eah-k-9, 9& , D#% 7,ro8-ois9J sy.bolic syste. of sacred ob:ects in, '% J sy.bolis. of road in, '% B'F, 9' J transfor.ative nat-re of 7as distin"-ished fro. cere.ony9, '$ , 'D J of t1inshi , F# . See also 2akoJ Reli"ionJ Rites of assa"eJ 3acrificeJ 3ha.an, seances and cere.onies ofJ 3 irit .edi-. Rit>enthaler, Robert I., and Pat Rit>enthaler, D4$ Road or :o-rney, in rit-al and s irit .edi-.shi , '% B'F, 9' , 11' , 19# Rodri"-es, Gina, 114 n, 1D1 , 1D% Rose, 3teven, DF$ Roth, ;alter I., DD1 , DD1 n, DDD Rothovi-s, Bisho , 1%% Ro1e, ?ohn 2o1land, D11 , D11 n.&, D1D Roys, Ral h @., 19' R-ysbroeck, 5ilhel. av, 1%D B%#, 1%# n, 1%4 Ryle, Eilbert, D'F

S
3abah. See Borneo 3abina, Maria 7Ma>atec 1ise 1o.an9, D$& 3acrifice: ani.al, &# , FD , 1&# J h-.an, &# , FD , F# 7)aho.ey9, '& 7Pa1nee9, 19F 7+>tec9, D11 B1D and D11 n.& 7,nca9, D#$ 7so-theastern Gorth +.erica9, D4F 7Pa1nee9

3a"ard, (ather Eabriel, D4$ 3aha"an, (ray Bernardino de, 19' B99, D$% 3alish. See Coast 3alish 3a.oyeds 7of north1estern 3iberia9, 1%# , 1%F , 1&% 3a.sonov 7=-ka"hir sha.an9, 1&1 3an +ntonio 7Maya villa"e of Beli>e, Mesoa.erica9, D$# 3an (rancisco Tecos a 7Gah-atl villa"e of Me0ico9, D$4 3an Pedro Chenalh] 7T>ot>il Maya villa"e of Chia as, Me0ico9, D$9 Bl$ 3anta I-lalia 7Maya villa"e, Mesoa.erica9, D$% 3anter\a 73 anishB+.erican ossession c-lt9, 11# 3antia"o Chi.altenan"o 7Maya villa"e of E-ate.ala9, D$D 3anto )o.in"o 7P-eblo of so-th1estern Gorth +.erica9, 19$ 3aora. See 2ill 3aora 3a ir, Id1ard, 1F' , 1'% 3ara1ak. See Borneo 3at-rnalia. See Rit-al, of stat-s reversal 3a-ltea-0 7+l"on8-ian eo le of Berens River, Manitoba9, D#F , D4D 3a-ss-re, (erdinand de, #D B#&, #' B#9, 44 , %$ , D&9 , D&9 n, DF1 , DFD n, D'F , D9D 3chaden, I"on, DD% 3chebesta, Pa-l, 14% 3cience and scientific in8-iry, %% , DF# BFF, DF% nn.&, F , DF9 B'&. See also 6-hn, Tho.asJ Peirce, Charles 3andersJ Po 3cot-s, )-ns, DF9 3cythians, 0iv , 1%1 B%D, D4$ 3ea )ayaks. See ,ban 3edna 7Iski.o Cld ;o.an of -ndersea 1orld9, 1FD BF#, 1F# n.1, 1F& BFF 3elkHna., or Cna 7of Tierra del (-e"o, 3o-th +.erica9, D1F B1', D1F n, D1' n 3e.an", 3enoi. See Ge"ritos 3eneca 7,ro8-ois nation of northeastern Gorth +.erica9, D## , D#% , D#F , D#' n, D#9 3e8-oiah 7Cherokee chief9, D#$ 3erna, ?acinto de la, 199 3hakin" Tent, or 3 irit @od"e, 1F% BF& 7Iski.o9, D#1 7so-theastern Gorth +.erica9, D41 B4D and D41 n 7northeastern Gorth +.erica9, D4& B4F 7Ereat Plains9, D'D 3ha.an 7or .edicine .an9: ascent of, to heavens, 1#F , 1#' , 14# 7+-stralia9, 14% B4& 7Ge"ritos9, 14F 7,ndonesia9, 1%$ 7Tibet9, 1%4 76oryak9, 1&$ 7+ltai, Tofa9, 1&$ n, 1&D 7T-n"-s9, 1&4 7Tatars9, 1&% er, 6arl

7(inns9, 1F% BF& 7Iski.o9, D$& BF 7Mesoa.erica9, D1% 7Ma -che9, DD1 and DD# BD% 7+.a>on9J call of, 1#' , 1%& B%' 7Gorth and Central I-rasia9, 1F# BF4 7Iski.o9, 1F' BF9 7Gorth1est Coast9, 1'% B'& 7California9, 19# 7Mohave9, 194 7Pi.a, Pa a"o9, D$D B4 7Mesoa.erica9, D$F 72-ichol9, D$' / #&1 / 7Tinacanteco9, D11 B1D 7,nca9, D1% 7Ma -che9, DDD 7+.a>on9J co.bat of, 1ith s irits or 1itches, 1F& 7Iski.o9, 1'$ B'D 7Gorth1est Coast9, 19$ B91 7P-eblo9, D1$ 7T>ot>il Maya9, D14 7coastal Per-9, D1& 7Ma -che9, DDD and DD# 7+.a>on9, D4D 73a-ltea-09J cost-.e of, 1%$ J dan"ers faced by, 1&# 7T-n"-s9, 1'$ 7Gootka9, 1'D 7Coast 3alish9, D1$ 7T>ot>il Maya9, D1F 7Ma -che9, DD% 7+.ah-aca9, D4# 7C:ib1a9J death and rebirth of, 14# B44 7+-stralia9, 1'1 761aki-tl9, DDD 73ha.atari9J derivation of 1ord, 1%1 , 1%1 nJ descent of, to -nder1orld, 1#F , 1#' , 1%4 76oryak9, 1&$ B&# 73iberia9, 1&$n, 1&4 7Tatars9, 1&% 7(inns9, 1&& B&' 7Manch-s9, 1F& BFF 7Iski.o9, 1'1 B'D 7Coast 3alish9, D$% 7Mesoa.erica9, DD4 7Eran Chaco9, D41 7northeastern Gorth +.erica9J dialo"-e of, 1ith s irits, 14& 73in"a ore9, 1&D B&# 7T-n"-s9, 19D 7+ ache9, D1& 7Ma -che9, DD# 7Mac-si9J distin"-ished fro. or associated 1ith chief, 1'4 7California9, D19 7+.a>on9, DD% 7+.ah-aca9J distin"-ished fro. or associated 1ith riest, 1%% 7I-rasia9, 1'# B'4 7Gorth1est Coast and north1estern California9, D$' B9 72-ichol, Tinacanteco9, D19 7+.a>on9, D#1 B#D 7so-theastern Gorth +.erica9J distin"-ished fro. or associated 1ith sorcerer or .a"ician, 14D 7+randa9, 1%' 73iberia9, 1'4 7California9J ecstatic trance of, 1#& B#F, 1%% , 1%9 , D41 J isolation or a artness of, 144 7+-stralia9, 1%' B%9 73iberia9, 1F# BF4 and 1FF 7Iski.o9, D%% and D&# 7Black Ilk9J as *.aster of ani.als,* 14$ J as *.aster of s irits,* 1#& B#', 1#F n, 1%' , 1&$ , 1'% 7California9J hysical handica of, 14' 7,ban9, 1F# 7Iski.o9J as sycho o. or *so-l "-ide,* 1%$ , 1%D , 1&1 J 8-est of, for kno1led"e or o1er, 14# 7+-stralia9, 14& 7Batek9, 1%$ 7Tibet9, 1%% , 1%F 7Tav"i 3a.oyed9, 1%9 , 1&$ , 1F% 7Iski.o9, 194 7so-th1estern Gorth +.erica9, D$& B' 7Mesoa.erica9, DD1 and DD4 BD% 7+.a>on9, D&1 B&DJ recovery of so-ls of sick or dead by, 14% , 14& 73in"a ore9, 14F 7,ndonesia9, 14' 7,ban9, 1%$ 7Tibet9, 1%9 7I-rasia9, 1&1 B&# 73iberia9, 1&& B&' 7Manch-s9, 1'1 B'D 7Coast 3alish9, D$% 7Mesoa.erica9, D$9 B1$ 7T>ot>il Maya9, DD4 7Eran Chaco9, D41 7northeastern Gorth +.erica9J seances and cere.onies of, 1#' , 14& 73in"a ore9, 14F 7Torad:a, ;ana9, 14' 7,ban9, 1%# 7Mon"ol, 3a.oyed9, 1&$ 7+ltai9, 1&1 B&D 7=-ka"hir9, 1&D B&# 7T-n"-s9, 1F% BFF 7Iski.o9, 1'D 7Coast 3alish9, 1'D B'# 761aki-tl and Gootka9, D$F B' 72-ichol9, D$9 7Tinacanteco9, D1% 7Ma -che9, DD# 7Mac-si9,

DD4 7Ta-li Yn"9, D#4 B#% 7)ela1are, C:ib1a, 3eneca9, D#F 7reflected in Gorth +.erican *Cr he-s* .yths9, D4$ 72-ron and Monta"nais9, D%& 7Black Ilk9J s irit ossession of, 1#& B#', 1#F n 7T-n"-s9, 1%9 , 1'% B'& and 1'% n 7+.ericas9, D1% B1F 7Ma -che9, D19 7+.a>on9, DD# n 73o-th +.erica9J visionary variety of, 1#& , 1#' , 14% 7+nda.anese9, 1'4 and 1'& 7California9, 19# B9% 7Mohave, Pi.a, Pa a"o9, D$% 7Mesoa.erica9, D&1 . See also +ni.als, transfor.ative interchan"e of, 1ith sha.ans and othersJ C-rin" .ethodsJ )ece tion or ill-sion, in sha.anis.J )r-. or ta.bo-rineJ (ail-re in 8-estJ E-ardian 3 iritJ Marria"e of .edi-. or sha.an 1ith s iritJ Garcotics and hall-cino"ens, -se of by sha.ans and othersJ Garratives, of sha.ansH heroic e0 loitsJ 3hakin" TentJ 3ha.anis.J 3o-l fli"htJ 3 irit .edi-.J 31eat bathsJ Transvestis.J 5ision 8-estJ ;o.en, as sha.ans 3ha.anis.: of +.a>on and 3o-th +.erican tro ics, D1' BD'J of +ndean eo les of 3o-th +.erica, D11 B1'J in +-stralia, 14$ B44J in California, 1'4 B'9J in China, 1%1 B%D, 1%D nJ in Central +sia and 3iberia, 149 B&'J of Iski.o, 1FD BFFJ in Ereece, 1%D J historical co. le0 and -tative ori"ins of, 1#9 B4$J of 2-ns, 1%1 , 1%1 B%Dn.#J in ,ndonesian archi ela"o, 14& B4'J in 7 enins-lar9 Malaysia, 144 B4%J in Melanesia, 144 B4%J in Mesoa.erica, 19& BD1$J of Mon"ols, 1%D B%#J of Gorth +.erican Ereat Plains, D44 B%FJ in northeastern / #&D / Gorth +.erica, D## B44J of Gorth1est Pacific Coast, 1FF B'4J ossible ,ce +"e antecedents of, 1#9 B4$, 1%1 J rarity of, in +frica, 14$ J relation of @a.aist and Mahayana B-ddhis. to, 1#Fn, 1#9 , 149 B%1, 1%1 n.D, 1&' J

of 3cythians, 1%1 B%DJ in 3in"a ore, 14& J in so-theastern Gorth +.erica, D#$ B#DJ in so-th1estern Gorth +.erica, 1'9 B9%J *1eak* and *stron"* for.s of, 1#' , 1'& J of Tin>a, 111 B1D, 14$ . See also Cos.olo"iesJ 3ha.anJ 3iberiaJ 3 irit ossession 3ha.atari 7of north1est +.a>onia9, DDD 3ha.bhala, 1%$ 3ha.ba-"h, Cynthia, 1$9 3haranah-a 7of +.a>onian eastern Per-9, DD% 3haron, )o-"las, D1D , D14 3hasta 7of northern California9, 1'4 , 1'& , 1'F 3havante 7of Mato Erosso, Bra>il9, D19 BD$ 3ha1nee 7+l"on8-ian eo le of Tennessee 5alley9, D#9 3helton, +-stin ?., &4 3herente 7of central Bra>il9, DD1 3heriff, ?ohn 6., DFD n 3hi ek, (lorence C., 1'' 3hiroko"oroff, 3. M., 1#& , 1#F , 1#F n, 1%$ , 1%1 n.D, 1%' , 1&$ , 1&# , 1&' 3hkilnyk, +nastasia M., D44 3hklovsky, 5ictor, D'F n 3hona 7of Ti.bab1e, so-thern +frica9, 1D& 3honle, R-th, D4F 3iberia, c-lt-res and reli"ions of, 1%$ B&'. See also B-ryatJ Ch-kcheeJ EoldJ 6oryakJ 3a.oyedsJ 3ha.anis.J T-n"-sJ =ak-tJ =nka"hir 3ierra Po ol-ca 7of 5eracr->, Me0ico9, D$% 3iikala, +nnaB@eena, 1%# , 1%# n 3ilver, )aniel Ben, D$' n, D$9 n 3i. son, Eeor"e Eaylord, 1' , 19 3in"a ore, 1$& BF, 14& 3io-an eo les of Gorth +.erica, D4% , D4F n, D&# . See also Cro1J MandanJ C.ahaJ 3io-0J ;inneba"o 3io-0 73io-an eo le of Ereat Plains9, D4& , D4& n, D4' , D4' n.1$, D49 , D%& .

See also )akotaJ @akotaJ C"lalaJ Teton 3io-0J ;ah eton 3io-0 3iskind, ?anet, DD% 3ka"it. See U er 3ka"it 3ky. See 2eavensJ Milky ;ay 3.ith, Ca tain ?ohn, DD9 , D#$ , D#$ n 3.ith, ;. Robertson, '# 3nyder, Eary, 1'& , D94 3ociety: conflict and chan"e in, &' B'1J created by sy.bol and 1ord, '# J as ob:ect of 1orshi , % , %$ J as rocess, 1D , 1# , 1& , %$ , '$ , 94 J relation of, to individ-al, 1# B14J schis. and contin-ity of Gde.b-, FF BF'J as str-ct-re, 1& . See also Clos-re and o ennessJ C-ltivated and 1ildJ Reli"ionJ Rit-alJ 3tatic and dyna.icJ 3tr-ct-re and rocess 3ocrates, D9# B94 3olo.on ,slands 7Melanesia9, && , 1$% B&. See also (loridaJ 61aio 3orcery. See ;itchcraft and sorcery 3o-l beliefs, 1#' B#9, 1#9 n, 149 7Tibet9, 1%4 7Gorth I-rasia9, 1'4 7California9, DD$ 7+.a>on9, D#% 7northeastern Gorth +.erica9 3o-l fli"ht by .edi-.s or sha.ans, 1$F 76achins9, 1$' 7+o Ga"as, 6onyak Ga"as9, 14& 7Batek9, D14 7coastal Per-9, DD# 7+.a>on9J e0ce tional in California, 1'& J e0ce tional in ,ndia, 1$' . See also Myths, of ascent to heavensJ 3ha.an, ascent of, to heavens 3o-l loss. See Ca-ses of disease and death, so-l loss 3o-stelle, Eeor"ette, 199 , D$$ , D$# 3o-stelle, ?ac8-es, 19F , 19' 3o-thall, +idan, 1D1 , 1#$ 3o-th +.erica, c-lt-res and reli"ions of. See +.a>onian and other tro ical c-lt-res and reli"ions of 3o-th +.ericaJ +ndean c-lt-res and reli"ions of 3o-th +.erica 3o-theastern Gorth +.erica, c-lt-res and reli"ions of, DD' B#D.

See also +laba.aJ CaddoJ CherokeeJ Chickasa1J Chiti.achaJ Chocta1J Creek, or M-sko"eeJ Gatche>J Poto.acJ Po1hatanJ ;a0ha1 3o-th1estern Gorth +.erica, c-lt-res and reli"ions of. See + acheJ Gava:oJ P-ebloJ =-.an tribes / #&# / 3 eck, (rank E., '% , DD9 , D#$ , D#D B#4, D#' 3 e"a>>ini, C., D1F n 3 ell, 'D . See also MythsJ Prayer 3 el.an, 2enry, D#$ 3 encer, Bald1in, and (. ?. Eillen, % , &9 , 14D 3 encer, 6atherine, 91 B9D 3 icer, Id1ard 2., D$1 3 ier, @eslie, 1F' , 1'% , 19# 3 irit: as act-ali>ation of f-t-re, 0ii , %4 , %F , D'4 B'%J associated 1ith breath or 1ind, %% J as inde0 of se aration and need, 4 , %4 J .anifested in lan"-a"e, 1D# J relation of, to .ind, %4 B%%J as transcendence of divisions, %% B%& 3 irit @od"e. See 3hakin" Tent, or 3 irit @od"e, cere.ony 3 irit .edi-.: connection of, 1ith rit-al, 1D# , 1#& J controlled behavior of, .ost ad.ired, 11% , 119 BD4J dece tions and theatrical as ects of, co. atible 1ith belief in, 1D4 BD%J distin"-ished fro. or identified 1ith diviner, e0orcist, or riest, 1$4 , 1$% n 7Tahiti9, 1$F 7Thailand and B-r.a9, 1$' 7,ndia9, 1$9 7G-er9, 11$ 7+shanti9, 119 , 1D% , 1D& BDF, 1D' BD9 7,ndia9J distin"-ished fro. or identified 1ith sha.an, 1$4 7+frica9, 1$% n 7Tahiti9, 1D$ , 1#& B#', 14$ 7Tin>a9, 144 7Gi-e9, 1%% and 1%' 73iberia9, 1%9 7+in-9, D1% 7Ma -che9J fail-re to enter trance, 1D4 BD%, 1#& J i. ortance of lin"-istic code for, 1D$ , 1DD BD4, 1D' J inability of, to re.e.ber trance, 1$F 73in"a ore9, 114 7Bra>il9, 1#' , D1% 7Ma -che9J innovative role of, 1D9 B#1J nor.alcy of, 1D& , 1DF J office of, not restricted by class, 1$4 J

o enness of, to transfor.ative s irit, 119 , 1D$ , 1D4 , 1#% J over o1erin" initial call of, 11F B1'J assivity or rece tivity of, 11F B19, 1#% J sociolo"ical e0 lanations of, 1D1 BD#, 1DF BD'J stat-s of 1o.en and other o-tsiders as, 1D& BD', 1DF nJ t1oB1ay co..-nication of, 1$4 , 1#$ . See also )ivinersJ I0orcis.J Marria"e of .edi-. or sha.an 1ith s iritJ PriestJ 3ha.anJ 3 irit ossession 3 irit ossession, 1$# B#1: in +frica, 1$# B4, 1$9 B1D, 11F , 119 , 1D% BDF, 1DF n, 1#$ B#1J in Bali, 1$& J in Bra>il, 11# B1&, 11' , 119 , 1D1 , 1D4 BD&J in B-r.a, 1$F B', 1D& J co. ared to rite of assa"e, D&4 J in 2aiti, 11D B1#, 11' BD$, 1D% , 1D& , 1D' , 1D9 J in ,ndia, 1$F B9, 1DD , 1D' BD9J infre8-ency of, in abori"inal +.ericas, 1'% n, D19 , DD# nJ in Malaysia, 1$F J in Melanesia and Ge1 E-inea, 1$% B&J in Micronesia and Polynesia 7incl-din" Tiko ia9, 1$4 B%, 11' , 1D# , 1D# n, 1D' , 1#1 , 14$ , 144 J in 3in"a ore, 1$& BFJ in 3 anishBs eakin" +.erica, 11# J in Thailand, 1$F J in Tibet, 1%$ J variability of, 1$4 J vol-ntary and invol-ntary, 1$4 B%, 119 BD4, 119 n, 1#1 n. See also 3ha.anJ 3ha.anis.J 3 irit .edi-. 3 iro, Melford I., 1$F , 1D& 3tanner, ;. I. 2., &F , &9 , 141 3tatic and dyna.ic, o in binary o osition and interaction of, 1& B1F, %$ B%D, D&1 B&#J in + ache reli"ion, 19# J ositions and ternary relations, D&9 , DF1 , DF9 J in California sha.anis. and rit-al, 1'9 J in )aho.ean fate and .obility, F# J

e0cl-des deter.inis., DF& J in id and e"o, D% J in lan"-a"e, ## , #& , 4$ , 44 B4%, 4F J in .obile intelli"ence and conscio-sness, D9 , #$ B#1J in narrative and .eta hor, D'' J in Gde.b- rit-al, FF J FF J in rit-al sy.bol and .ythic 1ord, '# B'4J in rit-al and 8-est, D&% J in rit-al of +-stralian M-rinbata, F$ J in 3iberian other 1orld, 1&1 J in s irit .edi-.shi , 1DD , 1D# , 1#$ . See also Ber"son, 2enriJ Clos-re and o ennessJ C-ltivated and 1ildJ 3tr-ct-re and rocess 3ten"ers, ,sabelle, D&% B&' 3te hen, +le0ander M., 191 n.F 3tern, 3teve ?, D14 3ternber", @eo, 1%& , 1%F 3tevenson, Matilda Co0e, F$ 3te1ard, ?-lian 2., D1$ 3te1art, 6enneth M., 1'% n 3trehlo1, Rev. C., 14D 3trehlo1, T. E. 2., &' , 141 , 14D , D1' n 3tr-ct-re and rocess, o in binary / #&4 / o ositions and ternary relations, D&9 , DF1 J biolo"ical, DD , %1 , D&% , D&' J in co. -ters and brains, DF$ J co"nitive vers-s e0istential 8-alities of, 11 J lin"-istic, #% B#&J in narrative and .eta hor, D'' J in Gde.b- society, FF BF'J hysical, D&F B&'J sycholo"ical, D' , #$ J osition and interaction of, %$ B%#, %& , 99 J

in rit-al and 8-est, D&% J social, 1D , %$ , '# , 94 B9%, 99 . See also Clos-re and o ennessJ C-ltivated and 1ildJ 3ociety, as rocessJ 3tatic and dyna.icJ Ternary relationJ Transition 3-la1esi, or Celebes 7,ndonesia9, 14& B4F, 1%4 3-.atra 7,ndonesia9, 1$& , 14& 3-n )ance of 3io-0 and other eo les of Ereat Plains, D4& B49, D4& n, D%D n, D%# , D&# 31anton, ?ohn R., 1F9 , DD9 B#D 31a>i 7of so-thern +frica9, F4 31eat baths: on Ereat Plains, D4% , D4F , D49 , D49 n.11, D%1 , D%D J in northeastern Gorth +.erica, D4$ J of 3cythians, 1%D , D4$ 31ord, Eeor"e 7C"lala holy .an9, D4' 3ylva, 6athy, et al., 4& n 3y.bol, sy.bolis.: +ristotelian -r osiveness .ade ossible by, D9 , 4' J childhood develo .ent of, D9 J f-t-re orientation of, 4' B49, '4 , DFD , DF9 J inter retive .-ltivocality of, '# . See also @an"-a"eJ ;ord, in rit-al and .yth

T
Tachi 7of 3an ?oa8-in 5alley, California9, 1'% Tahir-ssa1ichi, riest or 6-Hrah-s of Pa1nee, '& B'F Tahiti, 1$% n Taine, 2i olyte, 44 Tale of the 0isan Shamaness,1&& B&' Tallensi 7of Ehana, ;est +frica9, &# , &% , FF , 'D B'#, 11$ Ta.biah, 3tanley ?., 0ii , 1$F Ta ira A 7of Mato Erosso, Bra>il9, D19 , DDD , DD4 , DD% Tarah-.ara 7of 3ierra Madre Cccidental, Me0icoHs, D$1 n, D$& , D$' Tarski, +lfred, D'$ Ta-ade 7of Pa -a Ge1 E-inea9, &9 Ta-li Yn", DD4

Tav"i 3a.oyeds, 1%F Teicher, Morton ,., 1'% n Teleolo"y. See +ristotle, teleolo"y ofJ P-r oseJ Teleono.y Teleono.y, D$ , D$ n Tensk1ata1a 73ha1nee ro het9, D#9 Te8-ila 7Gah-atl villa"e, Me0ico9, D$$ , D$# Ternary relation, D&# BF#, DF1 BFD n.%, D'$ B'1, D'# , D'F , D9$ B91, D9# . See also Binary o ositionJ Clos-re and o ennessJ Myths, attern of rites of assa"e inJ Rites of assa"e, three hases ofJ 3 irit ossession, co. ared to rite of assa"eJ 3tr-ct-re and rocess Teton 3io-0 7of Ereat Plains9, D4% , D4' n.1$, D%1 , D%D , D%D n, D%# . See also C"lalaJ 3io-0 Te1a 7P-eblos of 3o-th1estern Gorth +.erica9, 19$ , 19% Thailand, 1$F Ther.odyna.ics, D# , D&& , D&F Tho. son, ?. Iric, D$4 Tho. son, 3tith, '' n.4, 9F n Th1aites, Re-ben Eold, D%1 n.1# Tibet, 149 B%1, 149 n, 1%4 , 1&4 n.' Tierra del (-e"o 73o-th +.erica9, D1F B19, D&# Tiko ia 7Polynesia9: *b-rea-cratic ancestralis.* of, &F J s irit .edi-.shi in, 1$4 , 11' , 1D# , 1D# n, 1D' , 1#1 , 1#F nJ *;ork of the Eods* rit-al a.on", && B&F, &9 , &9 n, 1D# n Ti.e, +frican conce tions of, &% , F$ . See also )irectionalityJ (-t-re and f-t-rityJ 2istory Titiev, Mischa, 191 , D14 B1& Tlin"it 7of +laska and British Col-.bia, Gorth1est Coast9, 1F9 , 1'$ Tobacco. See C-rin" .ethods, blo1in" tobacco s.okeJ Garcotics and hall-cino"ens, tobacco Todorov, T>vetan, D'' Todos 3antos 7Maya villa"e of E-ate.ala9, D$4 Tofa, or 6ara"as 7of 3iberia9, 1&$ Toltec 7of ancient Mesoa.erica9, 19F To.ashevsky, Boris, D'F n Tonal . 3ee 0agual

/ #&% / Tonalamatl. See Calendar Ton"a 7of Ta.bia, so-thern +frica9, 119 , 1D% , 1#$ Tooker, Ili>abeth, D#% , D#' n, D4D Torad:a 7of 3-la1esi, ,ndonesia9, 14& B4F Totonac, 2i"hland 7of Me0ico9, D$% To>>er, +lfred M., 19' Trance. See 3ha.anJ 3 irit .edi-.J 3 irit ossession Transcendence: thro-"h .eta hor, D'F , D91 , D9D J ob:ective reality of, D'4 B'%, D'F . See also Clos-re and o ennessJ (-t-re and f-t-rityJ 3 iritJ 3tatic and dyna.icJ Rites of assa"eJ 3ha.anJ 3 irit .edi-.J Ternary relationJ TransitionJ 5ision 8-est Transition, %D B%#J dan"ers of, 11 , %D B%#J in o erations of brain, DF$ J in reli"ion as *contin-o-s .ean1hile,* 1% J in revitali>ation .ove.ents, D&9 J in rites of assa"e and initiation, 9 B1$, F9 B'$. See also @i.inalityJ Rites of assa"e Transvestis., of sha.ans and others, 14& 7Torad:a9, 14' 7,ban9, 1%D , 1%' B%9 and 1%9 n 73iberia9, D1% 7Ma -che9, D4' 73io-0 *berdaches*9, D'D Trickery. 3ee )ece tion or ill-sion Tricksters. See Clo1nsJ CoyoteJ )e.onic s irits of the 1ildJ ,olofZthJ @e"bYJ Ma-i of a tho-sand tricksJ T-re Tri""er, Br-ce E., D## , D#& , D4D Tri artite rocess. See Ternary relation Trobriand ,slanders 7Melanesia9, && , F% Tr-:illo 7city of coastal Per-9, D14 Tr-th, nat-re of and search for, #9 n.#, 4$ , %% , DF$ , DFD BFF, DF9 B'', D9D B9#. See also Reality Tse.ba"a 7of hi"hland Ge1 E-inea9, 1$& Tsi.shian 7of British Col-.bia, Gorth1est Coast9, 1'1 Tscho ik, 2arry, D1# T-cci, Ei-se e, 149 , 1%$

T-hoe Maori. See Maori T-kanoans 7 eo les of +.a>onia9, D19 , DD# n, DD4 . See also BarasanaJ )esana T-n"-s, or Ivenk 7of eastern 3iberia9, 1#& B#9, 1#F n, 1%$ B%1, 1%1 n.D, 1&1 B&#, 1&& , 1&' , 1'& Tunkashila 7@akota *Erandfathers*9, D49 B%$ n.1D, D%4 B%F T- \BE-aran\ 7of +.a>on re"ion9, DD1 , DD1 n, DD% , DDF T- ina.ba 7of coastal Bra>il9, DD1 T-re 7trickster of the +>ande9, F# , 1'& T-rnb-ll, Colin, F1 T-rner, Idith, 9F T-rner, 5ictor: on creation of society by sy.bol and 1ord, '# J on li.inality and co..-nitas, str-ct-re and rocess, 1$ B1D, %1 B%D, D&4 J on Gde.b- Chiham,a rite, '$ J on Gde.b- Mukanda rite, F' J on Gde.b- 6u,1ang9u rit-al, F# , 9& J on reinforce.ent of nor.alcy in rit-al li.inality, 9& B9FJ on schis. and contin-ity in Gde.b- society, FF BF', 9& J on society as ada tive rocess, 94 B9% T->in, )onald, F9 , F9 n T1ana 7of north1estern ;ashin"ton, Gorth1est Coast9, 1F9 T1ins: .yths of, 9D B9# 7Gava:o9, 9D n 7Gava:o, + ache, P-eblo9, DD1 and DD1 n 7+.a>on9, D#1 7Chocta19, D#' 7,ro8-ois9J rit-als of, F# 7Gde.b-9J as sha.ans, D#1 7Creek9 Tylor, Id1ard, %% , &# n T>eltal Maya 7of E-ate.ala and Chia as, Me0ico9, D$D T>ot>il Maya 7of E-ate.ala and Chia as, Me0ico9, D$' B1$. See also 3an Pedro Chenalh]J Tinacantan

U
Ulithi +toll 7Micronesia9, '' B'9, 1#% U.banda. See Bra>il, s irit ossession c-lts of Uncertainty and indeter.inacy:

affir.ed by +frican ancestral rit-al and tricksters, FD BF#J in +ra-canian reli"ion, D1& J of biolo"ical evol-tion, %D J co. atible 1ith belief in ob:ective reality, DF' J of de.onic s irits of the 1ild, F& BFFJ of (re-dian e"o, DF J in infor.ation theory, 1#1 , DF$ J of initiatives o-tside clos-re of rit-al, 99 J of lan"-a"e develo .ent, 4& , 49 J in li.inality of rites of assa"e, '$ J of o-tco.e of reli"ion as rocess, ' , 1# , 1& J of 8-est 7by sha.ans and others9, %# , %& , '% , D$9 , DD' , D44 , D%$ , DFF , D'D , D'% J red-ced by standardi>ation of dr-"B / #&& / ind-ced visions in +.a>on, DD4 BD%J of scientific in8-iry, %% , DF# , DF& , D'$ , D'1 J as so-rce of learnin", 4% J in s irit .edi-.shi , 1DD BD4, 1#1 , 1#% J of ternary rocess, DFD BF#J of the 1ord in rit-al and .yth, '# , '4 J of the =a8-i *tree 1orld,* D$1 . See also Clos-re and o ennessJ Conflict and chan"eJ (-t-re and f-t-rityJ 2ori>onJ ,nnovation, creativityJ @i.inalityJ 3tatic and dyna.ic Underhill, R-th, 19D , 194 Unkel, C-rt. See Gi.-enda:a, C-rt U er 3ka"it 7of north1estern ;ashin"ton, Gorth1est Coast9, 1F9 , 1'1 B'D

V
5ZinZ.Vinen 7hero of (innish Halevala 9, 1&% 5alero, 2elena, DDD , DD4 5alAry, Pa-l, 4' van Eenne , +rnold, 9 B1$, D' , &9 , F' , F9 , '& , 91 B9D, D&4 , D&' , D91 , D9D . See also Rites of assa"eJ T-rner, 5ictor 5ane, 3ylvia Brakke, 1''

5er"er, Pierre, 11$ , 119 5illa Ro:as, +lfonso, D$# , D$& 5illavicencio, Man-el, DD# 5ision 8-est 7or "-ardian s irit 8-est9, of sha.ans and others, 14% 7 enins-lar Malaysia9, 14' 7,ban9, 1F9 B'$ 7Gorth1est Coast9, 19D 7+ ache9, 194 7Pa a"o9, D$D 7ancient Mesoa.erica9, D$4 7CYhita9, DD$ 7?\varo9, DDD 7Ta ira A, )esana9, D#D 7so-theastern Gorth +.erica9, D#F 7and Gorth +.erican *Cr he-s* .yths9, D4D B44 7C:ib1a9, D4F 73io-09, D4' B%F 7Ereat Plains9, D49 n.11 7C"lala9, D%1 n.1# 7Mandan9, D%D n 7by 1o.en on Ereat Plains9, D%% B%& and D&4 7of Black Ilk9. See also )rea.sJ E-ardian s iritJ RealityJ Rites of assa"e, vision 8-ests asJ3ha.an, 8-est of, for kno1led"e or o1erJ Tr-thJ ;o.en, in vision 8-est 5o"t, Ivon T., D$$ , D$' B9, D$9 n 5oltaire, D'& n von den 3teinen, 6arl, DD$ , DD1 von 2a"en, 5ictor, D1D von ;ran"el, (., 1%# , D'D 5oodoo. See 2aiti 5y"otsky, @. 3., 44 , 4&

+
;a"ley, Charles, D$D , D19 , DD1 n, DDD , DD4 BD& ;ah eton 3io-0 7of Ereat Plains9, D4% 6akan 7@akota *sacred*9 and 6akan Tanka 7@akota *Ereat 3 irit*9, D4& , D4' , D49 n.1D ;alens, 3tanley, 1'# ;ales, 2. E. 4-aritch, 14F n ;alker, ?a.es R., D4% , D4& n, D4' , D4' n.1$, D49 , D49 n.11, n.1D ;allace, +nthony (. C.: on the )ela1are Pro het, D#9 J on drea.s in ,ro8-oian c-lt-res, D#& J on ,ro8-ois (alse (ace Co. any, D## J on ,ro8-ois vision 8-ests, D4D J on .obili>in" f-nction of rit-al as *co..-nication 1itho-t infor.ation,* 9' B99J on revitali>ation .ove.ents, D14 , D&9 ;allace, Irnest, D4% , D%D ;allace, ;illia. ?., 1'% ;allis, ;ilson )., D4' ;ana 7of 3-la1esi, ,ndonesia9, 14F

;asson, R. Eordon, D$% , D$& ;aters, (rank, 9' , 191 n.F ;a-"h, @inda, 44 ;a0ha1 7of Gorth Carolina9, DD9 ;eber, Ma0, F , 1# , 1% ;eltfish, Eene, '& , D4F n ;he1ell, ;illia., DF4 ;hite, @eslie +., 19$ , 191 n.& ;hite B-ffalo ;o.an, of Teton 3io-0, D4% , D4& , D%4 ;hitehead, +lfred Gorth, ' B9 ;hite Mo-ntain + ache 7of so-th1estern Gorth +.erica9, 19D ;horf, Ben:a.in @ee, 41 ;iedBGe-1ied, Ma0i.ilian, Prince of, D4F , D%$ B%1, D%1 n.1# ;ilbert, ?ohannes, DD# ;ild, o1er of. See C-ltivated and 1ildJ )e.onic s irits of the 1ildJ ;itchcraft and sorcery ;ilson, Id.-nd, D#% ;ilson, ?ack. See ;ovoka ;ilson, Monica, 9D ;indi"o 7cannibalistic +l"on8-ian s irit9, 1'% n / #&F / ;inneba"o 73io-an eo le of ;isconsin9, D4& , D4' n.9, D49 , D%$ ;inter, Id1ard 2., F4 BF& ;irad:-ri 7of so-theast +-stralia9, 14D ;isdo., Charles, D$$ , D$# , D$4 ;ishra. 7of Col-.bia River, Gorth1est Coast9, 1F' ;issler, Clark, D4% , D4& n, D4' n.9 ;itchcraft and sorcery: in +frica, F4 BF&J of +>tecs, 19' , D$D J of Gava:o and P-eblos, F% , 191 , 19% J as ne"ation of nat-ral and social order, F4 BF%J rese.blances to sha.anis., 144 B4%nJ in Trobriands, F% .

See also )e.onic s irits of the 1ild ;itt"enstein, @-d1i", #9 n.# ;olf, Iric R., 19& ;o.en: as .edi-.s, 1D& BD', 1DF nJ as sha.ans, 14& 7Torad:a9, 14F 7,ban9, 1%9 and 1%9 n 73iberia, Central and Iast +sia9, 1&# 7T-n"-s9, 1&% 7+in-9, 1&& B&' 7Manch-s9, 1F# 7Iski.o9, 1F' 7Gorth1est Coast9, 1'# B'4 7north1estern California9, 1'& 73hasta9, D1% B1& 7Ma -che9, D4' 73io-09J in vision 8-est, D#D 7Chiti.acha9, D4# 7C:ib1a9, D49 7Cro19, D%D and D%D n 7Ereat Plains9. See also Myths, of 1o.enHs ri.ordial reBe.inence over .enJ 3 irit .edi-., stat-s of 1o.en and other o-tsiders as ;ord, in rit-al and .yth: creation of society by, thro-"h inter reted rit-al sy.bols, '# J and ecstasy, D$& J fi0ity and variability of, 'D B'#, D$9 J f-t-re orientation of, '4 , 1D# , D1' 73elkHna.9. See also @an"-a"eJ MythsJ Rit-alJ 3 ellJ 3 irit .edi-., i. ortance of lin"-istic code for ;orshi of dead. See +ncestor 1orshi ;ovoka 7Paviotso ro het9, 1'9

1
^eno hanes, DF& , D'$ ^-.- 7+.ah-aca sha.anBchief9, DD%

Y
=a"A. See Garcotics and hall-cino"ens, ya"A =ah"an. See =a.ana =a.ana, or =ah"an 7of Tierra del (-e"o, 3o-th +.erica9, D1F B1', D1F n, D1' n =ak-t 7of eastern 3iberia9, 1%& , 1%9 n =ak-tat Tlin"it. See Tlin"it =ana 7of north central California9, 1'% =a8-i 7of northern Me0ico and so-thern +ri>ona9, D$$ BD$1, D$1 n =ava, +lbert, 191 n.F =enisei Cstiaks, or 6ets 7of 1estern 3iberia9, 1&1 =ok-ts 7of east central California9, 1'F =on"den, @a.a, 1&4 n.'

=or-ba 7of Gi"eria, ;est +frica9, &4 , 11$ , 11D B1% =-catec Maya, 19' , D$$ , D$# . See also Maya =-ka"hir 7of eastern 3iberia9, 1%9 n, 1&1 B&D =-.a 7=-.an tribe of so-th1estern Gorth +.erica9, 19# =-.an tribes 7of so-th1estern Gorth +.erica9, 1'4 , 19# B94. See also Coco aJ Marico aJ MohaveJ =-.a =-rok 7of north1estern California9, 1'# B'4

=
Tande 7ad:ective9. See +>ande 5ar c-lt 7of Ithio ia, +frican horn, and Gorth +frica9, 11D , 1D& , 1DF , 1DF n Taretsky, ,rvin" ,., 1$9 Teno of Ilea, D9D Tinacantan 7T>ot>il Maya villa"e of Chia as, Me0ico9, D$$ , D$' B9 Tin"", Robert M., D$% , D$& Tin>a 7of Tan>ania, Iast +frica9, 111 B1D, 1#$ , 14$ Tolla, IlA.ire, D4# T-l- 7of so-thern +frica9, F4 T-Wi 7P-eblos of so-th1estern Gorth +.erica9: calendrical cere.onies and 1orshi of dead a.on", &D B&#J celebration of e0cess in secret fraternities of, F$ , F$ n, FD J classified as *+ ollonian,* F$ BFD, 1'D J c-rin" societies and cere.onies of, 191 , 19% J .yth of e.er"ence of, '%
Preferred Citation: Torrance, Robert M. The Spiritual Quest: Transcendence in Myth, Religion, and Science. Berkeley: University of California Press, c1994 1994. htt :!!ark.cdlib.or"!ark:!1#$#$!ft4"%$$&'d!