Preferred Citation: Williams, Joanna. The Two-Headed Deer: Illustrations of the Ramayana in Orissa.

Berkeley: University of California Press, c1996 1996. http: ark.cdli!.or" ark: 1#$#$ ft6%&$$&#m

The Two-Headed Deer

Illustrations of the Ramayna[*] in Orissa Joanna Williams
UNIVERSITY OF CA IFORNIA !RESS

Berkeley Los Angeles Oxford

" #$$% The Re&en's o( 'he Uni)ersi'* o( Cali(ornia

Preferred Citation: Williams, Joanna. The Two-Headed Deer: Illustrations of the Ramayana in Orissa. Berkeley: University of California Press, c1996 1996. http: ark.cdli!.or" ark: 1#$#$ ft6%&$$&#m

' ((i '

A+,nowled&men's
)y research on *rissan palm+leaf man,scripts !e"an in 19&9 -ith a .,""enheim /ello-ship. 0n 19%1+ %#, a 2enior 3esearch .rant from the 4merican 0nstit,te of 0ndian 2t,dies ena!led me to spend a year in the area of P,rl, foc,sin" on this pro5ect and participatin" in the life of one of the "reat 6ind, pil"rima"e centers. 2,!se7,ent shorter visits -ere part of my -ork for the /ord /o,ndation in 8elhi from 19%9 to 19%6. 4 sa!!atical from the University of California at Berkeley made it possi!le to see the 8asapalla 3amalila:;< in 199$. 0 am "ratef,l to esta!lished =*rissa hands= a!road, -ho -ere s,pportive and "ave "ood advice a!o,t carryin" o,t research in this part of 0ndia: 8rs. 6ermann >,lke, ?!erhard /ischer, @o,ise Cort, Ahomas 8onaldson, and /rederi7,e )ar"lin. 4t home, my son, 8ylan, kept me a!reast of the Western artistic "enre most compara!le to my s,!5ect, the comic !ook. Ahe people of *rissa -ho helped in my -ork sho,ld all !e tho,"ht of as my co+a,thors. P,rna Chandra )ishra of P,ri deserves the title 0ndependent 2cholar rather than 3esearch 4ssistant, havin" !een indispensa!le to many forei"n researchers over the years. 6is -ife, 2,resvari )ishra, 3eader in 2anskrit at P,ri WomenBs Colle"e, -as of immense help in decipherin" man,scripts as -ell as makin" me feel at home in P,ri. 0n Bh,!anes-ar 0 had the privile"e of st,dyin" *riya, the lan",a"e of *rissa,

-ith Aripti )ohanty, then completin" her doctorate at Utkal University and trained as an instr,ctor in the ?astern 3e"ional @an",a"e Centre. With l,cidity and infectio,s "ood nat,re she "ave me insi"hts into local c,lt,re that co,ld only come from the da,"hter of a daitya CP,ri temple priestD family Professors >. 2. Behera and >. C. 2ah, of Utkal University, Professor P. >. )ishra of 2am!alp,r University, )r. 8. P. 8as of the *rissa 2tate 8epartment of ?d,cation, and 8r. 8inanath Pathy all "enero,sly shared interestin" information -ith me. Witho,t the cooperation of the painters of 3a"h,ra5p,r, 8anda 2ahi, and P,ri, no serio,s disc,ssion of their -ork -o,ld !e possi!le. 4mon" my many friends in that comm,nity, Ja"annath )ahapatra m,st !e sin"led o,t as master artist. Ahe hospitality of 2onep,r, 4s,reshvar, and 8asapalla colors my acco,nt of r,ral performances. /inally, 0 cannot !e"in to list all the -ays 0 am inde!ted to 8r. J. P. 8as of Ee- 8elhi. ' ((ii ' 0n the transformation of a comple( man,script into this !ook, 0 am "ratef,l for 2tephanie /ayBs caref,l copyeditin" and do""ed p,rs,it of my idiosyncratic t,rns of phrase. Ahe entire pro5ect mi"ht have fo,ndered -itho,t the enth,siastic s,pport of 8e!orah >irshman as /ine 4rts ?ditor of the University of California Press. 4nd Eatasha 3eichle has prepared the inde( -ith care and "ood 5,d"ment. Photo"raphs not other-ise credited are my o-n. ' ((iii '

A No'e on 'he Use o( Indian Terms

Beca,se my s,!5ect is *rissa, 0 have ,sed the *riya form for names and voca!,lary, -hich is "enerally, !,t not al-ays, the same as 2anskrit Cand often distinct from the 6indi forms ,sed else-here in 0ndiaD. 6ence 6an,mana rather than the more familiar 6an,man. 0n transliteration 0 follo- the @i!rary of Con"ress system, e(cept in ch and chh Crather than c and ch D, and ri[*] Crather than

D. /or ease of readin" !y the nonspecialist, 0 have omitted diacritical marks on place names and on the names of people livin" in the past h,ndred years. '1'

In'rod-+'ion
Ahis !ook concerns ill,strations of the 3amayana:;< , an epic poem -ith epic implications for contemporary 0ndia. 0 have chosen, ho-ever, to foc,s ,pon the sin"le re"ion of *rissaFrich rice+ "ro-in" plains alon" the eastern coast, !et-een Ben"al and 4ndhra, a re"ion relatively homo"eneo,s, traditional, and peacef,l Csee mapsD. *rissa is kno-n for its ele"antly carved and architect,rally am!itio,s temples, datin" from 4.8 6$$ to 11G$. Ahe ill,strations considered here, ho-ever, are less familiar se7,ences of pict,res from the nineteenth and t-entieth cent,ries. )y reason for addressin" this topic is not that of the mo,ntaineer -ho clim!s a peak =!eca,se it is there= Cand ,nclim!edD. 3ather 0 sho,ld profess a tripartite personal a"enda.

/irst, havin" spent most of my scholarly career st,dyin" the ancient art of 2o,th 4sia, 0 -as tantaliHed !y 7,estions that seemed ,nans-era!le. /or e(ample, in the process of analyHin" reliefs of the life of the B,ddha from the fifth cent,ry 4.8. , the .,pta period, 0 considered earlier ima"es and B,ddhist te(ts as alternative so,rces for icono"raphy.:1< When neither ima"e nor te(t corresponded to a partic,lar .,pta carvin", it -as temptin" to credit the sc,lptor -ith creatin" a ne- version of the story Iet it -as also impossi!le to !e certain -hat ver!al ",idelines -ere act,ally c,rrent in -ritten, let alone in oral, form. Comparison re7,ired a !ody of art in -hich it -as clear -hat -ritten te(t the artist act,ally kne- and for -hich oral traditions -ere preserved. 0 m,st admit in advance that the recent material ,pon -hich 0 settled is not -itho,t its o-n pro!lems and incl,des t-o "enres -ith potentially different relationships !et-een ima"e and -ord. )oreover the pro5ection of recent patterns onto the ancient past re7,ires ca,tion. Ahis !ook presents information essential for that analo"y !,t does not take ,nderstandin" ancient art as its "oal. 2econd, havin" chosen to -ork in *rissa, 0 reflected on -hy interestin" and !ea,tif,l pict,res here had !een lar"ely ne"lected in the overall frame-ork of 0ndian art, -hereas the ima"es of some traditions Ce.". .,pta sc,lpt,re or ),"hal paintin"D had !een e(amined and ree(amined. 4 litany of acc,sations a!o,t scholarly !iases does not seem to me prod,ctive. Iet one of many reasons for s,ch ne"lect is -orth considerin"Fthe =folk art= stat,s of the t-o "enres considered here. 4s 0 st,died !oth, 0 fo,nd a contin,,m !et-een ro,"h -ork, rooted in a '1'

)ap 1. *rissa '#'

1. .an5am 8istrict villa"e or pop,lar conte(t, and refined, comple( ima"es, some prod,ced !y the same artist, others -ithin the same "eneric form. 0 !ecame ,neasy -ith the polariHation of folk and elite art, even in its 0ndian form,lation, desi ClocalD and margi CmainstreamD. 2,ch dichotomies have !een ,neasily transferred from the realm of ver!al lore to that of vis,al, and the terms merit f,ller theoretical analysis. 0n this !ook 0 have deli!erately incl,ded some ima"es that most art historians -o,ld classify as folk art. Part of my hidden a"enda is to make !oth the ro,"h, ",tsy and the refined parts of the *rissan pictorial tradition interestin" and accessi!le to a -ide a,dience. '9' 4 third incentive to ,ndertake this partic,lar st,dy came in the co,rse of lookin" at a fine set of ill,strations of a poetic te(t in a m,se,m -ith a discernin" 4merican collector of 0ndian paintin". 6e remarked as -e considered the tenth pict,re: =What a -aste to have these to"ether, -here they !ecome

!orin"J each one -o,ld !e a masterpiece !y itself.= Ahis reaction is symptomatic of o,r treatin" as separate pict,res ima"es desi"ned to !e seen in se7,ence.:1< /ormal analysis need !e performed on only one mem!er of a set -hose style is consistent. @ike-ise the content of a sin"le pict,re can !e addressed in isolation. B,t for a series -ith narrative content, -e m,st consider several ima"es in se7,ence to ,nderstand ho- the story is told vis,ally 0ndian ill,strated man,scripts have ,s,ally !een analyHed on the !asis of draftsmanship and desi"n in the isolated pa"e. 2,ch 7,alities need not !e ne"lected. Iet to restrict oneself to them is to omit dramatic 7,alities s,ch as variety, s,rprise, and emotional development s,stained over a se7,ence of ima"es. Ahe present st,dy attempts to talk a!o,t se7,ential content -itho,t dismissin" formal 7,alities in individ,al ima"es. )y "oal is to present this material as interestin" even to the collector -hose reaction "alled me, and at the same time to demonstrate that the pict,res have another dimension, missed if one is seen in isolation. Ahis task is not pec,liar to *rissa, so 0 foc,s ,pon ima"es of the epic 3amayana:;< , some version of -hich is kno-n to virt,ally every 0ndian and -hich o,"ht to have a place in the -orldBs literary canon. /or methodolo"ical ",idelines, three comparisons !et-een pict,res and other se7,ential art forms come to mind. Ahe first is cinema, a medi,m that comprises se7,ential ima"es as -ell as -ords and other so,nds. 6o-ever fine the photo"raphy, it -o,ld !e diffic,lt to 5,d"e a movie from isolated frames, omittin" other =filmic= 7,alities. )y o-n e(perience of 0ndian c,lt,re !e"an -ith the films of 2atya5it 3ay What captivated me most in the !u trilo"y -as the ,nfamiliar mi(t,re of emotions depicted and evoked, the sense that one co,ld move rapidly !ack and forth !et-een "rief and am,sement. )y !afflement at so meanderin" a plotline perhaps reveals the limitations of a vie-er raised on 4merican cinematic aesthetics in the 19G$s. When 0 event,ally read Bi!h,ti Baner5iBs novel, on -hich the movies -ere !ased, 0 realiHed that 3ay had ti"htened ,p the plot and red,ced the n,m!er of emotional reversals. Eonetheless, 0 -o,ld claim that the films do reveal a str,ct,re !ased on the development of several complementary moods, the rasas that -ill fi",re m my o-n analysis, -hich contrast -ith an 4ristotelian preocc,pation -ith plot or str,ct,re !ased on a coherent se7,ence of action. 4 po-erf,l film concernin" contemporary life in *rissa, the very re"ion of this !ook, s,""ests an analo"y -ith the pict,res disc,ssed here. Ahe title of that movie, "aya "riga CAhe )a"ic 8eerD, all,des to a theme in the 3amayana:;< central to this st,dy 0n the film, the deer is an em!lem of the ill,sory nat,re of traditional family val,es, s,ch as respect for parents and s,pport for si!lin"s, in an a"e -hen ed,cation Citself traditionally val,edD enco,ra"es the yo,n" to p,t themselves first. Unfort,nately that film is not easily accessi!le to an ?n"lish+speakin" a,dience, so 0 shall not p,rs,e the comparison. Ahe immensely pop,lar version of the 3amayana:;< sho-n on 0ndian p,!lic television in 19%& and 19%% -ill !e more familiar to many readersJ th,s references to the AK series occ,r thro,"ho,t this !ook. 'G' /inally, one m,st note that cinema and video are ,s,ally more colla!orative media than the paintin" and !ook ill,stration considered here, even in the case of a stron" director s,ch as 2atya5it 3ay, -ho ",ided !oth photo"raphy and m,sic -ith care. 6ence the analo"y is not inevita!ly ,sef,l as a means to ,nderstand the prod,ction of ima"es. /,rthermore, the e(istence of a film, like theater, in time that is not reversi!le Cdespite the e(istence of the video cassetteD "ives it a different stat,s from pict,res -hose order the vie-er participates in determinin". Ahe comic strip forms a yet more apt comparison for the ill,strated !ook. *ne mi"ht ar",e that todayBs most vital se7,ential "raphic art form is the comic, !oth in 0ndia and in the West.:#< 0n the *rissan

!ook, the same artist normally e(ec,tes pict,res and te(t, and the te(t is pres,ma!ly copied from another man,script. Ahe comic, like-ise, may !e prod,ced !y one artist, altho,"h many comics res,lt from colla!oration !et-een artist, a,thor, and letterer. Ahe fact that the Western comic ,s,ally presents a ne- story makes reco"niHa!ility a ma5or iss,e, -hereas any ima"es of the 3amayana:;< have an initial le"i!ility 4s the distin",ished man of letters 4. >. 3aman,5an has p,t it, no 0ndian ever reads the 3amayana:;< for the first time.:9< Eonetheless, the interpretation of its depiction re7,ires the readerBs cooperation. Ah,s it seems fr,itf,l to !ear in mind several devices of the comic thro,"ho,t this !ook: framin", the spectatorBs position, and variations in the n,m!er and siHe of panels to indicate the passa"e of time. 4 third tradition analo"o,s to narrative ima"es is p,rely ver!al narrative. Ahis comparison is perhaps most promisin" as a so,rce of theoretical models, havin" attracted the most attention. Ahe !,r"eonin" field of narratolo"y provides frame-orks rooted in literary criticism !,t readily applied to pict,res that tell stories.:G< 2ome Westerners and ed,cated 0ndians may feel that !eca,se older ima"es do not tell stories clearly to ,s, they -ere not intended to tell stories at all. *ne co,ld co,nter, ho-ever, that the stories were clear to the kno-led"ea!le.:6< *ne co,ld also ar",e, as 0 do, that clarity is not the only possi!le "oal of a story. 0n Chapter G1 shall attempt to constr,ct a narratolo"ical frame-ork s,ited to 0ndian pictorial ima"es. 6ere 0 shall simply sketch some elements of the theoretical models from literat,re that 0 do find ,sef,l and not specific to Western c,lt,re. 0n the first place, the 3,ssian formalists have distin",ished story Cthe ,nderlyin" =ar",ment= or chronolo"ical se7,ence of eventsD and discourse Cthe form in -hich ar",ment and events are act,ally presentedD.:&< When -e t,rn to ima"es, it -o,ld !e easy to red,ce these concepts to a ver!al story and a vis,al disco,rse, !,t it is -orth remem!erin" that there is also a discrepancy !et-een the t-o at the ver!al level and hence that the te(t ill,strated need not constit,te the story. Ahe story in fact lies in the mind of the artist, and its retrieval re7,ires lookin" at the pict,res in addition to readin" the accompanyin" -ords. 0n this !ook, pictorial disco,rse is the primary concern. 3oland Barthes !e"ins his seminal essay, =Ahe narratives of the -orld are n,m!erless= and 0 admire his "enerally pl,ralistic vision of the s,!5ect.:%< Barthes notes the fallacy descri!ed in the scholastic form,la !ost hoc# ergo !ro!ter hoc , linkin" consec,tion CorderD and conse7,ence Cca,sationD. 6e also remarks that elements in a story may have a phatic role, that is, comm,nicate feelin"s rather than ideas. )ost important for me, Barthes provides an e(emplary frame-ork in -hich '6' narrative str,ct,re f,nctions as a code, limitin" !,t not determinin" the tale that ens,es.:9< 0n other -ords, he admits the freedom of the artist, -hich 0 find partic,larly necessary in dealin" -ith 0ndian traditions too readily treated as form,laic. Ah,s he avoids !oth mechanical classification of ima"ery and complete ram domness. .Lrard .enette, in foc,sin" on one ma5or novel, Pro,stBs $ la recherche du tem!s !erdu , provides a lar"e !ody of analytic concepts.:1$< Ahese seem most helpf,l in considerin" the temporal dimension of the story, and my disc,ssion of matters of order is inde!ted to him. 6ence the terms =anachrony= Cdepart,re from chronolo"ical orderD, =analepsis= Cflash!ackD, and =prolepsis= Cflash+for-ardD. )atters involvin" the narrator, -hich .enette classifies as mood and voice, are more pro!lematic in the realm of pictorial narration in "eneral. 6is term =focaliHation,= ro,"hly identified -ith a narrative point of vie-, has !een 7,estioned !,t not discredited, and vis,al e7,ivalents have !een s,""ested.:11< .iven the !road impersonality of 2anskrit literat,re, 0 consider o,r stories as =nonfocaliHed= in "eneral, !,t the concept may he helpf,l in several cases -here an entire se7,ence is presented as an ill,sion.

0n or"aniHation, the present -ork takes on some of the la!yrinthine comple(ities of 0ndian storytellin". 0 have !een tempted at points to separate o,t entirely my different concerns for vario,s readers. B,t 0 do not -ant the st,dent of art history to !e a!le to !ypass the rich 0ndian stories. Eor do 0 -ant the st,dent of 0ndian literat,re or of narratolo"y to !e a!le to !ypass the vis,al advent,re of *rissan pict,res. Chapter 1 presents a variety of ver!al versions of the story of 3ama. Chapter 1 introd,ces *rissan paintin" and man,script ill,stration as a -hole in traditional formal, historical, and conte(t,al terms, as they s,rvive from the late ei"hteenth cent,ry on. Chapter # addresses earlier sc,lpt,ral ima"es of the s,!5ect of 3ama in the same re"ion, as a vis,al precedent for the pict,res. Chapter 9 compares systematically the diverse pictorial versions Co,r disco,rseD of ten events in the story. Chapter G considers each pictorial disco,rse in se7,ential terms, ret,rnin" to theoretical iss,es. Chapter 6 attempts to dra- concl,sions a!o,t meanin", indeterminate as that may !e, a!o,t the artistsB storytellin" choices, and a!o,t o,r 5,d"ment of the s,ccess of the pictorial narratives. /inally, 0 feel compelled to ,nderscore a philosophical point that mi"ht !e lost, comin" from an art historian tellin" a comple(, pl,ralistic story that s,""ests complete relativism. Ahe fact that -e all make mistakes is trivial !,t tr,e. Ahis is compara!le to pointin" o,t that there are "erms every-hereJ -e are not therefore 5,stified in performin" s,r"ery in a se-er. Ahere are mistakes as -ell as "erms, and 0 -o,ld like to minimiHe !oth. B,t it does interest me that t-o or more ans-ers to one 7,estion may !e correct. Ahis modified form of relativism ,nderlies my ar",ment in several -ays. '&'

# The S'or*
A Res-me./0
4ny disc,ssion of variant tellin"s and depictions of the story m,st pres,ppose some familiarity -ith a !asic version of the plotline. Beca,se no 0ndian hears the 3amayana:;< for the first time, 0ndians and adoptive 0ndians C2o,th 4sian specialistsD -ill not need the follo-in" rLs,mL. Ahis prel,de is intended for Western readers vent,rin" into a ne- field. Ao follo- theoretical iss,es, -e cannot remain o,tsiders and m,st !e"in like children -ith a fairy tale. Ahe follo-in" !are+!ones acco,nt, devoid of interpretive comment, is limited to the "ist of the 2anskrit epic that is relevant to later versions c,rrent in *rissa. 0ll,strations from a man,script disc,ssed in Chapter 1 are incl,ded here !eca,se they depict clearly and directly many parts of the plot. Ahey are part of an *rissan prLcis of the tale, the literal translation of -hich appears in 4ppendi( #, and th,s a fe- incidents in o,r rLs,mL are not depicted -hile others are added. Araditionally the story of 3ama is divided into seven epic chapters, or %andas[*] .

I1 2ala 3anda./0
*nce ,pon a time, 8asaratha, >in" of 4yodhya, lacked a son. Ahe sa"e 3isyasrin"a:;< , ind,ced to leave his forest retreat to !rin" rain to a nei"h!orin" kin"dom C/i",re 1D, also performed a sacrifice for 8asaratha that yielded a fertility+ind,cin" porrid"e C/i",re 1D. 8asaratha distri!,ted this to his three -ives C/i",re #D: >a,salya "ave !irth to 3ama, >aikeyi to Bharata, and 2,mitra to the t-ins @aksmana:;< and 2atr,"hna C/i",re 9D. 4fter a fe- years the sa"e Kisvamitra came to the co,rt to ask 8asaratha to lend him 3ama, in order to destroy demons -ho had !een attackin" the sa"eBs sacrifices. Ahis 3ama did, accompanied !y his favorite !rother, @aksmana:;< C/i",re GD. 6is yo,thf,l e(ploits,

!e"innin" -ith killin" the demoness Aadaki:;< C/i",re 6D and attackin" other o!str,ctors of the sa"eBs sacrifice C/i",re &D, demonstrated his role as an incarnation of the "od Kisn,:;< come to earth ,ltimately to destroy the chief demon, ten+headed 3avana:;< . Ahe yo,thf,l 3ama released 4halya, a !ea,tif,l -oman, from a c,rse C/i",re %D. 6e also stopped in the co,rt of >in" Janaka, -here a test -as ,nder -ay for the hand of princess 2ita C=/,rro-,= !eca,se she -as !orn from the earthDJ vario,s princes -ere attemptin" to !end '%'

/i",re 1. 3o,nd @avanyavati:;< Cco,rtesy Eational ),se,m of 0ndian 4rt, Ee8elhi, no. &1+16G 0D. Performer !e"ins, 3isyasrin"a:;< !rin"s rain, f. 9&r.

/i",res 1, #. 3o,nd @avanyavati:;< CE) &1+16G 0D, f. 9&v: CtopD 3isyasrin"a:;< performs sacrifice for 8asarathaJ Ca!oveD 8istri!,tion of porrid"e to 7,eens. the mi"hty !o- of the "od 2iva. 3ama alone -as a!le to perform this feat C/i",re 9D and there!y -on 2ita as his -ife C/i",re 1$D. *n the -ay home he enco,ntered the po-erf,l ascetic Paras,rama and -as a"ain challen"ed to !end a s,pernat,ral !o-. 3ama s,cceeded and as a -arrior Cksatriya:;< D proved himself e7,al to the priestly C!rahmanD avatar of the same "od Kisn,:;< C/i",re 11D.

II1 A*odh*a 3anda./0

Back in 4yodhya, 8asaratha prepared to cro-n prince 3ama as his s,ccessor. 4t that moment, e""ed on !y her servant )anthara, the second 7,een, >aikeyi, chose to redeem a !oon the a"ed kin" had "ranted her in his yo,th C/i",re 11D. '9'

/i",res 9, G. 3o,nd @avanyavati:;< CE) &1+16G 0D, f. 9%r: CtopD Birth of 8asarathaBs sonsJ Ca!oveD Kisvamitra takes 3ama and @aksmana:;< .

/i",res 6, &. 3o,nd @avanyavati:;< CE) &1+16G 0D, f. 9%v: CtopD 8eath of Aadaki:;< , KisvamitraBs sacrificeJ Ca!oveD 3ama fi"hts the demons 2,!ah, and )aricha. ' 1$ '

/i",res %, 9. 3o,nd @avanyavati:;< CE) &1+16G 0D, f. 99r: CtopD 4halya released from c,rse, Boatman -ashes 3amaBs feetJ Ca!oveD 3ama, at JanakaBs co,rt, !ends 2ivaBs !o-.

/i",res 1$, 11. 3o,nd @avanyavati:;< CE) &1+16G 0D, f. 99v: CtopD 3ama and 2itaBs marria"eJ Ca!oveD )eetin" -ith Paras,rama, Preparations for 3amaBs coronation. ' 11 '

/i",res 11, 1#. 3o,nd @avanyavati:;< CE) &1+16G 0D, 1$$r: CtopD )anthara, 8asaratha and >aikeyiJ Ca!oveD 3amaBs e(ile, Chitrak,ta:;< 6ill.

/i",res 19, 1G. 3o,nd @avanyavati:;< CE) &1+16G 0D, f. 1$$v: CtopD 3ama shoots the cro-J Ca!oveD BharataBs visit to 3ama, Ahe heroes confront the demon Kiradha. ' 11 '

/i",res 16, 1&. 3o,nd @avanyavati:;< CE) &1+16G 0D, f. 1$1r: CtopD Ahe sa"e 4tri and his -ife, 4nas,ya, -elcome the e(ilesJ Ca!oveD 2,rpanakha:;< denosed, 6er demon !rothers. 8asaratha -as th,s compelled, a"ainst his -ill, to cro-n her son, Bharata Ca!sent from co,rt at the timeD, and to e(ile 3ama to the forest for fo,rteen years. 3ama acceded d,tif,lly to this plan and departed -ith @aksmana:;< and 2ita, settlin" first on the charmin" mo,ntain Chitrak,ta:;< C/i",res 1#, 19D. 8asaratha died of "rief. Bharata ret,rned to 4yodhya in horror at his o-n s,ccession and proceeded to visit 3ama in an ,ns,ccessf,l effort to !rin" !ack the ri"htf,l kin" C/i",re 1GD. Bharata a"reed to r,le in his !rotherBs name, settin" 3amaBs sandals on the throne that had !een moved in mo,rnin" to a villa"e near 4yodhya.

III1 Aran*a./0 3anda./0

8-ellin" in a -ilder part of the forest C/i",res 1G, 16D, 3ama and @aksmana:;< enco,ntered vario,s demons, incl,din" 2,rpanakha:;< the sister of 3avana:;< , the ten+headed demon kin". 2he ass,med a !ea,tif,l form !,t failed to sed,ce the t-o heroes. 0n fact @aksmana:;< c,t off her nose and ears in a traditional "est,re of disrespect C/i",re 1&D. 2,rpanakha:;< so,"ht redress from her !rothers, first >hara, -hose forces 3ama defeated, then the elder 3avana:;< . Ahis r,ler pers,aded the demon )aricha to take the form of a "olden deer, -hich enchanted 2ita C/i",re 1%D. 3ama -ent off to h,nt it, leavin" his -ife in his !rotherBs char"e in a forest h,t. 2hot, the deer cried =@aksmana:;< = in 3amaBs voice, and @aksmana:;< -as compelled to assist his !rother, leavin" 2ita alone. Ahen 3avana:;< appeared in the form of a mendicant, l,red her from the h,t !y appealin" to her pio,s "enerosity, and carried her a-ay in his aerial chariot, P,spaka:;< , to his "olden citadel, @anka:;< C/i"+ ' 1# '

/i",res 1%, 19. 3o,nd @avanyavati:;< CE) &1+16G 0D, f. 1$1v: CtopD Ahe demon Arisiras, )a"ic deerJ Ca!oveD 2itaBs kidnap, Jatay,Bs:;< attack.

/i",res 1$, 11. 3o,nd @avanyavati:;< CE) &1+16G 0D, f. 1$1r: CtopD 2ita in @anka:;< , 3ama ret,rns to h,tJ Ca!oveD 3ama s-oons, meets Jatay,:;< . ,res 19, 1$D. *n the -ay, the divine v,lt,re Jatay,:;< attempted ,ns,ccessf,lly to stop the a!d,ction and fo,"ht -ith 3avana:;< . /o,nd dyin", this !ird informed the !rothers -hat had happened C/i",re 11D. 3ama -as stricken !y intense "rief. ' 19 '

IV1 3is,indha./0 3anda./0

Ahe !rothers entered >iskindha:;< , the realm of the monkeys, a forest filled -ith demons s,ch as the headless >a!andha, -ith tri!al h,nters, and -ith sa"es C/i",res 11+19D. Ahey -ere approached !y 6an,mana, "eneral of the r,ler 2,"riva, -ho had received 2itaBs 5e-els as she -as flyin" and -as hence alerted to the crisis C/i",re 1GD. 2,"riva had occ,pied the throne of >iskindha:;< -hile his elder !rother Kalin -as pres,med dead !,t -as !anished -hen the !rother ret,rned. 3ama demonstrated his po-er as e7,al to the task of helpin" 2,"riva !y kickin" the !ody of the "iant 8,nd,!hi, Whom the mi"hty Kalin had killed, and !y shootin" thro,"h seven trees -ith one arro- C/i",re 16D. Ahen 2,"riva challen"ed Kalin to a fi"ht, in -hich 3ama, hidden !ehind a tree, event,ally shot Kalin. 8,rin" the s,!se7,ent rainy season 3ama "rieved on )o,nt )alyavan C/i",re 1&D, and 2,"riva cele!rated his o-n restoration !y drinkin". /inally the monkeys searched in all directions and discovered that 2ita had !een taken to @anka:;< .

/i",res 11, 1#. 3o,nd @avanyavati:;< CE) &1+16G 0D, f. 1$1v: CtopD Ahe demon >a!andha -ith 3ama, @aksmana:;< J Ca!oveD 3ama and 2a!ari Ctri!al -omanD, Co-herds. ' 1G '

/i",res 19, 1G. 3o,nd @avanyavati:;< CE) &1+16G 0D, f. 1$#r: CtopD 3ama meets asceticsJ Ca!oveD 3ama meets 6an,mana, 2,"riva.

/i",re 16. 3o,nd @avanyavati:;< CE) &1+16G 0D: CtopD 3ama shoots thro,"h seven treesJ Ca!oveD 3ama kicks 8,nd,!hiBs !ones, 8eath of Kalin, f. 1$#v. ' 16 '

/i",res 1&, 1%. 3o,nd @avanyavati:;< CE) &1+16G 0D, f. 1$9r: CtopD 3ama on )o,nt )alyavanJ Ca!oveD 6an,mana "oes and ret,rns.

V1 S-ndara 3anda./0
6an,mana leapt across the ocean, evadin" vario,s demons, to reach the citadel of @anka:;< , -here he ass,med a tiny form to spy on the demonsB life. 6e delivered a rin" from 3ama as a token to 2ita, imprisoned !y demonesses in a "rove of asoka trees. 2he affirmed her -illin"ness to -ait for resc,e !y 3ama. 6an,mana in heroic form -reaked havoc on the demon citadel and -as capt,red !y 3avanaBs:;< son 0ndra5ita. Ahe monkeyBs tail -as !o,nd -ith ra"s soaked in oil and set on fire, at B-hich point he escaped and ,sed his flamin" tail as a torch to set the !,ildin"s of @anka:;< a!laHe. 4t last he and the monkey search party ret,rned to 3ama C/i",re 1%D.

VI1 Y-ddha 3anda./0

3ama and his monkey allies camped !y the straits of @anka:;< , -here the demon Ki!hisana:;< , havin" tried to pers,ade his !rother 3avana:;< to ret,rn 2ita, defected from the demonsB side. Ahe monkeys constr,cted a ca,se-ay of !o,lders across the ocean and the army marched to @anka:;< C/i",re 19D. Ahe !attle !e"an -ith personal com!at !et-een. 2,"riva and 3avana:;< , after -hich vario,s diplomatic efforts and r,ses ens,ed. Ahe fi"htin" -armed ,p, ma"ic -eapons playin" a vivid role C/i",re #$D. 3avanaBs:;< "iant !rother >,m!hakarna:;< had to !e -akened from si( monthsB sleep, to

-hich he -as entitled each year, and he destroyed co,ntless monkeys !efore he -as slain !y 3ama C/i",re #1D. 0ndra5ita incapacitated 3ama and @aksmana:;< C/i",re #1D, -ho -ere res,scitated -hen 6an,mana fle- to the 6imalayas and !ro,"ht !ack )o,nt .andhamadana to"ether -ith the medicinal ' 1& ' her!s that "re- there C/i",re ##D. 0ndra5ita -as ,ltimately killed !y @aksmana:;< and 3avana:;< !y 3ama C/i",re #9D. 2ita co,ld not !e re,nited -ith 3ama ,ntil she performed an ordeal !y immersin" herself in fire. ?mer"in" ,nscathed, she demonstrated that she had remained faithf,l -hile in another manBs ho,se C/i",re #GD. Ki!hisana:;< -as cro-ned in @anka:;< C/i",re #6D. 4t last 3ama and 2ita ret,rned to 4yodhya for his coronation C/i",res #&+9$D.

/i",re 19. 3o,nd @avanyavati:;< CE) &1+16G 0D: CtopD. B,ildin" the !rid"eJ Ca!oveD 4ttack on @anka:;< , f. 1$9v.

/i",res #$, #1. 3o,nd @avanyavati:;< CE) &1+16G 0D, f. 1$Gr: CtopD .ar,da:;< resc,es 3ama and @aksmana:;< from serpent+arro-sJ Ca!oveD 8eath of >,m!hakarna:;< . ' 1% '

/i",res #1, ##. 3o,nd @avanyavati:;< CE) &1+16G 0D, f. 1$Gv: CtopD @aksmana:;< -o,ndedJ Ca!oveD 6an,mana !rin"s mo,ntain, -atched !y Bharata.

/i",re #9. 3o,nd @avanyavati:;< CE) &1+16G 0D. 8eath of 3avana:;< , f. 1$6r. ' 19 '

/i",res #G, #6. 3o,nd @avanyavati:;< CE) &1+16G 0D, f. 1$6v: CtopD 2itaBs testJ Ca!oveD Coronation of Ki!hisana:;< in @anka:;< .

/i",re #&. 3o,nd @avanyavati:;< CE) &1+16G 0D, f. 1$&r: CtopD 3et,rn to 4yodhyaJ Ca!oveD Coronation of 3ama. ' 1$ '

/i",re #%. 3o,nd @avanyavati:;< CE) &1+16G 0D, f. 1$&v: CtopD @avanyavati:;< -atches Ca!oveD coronation of 3ama.

/i",re #9. 3o,nd @avanyavati:;< CE) &1+16G 0D, f. 1$%r: CtopD @avanyavati:;< -atches Ca!oveD coronation of 3ama. ' 11 '

/i",re 9$. 3o,nd &a'anya'ati[*] CE) &1+16G 0D, f. 1$%v: @avanyavati:;< Ca(o'e D -atches performance Cto! D.

VII1 U''ara 3anda./0

Ahe final !ook incl,des diverse stories a!o,t the earlier life of the principal actors, as -ell as seemin"ly ,nrelated episodes. 0t also incl,des a most pro!lematic se7,el to the story. Beca,se of pop,lar do,!ts a!o,t 2itaBs fidelity, 3ama felt compelled to send her into e(ile. Ahere she took ref,"e in the hermita"e of the sa"e Kalmiki and "ave !irth to 3amaBs t-in sons, @ava and >,sa. 3ama performed a horse ceremony, the traditional per7,isite of an emperor, and -as challen"ed !y these t-o !oys, -ho recited the familyBs story, the 3amayana:;< as composed !y Kalmiki. 3ama recalled 2ita, !,t she ret,rned to her mother, the ?arth. 4nd 3ama ret,rned to heaven as the "od Kisn,:;< .

i''erar* Versions o( 'he Rama*ana./0 In Orissa

Ahat there are many 3amayanas:;< has !een ackno-led"ed in a n,m!er of recent essays.:1< Ahe remainder of this chapter presents those ver!al versions of the story that seem relevant as !ack"ro,nd to *rissan pict,res, -hich are the main concern of my !ook as a -hole. /irst the -ritten te(ts. Ahe reader is advised not to e(pect a complete s,rvey of versions of the epic, even in *riya. 2,ch s,rveys have already !een made, and the st,dent of literat,re may cons,lt the follo-in" -orks directly: >. C. 2ahoo, Oriya Rama &iterature Fan a,thoritative, detailed description of the f,ll ran"e of te(ts !y an *riya scholarJ:1< M >. B,lke, Ram%atha C)t!ati aur *i%as DFa ma"isterial 6indi s,rvey of all kinds of

0ndian and 2o,theast 4sian -ritten te(tsJ:#< M W. @. 2mith, Ramayana[*] Traditions in +astern India Fa selective and provocative treatment of 4ssamese, Ben"ali, and *riya versions.:9< M @iterat,re may of co,rse play a variety of roles in relation to vis,al ima"ery. 2ome -orks mi"ht !e termed =canonicalJB as the Bi!le is for Christian artJ that is, ' 11 ' they may provide a relatively standardiHed frame-ork of orthodo(y:G< While KalmikiBs 2anskrit 3amayana:;< has !een accorded this stat,s, this te(t itself varies considera!ly -ith time and place, and it may have !een too inaccessi!le or ,nfamiliar to have played a canonical role in fact, altho,"h KalmikiBs name is revered. 4 second role that literat,re plays is as a te(t e(plicitly ill,strated. 6ere *rissan man,scripts of the dhyatma Ramayana[*] and the *aidehisa *ilasa[*] that incl,de pict,res are o!vio,s e(amples. @ike-ise for at least one set of paintin"s !y professional painters -e have a short, pop,lar poem that the artist set o,t to ill,strate, verse !y verse. B,t the third role of literat,re is more amorpho,s arid si"nificant: it may provide a familiar and hence infl,ential version of a story to -hich the artist has !een e(posed. 6ere the lon" 3amayana:;< of Balarama:;< 8asa, read se7,entially in temples and availa!le in many villa"es in the form of ,nill,strated man,scripts, may have had a po-erf,l, if not =canonical,= impact. 2imilarly, vario,s performed versions, departin" from this as -ell as from Kalmiki and other te(ts, are a potent so,rce of artistic ima"ery Eor, finally, sho,ld the relation !et-een te(ts and ima"es !e vie-ed as deterministic or one+-ay. 2,rely at times ver!al stories reflect pict,res that the teller has seen. With all these comple(ities in mind, it is -orth sit,atin" some relevant literary traditions !riefly, !efore t,rnin" to the ima"es.

Valmi,i
0f one asks an *riya, or for that matter any north 0ndian, today, =Who -rote the 3amayana:;< N= the ans-er is almost inevita!ly Kalmiki. Ahis sa"eBs role is encoded in many versions of the story, -hich !e"in -ith the killin" of a male %rau,cha !ird -hile it -as makin" love. Kalmiki -as moved !y the sorro- Cso%a D of the mate to recite a verse composed of thirty+t-o sylla!les, the meter Cslo%a D of the "reat epic itself. 4nd in most versions of the last !ook, -hen 2ita is !anished, it is KalmikiBs hermita"e -here she takes ref,"e and -here her sons @ava and >,sa are !orn and raised. 6ence his place as the composer of the tale. Ahe modern scholar, armed -ith techni7,es of te(t,al analysis as -ell as -ith practical skepticism, is a-are that all seven vol,mes are hardly the -ork of a sin"le a,thor, and one may 7,estion the historicity of Kalmiki himself. 0t has lon" !een felt that the core comprises !ooks t-o thro,"h si(, the 4yodhya thro,"h I,ddha >andas:;< . Ahese pro!a!ly ori"inated in the seventh and si(th cent,ries B.C. , -hereas !ooks one and seven Cthe Bala and Uttara >andas:;< D -ere added !et-een the third cent,ry B.C. and the first 4.8. :6< Ahe method of transmission -as e(cl,sively oral at first, -ith some mnemonic devices that co,nteracted the inevita!le process of diversification. Ae(t,al scholars reco"niHe !roadly differin" northern and so,thern recensions, from -hich a critical edition has !een constr,cted in the past thirty years.:&< M Within the former, -estern and eastern recensions can !e discerned, the second most relevant for ,s.:%< M 4t the same time, -e may in fact consider the seven vol,mes as a -hole and ascri!e them to Kalmiki, simply !eca,se they -ere not critically differentiated !y the *rissan p,!lic in the ei"hteenth cent,ry and later. Ahe se7,ence of events recited in my rLs,mL is that of the Kalmiki te(t of eastern 0ndia, fo,nd also in many later versions to !e considered in more detail.

' 1# ' Ahe 2anskrit, -hile at times self+contradictory and open to criticism, seems to present t-o !road concerns. *ne is moralFthe role of the principal characters as ethical models. Ah,s 3amaBs nat,re, perhaps t-o+dimensional to Western eyes, is !,ilt aro,nd his "enerally ,nemotional acceptance of demands made !y hi"her a,thority, incl,din" the a!andonment of his kin"dom and, ,ltimately, of his -ife. *ccasional lapses, s,ch as the slayin" of a -oman CAadaki:;< D or the ,se of a r,se to kill the monkey kin" Kalin, have !een met -ith a rich array of 0ndian analyses and e(planations. @ike-ise 2ita, @aksmana:;< , 6an,mana, and other actors serve as models of 0ndian social val,es, -hich may e(plain the end,rin" pop,larity of the epic as -ell as the ,r"e to adapt it to modern circ,mstances. 4 second concern is aesthetic and, parado(ically, emotional. Ahe 3amayana:;< is identified as the 4dikavya, or first e(ample of 6i"h Poetry, a stat,s that derives less from its technical poetics than from the !road sense of mood. While 3ama himself "rieves remarka!ly little at his o-n travails, the story itself is !,ilt aro,nd the emotion of sorro- C%aru,a rasa D, -hich informs ma5or moments and hence is imparted to the a,dience.:9< *thers amon" the nine standard moodsFthe heroic, the h,moro,s, even the eroticFare !ro,"ht in, !,t it is the pathetic that prevails. Ah,s o,r mythical a,thor, or rather the te(t itself as it has evolved, sho-s a "eneral aesthetic intent that ,nifies diverse stories of palace intri",e and fairy+tale e(ploits in the 5,n"le. 0t has !een ar",ed that this 2anskrit te(t provides a !asic frame-ork for the vernac,lar poems of eastern 0ndia, -hich only e(plain, red,plicate, resolve, apolo"iHe for, and in minor -ays ela!orate ,pon Kalmiki to reflect vario,s later concerns.:1$< 0ndeed there are *riya transliterations of Kalmiki,:11< M and he is invoked as the ori"inator of the story in most *riya versions disc,ssed !elo-. Ahe "reat si(teenth+cent,ry *rissan poet Balarama:;< 8asa refers to pandits in his day recitin" KalmikiBs te(t.:11< M Iet "rantin" its moral and aesthetic po-er, 0 find it diffic,lt to accord KalmikiBs 2anskrit a consistent role in directly ",idin" later literary versions of the 3amayana:;< , let alone vis,al ones. Ahis o!5ection derives partly from my foc,s ,pon a,thors s,ch as 2arala 8asa and Upendra BhaO5a, -ho depart s,!stantially from KalmikiBs frame-ork. 0 am str,ck !y the ease -ith -hich Kalmiki is invoked today !y people -ho have in fact not read the 2anskrit or even a complete translation of it into some modern lan",a"e. 0n short, my pict,re of the role of Kalmiki for *rissan artists is similar to the one attri!,ted to him in the television version of the epic that captivated 0ndia in 19%& and s,rvives in the form of videocassettes.:1#< ?ach episode ackno-led"es the sa"e as the ori"inal a,thor, and there is no s,""estion of e(plicitly departin" from his version for any reason. Ahis ackno-led"ment does not indicate complete familiarity -ith the 2anskrit, altho,"h ,ndo,!tedly the television prod,cer and his advisors kne- some version of KalmikiBs te(t. B,t they also dre- ,pon a variety of other traditions, incl,din" a -ide ran"e of vernac,lar versions e(plicitly invoked in the ca,se of national inte"ration. Eor does respect for Kalmiki r,le o,t innovations like those of past retellers of the story. 0f one is str,ck that more of the vernac,lar versions corresponds to Kalmiki than to any other ancient so,rce Cs,ch as Jain variants that present a s,!stantially altered str,ct,reD, that may !e !eca,se KalmikiBs 2anskrit preserves a consens,s version of other -ritten as -ell as oral 3ama stories. Ahese m,st collectively !e taken as ' 19 ' the so,rce for later a,thors and indeed for most people in a society -here -ritin" did not have its present normative stat,s. We -o,ld !e del,ded to search for a sin"le model or to privile"e one, -hatever its classical stat,s.

a'er Sans,ri' Versions

3ecastin" the story in 2anskrit did not stop -ith the epic that !ears KalmikiBs nameJ many literary and reli"io,s versions are kno-n. 0 shall foc,s on t-o that -ere ill,strated in *rissa. Ahe first is of pan+ 0ndian si"nificanceFthe dhyatma C=2,preme 2pirit=D Ramayana[*] # one of a class of short 2anskrit -orks composed -ith later devotional and philosophical concerns. Ahis has !een ascri!ed to the fifteenth or early si(teenth cent,ry and is associated -ith Banaras in partic,lar.:19< Ahe impact of the dhyatma Ramayana[*] on vernac,lar -ritin" is -idely reco"niHed, not only on A,lsi 8asBs Ramcharitmanas , as one mi"ht e(pect from the composition of that infl,ential 6indi poem in the same place a fe- decades later, !,t also on -orks in ton",es as distant as )alayalam.:1G< M Ahe ma5or Ben"ali 3amayana:;< !y >ritti!asa:;< , similar in some -ays, may have !een composed sli"htly earlierJ yet elements that it shares -ith the Ramcharitmanas seem to !e interpolations into the ,n,s,ally elastic Ben"ali te(t. 2imilarly -e shall hear more of the dhyatma Ramayana[*] as a so,rce for *riya -riters. Ahe dhyatma Ramayana[*] may !e ,nderstood as a condensation of Kalmiki, leavin" o,t those matters that do not foc,sJ ,pon 3ama, -ith three !road additional concerns. /irst, this is a -ork of monastic Kedanta philosophy, for -hich all phenomena are dependent ,pon the -orld so,l, or (rahman# here e7,ated -ith 3ama himself, -ho is ,ndifferentiated, -itho,t attri!,tes Cnirguna[*] D. Ah,s events are preordained. /or instance, )anthara does not act from her o-n evil to prevent 3amaBs coronation !,t is impelled !y the "oddess 2arasvati C1.1.96D. 0ll,sion, or maya, in this system characteriHes everythin". Ahe epitome of this principle is the order 3ama "ives 2ita, as he departs to h,nt the ill,sionary deer Cmaya mriga[*] D, that she hide her tr,e self in the fire inside the h,t and create an ill,sionary form C)aya 2itaD that -ill !e kidnapped !y 3avana:;< C#.&.#+9D. Ah,s his o-n "rief at her loss is fei"ned, even to his !rother, and the story is ro!!ed of direct tra"edy. 4t the same time, the tale ass,mes a rich phenomenolo"ical irony )aya 2ita had previo,sly appeared as a motif in earlier te(ts, s,ch as the -urma and .rahma'ai'arta /uranas[*] reflectin" concern -ith 2itaBs p,rity. B,t ill,sion plays a lar"er role in the dhyatma Ramayana[*] as a consistent principle that ,nderc,ts the act,al plot. 2econd, this te(t is informed !y (ha%ti# or a devotional attit,de to-ard 3ama, -ho hence !ecomes more a "od and less a mere h,man. Ahis attit,de is visi!le in a "ood deal of later 3amayana:;< literat,re and is compara!le to the development of devotion to >risna:;< in north 0ndia, !,t here the devotee is seen predominantly in the stance of a servant, rather than that of a lover, ,nlike >risna:;< -ith his female follo-ers, the go!is. Ahe dhyatma Ramayana[*] is associated -ith the 3amanandin sect of ascetics Csadhus D, for -hom the preferred name+endin" 8asa CservantD indicates the ideal of h,mility.:16< 4t the same time in the dhyatma# 3ama !ecomes more than one of a n,m!er of avatars, is e7,ated -ith Kisn,:;< himself, and at times seems to transcend even Kisn,:;< .:1&< M Ahe res,lt is to create a tension !et-een the ' 1G ' Kedanta philosophical conte(t, in -hich even the ,ltimate reality of 3ama as an actor in the -orld sho,ld lo"ically !e called into 7,estion, and the devotional ,r"e to emphasiHe his e(ploits. .ha%ti is visi!le in the -ay in -hich the dhyatma Ramayana[*] presents 3ama as deliverin" to salvation those -hom he kills, for e(ample the demon )aricha C#.&.11+1GD. )oreover, devotion is e(plicit in a n,m!er of hymns of praise inserted into the te(t, s,ch as the encomi,m ,ttered !y 4halya -hen she is released from the form of a stone C1.G.9#+69D. Ahe !est kno-n of these passa"es, the sermon preached !y 3ama as chapter G of the last !ook kno-n as the Ramagita Cimitatin" the

.haga'adgita D, is pro!a!ly older than the te(t as a -hole.:1%< Ahird, the dhyatma Ramayana[*] incorporates 2aiva and tantric elements, a"ain prod,cin" some contradictions -ith the philosophical and devotional aspects of this -ork. Ahe frame-ork, in -hich the story is told !y 2iva in ans-er to ParvatiBs 7,estions, may not in itself !e of "reat si"nificance, for it is part of the stat,s of the te(t as a P,rana:;< . Before the !rid"e to @anka:;< is !,ilt, 3ama installs a li,ga on the shore and -orships 2iva, pres,ma!ly a nod to the act,al shrine at 3ameshvaram C6.9.1+9D. *ne is reminded that this te(t served the 3amanandins, a Kaisnava:;< sect centered in Benares, the a!ode of 2iva. 2imilarly, tantric or 2akta elements have !een discerned, altho,"h it may also !e ar",ed that sa%ti is f,ndamentally conceived here as 3amaBs maya , occasionally actin" thro,"h 2ita !,t not an independent feminine force of creation.:19< Ahe te(t is in "eneral comple( and reflects conflictin" c,rrents, like most doc,ments of 0ndian reli"ion. Ahe pop,larity of the dhyatma Ramayana[*] in *rissa is indicated !y its repeated translation into *riya !et-een 16$$ and 19$$. *f the translations, the one most fre7,ently ill,strated -as that of .opala Aelen"a, made in the middle of the ei"hteenth cent,ry.:1$< .opala, a Ael,", speaker as indicated !y his name, -as a !rahman -ho served at the co,rt of the r,ler 45it 2inha in 2am!alp,r. 6is is not entirely a literal translation of the standard 2anskrit te(t. /or e(ample, 3avana:;< takes not only 2ita !,t also her entire h,t to avoid to,chin" her, a motif that appears else-here to minimiHe the possi!ility of her poll,tion. )ost si"nificant, at the !e"innin" of each !ook @ord Ja"annatha is invoked, and in the si(th, the I,ddha >anda:;< si(ty verses are added in his praise. 0n the same -ay that 2iva co,ld !e accommodated in the ori"inal te(t, the principal "od of *rissa co,ld !e !ro,"ht into this vernac,lar translation. Ahe .rahma Ramayana[*] is a second and far less -idely kno-n 2anskrit -ork, not composed in *rissa !,t e(tant in t-o copies there, one of -hich is ill,strated.:11< Both of these man,scripts are in simple 2anskrit, not translated !,t in *riya characters, like most *riya copies of the 0ita 0o'inda# -hich -as easily ,nderstood in the same form. ?lse-here the te(t e(ists in 8evana"ari script.:11< M 0t appears to !e part of a lar"er -ork called the .rihat%osala[*] -anda[*] and to have fallen into three portionsF3amaBs &ila the marria"e of 3ama and 2ita, and then additional play or &ila .:1#< M Ahe 3amayana:;< plot is minimal, altho,"h the episodes of 4halya and Aadaki:;< do appear in the ill,strated *rissan version. Ahe !,lk of the te(t, ho-ever, concerns 3amaBs sport -ith a n,m!er of -omen. Ahere is stron" resem!lance to >risnaBs:;< relationship to the co-+maidens Cgo!is D, in -hich the seemin"ly erotic relation to the "odhead is in fact a form of ecstatic devotion appropriate to ' 16 ' male follo-ers as -ell as female. Ahe ela!orate description of rasa Cr,stic danceD dominates this te(t, as in many >risna+ite:;< -orks.:19< Ah,s the 3ama+(ha%ti of the dhyatma Ramayana[*] is taken one step f,rther in s,ch a -ork.

Earl* Ori*a Te4's

0n addressin" the te(t,al so,rces of *rissan pict,res of the 3amayana:;< , it -o,ld !e impossi!le to omit t-o mon,ments of early *riya literat,re, even tho,"h neither has, to my kno-led"e, !een directly ill,strated. Both 2arala 8asaBs "aha(harata and Balarama:;< 8asaBs 1agamohana Ramayana[*] are so -ell kno-n and -idely revered that -e may pres,me most artists in the re"ion -o,ld have had some familiarity -ith them. Ahe 4dikavi, or /ather of Kernac,lar Poetry in *rissa, 2arala 8asa, active pro!a!ly in the third 7,arter of the fifteenth cent,ry, is famed for his "aha(harata .:1G< Ahis -ork dra-s ,pon oral traditions,

incl,din" elements that also crop ,p in different form in vario,s 2anskrit -orks.:16< M 0t -as follo-ed !y three more or less literal translations of the epic, none of -hich e7,alled 2aralaBs:;< in pop,larity. Ahe poet is identified as a s,dra, a peasant -hose !rother -as a ferryman, a stat,s that isJ in keepin" -ith the r,ral lan",a"e and earthy flavor of his -ork. /or instance, 2ivaBs -orship as the li,ga is e(plained -ith a story that he shocked his mother+in+la- !y addressin" her naked at the time of a ceremony, so that she c,rsed him to !e -orshiped in the ,ndi"nified form of a phall,s.:1&< M @ike-ise local to,ches are only to !e e(pectedFfor e(ample the enlar"ement of the story of the tri!al ?kalavya, -ho, in the ",ise of the 2a!ara Jara, kills >risna:;< and follo-s his ,n!,rned !ody to P,rl, -here it !ecomes @ord Ja"annatha.:1%< M @ike the 2anskrit "aha(harata# 2arala 8asaBs poem incl,des a version of the story of 3ama that is yet f,rther removed from Kalmiki. 6ere a"ain some details occ,r in other versions, s,ch as the e(planation of 2,rpanakhaBs:;< an"er -ith @aksmana:;< for havin" decapitated her son Japa -hile he -as meditatin" in an anthill.:19< 3ama is said to !e re!orn as >risna:;< , and @aksmana:;< C-ho is also an avatar of 2ivaD as Balarama:;< , linkin" vario,s strands of plot and reli"ion. 2ome elements are shared -ith the Ben"ali tradition, s,ch as the incl,sion of m,ltiple forms of 3avana:;< killed in different a"es. :#$< M 2arala 8asaBs e(panded acco,nts of the ascetic 3isyasrin"a:;< , of the ma"ic deer, and of the incident of a milkman -ho feeds the heroes in the forest are disc,ssed !elo- in connection -ith their ill,strations. Balarama:;< 8asa -orked some forty years after 2arala and is ,s,ally vie-ed as part of the *riya ento,ra"e of the "reat Ben"ali Kaisnava:;< reformer Chaitanya, -ho visited P,ri in 1G1$. 0n fact his len"thy version of the 3amayana:;< seems to have !een completed in 1G$9 and is not directly infl,enced !y Chaitanya.:#1< 6is s,pposedly frenHied reli"io,s devotion, alon" -ith tales of the entire "ro,p of *riya saints kno-n as !a,cha sa%has Cfive companions of ChaitanyaD, may !e a later fa!rication. 0n a colophon he is identified as the son of the minister of a r,ler and as a karana:;< Cscri!eD.:#1< M Ah,s he !elon"ed to -hat -as in fact 7,ite a hi"h+placed s,!caste in *rissa, altho,"h technically he -as a s,dra, part of the lo-est of the fo,r ma5or ranks of 6ind, society, a position emphasiHed !y follo-ers of Chaitanya in vie- of the ideal of h,m!le servit,de. 0n "eneral his !rand of Kaisnavism:;< , centered on Ja"annatha, is rooted in *rissa in the late fifteenth cent,ry. ' 1& ' Balarama:;< 8asa p,ts his story in the mo,th of fo,r different narrators, framin" the epic in a comple( -ay like the Ramcharitmanas .:##< 0ndeed he honors Kalmiki as the first narrator on earth, and his 1agamohana Ramayana[*] Calso kno-n as Dandi[*] Ramayana[*] , from the meterD incl,des most of the variants of the eastern recension of Kalmiki, s,ch as the story of ho- the demon >alanemi attempted to deter 6an,mana from visitin" )o,nt .andhamadana, detailed !elo- in Chapter 9. 6e also introd,ces elements fo,nd in the dhyatma Ramayana[*] altho,"h not pec,liar to it: the framin" dialo",e !et-een 2iva and Parvati and the creation of a )aya 2ita !efore the kidnap. 0ndeed, ill,sion appears often as a matri( for phenomena, as in the dhyatma Ramayana[*] .:#9< M Ahere are a"ain affinities -ith Ben"ali 3ama stories, as -ell as -ith so,th 0ndian vernac,lar versions.:#G< M 4t the same time, events are consistently localiHed in *rissaJ th,s 3amaBs ret,rn to 4yodhya !ecomes the Bah,da:;< Jatra, or ret,rn of @ord Ja"annathaBs cart procession in P,ri. 2ome events are "iven am,sin" h,man t-ists: on )o,nt )alyavan 3ama "ets a crane to s,pply him -ith food cooked !y 2ita, overcomin" the !irdBs rel,ctance to accept food from a mere -oman !y ass,rin" it that -ife and h,s!and are one.:#6< M 4t the same time, Balarama:;< 8asa m,st !e credited -ith some ori"inality. /or e(ample, the distinctively *riya story of the ori"in of m,shrooms in the ,m!rellas severed from 3avanaBs:;< chariot appears for the first time in -ritin" in the 1agamohana Ramayana[*] .:#&< M *n the

-hole this te(t -eaves a -ealth of novel detail aro,nd the frame-ork of Kalmiki. 0ts central place in the *rissan reli"io,s tradition is sho-n !y its !ein" read orally in toto, as A,lsi 8as is ,sed else-here in north 0ndia d,rin" the festival 8ashahra. Balarama:;< 8asa dealt -ith the story of 3ama in a n,m!er of other, shorter poems of the forms kno-n as chautisa Cthirty+fo,r co,plets !e"innin" -ith each letter of the alpha!et in se7,enceD and (arahmasa C-ith t-elve verses for the monthsD. Ahese seem partic,larly to dra- ,pon the 2,ndara >anda:;< and the "rief of the separated co,ple.:#%< Eo ill,strated copies of those -orks are kno-n. A-o ,np,!lished minor -orks are -orth mentionin" here !eca,se they have !een ill,strated at least once. Ahese are a Durga 2tuti and a Hanumana 2tuti ascri!ed to Balarama:;< 8asa, kno-n from an ill,strated man,script no- in 4hmeda!ad.:#9< 2,ch stutis form a lar"e class of pop,lar verses in praise of vario,s "ods and "oddesses. 2everal addressed to 8,r"a are attri!,ted to 6ina CinferiorD Balarama:;< J altho,"h they follo- the same meter as the 1agamohana Ramayana[*] # they are pro!a!ly not the -ork of the si(teenth+cent,ry poet. Ahe 4hmeda!ad ill,strated te(t descri!es the occasion -hen 3ama and @aksmana:;< -ere !o,nd !y 0ndra5itaBs snake+arro-. Ahe hero recites his previo,s story to 8,r"a, -ho advises him to pray to .ar,da:;< , -ho in t,rn comes and disperses the snakes. Ahe follo-in" part of the same -ork is devoted to 6an,mana.

a'er Ori*a Te4's

*riya literat,re since 1GG$ incl,des many versions of the 3amayana:;< . Ahere are, for e(ample, several short -orks called Ti%a[*] Ramayana[*] # each p,rportin" to !e a prLcis of Balarama:;< 8asa, in fact also addin" ne- stories.:9$< Ahe *ilan%a Ramayana[*] of 2iddhesvara 8asa is pro!a!ly a -ork of the seventeenth cent,ry, concernin" an interl,de !et-een the I,ddha and Uttara >andas:;< in -hich a tho,sand+headed ' 1% ' 3avana:;< -as killed -ith the intervention of 2ita in the !attle.:91< Ahe ei"hteenth+cent,ry ngada /adi[*] of Kipra @aksmidhar:;< 8asa foc,ses on 4n"adaBs em!assy to 3avana:;< .:91< M 2,ch short versions, like the ephemeral pamphlets s,mmariHin" the epic that are sold today, m,st have !een -idely kno-n. Iet it -as the comple( -ritin" of *rissaBs "reat poet, Upendra BhaO5a, that -as more fre7,ently ill,strated. Upendra -as a mem!er of the royal family of .h,msar in central *rissa, today on the -estern ed"e of .an5am 8istrict.:9#< 6is "randfather, the 3a5a 8hanan5aya:;< , had in the seventeenth cent,ry -ritten a e,ph,istic poem called Raghunatha *ilasa[*] # in -hich 3ama is identified -ith Ja"annatha.:99< M Upendra may have !een !orn aro,nd 16&$ and pres,ma!ly lived in the -orld of the co,rt, altho,"h his father r,led only !riefly.:9G< M 6e himself mentions his initiation into the 3ama Aaraka )antra, a spell invokin" the protection of 3ama, -hich accords -ith his fre7,ent ,se of the 3ama story in his poetry. 6is seventy poetic -orks, many of them lon", !elon" mainly to the early ei"hteenth cent,ry. Upendra BhaO5aBs -ritin" in "eneral can hardly !e descri!ed -ith ne,trality *ne to,chy iss,e is his fre7,ent ,se of erotic s,!5ect matter, -hich m,st have !een -idely accepta!le in *rissan society at some points, altho,"h it has at times !een condemned as o!scene. 4 second stickin" point is his ela!orate style, -hich carries that of his "randfather many sta"es f,rther. 6is -ord choice is arcane and 2anskritic, altho,"h the pro(imity of *riya to 2anskrit makes his diction less artificial than it mi"ht seem. 6e employs the "am,t of literary devices kno-n to co,rtly poetry, or %a'ya: slesa[*] Cp,nnin"D, yama%a CalliterationD, gomutra CHi"Ha" readin"D, and many more. 2,ch devices -o,ld seem to make for

s,ch o!sc,rity that one mi"ht e(pect his -ork to have !een kno-n only in very limited circles. Iet his verses have lon" !een ,sed in the storytellin" tradition called !ala# -here the ver!al in"en,ity, romance, and m,sic of his lines still captivate r,ral a,diences. 4s the "reat *riya freedom fi"hter .opa!andh, -rote in this cent,ry, *h Upendra, the Pandits recite yo,r lines at co,rts, .ay travellers on the road, Ahe peasants in the, fields and ladies in the harems, 4nd the co,rtesans too, -hile they dance.:96< Ahe *aidehisa *ilasa[*] or =2port of the 6,s!and of 2ita,= is a prime e(ample of UpendraBs poetic de(terity, ?ach line in the: -ork !e"ins -ith the letter *a. ?ach canto differs from the ne(t in the poetic device it employs, so that the effect is varied in so,nd as -ell as in s,!stance. *ne canto may consist of relatively strai"htfor-ard descriptive co,plets, -hile: the ne(t is lon" comple(ly rhymed verses !ased on do,!le entendres. Eor does the selection of s,!5ects inevita!ly emphasiHe the erotic, or sringara[*] mood. KalmikiBs first si( !ooks Cthe Uttara >anda:;< is omitted alto"ether !y UpendraD correspond to the follo-in" cantos of the *aidehisa *ilasa[*] : Bala >anda:;< : Chhandas 1+16 4yodhya >anda:;< : Chhanda 1& 4ranya:;< >anda:;< : Chhandas 1%+16 >iskindha:;< >anda:;< : Chhandas 1&+## ' 19 ' 2,ndara >anda:;< : Chhandas #9+#9 I,ddha >anda:;< : Chhandas 9$+G1 Ahe !rief treatment of the critical events of the 4yodhya >anda:;< sho-s a distinct preference for the lyrical over the dramatic. Ahe *aidehisa *ilasa[*] refers respectf,lly to its o-n predecessors: Kalmiki and Kyasa each -rote 3amaBs epic. 6an,mana, the -indBs son, -rote the play "ahanata%[*] . Bho5a -rote 3ham!u : >alidasaBs -as perfected. Balarama:;< 8asa -rote *riya. *n all 0Bve reflected, Bem,sed !y these master-orks, -ith "reat trepidation. Ahere are stars in the sky for ill,mination, Iet in the dark, fireflies also "lo-. Please therefore accept my h,m!le verses !elo-. C1.9D 0n fact Upendra departs from Kalmiki, follo-in" Balarama:;< 8asa in matters s,ch as the creation of )aya 2ita and "oin" f,rther than his *riya predecessors in the incl,sion of folk elements. 6e even alters the familiar str,ct,re !y presentin" 2itaBs !irth !efore 3amaBs. 4 second -ork !y the same poet -ill enter into o,r st,dy, altho,"h its main plot does not concern 3ama at all. Ahis is the &a'anya'ati[*] # a romantic tale concernin" the heroine for -hom it is named and the hero Chandra!han,.:9&< *ri"inally a heavenly co,ple, they are re!orn as a princess of 2imhala

and a prince of >arnataka, -ho falls in love -ith her portrait. Ahey meet in a dream, e(chan"e love letters, meet secretly at the temple of 3ameshvaram, and are married -ith their parentsB consent. When Chandra!han, departs to 7,ell a re!ellion, the co,ple live in romantic separation, !,t they are event,ally re,nited and ascend to the throne of >arnataka. 8,rin" preparations for the -eddin", @avanyavatiBs:;< father commissions a travelin" entertainer to perform the 3amayana:;< in order to aro,se her desire for Chandra!han,.:9%< 4s the translation of this portion in my 4ppendi( # sho-s, the events of the epic are s,mmariHed s,ccinctly in the te(t, "enerally follo-in" Upendra BhaO5aBs o-n *aidehisa *ilasa[*] . 4t the concl,sion, ho-ever, -e realiHe that @avanyavati:;< has identified 3ama -ith her o-n !eloved, and hence she pres,ma!ly thinks of herself as 2ita, the kidnap prefi",rin" her separation from Chandra!han,. Ahe adaptation of the 3amayana:;< in partic,lar to the needs of romance may have to do -ith UpendraBs o-n predilection for this divinity, apparent else-here in his -ork. 0n the &a'anya'ati[*] itself, 3ama is invoked at the very !e"innin". 0t is also appropriate, in vie- of the role of maya in versions of the 3amayana:;< pop,lar in *rissa, that the -hole tale sho,ld !e presented as an ill,sion -ithin a plot -here dream and ma"ic play a rec,rrent role. 4mon" other recent a,thors, Kisvanatha >h,ntia:;< is -orth mentionin", not !eca,se he -as directly ill,strated !,t !eca,se his version of the 3ama story -as second only to Balarama:;< 8asaBs in pop,larity. 6is name indicates that he !elon"ed to a !rahman family of temple servants in P,ri. >h,ntia:;< pro!a!ly -rote early in the ei"hteenth cent,ry, and he -as a-are of Upendra BhaO5aBs -orks !,t primarily follo-ed Kalmiki.:99< ' #$ ' Kisvanatha >h,ntiaBs:;< -ork: is titled *ichitra Ramayana[*] # 'ichitra meanin" =varied in melody,= for the -ork is !roken into sections to !e s,n" to different ragas. 0t is also called a 3amalila:;< , s,""estin" its ,se as a dance+drama, and indeed it is not only read as a te(t !,t also ,sed !y !oy dancers C.otip,as:;< D and is !eloved for its simple lyrical poetry Ahis version of the: story follo-s the so,thern recension of Kalmiki, rather than the eastern Cas did Balarama:;< 8asaBsD and is on the -hole closer to the 2anskrit plot than to 2arala 8asaBs "aha(harata or even Upendra BhaP5aBs *aidehisa *ilasa[*] . Kisvanatha >h,ntiaBs:;<*ichitra Ramayana[*] # perhaps !eca,se of its pop,larity, has played host to interpolations, -hich do not appear in older man,scripts of this te(t.:G$< Ahe episode of )ahiravana:;< is an interestin" one, act,ally attri!,ted in the printed te(t to Kikrama Earendra, a nineteenth+cent,ry a,thor of his o-n, separate, Ramalila[*] Ahis story, -idespread in 2anskrit and in 0ndian vernac,lars altho,"h not in most *riya te(ts, involves an additional demon invoked !y 3avana:;< after the death of his son 0ndra5ita. 6an,mana forms a fortress of his e(tended tail to protect the heroes !,t is tricked into lettin" )ahiravana:;< enter and a!d,ct them. )ahiravana:;< prepares to sacrifice them to a form of the .oddess, !,t 3ama asks the demon to demonstrate ho- to !o- !efore her, at -hich point the .oddess decapitates him. Ahe 2akta t-ist to the story, -hich is to !e e(pected in Ben"al, m,st also have appealed to elements in the pop,lace of *rissa.

!er(orman+es
Ahe val,e of the fact that vario,s oral traditions remain alive in *rissa is inestima!le for the art historian ,s,ally forced to -ork from -ritten te(ts alone. B,t 0 am also ac,tely a-are of the diffic,lty of conveyin" ephemeral, constantly varyin", and m,ltidimensional versions of stories. 6ence the impassioned !,t ,nsystematic nat,re of my acco,nt. 0 shall not pretend to do 5,stice to the rich

performin" arts of *rissa per se.

!o5-lar Ena+'men's6 Ramalila./0 7 Danda Ja'ra7 Sahi Ja'ra

3amalila:;< C=.este of 3ama=:G1< D is a -idespread type of pop,lar performance. Ahe "enre encompasses vario,s dramatic enactments of the story of 3ama !y nonprofessional actors, men playin" -omenBs roles, common thro,"ho,t north 0ndia, ran"in" in d,ration from ten to thirty+one ni"hts, concl,din" on the a,t,mn holiday 8ashahra. 0n eastern 0ndia, ho-ever, 8ashahra is f,ndamentally associated -ith some form of the. .oddess. 0n *rissa in partic,lar, 3amalila:;< is performed d,rin" the t-o -eeks follo-in" 3amaBs !irthday, 3amanavami, in )arch or 4pril,:G1< M a time that makes sense for an enactment that !e"ins -ith 3amaBs !irthday, on 3amanavami. Ahis timin" -ithin the a"ric,lt,ral cycle makes the performance a cele!ration of the sprin" harvest. 4nd it is pleasant at the !e"innin" of intense s,mmer heat for villa"ers to en5oy the cool ni"ht ho,rs -ith performances, "enerally from midni"ht till da-n, -hile actors and a,dience are free to sleep in the daytime. 4nother difference !et-een these 3amalilas:;< and those of north 0ndia, -hich are "enerally !ased ,pon the Ramcharitmanas of A,lsi 8as, is the ,se of many ' #1 ' different versions of the story in *rissa. 0 contend that the e(perience of vie-in" villa"e performances of 3amalila:;< , vivid from childhood memory and from ann,al repetition, at times had more impact ,pon artists than did normative -ritten te(ts. Iet the very diversity of *riya 3amalilas:;< ,r"es one to !e ca,tio,s in dra-in" a connection -ith partic,lar modern s,rvivals. 4t least -e can !e s,re that there -ere some performances in the areas and at the times in -hich most of the ill,strated *rissa 3amayanas:;< -ere made. )y o!servations are -ei"hted in favor of those places -here 0 act,ally -atched 3amalilas:;< in 19%# and 199$. 0n !oth years, 0 spent m,ch of the fortni"ht follo-in" 3amanavami in 8asapalla, a small to-n Cc. 1$,$$$ inha!itantsD in the forested interior of P,ri 8istrict, -hose 3amalila:;< is locally considered the !est dramatic spectacle. Ahe te(t recited here and commonly referred to as =the P,rana:;< = is a copy of the Ramalila[*] of Kikrama Earendra, a little+kno-n early nineteenth+cent,ry a,thor.:G#< @ocal tradition traces the performances !ack to the rei"n of the r,ler of 8asapalla state, >rishna Chandra 8eo Bhan5 C1%$G+9GD, -ho -as also kno-n for his pacification of the >honds and other tri!es in his kin"dom. Earayana 8eo Bhan5 C1%96+191#D sponsored partic,larly splendid performances and !,ilt C#$$ meters from his palaceD the )ahavir Aemple, -here today most of the drama takes place.:G9< M *ld people remem!er -ith nostal"ia the days of royal s,pport, -hen the 7,een loaned her o-n "old 5e-elry to the actors. 4fter 0ndian independence the Aemple ?ndo-ment Board took over s,pervision -ith remarka!le effectiveness. Ahere is -idespread enth,siasm, !oth amon" local administrators and elders Cs,ch as the school teacher Brinda!an )ohanty, -ho selflessly directs performances these daysD and amon" the actors. People tell of a former actor, -ho as an old man lost his voice !,t -ho insisted on playin" his role -hile others spoke the lines. 4 similar spirit is still alive amon" many local yo,ths today. Ahe rep,tation of 8asapalla is also d,e to its spectac,lar props, a 1G+foot crane that serves as P,spaka:;< Kimana and a #$+foot ima"e of 3avana:;< , !,rned on the final ni"ht C/i",re 91D. ?ach year old -ooden masks of c,nnin" desi"n are vividly repaintedF2,rpanakhaBs:;< -ith a remova!le nose. )ost have slits !eneath the painted eyes, ena!lin" the actor to see, -hile the eyes of the mask itself are more emphatic than they -o,ld !e if c,t o,t. ?lectric li"hts are ,sed lavishly today, !oth to decorate the to-n for the festival and, in"enio,sly, as part of the performance. /or e(ample the three lines dra-n !y @aksmana:;< on the "ro,nd in front of 2itaBs h,t consist of strin"s of tiny !,l!s that s,ddenly "lo-,

hi"hli"htin" the protective !o,ndary.:GG< M 4mon" other 3amalilas:;< , Bisipada, a smaller to-n Cc. #,$$$ inha!itantsD 1$ kilometers so,theast of Ph,l!ani, str,ck me as most traditional in 19%#, altho,"h in 199$ it had lost some of its vitality. 6ere a palm+leaf te(t is in ,se, composed !y Janardana 8asa at least a cent,ry and a half a"o.:G6< Bisipada -as never a royal center, and the performance there -as in the past, as it is today, or"aniHed !y the villa"e elders, lar"ely Bisois Csoldiers, of the khandayat casteD, -ho "ave their name to the to-n. Props s,rvive in older form than those of 8asapalla, incl,din" a fine appli7,L canopy that "oes !ack to the nineteenth cent,ry.:G&< M Ahe masks have not recently !een repainted. Ahe am!itio,s props of 8asapalla are a!sent here, !,t -ooden torsos encase the !odies of the actors -ho play the three ma5or demons, so that the heads rise to a hei"ht of nine feet. Ahe actin" style in 19%# -as strikin"ly traditional, -ith lon" passa"es in -hich the royal characters simply moved ' #1 '

/i",re 91. 8asapalla 3amalila:;< . 3avana:;< and P,spaka:;< Kimana. their feet !ack and forth in a styliHed step. 0n 199$ the Bisipada performance sho-ed more of the str,ttin" and e(a""erated "est,res associated -ith Jatra Cprofessional theaterD. 0n any case, it -o,ld !e -ron" to present any center as a,thoritative, for diversity m,st al-ays have e(isted. 8iverse actin" styles, reflectin" the alternatives of conservatism and innovation, may -ell have competed in the past. 3amalilas:;< flo,rish alon" the )ahanadi, as far as Ba,dh and reportedly 2am!alp,r. .ania follo-s a copy of Kikrama EarendraBs te(t, -hich -as adopted from 8asapalla, 1$ kilometers to the so,th-est. Iet details of sta"in" differ from those of 8asapalla: fe- masks are ,sed, and a cart -heel t,rned on its side serves as P,spaka:;< Kimana, -ith 3avana:;< and the kidnapped 2ita seated on top, its -hirlin" s,""estive of movement thro,"h the air. Eear!y Belpada follo-s the printed te(t of Kaisya 2adasiva, an ei"hteenth+cent,ry -ork -idely kno-n in other parts of *rissa and itself directly infl,ential for one of *rissaBs "reatest livin" painters.:G%< 6ere an ela!orate t-o+story sta"e is ,sed, 7,ite different from the simple canopied spaces that "enerally ho,se the core of action near a shrine, -ith some processional movement alon" the streets of other to-ns.:G9< M Ao the so,th, other theatrical "enres present the story of 3ama, incl,din" the 8esia Eata:;< of >horap,t 8istrict and the professional Jatra, -hich remains pop,lar thro,"ho,t *rissa. B,t to ret,rn to the more participatory and rit,ally !ased 3amalila:;< , -e have every reason to think that it flo,rished in .an5am 8istrict and those areas near P,ri -here most of the ima"es to !e considered -ere prod,ced. Ah,s near >h,rda a 3amalila:;< contin,es to occ,r at a sli"htly later rit,al date.:6$< )ani!andho, near >avis,ryana"ar, is reported to maintain a 3amalila:;< -ith masks ' ## ' today.:61< 0n Chikiti, far to the so,th, the r,ler >rishna Chandra 3a5endra C1&G$+%$D composed a 3amalila:;< of -hich one ill,strated palm+leaf man,script s,rvives.:61< M Ahere, lively performances -ith masks took place d,rin" the fortni"ht after 3amanavami ,ntil 19G6, -hen they ceased for lack of royal s,pport.:6#< M 4nd in 4mrap,ra, near the lar"e 3ama temple of *da"aon, the masks of a nodef,nct 3amalila:;< tradition are preserved, those of 6an,mana and 4O"ada still in -orship on the altar of a temple C/i",re 91D.:69< M Ah,s it is likely that palm+leaf ill,strators and painters in the nineteenth

cent,ry kne- performances !roadly analo"o,s to those of 8asapalla and Bisipada. 4mid this -elter of local forms, -hat "eneraliHations can -e make a!o,t plot str,ct,reN 0n 8asapalla alone, the n,m!er of daily performances has varied from ten to si(teen d,rin" the past fo,rteen years. :6G< )oreover, the e(act division of

/i",re 91. 4mrap,ra. 3amalila:;< masks and palm+leaf man,scripts in -orship in )ahavir Aemple. ' #9 ' events on partic,lar ni"hts may vary from year to year.:66< Ahe follo-in" sched,le of 8asapalla in 199$ provides one sample: 1. 8asarathaBs sacrifice, 3amaBs !irth 1. Protection of KisvamitraBs sacrifice CAadaki:;< killed, 4halya freedD #. Breakin" the !o9. 3amaBs marria"e and the meetin" -ith Paras,rama G. >illin" the rhino 6. 3amaBs e(ile Cand BharataBs visit:6&< D &. >illin" Kiray,dha Cand 3amaBs visit to P,ri and to vario,s sa"esD %. >idnap of 2ita:6%< M 9. 3amaBs "rief 1$.>illin" Kalin 11./irst attack on the fort and findin" of 2ita 11.2econd attack on the fort and death of >,m!hakarna:;< 1#.B,rnin" of @anka:;< and death of 3avana:;< 19.Coronation of 3ama ?ither the fo,rth or the fifth ni"ht has consistently !een devoted to killin" the rhino, an event that may come as a s,rprise in vie- of the 3ama story as a -hole. Ahe action, correspondin" to only three pa"es of Kikrama EarendraBs te(t, took over three ho,rs to perform in !oth 19%# and 199$. 8asaratha re7,ires meat to perform the sraddha sacrifice for his ancestors. Ahe fo,r !rothers lead the a,dience in procession to a market several kilometersB distance from the sta"e, accompanied !y the deep, p,lsatin" !eat of kettle dr,ms, a tri!al instr,ment as opposed to the o!lon" mridanga[*] that accompanies the normal chantin". 2a!aras dance and a 2a!ara kin" comes to help in the h,nt C/i",re 9#D, -hen ,ltimately 3ama shoots a rhino, sym!oliHed !y a "reen cocon,t. Ahe people of 8asapalla consider this event distinctive of their 3amalila:;< .:69< Ahis is the most "rat,ito,s case of emphasis ,pon tri!al elements in the performance, altho,"h tri!al references occ,r at other points as -ellFthe 2a!ara kin" C.,haD -ho helps the e(iles cross a river, and the 2a!ari -oman -ho offers 3ama a man"o that she has tasted to !e s,re it is ripe. 6istorically these themes may reflect >rishna Chandra 8eo Bhan5Bs effort to pacify the >honds in 8asapallaJ at the same time, their retention is made possi!le !y the "eneral visi!ility of these a!ori"inals livin" on the periphery of 6ind, c,lt,re in central and -estern *rissa. Ahe interpretation of partic,lar events often differs from to-n to to-n. /or e(ample, in Bisipada, 2ivaBs !o- is !ro,"ht in a pondero,s -ood chest, an occasion for e(tended acro!atics !y JanakaBs servants, preservin" the "ymnastic traditions of this soldier villa"e. 0n 8asapalla the !o- "lides 7,ickly onsta"e in the same sari+covered frame that had served as a !oat the ni"ht !efore, -hereas the entry of 2itaBs

s,itors is h,moro,sly prolon"edFincl,din" a mincin" Eap,msaka Ce,n,chD, a fo,l )leccha Cforei"ner -ith a !room as tailD, and several other s,itors Who arrive on motor!ike. Ahe overall se7,ence is similar in the t-o to-ns, e(cept that in Bisipada the first eleven events are e(tended over more time. Ah,s the ' #G '

/i",re 9#. 8asapalla 3amalila:;< . 2a!aras dancin". !,rnin" of @anka:;< !y 6an,mana occ,rs on the climactic pen,ltimate day, follo-ed !y all the events of the I,ddha >anda:;< , s7,eeHed into the last ni"ht. Ahis tr,ncated version of the story emphasiHes 6an,manaBs e(ploits in a -ay -e shall occasionally enco,nter in palm+leaf ill,strations. 4ll of the *riya 3amalilas:;< have a homey flavor !y comparison -ith the more -idely kno-n pa"eant of 3amna"ar, still s,pported !y the )ahara5a of Banaras.:&$< Ahis 7,ality follo-s in part from their scale: at the ma5or pil"rima"e center Banaras it is possi!le to assem!le a cro-d of G$$,$$$, -hereas at 8asapalla the a,dience comes from villa"es in the vicinity and is closer to G,$$$. Ahis in fact is as m,ch as the to-n spaces can accommodate, creatin" a sense of !,rstin" pop,lar interest, a -all of spectators -hose ea"er faces e(tend into the s,rro,ndin" darkness. Ahe relative intimacy of the r,ral settin" enhances a,dience participation in the enactment itself, -hereas the "reat cro-ds of 3amna"ar move as devotees of the divine characters. 0n *rissa the actors are familiar to-nsmen. Women of the villa"e 5oin in 3amaBs -eddin", ,l,latin" as they -o,ld at an act,al cele!ration. Ahe ni"ht of 2itaBs kidnap at 8asapalla ill,strates many compellin" dramatic effects. 2,rpanakha:;< appears first as a serio,sly sed,ctive -oman, played !y one of the most accomplished yo,n" actors, then as a comic masked demon, denosed, -ho !rin"s in a lively !and of other demons. 3avana:;< in royal form -itho,t a mask Cacted !y a ma"isterial mem!er of the old royal familyD approaches the sympathetic sa"e )aricha, and a small -ooden deer -ith t-o heads is p,lled onsta"e C/i",re 99D. 2,ddenly at # 4.). tho,sands of spectators troop ,p the road from the primary sta"e near the temple to an area specifically identified as )o,nt Chitrak,ta:;< , -here the actin" space is a narro- passa"e-ay in the middle of the seated a,dience. 4t one end sits 2ita, 5oined !y )aya 2ita in "hostly form !ehind a transl,cent ' #6 ' sari that forms the -all of the h,t, as 3ama departs into the ni"ht p,rs,in" the little -ooden deer.:&1< @aksmana:;< leaves and a mendicant appears, the ill,sionary form of 3avana:;< -ho dra"s a-ay )aya 2ita at 9:1G 4.). Eo- the a,dience a"ain moves a h,ndred meters to the crane, -here the royal form of 3avana:;< , )aya 2ita, and the chief sin"er revolve in the air, propelled !y fifteen yo,ths -ho -ei"ht the opposite end of the h,"e f,lcr,m. Jatay,:;< fi"hts in vain, and )aya 2ita drops her ornaments to a happy !and of monkeys, 5,st as da-n comes ,p !ehind the h,"e effi"y of 3avana:;< that had !een raised -ith "reat effort the previo,s evenin".:&1< M 0t is hard for the remainin" a,dience not to feel !oth a-e at the omino,sly -hirlin" crane and a sense of identification -ith the optimistic monkeys -ho chatter a-ay at its o-n level as another day !e"ins. 8anda:;< Jatra is cate"oriHed as a separate "enre, altho,"h in fact it mi"ht !e re"arded as a special form of 3amalila:;< , for it takes place at ni"ht at the same time of year, the fortni"ht after

3amanavami. 4s far as 1 kno-, the name is pec,liar to 4s,reshvar, a to-n a!o,t 1$ kilometers from >endrapara, 5,st north of the river )ahanadi.:&#<Danda[*] means =road,= referrin" to the main street of the to-n, -here the action ori"inates at the 3a"h,natha Aemple and proceeds to the Ja"annatha shrine at the opposite end. Ahe heroes are carried do-n the road on the sho,lders of devotees and "iven offerin"s alon" the -ay, -ith some analo"y to the "reat cart festival of *rissa as -ell as to the tradition of static ta!lea,(, or 4han%i[*] # fo,nd

/i",re 99. 8asapalla 3amalila:;< . )a"ic deer. ' #& '

/i",re 9G. P,ri. 2ahi Jatra. )ahiravana:;< . thro,"ho,t north 0ndia.:&9< Ahe Ramcharitmanas of A,lsi 8as is read in *riya translation !oth day and ni"ht thro,"ho,t the fortni"ht. Ahe 3a"h,natha Aemple and the entire o!servance -ere fo,nded !y 3ama >risna:;< 8asa, a local lando-ner, several cent,ries a"o. What makes the 4s,reshvar event distinctive is that to-nsmen desirin" some "oal may ,ndertake a vo-, or 'rata# at this time. Ao do this entails ass,min" the ' #% ' ",ise of a monkey, for 6an,mana is the epitome of devotion. Ahe !eliever rents a monkey cost,me from the temple, consistin" of a -ooden mask, leathered tail, and chain of !ells CPlate 1D. 6e eats only once a day, chants the name of 3ama, performs simian antics, and !e"s for alms d,rin" the period of the vo-, -hich may last for a -eek.:&G< 0n short, here yet more ordinary people participate in the 3amayana:;< story, Ahe role of the 'anaras Cforest animalsD is made vivid, -ith monkey+men appearin" in the !aHaar and r,nnin" aro,nd the to-n. 2ahi Jatra may represent another variant ,pon the *rissan 3amalila:;< . Ahis term, pec,liar to P,ri, desi"nates performances p,t on !y the sahis# or districts, of the to-n, -hich are not restricted to 3amanavami, altho,"h a ma5or cycle occ,rs in the fortni"ht follo-in" that day.:&6< Ahe episodes selected are not those of r,ral 3amalilas:;< . Ahey tend to-ard ta!lea,( foc,sed on a fe- characters. Ahe same episode may !e performed !y different streets of P,rl, -ith a sense of nei"h!orhood competition, altho,"h on some ni"hts the performance is left to one street or "ymnasi,m Ca%hada[*] D to or"aniHe. Ah,s in 19%#, the 2ahi Jatra for 3amanavami !e"an !et-een nine and ten P.). -ith a simple procession of the fo,r !rothers as !oys, to"ether -ith 3isyasrin"a:;< , -earin" t-o horns CPlate 1D. Ahe second ni"ht -as devoted to acro!atic performances !y vario,s demons. Ahe first t-o, most pop,lar, -ere called Eaka and >ana, =Eose= and =?ar,= possi!ly a reference to the t-o or"ans of 2,rpanakha:;< that @aksmana:;< -as to o,t off. While that action -as not performed, spectators kept 7,otin" a famo,s do,!le entendre from the *aidehisa *ilasa[*] of Upendra BhaO5a, cited !elo- in Chapter 9. *n the third ni"ht three 8,r"as, played !y partic,larly stron" men, incl,din" a mem!er of the painter

comm,nity, danced on different streets for several ho,rs, an ard,o,s ,ndertakin" in vie- of their heavy masks and cost,mes involvin" m,ltiple arms. Ahere -ere also floats that !ore impersonations of .anesa:;< Earasimha, "eneric -arriors CEa"asD, as -ell as some characters specific to the 3amayana:;< , s,ch as 3avana:;< . *n the fo,rth and si(th ni"hts no action occ,rred. *n the fifth, seventh, and ei"hth ni"hts the action revolved aro,nd vario,s 3avanas:;< , -hich some spectators called )ayaravana:;< and )ahiravana:;< . Ahese performers appeared late in the ni"ht, seemed almost to !e in trance, and -ent on dancin" into the dayli"ht, pa,sin" re",larly to rest from the -ei"ht of their heavy cost,mes C/i",re 9GD. 0n short, this form, as o,r term =street theater= s,""ests, is imprompt, and invites participation !y the people of P,ri. Earrative action is minimal, and references to the 3amayana:;< are haphaHard. Eonetheless the dramatic ima"e is memora!le, partic,larly of "reat m,ltiarmed characters dancin", drenched in s-eat, the a,dience itself in a hall,cinatory state.

Dan+e Tradi'ions
3amayana:;< themes appear thro,"ho,t the "am,t of *rissaBs dance traditions. Ahe .otip,a:;< !oy dancers, as already mentioned, ,se Kisvanatha >h,ntiaBs:;< *ichitra Ramayana[*] , !,t their repertoire centers more on >risna:;< . @ike-ise in the most classiciHed, or margi# dance form of the re"ion, *dissi:;< the 3amayana:;< is present in a minor -ay, it !ein" virt,ally impossi!le to distin",ish lon"+ standin" local variants in the story ,sed. Chha,, a more transitional form that incl,des folk or martial ' #9 ' elements and has !een classiciHed in some of the co,rts of northern *rissa and ad5oinin" areas, is performed partic,larly at the sprin" harvest festival of Chaitra P,rnima:;< , a -eek after 3amanavami. Iet here them is no partic,lar association of that day -ith 2itaBs a!d,ction, as in *riya 3amalilas:;< . Chha, themes ran"e -idely, incl,din" only a smatterin" of rather standard parts of the 3amayana:;< . /or e(ample in 2eraikela, an *riya speakin" center in Bihar, the t-o episodes that s,rvive are 3isyasrin"aBs:;< enco,nter -ith the co,rtesan Jarata and 2itaBs "rief in the asoka "rove, !oth episodes that lend themselves to the aesthetic refinement and sentiment that characteriHe 2eraikela Chha, in the t-entieth cent,ry.:&&<

S'or*'ellin&6 !ala7 Dasa,a'hia./0

2everal storytellin" traditions of *rissa incl,de many references to the 3amayana:;< , pop,lariHin" parts of the literary traditions already descri!ed, even if they cannot !e credited -ith partic,lar t-ists in the narrative. Ahis is especially tr,e of Pala, enacted !y "ro,ps of si( cost,med players, incl,din" m,sicians, a clo-n, and the chor,s, -ho also take on separate dramatic roles.:&%< Ahe leader Cgaya%a D not only directs the -hole !,t also improvises his o-n commentary, com!inin" learnin" and -it. 0n this form, the pop,larity of the most a!str,se *riya te(ts is perpet,ated. 0n the case of 8asakathia:;< , there are only t-o players, each of -hom holds t-o different -ooden clappers. 6ere, -hatever the theme of the performance, the fre7,ently inter5ected refrain r,ns, 3ama 5e, Jaya 3ama 5e, Ea!ina 2,ndara 3ama 5e. C6ail 3ama, Kictory to 3ama, oh, handsome yo,n" 3ama.D Ah,s in this "enre, 3ama provides a frame-ork often reserved for Ja"annatha in *rissa.

Shadow Thea'er6 Ra)ana./0 Chha*a

0n *rissan shado- theater, kno-n as 3avana:;< Chhaya C3avana:;< shado-D, the 3amayana:;< provides the central s,!5ect matter.:&9< 6ere the ten,o,s s,rvival of performance tradition makes it e(tremely diffic,lt to "eneraliHe !ack-ard in time. Ahe form has !een st,died only from one villa"e, *dasa, in 8henkanal 8istrict, north of the river )ahanadi in central *rissa. 4 second to-n in the same area is reported to have p,ppets. .iven the prevalence of shado- theater in 4ndhra to the so,th, the form may -ell have !een -idespread in *rissa in the past. 0t -as preserved in *dasa !y a sin"le practitioner, -ho -ith state s,pport recently ta,"ht it to a "ro,p of villa"e men, some of -hom serve as sin"ers and m,sicians -hile others mana"e the p,ppets. Performances appear to take place -hen specially commissioned for a,spicio,s occasions as a form of entertainmentJ today they last only a feho,rs, !,t a complete performance of the 3amayana:;< ,sed to take a f,ll ni"ht for each !ook, the -hole e(tendin" over an entire -eek. Ahe villa"e "athers on one side of an improvised cloth screen, an earthen lamp castin" li"ht on the other side, -here the p,ppeteers sit. While the p,ppets are ro,"h, c,t from deerskin ' 9$ '

/i",re 96. *dasa. 3avana:;< Chhaya shado- p,ppets of h,ntin" the ma"ic deer. and -itho,t color, the effect of their eerie forms on the screen is as ha,ntin" as more ela!orate shadop,ppets else-here in 4sia C/i",re 96D. Ahe story of 3avana:;< Chhaya is introd,ced !y t-o h,moro,s characters, apparently the kind of clo-ns that appear in a -ide ran"e of 2anskrit and vernac,lar theater in 0ndia. 4side from this frame, the story follo-s Kisvanatha >h,ntiaBs:;< pop,lar *ichitra Ramayana[*] incl,din" ori"inally even the Uttara >anda:;< , -hich is omitted in other performances disc,ssed here.:%$< 4"ain the form is one in -hich a literary te(t is vividly disseminated. 0t is diffic,lt to discern a partic,lar vis,al connection !et-een the p,ppets and the ima"es 0 disc,ss in s,!se7,ent chapters. 2ome motifs, s,ch as the t-o+ headed ill,sionary deer, are very -idespread. 4nd a shared preference for profile heads and frontal !odies prevails !oth in paintin"s and in the shado- p,ppets.

A Fes'i)al6 an,a./0 !odi./0

/inally the @anka:;< Podi:;< of 2onep,r in -estern *rissa is a festival distinctive of one place, -hich has its o-n le"endary topo"raphic connection -ith the 3amayana:;< . Beca,se 2onep,r lies on the so,thern !ank of the )ahanadi near a small island -here the local "oddess @ankesvari:;< is -orshiped, it has !een s,""ested that this to-n C-hose name literally means =.olden City=D is to !e identified -ith 3avanaBs:;< "olden citadel, @anka:;< .:%1< 4nother link in this chain is the festival that takes place on the ne- moon of Bhadra, ,s,ally in 4,",st, at the end of the rainy season -hen merchants are a"ain a!le to !e"in travel. Ahe holiday !e"ins in the mornin" -ith children p,llin" a variety of -ooden toys. *lder "irls do a simple !u4a C-orshipD that involves model cookin" vessels and dishes, in reference to their later ho,se-ifely d,ties. B,t m,ch of the to-ns ener"y is spent !,yin" clay ima"es from the potters, mo,ntin" these on -heels, decoratin" them -ith paint and leaves, and finally

' 91 '

/i",re 9&. 2onep,r. @anka:;< Podi. Children -ith ima"es at ni"ht. fittin" them, -ith a can of kerosene, on the !ack and -rappin" the raised tail -ith ra"s. By dark, every child is e7,ipped to set the ra"s on fire and p,ll the ima"e thro,"h the streets of the to-n, -hich flickers -ith flames, creatin" the ill,sion of 6an,mana dartin" a!o,t as he sets @anka:;< a!laHe C/i",re 9&D. Until recently the clay ima"es -ere taken to the 2omalai Aemple on the to-ns o,tskirts and !roken ' 91 '

/i",re 9%. 2onep,r. @anka:;< Podi. 6an,mana ima"e on rooftop after festival. at the end of the evenin", altho,"h some monkey fi",res also ended ,p mo,nted on rooftops, -here they served. as apotropaic ",ardians thro,"ho,t the year C/i",re 9%D. 0n that the traditional ima"es, made of the clay t,!es ,sed to man,fact,re roof+tiles, are not partic,larly simian, one may -onder -hether they reveal the ' 9# ' 2anskritiHation of some local c,lt. Wheeled horses are made in other to-ns in the area, and perhaps these have relatively recently !ecome identified -ith 6an,mana in 2onep,r. Whatever its ori"in, the festival "ives an immensely interestin" meanin" to the familiar tale. *n the one hand, the monkey hero is sin"led o,t as the "reat victor of the epic. *n the other hand, there is a tolerance for the co+e(istence of forces of "ood and evil, the to-n itself !ein" accepted as the home of the ra%sasas[*] , -ho are also p,r"ed ann,ally, their treatment compara!le in some -ays to the am!ivalent "lorification of 3avana:;< in so,th 0ndia.:%1< 0n short, @anka:;< Podi:;< in 2onep,r, com!inin" "aiety and dan"er, epitomiHes the rich, ill,sory -orld of the 3amayana:;< in *rissa. 0n their o-n -ay, !oth literary te(ts and performative "enres in this re"ion develop this ima"e of fl,(. With some sense of the variety of possi!le stories, let ,s no- t,rn to the pictorial disco,rse. ' 99 '

8 Two !i+'orial Tradi'ions

!alm- ea( 2oo,s Their 9an-(a+'-re and Use
*ne type of ill,stration in *rissa takes a form distinctive of this re"ion: the incised palm+leaf !ook, or !othi. Palm fronds -ere -idely ,sed for -ritin" in 0ndia from the earliest B,ddhist and Jain man,scripts, !ein" readily availa!le and fairly resistant to insects. 2ome of those man,scripts also contained paintin"s. B,t the partic,lar type of palm leaf ,sed in *rissa, the palmyra, had its o-n properties, -hich led to an incised form of -ritin"J this in t,rn -as com!ined -ith incised ill,stration. :1< Ahe man,fact,re of a !ook !e"an -ith selectin" palm leaves that -ere three or fo,r months old. Ahese -ere !,ried for a day in -et sand, !oiled !riefly in rice -ater and t,rmeric, and dried in the s,n. Ahen the pile -as trimmed to ,niform siHe, each frond -as pierced, and the fronds -ere str,n" on a cord !et-een t-o rectan",lar -ooden !oards of the same siHe that served as covers. Ahe -idth -as normally a!o,t 9 centimetersJ the len"th mi"ht vary from 6 to 9$. Ahe !ook -as ne(t -ritten !y means of a styl,s Cle%hani D, -hose pointed end !roke thro,"h the fi!ers of the frond to leave a channel that appeared as a li"ht shado-. Ah,s ,se of the styl,s re7,ired de(terity and attention to the res,lts, -hich -ere only partly visi!le. When one or more pa"es -ere completed, they -ere inked -ith a sol,tion of po-dered leaves or of soot mi(ed in -ater, ca,sin" the lines to emer"e clearly. Us,ally if the -ork -as to !e ill,strated, the te(t -as -ritten first and space left for the pict,res, -hich -ere completed s,!se7,ently alon" -ith their internal captions. Ahese linear pict,res mi"ht also !e later painted.:1< Ahis kind of man,script -as, and still. is, perfectly f,nctional as a !ook to !e read, altho,"h the form of the letters may !e some-hat less familiar than printed *riya today. Ahe reader !e"ins -ith the front of the first folio, proceeds to its reverse and then the second, p,shin" the leaves alon" the slack in the cord on -hich they are str,n". *ne can still see a !rahman performin" a ceremony -ith palm+leaf !ook in hand, flippin" thro,"h the leaves to remind himself of the verses he recites C/i",re 99D. 0t appears that the act,al ,se of man,scripts as !ooks ' 9G ' read !oth rit,ally and Cin the case of romancesD for pleas,re in *rissa -as fairly -idespread d,rin" the nineteenth cent,ry and the early t-entieth.:#< )oreover, palm+leaf man,scripts -ere commonly kept in temples and in homes in the room for !u4a and -ere smeared -ith sandal paste in respect for the !ook itself as an o!5ect of talismanic reverence C/i",re 91 sho-s a pile of !ooks on the altar of a small templeD.:9< M Ahe s,rvival of several *rissan man,scripts in collections assem!led !y Jain monks in .,5arat, -here a very different script and lan",a"e -ere in ,se, demonstrates that traditional reverence for the !ook did not re7,ire the act,al a!ility to read the te(t. 2,ch circ,mstances of ,se and -orship may have !een physically hard on the man,script. )oreover, palmyra itself is less d,ra!le than other types of palm ,sed else-here in 0ndiaJ it is s,scepti!le to depredation !y the -hite ant, the res,lts of -hich are visi!le in many of the !ooks that s,rvive even from the late nineteenth cent,ry.:G< Ahere is a -idespread practice in *rissa that after a h,ndred years, a man,script is recopied and the ori"inal deposited in a river in a kind of sacred f,neral. Ahis -as not mandatory, and a finely ill,strated -ork mi"ht !e caref,lly preserved and spared this ceremonial fate.

Eonetheless, the "eneral fra"ility of palm+leaf man,scripts in *rissa leads me to some initial skepticism a!o,t assertions that a partic,lar -ork is many cent,ries old. Ahe strin"in" of the !ook, as opposed to the Western and 0slamic tradition of !indin", presents partic,lar pro!lems for the modern scholar. Pres,ma!ly early ,sers retained the ori"inal strin" and simply kept the folios m se7,ence. Aoday -hen these !ooks are disassem!ledFfor sale to collectors, for photo"raphy, or simply for preservation in a m,se,mFthe pa"es often "et o,t of se7,ence. When the ori"inal pa"ination is marked, it is not diffic,lt to reesta!lish it, !,t sometimes the pa"es are not n,m!ered. Ao 5,d"e from the mention of patrons in partic,lar man,scripts, many of these -ere commissioned !y the elite of *rissaFr,lers, officials, and -ealthy merchants. Ahe price -as not necessarily very hi"h, ho-ever, to 5,d"e from the fe- s,ms recorded.:6< Perhaps a typical sit,ation -as that of 3a"h,nath Pr,sti, a poor artist of trader !ack"ro,nd, -ho prod,ced his chef dBoe,vre for a -ealthy merchant family -hile sittin" on the verandah of their villa"e ho,se, receivin" his food in e(chan"e for the t-o or three pa"es he completed each day. 0n s,ch a case the artist may seem to !e financially dependent ,pon his patron, !,t it is -orth notin" that Pr,sti kept one -ork he had ill,strated in his o-n possession. )an,scripts, like most possessions, mi"ht also chan"e handsFsome !ein" "iven as part of a da,"hterBs do-ry, some sold, and some simply !orro-ed and not ret,rned.:&< M

The S+ri:es and Ill-s'ra'ors

4mon" the ill,strated !ooks that have colophons, all !,t one "ive the name of a sin"le person as the prod,cer of the man,script. Us,ally the man,script is descri!ed as li%hitam# or =-ritten,= !,t since the tool named from the same root, le%hani# -as ,sed to prod,ce the pict,res as -ell, no distinction !et-een scri!e and ill,strator is implied. 0n one e(ample, the a,thor of a commentary on the 0ita 0o'inda is said to have made a man,script =provided -ith ima"es.=:%< 4nd in a ' 96 ' second, the scri!e notes that the !ook -as -ritten in fo,r months, and an ,n,s,al addend,m, made -ith a !r,sh, records that the pict,res took another t-o months.:9< Ahe sole doc,mented e(ception to this pattern is a man,script of the .haga'ata /urana[*] , -hose colophon says this: =Ahe ill,strations of !ooks ei"ht and nine are my -ork CBra5anatha Bada5ena:;< DJ the hand-ritin" is that of my son, .hyanasyama.=:1$< M 6ere -e also have an ,n,s,al case of the hereditary practice of the craft of -ritin", perhaps !eca,se this -ork -as made in the last years of Bra5anathaBs life, -hen he -as ,na!le to prod,ce s,ch e(traordinarily small letters as co,ld his son. 0t is -orth stressin" that scri!e and ill,strator are normally one in *rissa precisely !eca,se: this is not the pattern else-here in 0ndia. Who -ere these ill,strators, thenN Ahe karana:;< caste, e7,ivalent to the kayasths:;< else-here Ca hi"h s,dra "ro,p that in fact competed -ith the !rahmans in some kinds of stat,sD, -ere !y tradition scri!es. Ahey may have copied the ma5ority of ,nill,strated man,scripts. Ahey also e(ercised their scri!al f,nctions on paper, -here they developed the distinctive %arani[*] script, a c,rsive form. 4mon" important karana:;< palm+leaf ill,strators -ere the poet Bra5anatha Bada5ena:;< , 5,st mentioned, and the prolific 2arathi )adala Patnaik, -ho is disc,ssed !elo-.:11< B,t karanas:;< had no monopoly on the: ill,strated !ook. We kno- of several !rahman artists: 8hanan5aya:;< , -ho prod,ced the 0ita 0o'inda# -ith commentary and pict,resJ Bala!hadra Pathy, fo,r of -hose -orks are kno-nJ and )ichha Pata5oshi, -ho specialiHed in ill,strated versions of the *aidehisa *ilasa[*] . Ahere is also a nota!le case of an ill,strator from the merchant caste, 3a"h,nath Pr,sti, son of an oil+man, -hose &a'anya'ati[*] fi",res here:.

0n short, the makin" of palm+leaf !ooks, partic,larly those -ith pict,res, seems to have !een taken ,p !y a variety of literate individ,als -ho (ecame craftsmen. )any may have !een professionals in the sense that they s,pported themselves !y this craft. Iet this -as only one of the skills of the poet Bra5anatha Bada5ena:;< . Pro!a!ly !rahmans retained their rit,al f,nctions and income as -ell. Ah,s palm+leaf !ook ill,stration -as not normally an inherited profession, passed do-n !y intensive trainin" in the family or s,!caste -orkshop, a sit,ation e(ceptional amon" !ook ill,strators or artisans of other kinds thro,"ho,t 0ndia. *ne res,lt is the "reat diversity of ima"es in this medi,m, even at a sin"le moment and -ithin a limited area. @ack of professional trainin" led to a variety of standards for -ork, some of -hich -e may feel is of indifferent 7,ality Iet it -as possi!le for artists of real inspiration, s,ch as 3a"h,nath Pr,sti, to t,rn to the prod,ction of ill,strated !ooks, a!andonin" their e(pected professions. Ahe contrast !et-een this sit,ation and the more ,niform, hereditary, profession of paintin" on cloth is central to the present st,dy 0n the case of palm+leaf man,scripts, -e m,st note that the man,fact,re of this form is virt,ally dead today in its traditional ",ise, havin" !een replaced !y the printed !ook d,rin" this cent,ry. *ccasionally r,ral astrolo"ers contin,e to ,se palm leaves, the medi,m addin" to the validity of the horoscope. Pict,res on 5oined palm leaves are also !ein" made !y the professional painters, or chitra%aras , -ho have in the past ten years added s,ch -orks to the repertoire of o!5ects they prod,ce for sale to to,rists and pil"rims. Ahey ,s,ally sho- a sin"le scene, follo-+ ' 9& ' in" the format of their o-n !ata[*] tradition. Writin" is minimal today, for they no lon"er have an *riya a,dience in mind.

;eneral His'or* and S'*le o( !alm- ea( Ill-s'ra'ion

Ao create a !road chronolo"ical frame-ork, it may !e helpf,l to sketch -hat is kno-n a!o,t the "eneral history of this "enre on the !asis of -orks not ill,strated here, !efore foc,sin" ,pon man,scripts of the story of 3ama, "ro,ped !y the te(t they ill,strate. Possi!ly the oldest of all *rissan ill,strated !ooks is a 0ita 0o'inda# -ith a commentary, kno-n as 2ar'anga[*] 2undari , composed, -ritten do-n, and ill,strated !y the !rahman 8hanan5aya:;< . Ahe date in its colophon can !e interpreted as either 16%9 or 1916.:11< 0f the earlier date is correct, the man,script is in remarka!ly pristine condition. 0f the date is 1916, -e m,st accept the fact that rich, refined, and very conservative -ork -as !ein" done 7,ite recently. /aces are lar"ely !,t not al-ays in profile here, and the facial type has a distinctive s7,areness, -ith a p,pil that fills the center of the elon"ated eye. 4 second 7,estiona!le candidate for one of *rissaBs first ill,strated man,scripts to s,rvive is also a 0ita 0o'inda5 it has !een ascri!ed to 4.8. 1&1&.:1#< 6ere the date in the colophon has clearly !een altered from 2aka 161% C4.8. 1&$6D to 2aka 16#9, perhaps to correspond to the rei"n of the >h,rda r,ler 6arikrisna:;< 8eva, -ho is also mentioned in the colophon.:19< M Ah,s -e are left -ith an ,ndated !,t possi!ly early man,script. /aces are consistently vie-ed in profile here, -ith a very lar"e eye in -hich the p,pil floats in isolation from the lids. Ahe thick, skirt+like sari and the coverin" of !oth !ack"ro,nd and fi",res -ith pi"ment makes the pict,res seem more like some paintin"s on -ood from Ben"al and *rissa than like m,ch *rissan -ork on palm leaf.:1G< M 8ra-in" and composition are "enerally simple. 2ome mannerisms, s,ch as the -ay the scarf and the end of the sari fly horiHontally make this an ,n,s,al -ork, -henever it -as made. Ahe first -ork -hose date 0 can accept -ith confidence is a copy of !ooks % and 9 of the .haga'ata /urana[*] , -hich -as ill,strated !y the karana:;< poet Bra5anatha Bada5ena:;< and -ritten !y his son,

as descri!ed a!ove. Ahe colophon of this man,script mentions -hat is pro!a!ly the third re"nal year Ci.e., the second act,al yearD of the kin" 8ivyasimha 8eva of >h,rda, -ho r,led from 4.8. 1&9# to 1&9%.:16< Ahis corresponds to 1&9G, -hen it is possi!le to reconcile the remainin" information -e have a!o,t this -ork. Ahe ill,strations, !roadly similar to those of 8hanan5ayaBs:;<0ita 0o'inda# are simpler in composition, -ith fe-er rich desi"ns, aside from the refined patterns of .hyanasyamaBs -ritin". Ahe fi",res are sli"htly cl,msy. Eo faces are vie-ed frontallyJ the p,pil floats in the center of the eye, -hose corners are consistently darkened. 4fter this -ork of 1&9G, the ma5or landmarks all fi",re in the detailed disc,ssion of 3amayana:;< te(ts !elo-. 0n !rief, the Baripada *aidehisa *ilasa[*] of the =in"enio,s karana:;< 2atr,"hna= is dated to 1%##. /rom the 1%&$s on -e have a n,m!er of -orks !y 2arathi )adala Patnaik Cincl,din" several dhyatma Ramayanas[*] D, !y 3a"h,nath Pr,sti Cincl,din" a &a'anya'ati[*] D, and !y )ichha Pata5oshi C-ho specialiHed in the *aidehisa *ilasa[*] D. Ahese last three demonstrate that "reat diversity of style co,ld !e fo,nd amon" contemporary artists livin" no more than fifty miles ' 9% ' from each other. 2,rely this is ,nderstanda!le if -e consider ho- individ,als -ith different family !ack"ro,nds, -ho had not !een trained in this craft, m,st have -orked enth,siastically and -ith an independence ,n,s,al in the 0ndian artisanal tradition. Ao ret,rn to o,r chronolo"ical frame-ork, are -e entirely at sea if a man,script is ,ndated or does not resem!le a dated man,script closely eno,"h to !e !y the same handN 0 -o,ld ans-er yes, at least in terms of the style of ill,strations. 0t is a mistake to attri!,te to the same date in *rissa the traditional compositions, preference for profiles, and other devices that had !een a!andoned in 3a5asthani paintin" in the seventeenth cent,ry. 4 second !asis often invoked for chronolo"y is the -ritin" style. 0n fact there is considera!le difference of opinion here amon" *riya p,ndits, and precise ",idelines have never !een form,lated. *ne criterion in their disc,ssions that may !e of some ,se is the form of the letter: Ca%sara[*] D a# -hich develops from an archaic

to , the form familiar today.:1&< Ahe =modern= form "oes !ack to at least 1&9G, -hen the t-o types coe(ist in Bra5anatha Bada5enaBs:;<.haga'ata /urana[*] .:1%< M Ahe archaic form alone occ,rs in 8hanan5ayaBs:;<0ita 0o'inda# 5,st disc,ssed.:19< M 0t also contin,ed in occasional ,se as late as the early t-entieth cent,ry, for e(ample in the -orks of )ichha Pata5oshi, -ho tended to ,se it in the te(t Cin -hich he may have !een copyin" an older man,scriptD, -hereas he ,sed the modern form in his o-n captions for the ill,strations. Ah,s the form of the letter a seems to chan"e d,rin" the nineteenth cent,ry, altho,"h neither the old nor the ne- version provides an infalli!le ",ide to date. What can -e say a!o,t the chronolo"ical position of an interestin" man,script that lacks a colophon, the maru 2ata%a from the state of )ay,r!han5 in northern *rissa, no- in the *rissa 2tate ),se,mN 0t -as ori"inally ascri!ed to the late si(teenth or earlD, seventeenth cent,ry on the !asis of =the characters of the script and the style of the paintin"s.=:1$< 0 find so early a position inherently impro!a!le in the a!sence of any other ill,strated -orks sec,rely dated from that period. 0ts style indeed differs from that of all other ima"es disc,ssed so farF-ith e(tremely mannered. definition of the !ody Cfor e(ample the

ho,r"lass male fi",reD and varied te(tiles that often !illo- prominently aro,nd the heads of -omen. Ahe *rissan convention of lo!ed hills does not appear, !,t rather a vertical form, c,rvin" at the top, similar to that in reliefs from the thirteenth+cent,ry 2,n Aemple of >onarak. Eor does it share distinctive feat,res -ith another north *rissan man,script, the 1%#1 Baripada *aidehisa *ilasa[*] . Ahe -ritin" of the maru 2ata%a incl,des only the archaic form of the letter a . Aakin" all these characteristicsJ to"ether, 0 -o,ld ar",e that this -ork !elon"s to the late ei"hteenth or early nineteenth cent,ry, pro!a!ly !,t not inevita!ly precedin" 1%#1. With this note of ca,tion, let ,s t,rn to the man,scripts in 7,estion for the present st,dy. Aheir dates are kno-n precisely in some cases, !,t others remain hypothetical.

Adh*a'ma Rama*ana./0 1
Beca,se of its pop,larity in *riya translation, it is no s,rprise to find that the dhyatma Ramayana[*] -as also fre7,ently ill,strated. What is remarka!le is that ill,strated versions of this te(t seem to have !een a favorite of one partic,lar artist late in the nineteenth cent,ry, /o,r of o,r seven e(amples -ere prod,ced !y the scri!e 2arathi )adala Patnaik, a karana:;< !y caste, -ho ' 99 ' -orked lar"ely in Chasa @imikhandi villa"e in the small state of Badakhem,ndi in so,thern *rissa.:11< Ahis prolific artist -as !y no means limited to the dhyatma Ramayana[*] as a s,!5ect, !,t he repeated it more fre7,ently than any other te(t. 6is man,scripts "enerally !ear colophons -ith detailed information a!o,t -hen and -here they -ere completed, sho-in" that he -orked !et-een at least 4.8. 1%&G and 19$%, often invokin" 3ama and 2ita to !less his -ork, -hether or not they fi",re in the te(t. Ahe dhyatma Ramayana[*] no- preserved in Bh,!anes-ar C/i",res G$+GGD provides 2arathi )adalaBs earliest date, 1%&G: Completed at the temple of 2ri 3a"h,natha )ahapra!h, in 2her"arh tal,ka, 8in"apadar )atha:;< , in the 19th an%a[*] of 8ivyasimha )ahara5a, sana 11%9 fasli# sam'atsara 1%&G, the month )ay, date )esa:;< 1%, 9th day !ri"ht half of Baisakha, 2,nday, &th ho,rJ the scri!e is the karana:;< 2arathi )adala:;< , inha!itant of @imikhandi villa"e, .adam,tha tal,ka, Badakhem,ndi:;< .:11< Ahe Ee- Iork P,!lic @i!rary dhyatma Ramayana[*] C/i",res G6+6&D is dated, !y e7,ally comple( and contradictory references, to -hat seems to !e Jan,ary #$, 1%91.:1#< 4 third copy in the collection of C. @. Bharany, Ee- 8elhi C/i",res 6%+&1D, is dated 8ecem!er 1, 1%91.:19< M 4nd finally the dhyatma Ramayana[*] in the Utkal University @i!rary C/i",res &1+&9D, is pro!a!ly dated 19$1.:1G< M Ah,s -e have fo,r e(amples of his ill,stration of the same te(t, one an early -ork, t-o mid+career, and one late, each differin" in the precise narrative choices that the artist made. Ahe f,ndamentals of 2arathi )adalaBs style, ho-ever, are constant thro,"ho,t these man,scripts and his other -orks, s,ch as the Durga and Hanumana 2tuti no- in the @.8. 0nstit,te of 0ndolo"y, 4hmeda!ad, disc,ssed !elo-. 6is ro,"hly dra-n fi",res, 5erky in their movements, are easily reco"niHed. Coarse patterns define te(tiles and occasionally !ack"ro,nd areas, altho,"h in "eneral settin" is minimal. 4 distinctive to,ch is a series of tassels across the top of many leaves Ce.". /i",res G$, G1, G#, G&, 61, &1+&9, %9+%6D. Pi"ment is added in small areas, "enerally !lack or red, in his later -orks to define the p,pil of the eye. We shall ret,rn to the storytellin" concerns and the inventive compositions of this artistFhis depiction of some poi"nant episodes is remarka!leF!,t at the same time it is hard to avoid a ne"ative impression of his individ,al ima"es, -here verve and sheer ener"y displace care or sense of p,rpose.

Ahree more e(amples of the same te(t, all no- in Ee- 8elhi, lack colophons !,t seem to !e the -ork of ,nkno-n artists also late in the nineteenth cent,ry Eone is hi"hly accomplished, yet none sho-s the determined cl,msiness of 2arathi )adala. /or e(ample his ill,sory deer C/i",res G1, 6$, 6%D has st,mpy necks and kno!!ed feet, -hereas the other versions create more conventional and convincin" depictions of the "racef,l ,n",late C/i",re &6D. Eone incl,des 2arathi )adalaBs form,laic tassels at the top of the folio, nor does any employ pi"ment. Ahe Eational ),se,mBs man,script &G.G#6 C/i",res &G+ &&D has slender fi",res -ith pinched faces, their eyes occasionally slantin" ,p-ard for no apparent reason.:16< 4n ,np,!lished -ork in the collection of C. @. Bharany C/i",res &%, &9D has sli"htly more s7,at fi",res, like 2arathi )adalaBs.:1&< M Both man,scripts incl,de the same portion of the complete te(t that 2arathi )adala ill,strated, !,t their narrative choices differ considera!ly from his and from each other Csee 4ppendi( ' G$ ' 1D, s,""estin" that none of these -orks has served as a model for others. We see a plethora of independent versions of this pop,lar te(t. 4 fra"mentary -ork in a private collection in Ee- 8elhi is of interest !eca,se it comprises the Uttara >anda:;< , -hich is omitted from all other ill,strated versions of the dhyatma Ramayana[*] Cand indeed is rarely ill,strated in any circ,mstancesD.:1%< Ahe five pict,res that: s,rvive are e(tremely simple, sho-in" little artic,lation -ithin the conto,rs of the !ody C/i",res %$, %1D. Ae(tiles are very fiat, sometimes formin" an a!stract frame aro,nd a fi",re.

D-r&a and Han-mana S'-'i1

Ahe !ook com!inin" these t-o te(ts, no- in the @.8. 0nstit,te in 4hmeda!ad, is the -ork of 2arathi )adala Patnaik, the same prolific artist -ho created the first fo,r copies of the dhyatma Ramayana[*] 5,st disc,ssed C/i",res %1+%6D.:19< 0ts colophon reads, Ahis !ook -as completed in Eovem!er, 1%99, in the 11th an%a[*] of Kira 2ri >ripamayadeva:;< , on the fifth day of the !ri"ht half of the month of >arttika, on the fo,rth day of the -eek CWednesdayD. Ahis !ook is -ritten !y 2arathi )adala:;< Pattanayaka:;< , karana:;< !y caste, of the villa"e Casa @imikhanda:;< of the tal,ka .adam,tha of Badakhem,ndi:;< . . .. Ahis !ook !elon"s to 2atyavadi Ban,a:;< of )arahatiya villa"e, )eriyali district, 2anakhemindi of Pratap"iri. Ah,s -e have a -ork "lade t-o years !efore the Utkal University man,script ill,strated in /i",res &# and &9. 2arathi )adalaBs slapdash style is e(actly that seen else-here. *ccasional compositions in this 7,ite different te(t resem!le those in the dhyatma Ramayana[*] , altho,"h a"ain the treatment of the same incident varies. Ahis variation s,""ests 2arathi )adalaBs dependence ,pon the ",idance of instr,ct and memory rather than ,pon another man,script as a model.

Ramalila./0 1
0 have fo,nd only one copy of a Ramalila[*] -ith pict,res, !,t it serves to demonstrate the most pop,lar end of the spectr,m of *riya te(ts that mi"ht !e ill,strated. Parado(ically, its ill,strations "enerally resem!le those of the 2anskrit dhyatma Ramayana[*] more than those of the *riya te(ts disc,ssed !elo-, s,""estin" that pop,lar c,lt,re cannot !e e7,ated -ith the ,se of vernac,lar lan",a"e as opposed to 2anskrit. Ahis version of >rishna Chandra 3a5endraBs te(t, no- in the Eational ),se,m, Ee- 8elhi, -as

copio,sly ill,strated -ith a pict,re on !oth sides of almost every folio C/i",res %&, %%D:#$< 0ndivid,al scenes are simple and the fi",res sketchy, altho,"h dra-n -ith more re",larity than those of 2arathi )adala. Ahe faces sho- a distinctive small, ro,nded eye, its o,ter corner often prolon"ed in a strai"ht line. 4 occ,rs in the modern printed form. /or lack of any doc,mentation for the date, 0 -o,ld ",ess that this man,script -as made late in the nineteenth cent,ry.

Vaidehisa Vilasa./0 1
4 pop,lar -ork !y *rissaBs premier poet, Upendra BhaO5a, the *aidehisa *ilasa[*] !ecomes almost ,nmana"ea!ly lon" -hen ill,strated. )oreover, its literary character depends ,pon -ordplay that is not readily transformed into pict,res. Ah,s it is remarka!le that at least five prof,sely ill,strated man,scripts of the *aidehisa *ilasa[*] are kno-n. Ahese five are the prod,ct of t-o 7,ite ' G1 ' different artists -ho favored this te(t as 2arathi )adala favored the dhyatma Ramayana[*] , indicatin" that the artistBs o-n penchant played some role in the choice of s,!5ect matter Ahe first *aidehisa *ilasa[*] CPlates #+%, /i",res %9+9%D is a hi"hly ,n,s,al -ork from Baripada in northern *rissa, a re"ion less prod,ctive of ill,strated palm+leaf man,scripts than -as the so,th.:#1< Pale -ashes of a -ide ran"e of pi"ments appear thro,"ho,t this -ork, at times resem!lin" -atercolor, altho,"h there are also opa7,e !lack areas Ahe dra-in" employs an e(ceptionally sketchy, discontin,o,s line, different in character from the ro,"h -orks of 2arathi )adala Patnaik, or even from the -ritin" in the Baripada *aidehisa *ilasa[*] itself. Ahe most ,n,s,al element of this -ork is its format: many pa"es -ere 5oined at the ed"es !y tiny pieces of strin", so that the -hole -as folded accordion+fashion rather than in the normal s,ccession of separate leaves that co,ld !e read in se7,ence, front and !ack. Ah,s some ill,strations co,ld e(tend over three or fo,r folios, altho,"h the te(t proceeds in normal fashion from front to !ack of the same folio. 0n short, it m,st have !een diffic,lt to read the poem and to follo- the ill,strations sim,ltaneo,sly. 4 fe- other old e(amples of 5oined leaves e(ist, !,t all are relatively short, a!o,t ten leavesJ these make no pretense of presentin" so am!itio,s a literary te(t and commonly !ear one short e(cerpt from the 0ita 0o'inda. Aoday this format remains in ,se !y the professional chitra%aras for pict,res on palm leaves that lack any te(t -hatsoever. Ahe Baripada *aidehisa *ilasa[*] is also e(ceptional in the internal str,ct,re of its compositions. While "enerally the scene e(tends horiHontally over the len"th of the folio, some scenes are dra-n vertically on the folios CPlate 6, /i",re 9%D. )oreover, the te(t is not neatly demarcated in rectan",lar panels !,t appears in irre",lar !alloons -ith c,rvin" ed"es. Ahe res,lt is a more inter-oven and pictorially comple( effect, ,nlike the neat -indo-s openin" o,t from a plane clearly defined !y -ritin" that predominate in other man,scripts.:#1< 0 am not a!le to e(plain these remarka!le characteristics !y any sin"le vis,al precedent in northern *rissa. Possi!ly 5oined pa"es had !een in ,se previo,sly. Ahe occasional side vie- of sin"le o!5ects one enco,nters else-here in palm+leaf man,scripts C/i",re 1#9D, an e(pedient for sho-in" tall o!5ects on the narro- folio, may lie !ehind the comple(ity of orientation in this -ork. 2ome partic,lar motifs are s7,arely -ithin the *rissan traditionFfor instance hills composed of overlappin" lo!es Ccf. Plate 6, /i",re 1$9D. Eonetheless 0 am rel,ctantly str,ck !y an impression of forei"nness as -ell as novelty here. Ahe sketchily o,tlined clo,ds of te(t in partic,lar are va",ely reminiscent of William Blake. 0s it possi!le that a copy of one of his ill,strated !ooks made its -ay to 0ndia early in the nineteenth cent,ryN Ahe presence of ?n"lish soldiers in the Baripada *aidehisa *ilasa[*] itself,:##< and the

pro(imity of ?n"lish settlements in Balasore and Ben"al, make it conceiva!le that s,ch o,tside models mi"ht have appeared. B,t s,!se7,ent disc,ssion of this man,script -ill sho- that it is also firmly rooted in *rissan traditions, vis,al and narrative, and is !y no means an attempt to replicate a ?,ropean model. Ahe date of this interestin" -ork is fort,nately esta!lished on its first pa"e in neatly rhymed verse: =>no- that in sam'at 11#9 :4.8. 1%#1 #<, in the nineteenth an%a[*] of >in" 3amacandra, on the third day of the !ri"ht half of )a"ha, this -ritin" ' G1 ' -as completed. 6ere is the in"enio,s karana:;< 2atr,"hna.=:#9< Ahe last line is intri",in". =0n"enio,s= C'icha%sana[*] D !efits the ,ni7,e format and the compositions of this man,script. Iet this is not the only -ork of 2atr,"hna. 2cattered folios s,rvive from a second, similar, *aidehisa *ilasa[*] , -hich, ho-ever, -as 1$ centimeters lon"er than the Baripada copy ?leven of these lar"er leaves are preserved in the 3iet!er" ),se,m in Q,rich, incl,din" several !i" compositions that stretch across fo,r folios C/i",res 99, 1$1D.:#G< *ne leaf is preserved in the Kictoria and 4l!ert ),se,m,:#6< M and three more in a private collection in Ee- 8elhi C/i",re 1$$D.:#&< M Ahe dra-in", fi",re types, and many motifs of these scattered folios are similar to those of the Baripada man,script, yet they lack desi"ns perpendic,lar to the pa"e. Aheir te(t is also more conventionally or"aniHed in rectan",lar panels that fill the hei"ht of the folio. 0t seems pro!a!le that this dispersed *aidehisa *ilasa[*] represents an earlier e(ample of the same artistBs -ork. 0f so, -e can follo- his development from mild innovation in the ,se of m,ltiple+folio compositions to a,dacio,s pictorial in"en,ity /inally, at least one other ill,strated te(t can !e ascri!ed to the same artist in his a,dacio,s prime. Ahis is a small copy of the ,np,!lished poem .ra4a .ihara of >ripasindh, Pattanayaka:;< , no- preserved in the 6istory 8epartment of Utkal University in Bh,!anes-ar.:#%< 0t employs comple( compositions -ith the te(t floatin" in !alloons as in the Baripada *aidehisa *ilasa[*] , and some parts of the desi"n are at ri"ht an"les to the normal horiHontal layo,t of the pa"e. Ahe e(ec,tion of !oth dra-in" and paintin" is m,ch neater here than in the Baripada man,script, !,t !oth may !e prod,cts of 2atr,"hnaBs mat,rity 4 second scri!e -ho, specialiHed in prod,cin" ill,strated copies of the *aidehisa *ilasa[*] lived almost a cent,ry later, #$$ kilometers to the so,th. 0n 191%, the *riya scholar >,lamani 8as -rote of meetin" a !rahman in a villa"e in >hallikot 8istrict -ho sho-ed him a man,script of this -ork: 0n this he had, -ith a styl,s alone, ill,strated !ea,tif,lly the h,ndreds of famo,s incidents descri!ed in the -hole of the *aidehisa *ilasa[*] , alon" -ith its poetry Ahe ch,rnin" of the *cean, 2itaBs !irth, 2itaBs -eddin", the !attle !et-een 3ama and 3avana:;< Fill,strated !y him, these are livin" e(amples of his ,ncommon love for the art he ac7,ired !y himself and for BhaO5aBs poetry 0 treas,re the memory of ho- he san" the poem as he sho-ed me the pict,res. Ahis !rahman said that -ritin" s,ch *aidehisa *ilasas[*] -as his second occ,pation. 6e had -ritten many s,ch !ooks and is enco,ra"ed !y the ra4as and rich people of .an5am.:#9< Ahis acco,nt doc,ments the -ay in -hich s,ch an artist chose the -ork in -hich he specialiHed, recited it -ith reli"io,s devotion as did later ,sers of the man,script, and also "ained some livelihood from local -orthies -ho appreciated his -ork. Ahe phrase =love for the art he ac7,ired !y himself= s,pports my ar",ment that many palm+leaf ill,strators -ere self+ta,"ht rather than trained in a -orkshop. While >,lamani 8as does not mention the name of this artist, it -as s,rely )ichha Pata5oshi, a

!rahman -ho prod,ced three s,rvivin" ill,strated copies of the *aidehisa *ilasa[*] -ith colophons indicatin" that he -orked in Bal,keshvarp,r ' G# ' in >hallikot state. Ahe first of these, no- in the collection of the )ahavir Jain 4radhana >endra, >o!a, .,5arat C/i",res 1$1+11D, -as pro!a!ly completed in 4.8. 19$1.:9$< Ahe second -ork !y )ichha Pata5oshi, no- preserved in a private collection in Ee- 8elhi C/i",res 11#+119D, -as ill,strated !et-een the fifth day of the dark half of 2ravana:;< , 1911, and the t-elfth day of the dark half of )ar"asira, 1919.:91< M Ahe third *aidehisa *ilasa[*] !y the same artist, no- in the 4s,tosh ),se,m at Calc,tta University C/i",res 11G+1#9D, -as !e",n on the tenth day of the li"ht half of >arttika, 191%, and completed on the festival 8hola P,rnima:;< , 1916.:91< M Ahe last t-o identify )ichha as the astrolo"er C!ata4osi[*] D of the Bada"ada ra4a and as the son of >rishna )ishra, livin" in the villa"e Bal,keshvarp,r, near >hallikot. 6e is fondly remem!ered !y several inha!itants of Bal,keshvarp,r and !y a "randson, Chandrasekhara )ishra, -ho lives in 4ska. Ahey estimate that he died aro,nd 19#$ and say he -as a lively, f,nny person, f,ll of hasya rasa Ccomic sentimentD. 6is name -as !esto-ed !y 3a5a 6arihara of >hallikot: )ichha C@iarD for teasin" the kin" a!o,t his a!ility to h,nt, and Pata5oshi:;< CCo,rt 4strolo"erD for his skill in makin" fire-ork rockets. 4ll speak -ith am,sement of the enth,siasm -ith -hich he copied man,scripts and also carved -ooden -alkin" sticks. 6is modest ho,se s,rvives, its front no- encased in cement, ne(t to the "oddess temple in this traditional *riya villa"e. Eeither the second nor the third copy of the *aidehisa *ilasa[*] forms a coherent -hole. Eot only are some folios missin", !,t also there are d,plicates of some pa"e n,m!ers. Ahe d,plications cannot !e simply a slip of the pen, for the same portion of te(t Cand accompanyin" ill,strationsD occ,r earlier in the principal se7,ence. 0n short, it -o,ld seem that )ichha Pata5oshi -as -orkin" on several man,scripts side !y side, repeatin" some !asic compositions and narrative choices, as -e shall see in later chapters, altho,"h not copyin" each pa"e precisely. Ahe !asic selection of incidents ill,strated in his three man,scripts is so similar and so prof,se that it seems ,nnecessary to compare them !y means of a chart. 6is later versions of the same te(t !ecame pro"ressively lon"er as he e(panded the ill,strations. When a c,stomer appeared, he m,st have hastily !,ndled to"ether vario,s leaves, !y accident incl,din" some from different copies. Ah,s the 1911+19 man,script Ci.e. the principal se7,ence of pa"es -ith colophonD incl,des a fe- leaves from an additional version. Ahe 191%+16 man,script incl,des more e(tra leaves from three other versions. 0n addition, ei"hteen folios from yet another version are preserved in the 3iet!er" ),se,m in Q,rich.:9#< Ah,s >,lamani 8asBs acco,nt of the devotion of this !rahman scri!e to the *aidehisa *ilasa[*] is s,pported !y the e(istence of parts of -hat seem to !e ei"ht different copies of that poem. 6ere -e have an artist compara!le to 2arathi )adala, -ho had -orked near!y 5,st sli"htly earlier. While the *aidehisa *ilasa[*] is physically !,t t-ice the len"th of the dhyatma Ramayana[*] , it appears that )ichha Pata5oshi took fo,r to ei"ht years to prod,ce one man,script, -hereas 2arathi )adala co,ld dash off three or more -ithin a sin"le year. 4ltho,"h !oth mi"ht !e descri!ed as =naive,= ,nschooled either in the conventions of *rissan professional paintin" or in representational modes, there is considera!ly more sense of p,rpose in )ichha Pata5oshiBs deployment of lar"e+headed, comical fi",res to ill,strate partic,lar t-ists of the te(t. Ahe resem!lance in narrative choices !et-een all his copies of the ' G9 '

*aidehisa *ilasa[*] is, moreover, "reater than that !et-een 2arathi )adalaBs dhyatma Ramayanas[*] . Ahis mi"ht !e e(plained !y the artistBs retention of one as a model, !,t even had he not kept one, it -o,ld seem fair to concl,de that he -as attached to his partic,lar form,lation of his favorite te(t, so caref,lly and lovin"ly -orked o,t. Ahe first man,script of 19$1 has sli"htly more in common -ith the -ork of 3a"h,nath Pr,sti, -ho -orked a!o,t G$ kilometers a-ay in the 1%%$s, than did man,scripts of )ichhaBs later career. Iet it -o,ld !e hard to ar",e that Pr,sti trained )ichha Pata5oshi, -ho at most may have felt a yo,thf,l admiration for -orks of the older master. A-o other e(amples of )ichha Pata5oshiBs -ork are kno-n, !oth lar"e ima"es of the Ja"annatha Aemple, -hich demonstrate that his devotion to Upendra BhaO5aBs version of the 3amayana:;< did not precl,de his occasionally depictin" other s,!5ects.:99<

a)an*a)a'i./0 1
4mon" palm+leaf man,scripts, the &a'anya'ati[*] is fre7,ently ill,strated, !ein" a pop,lar *riya poem of moderate len"th, s,ita!le for em!ellishment -ith pict,res. 4 preliminary e(ample is )s. &1.1$9 in the Eational ),se,m. Ahis !ook !elon"sJ to a distinctive "ro,p of man,scripts that incl,de !old areas of p,re red and yello-, often in the !ack"ro,nd, as in /i",re 19$.:9G< Ahe dra-in" is firm and not very detailed, -ith a fi(ed repertoire of te(tile and !order patterns. Bodies are stiff and sho- a characteristic mannered treatment of the ,pper end of !oth arm and le", visi!le in the el!o-s of /i",re 19$, top. Ahis "ro,p incl,des t-o copies of the &a'anya'ati[*] itself that lack any ill,strations of the 3amayana:;< section,:96< M and in fact -e shall see little of the Eational ),se,m copy, -ith -hich -e !e"an !eca,se only one of its ill,strations is devoted to the 3amayana:;< se7,ence -ithin the lar"er tale. Upendra BhaO5a, -ho -rote in the first half of the ei"hteenth cent,ry, provides a terminus !ost 6uem for these man,scripts in "eneral. Both forms of the letter a occ,r in the te(ts of each man,script. Eo -ork of this "ro,p incl,des a date or place in its colophon, altho,"h the British @i!rary &a'anya'ati[*] does !ear the name of a scri!e, Eilam!er. 0n short, their date seems to !e possi!ly ei"hteenth or, more pro!a!ly, nineteenth cent,ry. Aheir lack of attention to the episode in -hich the story of 3ama is performed !efore @avanyavati:;< is a si"nificant corrective to o,r preocc,pation -ith that tale. 0n this !ook 0 have chosen to foc,s on fo,r man,scripts of the &a'anya'ati[*] -here the 3amayana:;< se7,ence is e(tensively ill,strated and -ell preserved. 2ome of these are close in date and pro!a!ly in the place they -ere prod,ced, yet each differs in its approach to the "eneral treatment of narrative, as -ell as to the depiction of individ,al scenes. Ahis poetic s,!5ect attracted a diverse ran"e of the most accomplished and p,rposef,l *rissan artists, as if the challen"e of prod,cin" one fine version of this te(t appealed to them. Ahe first man,script at one point !elon"ed to a dealer in Ee- 8elhi -ho sold leaves to many ma5or m,se,ms and collectors aro,nd the -orld.:9&< 6ence my desi"nation, the 8ispersed &a'anya'ati[*] CPlate 9, /i",res 191+G6D. Ahis -ork has !ecome a to,chstone for 7,ality in *rissan palm+leaf ill,stration. *n the one hand it is consistently traditional, for e(ample in preferrin" the profile vie- for faces, or in darkenin" one ,pper corner of the folio to indicate sky Ce.". /i",re 191D, a device fo,nd in early 3a5p,t paintin". *n the other hand this -ork sho-s ' GG ' ,n,s,al sensitivity in its 7,iverin", delicate lines and in the -ay ordinary activities of the hero Chandra!han,Bs ho,sehold are descri!ed. Pi"ments are applied to many leaves, incl,din" !lack, -hite, a -ide ran"e of reds, oran"es, yello-s, !l,es and an occasional "reen.:9%< Compositions are spacio,s,

and the fi",res are stately and "racef,l. Ahe 3amayana:;< section m,st have e(tended over at least ten folios. Eo colophon has !een fo,nd for this -ork, -hich has !een ascri!ed to dates ran"in" from the seventeenth to the nineteenth cent,ry.:99< While it is temptin" to consider this -ork a traditional and caref,lly -ro,"ht startin" point for some of the more stereotyped e(amples that -e kno- -ere prod,ced in the nineteenth cent,ry, it is also impossi!le to vie- it as a direct ancestor of any other &a'anya'ati[*] . 4dmittin" that there are no clear indications of a very late date, either in the -ritin" or in the pict,res, 0 -o,ld prefer to think of this as either ei"hteenth or, more pro!a!ly, early nineteenth cent,ry. *,r second e(ample, no- in the Eational ),se,m, Ee- 8elhi, ill,strates the 3amayana:;< portion of the &a'anya'ati[*] more amply than any other -ork 0 have come across, and hence only one+si(th of its pict,res of this se7,ence can !e reprod,ced here CPlate 1$, /i",res 1G&+&9D, -hereas all of the 3ama story in other versions is incl,ded.:G$< Ahis man,script -as made !y the !rahman Bala!hadra Pathy, -hose name -e kno- from an ill,strated 0ita 0o'inda in the @.8. 0nstit,te of 0ndolo"y in 4hmeda!ad.:G1< M 4 third -ork, s,rely !y the same artist, is a copy of 2is,sankara 8asaBs poem on an epic theme, the )sa(hilasa[*] , no- lar"ely in the Eational ),se,m, Ee- 8elhi.:G1< M 0n all these man,scripts, Bala!hadra Pathy ,sed pi"ment in a distinctive -ay, -ith !lack scattered thro,"ho,t for hair, -ater, and other tellin" details, as -ell as shades of red and !l,e+"rey applied in transparent -ashes. Ahe fi",res are mannered, their !odies inflated to form a ta,t, a!stract pattern of !illo-in" c,rves. Ah,s the torso tapers from enlar"ed sho,lders to a tiny -aist, an e(a""eration of the =lion chest= of 0ndian tradition. 4 sharply defined p,pil dead center in the ro,nd eye makes each face seem alert. /eet are lar"e and frin"ed -ith toes alon" the side. /i",res -hose heads tilt sharply ,p-ard sho- a defiant ener"y, -hile other heads t,rn do-n to s,""est coyness or fear Cfor e(ample 2ita at the left in /i",re 161D. 2,ch s,!tle emotional effects reside in depictions not only of people !,t also of settin"s and animals that enhance the h,man moods, for e(ample the fierce storm echoin" 3amaBs lon"in" for 2ita -hile he -aits on )o,nt )alyavan C/i",res 1&$, 1&1D. Ahe colophon of Bala!hadra PathyBs 0ita 0o'inda asserts that he -orked in Jalantara, a small princely state in -hat is today northern 4ndhra Pradesh. 0n the past this area -as lar"ely *riya+speakin" and -as at times incl,ded -ithin .an5am 8istrict, the cradle of m,ch *riya literat,re as -ell as of ill,strated man,scripts. 4 r,ler of Jalantara, 3amakrishna 8eva Chotterai, composed a play called /rahlada Eataka:;< , -hich forms the !asis for the r,ral performin" tradition kno-n !y that name in so,thern *rissa.:G#< Ahe palace today lies in r,ins, and no mem!ers of any Pathy family are kno-n in the to-n.:G9< M Eone of Bala!hadra PathyBs -orks is firmly dated. Ahe fact that !oth archaic and modern forms of the letter a occ,r ar",es for a late ei"hteenth+ or nineteenth+cent,ry date. 2ome aspects of PathyBs -ork s,""est c,rrents from re"ions to the so,th of ' G6 ' *rissa. 0t is temptin" to compare his ro,nd+eyed faces -ith so+called Paithan paintin", or -ith so,th 0ndian shado- p,ppets.:GG< 3esem!lance to the latter is "reater than to the 3avana:;< Chhaya of central *rissa, disc,ssed in Chapter 1 C/i",re 96D. Iet Pathy develops settin"s that "o !eyond any of the restrained props of 0ndian shado- theater. Conceiva!ly his tan"led !o-ers of plants and the flames that dance over the -alls of @anka:;< C/i",res 1&#+&9D evoke the "eneral effects of flickerin" shado-s as the p,ppets are held at an an"le to the screen, rather than the literal forms of the p,ppets themselves. :G6< M @ike-ise PathyBs ,se of color, ,ni7,e amon" *rissan man,scripts, is va",ely similar to a Ael,", set of 3amayana:;< ill,strations, -here, ho-ever, there are no si"nificant correlations of icono"raphy.

:G&< M Ah,s it seems that there are some links -ith the forms of 4ndhra in PathyBs -ork !,t that these m,st have permeated a !ilin",al area that incl,ded .an5am 8istrict, file home of the very *rissan literat,re he chose to ill,strate. @ike-ise the effect of his ,p+t,rned faces is like that of masks perched on the top of the head so that the actor can see thro,"h slits !eneath the eyes, -hich -ere ,sed in the Prahlada Eataka:;< and 3amalilas:;< of that very re"ion. We kno- more a!o,t the makin" of o,r third &a'anya'ati[*] C/i",res 1&G+9#D than a!o,t any man,script disc,ssed here. Ahis is the -ork of 3a"h,nath Pr,sti, an artist and scri!e of -hose other man,scripts at least thirteen s,rvive.:G%< 6ence his development can !e traced. 6e -as the son of an oilman of the merchant caste, livin" in the so,th *rissan villa"e ),ndamarai, -here the &a'anya'ati[*] and three more of his man,scriptsJ -ere preserved !y the local families that ori"inally commissioned them. 0n this case -e kno- from oral tradition that this partic,lar -ork -as made for a more affl,ent merchant patron, -ho paid the artist in food for the fe- pa"es he prod,ced each day.:G9< M 6e is remem!ered affectionately in ),ndamarai as Ul, Chakra, an odd nickname that may mean =maverick.= Pr,stiBs style com!ines archaism -ith nat,ral to,ches, the latter perhaps deli!erately minimiHed in the 3amayana:;< section of the &a'anya'ati[*] to "ive this se7,ence a ma"ic and le"endary 7,ality 6ere fi",res "enerally appear in profile, altho,"h Pr,sti else-here in this man,script and in others presents a certain n,m!er of heads frontally or, occasionallyJ from a 9G+de"ree an"le. Eone of his fo,rteen -orks !ears color, and it is clear that a metic,lo,s ,se of line, more varied than that of the 8ispersed &a'anya'ati[*] , is central to the conception of his ima"es. 6is desi"ns seem ,n,s,ally !,sy, -ith many fi",res a!o,t three+7,arters the hei"ht of the entire pa"e, often s,rro,nded !y air !,t sometimes em!edded in dense patterns of landscape or flyin" arro-s C/i",res 191, 191D. 6is facial type is. 7,ite ro,nded, !roadly follo-in" the conventions of !ata[*] paintin", -hich he may have derived from. the early nineteenth+cent,ry -all paintin"s of B,",da Csome #$ kilometers from ),ndamaraiD, disc,ssed later in this chapter. 4t the same time, the depiction of the h,man !ody is nat,ral !y comparison -ith Bala!hadra PathyBs inflated mannerisms. *n the !asis of t-o dated colophons -e can !e 7,ite certain that Pr,sti -orked in the 1%%$s.:6$< Ahe ),ndamarai &a'anya'ati[*] may !e amon" his latest -orks, for it is ,nfinished and the family that o-ns it preserves the oral tradition that he -as an old man -hen he -orked on it. Ah,s a date of 1%%G+ 9G seems reasona!le. While pa"es of the 8ispersed &a'anya'ati[*] co,ld never !e conf,sed ' G& ' -ith Pr,stiBs man,script, the resem!lance !et-een the t-o is s,fficient that a datin" of the t-o !ased on pictorial style -o,ld make them nearly contemporaneo,s. Aheir style is th,s one reason to entertain the possi!ility that the 8ispersed &a'anya'ati[*] , in many -ays compara!le, if -ith sli"htly fe-er marks of modernity, -as also a prod,ct of the nineteenth cent,ry /inally a man,script in the Eational ),se,m in Ee- 8elhi -hose entire 3amayana:;< se7,ence is preserved -ill !e referred to as the 3o,nd &a'anya'ati[*] .:61< 0ts clarity led me to ,se it to ill,strate my initial tellin" of the story C/i",res 1+9$D. Ahis man,script has a distinctive hand-ritin", in -hich the circ,lar elements are ,n,s,ally lar"e and re",lar. C,rved lines similarly predominate in the ill,strations, and there is strikin" ass,rance and simplicity of dra-in". Ah,s the conto,r of the face often forms a clear circle, incl,din" the ,nder+chin and the hairline. 0n this the resem!lance to the conventions of !ata[*] paintin" is even more strikin" than in the -ork of 3a"h,nath Pr,sti. 2chematic architect,re and trees separate the scenes, so that there are no am!i",ities in the narrative. 4nd yet occasional frontal heads C/i",res 1&, 11, #6D and irre",lar to,ches Cthe -ay the tassels of the ,m!rellas

in /i",res #6 and 9$ respond to "ravityD do not !elon" to the most conservative vis,al conventions. Ahe 3o,nd &a'anya'ati[*] has !een mistakenly associated -ith the dated colophon of a second, very fra"mentary, version of the same te(t.:61< While the date cannot no- !e precisely esta!lished, 0 re"ard this as a -ork of the nineteenth cent,ryFmost pro!a!ly the late nineteenth cent,ry, for its -ritin" is e(tremely close to modern printin". Ahe letter a occ,rs only in the archaic form, !,t this form appeared in some early printed !ooks as -ell and contin,ed in ,se as late as 19$G.

2rahma Rama*ana./0 1
)y final palm+leaf e(ample is eni"matic !oth as a te(t and as a man,scriptJ yet it is clearly not peripheral in artistic terms. Ahis sole *rissan version of the .rahma Ramayana[*] -as preserved in a matha[*] , or monastery, near Ja5p,r in central *rissa, and it appears to have !een prod,ced there !y a Kaishnava:;< devotee C/i",res 199+99D.:6#< 0 kno- of no other man,scripts that seem to !e the -ork of this same artist, altho,"h the style falls -ithin a "eneral formal tradition in ill,stration that is also linked to the professional chitra%aras. Ahis link is most clearly apparent in the fi",re typeFstocky, ro,nd+faced, the head seen in profile e(cept for occasional iconic types. 4mon" palm+leaf man,scripts, the resem!lance is "reatest to Kaishnava:;< -orks s,ch as a copy of the *idagdha "adha'a ,:69< in part !eca,se many pa"es of the .rahma Ramayana[*] sho- devotees -ho resem!le >risnaBs:;<go!is. Ahe eye follo-s a standard form,laF elon"ated, the t-o corners sli"htly darkened, the p,pil e(tendin" more or less all the -ay !et-een the lids to prod,ce a starin" !,t not a !eady "aHe. 2mall to,ches of !lack and li"ht red pi"ment occ,r thro,"ho,t the pict,res. What is most distinctive in this artistBs -ork is the decorative effect created !y ela!orate !orders at the end of each pa"e, as -ell as !y stron" te(tile patterns and ele"ant ara!es7,es of folia"e. Ahe 8asavatara )atha:;< -as fo,nded aro,nd 1&$$, and if the man,script -as prod,ced there, this date provides a terminus !ost 6uem. Ahe -ritin" of the .rahma ' G% ' Ramayana[*] consistently employs the more archaic form of the letter a . Ah,s once a"ain -e can !e no more specific a!o,t date than to s,""est that the -ork !elon"s to the ei"hteenth or first half of the nineteenth cent,ry

!ain'in&s o( 'he Chi'ra,aras Their 9an-(a+'-re and Use

Ahe second type of ima"e this !ook considers can like-ise !e defined !y medi,m: these are paintin"s in opa7,e pi"ment e(ec,ted -ith a !r,sh, often on cloth Chence the name !atachitra[*] , or =cloth pict,re=D !,t sometimes on -ood or on -alls. Physically they differ considera!ly from ima"es en"raved on a ne,tral palm leaf, -here line inevita!ly plays a "reater role and -here color is secondary. Beca,se this profession contin,es today in the hands of the same kind of makers as in the past, the chitra%aras , the steps in man,fact,rin" a traditional !ata[*] have !een doc,mented in detail.:6G< 0n !rief, several pieces of -ashed cotton cloth Csometimes ,sed "armentsD -ere laminated -ith a ",m of tamarind seed, dried, siHed -ith tamarind and chalk paste, and !,rnished -ith a stone. Ahe pi"mentsF

traditionally "ro,nd stones, conch shell, lamp!lack, and indi"oF-ere mi(ed -ith the resin of the %a!ittha tree CR %aintha# elephant appleD as a !inder and -ere applied -ith a !r,sh made from the hairs of a ratBs tail. 2,ch materials -ere locally availa!le and relatively ine(pensive, not re7,irin" a lar"e investment or sponsorship on the part of a patron. Ahe -ork proceeded in !road sta"es: sketchin", fillin" in the red !ack"ro,nd., colorin" the !odies and dress, completin" ornamental detail and o,tlines, and finally finishin" the !orders. @ast of all, the pict,re -as covered -ith a coat of transparent lac, -hich protected the paintin" and "ave it a "lossy finish. Ahe ima"es prod,ced !y this standard proced,re f,lfilled diverse f,nctions and hence had diverse relationships to their vie-ers. )ost si"nificant in rit,al terms -ere the so+called 3eplacement 0ma"es Canasara[*] !ati[*] D for the P,rl Aemple. Before the Cart /estival each s,mmer, the: sacred -ooden ima"es of Ja"annatha, Bala!hadra, and 2,!hadra are repaired and are hence inaccessi!le for -orship for fifteen days. Ahree chitra%aras kno-n as ha%im , or =appointed one= are responsi!le for prod,cin" ane- each year paintin"s on cloth of the three "ods, -hich serve as s,!stit,tes for the revered -ooden ima"es. Ah,s these three individ,als are official servants Cse'a%as D of the "reat temple, and their ima"es have the hi"hest sacred stat,s. 0ronically, these ima"es do not resem!le the archaic -ooden ima"es of the triad, and -hile prod,ced ,nder rit,alistic circ,mstances Ci.e. the painter fastsD and follo-in" iconic canons, they are not necessarily as conservative stylistically as other ima"es prod,ced !y chitra%aras .:66< Ahe ha%ims , traditionally caste leaders, -ere re-arded in the past -ith landsJ they contin,e to receive festival food from the temple kitchen and a token payment, -hose val,e has declined -ith time. 4 second f,nction of the chitra%aras7 -ork involves sale to pil"rims -ho visit P,ri. *n the one hand, the !ata[*] may !ecome an o!5ect of -orship, partic,larly the most common type, -hich depicts the Ja"annatha triad enshrined in its temple. *n the other hand, it may serve as a so,venir of the visit, for the entire ' G9 ' e(perience, like m,ch in 0ndia, cannot !e e(cl,sively cate"oriHed as reli"io,s Cvs. sec,larD. Ahese ima"es pres,ma!ly have lon" formed the mainstay of most artistsB prod,ction and are ,s,ally taken as a standard for their style. Ahey vary -idely in siHe and comple(ity, from cheap paintin"s on ne-spaper, still sold in the !aHaar in competition -ith chromolitho"raphs, to lar"e cloth depictions, -hich may incl,de narrative scenes aro,nd the ed"es. 2,ch ima"es have "enerally !een sold either via middlemen or !y the chitra%aras themselves, an arran"ement enco,ra"in" rather standard prod,cts in -hich price and aesthetic 7,ality compete as criteria for s,ccess.:6&< @ar"er -orks, ho-ever, -ere commissioned !y -ealthy visitors, -ho filled the traditional role of patrons, interactin" -ith the artist in orderin" pict,res that -ere precisely to their taste. 4 third f,nctional cate"ory prod,ced !y the same professional artists -as -all paintin". 2ome m,rals -ere re7,ired for the P,ri Aemple, -here the chitra%aras e(ec,ted ima"es on -alls for rit,al events s,ch as 2nana Jatra, precedin" the Cart /estival.:6%< 2ome painters -ere hired in a similar -ay !y other temples, !y mathas[*] CmonasteriesD, and !y a%hadas[*] C7,asi+reli"io,s "ymnasiaD. Ahey -ere also hired !y ho,seholders to decorate the door-ays of ho,ses, partic,larly at the time of a da,"hterBs -eddin".:69< M 4nd for some ann,al festivals they e(ec,ted hasty, ephemeral ima"es on the door every year for a small set fee.:&$< M Wall paintin"s -ere made !y the same "eneral proced,res and accordin" to the same aesthetic as paintin"s on cloth. Ahe siHin" and !inder incl,ded lime C!,rned seashellsD, c,rds, and the 5,ice of the !el fr,it, as opposed to the resin employed on cloth. While many pi"ments -ere the same, some s,rely differed in the t-o media.:&1< M 0n !oth cases a sin"le artistBs -ork mi"ht ran"e from 7,ick, vi"oro,s sketches to ela!orate detail, dependin" on the needs of the partic,lar

transaction and ,pon the time that the m,ral -as e(pected to end,re. *ther o!5ects the same chitra%aras made for sale are yet f,rther removed from a temple conte(t. Ahey prod,ced !atas[*] that had nothin" to do -ith Ja"annatha, some primarily of interest for their story. We have one e(ample of a lon" strip of cloth, folded accordion fashion, !earin" m,sical 3a"amala pict,res, -hich may represent a separate "enre.:&1< Ahe same artists re",larly made playin" cards for sale to the local pop,lace. 4nd in the past they m,st s,rely, as they do today, have prod,ced a variety of painted -ood o!5ects, ran"in" from reli"io,s carts, doors, and marria"e !o(es C/i",res 1G%+61D, rivalin" the most ela!orate !atas[*] , to simple toys desi"ned for children.:&#< M

The !ain'ers
*ne -ay in -hich these pict,res differ from palm+leaf ill,strations is that their makers form a distinct s,!caste of professional painters. Ahe chitra%ara is a mem!er of the s,dra "ro,p, comprisin" artisans and la!orers, "enerally ranked at the !ottom of the caste hierarchy. Ahey are closely allied -ith the ru!a%aras , or -ood+carvers, !oth sharin" the s,rnames )ahapatra and )aharana. 4s -ith all castes, the e(act stat,s of the painters -as not imm,ta!le, and at times in this cent,ry, even aside from recent attempts to minimiHe the role of inherited occ,pations in "eneral, the comm,nity has, ,nder economic press,re, t,rned to other means of livelihood.:&9< ' 6$ ' @ike most traditional artisans in 0ndia, the chitra%aras -orked as a "ro,p, a practice that e(plains in part the relatively ,niform character of their ima"es. Aoday the "ro,p may take the form of a "overnment+s,pported trainin" pro"ram as in the case of Ja"annath )ahapatra of 3a"h,ra5p,r, or of a co+operative society s,ch as that fo,nded !y 4nanta )aharana in 8anda 2ahi, or of a family enterprise s,ch as the .a,ri 6andicrafts Centre in Bh,!anes-ar. 0n the past, apparently the family formed the !asic ,nit, sometimes dra-in" in children from other families -ho mi"ht !e trained !y a master, as in the modern "overnment pro"ram. 0f several ad,lt !rothers -orked to"ether in one ho,sehold, they mi"ht have constit,ted a -orkshop. Ahe res,lt of this system for the paintin" is that a sin"le ima"e may !e a "ro,p prod,ct, the !orders often finished !y apprentices, perhaps the main ima"e alone painted !y a master. Ahis res,lt is most likely to characteriHe lar"e paintin"s, -hereas smaller -orks or those of a painter -ho -as trained !,t -ho had not yet ac7,ired his o-n ento,ra"e mi"ht -ell !e prod,ced !y a sin"le individ,al. 4nother -ay in -hich the family !asis of the occ,pation enters into the -orkmanship is the participation of -omen. Araditionally they !,rnished the cloth once it had !een primed, they lac7,ered the completed ima"e, and they may have "ro,nd the pi"ments C!ein" acc,stomed to similar -ork in the kitchenD.:&G< Aoday it is accepted that they paint minor o!5ects and even prod,ce the cheapest form of pil"rima"e !ata[*] , e(ec,ted on ne-spaper. 0 have also !een told that a partic,larly clever yo,n" -oman in P,rl act,ally does -ork attri!,ted to her h,s!and.:&6< M 4t any rate, it is conceiva!le that -omen painted occasionally in the past, altho,"h the very fail,re to ackno-led"e this may e(plain the contin,ed ,se of the masc,line prono,n for painters: the comm,nity wished its !est -ork to !e attri!,ted to men. Aransmission of this professional tradition took place in the first place !y trainin" -ithin the family or in the ho,se of a master. Children -ere schooled first in practice tasks. @ater they -ere allo-ed to paint ima"es dra-n !y the teacher or to e(ec,te the !orders of his pict,res. 2,ch an apprenticeship mi"ht easily last ten years. 2ketch!ooks also served to perpet,ate a -ide variety of ima"e types that mi"ht !e for"otten !eca,se

they -ere not fre7,ently paintedJ many s,ch dra-in"s remained in the hands of chitra%ara families ,ntil recently Ahese sketches mi"ht take the form of folded strips of cloth painted -ith a variety of s,!5ects, an e(ample of -hich -as kept !y 8asharathi )ahapatra of 0tamati.:&&< 2ome models -ere simply ,ncompleted or ,nsold paintin"s that remained in the family for "enerations, today rolled ,p in metal !o(es. )any painter families preserve loose sheets of paper that "o !ack to the nineteenth cent,ry as part of their vis,al herita"e. 4nd today a fe- keep ela!orate note!ooks on modern paper that preserve a lar"e n,m!er of icono"raphic types.:&%< M 0 have fo,nd no set of ill,strations of the 3amayana:;< amon" s,ch sketches and hence cannot point to any vis,al canon for this s,!5ect. Eonetheless one early set of -all paintin"s may have provided a partial model, alon" -ith sketches of individ,al scenes and oral tradition amon" the painters. Aoday the lar"est concentration of traditional painters is fo,nd in 3a"h,ra5p,r and 8anda 2ahi, nei"h!orin" villa"es 11 kilometers north-est of P,rlJ hence ' 61 ' the references a!ove lar"ely to practices follo-ed there. Iet ori"inally it seems clear that P,rl -as the ma5or center for *rissan chitra%aras , -hose -ork -as connected -ith the Ja"annatha Aemple. 2ome moved to !rahman villa"es Csasanas D, fo,nded near P,rl from the si(teenth cent,ry on-ard, to !e near their !rahman patronsFth,s the concentrated chitra%ara settlements at 3a"h,ra5p,r and 8anda 2ahi, attached to t-o sasanas near P,rl.:&9< Primarily d,rin" the ei"hteenth cent,ry, secondary Ja"annatha temples -ere !,ilt in the fe,datory Cgada4ata[*] D states of *rissa, and at that point painters -ere sent o,t to provide replacement ima"es and perform other services to these temples. 4s a res,lt of this process, several distinct styles of paintin" have evolved, -hich are disc,ssed !elo- in their recent manifestations.

His'or* and S'*le o( !ain'in&s

0n the !atachitra[*] tradition, many ma5or historical landmarks incl,de depictions of the 3amayana:;< . 6ence there is no need to trace a "eneral chronolo"ical development !efore placin" partic,lar e(amples. 0n fact the ma5ority of e(amples that s,rvive -ere made in the past ten years.

2-&-da and O'her Wall !ain'in&s1

Ahe oldest s,rvivin" e(ample of the professional artistsB -ork in *rissa is in the shrine of KiraOhi Earayana:;< at B,",da, -here over half the -all paintin"s are devoted to the 3amayana:;< CPlate 11, /i",res 1$$+11#D. We kno- that this temple -as !,ilt in the 1%1$s !y a distant relative of Upendra BhaO5a, 2rikara BhaO5a.:%$< 6avin" come to the throne of .h,msar in 1&9$, he a!dicated in 1&99 to lead the life of an ascetic devotee of 3ama in so,th 0ndia. 0n 1%19 the British ,nseated his son and s,ccessor, 8hanan5aya:;< BhaO5a, and 2rikara came to the throne a"ain for a decade. 8,rin" this second rei"n, 2rikara had an ima"e of the form of 2,rya kno-n as KiraOchi Earayana:;< taken from .h,msar to-n Clater called 3,sselkonda and today Bhan5ana"arD to B,",da, 1G kilometers to the so,theast. 4 stone !,ildin" -as p,t ,p and -as decorated -ith paintin"s said to !e so fine that they looked as if the divine artisan Kisvakarman himself had made them. We can !e reasona!ly certain the m,rals that s,rvive "o !ack to the 1%1$s, their condition deterioratin" -ith time. 2ome la!els appear to have !een added later, for they do not fit into the rather caref,l desi"n of the paintin"s. Ahe ori"inal ima"es have fort,nately !een spared the fate of repaintin" that often !efalls livin" temples. Ahe fact,re of these paintin"s is e(tremely caref,l, the s,rface of the -all havin" !een !,rnished so that it stall shines today. 0n B,",da, people say that the painters came from Balipadar, a villa"e 11

kilometers to the so,th. 2ome of the chitra%aras of 3a"h,ra5p,r and P,rl, -ho revere the B,",da m,rals as one of the models of their craft, tell the same story. 4t Balipadar, ho-ever, the sole chitra%ara -ho still paints and !,ilds temples s,""ested that the B,",da artists had come from the near!y villa"e of )ath,ra, -hich today remains active as a center of sc,lpt,re. 0n short, -e cannot place the ori"ins of the KiraOchi Earayana:;< painters -ith certainty, e(cept to say that they are likely to have !elon"ed to a local chitra%ara comm,nity. 0n many -ays these m,rals represent in ele"ant form standards that seem to ' 61 ' have shaped vario,s *rissan traditions in the nineteenth and t-entieth cent,ries. *ne e(ceptional aspect, ho-ever, is the s,!d,ed, earthy palette. 0n addition to vario,s yello- and r,sset ochers that appear in older !atas[*] !efore the introd,ction of !aHaar pi"ments, a "rayish "reen is prominent, pres,ma!ly terra verde, -hich -as not ,sed in paintin" on cloth. Bl,e, in contrast, occ,rs more rarely and in a d,ller form than in cloth paintin". )oreover, the ,n,s,al amo,nt of -hite !ack"ro,nd in the narrative sections of the B,",da m,rals Cespecially /i",re 1$1D is hard to e(plain. Conceiva!ly these sections -ere infl,enced !y palm+leaf ill,strations -ith ne,tral !ack"ro,nds, altho,"h little else points in this direction. Possi!ly the painters devised this e(pedient simply to make the story clear. Ahe paintin"s seem to the eye to !e re",lar, planned accordin" to classical canons, and th,s to constit,te a standard not only for other !ata[*] paintin" !,t also for some man,script ill,strations. Iet the impression of re",larity is s,!tly misleadin", and there are -ays in -hich these ima"es are p,HHlin" and improvisational. Ahe first three sections of -all, or"aniHed in neat re"isters, in partic,lar invite comparison -ith palm+leaf man,scripts as a systematic presentation of the story C/i",re 1$1D. Ahey are also !alanced as a -hole -ith repeated elements of desi"n: for e(ample, 3isyasrin"aBs:;< fire is echoed in KisvamitraBs a!ove, and architect,ral frames are artf,lly disposed across the entire -all. Iet ,nlike that of the man,scripts of *rissa, their se7,ence moves at times from ri"ht to left C-all 4, tiers 1 and 9D, at times from left to ri"ht Ctiers 1 and #D, at times from top to !ottom C-alls B, CD, and at times from !ottom to top C-all 4D. Eor does the horiHontal movement follo- a !o,strophedon pattern in -hich the eye is led efficiently !ack and forth as a field is plo-ed. Ahe some-hat haphaHard se7,ence at B,",da occ,rs in early 0ndian reliefs that cover discrete rectan",lar areas -ith tiers of scenes, as opposed to contin,o,s frieHes in -hich patterns of -orship and architect,ral movement -o,ld normally take over. Both the "ate-ay panels of 2anchi and frieHes depictin" the epics on the >ailasanatha at ?llora move from left to ri"ht or from ri"ht to left -ith no apparent re",larity *n the one hand, s,ch irre",larity may reflect the illiteracy of many 0ndian artisans, -ho hence had no innate proclivity to =read= ima"es in one direction or another. *n the other hand, the irre",larity seems to meet a need for variety, for not makin" the overall or"aniHation too predicta!le and !orin". /o,r ma5or ima"es on the rear of the KiraOchi Earayana:;< Aemple C-alls 8, ?, /, .D a!andon the se7,ence of other episodes. ?ach presents a sin"le event dra-n from the forest sections of the 3amayana:;< , follo-in" 3amaBs e(ile. 0n each the principals are seated on top of a hill, -hich is filled -ith r,ral details. 4"ain, it is -orth notin" that these scenes do not !elon" to"ether in the story or fall !et-een the narrative se7,ences on either side. Eor is there symmetry !et-een the t-o lateral rear -allsFB+C, -ith its fo,r narrative tiers, and /+., -ith one dominant scene a!ove. 0t is hard to avoid a sense of improvisational desi"n, ho-ever re",lar the impact of partic,lar parts. Ahe dra-in" of individ,al fi",res follo-s conventions that are -ell doc,mented in later !ata[*] paintin", perhaps !eca,se B,",da provided a "eneral model.:%1< /aces are neatly ro,nd, the hallmark of the *rissan type. )ost are seen in profile, altho,"h an occasional frontal vie-, s,ch as BharataBs

attendant in /i"+ ' 6# ' ,re 1$9, sho-s that variety -as possi!le even early in the nineteenth cent,ry )ost heads are tilted ,p-ard, "ivin" a deli!erate and heroic cast to their actions, -hile the occasional do-n+t,rned position s,""ests pensiveness, modesty, or s,!servience. Ahese are devices that -e have seen e(a""erated in the palm+leaf ill,strations of Bala!hadra Pathy. 4t B,",da the ,nclothed !ody is simplified -ith familiar conventions s,ch as a sin"le c,rve definin" the le" m,scle and knee 5oint, or the leonine male torso, its sho,lders t,rned almost frontally Ahe scale of fi",res is ad5,sted to the e(i"encies of emphasis and composition in each individ,al scene, -ith no concern for consistency. @andscape seems to have interested the B,",da painters to a de"ree ,n,s,al in 0ndia. 6ills in the fo,r iconic ta!lea,( are defined !y overlappin" lo!es, their ed"es o,tlined in a contrastin" h,e and ed"ed -ith c,rved cross+hatchin" primarily to s,""est vol,me. Ahese m,lticolored lo!es are c,nnin"ly pop,lated -ith varied plants and animalsJ for e(ample, monkeys and !ears at the !ottom of /i",re 1$% !eat on a lon" lo" -hich appears as a -hite line at lo-er left. Ahis lo" is a type of m,sical instr,ment Cdhum!a D still fo,nd in so,thern *rissa.:%1< ?arlier *rissan sc,lpt,re and one palm+leaf man,script employed a different convention, in -hich mo,ntains are composed of elon"ated, vertical rocks -ith a s-irlin" c,rve at the top, fo,nd also in some early paintin"s from central 0ndia.:%#< M 2imilar lo!es, pop,lated -ith fa,na, occ,r in nineteenth+cent,ry paintin"s of !oth 4ssam and 4ndhra, altho,"h in !oth cases, as in later *rissan versions of this form,la, the lo!es are flatter and more re",lar than at B,",da.:%9< M Ahis convention may !e re"arded as simply -idespread in eastern 0ndia, rather than as stemmin" from a sin"le place of ori"in. Precisely !eca,se the -all paintin"s of B,",da are pro!lematic in the -ay they treat the 3amayana:;< theme, it has !een necessary to d-ell on their partic,lar place in the *rissan pictorial tradition. Ahey are o,r first ma5or mon,ment of professional paintin" and contin,ed to play a ,ni7,e role as a model for later artists. Ahey are caref,lly or"aniHed and dra-n. ?ven -itho,t !ein" s,re of -hat ima"es served as models, 0 find it hard to avoid the impression that the B,",da artists -ere devisin" their o-n forms -ith a sense of innovation and e(periment, in -hich narrative concerns -ere part of the pict,re. *ther less -ell doc,mented -all paintin"s may !e ro,"hly dated in relation to B,",da. /or e(ample the decorations of the 2rik,rman Aemple in 4ndhra Pradesh seem similar in their delicacy and earthy paletteJ hence they have !een reasona!ly assi"ned to the first half of the nineteenth cent,ry.:%G< Ahe paintin"s of the Ja"annatha Aemple in 8harakot are similar in fi",re style !,t are dra-n more heavily and ,se more intense pi"ments, -hich point to-ard a some-hat later date.:%6< M Ahe present ra4a of 8harakot recalls a family tradition that the paintin"s -ere made in the mid+nineteenth cent,ry or later, sponsored !y his "reat+"reat+"randfather. Ahe .an"amata )atha:;< of P,rl contains -all paintin"s that may !e very old, altho,"h their present form, incl,din" a scene of 3amaBs coronation, m,st represent nineteenth+cent,ry or later repaintin" C/i",re 119D.:%&< M *ne interestin" paintin" of 3ama in the small Ja"annatha Aemple on )anikarnika 2ahi in P,rl may "o !ack to aro,nd 19$$, -hen the present !u4ari CpriestD reports that the temple -as !,ilt C/i",re 11GD. 0ts s,!d,ed palette and "eneral conception ' 69 ' resem!le those of the lar"e scenes of B,",da, altho,"h the composition is the reverse of that in /i",res 1$&+%, and the t-o differ eno,"h in details to s,""est that one -as not copied from the other. /inally it sho,ld !e noted that there are pict,res of the 3amayana:;< on the -alls of the main

Ja"annatha Aemple in P,ri, the s,!5ects of -hich are listed in 4ppendi( 9. Ahese no do,!t have a kind of canonical stat,s and may have served as models for vario,s ill,strators. Eonetheless, aside from a description of their s,!5ects, they cannot !e considered here !eca,se they cannot !e seen !y the non+ 6ind, or photo"raphed !y anyone. )oreover, !y all reports they have !een fre7,ently repainted, al!eit -ith some fidelity to older icono"raphy, -hich means that the present form -as not the e(act model for past artists.

!ain'in&s (rom 'he !-ri Area1

Paintin"s made for pil"rims resist chronolo"ical disc,ssion, for they are e(tremely conservative. Aheir p,rpose -as to memorialiHe @ord Ja"annatha, -ho transcends time. Eonetheless a fe- that have entered collections o,tside *rissa at kno-n dates provide a record of this very conservatism. 4mon" them a fairly ela!orate e(ample -ith narrative scenes to the side, no- in the >apard-ara Collection in Jaip,r, entered that co,rt in 1&9$ and hence -as pro!a!ly made late in the ei"hteenth cent,ry.:%%< 4 small, ro,"h depiction foc,sin" on the Ja"annatha triad, -hich came to the British ),se,m from the family of ?d-ard )oor pro!a!ly predates 1%19, -hen )oor left 0ndia.:%9< M 4nother, similar, ima"e, indistin",isha!le from very simple !atas[*] made today e(cept in its som!er pi"ments, -as ac7,ired !y the British ),se,m in 1%99.:9$< M 4nother !ata[*] , small and simple altho,"h more comple( than those in the British ),se,m 5,st mentioned, no- in the ),se,m of /ine 4rts in Boston, -as collected !y 4nanda Coomaras-amy, pro!a!ly in 1911.:91< M 0n 19## William 4rcher visited P,ri and collected a lar"e n,m!er of !atas[*] no- kept in the 0ndia *ffice @i!rary *ne of these, -hich had !een assi"ned to the nineteenth cent,ry on the !asis of its apparent archaism, t,rns o,t to !e painted on a ne-spaper that !ears the date 191G.:91< M While many -orks in that collection have !een p,!lished as early nineteenth cent,ry or !efore, 0 find that datin" impla,si!le and -o,ld assi"n them "enerally to the 191$s, many to, the very time of 4rcherBs visit. *n the -hole, data!le -orks demonstrate no marked chronolo"ical pro"ression, altho,"h they differ in details. 6ere 0 ill,strate t-o old !atas[*] sho-in" P,ri in the confi",ration of Kisn,Bs:;< conch shell Csan%hana(hi D, in -hich a scene from the 3amayana:;< fi",res in the ,pper ri"ht+hand corner. Ahe first is a lar"e, ela!orate -ork ac7,ired !y the Bi!liothS7,e Eationale in 1%99 C/i",re 116D.:9#< Ahe second, m,ch smaller, entered the British ),se,m !efore 1%96 C/i",re 11&D.:99< M Eeither e(ample is -orn, -hich s,""ests that they had !een recently made !efore !ein" taken a!road, rather than !ein" ,sed in 0ndia. Ao"ether these demonstrate that detailed, ela!orate -ork coe(isted -ith ro,"h paintin" in the past, as it does today Ahe !atas[*] in /i",res 116 and 11& differ from the B,",da -all paintin"s in their !ri"hter palette and some-hat more form,laic details, !,t not in "eneral approach. Both !atas[*] !alance the confrontation !et-een 3ama and 3avana:;< in the top ri"ht corner -ith a distinctively *rissan s,!5ect, the le"end of >anchi+>averi on the ,pper left.:9G< M 4 last ma5or period of professional paintin" in *rissa !e"ins -ith the revival ' 6G ' of the tradition in the 19G$s. 0n 19G1, -hen most chitra%aras had t,rned to other occ,pations, 6alina Qealey, a Polish -oman -hose h,s!and -as head of a T,aker villa"e pro5ect, settled in P,rl.:96< 6er interaction for a mere t-o years -ith the elderly painter Pan, )aharana and -ith vario,s a,thorities -ho provided a market for the paintersB -ork reversed the decline of the profession, -hich has flo,rished since then. Upon her depart,re in 19G9 a competition -as held in Bh,!anes-ar. Ahe -innin" -ork -as an e(tremely metic,lo,s pict,re of .anesa:;< !y Ja"annath )ahapatra, a chitra%ara from 3a"h,ra5p,r -ho had !een s,pportin" himself as a mason and actor in a Jatra company in P,ri,

and -ho no- ret,rned to paintin", a profession in -hich he remains today the ackno-led"ed leader. :9&< M Ja"annath )ahapatra preserves today an ,nfinished set of seventy+five 3amayana:;< ill,strations, -hich 6alina Qealey commissioned -ith a deposit in 19G9 !,t never ret,rned to collect C/i",res 11%, 119D. Ahese are ,n,s,al in format, !ein" a series of small, separate scenes -ith -ide mar"ins, as if they -ere intended to form a Western !ook. 4ccordin" to the painter, Qealey ori"inally -anted only fifty scenes, !,t he pers,aded her to enlar"e the n,m!er to seventy+five.:9%< Ao determine the e(act s,!5ects, she sent a professor from Utkal University, then in C,ttack, -ho disc,ssed the selection -ith Ja"annath )ahapatraJ the painter himself spent si( months readin" vario,s versions of the 3amayana:;< , in the end dependin" ,pon Kaisya 2adasivaBs Ramalila[*] , -ith -hich he -as familiar from his days of actin" in Jatra. Ahe dissemination of this ,nfinished setBs infl,ence makes an instr,ctive story 0n 1969 6G, 2,!as 8e, a representative of the 4ll 0ndia 6andicrafts Board, commissioned a copy of the same set, -hich he took to 8elhi, and -hich led to Ja"annath )ahapatraBs -innin" the Eational )aster Craftsman 4-ard in 196G C/i",re 11$D.:99< 4t some point, pro!a!ly -hen the set -as on its -ay to 8elhi, it -as copied !y Bi!h,ti >an,n"o, a Western+style painter in an art school in C,t+tack Cnot a chitra%ara !y casteD, and p,!lished in 19&& C/i",res 111, 111D.:1$$< M 0n J,ne 19%1 0 sa- the ,nfinished Qealey paintin"s and commissioned another version of the ori"inal set from Ja"annath )ahapatra, -hich -as !e",n in 19%1 and completed !y )ay 19%# C/i",res 11#+G1D.:1$1< M Ahese fo,r sets of 3amayana:;< ill,strations are virt,ally identical in the selection of scenes and in !asic icono"raphy. 4 comparison of partic,lar episodes demonstrates s,!tle differences of artistic effect. /or e(ample, the depiction of the 'anaras carryin" 3ama and @aksmana:;< to @anka:;< in !oth the 19G9 version made for Qealey C/i",re 11%D and the C,ttack copy of 19&& C/i",re 111D sho-s the !rid"e risin" at a steep an"le of 1G de"rees, -hereas in the 19%# set C/i",re 1#6D the an"le is red,ced to 9 de"rees, -hich is !oth less 5arrin" and less dramatically effective. 4t the same time the 19&& artist has prod,ced hills of radiatin", loose !r,sh strokes, -hich are hardly -ithin the !ata[*] tradition, and his faces lack the insistent ro,ndness that is characteristic of professional paintin" in *rissa. 0n the case of 3amaBs final !attle -ith 3avana:;< , it is clear that !oth the 19&& C/i",re 111D and the 19%# C/i",re 191D versions have altered the 196G prototype C/i",re 11$D in different -ays. >an,n"o, in his 19&& copy, retains the !asic contrast !et-een the demons lar"e chariot, vie-ed strai"ht from the side, and the herosB, seen at a ske-ed an"le, its li"ht horses prancin" heraldically in the center. ' 66 ' Iet he complicates the -hole -ith more monkeys, arro-s, and plants that set ,p an almost s,!versive sense of space. Ahe 19%# copy !oth rationaliHes the perspective of 3amaBs chariot and makes it more s,pernat,ral, -itho,t -heels or horses.:1$1< 8espite the demarcation of a "reen area of land !elo-, the simplification of the !ack"ro,nd is as fiat a desi"n as the 196G version. Ahe reason for d-ellin" on these e(amples is that the relationship amon" the fo,r sets is ,n,s,ally -ell doc,mented. Ahere is no reason to think that this partic,lar linea"e of models "oes !ack to !efore 19G9, and this may !e an ,n,s,al case !oth in the !ooklike format Cpossi!ly at the !ehest of a forei"n clientD and in the fact that a ma5or determinant of narrative choice -as literary rather than vis,al. Certainly, aside from B,",da there is no kno-n e(tended se7,ence of the 3amayana:;< in this tradition !efore QealeyBs visit, for only one or t-o scenes appeared in the more ela!orate !atas[*] . =2tory paintin"s= -ith m,ltiple episodes on one !ata[*] have !ecome pop,lar in the past decade, a form that may "o !ack to !oth lar"e pil"rima"e paintin"s Ce.". /i",re 11& framin" the central templeD

and paintin"s made for >risnaBs:;< Birthday, in -hich scenes of his childhood appear arran"ed either in rectan",lar frames or on the petals of a lar"e lot,s.:1$#< /o,r lar"e !atas[*] of 3amayana:;< s,!5ects are incl,ded in 4ppendi( G:C1D 11 scenes from Ja"annath )ahapatraBs o-n -orkshop CPlate 11DJ C1D 11 scenes from 8anda 2ahi, laid o,t !y Ja"annath )ahapatraBs sli"htly yo,n"er contemporary 4nanta )aharana C/i",re 1G#DJ C#D &G scenes made in Bh,!anes-ar !y Ja"annath )ahapatraBs former p,pil, Bhikari )aharana C/i",re 1G9DJ and C9D 1$& scenes from 8anda 2ahi, also made ,nder 4nanta )aharanaBs ae"is.:1$9< M Ahese e(amples have !een ar!itrarily selected amon" the lar"e n,m!er prod,ced these days, !,t they serve to ill,strate ho- competin" prototypes Cthe B,",da -all paintin"s and Ja"annath )ahapatraBs setD remain in effect, al!eit often indirectly and in the artistBs memory 2in"le narrative scenes may also occ,py smaller !atas[*] C/i",res 1GG, 1G6D. Ahis kind of pict,re is partic,larly in demand for sale to visitors to *rissa todayJ 0 kno- of no very old e(amples. /inally, the chitra%aras painted on -ood, paper, and villa"e -alls as -ell as on cloth. Ahe covers that enclosed palm+leaf and paper !ooks -ere pro!a!ly their -ork, altho,"h it is conceiva!le that occasionally the ill,strator of a man,script e(chan"ed his styl,s for a !r,sh.:1$G< 4mon" those covers that s,rvive -ith scenes of the 3amayana:;< , the coronation of 3ama is a common s,!5ect C/i",re 1G&D, often in a form close to the same s,!5ect in !atas[*] and r,ral marria"e paintin"s.:1$6< M 4s an e(ample of s,ch -ork !y professional painters, 0 incl,de here a -ooden -eddin" !o( C/i",res 1G%+61D decorated in the 19&$s !y the late Bha"avata )aharana, a painter from 3a"h,ra5p,r employed !y the .overnment Arainin" Center in Bh,!anes-ar.:1$&< M 0n 19%# he spoke directly of his visits to B,",da, -here he had also painted on cloth copies of the Kiranchi:;< Earayana:;< m,rals C/i",re 1G6D. 4mon" paintin"s on villa"e ho,ses in the P,ri area, the only 3amayana:;< s,!5ect 0 have fo,nd is the coronation of 3ama, -hich commonly s,rmo,nts the door-ay decorated for a da,"hterBs -eddin". /or instance, the -ork in /i",re 161 is said !y the people of 8anda 2ahi to have !een e(ec,ted in the 19G$s !y Pan, )aharana. Aoday s,ch -ork, done on vario,s rit,al occasions for little money, is not ,ndertaken !y the more respected painters, !,t it seems to have !een part of a chitra%ara7s profession in the past. ' 6& '

Re&ional S-:s+hools o( !ro(essional !ain'in&

4s 0 have mentioned already in connection -ith the history of the painters, -hen ne- Ja"annatha Aemples -ere esta!lished in the lesser fe,datory states of *rissa Ckno-n as gada4ata[*] kin"domsD, chitra%aras -ere also sent o,t from P,rl as temple servants. While the dispersal, -hich led to the "ro-th of distinctive re"ional styles of paintin", may "o !ack to the si(teenth cent,ry, most of these s,!schools cannot !e doc,mented !efore the very recent past. *ne of the most ele"ant centers of paintin" in the nineteenth cent,ry may have !een the area of Eaya"arh, a!o,t %$ kilometers -est of P,rl, !,t !eca,se no e(amples of the 3amayana:;< have !een fo,nd there, 0 do not consider the area here.:1$%<

Sone5-r1
*ne of the oldest gada4ata[*] Ja"annatha centers, 2onep,r, #$$ kilometers inland on the ,pper )ahanadi, no,rished a local school of paintin". Aoday chitra%aras report that their forefathers mi"rated here seven "enerations a"o, that is, early in the nineteenth cent,ry:1$9< 2onep,r is kno-n for its playin" cards Cgan4ifa D, made even today !y one of three s,rvivin" painter families. Ahese, like the cards of the P,rl area C"enerally 8asavatara setsD and of Parlakhem,ndi disc,ssed !elo-, are made !y

the same "eneral proced,res as patas:;< , altho,"h they m,st !e some-hat stiffer. Ahe 2onep,r cards are distinctive amon" *rissan types in their small siHe, in the -ay desi"ns are not al-ays arran"ed aro,nd the center, and in the very an",lar, 5erky dra-in" of the fi",res C/i",re 16#D. 4ll 2onep,r sets are !ased on the 3amayana:;< , !,t in a ,ni7,e form -ith t-elve s,itsFsi( on 3amaBs side C3ama, @aksmana:;< , 2,"riva, Jam!avan, 6an,mana, and Ki!hisana:;< D and si( on 3avanaBs:;< C3avana:;< , >,m!hakarna:;< , 0ndra5ita, >ali, 2iva, and 8,r"aD.:11$< M Ahe sym!ol of the 6an,mana s,it C/i",re 16#, !ottomD is a mo,ntain that ass,mes, not the ro,nded lo!es common in !oth palm+leaf man,scripts and !atas[*] , !,t rather an ,n,s,al tall shape that c,rves at the top, -hich appears also in the early man,script of the maru 2ata%a .:111< M Ahis, as -ell as stylistic anomalies and the ,ni7,eness of the "ame itself, indicates that 2onep,r paintin" "oes !ack as far as any *rissan school as an alternative to the P,rl tradition. While this to-n does not preserve tr,e narrative treatments of the 3amayana:;< , the entry of the epic into the to-ns identity, in the @ankesvari:;< 2hrine and in the festival of @anka:;< Podi:;< descri!ed in Chapter 1, s,""ests that the 2onep,r gan4ifa cards -ere part of a !i""er pattern of local tradition.

!arla,hem-ndi1
*n the !o,ndary !et-een 4ndhra and *rissa, Parlakhem,ndi is a lively, comple( c,lt,ral center. Ahe ei"ht chitra%ara ho,seholds active today report that they have !een here a!o,t a h,ndred yearsJ they intermarry -ith families else-here m .an5am 8istrict as -ell as aro,nd P,rl. 4 -all+paintin" cycle of the 3amayana:;< here has recently !een lost.:111< 2everal sets of playin" cards from Parlakhem,ndi no- in the Kictoria and 4l!ert ),se,m "o !ack to at least 191%, incl,din" a 3amayana:;< "ame C/i",res 169+6%D.:11#< M Unlike the 2onep,r type, there are ei"ht s,its here. ?ach card Ce(cept for rather standard face cards, -hich sho- a chariot and an elephant composed of -omenD !ears arro-s a!ove to indicate n,merical val,e. Belo- are scenes from the story, in short an ei"hty+episode version from 3amaBs !irth to his coronation, each episode -ith a !rief caption. Ahe ' 6% ' style of paintin" resem!les the sketchy s,!sidiary fi",res in some of the lar"e pil"rima"e -orks from the P,rl area. Ahe details of partic,lar scenes, s,ch as 6an,mana seated !efore 3avana:;< disc,ssed !elo-, are ,ni7,e -ithin 3amayana:;< icono"raphy. Ah,s this e(ceptional set seems to represent the adaptation of esta!lished traditions to ne- s,!5ect matter on the part of an inventive artist. Parlakhem,ndi is partic,larly interestin" !eca,se paintin" there has a poly"lot clientele. /or *riya patrons the most common commissions are -all paintin"s or paper versions of the same s,!5ects, re7,ired for ma5or rit,als in each lifetime, s,ch as the sacred thread ceremony and marria"e of a da,"hter. Ael,", patrons prefer paintin"s on cloth for the -orship of partic,lar divinities, re7,ired for ann,al festivalsJ these paintin"s are e(ec,ted on ,nsiHed thin cotton, and the !ack"ro,nd is left !are, so that the effect differs from that of the typical P,rl !ata[*] . Both comm,nities also !,y paintin"s on -ood. 0t -o,ld !e a mistake to see a complete !reak in the style of a sin"le artistBs -ork for these t-o different kinds of patron. ),ch Parlakhem,ndi -ork is sketchy and vi"oro,s, -ith more dependence ,pon line and -ith fe-er fiat areas of color than even the ro,"h paintin"s done on ho,ses aro,nd 3a"h,ra5p,r.:119< Ahis style can !e ,nderstood as a variant on the P,rl style, occasioned !y local p,rchasers as opposed to pil"rims, some of -hom may re7,ire more permanent and densely !,ilt+,p -ork. Eonetheless in Parlakhem,ndi, especially in paintin" on cloth and -ood, a preponderance of frontal over profile heads as -ell as partic,lar motifs Cso,th 0ndian -omenBs cost,me, lack of lo!ed hillsD leads to an effect that differs from the *rissan mainstream as -e have seen it aro,nd P,rl.

Je*5ore1
4lmost 1$$ kilometers -est of Parlakhem,ndi and located on the ed"e of tri!al tracts, Jeypore ill,strates the linka"e amon" the vario,s paintin" s,!schools as opposed to dependence directly ,pon the center of P,n. Ahe present small comm,nity of chitra%aras -as !ro,"ht from Parlakhem,ndi a!o,t ninety years a"o, replacin" previo,s painters -hose -ork for the Jeypore Ja"annatha Aemple -as fo,nd inade7,ate.:11G< Ahe style of paintin" here represents a variant ,pon the vi"oro,s, linear forms of the paintersB ori"inal home. *ne old e(ample of their -ork is a !ata[*] depictin" the marria"e of 3ama and his !rothers, -hich the records of the *rissa 2tate ),se,m say -as made in 19$# C/i",re 169D.:116< M Ahe ne,tral !ack"ro,nd and linear forms here s,""est that the Parlakhem,ndi s,!style "oes !ack at least to the !e"innin" of this cent,ry Ahe Jeypore painters contin,e to s,pport themselves !y paintin" -eddin" pict,res like those made for *riyas in Parlakhem,ndi and !y makin" masks for the active dance+drama tradition of this to-n. Ahe artists say they are a!le to paint narrative scenes, !,t these seem to !e ,ncommon.

Chi,i'i1
/inally the small princely state of Chikiti, ro,"hly &$ kilometers northeast of Parlakhem,ndi, !ro,"ht chitra%aras from 3anp,r as lon" as t-o h,ndred years a"o. Wall paintin"s of >risna:;< themes in the Chaitanya )atha:;< may have !een painted a!o,t seventy years a"o.:11&< While here and in -eddin" paintin"s minor so,thern intr,sions occ,r Cnota!ly a tall type of cro-nD, on the -hole the Chikiti style does not differ as radically from that of P,rl as do the styles of other s,!schools. Eonetheless one livin" painter in Chikiti has developed his o-n ver+ ' 69 ' sion of the !roader tradition. Ahis is 4panna )ahapatra, !orn aro,nd 191$, the son of a painter -ho -as "iven the title 3atna C=5e-el=D !y the 3a5a of Chikiti. *n the one hand, 4panna preserves traditional effects more f,lly than most painters in 3a"h,ra5p,rFnota!ly a rich, som!er palette and a lac7,ered s,rface. *n the other hand, he paints -ith sophistication and a fine !r,sh, as in the fly -hisk held aloft in /i",re 1&$, and some ill,sionistic effects creep into his more recent -ork C/i",re 1&1D. 6is faces follo- the *rissan form,la, !,t !eca,se the p,pil is lar"e and the chin delicately dra-n, they are more representational than those in the -ork of contemporaries. 4panna )ahapatra s,pports himself !y paintin", partic,larly 8asavatara playin" cards, in -hich his -ife assists him. 6e is also a -ell+read individ,al, a!le to 7,ote the *aidehisa *ilasa[*] and potentially to ill,strate it. 6ere, as in the case of Ja"annath )ahapatra in 3a"h,ra5p,r, -e see a stron" and talented artist -ho takes his tradition in ne- directions. A-o very different kinds of pict,re makin" have e(isted side !y side for at least the past t-o cent,ries in *rissa. Ahe one, palm+leaf ill,stration, -as linked to the !ook and practiced !y a variety of literate individ,als. Ahe other, professional paintin", -as often linked to reli"io,s c,lts and practiced !y a hereditary caste. 0 kno- of no case !efore the 19&$s of a chitra%ara takin" ,p the styl,s of the !ook ill,strator. Eor does a paintin" on cloth !y a !rahman, karana:;< , or merchant s,rvive. Iet Bra5anatha Bada5ena:;< descri!ed himself as prod,cin" chitras as -ell as -orks on paper and palm leaf, and )ichha Pata5oshiBs 5oined palm+leaf ima"es of the P,ri temple -ere la!eled !atas[*] . Perhaps the !est candidate for a transitional fi",re is Jad,mani )ahapatra, a chitra%ara !orn at 0tamati early in the nineteenth cent,ry, -hose descendents say that he painted. 6e -as a literate individ,al, remem!ered in the history of *riya literat,re for his -it and poetry, -ho mi"ht -ell have -ritten on palm leaves.:11%< Jad,mani reminds ,s that the professional painter did not e(ist in a "hetto, isolated from the -orld of

letters. @ike-ise it is -orth remem!erin" that the vario,s ill,strators of palm+leaf man,scripts sa- the -all paintin"s of B,",da and other !,ildin"s, ,sed -ooden o!5ects prod,ced !y the chitra%aras , and sa- !atas[*] in homes and ann,ally in the Ja"annatha Aemple. While social stat,s may have set some man,script ill,strators apart from professional painters, it is precisely the lack of trainin" or inherited sense of his o-n vis,al tradition that -o,ld have made the scri!e s,scepti!le to the model of the chitra%ara . ' &$ '

< Orissan S+-l5'-re o( Rama*ana./0 Themes

?arlier sc,lpt,re -o,ld seem to !e a promisin" so,rce for the pict,res ,pon -hich this st,dy foc,ses. *n the one hand, sc,lpt,re preserves -hat -e do not have in paintin" !efore the ei"hteenth cent,ry, or in te(ts !efore the fifteenth cent,ryFversions of the 3ama story c,rrent in the re"ion of *rissa itself. *n the other hand, -e are ,sed to the ass,mption that art feeds ,pon art, and that artists are more open to vis,al than to ver!al models. Partic,larly in 0ndia, -here the artist is "enerally an artisan, often a relatively lo-+caste s,dra, not necessarily literate, his hereditary or professionally ta,"ht tradition is likely to !e passed on !y ima"es st,died as models. 0n the present sit,ation, ho-ever, early sc,lpt,re does not "et ,s very far. Ahere is a lar"e "ap !et-een reliefs of the tenth cent,ry or !efore and pictorial traditions that s,rvive only from the ei"hteenth cent,ry. Ahat one fo,rteenth+cent,ry e(ample is close to some recent paintin"s s,""ests that the little+ e(plored intervenin" period misfit s,pply more links !et-een the t-o traditions. )oreover, the early relief cycles seem to have their o-n 7,estiona!le relationship to te(ts, and -e cannot !e s,re hom,ch of their rendition of time se7,ence and detail res,lts from local versions of the story as opposed to the partic,lar choice of sc,lptor and architect. 0n fact later man,scripts, -here -e can identify -hat te(t the artist kne-, may !e more ,sef,l for ,nderstandin" ancient sc,lpt,re than vice versa. 4t any rate, 0 find fe- si"nificant connections in narrative !et-een the e(amples disc,ssed here and later pict,res. Iet it is -orth considerin" these early sc,lpt,res, !oth =for the record= to demonstrate the anti7,ity of this s,!5ect in *rissa, and for the pro!lems they present, -hich are compara!le to those posed !y later pict,res.

Sa'r-&hnes)ara Tem5le a' 2h-:aneswar

Ahe first carvin"s of the 3amayana:;< in *rissa occ,r on one of the oldest intact temples in Bh,!anes-ar, the 2atr,"hnesvara, -hich may "o !ack to aro,nd 4.8. 6$$.:1< 6ere the five dentil+like !locks !elo- an ima"e niche !ear scenes leadin" ,p to the death of Kalin C/i",re 1&1D. 2,ch dentils else-here on the same ' &1 ' temple !ear fi",res that do not have partic,lar narrative content, -hich means that the story !ecomes an ,ne(pected, incidental overlay here. ?ach !lock !ears only a fe- fi",res, read from the left: C1D 2,"riva implorin" 3amaJ C1D 3ama "arlandin" 2,"rivaJ C#D 3ama, @aksmana:;< , and 2,"riva -alkin"J C9D 3ama dra-in" his !o-, -ith 2,"rivaJ CGD Kalin fi"htin" and collapsin". Ahis se7,ence introd,ces an event favored in early *rissan reliefs. 6ere the act,al fi"ht is not very strikin" !y virt,e of the division

of the t-o monkeys on separate panels and the placement of the event at one end of the series. Beca,se the entire space covered is small Cc. 1 meterD, the direction in -hich the temple -as circ,mam!,lated need not have determined its left+to+ri"ht readin": it -as seen at one "lance. Ahe direction in -hich short narrative se7,ences are read is not consistent in early 0ndian art, altho,"h the movement from left to ri"ht follo-s -hat seems to !e a nat,ral proclivity !ased on the movement of indi"eno,s 0ndian -ritin" systems.:1<

S)arna=ales)ara./0 Tem5le a' 2h-:aneswar

Ahe 2iva shrine in Bh,!anes-ar traditionally kno-n as 2varna5alesvara:;< is amon" the earliest freestandin" temples in *rissa, pro!a!ly a -ork of the early seventh cent,ry.:#< 8espite its r,ined condition, -hich necessitated the addition of many ne- !locks of stone -hen it -as restored in 19&9, "reat ele"ance of desi"n is visi!le. Plain -alls alternate -ith ela!orate niches, and !oldly carved decorative mem!ers stand o,t a"ainst fiat patterns. 4 narrative frieHe is part of this orchestrated effect, leadin" the eye aro,nd the s7,are !,ildin" and at the same time demarcatin" the top of the strai"ht -all Ca portion kno-n as (aranda[*] in local terminolo"yD from the "ently c,rved s,perstr,ct,re. Ahe s,!5ect matter of this frieHe incl,des the story of 4r5,naBs confrontation -ith 2iva in the form of a >irata from the )aha!harata,:9< M as -ell as part of the 3amayana:;< . 4s the plan C/i",re 1&#D sho-s, the scenes are not arran"ed in strai"htfor-ard order of plot. Ahe first se7,ence occ,rs on the north -all and its events seem to proceed from ri"ht to left C/i",res 1&9, 1&GD, -hereas the second occ,rs on the north corner of the -est -all and proceeds, like the remainder of the -est -all, from left to ri"ht C/i",re 1&6D. *ne mi"ht e(pect the vie-er to circ,mam!,late the temple clock-ise, the more a,spicio,s direction of movement, -ith the ri"ht sho,lder facin" the o!5ect of -orship, and hence to see the ri"ht end of each frieHe first. Iet co,nterclock-ise movement or even a comple( path involvin" !acktrackin" is conceiva!le.:G< Ahe direction of rit,al movement is, in all honesty, not kno-n here, and hence -e m,st entertain !oth hypotheses. 0f the -orshiper moved clock-ise, the 3amayana:;< !e"an on the -est -all -ith the episode of the death of Kalin in reverse order, first the fallen monkey, then the events that lead ,p to his fall. Ahis entire se7,ence forms a kind of flash+for-ard, follo-ed !y the main events of the kidnap, presented in chronolo"ical se7,ence. Ahis prolepsis -o,ld serve to emphasiHe the death of Kalin, -here 3ama plays a d,!io,s role, yet it e(plains that episode !y ret,rnin" to the mainstream of the epic.:6< 0f circ,mam!,lation -as co,nterclock-ise, the story !e"an -ith the entire section on the north -all told as a series of flash!acks. *ne mi"ht ima"ine 2,"riva ' &1 ' askin" 3ama, =What !ro,"ht yo, hereN= Ahis -o,ld lead to narration in reverseF=Jatay,:;< told me that 3avana:;< took 2ita, -hile 0 -as killin" the demon+deer that the three of ,s had seen.= Ahis analepsis -o,ld s,!ordinate the kidnappin" to the role of the monkeys as allies, proceedin" on to the death of Kalin, -hich cemented the alliance, on the -est -all. 0t may never !e possi!le to ans-er the 7,estion -hich direction the vie-er moved here. 0n either case, -e m,st take for "ranted some achronic principle of or"aniHation that does not follo- any ver!al version of the 3amayana:;< yet identified. Ahe lar"e dislocations are not diffic,lt to rationaliHe and have co,nterparts in 0ndian literat,re, -hereas the serial reversal of se7,ence is more ,ne(pected.:&< We shall see in recent palm+leaf man,scripts some cases in -hich the artist deli!erately departed from the se7,ence of events in the te(t he himself had copied.

*rder aside, there are some note-orthy parts to these reliefs. Ahe ma"ic deer, 7,ite nat,rally carved, cavorts "racef,lly in t-o scenes in -hich the forest settin" is incl,ded C/i",re 1&G, topD. 2hot !y 3ama, it rears ,p-ard so that )aricha emer"es as a h,man torso, in a centa,r+like form that resem!les later ima"es in Ben"al !,t not in *rissa.:%< Ahe eastern portion of this same north -all incl,des many monkey fi",res to the left of 2,"riva C/i",re 1&9, leftD. Possi!ly these are simply his follo-ers, or possi!ly three confrontin" pairs of monkeys represent the 7,arrelin" Kalin and 2,"riva.:9< Clearly the >iskindha:;< se7,ence is central here, -hichever direction the frieHe is read. Ahe monkeys contin,e to play a ma5or role in *rissa, al!eit in several different forms. Ahe se7,ence of KalinBs death is told -ith emphatic clarity on the -est -all C/i",re 1&6D. 4t the left, 2,"rivaBs leanin" pose conveys to the more rela(ed !rothers the ,r"ency of his concern. *nly fo,r trees appear, not necessarily reflectin" a te(t that did not specify the n,m!er.:1$< 2,ch a!!reviation contri!,tes to the ta,tness of this frieHe. 3amaBs dia"onal stance !efore the trees is repeated as he shoots at the symmetrically paired monkeys. KalinBs prostrate form m,st have stood o,t !oldly a"ainst c,rvin" forms that pro!a!ly represent hilly earth !,t may also evoke clo,ds, -ith t-o flyin" monkey mo,rners to the ri"ht. Whatever the e(pected movement of the vie-er, this se7,ence is paired -ith the confrontation !et-een 4r5,na and 2iva on the other side of the same -est -all.:11< M 0n !oth the hero dra-s his !o- dramatically at the very center of the frieHe. 0n !oth the hero is involved in an action in -hich he does not appear in an entirely admira!le li"ht, altho,"h in !oth le"ends responsi!ility is displaced. Ah,s -e are reminded that the sc,lptor or planner of the temple co,ld capitaliHe ,pon the partic,lar physical sit,ation in -hich he -orked to add meanin" to familiar stories.

Simhana'ha Tem5le
Ahe 2imhanatha 2iva Aemple on 2imhanatha 0sland in the )ahanadi -as pro!a!ly !,ilt in the ninth cent,ry.:11< 0ts plan, -hich incl,des a f,ll porch, and its decor, -hich is prof,se, are developed !eyond the 2varna5alesvara:;< C/i",re 1&&D. Ahe carvin" is inventive in s,!5ect matter, irre",lar in desi"n, partic,larly on the porch, and some-hat coarse in e(ec,tion. /rieHes occ,r not only atop the shrine -all !,t also a!ove niches and alon" the lo-er ed"e of the porch roof in lon" ' &# ' se7,ences that !affle identification.:1#< Ahe -ealth of carvin", relatively ,niform in scale and -ith simple fi",res a"ainst a plain !ack"ro,nd, makes the frieHes sli"htly less prominent than on the 2varna5alesvara:;< . ?lephant h,nts occ,r on the north and so,th sides of the shrine and a polo "ame on the front of the porch, indications that "eneraliHed depictions of royal life -ere "rad,ally replacin" mytholo"ical s,!5ects. Eonetheless, the 3amayana:;< does clearly occ,py a si"nificant place on the -est face of the 2imhanatha shrine. *nce a"ain the death of Kalin appears, here as at the 2varna5alesvara:;< on the rear of the temple C/i",re 1&%D. Ahis time the scene occ,pies a !and a!ove the central niche, -hich ho,ses an ima"e of 2iva -ith the 3iver .an"es. Possi!ly the sc,lptor -as a-are of the earlier temple, some G$ kilometers to the east at Bh,!anes-ar, for more or less the same events occ,r thereFthe approach to the conflict, 3ama takin" aim to the left of the !attle, and the death of Kalin mo,rned !y monkeys Ccf. /i",re 1&6D. Comparison of the t-o ,nderscores the 2imhanatha carverBs simplified and less dramatic treatment. 6ere 3ama dra-in" the !o- is not contrasted in pose -ith the fi",res on either side of him. Ahe fi"htin" monkeys post,re less vividly. KalinBs !ody is e(tended in a more nat,ral and less emphatic position. Eor does the center of the composition correspond to that of the !and !elo-, a li,ga ,nder

-orship. 2li"htly more than a meter a!ove this !and, the (aranda[*] frieHe at the top of the -all appears to !e entirely devoted to the "reat !attle for @anka:;< C/i",re 1&9D. 0ndivid,al events cannot !e distin",ished, -ith the possi!le e(ception of 6an,mana !earin" the mo,ntain to a fallen @aksmana:;< at the left end of the central pro5ectin" facet, or raha Cmarked ( in /i",re 1&9D. 4t the left end of the entire frieHe and a"ain at the ri"ht of the central raha the heroic !rothers appear as archers. 4t the far ri"ht 3avana:;< appears -ith five heads visi!le, ridin" in a chariot. 2imilar confrontations occ,r in later paintin"s Ce.". /i",res 111, 11#D. )ost of this frieHe consists of confrontations !et-een monkeys and fi",res -itho,t tails, pres,ma!ly demons, creatin" a "eneraliHed impression of !attle. Ahe resem!lance !et-een these fi"hts and that !et-een Kalin and 2,"riva !elo- is vis,ally effective and may constit,te a 5,stification !y these sc,lptors for 3amaBs seemin"ly ,nheroic action in the lo-er scene: Kalin -as compara!le to the demons. 0n short, -e see some contin,ity of narrative choice here, and at the same time a recastin" !oth of content and of form in this vi"oro,sly carved temple. 8ecorative standards have shifted from stressin" the clarity of individ,al parts, as in earlier mon,ments, to-ard the ma(im,m enrichment of the entire temple.

Varahi Tem5le a' Cha-rasi

Ahe Karahi Aemple at Cha,rasi, half-ay !et-een Bh,!anes-ar and >onarak, takes ,s into the later ninth or early tenth cent,ry.:19< Ahis shrine is 2akta, that is dedicated to a "oddess, and sho-s tantric concerns in some of its carvin"s, -hich, ho-ever, 0 do not see partic,larly reflected in the 3amayana:;< frieHes.:1G< M 0ts desi"n is comple(, -ith m,ltiple -all planes and crisply artic,lated moldin"s, inter-eavin" vertical and horiHontal lines. Ahe (aranda[*] frieHe at the top of the shrine -all is a!sor!ed into a rich and three+dimensional s,perstr,ct,re, a contin,in" development that removes the occasion for narrative s,!5ects in this position. Ahe porch, ' &9 ' ho-ever, retains a simple t-o+layered str,ct,re, as opposed to the s,!se7,ent m,ltitiered and ro,nded roof -here frieHesJ later come to lose their visi!ility and si"nificance. Ahe Cha,rasi porch th,s has t-o frieHes, altho,"h the ,pper one is hard to see and its s,!5ect matter hard to identify. Ahe scale of these frieHes is proportionally smaller than on earlier temples, red,cin" comple( narrative opport,nity and connectin" them -ith the lavish, small+scale decor, a"ainst -hich occasional lar"e elements stand o,t. Iet despite their scale and some repetitive portions, more care seems to have !een ,sed in the carvin" of these frieHes, -ith elements of settin" and m,ltiple relief planes, than at 2imhanatha. 0n "eneral there is "reat sensitivity in the carvin" of the lar"e ima"es at Cha,rasi, for e(ample the soft, fleshy treatment of the main icon of the "oddess Karahi, -hich carries over even into tiny fi",res. Ahe 3amayana:;< frieHe commences to the ri"ht side of the door and proceeds co,nterclock-ise C/i",res 1%$, 1%1D. /irst on the east -all the e(iles enco,nter 2,rpanakha:;< , -here dama"e and repetition make it diffic,lt to distin",ish events ,ntil -e see the ma"ic deer, -hich leads into another p,HHlin" scene.:16< 4ro,nd the corner on the north appears a centa,r+like )aricha -hose torso emer"es from the deerBs !ody, as on the 2varna5alesvara:;< , sho-in" the contin,ity in the interpretation of that element, -hich -as later to chan"e in *rissa C/i",re 1%1D. Jatay,Bs:;< !attle -ith 3avana:;< is divided !y -hat seems to !e landscape from Jatay,Bs:;< final enco,nter -ith the heroes. Ahe novel ima"e of a lar"e fi",re fallen on a hill flanked !y a monkey may represent 8,nd,!hiBs corpse thro-n !y Kalin, a flash!ack that is appropriate, if ,n,s,alJ !oth in sc,lpt,re else-here and in pict,res, it is virt,ally al-ays 3amaBs liftin" of this corpse rather than the initial episode that is

depicted. Ah,s here -e seem to have vis,al analepsis that corresponds to most ver!al versions of the story, in -hich KalinBs e(ploits are reco,nted to test the hero. 3amaBs shootin" thro,"h the seven trees is sho-n clearly,:1&< M -hereas the killin" of Kalin is minimiHed and the acc,satory !ody of the slain monkey Cpresent at !oth the 2varna5alesvara:;< and 2imhanathaD is a!sent. Ah,s the moral iss,e seems s,!mer"ed in storytellin". Ahe remainder of the north side of the porch may contin,e the 3amayana:;< , pro!a!ly the monkeysB assistance to 3ama.:1%< M Ahe so,th side of the porch contin,es more scenes of monkeys, and its ,pper tier incl,des a stretch of -ater Cthe lar"e fish at the top left of /i",re 1%#D, flanked !y monkeys carryin" somethin", perhaps !,ildin" the !rid"e to @anka:;< . 6ere a"ain, -e seem to confront an ,nfamiliar version of the story that emphasiHes the monkeysB activities, one thread in *rissan 3amayana:;< cele!rations.:19< M 4t the same time, it is -orth reco"niHin" that even in familiar portions of the story, fi",res appear -hose presence can hardly !e re7,ired in any version of the story. /or e(ample, at the ri"ht of /i",re 1%1 CtopD, a r,nnin" female fi",re is t-ice flanked !y men -ith !o-s -ho seem to accompany herJ ,s,ally the !o- indicates the heroes, altho,"h one -o,ld e(pect @aksmana:;< alone to confront 2,rpanakha:;< , -ho is called for at this point in the story. Co,ld these "ro,ps represent 2ita -ith the t-o !rothers, or mi"ht the archers !e the demonic forces of >hara and 8,sana:;< N Ahe point is that the Cha,rasi sc,lptors -ere not aimin" at clarity of comm,nication in s,ch hard+to+see frieHes that mer"e -ith the rich decor of the temple. Ahis does not imply that storytellin" did not matter to them, !,t rather that its "oal -as one of em!ellishment rather than didactic address to the vie-er. ' &G '

Isola'ed Car)in&s7 (rom Narra'i)e 'o I+on>

Eo do,!t other early temples had frieHes of this s,!5ect.:1$< Clearly the 3amayana:;< -as -idely depicted in ancient *rissa, and the narrative -as adapted to its partic,lar settin" and to the evolvin" desi"n and concerns of the temple. *n the one hand, as -e have seen, the nat,re of the frieHe itself chan"ed in a -ay that altered its s,ita!ility for clear storytellin". *n the other hand, the ima"ery of the temple, revolvin" aro,nd a some-hat fle(i!le pantheon, came increasin"ly to evoke "eneral -ell+!ein" and often the -orld of a royal or no!le patron, so that activities from everyday life, s,ch as capt,rin" elephants, occ,pied the frieHes that remained. Ahis evolvin" concern of temple sc,lpt,re leads at the "reat mid+thirteenth+cent,ry 2,n Aemple of >onarak to an all,sive scene of a marria"e -ith monkeys !elo-. *ther chlorite reliefs in this "eneral position represent the fo,nder of the temple, >in" Earasimha 8eva. Possi!ly the monkeys si"nify a comparison !et-een him and 3ama, for in fact his -ifeBs name -as 2ita.:11< M 3ama contin,ed to !e sho-n as one of the ma5or forms of Kisn,:;< . Ah,s it is no s,rprise that he sho,ld appear in isolation, flanked !y his !rother, -ife, and t-o monkeys on a porch -indo- of the later thirteenth+cent,ry 4nanta Kas,deva Aemple at Bh,!anes-ar.:11< Ahis is part of a pan+0ndian process in -hich separate ima"es of the "od appear, reflectin" the standardiHation of Kisn,Bs:;< ma5or avatars rather than a c,lt of 3ama himself. 2,ch ima"es are o!vio,sly most likely to appear on Kaisnava:;< temples, -hereas o,r earlier e(amples in *rissa -ere 2aiva or 2akta. Ahe same is tr,e in other re"ions. Ahe evol,tion of literary te(ts -o,ld s,""est that a 2aiva conte(t for the 3ama le"end is a late development, visi!le in the dhyatma Ramayana[*] disc,ssed a!ove, as -ell as in A,lsi 8asBs Ramcharitmanas in 6indi. Ahe earlier sc,lpt,re -o,ld s,""est, ho-ever, that in fact the 3amayana:;< -as not only compati!le -ith the c,lt of 2iva !,t that there may have !een oral versions in -hich the -hole had a 2aiva frame. )ore remarka!le than isolated ima"es of 3ama are isolated ima"es of other characters in the story.

6an,mana is the most likely candidate for this position, for he comes to represent the epitome of reli"io,s devotion, or (ha%ti. Ahro,"ho,t north 0ndia the roadside ima"e of the heroic monkey carryin" the entire )o,nt .andhamadana in order to !rin" @aksmana:;< a life+savin" her! is a familiar si"ht. 0n *rissa lar"e, isolated carvin"s of this s,!5ect "o !ack at least to the tenth cent,ry /or e(ample, one in the compo,nd of the .a,ri Aemple in Bh,!anes-ar, apparently contemporary -ith that shrine, sho-s 6an,mana stridin" ,pon a demon on -hich a female fi",re sits, a distinctive local version of the monkeyBs heroic act C/i",re 1%9D.:1#< While the accomplished carvin" of the -oman !elodemonstrates that this carvin" lies -ithin the classical tradition of *rissan sc,lpt,re, the -orn s,rface of the ,pper part, covered for cent,ries -ith red lead, is a reminder of the potency of this ima"e type as an o!5ect of pop,lar -orship. 2,ch ima"es may s,""est the predominance of the iconic over the narrative, yet this polarity is !y no means a!sol,te, an iss,e to -hich -e shall ret,rn. 4 fine fo,rteenth+cent,ry relief that pro!a!ly decorated a -indo- in the r,ined syncretic 2omanatha Aemple at Kishn,p,r Ca!o,t 1 kilometers from Cha,rasiD demonstrates the com!ination of types C/i",re 1%GD. 3ama dominates the composition, s,rro,nded !y monkeys, almost indistin",isha!le e(cept for the cro-ned ' &6 ' 2,"riva -ho kneels at his feet. Eo -onder this has !een "enerically descri!ed as =3ama flanked !y monkeys.=:19< Iet the panel !elo- s,""ests a partic,lar se7,ence in the story Ahere a second archer holds an arro-, a s,!5ect later represented in paintin" CPlate 11D and descri!ed in *riya te(ts, -hen @aksmana:;< , an"ry at 2,"rivaBs dr,nkenness, strai"htens his arro-s, preparin" to assa,lt >iskindha:;< . Ah,s the monkeys flankin" this fi",re m,st !e the solicito,s monkeys -ho so,"ht to ass,a"e @aksmana:;< , -hile the o!livio,s 2,"riva t,rns a-ay at the far left. 0t follo-s that the ,pper scene represents the a-akened, penitent monkey kin" deliverin" his follo-ers to 3ama, leadin" ,ltimately to the ret,rn of 2ita. 6ere at last -e see a distinctively *riya version of an incident that occ,rs pictorially later, a case of local contin,ity that is to !e e(pected, partic,larly !et-een late sc,lpt,re and s,!se7,ent paintin". 0ts very stat,s as an ima"e com!ines the narrative and o!5ect of -orship in a form -e may for the time !ein" descri!e as an =iconic ta!lea,,= /inally, one last e(ample of sc,lpt,re is a -ooden -indo- screen, similar to the one 5,st descri!ed in its physical f,nction and in its foc,s on a sin"le static moment C/i",re 1%6D. Ahis -as pro!a!ly carved -here it is no- preserved, at 8harakot, one of the small co,rts in so,thern *rissa not far from ma5or centers of man,script and professional paintin" ,pon -hich this !ook d-ells. Ahis ,ndoc,mented carvin" may !elon" to the late ei"hteenth or early nineteenth cent,ry, to 5,d"e from its resem!lance to the B,",da -all paintin"s of the 1%1$s.:1G< in the Kishn,p,r relief, the composition is dominated !y a lar"e ima"e of 3ama s,rro,nded !y -orshipers, -ith a more incidental scene in the panel !elo-. Ahe overall s,!5ect is the coronation of 3ama, a favorite, as -e shall see, in recent periods, -hen it comes to epitomiHe the entire epic. 3ama is enthroned in 4yodhya, -ith 2ita his 7,een, s,rro,nded !y his !rothers and his former allies, incl,din" Ki!hisana:;< C,pper ri"htD, 6an,mana r,!!in" his foot, and the !ear Jam!avan, -ho plays a prominent role in recent ima"es. Ahe panel !elo- incl,des m,sicians and others comin" to cele!rate the a,spicio,s event. Ahe Kishn,p,r and 8harakot carvin"s are pro!a!ly !,t a small sample of many 3amayana:;< ima"es that -ere e(ec,ted. in !oth -ood and stone !et-een the fo,rteenth and the nineteenth cent,ries.:16< *ne -o,ld e(pect other iconic ta!lea,( to lie !ehind the lar"e -all paintin"s at B,",da. 0n fact -ood carvin" -as and still is fre7,ently e(ec,ted !y the same families that prod,ce paintin"s. 4ltho,"h the artisans themselves ,se the terms ru!a%ara and chitra%ara to distin",ish sc,lptors and painters, they say that the t-o can intermarryJ these may !e descriptive la!els rather than imm,ta!le castes.

*ne last reason for incl,din" the 8harakot scene is its hi"h aesthetic 7,ality, s,rely typical of many art o!5ects prod,ced for co,rts. Ahe ,pper scene is ,nited !y the e(,!erant yet clear c,rves of architect,re, "arlands, ,m!rella staff, and the stance of fi",res. Ahe actors !elo- overlap and interact -ith sophistication. Ahere is freshness and delicacy in the e(ec,tion of folia"e and drapery. 0n terms of sheer ele"ance this reminds ,s that the past t-o cent,ries, -hich -ill concern ,s for the rest of this st,dy, are !y no means a !ack-ater or period of decline in relation to ancient sc,lpt,re. @ookin" !ack over o,r ran"e of sc,lpt,ral e(amples, -e may concl,de that art does feed on art in many sit,ations. 0n the apparent copyin" of the 2varna+:;< ' && ' 5alesvara death of Kalin at 2imhanatha, -e see not only the contin,in" pop,larity of a theme !,t also some contin,ity in the -ay it is rendered C/i",res 1&6, 1&%D. @ike-ise the s,rvival of the last t-o compositions in paintin"s of @aksmana:;< strai"htenin" his arro- and of the coronation of 3ama is credi!le. Iet as -e move on, it is remarka!le ho- little in recent pictorial traditions can !e acco,nted for !y o,r handf,l of s,rvivin" early carvin"s. Ao d-ell ,pon contin,ity of ima"ery or even of local versions of the 3amayana:;< story from the seventh to the nineteenth cent,ry -o,ld !e facile and misleadin". 0ndeed sc,lpt,re, recent festivals, and an occasional man,script all sho- a "eneral predilection for events involvin" monkeys. B,t this simian emphasis is not the r,le at any point. Ah,s 0 -o,ld prefer to admit some re"ional identity !,t to stress that it chan"es -ith time and remains pl,ralistic at any moment. ' &% '

? The !i+'-res@S+ene :* S+ene

Ahis chapter compares selected depictions of the same event. )y choice of incidents to ill,strate my points is no less ar!itrary than that of the scri!es and chitra%aras to ill,strate theirs. /rom the appendices and the follo-in" chapter, the reader -ill discover that there is no ,niversally shared list of ma5or incidents, and that -hat one mi"ht easily take to !e a critical point in the plot may not have !een depicted !y a partic,lar artist. )y o-n choice has !een ",ided in lar"e part !y interest in scenes that are more emphatically ill,strated in *rissa than else-here or that are "iven a ,ni7,e t-ist there. 0 am also attracted to episodes -here -e can p,t o,r fin"er on the derivation of artistic ima"ery Ahis leads to the incl,sion of some events that may seem trivial or idiosyncratic and to the omission of -hat mi"ht !e considered more important episodes in the story. 2ome reasons for vario,s choices of emphasis -ill appear in the final chapter.

Ris*asrin&aAs./0 Sed-+'ion And Dasara'haAs Sa+ri(i+e

0n KalmikiBs 3amayana:;< , the story of the yo,n" ascetic 3isyasrin"a:;< C=4ntelope horn=D is interpolated as a prel,de to his performance of the sacrifice for sons that prod,ces the divine food distri!,ted to 8asarathaBs 7,eens, -hich in t,rns leads to the !irth of 3ama.:1< ?ven KalmikiBs relatively restrained acco,nt of 3isyasrin"aBs:;< sed,ction !y co,rtesans -ho entice him from the forest -as a!!reviated in some later versions of the epicFs,ch as the dhyatma Ramayana[*] C-here the ascetic is simply !ro,"htD,:1< M or A,lsi 8asBs 6indi C-here he does not appear at allD.

B,t in many vernac,lar te(ts, the f,ll le"end is retained or even e(panded, as in *rissa.:#< Ah,s in Upendra BhaO5aBs *aidehisa *ilasa[*] one entire canto Cof fifty+t-oD is devoted to the asceticBs sed,ction !y the co,rtesans C'esyas D, led !y the intelli"ent and charmin" Jarata, -ho -ere enlisted !y >in" @omapada to relieve the dro,"ht in his kin"dom. Aheir first visit to the forest typifies the do,!le entendres for -hich Upendra is kno-n. 3isyasrin"a:;< , -ho "re- ,p -itho,t any -omen, asks, ' &9 ' =*h sa"es, tell me -hat spells yo, chant. 8o yo, -orship Kisn,:;< or 2ivaN= .i""lin" and flirtin", the amia!le -omen 3eplied -ith spirit, their nostrils flarin", =Io, d-ell in the forest :'ana <, -e in a "rove :'ani <J 2o yo, are called recl,se :'ano%a < and -e are -omen :'anita <. We say the same spell to 3ama as yo,, B,t instead of 3a -e s,!stit,te >a :i.e. >ama, @ove<. Beca,se 2iva is o,r "od, -e !ear him over o,r heart.= Ahen 7,ickly they revealed pairs of !reasts. C9.19+1%D Ahe ima"e of the yo,n" ascetic seein" -omenBs !reasts for the first time ,nder the ill,sion that they -ere li,gas mi"ht make the sternest /re,dian smile. 2,!se7,ently 3isyasrin"a:;< diso!eys his father, follo-s the co,rtesans to their !oat, and is carried a-ay !lissf,lly to @omapadaBs kin"dom, -here he !rin"s rain. 8asaratha in t,rn offers his !ea,tif,l da,"hter 2anta:9< in marria"e and takes the sa"e to 4yodhya to perform a sacrifice for sons, prod,cin" the divine food C!ayasa D that impre"nates the 7,eens. Why is the 3isyasrin"a:;< episode e(panded in this acco,ntN *n the one hand, the role of the 'esya in conferrin" reli"io,s stat,s ,pon the kin" is !roadly visi!le in *rissa, as the anthropolo"ist /rederi7,e:;< )ar"lin has ar",ed.:G< Ahe se(,ality of s,ch -omen, -hile ar",a!ly imp,re, is associated -ith -ater, a"ric,lt,ral fertility, and the kin"Bs ri"ht to r,le. Ahe instit,tion of the de'adasi , or temple co,rtesan, provided a rit,al mechanism for this connection, -hich end,red ,ntil very recently in P,ri. *n the other hand, this episode is certainly "rist for Upendra BhaO5aBs literary mill, elicitin" the erotic passa"es and h,moro,s -ordplay for -hich he is noted. Whereas KalmikiBs 3amayana:;< is !,ilt aro,nd the pathetic sentiment C%aru,a rasa D, the *aidehisa *ilasa[*] "ives e7,al play to the romantic Csringara[*] D and at times the comic sentiment Chasya D. Ahe fo,rth canto, devoted to the 3isyasrin"a:;< episode, develops these moods -ith in"en,ity and ele"ance. 0n the earliest paintin"s of the chitra%aras , the -all paintin"s of B,",da, 3isyasrin"a:;< initiates the action !y performin" a sacrifice and handin" the reli"io,s food to 8asaratha, !,t his sed,ction is a!sent C/i",re 1$1, lo-er ri"htD. 2,!se7,ently, since at least 19G9, the sa"e appears s,rro,nded !y co,rtesans in a !oat in the repertoire of the chitra%aras C/i",re 11#D.:6< 0ncl,sion of the sed,ction is not s,rprisin" in vie- of the !road pop,larity of this episode in most *riya te(ts. Ahe !oat scene in partic,lar may !e ,nderstood as a s,!+episode that all,des to the partic,larly *rissan association of the co,rtesans -ith -ater and hence fertility in a "eneraliHed sense.:&< M Ahe -ooden -eddin" !o( made in the 19&$s !y Bha"avata )aharana of Bh,!anes-ar incl,des the same scene as one of fo,r events selected from the entire epic, s,""estin" its importance C/i",re 1G%D. Ahe chitra%ara vie-s this event in a more re",lar and static -ay than most of the palm+leaf ill,strators to !e considered.

?ven in *rissa not all te(ts incl,de this se7,ence. 0n *riya translations of the dhyatma Ramayana[*] , as in the 2anskrit ori"inal, 3isyasrin"a:;< is a!r,ptly and ' %$ ' !riefly introd,ced in connection. -ith 8asarathaBs sacrifice for sons. 6ence it is no s,rprise that the sed,ction does not feat,re in any ill,strated version of that te(t C4ppendi( 1D. @ike-ise -e have no scenes of this episode in the Durga and Hanumana 2tutis or the .rahma Ramayana[*] . Upendra BhaO5aBs *aidehisa *ilasa[*] , -hose ample acco,nt of the episode has !een s,mmariHed a!ove, invited copio,s ill,strations. Ahose of the Baripada man,script made !y the karana:;< 2atr,"hna are diffic,lt to piece to"ether -ith precision, !,t at least nine leaves seem to have !een devoted to events !et-een the co,rtesansB depart,re and 8asarathaBs sacrifice. Ahe ill,strations, characteristically overlappin" several folios, sho- a small, hieratic 3isyasrin"a:;< accompanied !y lar"er -omen, depicted as conventional dancers C/i",re %9D. By contrast, )ichha Pata5oshiBs co,rtesans have a ho,se-ifely 7,ality, and he capt,res the f,n, if not the literary p,nnin", of the verses 7,oted a!ove C/i",re 11GD. 6is pict,res follo- the te(t fairly closely, t-o per side of most leaves, increasin" in n,m!er in his latest -ork.:%< Ahe landin" of the co,rtesansB !oat Cfrom -hich 3isyasrin"a:;< disem!arks, !rin"in" an end to @omapadaBs dro,"htD ill,strates the -ay this artist repeats a "eneral composition !,t not every detail C/i",res 1$1, 11#, and 116D. 0n Upendra BhaO5aBs &a'anya'ati[*] , the 3amayana:;< synopsis !e"ins -ith @omapadaBs dro,"ht and Jarata, the chief co,rtesan, em!racin" 3isyasrin"a:;< , events that are ill,strated in three of o,r versions. Ahe 3o,nd )an,script sho-s the sa"e seated apart from t-o -omen in the !oat and then performin" sacrifices for the t-o kin"s, foc,sin" l,cidly on his role in the main plot se7,ence C/i",res 1, 1D. 3a"h,nath Pr,sti depicts the amoro,s sit,ation in the !oat, the co,rt of @omapada, the sa"eBs fare-ell to Jarata, and 8asarathaBs sacrifice C/i",res 1&G, 1&6D, in closer correspondence -ith the "enerally ris7,L character of Upendra BhaO5aBs te(t. Bala!hadra PathyBs version is as ,s,al most e(pansive, incl,din" characters not mentioned in either of UpendraBs poems and -eavin" all parts of the sa"eBs pro"ress to the co,rts of @omapada and 8asaratha across si( pa"es C/i",re 1G&D. 0t is interestin" that all three artists incl,de the co,rtesansB !oat, not mentioned in the &a'anya'ati[*] itself, altho,"h no do,!t familiar from vario,s *riya acco,ntsJ only Pr,sti en,merates the charms of this vessel, as did the poet in the *aidehisa *ilasa[*] . Ahe 8ispersed &a'anya'ati[*] !e"ins its acco,nt of the 3amayana:;< -ith a characteristic ellipsis. Ahe caption on the left half of /i",re 191 mentions the ma"icianBs performance and also kin" @omapada. Iet the ill,stration 5,mps to 2anta, presented !y her father to the ascetic. Ahis event is cons,mmated on the ri"ht -ith their marria"e, attended !y @omapada as -ell as 8asaratha. 3ain is in"enio,sly -orked in to form -hat mi"ht seem to !e a tasseled canopy, did it not descend from a dark corner of sky. 0n short, from UpendraBs verse 1$, the artist has selected and condensed his elements to "ive partic,lar di"nity to 3isyasrin"a:;< , -ho "oes on to f,nction dramatically on the reverse, paired -ith Kisvamitra in 8asarathaBs sacrifice C/i",re 191D. 0t is 3isyasrin"a:;< -ho t,rns his head to foc,s on Kalmiki Cidentified in the la!elD, -ho hands the porrid"e to 8asaratha at the very middle of the folio, the strin"+ hole ,nderscorin" this momento,s act. Ahis is a ,ni7,e version of this event, "ivin" the ,r+narrator Kalmiki a pivotal role in this episode as B-ell as demonstratin" the darin" and artistry of this anonymo,s artist. ?llipsis and flash!ack Cthe rainD serve to clarify yet enrich the ima"es. ' %1 '

0 have deli!erately omitted mention so far of the -idely varyin" manner in -hich 3isyasrin"a:;< himself is depicted. 6ere the *riya te(ts that -ere act,ally ill,strated "ive no ",idelines: he is descri!ed merely !y his name =4ntelope horn,= ?arlier versions of the story from other parts of 0ndia e(plain that his mother -as an antelope, and it has !een s,""ested that the ,ltimate prototype is the ?,ropean ,nicorn.:9< 0ndeed, the ,nicorn model is that of B,",da C/i",re 1$1D. Ahis depiction of the yo,thf,l ascetic -ith a sin"le horn perpendic,lar to the cro-n of his head, alon" -ith the spiky sacrificial fire, may have infl,enced 3a"h,nath Pr,sti C/i",re 1&6D. Ahe s,""estion that this caref,l artist, -orkin" only #$ kilometers from B,",da, sho,ld have appreciated s,ch models is pla,si!le, despite his havin" chosen C-ith some help from Upendra BhaO5aD to "ive his narrative a different t-ist. By contrast, the sin"le+horned 3isyasrin"a:;< of the 3o,nd and the 8ispersed &a'anya'ati[*] is an older ascetic C/i",res 1, 191D. Bala!hadra Pathy adopted a very distinctive ascetic type, -ith no concern for 3isyasrin"aBs:;< yo,th and -ith no horns distin",isha!le amon" the many pointed locks of hair C/i",re 1G&D. 8espite the historical ass,mption that a sin"le horn is appropriate, the a,thoritative *riya 3amayana:;< of Balarama:;< 8asa says e(plicitly that the sa"e had t-o.:1$< Ahat is ho- )ichha Pata5oshi depicted him, possi!ly -itho,t vis,al models C/i",re 11GD. 4nd more recently chitra%aras have adopted this version, -ith lon" t-i"+like horns C/i",res 11#, 1G%D. )ost distinctive of all -as the sol,tion of the in"enio,s scri!e 2atr,"hna, -ho endo-ed the sa"e -ith the entire head of a !l,e deer C/i",re %9D. Ahis representation in fact corresponds to the description in 2arala 8asaBs "aha(harata : =Ahe !ody of a man and the head of a deer.=:11< M 0n all these depictions of 3isyasrin"a:;< s,rely -e m,st see independent efforts !y each artist, ",ided !y little sense of shared vis,al traditions e(cept in the case of an ,n,s,ally scr,p,lo,s craftsman like 3a"h,nath Pr,sti, -ho dre- selectively ,pon the model of near!y B,",da.

Tada,i./0 7 Ahal*a7 and 'he 2oa'man

3amaBs enco,nters -ith Aadaki:;< , 4halya, and the Boatman form a closely linked se7,ence in *rissa in several te(ts, performances, and, partic,larly, pict,res. Aadaki:;< -as the principal sco,r"e a"ainst -hom the sa"e Kisvamitra enlisted the aid of the yo,n" prince, and 3amaBs s,ccess in fellin" her provides a previe- of his s,!se7,ent s,ccess at demon slayin". 0n !oth the dhyatma Ramayana[*] and the *aidehisa *ilasa[*] , t-o -orks radically different in literary character, a !ea,tif,l -oman emer"es from AadakiBs:;< h,"e corpse, released from a c,rse.:11< Ahen, minimiHin" other demons, these versions move on immediately to another tale of an acc,rsed -oman, 4halya.:1#< M Ahis l,ckless !ea,ty had committed ad,ltery -ith 0ndra. 6er h,s!and, the sa"e .a,tama, c,rsed the "od to !ear a tho,sand -om!s Chence 0ndraBs tho,sand eyesD, and he t,rned his o-n -ife to stone ,ntil she sho,ld !e li!erated !y the to,ch of 3amaBs foot. 0n the dhyatma Ramayana[*] this release ,shers in 4halyaBs lon" devotional hymn to the pervasive po-er Cmaya D of 3ama. 6ere and in Upendra BhaO5aBs versions, the event is 5,(taposed -ith the story of the !oatman, -ho insists on -ashin" 3amaBs feet !efore he steps a!oard the !oat lest the !oat that he needs to make his livin" t,rn into a -oman C-ho -o,ld also !e e(pensive to s,pportD. Ahis !rief episode is !oth a h,moro,s h,+ ' %1 ' man to,ch, catchin" the simple manBs naUvetL, and a profo,ndly movin" statement of the devotional theme that links this entire se7,ence of events.:19< 0n the 8asapalla 3amalila:;< , the second ni"ht is re",larly devoted to these three episodes alone. AadakiBs:;< frenHied fi"ht c,lminates in her death!ed -orship of 3ama. 4halya emer"es from a mysterio,s papier+mVchL rock to pray -hile her story is recited. Ahe !oatman appears in a simple !oat, a plain sari stretched over an o!lon" flame, and his

-ashin" of 3amaBs feet concl,des the evenin" -ith h,m!le reverence. 2everal of these events are commonly depicted not only recently in *rissa !,t also in earlier sc,lpt,re of other re"ions.:1G< 4t B,",da the three incidents follo- in se7,ence, altho,"h the scene of the !oatman C/i",re 1$1, third tier, leftD is separated from 4halya. Ahe fi",re of Aadaki:;< is !adly a!raded, !,t it is mainly her siHe and the tree -ith -hich she threatens 3ama that indicate the fear she inspired C/i",re 1$1, second tier, ri"htD. 6er pose and "eneral confi",ration resem!le those of the small, meek 4halya to the ri"ht, as if Aadaki:;< and 4halya -ere the same fi",re transformed. 0n this depiction of the demoness, later !ata[*] paintin" is no less o!vio,sly heir to B,",da than are some man,scripts. 0n Ja"annath )ahapatraBs set, Aadaki:;< takes the form of a standard ra%sasi[*] F naked, disheveled, -ith !l,e skin and a "rotes7,e face. Iet she, like 4halya in the ne(t scene, rises from a hill of ro,nded lo!es, -hich lends contin,ity to the t-o events C/i",res 119, 11GD. 6is strai"htfor-ard version of the !oatman scene appears fairly commonly on separate small !atas[*] , reflectin" the pop,lar appeal of this devotional theme C/i",re 116D. 4mon" man,scripts, even the .rahma Ramayana7s[*] c,rsory narrative incl,des Aadaki:;< and 4halya C/i",res 19G, 196D. Ahe t-o occ,r on opposite sides of the same leaf, and the arro-+filled fi"ht on one side does not necessarily invite comparison -ith the sedate, hieratic composition on the other. Aadaki:;< has fan"s and a hooked nose like demons in many palm+leaf ill,strations, altho,"h other details are ,n,s,al.:16< Ahe skillf,l artist of this man,script ,ses a dark rectan"le to define 4halyaBs rock, a vivid device ,ni7,e in *rissan ima"es, 7,ite possi!ly of his o-n devisin".:1&< M 0n the dhyatma Ramayana[*] -e have a te(t that 5,(taposes the three incidents in 7,estion as e(amplesJ of 3amaBs maya . While 2arathi )adala Patnaik ill,strated 4halyaBs devotional hymn Creplacin" 3ama -ith Kisn,:;< D in three of his fo,r preserved versions of this favorite te(t, in none did he incl,de all three incidents C4ppendi( 1D. 6is t-o 7,ite ,nrelated versions of 4halyaBs release C/i",res G$, G6D demonstrate his freedom from any vis,al form,la. Ahis freedom, the diversity of incidents selected, and the ,nfinished dra-in" of the fi",re of Kisvamitra to the ri"ht in /i",re G$ may all indicate a lack of deli!eration on the part of 2arathi )adala. 0t is -orth ,nderscorin" as -e search for conscio,s or ,nconscio,s pro"rams in ill,stration that some artists -orked too haphaHardly to meet o,r e(pectations. 0n the case of the *aidehisa *ilasa[*] , the Baripada master 2atr,"hna incl,ded Aadaki:;< in the form of a !lack animal+headed monster spread over five folios CPlate #D, and he also depicted the !oatman C/i",re 9$D, !,t this man,script is too 5,m!led to reveal the ori"inal effect of the se7,ence. /rom the same artistBs other, pro!a!ly earlier, copy of the same te(t -e have the 4halya episode pre+ ' %# ' served in a distinctive form C/i",re 99D.:1%< 4!ove the rock, letters are decoratively arran"ed to read, *fferin" lot,s flo-ers, 4halya -orshipped 3ama, son of >a,salya -ith "reat pleas,re. Ahis seems to !e a case of 2atr,"hnaBs va,nted in"en,ity in -eldin" to"ether ima"e and te(t.:19<

)ichha Pata5oshi metic,lo,sly depicted each t,rn of events, spellin" o,t AadakiBs:;< apotheosis C/i",re 1$#D. 6e incl,ded am,sin" details from Upendra BhaO5aBs poem s,ch as 0ndraBs slinkin" past the irate .a,tama in the ",ise of a cat C/i",re 1$GD.:1$< 4s ,s,al, this artist follo-s his o-n compositional form,las, s,ch as the ro,nded rock from -hich 4halya rises, -itho,t repeatin" every detail C/i",res 1$9, 119, 11&D. /rom this point on, one e(ample of his depiction of a sin"le s,!5ect -ill s,ffice. Ahe a!!reviated te(t of the &a'anya'ati[*] in "eneral "rants "reat freedom to its ill,strators. Bala!hadra Pathy dra-s the clearest parallel !et-een Aadaki:;< and 4halya, for the t-o fi",res occ,r on s,ccessive leaves and -o,ld !e vie-ed to"ether C/i",res 1G%, 1G9D. Ahe se7,ence of Kisvamitra, @aksmana:;< , 3ama, and a -oman in a thicket is identical in the t-o. Ah,s differences stand o,tFthe arro-s released in the first and AadakiBs:;< rapacio,s form. Pathy, in his element here, ,ses the spreadin" plants to ,nderscore AadakiBs:;< frenHy, as opposed to 4halyaBs modest pose, echoed !y droopin" !ranches. Ahis is one of the fe- 3amayana:;< se7,ences in *rissa that omits the !oatman, altho,"h the incident is mentioned in the te(t of this very poem. Ahe 3o,nd &a'anya'ati[*] or"aniHes these events similarly on s,ccessive pa"es, !,t the t-o compositions attract less immediate comparison C/i",res 6, %D. Aadaki:;< here com!ines some attri!,tes of an attractive -oman -ith demonic face, hair, and d,"s. 3ama strides from 4halyaBs rock to the !oatman -ith identical pose, displayin" a clarity of action that is the forte of this man,script. 0n the 8ispersed &a'anya'ati[*] , Aadaki:;< and 4halya occ,r at opposite ends of s,ccessive leaves C/i",res 19#, 19GD. Ahere is a dramatic contin,ity !et-een 3ama, -ho "ro-s from a !a!y to a heroic ad,lt !efore o,r very eyes, stridin" from the role of e(ec,tioner to that of savior and ,ltimately of divinity. 4"ain this anonymo,s artist ,ses ellipsis effectively. 4mple s,rro,ndin" space and s,!tle scenery serve to emphasiHe 3amaBs heroism in these three scenes, follo-in" the import of Upendra BhaO5aBs lon"er poem, or for that matter the dhyatma Ramayana[*] . 0n 3a"h,nath Pr,stiBs version 4halya follo-s Aadaki:;< on the reverse of the same leaf, -hich makes direct comparison impossi!le for the vie-er of the man,+ ' %9 ' script C/i",res 1&&, 1&%D. Iet the "eneral similarity of the main actors conveys some relationship. Ahe demoness is distin",ished only !y her hooked nose, in -hich this artist may a"ain have !een infl,enced !y the B,",da -all paintin"s, altho,"h he does not follo- their composition. *ne ,ni7,e element is the incl,sion of Bharata Cas identified !y la!el, second from the left in /i",re 1&&D. 0 knoof no *riya te(t or other ill,stration that incl,ded him in this e(pedition, altho,"h it is conceiva!le that some oral version did.:11< ?ven if Pr,sti had s,ch a !asis, one m,st credit him -ith ori"inality in introd,cin" a character not incl,ded at B,",da or in the &a'anya'ati[*] itself. Ahe neat interlockin" of 4halya and the !oatman and the ele"ant str,ct,re of the pa"e, -ith the dark river in the center, are characteristic of his pictorial skill. 0n "eneral, one mi"ht ar",e that the parallels presented !et-een the release of the t-o c,rsed -omen in many man,scripts and in the chitra%aras7 tradition represent no more than the ,se of stock fi",res, common in !oth literary and vis,al traditions. 0n the te(ts, the emphasis ,pon the t-o female characters, at the e(pense of the male demons -ho play a lar"er role in Kalmiki, stren"thens the comparison, -hich in t,rn !efits the later a,thorsB concern -ith 3amaBs transformin" maya .:11< *n the -hole 0 am most convinced of a similar intent in pict,res -hen added details enhance the similarity and -hen Aadaki:;< is not presented in her predicta!le demonic form. Certainly this linka"e is more appropriate to vis,al ima"es, -here similarity can !e "rasped at a "lance, than to -ords, -here repetition m,st !e remem!ered or pointed o,t.

2hara'aAs Visi'
4fter ma5or t,rnin" points in the plot, s,ch as marria"e and e(ile, 3ama settles -ith 2ita and @aksmana:;< on )o,nt Chitrak,ta:;< . When 8asaratha dies, Bharata !rin"s his entire co,rt, hopin" in vain to !rin" 3ama !ack to r,le in 4yodhya. Ahis visit of Bharata forms a si"nificant and lon" se7,ence in Kalmiki and many other 0ndian versions of the tale. 0t has !een s,""ested that 3amaBs moral advice to his !rother constit,ted a deli!erate co,nterpart to >risnaBs:;< famo,s sermon, the .haga'adgita .:1#< Ahis episode is treated -ith the same -ei"ht and sententio,s tone in the dhyatma Ramayana[*] . 0n Balarama:;< 8asaBs 1agamohana Ramayana[*] , ho-ever, 8asarathaBs death is follo-ed !y a description of the idyllic life of the e(iles, incl,din" tender moments -hen 3ama makes a red mark on 2itaBs !ro- as !efits a married -oman, ,sin" ocher earth as a s,!stit,te for l,(,rio,s pi"ment. 6e protects his -ife from a mara,din" cro- !y shootin" its eyes. Ahese events ori"inate in the northern recension of Kalmiki, and one can trace their e(pansion in *rissa at the e(pense of BharataBs visit.:19< M Ah,s Upendra BhaO5a red,ces the visit to t-enty verses in the *aidehisa *ilasa[*] -hereas the entire follo-in" canto of forty verses of ela!orate p,ns treats love sports on )o,nt Chitrak,ta:;< and incl,des the incidents of the ocher mark and the cro-.:1G< M Ahe list of events in the same a,thorBs &a'anya'ati[*] follo-s this emphasis, altho,"h only the charmin" Chitrak,ta:;< and the cro- are mentioned, and these precede BharataBs visit. Ahis "eneral se7,ence reveals the interplay !et-een hi"h moral tone and deli"ht in the sens,al that often characteriHes the 0ndian tradition. Ahe top of the first -all devoted to the 3amayana:;< at B,",da incl,des a m,ch ' %G ' dama"ed paintin" of a hill -ith three fi",res, pro!a!ly 3ama, 2ita, and @aksmana:;< on )o,nt Chitrak,ta:;< Cc,t off in /i",re 1$1D. 4 similar scene -ith 3ama to,chin" 2itaBs !ro- also appears on -all ? in lar"e form, alon" -ith BharataBs visit to the ri"ht C/i",res 1$G, 1$6D. 0 -o,ld infer that the planners intended to treat the mandatory visit in separate iconic form and hence did not incl,de it amon" the initial narrative scenes. Possi!ly they only s,!se7,ently decided to add the separate depiction of 3ama applyin" ocher to 2ita to make a !alanced -all -ith t-o scenes set on the same hill. :16< Ahis decision mi"ht also reflect the ",idance of *riya literat,re, s,ch as the *aidehisa *ilasa[*] , to !e e(pected in vie- of its composition !y a family mem!er of the templeBs patron, altho,"h that poem is not follo-ed literally thro,"ho,t those paintin"s. 4t any rate, if there is a d,plication of )o,nt Chitrak,ta:;< here and on the first -all, it s,""ests e(temporaneo,s plannin" of the kind mentioned in Chapter 1 in connection -ith directionality at B,",da. Ahese lar"e, clear, and rich scenes seem to have had considera!le impact ,pon later !ata[*] paintin". Ja"annath )ahapatraBs version of BharataBs visit is a simplified mirror ima"e of the "eneral composition, red,cin" Bharata to a h,m!ler position C/i",re 11&D. 6is te(t here, as in "eneral, opts for moral homily over h,man detail and th,s omits scenes of Chitrak,ta:;< aside from 3amaBs meetin" -ith Kalmiki. Ahe artist Bha"avata )aharana, ackno-led"in" his admiration for the B,",da m,rals, created variations ,pon this version of BharataBs visit on the -eddin" !o( in /i",re 16$ as -ell as in separate !atas[*] C/i",re 1G6D. 4ltho,"h similar in "eneral confi",ration to the -all paintin"s, his versions are far from direct copies. Bha"avata )aharana seemed to en5oy addin" landscape details, -hich are some-hat more clichLd than those of the ori"inalFt-o peacocks and a pond -ith d,cks. Ahe poi"nant "ro,p of the three pale -ido-ed 7,eens to the ri"ht at B,",da is red,ced to t-o stereotypic -omen at the !ottom of the !ata[*] . Iet Bha"avata )aharana e(celled in metic,lo,s Csaru D -ork val,ed !y the chitra%aras themselves, for e(ample in the !order -ith t-o serpentsB heads neatly -orked in at the center of the top.

0n man,scripts of the dhyatma Ramayana[*] , the te(t,al concern -ith BharataBs devotion to 3ama invites ample ill,stration of the visit. 2arathi )adala Patnaik, as one mi"ht e(pect, devoted a!o,t fo,r scenes to this se7,ence in his complete man,scripts.:1&< Un,s,al for him is the repetition of a sin"le form,la for the final, -ei"hty event, BharataBs -orship of 3amaBs sandals or footprints C/i",re G&D. Ahe appearance of a lotiform em!lem -ith the a,spicio,s footprints in the center in other ill,stratorsB dhyatma Ramayanas[*] as -ell C/i",res &G, &%D s,""ests that this ima"e -as pec,liarly linked to this te(t. Ahe o!vio,s e(planation -o,ld lie in the artistsB copyin" from other ill,strated man,scripts, altho,"h it is also possi!le that the -orship of a stone icon of this type took place at a shrine partic,larly infl,ential in the dispersal of this te(t. 0n the *aidehisa *ilasa[*] , )ichha Pata5oshi like-ise faithf,lly follo-s his te(t, devotin" one pa"e to the visit and t-o or more to events on )o,nt Chitrak,ta:;< . Ahe visit concl,des, not -ith the em!lem favored !y the artistBs nei"h!or and immediate predecessor, 2arathi )adala, !,t rather -ith a scene of Bharata !endin" to to,ch 3amaBs feet C/i",re 11GD, like the tradition of B,",da, !,t not necessarily follo-in" that vis,al model.:1%< 0n !oth of 2atr,"hnaBs versions of this same te(t, the shootin" of the cro- s,rvives C/i",re 91D.:19< M ' %6 ' Ahe &a'anya'ati[*] of 3a"h,nath Pr,sti isJ partic,larly inde!ted to the B,",da m,rals in this section, !e"innin" -ith the ta,t ima"e of the royal !rothers tyin" ,p their hair as ascetics C/i",re 1%#J cf. /i",re 1$1, fo,rth tier from !ottom, to the ri"htD.:#$< Pr,sti incorporated the B,",da composition, -hich had ori"inally !een vie-ed from ri"ht to leftJ Upendra BhaO5aBs second te(t presents the events in reverse order, so that the folio in fact can !e read from left to ri"ht. 4scetics are in"enio,sly -orked into )o,nt Chitrak,ta:;< , as descri!ed in other te(ts, and the shootin" of the cro- occ,rs 5,st a!ove BharataBs ento,ra"e. 6ere one can see the skillf,l ill,strator spreadin" o,t his composition to fill the palm leaf and adaptin" parts of the model to incl,de, for e(ample, several of his distinctive )aratha+ cost,med co,rtiers, -ho. are a!sent at B,",da. Ahe 3o,nd &a'anya'ati[*] like-ise incl,des the incident of the ocher mark, altho,"h it is not mentioned in this te(t, follo-in" it -ith the !lindin" of the cro- and the visit of BharataFdevoid of all retin,e C/i",res 1#+1GD. Ahese ima"es are different eno,"h from B,",da and Pr,stiBs to s,""est that they are independently derived. 4s ,s,al, this artist ill,strates the story simply and directly, in a sli"htly choppy, episodic manner. Bala!hadra Pathy, on the other hand, -orks a"ainst the te(t of the &a'anya'ati[*] , makin" this story as m,ch BharataBs as 3amaBs. Ah,s three pa"es depict the visitin" party richly, if repetitio,sly, introd,cin" the si"ht of 3amaBs footprints on the road from 4yodhya C/i",re 16$, far ri"htD. Ahere is less of the charms of )o,nt Chitrak,ta:;< . /inally Bharata is sho-n -orshipin" the sandals !ack in the villa"e of Eandi"ram C/i",re 161D. Ahe 8ispersed &a'anya'ati[*] makes as !old a 5,mp in the selection of incidents, as does my selection in this chapter, for one pa"e moves from the enco,nter -ith Paras,rama after 3amaBs marria"e to the meetin" -ith Bharata CPlate 9, /i",re 19&D. Both the entire mechanism of the e(ile and the charms of Chitrak,ta:;< are omitted: the reverse of this pa"e proceeds to the killin" of the demon Kiradha C/i",re 19%D. While the ,se of a hill for the visit may s,""est comparison -ith B,",da and Pr,sti, the s,!tle emotional effect here differs. 2ita sits modestly in the center, and Bharata !o-s his head alone, delicately ind,cin" the mood of compassion and s,""estin" the theatrical sta"e rather than the anecdotal storytellin" of many man,scripts. *n the -hole, depictions of this se7,ence of episodes are shaped !y t-o different linea"es of

interpretation: the devotional tradition, clearest in the dhyatma Ramayana[*] !,t also informin" Bala!hadra PathyBs version of the &a'anya'ati[*] , -hich takes BharataBs -orship of the divine foot em!lem as the cr,(J and the h,man response to e(ile, -hich the B,",da artists and many palm+leaf ill,strators develop.

The Ill-sor* Deer And Si'aAs A:d-+'ion

Ahe !asic plotline of this section, critical in ca,sal terms, follo-s Kalmiki in most versions: @aksmana:;< denoses 2,rpanakha:;< J her demonic !rothers ,ns,ccessf,lly attempt to aven"e this ins,ltJ 3avana:;< enlists )aricha to take the form of a "olden deer, -hich 3ama h,ntsJ 2ita is kidnapped. !y 3avana:;< in the ",ise of an asceticJ arid Jatay,:;< tries to prevent their escape, in -hich the !ird is mortally -o,nded. ' %& ' 3ama, ,pon discoverin" his loss, "rieves, ra"es, and enco,nters !oth the acc,rsed >a!andha and a 2a!ari, a forest -oman, -ho point him on his -ay. Whereas in Kalmiki, )aricha ar",es at len"th -ith 3avana:;< a!o,t the -hole ,ndertakin", in the dhyatma Ramayana[*] Cand other late 2anskrit versionsD he accedes 7,ickly, realiHin" that he -ill !enefit from !ein" slain !y 3ama. 6ere, in keepin" -ith (ha%ti sentiments that re7,ire an entirely p,re 2ita and in conformity -ith this te(tBs partic,lar concern -ith maya , 3ama orders his -ife to place an ill,sory form of herself o,tside the h,t to !e kidnapped and to hide her tr,e self in the fire, -here she remains for the rest of the story. Ahis )aya 2ita also appears in most *riya versions from Balarama:;< 8asa on-ard. 0n the *aidehisa *ilasa[*] , 3avana:;< approaches )aricha for assistance more in"ratiatin"ly. Ahat demon is in mo,rnin" for the loss of a family mem!er, so 3avana:;< !athes in the ocean as if he -ere a !rother of )aricha performin" rit,al p,rification. )aricha o!li"es -ith alacrity.:#1< 4s one mi"ht e(pect, Upendra BhaO5a hei"htens 2,rpanakhaBs:;< se(,al provocation of the !rothers.:#1< M 3ama -rites a note to @aksmana:;< , -hich incl,des one of the poetBs most -idely 7,oted p,ns, a verse that can !e translated in either of t-o -ays: Io, sho,ld take this -oman and em!race her, the so,rce of heavenly pleas,re, in the forest. or C,t off this -omanBs nose and ears, and donBt to,ch her. C1#.G%D Ahe ra%sasi[*] contin,es to ima"ine that @aksmana:;< is en"a"in" in a violent style of love play as he prepares to m,tilate her. 0n this acco,nt, after the a!d,ction Jatay,:;< s-allo-s 3avanaBs:;< chariot !,t spits it o,t to save 2ita, an incident fo,nd in some Ben"ali folk versions also.:##< /inally, Upendra BhaO5a, like many *riya a,thors, follo-s 3amaBs "rief -ith not only the slayin" of the lon"+armed demon, >a!andha, !,t also -ith t-o incidents that may seem anticlimactic to ,s, altho,"h they increase the sense of pop,lar devotion to the !ereft hero. *ne is the story of r,de co-herds, only one of -hom offers the !rothers milkJ 3ama "rants him the !oon of !ein" !orn as >risnaBs:;< adoptive father, Eanda.:#9< M 4 second incident concerns the forest -oman, a 2a!ari -ho appears as a simple ascetic in Kalmiki. *riya versions emphasiHe her tri!al identity, for she "ives 3ama a man"o she has tasted to ens,re that it is s-eet, -hich he accepts "ratef,lly altho,"h this acceptance mi"ht horrify a p,rity+ conscio,s 6ind,, loath to eat somethin" !itten !y one of lo-er caste.:#G< M 4s thro,"ho,t, Upendra

BhaO5aBs poem, -hile shorter than KalmikiBs, em!roiders the epicBs ,r"ent sense of tra"edy -ith a variety of other moods. 4t B,",da this portion of the story is not partic,larly vivid or clear C/i",re 1$1D, perhaps partly !eca,se these paintin"s are dama"ed. Iet -ith their placement in a dark space ,nder the eaves, ro,"hly five feet a!ove eye level, they co,ld never have !een as prominent as, for e(ample, the episode of >a!andha. Ahis se7,ence -as apparently determined !y the concl,sion of -all 4 -ith 2,rpanakha:;< at the top, altho,"h the eye -as not led immediately to the first scene of -all B.:#6< )oreover, the scene of 3ama and @aksmana:;< carryin" the deerBs !ody on a pole, -hile not placed anachronically Cit occ,rs sim,ltaneo,sly -ith the ' %% ' a!d,ctionD, !reaks ,p the se7,ence of action and is not descri!ed at this point in any te(t 0 kno-. 0n short, direct storytellin" may not have !een ,ppermost in the mind of these artists. What they did do -ell -as to cover the -all in a !alanced manner -ith arrestin", ele"ant ima"es. @ater !ata[*] paintin"s do not follo- the model of B,",da for this se7,ence. *ne incident pop,lar for incl,sion in lar"e depictions of the P,rl Aemple as -ell as for independent ill,strationF3ama shootin" at the ill,sory deerFdoes not occ,r at B,",da, for the top of /i",re 1$1 sho-s a fi",re t,rnin" a-ay from the deer.:#&< Ahe prevalence of a composition movin" to the ri"ht, -ith the deer atop a hill C/i",re 1#$D, s,""ests some common linea"eF-hether oral tradition, a paintin" in the Ja"annatha Aemple C4ppendi( 9D, or sketch!ooks Caltho,"h none of this s,!5ect have come to my attentionD perpet,ated this form amon" the chitra%aras . 0t has !ecome an em!lem, !,t not on the !asis of the KiraOchi Earayana:;< -all paintin"s. Ahe s,!se7,ent events in Ja"annath )ahapatraBs set differ individ,ally from those at B,",da, altho,"h !oth versions sho- Jatay,:;< in the form of a !ird that is not partic,larly a v,lt,re. 0n his vario,s man,scripts of the dhyatma Ramayana[*] , 2arathi )adala Patnaik at least t-ice depicts the creation of )aya 2ita, an event central to this te(t C/i",re G9D.:#%< 6e as ,s,al ill,strates the episode a !it carelessly and seems more concerned -ith the physical event than -ith the idea.:#9< M Ahis artist depicts the deer in a variety of -ays, al!eit al-ays -ith t-o heads. 0n Jan,ary 1%91 it -as endo-ed -ith a second ,pper !ody and the t-o sets of horns crossed C/i",re 6$D. 0n 8ecem!er 1%91 the lon" necks and small heads looked almost like those of serpents C/i",re 6%D. 0t is interestin" that 2arathi )adala incl,ded this creat,re t-ice in the Durga 2tuti , perhaps his most nat,ralistic version, -hich differs a"ain sli"htly in sho-in" the rear head !elo- C/i",re %1D. Ahe charmin" ,n",late also occ,rs in other artistsB ill,strations of the dhyatma Ramayana[*] consistently -ith t-o heads C/i",re &6D. *ther scenes in this section are not radically different from those of !ata[*] paintin", e(cept that Jatay,:;< al-ays has the !ody of a man, perhaps on the model of .ar,da:;< , his father. Ahe 2a!ari is incl,ded in all copies, indicatin" that this incident -as taken partic,larly serio,sly in *rissa.:9$< M Ahe ,ni7,e ill,strated 3amalila:;< of >rishna Chandra 3a5endra incl,des one ,n,s,al te(t,al detail faithf,lly follo-ed in the te(t. 0t is the fantastic form of >risna:;< kno-n as Eava",O5ara, pitted a"ainst 3avana:;< after the a!d,ction C/i",re %&D. Ahis s,!stit,tion for the pan+0ndian Jatay,:;< may reflect the pop,larity of the eni"matic creat,re in *rissa, -hich "oes !ack to 2arala 8asaBs "aha(harata .:91< /or ,s, the interest is in its. demonstration of the -ay an ill,strator may follo- his idiosyncratic te(t despite the resem!lance: of his other pict,res to those of the dhyatma Ramayana[*] . Ahe t-o artists -ho specialiHed in the *aidehisa *ilasa[*] -ere even more clearly, if in different -ays, concerned -ith their o-n distinctive te(t. Ahe scri!e 2atr,"hna locates his ill,sory deer in a rich forest, emphasiHin" the chase it led 3ama CPlate 9, /i",re 9#D. 0t is clearly )aya 2ita -ho confronts

3avana:;< the !e""ar, for her tr,e form l,rks in the fire CPlate G, /i",re 91D. Ahe incident of the co-herd !ecomes a !,colic scene -ithin a circle, s,""estin" a 3aslila:;< or other ima"e of >risna:;< , -ho is all,ded to in 3amaBs !oon C/i",re 99D.:91< 6ere -e can clearly see this in"enio,s artist capt,rin" some of the intellect,al flavor of the poet.

!la'es

Plate 1. 4s,reshvar. 8anda:;< Jatra. 8evotee as 6an,mana.

Plate 1. P,ri. 2ahi Jatra. 3isyasrin"a:;< and fo,r princes.

Plate #. 2atr,"hna, Kaidehisa Kilasa:;< Cco,rtesy J,!el @i!rary, Baripada, dated 1%##D. Aadaki:;< and 3ama.

Plate 9. 2atr,"hna, Kaidehisa Kilasa:;< CBaripada, 1%##D. 3ama h,nts the ma"ic deer Cdetail of /i",re 9#D.

Plate G. 2atr,"hna, Kaidehisa Kilasa:;< CBaripada, 1%##D. 2ita in fire, kidnap of )aya 2ita.

Plate 6. 2atr,"hna, Kaidehisa Kilasa:;< CBaripada, 1%##D. 3ainy season on )o,nt )alyavan.

Plate &. 2atr,"hna, Kaidehisa Kilasa:;< CBaripada, 1%##D. Battle scene.

Plate %.

2atr,"hna, Kaidehisa Kilasa:;< CBaripada, 1%##D. 3avana:;< and his -ives.

Plate 9. 8ispersed @avanyavati:;< CJean and /rancis )arshall Collection, 2an /ranciscoD. BharataBs visit.

Plate 1$. @avanyavati:;< ill,strated !y Bala!hadra Pathy Cco,rtesy Eational ),se,m of 0ndian 4rt, Ee- 8elhiD. 3ainy season on )o,nt )alyavan, f. 1&#.

Plate 11. B,",da, KiraOchi Earayana:;< Aemple, -all /. @aksmana:;< strai"htenin" his arro-.

Plate 11. 4pprentice at -ork on 3amayana:;< pata:;< in Ja"annath )ahapatraBs ho,se, 3a"h,ra5p,r Ccf. /i",re 1%94D. ' %9 ' Ahere is no reason to think that )ichha Pata5oshi kne- the -ork of 2atr,"hna, prod,ced seventy years earlier, yet his copio,s and literal ill,strations of this section incl,de similar themes, alon" -ith an am,sin" -himsy 3avanaBs:;< !ath, taken to -in over )aricha, is scr,p,lo,sly sho-n in all three ma5or man,scripts of this artist C/i",re 1$%D. )ichha Pata5oshiBs deer is o,r most -insome version of this s,!5ect, disportin" itself playf,lly in the forest C/i",re 116D. )aya 2ita is a"ain appropriately indicated !y the presence of the tr,e 2ita in a fire -hile the ill,sory one is kidnapped C/i",re 1$9D. Jatay,:;< , a some-hat comic !ird, s-allo-s and then spits o,t 3avanaBs:;< chariot, -hich incidentally has the same form, -ith a "iant head !elo-, as that of B,",da C/i",re 11&D.:9#< Ahe s-allo-in" is depicted in the contemporary, conceiva!ly infl,ential !ats , or pictorial scrolls, that -ere carried aro,nd so,th Ben"al !y itinerant storytellersJ !,t their composition consistently differs from )ichha Pata5oshiBs.:99< M 0 -o,ld therefore concl,de that -hat may have !een kno-n in *rissa -as the theme !,t not the Ben"ali ima"es. A-o scenes of the co-herds in each man,script !ecome an occasion for r,ral details. Ah,s the !rothers ch," their milk -ith ",sto in /i",re 119, and the 2a!ari offers them a man"o -ith -ide+eyed enth,siasm in /i",re 11%.:9G< M 0n the !rief acco,nt of the &a'anya'ati[*] , 3a"h,nath Pr,stiBs prolon"ation of these events is strikin". 0ll,stration of the last co,plet of verse 19 occ,pies folios &&v and &%r C/i",res 1%6, 1%&D, a space "enerally devoted to t-o or three co,plets. Ah,s Pr,sti seems as charmed as 2ita -as !y the frolickin" deer, -hich he depicts t-ice -ith animation and acc,racy, neatly "rad,atin" the siHe of spots on its e(tremities. /olio &%r places the main event in the center C@aksmanaBs:;< depart,re, leavin" 2ita to 3avana:;< D and the t-o sim,ltaneo,s offshoots on either side. Ahe same three episodes occ,r side !y

side at B,",da !,t in the order in -hich most te(ts descri!e themFfirst on the ri"ht the h,t, then the !rothers -ith the deer, then Jatay,Bs:;< !attle -ith 3avana:;< C/i",re 1$1D. Pr,sti seems to have deli!erately rearran"ed them accordin" to the lo"ic of place Cmovement in relation to the h,tD rather than a lo"ic of time. 6is version of the !rothers emphasiHes the deer, and 2ita stands more starkly alone in his depiction of the h,t as an ele"ant ca"e. Ahe tellin" device of the empty h,t in the ne(t scene seems to !e Pr,stiBs o-n invention,:96< effectively !alancin" 2itaBs sorro- in the cro-ded asoka "rove -ith 3amaBs stark loneliness C/i",re 1%%D. Ahe sin"le missin" leaf that follo-s m,st have ill,strated a total of fo,r co,plets, -hose more s,ccinctly depicted events mi"ht have set off this emphatic se7,ence. By contrast, the caref,l artist of the 3o,nd &a'anya'ati[*] tells his story -ith the re",larity of clock-ork, each line occ,pyin" one+7,arter or one+third of the space in every frame C/i",res 1&+1$D. 0n the case of the 2a!ariBs "ift of a man"o, her e(tended arm serves to emphasiHe the difference in stat,s !et-een her and 3ama C/i",re 1#D !,t lacks the simple sense of devotion fo,nd in )ichha Pata5oshiBs version C/i",re 11%D. 0n the case of the 8ispersed &a'anya'ati[*] # a missin" folio makes it impossi!le to assess this se7,ence as a -hole. *n the ne(t folio that does s,rvive, it is clear that this artist once a"ain took "reat li!erties -ith the plot se7,ence C/i",re 199D. ?ither this pa"e m,st !e read from ri"ht to left Can order virt,ally ,nkno-n in palm+leaf man,scripts, -hose -ritin" r,ns from left to ri"htD, or the order of the kidnap and the 2a!ariBs "ift has !een reversed. Ahis lady has little of the tri!al ' 9$ ' a!o,t her, and the impact of !oth scenes, -ith their delicate tracery of leaves, is co,rtly and ele"ant. 6ere prolepsis may ,nderscore the parallel !et-een feminine "enerosity in the t-o cases, esta!lishin" for the vie-er that 2ita did no -ron" in "ivin" alms to this stran"er. Bala!hadra PathyBs &a'anya'ati[*] is no more e(pansive for this portion than for the 3amayana:;< in "eneral. 2ome scenes are partic,larly vivid, s,ch as the denosin" of the scamperin", !,"+eyed 2,rpanakha:;< C/i",re 161D. Ahe fact that 3avanaBs:;< disc,ssion -ith )aricha takes place !y the ocean s,""ests that Pathy had in mind the *aidehisa *ilasa[*] , -here !athin" is part of enlistin" assistance. Ahe ill,sory deer, a fancif,l creat,re, more like an antelope than those of other versions, is sho-n repeatedlyFcavortin" in a narro- clearin", !o,ndin" thro,"h a thicket -ith ma"ical ease -hile 3ama str,""les after it, and lookin" r,ef,lly at the arro- shot thro,"h its neck -ith horiHontal insistency C/i",res 169, 16GD.:9&< Ahe ten+headed 3avana:;< and the co-herdBs co-s C/i",res 166, 16&D prod,ce variety -ithin the often mannered tracery of PathyBs -ork. Ahis man,script is the only one 0 kno- in -hich the deer has a sin"le head, altho,"h that is the case in a!o,t 9$ percent of the recent !ata[*] paintin"s. Certainly the t-o+headed type prevailed in *rissa in the nineteenth and early t-entieth cent,ries, altho,"h it -as never mandatoryJ -itness a !ata[*] from !efore 1%19, no- in the British ),se,m.:9%< Eeither chronolo"y nor re"ion seems to e(plain its adoption. 0n fact, -hile the t-o+headed form of the ill,sory deer is more common in *rissa than else-here, it does occ,r -ith some fre7,ency in -estern 0ndia from the fifteenth cent,ry on.:99< M 0 kno- of no three+headed version of the deer in this partic,lar episode, altho,"h 0ndia is rife -ith m,ltiheaded animals and the t-o+headed motif is part of that !road spectr,m. *ne e(ample of a three+ headed deer occ,rs in an *rissan palm+leaf man,script of the dhyatma Ramayana[*] as an ,ne(plained space+filler at a later point -hen the s,rro,ndin" te(t concerns 3amaBs advent,res in >iskindha:;< C/i",re &9D:G$< 0f -e search for a te(t,al e(planation for the t-o+headed form, none of the -orks e(plicitly ill,strated

in *rissa descri!es this detail. Iet it is mentioned in at least t-o other te(ts, one the presti"io,s early fifteenth+cent,ry "aha(harata of 2arala 8asa.:G1< Ahe second is one of n,mero,s 3amalila:;< te(ts, that of Kaisya 2adasiva, composed in the ei"hteenth cent,ry.:G1< M Ahese may represent, not a concl,sive so,rce for the motif, !,t rather indications that this ima"e -as -idespread, partic,larly in the conte(t of pop,lar theater. 0n the 3amalilas:;< still performed in central *rissa, the deer is fre7,ently represented !y a t-o+headed -ooden model p,lled on -heels C/i",re 99, /rontispieceD.:G#< M Eeither performance nor ima"es s,""est ,nanimity a!o,t the form of the deer, !,t the t-o+headed version -as -idely accepted in !oth theater and art. Pop,lar performance mi"ht at least have reinforced the artistsB tradition or choice. Ahe 7,estion remains, -hat do the t-o heads meanN 0n .,5arat, a strai"htfor-ard e(planation has !een add,ced: the deer moved fleetin"ly, one moment "raHin", the ne(t lookin" !ack.:G9< Ahis is to ,nderstand the motif as an e(treme e(ample of sim,ltaneo,s narration, e(ceptional !oth in -estern 0ndia and in *rissa. 0 asked repeatedly a!o,t the meanin" in *rissa and never received that ans-er, -hich is not to r,le o,t the possi!ility that the ima"e may also at times s,""est ' 91 ' dartin" movement. Iet t-o+headed form is neither necessary nor s,fficient for that interpretation. *n the one hand, PathyBs slender sin"le+headed deer creates a similar effect, demonstratin" that this motif is not re7,ired to create a sense of motion. *n the other hand, the dead !ody of the deer re",larly retains t-o heads -henever it is sho-n, and in that sit,ation motion is s,rely not intended C/i",res 1$, %%, 1%&, 11GFthe skin on -hich 3ama sitsFand 16GD. 0n fact, !oth the chitra%aras and the p,!lic -ere "enerally st,mped at first for an e(planation. *ne mi"ht concl,de that the real meanin" has !een lost. .iven the variety of forms, 0 -onder if there ever -as a sin"le real meanin". Ahe eminent *riya scholar 2. E. 3a5",r, s,pplied a precise and ele"ant interpretation, that the t-o heads correspond to the t-o sides of )arichaBs nat,re, !oth "ood and !ad. *thers, ho-ever, concl,ded that it -as simply the essence of ill,sion: the deer sho,ld !e odd. Whether -e opt for the specific, intellect,al alle"ory or for the more "eneraliHed, pop,lar interpretation may have more to do -ith o,r o-n ideolo"ical proclivities than -ith reasoned ar",ment. Both rest on a respect for ill,sion, for am!i",ity, for do,!le entendre, and for divine po-er at -ork in conf,sion that is central to several te(ts -e have !een considerin". Ahis entire se7,ence of action !ecomes si"nificant less as simple cr,( of plot than as the epitome of ill,sion. When )aya 2ita confronts the )aya )ri"a:;< and is kidnapped !y )aya+3avana:;< , the entire story rises to a level of comple( relativism that diHHies even the postmodernist. 0 -o,ld like to ar",e that the very open+endedness of the sym!olism of the t-o+headed deer !est e(plains its tenacity in *rissa.

The Se)en Trees and 'he Dea'h o( Valin

0n the fo,rth !ook of Kalmiki, the >iskindha:;< >anda:;< , -hen 3ama meets 6an,mana and allies himself -ith the monkey kin" 2,"riva, -e are led deeper into the 5,n"le of fantasy. 2,"rivaBs e(ile is e(plained !y the story of his elder !rother, Kalin, -ho -as ass,med to have !een killed !y a demon !,t s,!se7,ently reappeared to reclaim the kin"dom a!r,ptly, ,s,rpin" 2,"rivaBs -ife, 3,ma. When 3ama promised to defend 2,"riva, to ass,re his ne- allies of his stren"th he kicked the skeleton of the demon 8,nd,!hi, -hom Kalin had killed earlier, and he shot thro,"h seven sal trees to e7,al another e(ploit of KalinBs.:GG< 3eass,red, 2,"riva challen"ed his !rother to a fi"ht, in the first ro,nd of -hich 3ama co,ld not tell the t-o monkeys apart. Aherefore he "ave his ally a "arland and in the second ro,nd shot Kalin from !ehind a tree. Ahe dyin" monkey reproached him for d,plicity !,t came to ,nderstand that

his o-n ,nto-ard !ehavior to 2,"riva and 3,ma 5,stified the action. 4fter m,ch "rievin" !y KalinBs o-n -ife, Aara, 2,"riva -as cro-ned and KalinBs son 4O"ada !ecame heir apparent. 3ama spent the rainy season on )o,nt )alyavan, lamentin" 2itaBs a!sence. /inally @aksmana:;< ret,rned to >iskindha:;< to ro,se 2,"riva from a dr,nken st,por. Ah,s -e ret,rn to the 7,est for 2ita. Ahe dhyatma Ramayana[*] "ives a m,ch a!!reviated version of this section, -ith some difference of detail C8,nd,!hiBs head rather than his skeleton is kicked !y 3amaD, that also minimiHes any cens,re of 3ama !y Kalin, as one mi"ht e(pect in this deeply devo,t te(t. *riya literat,re alters this story in details, one of -hich is "iven a -ei"hty local interpretation. 2hootin" thro,"h the seven trees !ecomes more than a simple ' 91 ' proof that 3amaBs stren"th e7,als KalinBs. Ah,s in Balarama:;< 8asaBs 1agamohana Ramayana[*] , part of the monkeyBs stren"th is said to !e located in the sal trees, -hich had to !e c,t for him to die.:G6< )oreover, the trees !ent in different directions and 3ama had to !rin" them into a sin"le lineJ hence he stepped on the tail of a snake ,nder the trees, and the snake !ecame ri"idly strai"ht in fri"ht. /or Upendra BhaO5a, the serpent -as part of the initial pro!lem: Ahe trees are h,"e and hard as adamant, leafy as lot,s plants. Ahey are neatly arran"ed in a knot, firmly !orne !y a serpent. 4ltho,"h loaded -ith fine ne- leaves, !eca,se of the venom they have no !irds. 4t the to,ch of 3amaBs lot,s feet, the snake -ith the seven trees -as h,m!led. C*aidehisa *ilasa[*] 1%.#$+##D Ahese verses are inscri!ed in the form of a (andha , or re!,s p,HHle, -ithin the knotted !ody of the serpent itself C/i",res 9G, 1$$, 11$, 1#$DJ the reader fi",ratively strai"htens it o,t !y decipherin" it, 5,st as 3ama strai"htens it o,t literally !y compellin" the serpent to ,ncoil. Ahe incl,sion of a snake in this episode is !y no means limited to *riya literat,re, altho,"h it may !e more common in *riya than in other vernac,lars. 0n 2anskrit it "oes !ack at least to the tenth+cent,ry "ahanata%a[*] and occ,rs in the -idely pop,lar fifteenth+cent,ry nanda Ramayana[*] .:G&< )oreover, reliefs of the 6oysala period from t-elfth+ and thirteenth+cent,ry >arnataka depict a snake !eneath the seven trees, s,""estin" that other versions -ere kno-n in the so,th.:G%< M 4 mytho"rapher mi"ht !e most interested in the mi"ration of this motif and its "eneral meanin" as an em!lem im!,in" the ar!oreal forms -ith animal life. Ahe st,dent of *rissan literat,re is str,ck !y the -ay Upendra BhaO5a com!ined the relatively strai"htfor-ard element of plot -ith a local tradition of challen"in" ima"ery. 3hitra-%a'ya , or pict,re+poetry involvin" sets of re!,ses C(andhas D, -as a pop,lar "enre in *rissa that appealed to UpendraBs partic,lar poetic virt,osity.:G9< M Ahis is =vis,al poetry,= a t-entieth+ cent,ry phenomenon in the West, in -hich the physical act of readin" the ima"e enters into the meanin" of the poem. 4 second local t-ist to this part of the story is that Aara in the *aidehisa *ilasa[*] ,ltimately c,rses 3ama: =6e -ho has ca,sed the death of my h,s!and -ill not f,lly en5oy his o-n -ife= C1%.1G#D. Ahe c,rse reminds ,s of the pro!lematic nat,re of the entire episode: 3ama, in killin" Kalin !y means of a r,se, from !ehind, is himself open to criticism. ),ch has !een made of this moral pro!lem in 2anskritJ in a "eneral -ay -e can see the ad5,stment of the story to minimiHe 3amaBs ",ilt as he !ecomes pro"ressively more and more a divinity. 0n the hi"hly devotional 6indi version of A,lsi 8as, Kalin hardly re!,kes 3ama at all from his death!ed, and AaraBs del,ded "rief is easily+dispersed. B,t Upendra

BhaO5a admits an element of !lame. Ahis ,ltimately leads to the tra"ic final chapter of the entire story, -hich sets this portion of the *rissan tradition some-hat apart -ithin !roader 0ndian reli"io,s developments.:6$< Ahe B,",da painters ill,strate this portion of the story in an increasin"ly s,ccinct -ay, movin" from a disc,rsive to an iconic approach C/i",re 1$#D. Ah,s each of the first fo,r scenes occ,pies an entire re"ister. Ahe shootin" of the seven ' 9# ' sal trees, the !est preserved section of this -all, is an em!lematic composition that co,ld almost !e !orro-ed from sc,lpt,re, and one -hose te(t,al so,rce co,ld !e any *riya 3amayana:;< in -hich a serpent s,pports the trees from Balarama:;< 8asa on-ard.:61< Ahe entire -all seems deli!erately composed to move do-n-ard from a hilly forest scene Cc,t off in /i",re 1$#D to one framed !y t-o trees, to the massed sals, to the intense enclos,re in -hich 3ama shoots Kalin. 8,nd,!hiBs corpse, an element lyin" o,tside standard artistic voca!,lary, !ecomes an eerie, anatomically ,nreco"niHa!le com!ination of !ones and -rinkled skin. @aksmana:;< strai"htenin" his arro- is the most s,rprisin" narrative selection at B,",da CPlate 11D. Ahis event can !e reconciled -ith vario,s te(t,al so,rces, -hich credit the loyal !rother -ith considera!le an"er that the monkeys did not readily come to 3amaBs aid. 0n Balarama:;< 8asaBs 1agamohana Ramayana[*] and in Kisvanatha >h,ntiaBs:;<*ichitra Ramayana[*] , at the end of the rainy season 3ama himself sent @aksmana:;< off -ith the very arro- that had killed Kalin as a -arnin" to 2,"riva that this arro- mi"ht !e ,sed on him too. 0n the 8asapalla 3amalila:;< , @aksmana:;< , p,t off !y the doorkeeper at >iskindha:;< , shoots at the palace, a lo,d firecracker conveyin" the force of his an"er. Ahe stone -indo- screen from Kishn,p,r C/i",re 1%GD indicates that some version of this incident -as c,rrent in the fo,rteenth cent,ry. Ahe location of the scene on a hill, like the fo,r "reat ta!lea,( in B,",da, opens ,p the possi!ility that a vis,al tradition may have ",ided the painters as m,ch as the story per se. Eonetheless all these precedents do not f,lly e(plain the selection of this scene for s,ch prominence at B,",da, or the incl,sion of Jam!avan the !ear as an assistant -hile @aksmana:;< strai"htens o,t the 7,ill of the old arro-. 6ere, as -ith ancient sc,lpt,re, -e are at a loss to decide -hether the scene represents some lost traditionFpossi!ly oral, possi!ly vis,alFor -hether the artist devised it to !alance the remainin" three scenes that are =sanctioned= !y act,al te(ts. Ahe only other similar version of this episode 0 have discovered is in the &a'anya'ati[*] of 3a"h,nath Pr,sti, -here its placement makes it yet more p,HHlin" C/i",re 191, !ottomD. Ahe rareness of the s,!5ect s,""ests that it is idiosyncratic, either in story or in form, and hence not -idely accepta!le to later artists. Within this se7,ence in "eneral, B,",da does not f,lly =e(plain= the narrative choices of recent !ata[*] paintin". Ja"annath )ahapatraBs set of ill,strations foc,ses on 6an,mana and 2,"riva as models of devotion, omittin" 8,nd,!hiBs !ones, the seven trees, and @aksmanaBs:;< approach to >iskindha:;< . 0n the poem that accompanies them, Kalin is made the villain, and it is ,nderstanda!le that his death sho,ld !e ne"lected in favor of his ri"hteo,s !rotherBs coronation. 0n all of this, the chitra%aras seem to -ork in t,ne -ith the pan+0ndian c,rrents of A,lsi 8as. Perhaps non+*riya patrona"e for their -ork has reinforced this tendency. 0n ill,strated man,scripts of the dhyatma Ramayana[*] , the most interestin" incident in this section is the shootin" of the seven trees. 2,"riva addresses 3ama: =2ee,3a"hava, seven sal treesJ Kalin can shake the leaves from each one. 0f yo, can shoot them -ith one arro-, 0 tr,st yo,r stren"th.=

3ama acceded, took his !o-, and shot thro,"h them and the hill !ehind. Ahe arro- ret,rned to 3amaBs 7,iver, and 2,"riva -as deli"hted. C9.1.&1+&GD ' 99 ' Ao this simple acco,nt, 2arathi )adala Patnaik adds a serpent in the form of a knot C/i",res 61, 69D. :61< Both e(amples follo- the confi",ration ,sed for the (andha in the *aidehisa *ilasa[*] , !,t -itho,t any te(t inscri!ed on the !ody 0n 8ecem!er 1%91 2arathi )adala placed the snake !eyond the trees, as if e7,atin" it -ith the hill C/i",re 69D. 0n Jan,ary of the same year he had placed the seven trees at the corners of the knot in the pattern associated -ith Upendra BhaO5a, -ith 8,nd,!hiBs head on the far side C/i",re 61D. Both this head and the massed folia"e of the trees s,""est that the artist -as follo-in" details specific to the dhyatma Ramayana[*] . Iet the serpent s,""ests that this ,npredicta!le artist -as "enerally familiar -ith the *aidehisa *ilasa[*] and chose to interpolate an element from that. Eeither version of this same te(t !y another artist incl,des the serpentJ in fact the man,script Eational ),se,m dhyatma Ramayana[*] !y another artist "ives an e(tremely literal treatment of the event, incl,din" the hill !eyond the trees C/i",re &&D. Comparison -ith other versions ,nderlines 2arathi )adalaBs more playf,l treatment of his te(t. Ahe *aidehisa *ilasa[*] acco,nt s,mmariHed a!ove seems almost tailor+made for the palm+leaf ill,strators, -ho follo- it -ith fidelity *,r t-o very different artists sho- precisely the same confi",ration for the snake, determined !y the need to make the verses cross on the same sylla!les. 2atr,"hnaBs first version reads s,ccinctly from the te(t on the ri"ht to the left C/i",re 1$$D. 6is second composition is reversed and more hieratic, -ith the serpent (andha dominatin" the scene C/i",re 9GD. 4ll of )ichha Pata5oshiBs versions are more rela(ed and filled -ith narrative verve, spreadin" over t-o f,ll pa"es the scenes of the knot, the shootin" of the trees in a ro-, and the s,!se7,ent invocation of Kisn,:;< in the form of a -heel C/i",res 11$, 111D. Characteristically )ichha creates similar !,t not identical compositions: the trees sho-n as standin" in 19$1 C/i",re 11$D in later man,scripts topple over, their tr,nks severed C/i",res 119, 1#$D. Ahat the serpentBs head to,ches 3amaBs foot and that its !ody -eaves amon" the trees distin",ish this version from the some-hat similar confi",ration at B,",da. /or the fi"ht !et-een Kalin and 2,"riva, 2atr,"hna a"ain places the main event centrally, emphasiHin" the monkeys !y scale over Aara to the left and 3amaBs party to the ri"ht C/i",re 96D. )ichha Pata5oshi, on the other hand, separates o,t each t,rn of the plot episodically and -ith e7,al -ei"ht C/i",res 1#1+ ##D. Ahe !ea,tif,l Aara is made f,lly h,man !y !oth artists, and her c,rse is e(plicitly and emphatically depicted !y )ichha C/i",re 1##D.:6#< 2atr,"hna "oes on to develop the scene of 3amaBs "rief in the rainy season vividly, -ith one of the first e(tended sections of the man,script that is depicted at ri"ht an"les to the palm fronds themselves CPlate 6D. Painted !lack and o,tlined -ith -hite, the lo!es of )o,nt )alyavan resem!le the clo,ds a!ove. 8ia"onal ",sts of rain convey emotional tension. 4mon" ill,strated man,scripts of the &a'anya'ati[*] , 3a"h,nath Pr,stiBs ,nfort,nately lacks the folio that -o,ld pres,ma!ly have incl,ded the seven trees. When -e can follo- his version, -ith the death of Kalin, -e find one of Pr,stiBs comple( compositions, formin" a s,!,nit that !alances the !,ildin" of the !rid"e at the opposite end of the same leaf C/i",re 1%9D. Pr,sti inter-eaves 3amaBs shot at the pair of fi"htin" monkeys -ith KalinBs collapse in the middle, !reakin" the tyranny of chronolo"ical se7,ence. Ahe central scene, in -hich 3ama and @aks+:;< ' 9G '

mana:;< seated on )o,nt )alyavan address t-o monkeys, takes ,s -ell !eyond the incidents -e have !een considerin".:69< B,t possi!ly the incl,sion of the standin" Jam!avan indicates that this is Pr,stiBs reinterpretation of the ,nfamiliar scene of @aksmana:;< strai"htenin" his arro- at B,",da CPlate 11D, "iven this artistBs other references to those near!y -all paintin"s. Ahe ,nkno-n ill,strator of the 8ispersed &a'anya'ati[*] moves -ith his characteristic selectiveness thro,"h this portion of the story.:6G< Ah,s 8,nd,!hiBs !one, a sin"le stark ti!ia, rests !et-een 3ama and his tar"et, in a contin,o,s composition that "athers moment,m to the left C/i",re 1G1D. Ahe delicate pattern of the seven trees is em!roidered -ith vario,s animals, incl,din" !irds, -hich indicate that this artist -as not ",ided !y the statement in the *aidehisa *ilasa[*] that the serpent had fri"htened a-ay !irds. *n the reverse of the same leaf, the ,s,al fi"ht !et-een the monkeys is a!sentJ instead, 3ama leans over the dyin" Kalin C/i",re 1G1D. 6an,mana holdin" a hill !oth reflects the canonical role of the s,!se7,ent .andhamadana incident, disc,ssed !elo-, and evokes !y a flash+ for-ard the fact that KalinBs death -as the price paid for the heroesB later safety. /inally to the ri"ht -e find the same com!ination of incidentsFthe cock, the rainy season, and 3amaBs ne-s of 2itaFthat -e sa- in Pr,stiBs cro-ded drama, altho,"h the effect here is more lyrical. Ahe artist of the 3o,nd &a'anya'ati[*] neatly red,ces each scene to the essentials and presents them -ith fidelity to the a!!reviated list of this te(t C/i",res 16, 1&D. /or e(ample, !eca,se the sal trees are mentioned !efore 8,nd,!hiBs !ones Ca limp skeleton hereD, they appear first. Ahe rains !ecome a frin"ed dark corner of the sky 4nd the cro-nin" of the cock is as prominent as KalinBs death. Bala!hadra Pathy, on the other hand, emancipated himself from his te(t in order and in detail. 8,nd,!hiBs !ones, an odd scaly mass to the left in /i",re 16%, precede the seven trees, -hich, -hile clearly la!eled sala[*] , are sho-n -ith the fan+shaped leaves of the tala[*] palm. Pathy chose to emphasiHe the death of the monkey kin", sho-n shot, reproachin" the heroes, mo,rned !y his -ives, and finally cremated C/i",re 169D. Ahis artist -as in his element -ith 3amaBs reaction to the rainy season, -here dotted lines s,""est !oth teardrops and tense ener"y CPlate 1$, /i",res 1&$, 1&1D. Birds, fro"s, and the lo-erin" sky evoke the so,nds of a storm, one of the most emotionally compellin" ima"es of this master dramatist.:66< Ahe !revity of this se7,ence in the &a'anya'ati[*] itself permits some of the differences 5,st indicated. 4t the same time, it is -orth ,nderlinin" the similarity in the three s,rvivin" ima"es of -hat is only mentioned as =splittin" the trees.= 8espite their diversity of detail, there are o!vio,sly seven in every case, and all rest on the !ack of a serpent. Ahis ima"e had !ecome firmly fi(ed in the mind of most *riya ill,strators, -hatever their prescri!ed te(t.

Han-mana In an,a./0
Ahe fifth !ook of the 3amayana:;< in KalmikiBs 2anskrit centers on the "rief of 2ita, captive in the asoka "rove, and th,s directly evokes the emotion of pity C%aru,a rasa D aro,nd -hich the entire epic is !,ilt. Ahe plot here incl,des 6an,manaBs "reat leap to @anka:;< ,:6&< his dialo",e -ith 2ita, his confrontation -ith the ra%sasas[*] ' 96 ' in -hich he is capt,red !y 0ndra5ita C-ho ,ses an eni"matic device identified only as a =Brahma+ -eapon=D, the settin" fire to his tail !o,nd -ith oil+soaked ra"s, and his ,ltimate ,se of this !laHin" tail as a torch, -ith -hich he !,rns @anka:;< . Ahis last event is emphasiHed in performances s,ch as the 3amalila:;< of Bisipada and the @anka:;< Podi:;< festival of 2onep,r, in !oth of -hich this event constit,tes the destr,ction of @anka:;< . Kario,s factors may !e at -ork here: local associations of the

storyJ the theatrical possi!ilities of this eventJ (ha%ti c,rrents, for -hich 6an,mana is a model. 4t any rate, -e note repeatedly, if not ,niversally, in *rissa an emphasis ,pon the monkeys as central heroes. 0n Balarama:;< 8asaBs infl,ential 1agamohana Ramayana[*] , some parts of 6an,manaBs e(ploits are f,rther em!roidered. 6e is challen"ed !y the local "oddess @ankesvari:;< at the "ates of the to-n, he ass,mes other animal forms s,ch as that of a !ee, and he proves his !ona fides to 2ita !y reco,ntin" minor events kno-n only to her and 3ama. Ahe *aidehisa *ilasa[*] incl,des most of these details and acids partic,lars con"r,ent -ith Upendra BhaO5aBs o-n intellect,al taste.:6%< 4t the same time, in a fe- later te(ts -e see a red,ction of 6an,manaBs entire visit to @anka:;< , -hich may also have m,ltiple e(planations: the competin" development of the s,!se7,ent Book of Battle, I,ddha >anda:;< , or perhaps a certain -eariness on the part of the a,thor that leads to haphaHard selection. 4t any rate, even in the dhyatma Ramayana[*] , the 2,ndara >anda:;< is relatively !rief and simply retains most elements from Kalmiki. Upendra BhaO5aBs &a'anya'ati[*] red,ces this entire episode to a sin"le elliptical phrase a!o,t 3ama: =Ao "et ne-s of his -ife he sent a messen"er.= Ah,s *rissan tradition !y the nineteenth cent,ry lacked consens,s on the -ei"ht "iven to this part of the story, and a sin"le poet mi"ht vary "reatly in his emphasis. Eo ill,strations of the 2,ndara >anda:;< are preserved at B,",da.:69< 0n e(tended recent cycles in the !ata[*] form, ho-ever, scenes of 6an,mana -ith 2ita and of the !,rnin" of @anka:;< are common C/i",res 1#9, 1#GJ 4ppendi( GD. Ahe act,al pict,res of the city on fire are fairly diverse, some incl,din" a form of linear perspective in the dia"onal -alls and ill,sionism in the paintin" of the flames. Ahe artist of the Parlakhem,ndi playin" cards develops the chthonic form of the flamin" tail, omittin" rectilinear architect,re, as is appropriate to his circ,lar format C/i",re 16&D. /rom this diversity 0 -o,ld infer that -hat is at -ork is the idea of this scene rather than any vis,al model, hence the ready acceptance of elements not in the *rissan tradition to ill,strate it. 0n ill,stratin" the dhyatma Ramayana[*] , 2arathi )adala Patnaik did not ne"lect this portion of the story, despite its a!!reviated place in the te(t.:&$< 0n a sin"le copy -e see 0ndra5ita shootin" 6an,mana -ith his Brahma+-eapon in the form of a serpent knot C/i",re &$D of the kind the artist also added to the shootin" of the seven trees C/i",re 69D, perhaps once a"ain conflatin" the *aidehisa *ilasa[*] , -hich mentions a Ea"apasa, -ith this te(t, -hich does not. 2arathi )adalaBs o-n lack of consistency in ill,stratin" this entire se7,ence is characteristic of him. )ichha Pata5oshi ill,strates the three cantos of the *aidehisa *ilasa[*] devoted to 6an,manaBs visit to @anka:;< -ith his ,s,al enth,siasm.:&1< /or the final !,rnin", it is clear that this artist is at his !est in depictin" the h,man sit,ationFthe "lee of the ra%sasas[*] as they li"ht the tail, 6an,manaBs e7,ally ea"er escape, the conster+ ' 9& ' nation of the -omen of @anka:;< fleein" -ith their children C/i",re 1#GD. *n the other hand, his version of the !,rnin" city, its roofs lit !y tiny flames, is not partic,larly vivid, -hereas 2arathi )adala Patnaik dramatically 5,(taposes !old spikes of fire -ith empty space C/i",re G1D. Ahe scant mention of this se7,ence in the &a'anya'ati[*] makes its omission in most ill,strated man,scripts no s,rprise. What is ,ne(pected, and in fact constit,tes a ma5or reason for d-ellin" on this episode, is that one man,script "oes over!oard in depictin" this section despite its a!sence in the te(t. Ahis is the -ork of Bala!hadra Pathy from Jalantara, -ho devoted t-enty+fo,r folios to ill,stratin" 6an,manaBs visit to @anka:;< . Eor does his te(t interpolate any verses here. 0n fact this is the end of -hat -e have of this copy of the &a'anya'ati[*] . While s,!se7,ent folios may !e missin", it is conceiva!le, !eca,se of the discrepancy !et-een te(t and ima"es, that either Pathy or his patron lost

interest in the pro5ect.:&1< Ahe ima"es of 6an,manaBs e(ploits sho- a vi"or that relieves PathyBs sometimes mannered compositions C/i",res 1&1, 1&#D. 4nd t-o of his most effective scenes depict the !,rnin" of the city, compositions that p,t other ill,strators in the shade C/i",re 1&9D. @on" colonnades licked !y seethin" pink flames set off 6an,manaBs e!,llience and the m,ltiple lim!s of 3avana:;< , hei"htenin" the drama of the confla"ration. 0t is a"ain remarka!le that Pathy devoted almost fifty ima"es to a se7,ence of events mentioned in less than a line of the te(t he himself copied.

2-ildin& The 2rid&e

Ahe se7,ence of episodes in -hich 3ama defies the *cean, the monkey Eala directs his cohorts in !,ildin" a ca,se-ay Csetu D, and the entire army crosses over to @anka:;< is a favorite one for ill,stration in sc,lpt,re. Ahe se7,ence incl,des 3amaBs heroism, EalaBs skill as an en"ineer, and the comm,nity effort of the monkeys and leads into the final victory over 3avana:;< . Ah,s this episode -as the principal s,!5ect of the Prakrit poem 2etu(andha , -here description s,rpasses narrative action. :&#< 0n later te(ts in "eneral, t-o kinds of additions are made to this episode. /irst, the !rid"e itself -as em!ellished -ith a 2iva li,ga , for e(ample in the 2anskrit dhyatma Ramayana[*] , -here the 2aivite frame for the entire story makes this element ,nderstanda!le.:&9< 0n the *riya translation of that -ork, ho-ever, yet a f,rther invocation of Ja"annatha -as added !efore the !,ildin" of the !rid"e, reflectin" local reli"io,s priorities.:&G< M 4 second addition in vario,s vernac,lar and folk versions is the story of the s7,irrel. Ahis h,m!le creat,re helps in !,ildin" the !rid"e !y shakin" off the sand that sticks to his f,r. 3ama re-ards him -ith the sacred stripes on his !ack that characteriHe the 0ndian s7,irrel.:&6< M Both incidents are present in Balarama:;< 8asaBs 1agamohana Ramayana[*] and are common in other *riya versions. Ahe *aidehisa *ilasa[*] "ives a partic,larly charmin" acco,nt of this episode, !e"innin" -ith the c,rse that made anythin" Eala dropped into -ater floatJ here the setu is clearly conceived as a !rid"e rather than as a solid ca,se-ay, as in Kalmiki.:&&< Ahe "reat mo,ntains s,ch as )o,nt )er, are ca,"ht off ",ard !y the monkeys comin" to ro! them of the peaks. ' 9% ' 3ama had them smooth sand on the top, 2o that the vario,s fine mo,ntains !ecame one. 0t -as a -onder of the -orld. Crocodiles s-am deli"htf,lly !elo-. @ovely flocks of !irds came and -ent. /rom the !ank its hei"ht -as alarmin".:&%< Ahe fine race of s7,irrels played in the -ater. Ahe lord to,ched them, and his "reat !oon is -ell kno-n. C9$.96+99D 0n the last verse Upendra BhaO5a all,des to the folk motif of the s7,irrel -itho,t e(plicitly reco,ntin" the event. Ahe -all paintin"s of B,",da depict the !,ildin" of the !rid"e prominently C/i",re 1$6, !ottomD, if on a smaller scale than the scenes of hills that s,rmo,nt the ma5or eastern -all, 8 and ?. 2e7,ence in this entire section of the m,rals is hard to e(plain. Perhaps a contri!,tin" element in the decision is the vis,al analo"y !et-een the lar"e hills a!ove, s,ch as Chitrak,ta:;< in this case, and the small l,mps -ith similar lo!es that the monkeys hold. 6ere they trip across a horiHontal line that rises sli"htly to the

leftJ the ocean !elo- is filled -ith fish. 0n later !ata[*] cycles, this scene is fre7,ently depicted C4ppendi( GD and appears in a form close to that of B,",da C/i",res 11%, 111, 1#6D. )inor differences !et-een the three versions of Ja"annath )ahapatraBs set have !een disc,ssed in Chapter 1. 0n all !atas[*] 0 have seen, the moment depicted is not the constr,ction of the !rid"e !,t rather the crossin", -ith 3ama and @aksmana:;< on the monkeysB sho,lders. Eonetheless, the lo- dia"onal composition is so similar that 0 find it hard not to see these !atas[*] as variations ,pon the scene of !,ildin" the !rid"e depicted at B,",da. 0n this se7,ence, 2arathi )adala Patnaik is, as ,s,al, some-hat inconsistent. Ahe -hole event seems not to have !een depicted in his first man,script of the dhyatma Ramayana[*] . 0n his second, that of Jan,ary 1%91, he devoted one f,ll folio to the shrine of Ja"annatha, -ho is invoked at the !e"innin" of the I,ddha >anda:;< , and the ne(t folio to a shrine of 2iva C/i",res 61, 6#D. 2,ch f,ll+pa"e compositions comprisin" architect,re rendered flatly in profile are ,n,s,al in this artistBs -ork. 0n his fo,rth dhyatma Ramayana[*] , that of 1%91, the same invocation of Ja"annatha is depicted as one mi"ht e(pect, -ith a lar"e ima"e set in a simple, form,laic architect,ral frame C/i",re &1D. 4s for the !rid"e itself, in three later man,scripts it forms a strai"ht line s,rmo,ntin" the ocean, -ith an a!!reviated shrine to 2iva at one end C/i",res 69, &1, &#D. Ahe monkeys stand on the completed !rid"e holdin" rocks in their pa-s and on their heads, t,rned in !oth directions, perhaps passin" rocks alon" in a variation on the !,cket !ri"ade. Ahe sense of their activity is effective if illo"ical. 0n the Baripada man,script of the *aidehisa *ilasa[*] , 2atr,"hna ill,strates the !,ildin" of the !rid"e on a sin"le leaf, -oven !et-een carto,ches of te(t, so that the episode does not partic,larly stand o,t C/i",re 9&D. Eor does he emphasiHe the effort of the enterprise, -hich in fact moves sli"htly do-nhill to the ri"ht. 0n this he differs from the B,",da Cand !ata[*] D tradition, as -e mi"ht e(pect in vie- of his distance and claim of in"en,ity. 6e does apparently pick ,p Upendra ' 99 ' BhaO5aBs reference to the s7,irrel, -ith a lar"e 7,adr,ped to-ard the left end of the !rid"e. )ichha Pata5oshiBs ill,strations of the *aidehisa *ilasa[*] re",larly devote one or more lon" scenes to this event, conveyin" !oth the siHe of the !rid"e and the scale of the monkeysB effort C/i",re 11$D. 4t the left end, the s7,irrel is -orked into the repetitio,s series of fi",res holdin" rocks, as all,sive as the reference in the poem. 4t the same time, o!vio,sly not every -ord of Upendra BhaO5a is ca,"ht in the pict,re. /or e(ample the ocean does not appear, -hich s,""ests that )ichha Pata5oshi conceived this ca,se-ay as solid, i"norin" the disc,ssion of EalaBs a!ility to make stones float. 0n short, he ,sed selectively, -hether !y conscio,s or ,nconscio,s choice, those elements that seemed to form an effective pict,re. Upendra BhaO5aBs terse phrase in the &a'anya'ati[*] F=Ahe noted Eala !,ilt a !rid"e across the sea=Felicits an ima"e in all o,r man,scripts, aside from Bala!hadra PathyBs, for -hich everythin" after the !,rnin" of @anka:;< is missin". 3a"h,nath Pr,sti !alances this scene a"ainst the death of Kalin in his pa"e centered on )o,nt )alyavan, -hich economically serves also as )ahendra"iri, the mo,ntain that flanks the straits to @anka:;< C/i",re 1%9D. Ahe -ay in -hich the monkeys !o,nd across the !rid"e, the ocean !elo- filled -ith fish, is reminiscent of the same s,!5ect at B,",da C/i",re 1$6, !ottomD. Pr,sti once a"ain seems to have adapted the clearly -ro,"ht model of the near!y -all paintin"s to the partic,lar needs of his man,script. Ahe artists of the 8ispersed and the 3o,nd &a'anya'ati[*] C/i",res 1G#, 19D !oth pair the !rid"e -ith a ri"idly separate scene of @anka:;< on the same folio. Both incl,de the s7,irrel on the !rid"e, sho-in" the -ide c,rrency of that motif not e(plicitly mentioned in this partic,lar te(t. 0n /i",re 19 -e have a

narro- !rid"e over the sea, -ith the monkeys passin" stones to the left, somethin" like 2arathi )adalaBs version in /i",re &1, e(cept that the act,al pro"ress of the -ork is more rationally presented. Ahe dispersed man,script is ,ni7,e in sho-in" the monkeys -orkin" from the land, -ith the !rid"e in the middle of the -ater. *ne is str,ck a"ain !y this artistBs "eneral tendency to limit the cast of his drama, developin" the settin" in its o-n ri"ht -itho,t concern for scale. )any man,script versions of this scene as -ell as all the !ata[*] paintin"s proceed from ri"ht to left, co,nter to the direction of -ritin".:&9< 6ere perhaps the model of B,",da, -hen movement in this direction -as appropriate for the vie-er circ,mam!,latin" the temple, lay !ehind the compositions of even the man,scripts. 4t the same time, they sho- considera!le latit,de in adaptin" the details, as if this scene also e(isted independently in the scri!esB ima"inations.

!rel-de To 2a''le
0n KalmikiBs 2anskrit, the I,ddha >anda:;< moves "rad,ally from the crossin" of the monkey army to vario,s events that set the sta"e for the "reat !attle. 3avana:;< sends spies to the enemy camp. 6e deceives 2ita -ith the ill,sion that 3ama has !een killed.:%$< 3ama clim!s the near!y 2,vela 6ill and -atches 2,"rivaBs first fi"ht -ith 3avana:;< . KalinBs son 4O"ada "oes on a final, ,ns,ccessf,l, mission of peace !efore the forces finally 5oin. 0n te(ts s,ch as the "ahanata%a[*] the monkey em!assy is developed. Ao this "eneral se7,ence, some later acco,nts, incl,din" the dhyatma ' 1$$ ' Ramayana[*] , add an initial confrontation, -hen 3ama c,ts off the tho,sand ,m!rellas and the cro-n of 3avana:;< ,:%1< -hereas the s,!se7,ent mission of 4O"ada is dropped. *riya versions "enerally develop !oth these incidents. Kipra @aksmidhar:;< 8asaBs ,gada /adi reco,nts the entire tale of 3ama as told !y the monkey am!assador. 0n 2arala 8asa and Balarama:;< 8asa and in Upendra BhaO5aBs *aidehisa *ilasa[*] , the demon host seats the am!assador at his feet, !,t the monkey avoids i"nominy !y coilin" his tail to raise himself a!ove 3avana:;< . 0n the 1agamohana Ramayana[*] , 6an,mana follo-s 4O"ada as a messen"er, and the incident of the coiled tail is attri!,ted to him.:%1< Balarama:;< 8asa also descri!es the c,ttin" of 3avanaBs:;< ,m!rellas in detail, incl,din" a variant apparently from folklore, that the fallen ,m!rellas take root in the "ro,nd and !ecome m,shrooms.:%#< M 0n the *aidehisa *ilasa[*] m,shrooms do not appear, !,t the ,m!rellas -hirlin" in the sky are compared to "eese.:%9< M Ahe 3amalila:;< of 8asapalla presents this episode vividlyJ ,m!rellas, represented !y pieces of cloth attached to the P,spaka:;< Kimana crane, are released !y a strin" -hen 3ama shoots his arro-. Ahis last, seemin"ly minor, event plays a prominent role in the chitra%aras7 tradition. Ah,s at B,",da, -e see 3ama seated on 2,vela 6ill, -ith the 'anaras in attendance and Ki!hisana:;< pointin" to the chariot from -hich ,m!rellas fall at vario,s an"les in the ,pper left C/i",re 1$&, topD. 0n this case, the placement of the event ,pon a lar"e hill Clike Chitrak,ta:;< and )alyavan, -hich precedeD may have recommended this incident for incl,sion here. Ahe same event fi",res -idely in other -ork !y the chitra%aras . Ahe Chikiti painter 4panna )ahapatraBs versions follo- the B,",da composition, altho,"h ill,sionistic details -ork a"ainst the mirac,lo,s effect of the c,t ,m!rellas C/i",re 1&1D. 0n the P,rl area the composition is ,s,ally reversed and 3ama act,ally shoots his !o-, -hereas at B,",da he merely holds an arro-. 0n the small Ja"annatha shrine on )anikarnika 2ahi in P,rl, this scene alone from the epic occ,pies an entire -all, sho-in" 3ama seated ,pon a deer skin -ith t-o heads, re+evokin" the )aya )ri"a:;< C/i",re 11GD. 0n many ela!orate !atachitras[*] depictin" the P,rl temple, this scene appears on the ,pper ri"ht to

!alance the distinctively *rissan s,!5ect of >anchi+>averi on the left.:%G< Bha"avata )aharana selected this event as one of fo,r to occ,py the sides of a -eddin" !o(, his version of the ,m!rellas s,""estin" Upendra BhaO5aBs metaphor of "eese rather than m,shrooms C/i",re 161D. 4ll these depictions may represent variants on a !roadly shared vis,al type, passed on !y practice and !y hypothetical sketch!ooks. Ahe e(tended narrative se7,ences associated -ith Ja"annath )ahapatra, s,rprisin"ly, do not incl,de this event C4ppendi( GD. Ahere, ho-ever, 4O"adaBs em!assy is re",larly represented, -ith the distinctive detail of the coiled tail servin" as an elevated seat C/i",re 1#&D. Ahe same vis,al motif is ,sed on the Parlakhem,ndi playin" cards from the early t-entieth cent,ry to depict 6an,mana !ro,"ht !efore 3avana:;< , as the la!el tells ,s C/i",re 166D.:%6< @ike-ise in some-hat earlier man,script ill,stration from the ad5oinin" re"ion of 4ndhra, as -ell as in ancient sc,lpt,re of Chal,kyan >arnataka, f,rther to the so,th, the incident of the coiled tail is associated -ith 6an,mana.:%&< M 6ere -e face an ima"e that pro!a!ly corresponds to a -idespread oral tale, one variant of -hich s,rfaces in the "ahanata%a[*] and in later *riya te(ts. ' 1$1 ' 0n all the man,scripts of the dhyatma Ramayana[*] 0 have e(amined, the c,ttin" of the ,m!rellas, altho,"h mentioned in the te(t, is not ill,strated, and in "eneral there are fe- pict,res in the later portions of the te(t. Ahe *aidehisa *ilasa[*] !riefly mentions !oth the c,ttin" of the ,m!rellas and 4O"adaBs em!assy. Ahese events appear, as -e mi"ht e(pect, in )ichha Pata5oshiBs literal ill,strations. 6is version of the chariot, -ith a lar"e head on its !ody and scattered ,m!rellas to the sides, in a "eneral -ay resem!les the chitra%aras7 ima"es, cited a!ove, altho,"h he chose to sho- 3ama standin" rather than seated C/i",re 111D. )ichha Pata5oshi also sho-s 4O"adaBs tail coiled in a simple spiral C/i",re 1#6D rather than the hi"h stool+like form of Ja"annath )ahapatra. 2ince the seatin" pro!lem is not mentioned in this te(t at all, this artist may have had in mind other familiar versions of the story s,ch as the infl,ential 1agamohana Ramayana[*] or some oral tale.:%%< /inally, the &a'anya'ati[*] does not mention these t-o incidents, and hence it is no s,rprise that !oth sho,ld !e omitted from ill,stration. Iet here a"ain -e see the -illin"ness of one scri!e, 3a"h,nath Pr,sti, to re-ork scenes from the near!y !eloved -all paintin"s of B,",da. *ne entire folio of his man,script seems to represent an ela!oration of -alls / and . of the KiraOchi Earayana:;< m,rals, readin" left to ri"ht from the chariot and topsy+t,rvy ,m!rellas Cindeed resem!lin" !irdsD to -hat may !e 2,vela 6ill, on -hich 3ama sits holdin" an arro- -hile Ki!hisana:;< points over his sho,lder C/i",re 19$D. Ao the ri"ht are @aksmana:;< -ith an arro- and Jam!avan, alon" -ith fo,r seated monkeys. Ahis can hardly represent the threatenin" of the ine!riated 2,"riva, -hich occ,rs !efore the !,ildin" of the !rid"e on the reverse. 0 remain p,HHled !y the intent of the ill,strator here, -hich may in fact reflect his o-n p,HHlement at the vivid !,t eni"matic story told at B,",da.

Han-mana and 'he 9edi+inal Her:s

6an,manaBs mirac,lo,s resc,e of @aksmana:;< has "ripped the 0ndian pop,lar ima"ination. Ahe appeal of this e(ploit may !e attri!,ted to the role of the monkeyBs devotion, or (ha%ti , -hich ena!les him to overcome all diffic,lties -ith heroic feats. 0t is also a case in -hich a narrative ima"e has !ecome an iconic form that transcends its ori"inal narrative conte(t. Ahe story in KalmikiBs 2anskrit !e"ins -hen 0ndra5ita, son of 3avana:;< , mesmeriHes the t-o !rothers -ith his snake+arro- Csar!a-(andha D, from -hich .ar,da:;< , the enemy of serpents, li!erates them.:%9< Ahen, after the death of his "iant ,ncle, >,m!hakarna:;< , 0ndra5ita ,ses his Brahma+-eapon and, himself invisi!le, makes the heroes

,nconscio,s. Jam!avan, the !ear, directs 6an,mana to !rin" medicinal her!s from )o,nt .andhamadana in the 6imalayas. Ahe mi"hty monkey flies off and, -hen he cannot find the ri"ht her!s !eca,se the plants have made themselves invisi!le, !rin"s !ack the entire mo,ntain peak, ena!lin" the !rothers to !e c,red. 0n the dhyatma Ramayana[*] , 0ndra5itaBs first attack fells the monkeys, and 3ama orders 6an,mana to !rin" the mo,ntain of her!s to revive them, a clear !orro-in" from the second incident in Kalmiki. @ater it is 3avana:;< -ho knocks @aksmana:;< ,nconscio,s !,t is ,na!le to carry off the !ody, -hich !ecomes mirac,lo,sly heavy. 4t this point 3ama a"ain dispatches 6an,mana for the medicine, ' 1$1 ' and here, as in other late versions, the monkey is detained on the -ay !y the demon >alanemi, a master of dis",ise, -ho offers him -ater from a pond inha!ited !y a crocodile that attempts to devo,r him. 6an,mana kills the !east, a"ain !rin"s !ack the entire mo,ntain, and resc,es @aksmana:;< .:9$< Balarama:;< 8asa and Upendra BhaO5a Cin his *aidehisa *ilasa[*] D ascri!e the first resc,e to .ar,da:;< and make !oth 3ama and @aksmana:;< victims of 0ndra5ita in the second case. Ahey also incl,de the >alanemi episode -ith the crocodile. 2,!se7,ently in !oth acco,nts Bharata sees 6an,mana flyin" !ack -ith the mo,ntain and shoots at him !y mistake, an incident that the t-o keep secret.:91< M 0n "eneral, *riya Cand other vernac,larD a,thors depart considera!ly from Kalmiki in the I,ddha >anda:;< , introd,cin" comple( episodes s,ch as the story of the ra%sasa[*] )ahiravana:;< , -hich in t,rn involves the "oddess 8,r"a as protector of the heroes.:91< M 0t -o,ld seem that the chaos of seesa-in" !attles on the one hand "ave the teller fe-er ",idelines for the plot and on the other hand made the intr,sion of local concerns appropriate. 4t B,",da, t-o lon" panels ,nder the eaves Chence hard to see and today a!radedD as -ell as the entire prominent so,th -all are devoted to the melee C/i",res 111, 11#D. 4mid flyin" arro-s, the lar"e fi",res of the heroes and 0ndra5ita, >,m!hakarna:;< , and finally 3avana:;< are visi!le. *n the lo-er -all at the vie-erBs level, !eneath the first !attle, stands the isolated fi",re of 6an,mana holdin" the mo,ntain C/i",re 111D, paired -ith .ar,da:;< -ith a snake on his head C/i",re 11$D.:9#< Ahe 5,(taposition of these t-o isolated profile ima"es and the t-o virt,ally identical fi",res of Kisn,:;< , seen frontally, that flank the second !attle in the same -ay, s,""ests a depart,re from the narrative conte(t, in -hich !oth 6an,mana and .ar,da:;< take part in the fi"htin". While appropriate to the !attle, they also evoke the iconic form in -hich !oth may have !een commonly -orshiped in r,ral *rissa. 0n the case of 6an,mana, ima"es smeared -ith red lead, s,ch as that in the .a,ri compo,nd C/i",re 1%9D, provide a "eneric model, cast in ele"ant form !y the B,",da painter. 4mon" the isolated !ata[*] paintin"s prod,ced today, the same ima"e is pop,lar, as one mi"ht e(pect. What is ,ne(pected is the fre7,ent depiction of Bharata shootin" 6an,mana C/i",re 1GGD. Perhaps this minor incident, seemin"ly pec,liar to eastern 0ndia, appealed as an ill,stration of the conf,sion of ali"nments d,rin" the fi"htin", -hich led Bharata and 6an,mana themselves to h,sh ,p their confrontation as p,ttin" them !oth in a !ad li"ht. 0n the chitra%aras7 lon"er cyclical treatments of the story, the first incident -ith the snake+-eapon is common, !,t Ja"annath )ahapatra is alone in introd,cin" the second fellin" of @aksmana:;< !y 3avana:;< Cas in the dhyatma Ramayana[*] D and 6an,manaBs ret,rn -ith the her!s C/i",re 1#%D. 0n fact a monkey appears flyin" -ith a small hill and or a tree in the t-o pict,res precedin" his resc,e Cand in /i",re 191 as -ellD, indicatin" the centrality of this event to 6an,manaBs identity. 6e has !ecome eternally the !earer of the mo,ntain. Ja"annath )ahapatra also ,ne(pectedly follo-s this event -ith the )ahiravana:;< episode C/i",res 1#9+91D, -hich is limited to t-o te(t,al so,rces in *riya

disc,ssed in Chapter 1. 6ere he may -ell have !een infl,enced !y the prominence of )ahiravana:;< in the 2ahi Jatra performances of P,rl C/i",re 9GD. 0n recent years his son+in+la-, 2ridhar )ahapatra, has acted the role of 8,r"a in the 2ahi Jatra, and the partic,lar connection of the 3a"h,ra5p,r painter comm,nity -ith that cele!ration can !e doc,mented. ' 1$# ' Ahis connection may !e limited to the past three decades, !,t it is si"nificant !eca,se it s,""ests hopersonal ties mi"ht lead to the incl,sion of a distinctive version of the story 0n 1%&G 2arathi )adala Patnaik amply ill,strated this se7,ence in the dhyatma Ramayana[*] -ith three ima"es of the >alanemi episode as -ell as 6an,mana carryin" )o,nt .andhamadana C/i",re G#D. 0n !oth man,scripts made in 1%91 he eliminated the mo,ntain+!earin" form of the monkey alto"ether and red,ced the story to 3avanaBs:;< attempt to lift @aksmana:;< and one scene -ith >alanemi C/i",res 6G, 66D. By 19$1 there -ere no ima"es of this section at all. While this artist had consistently !een ,npredicta!le in his narrative choices, it does seem that in his later copies of this te(t the n,m!er of pict,res pro"ressively decreases, as if he had lost interest. 6is 1%99 Durga 2tuti and Hanumana 2tuti concern this portion of the 3amayana:;< , al!eit from a different an"le. 6ere 0ndra5itaBs serpent+-eapon is ill,strated !y the same serpent (andha that 2arathi )adala inserted in the dhyatma Ramayana[*] , as -ell as !y separate, more nat,ralistic, serpents in the air C/i",res %#, %9D. 8,r"a precedes .ar,da:;< as deliverer. 0n the Hanumana 2tuti , the monkey carries a small token hill C/i",re %GD. 0n several scenes here, his tail is depicted as endin" in the head of a snake C/i",re %6D. Kalmiki compares his tail to a snake,:99< and this stuti itself praises 6an,mana F=Io, -ho have Ea"ara5a in yo,r tail, the earth at yo,r feet, Brahma in yo,r navel.= )ichha Pata5oshi ill,strated this portion of the *aidehisa *ilasa[*] -ith inventive detail. Eo fla""in" spirits for him, ,nlike 2arathi )adala Patnaik. Ah,s he contin,ed to add details to the visit to >alanemiBs ashram as late as his 1916 man,script C/i",re 1#&D. While 6an,mana holds the mo,ntain aloft, his pose varies and is rooted in specific sit,ations, s,""estin" that )ichha Pata5oshi -as not partic,larly ",ided !y the pop,lar icon type C/i",re 111D. Eor -as 2atr,"hna in the Baripada *aidehisa *ilasa[*] , -here amid many lar"e iconic "ro,ps spread over m,ltiple folios, a small 6an,mana -ith the mo,ntain is ,no!tr,sively t,cked a-ay on a sin"le leaf. Ahe &a'anya'ati[*] , !rief as its acco,nt is, mentions a n,m!er of se7,ential details: the serpent+arro-as checked !y .ar,da:;< J 0ndra5ita ,sed his Brahma+-eapon, 6an,mana !ro,"ht )o,nt .andhamadana, Bharata sa- him, and @aksmana:;< -as saved. Ahese details are clearly rendered !y the artist of the 3o,nd &a'anya'ati[*] , alon" -ith the intervenin" death of >,m!hakarna:;< C/i",res #$+##D. Ahe artist of the 8ispersed &a'anya'ati[*] , on the other hand, -illf,lly conflates these episodes, so that 3ama and @aksmana:;< !oth lie !o,nd -ith serpents, and then -e see one of the heroes, pres,ma!ly 3ama, !attlin" ra%sasas[*] , -hile a tiny 6an,mana flies thro,"h the air -ith tree and mo,ntain C/i",re 1G9D.:9G< Ahe contrast !et-een the prostrate heroes and the active scene to the ri"ht is effective, and the ima"ery seems almost deli!erately am!i",o,s and open to pl,ral interpretations. /inally, 3a"h,nath Pr,sti also handled his "iven te(t -ith freedom, in part !orro-in" from B,",da, in part alterin" that model. 6is folio %1 incl,des the t-o !attles -ith >,m!hakarna:;< and 0ndra5ita, each -ith a dense rain of arro-s, as in the -all paintin"s C/i",res 111, 11#DJ !,t they occ,r on opposite sides of the leaf so that each !alances a scene constr,cted -ith very different te(t,re C/i",res 191, 191D. .ar,da:;< and the serpent+arro- are omitted alto"ether. Ahe fallen @aksmana:;<

' 1$9 ' is accompanied !y and his allies. Ahen 6an,mana flies -ith the mo,ntain and stands, confrontin" 3ama a"ain in a clear selective version of this episode. Ahe resem!lance !et-een the mo,ntain and the rocks held !y monkeys !,ildin" the !rid"e on the previo,s pa"e mi"ht !e ,nderstood as a convention, altho,"h the accomplished Pr,sti, a!le to depict hills -ith many variations, seems also to develop a deli!erate contin,ity in the devoted activity that the monkeys ,ndertake. 6is repetition of 6an,mana in t-o s,ccessive ima"es evokes the !rid"e scene and also ena!les him to incl,de the "eneric flyin" icon alon"side the neatly !alanced dialo",e !et-een 3ama and his devotee. Ahe s,!se7,ent scene la!eled =monkeys attackin" @anka:;< = -ith )andodari seated inside is ,ne(plained !y this or other versions of the story, altho,"h not inappropriate. 4"ain Pr,sti seems motivated !y desire for vis,al drama rather than !y a "iven narrative a"enda.

The Con+l-sion
What is the concl,sion to the 3amayana:;< N Ahe most pressin" 7,estion raised !y the final ill,strations is not a matter of variant versions of the story, ,pon -hich 0 shall not d-ell, !,t of selection and emphasis amon" !roadly a"reed+,pon events. KalmikiBs plotline for the fi"htin" leads ,p to 3amaBs shootin" of 3avana:;< . 4fter vario,s lamentations in @anka:;< , Ki!hisana:;< is cro-ned. 2ita m,st ,nder"o an ordeal !y fire to prove that her virt,e did not s,ffer d,rin" her a!d,ction. 3ama is installed as kin" of 4yodhya. Ahen follo-s the seventh !ook, the Uttara >anda:;< , in -hich 2ita is !anished !eca,se of the mere r,mor of her infidelity -ith 3avana:;< . 6er !anishment leads to the meetin" of the t-in sons, !orn -hen she is sheltered !y Kalmiki in the forest, -ith 3amaBs forces, and ,ltimately to her final vindication and ret,rn to her mother, the ?arth. Ahe Uttara >anda:;< incl,des other topics, s,ch as an ela!orated version of the previo,s history of 3avana:;< , !,t it is the ar",a!ly ,n5,st treatment of 2ita that has "arnered literary comment and has led to the "eneral omission of this entire !ook from depiction in sc,lpt,re.:96< Ahese events are lar"ely present in late 2anskrit versions s,ch as the dhyatma Ramayana[*] . Ahe fire ordeal !ecomes an occasion for the e(chan"e of the real 2ita for the ill,sory one -ho has taken her place since the a!d,ction. 0n the Uttara >anda:;< the !anishment of 2ita is a"ain e(plained as an ill,sion that ena!les her to escape from this -orld and to !e 5oined event,ally -ith 3ama in Kaik,ntha:;< , or heavenJ in this version there is no direct conflict !et-een father and sons, !orn in e(ile. Balarama:;< 8asaBs 1agamohana Ramayana[*] is !roadly similar, as is Upendra BhaO5aBs *aidehisa *ilasa[*] -hich, ho-ever, omits the events of the Uttara >anda:;< alto"ether. @ike-ise the 3amalilas:;< as they are act,ally performed concl,de -ith 3amaBs coronation at the end of the I,ddha >anda:;< .:9&< 0n the !ata[*] tradition, there is some diversity as to -here the story ends, altho,"h the coronation of 3ama is often presented climactically. Ahe last identifia!le scene at B,",da is the "reat !attle !et-een 3ama and 3avana:;< on the so,th -allJ the detail ill,strated in /i",re 11# conveys the dense te(t,re of the melee. 4mon" the dama"ed portions -hose s,!5ect is ,nclear here and on -all @ there is no lar"e, hieratic "ro,p that seems a likely candidate for the coronation. Iet that event is sin"led o,t for depiction in the m,rals of the .an"amata )atha:;< in P,ri, -hich may "o !ack to the nineteenth cent,ry C/i",re 119D.:9%< Ahe coronation ' 1$G ' also fi",res prominently in narrative !atas[*] !oth of the P,rl area C4ppendi( GD and the far so,thern school of Chikiti C/i",re 1&$D. 0n !oth areas it is standard that 3ama sits -ith 2ita to the ri"ht, that

6an,mana r,!s his foot in devotion and that @aksmana:;< is incl,ded as an attendant. Ahis is precisely the form that this event takes in the -ood carvin" of 8harakot C/i",re 1%6D, -hose style in "eneral seems close to that of the B,",da paintin"s. 0n central *rissa, the coronation has also !ecome a standard part of r,ral -eddin" pict,res, painted a!ove the door !y mem!ers of the same comm,nity -ho prod,ce !atas[*] C/i",re 161D.:99< Ahis common ,sa"e may have reinforced the role of this event in !atas[*] also. What meanin" did the coronation of 3ama holdN 4 connection !et-een a c,rrent r,ler and 3ama enthroned as kin" may "o !ack to the carvin" of >onarak mentioned in Chapter #. Ahis scene is also prominent as a concl,sion and epitome of the 3amayana:;< in so,th 0ndia, -here political si"nificance contri!,tes to its selection in the conte(t of a temple. 3ama+ra5 si"nifies the ret,rn of the ri"hteo,s r,ler. 0n the conte(t of -eddin" paintin"s, the event may evoke the happy re,nion of the co,ple more than the consecration of 3ama as kin", altho,"h that is indeed depicted. 0n folk theater, incl,din" the 3amalilas:;< in -hich action prevails over s,ch static scenes, the coronation is often presented as a 4han%i[*] , or ta!lea,, in -hich the a,dience prays to the actors as the "ods incarnate. *n the -hole, this scene is f,lly a,spicio,s at a macrocosmic CpoliticalD and a microcosmic Cpersonal, emotionalD level. *n the other hand, an e(ceptional, if infl,ential, linea"e of the chitra%aras7 -ork, Ja"annath )ahapatraBs set of seventy+five pict,res, does not stop -ith or partic,larly emphasiHe the coronation. :1$$< 6ere thirteen ima"es are devoted to the s,!se7,ent Uttara >anda:;< , emphasiHin" an *edipal conflict !et-een the t-o yo,n" sons and 3amaBs forces C/i",res 19G+G1, 4ppendi( GD. Eor is there any slackenin" of the artistBs skill and enth,siasm in this sectionJ -itness the clever treatment of flyin" monkeys -ho carry rocks not only in their hands Cthe old ima"e of 6an,mana -ith )o,nt .andhamadanaD, !,t also -rapped in the tail C/i",re 19%D.:1$1< M Ahe final t-o scenes are ,ni7,e, to my kno-led"e, aside from later copies of them. 2ita disappears pathetically, if oddly, into the cracked earth C/i",re 1G1D. 4nd 3ama ascends to heaven atop a lar"e lot,s, -ith the small fi",re of -hat may !e a celestial a!saras in the center C/i",re 1G1D.:1$1< M Both demonstrate that -ithin this tradition there -as freedom to improvise ne- ima"es Cal!eit in !oth cases colored !y the model of the coronationD, -hich in t,rn entailed some risk of incomprehensi!ility. 0n his ill,strations for the end of the dhyatma Ramayana[*] , 2arathi )adala Patnaik is, once a"ain, inconsistent. /or e(ample, the treatment of even so strai"htfor-ard a detail as the -ay 3avanaBs:;< t-enty arms are attached to his !ody mi"ht lead one to 7,estion -hether vario,s -orks -ith his name in the colophon are indeed !y one hand.:1$#< 6is versions of 2itaBs ordeal do not place her in the fire, !,t rather seat her to the side or in -hat seems to !e a sacrificial pit, or %unda[*] C/i",re 6&D. 0n all his man,scripts the Uttara >anda:;< is incl,ded and the ill,strations !ecome increasin"ly sparin" and depict static dialo",es !et-een a fe- fi",res. 6is 1%&G man,script follo-s the Uttara >anda:;< -ith a lar"e coronation on three 5oined folios, accompanied !y a sin"le 2anskrit slo%a C/i",re GGD. What s,rvives of yet one more copy of the dhyatma Ramayana[*] is the Uttara ' 1$6 ' >anda:;< alone. 0ts artist selected different scenes !,t the effect is as static as that of 2arathi )adalaBs version.:1$9< Ahe difference !et-een the t-o some-hat amate,rish !,t inventive styles is visi!le in a comparison of their final ima"es. 2arathi )adala frames a conventional coronation of 3ama -ith stiff, standin" attendants C/i",re GGD. Ahe second artist -eaves a pattern of concentric -avy lines aro,nd his s7,at fi",res, -hich is hard to, read !,t does s,""est the celestial realm C/i",re %1D. 0n the five s,rvivin" ima"es from this -ork -e see a selection of those portions of the Uttara >anda:;< that have

nothin" to do -ith 2itaBs sad story. Ahe t-o ill,strators of the *aidehisa *ilasa[*] predicta!ly "ive different t-ists to the end of the poem. 2atr,"hna, -ith his penchant for lar"e formal scenes overlappin" several folios, provides several strikin" renditions of the coronation in !oth his man,scripts C/i",re 1$1D. Kariants on the same scene seem devised as e(c,ses for ela!orate architect,re and decorative to,ches. )ichha Pata5oshi, on the other hand, takes more interest in individ,al events, s,ch as the -ay 3avanaBs:;< !ody is transported C/i",re 1#%D. 2itaBs form, d,rin" her ordeal, appears ha,ntin"ly -ithin the fire C/i",re 111DJ in vis,al as -ell as thematic form it recalls the creation of )aya 2ita half-ay thro,"h the epic C/i",re 1$9D, and hence leads !ack to the realm of reality. Ahe final pict,res sho- the coronation, less as a static em!lem than as an event accompanied !y processions and festivities, spread across the horiHontal format of the folio C/i",re 11#D.:1$G< ?ven P,spaka:;< Kimana, carryin" the happy co,ple, may !e sho-n on its side, an e(ceptional e(pedient for the strai"htfor-ard )ichha that does 5,stice to the rich form of the chariot C/i",re 1#9D. Ahe &a'anya'ati[*] te(t refers to the follo-in" incidents: 3ama hits 3avanaBs:;< navelJ Ki!hisana:;< is cro-nedJ 2ita is p,rifiedJ and they ret,rn to 4yodhya, -here 3ama !ecomes kin". Ahe final ill,strations of this section are missin" in t-o of o,r man,scripts, the -orks of Bala!hadra Pathy and of 3a"h,nath Pr,sti. Ahe artist of the 3o,nd &a'anya'ati[*] ill,strates all five incidentsFdevotin" a f,ll pa"e to the vividly isolated death of 3avana:;< and ,ncharacteristically reversin" the se7,ence of Ki!hisanaBs:;< coronation and 2itaBs test C/i",res #9+9$D. Ahe latter event is sho-n as dramatically as in any version, -ith 2ita risin" a!ove the flames and e(tendin" a )ichelan"eles7,e "est,re to-ard the sa"e -ho performs the ceremony. 0n the 8ispersed &a'anya'ati[*] , a f,ll pa"e is devoted to the test, -ith 2ita enclosed !,t not hidden !y the flames in a delicate ima"e, -hile 3ama and his follo-ers a-ait the res,lts C/i",re 1GGD.:1$6< Ahe reverse !ears his coronation, spread o,t horiHontally to emphasiHe the relatively lar"e 6an,mana, -ho holds 3amaBs foot C/i",re 1G6D Ahis is less an iconic "ro,p, as in the !ata[*] tradition, than a chain of linked fi",res, emphasiHin" the central relationship !et-een 6an,mana and 3ama, -hose "lances connect poi"nantly across a void. 0n !oth these &a'anya'ati[*] man,scripts, and apparently in Pr,stiBs as -ell, the entire 3amayana:;< se7,ence is clearly em!edded -ithin the frame-ork of the lar"er poem. Ahe story constit,tes a kind of 3amalila:;< , performed !y a ma"ician, in -hich @avanyavati:;< is led to identify herself -ith 2ita, "ivin" her love for Chandra!han,, -hom she sees in 3ama, !oth a literary and a reli"io,s cachet. While a missin" pa"e prevents o,r f,ll appreciation of Pr,stiBs treatment, -e do have his ,ni7,e scene Cnot fo,nd in the other man,scriptsD of the princess re-ardin" the enter+ ' 1$& ' tainers, -ho thro- their scarves in the air, demonstratin" the theatrical stat,s of the precedin" ten pa"es C/i",re 19#D. 0n the dispersed man,script, @avanyavati:;< sits -atchin" the coronation of 3ama, framin" that as a performance C/i",re 1G6D. Ahe ro,nd man,script follo-s this same pattern, repeatin" the act,al coronation three times as if to spell o,t the relationship !et-een its actors and the characters in the main story C/i",res #%+9$D. *n the -hole, the fo,r ill,strators of this te(t considered here take the entire 3amayana:;< se7,ence serio,sly, more than the poetBs o-n attention to it mi"ht re7,ire. 0t is to !e ,nderscored that this is not the case -ith all ill,strated copies of the &a'anya'ati[*] . Ah,s in the !ri"htly colored Eational ),se,m man,script, the coronation alone stands for the -hole story, and this scene is not emphasiHed a!ove others s,ch as the immediately precedin" ill,stration of the framin" story C/i",re 19$D. Ahe

ima"es of the fo,r man,scripts that do ela!orate the 3amayana:;< performance -ithin this tale represent diverse responses to the plot and to other traditions of depiction of these reli"io,sly -ei"hted events. 4t the same time, each "rants the se7,ence a kind of hall,cinatory stat,s, -hich is in keepin" not only -ith Upendra BhaO5aBs poem !,t also -ith the !roader meanin" of the 3amayana:;< in *rissa. ' 1$% '

B Narra'i)e S'ra'e&ies
Ao apply the terms =narrative= and =strate"y= to the makin" of pict,res re7,ires some defense. =2trate"y= may seem to imply deli!eration on the part of the artist. Iet in the case of the 0ndian artisan, other forces are ,s,ally ass,med to override the -ill or pro!lem+solvin" role of the individ,al maker. *n the one hand, one mi"ht e(pect the hi"h+caste patron or a learned intermediary s,ch as a ra4-!andit to play a ",idin" role. Chapter 1 sho,ld have made it clear, ho-ever, that s,ch ",idance is demonstra!le neither for the artisanal chitra%ara nor for the *rissan !ook ill,strator. *n the other hand, one mi"ht e(pect revered artistic tradition, kno-n in 0ndia as !aram!ara , to ",ide partic,larly the professional painter. 0n fact, even for him there -ere choices amon" models, altho,"h he may not al-ays have artic,lated the -ay he reached his o-n decision. Ahe palm+leaf ill,strator -as more likely to -ork -itho,t specific vis,al models. Ahe very diversity of ill,strated !ooks prod,ced in one small area and at one time is a central theme of this !ook. 4t the very least, =strate"y= may !e ,nderstood as a shorthand for choices implicit in the -ork itself and the -ay it addresses its pro!lems, -hatever the h,man loc,s and process !y -hich s,ch decisions -ere made. Precisely !eca,se -e mi"ht -onder -hether choices are not made in response to earlier ima"es, it -ill !e necessary to keep vis,al models in mind. Ahe pro!lems =narration= presents are "reat eno,"h -hen applied to -ords, let alone to ima"es. /rom the @atin root narro , =to tell= the term has diverse implications, m,ch disc,ssed in the s,!field of narratolo"y. 0n 0ndian lan",a"es there seems to !e no e(act e7,ivalent. 0n *riya perhaps the closest -ord is 'i'arana[*] , -hich, ho-ever, is more literally translated =colorin",= hence =description.=:1< Iet in ?n"lish, =description= has !een tho,"ht to concern a static condition, diametrically opposed to =narration,= -hich concerns action.:1< M Ahis polarity does not really e(ist in 0ndia, hence a less consistent concern there -ith action, sometimes e7,ated -ith =narrativity= in Western critical -ritin". 4t the same time *riya, 2anskrit, and most north 0ndian lan",a"es freely ,se the -ord %atha , from a ver!al root =to tell,= -hich can !e e7,ated -ith =story,= a !asic form of narrative.:#< M Ah,s it is possi!le to consider 0ndian literat,re as narration -itho,t e(pectin" the cate"ories of Western analysis to fit precisely @et me say at the o,tset that 0 do not ' 1$9 ' conceive of narrative as a distinct "enre !,t rather as a proced,re Ctellin" a storyD fo,nd in vario,s types of poetry and prose, !oth read and heard, incl,din" theater.:9< 0n an effort not to impose inappropriate standards from a forei"n eval,ative tradition, or even from other 0ndian traditions, 0 shall avoid ,sin" =narrativity= as a criterion for artistic s,ccess. 2,rely some f,ndamental elements in the str,ct,re of tellin" are ,niversal. 0n the first place there is a narrator , the teller of the tale. Ahe narrator has lon" !een reco"niHed as a feat,re of 0ndian literat,re, implyin" an a-areness of the s,!5ectivity of the acco,nt that has only recently !een made e(plicit in

the West. Ah,s in the 2anskrit epics a,thors are encoded in the action CKalmiki in the case of the 3amayana:;< D, in drama the director Csutradhara D appears onsta"e, and in 0ndian stories a commentator often links the se7,ence of episodes. 0n the case of A,lsi 8asBs 6indi version of the epic, there are fo,r symmetrical narrators, -ho in t,rn correspond to fo,r interpretations of the same events and accommodate the pl,ralism of the 0ndian tradition.:G< Ahe dhyatma Ramayana[*] is compara!le, if less symmetrically constr,cted. *riya literat,re seems even less systematic in "eneral, yet the 3amalilas:;< may present as their teller Kalmiki, 2iva, and also the partic,lar historical a,thor, s,ch as Kikrama Earendra, -hose name rec,rs constantly in the chantin" at 8asapalla. 0n the second place, there is the tale itself, -ith s,!components s,ch as plot, characters, and lan",a"e. 6ere -e may t,rn to the theoretical -ritin" a!o,t drama, admittin" that not all narrative is drama and that at least some recent drama is minimally narrative. Ahe component of plot has preocc,pied Western theoreticians from 4ristotle on-ard, -ith attention to time span and se7,ence C!oth act,al and narratedD.:6< 0ndian theoretical literat,re d-ells more on lan",a"e and an ela!orate system of tropes, -hereas plot is a secondary element.:&< M Iet in !oth traditions there are some normative codes "overnin" action, -hich vary -ith "enre and -ith the taste of partic,lar periods. Ahe third ma5or component of narration is the hearer of the tale. 0ndian literary theory accords a more important role to the a,dience than has ,s,ally !een "ranted in Western -ritin", al!eit a role responsive to the -ork of literat,re itself. Ahe point of classical 0ndian literat,re, -hether narrative or not, is to evoke sentiments in the hearer. Ahese sentiments, ,s,ally n,m!erin" ei"ht or nine, are kno-n as rasa , literally =flavor= or =essence,= for they are distillations of ordinary h,man emotions. ?(periencin" them is in itself pleas,ra!le and ,pliftin" for the ideal connoisse,r Crasi%a DJ their effect is th,s ,nlike catharsis, -hich p,r"es the a,dienceBs ,ndesira!le and real feelin"s of pity or fear. 2,spense plays a small role in "eneral in a tradition s,ch as 0ndiaBs, -here most plots are already familiar. Iet the mood of a-e and -onder Cad(huta D is compara!le to s,spense -hen an o,tcome is remarka!le. Rasa is one key to the 2anskrit 3amayana:;< , often descri!ed as !,ilt aro,nd the distilled sentiment of pity or pathos.:%< What is important is not -hether c,t+and+dried systems in fact "overn all -orks of literat,re, !,t rather the -ay in -hich 0ndian tradition has lon" incorporated the listener into the tale, as in recent Western reception criticism. )oreover, reco"niHin" the centrality of mood helps ,s to ,nderstand the prolon"ation of se7,ences that present relatively little infor+ ' 11$ ' mation or action !,t convey emotion in a -ay that the West has sometimes dismissed as sentimental. Can -e transfer s,ch a frame-ork to vis,al ima"es -hen -e talk a!o,t narrative pict,resN *!vio,sly it -o,ld !e a mistake to pro5ect the elements of one artistic medi,m ,pon another, even tho,"h they may at times intersect in f,nction, s,ch as in tellin" stories. 0ndia "enerally reco"niHed an immense ",lf in social stat,s !et-een the makers of ima"es and a,thors, as -ell as a ",lf in the -ay ima"es and te(ts are vie-ed. 2till 0 shall ar",e that pict,res may imply the same three f,ndamental components as ver!al narration. Ahere is a teller, ,ltimately the artist, -ho may call attention to his presence !y a si"nat,re or, in the recent West, !y his very !r,sh-ork, as in action paintin". 0n 0ndia the intr,sion of the artist is often minimal, yet one of the t-o *rissan traditions considered here, the palm+leaf man,script, fre7,ently records his name in the colophon. Ahe fact that he is identical -ith the scri!e makes clear his stat,s as narrator, repeatin" an oft+told tale. )oreover, the a,thor of the te(t may appear in 0ndian paintin" -hen he plays a prominent role in the story.:9< @ike-ise pictorial narration ass,mes an a,dience. Ahis component of narrative may seem more lar"ely

implicit for ima"es than for -ords, altho,"h a device s,ch as linear perspective: literally predicates -here the ideal vie-er stands, -hich in t,rn affects the emotional impact of the ima"e. 0f the !eholderBs vie-point is at "ro,nd level, the scene is almost inevita!ly a-esome and over-helmin". 4t least one revered 0ndian te(t on paintin", the Chitras,tra of the *isnudharmottara[*] /urana[*] , descri!es rasas in partic,lar ima"es and prescri!es some moods as s,ited to pict,res on the -alls of ordinary ho,ses, some only to those of palaces.:1$< 4"ain the palm+leaf !ook that incl,des poetic te(t and ima"es seems devised for an informed a,dience, the rasi%a , or connoisse,r. Ahe !ata[*] chitra , on the other hand, addresses any visitor to P,ri. Ahe central element, the tale, may !e e7,ated not only -ith se7,ences of ima"es, -hich are the principal concern of this !ook, !,t even -ith individ,al pict,res. 0n that case -e may !e tempted to distin",ish the narrative pict,re from the iconic Cin 0ndiaD or from the descriptive Cin the WestD, altho,"h there are many mi(ed e(amples of !oth. 0f only one moment is depicted, m,ltiple events may nonetheless !e evoked. Beca,se some elements of the story seem almost inevita!ly more am!i",o,s in a sin"le ima"e than in a linear ver!al acco,nt, one may do,!t -hether s,ch ima"es are ever tr,ly narrative. Plot se7,ence cannot necessarily !e ded,ced -hen -e see t-o fi",res side !y side. Iet it sho,ld !e remem!ered that even in a ver!al story the order of tellin" need not correspond to the order in -hich events occ,r and that deli!erate am!i",ity is a le"itimate literary device. @ike-ise -e have some r,les !y -hich an ima"e is to !e read, altho,"h many pict,res flo,t these r,les. 2e7,ential ima"es are ,s,ally seen in a partic,lar order, altho,"h -e are not prevented from alterin" that order, -hereas reversal is diffic,lt in hearin" a story, vie-in" a play, or readin" a novel. 2e7,ence in t,rn may have implications for ca,sation and for interpretin" -hat happensJ hence -ords often prod,ce a stron"er ca,sal certainty than do ima"es. *ther constit,ents of the tale, s,ch as 4ristotleBs cate"ories of character and spectacle, are on the other hand often less am!i",o,s in a pict,re than in ver!al narrative. 0t is almost impossi!le to avoid sayin" something a!o,t -here an event ' 111 ' takes place or -hat a character looks like in a pict,re. Ahe element of =lan",a"e= is o!vio,sly replaced !y the physical materials of the ima"e or, more "enerally, !y color and line, -hich follo- their o-n systems of metaphor and associated meanin". /inally, in the case of ima"es e(plicitly accompanyin" a te(t, as in an ill,strated man,script, one mi"ht e(pect the te(t itself to determine narrative choices. =0ll,stration= implies some dependency ,pon a pre+ e(istent -ritten story, -hich leads me to avoid that loaded term as m,ch as possi!le.:11< Ahis st,dy is fort,nate in presentin" several sit,ations that test this ass,med dependency. We have fo,r e(amples of a sin"le te(t Cthe dhyatma Ramayana[*] D made !y the same artist, as -ell as a second and 7,ite different te(t Cthe Durga 2tuti D ill,strated !y the same person. Ahere are also m,ltiple e(amples of another te(t Cthe *aidehisa *ilasa[*] D !y t-o different artists. /inally -e have fo,r e(amples of the same concise te(t Cthe &a'anya'ati[*] D ill,strated !y fo,r p,rposef,l and very distinctive artists. /or the theoretically inclined, all these e(amples may seem ,nnecessary to my !asic contention, that the artist must !e re"arded as a narrator himself. /or the empiricist, ho-ever, they may at least demonstrate the variety of relationships possi!le !et-een the artist and his te(t. Ahe iss,e here is not -hether he ,nderstood the te(t !,t rather -hether he told his story in the same manner that it did. With this frame-ork in mind, let ,s e(amine each of o,r -orks or cycles of ima"es as a tale in -hich events and details are selected, presented in a se7,ence, and in the process emphasiHed and interpreted for the vie-er. 6ere, ,nlike the previo,s chapter, -e -ill look at each cycle as a -hole or in lon" se7,ences, rather than d-ellin" on individ,al pict,res.

Sara'hi 9adala !a'nai,As Adh*a'ma Rama*anas./0

0 shall !e"in -ith cases -here -e can discern the artistBs role as narrator most clearly 2arathi )adala PatnaikBs copio,s oe,vre from the late nineteenth cent,ry incl,des fo,r ill,strated man,scripts of the dhyatma Ramayana[*] . 4s the ta!le in 4ppendi( 1 sho-s, there is s,rprisin"ly little consistency amon" the fo,r in the choice of scenes to !e depicted. When a scene does appear in several versions, it is rarely very similar in composition or detail, as 0 ar",ed in Chapter 9.:11< Clearly 2arathi )adala did not retain one of his o-n -orks, nor did he -ork from another ill,strated man,script that served as a model.:1#< M 6e may !e compared to an oral performer -ho varies each tellin" of a tale, improvisin" rather than attemptin" to replicate a previo,s version. .iven this proced,re, -hat partic,lar slant can -e discern in his vario,s performancesN /irst, the pace of ill,stration in his man,scripts follo-s a certain pattern. Ahere are many ill,strations in his -orks, certainly more than in the -ork of a second artist -ho ill,strated this same te(t CC. @. Bharany Collection, ms. no. 1J see 4ppendi( 1, col,mn 6, :Bharany Collection anon.<, /i",res &%+&9D, altho,"h ro,"hly the same n,m!er as in the -ork of a third Canonymo,s, Eational ),se,m &G.G#6J 4ppendi( 1, col,mn G, /i",res &G+&&D.:19< 2arathi )adalaBs first man,script has the most pict,res, often one on each side of every folio. 0n all his man,scripts the ratio of ima"es to te(t decreases to-ard the end, -hen more and more pa"es are devoted to te(t alone. @ike other scri!es, he seems to have copied ' 111 ' the te(t first, leavin" !lanks for the ima"esJ in his third man,script, several !lanks in the last 7,arter of the te(t have not !een filled in. Ah,s the slackenin" pace of pict,res is in part deli!erate and not directly the res,lt of e(ha,stion on the artistBs part. *ne "ets an impression that 2arathi )adala prod,ced ill,strated !ooks primarily as commodities, altho,"h he "rad,ally lost interest in the pict,res d,rin" the co,rse of -ork on each man,script and d,rin" his o-n lifetime. 2ome of the distinctive characteristics of the dhyatma Ramayana[*] o,tlined in Chapter 1 are not partic,larly visi!le in any artistBs ill,strations for this te(t. Perhaps the a!stract doctrines of monistic Kedanta -o,ld have !een diffic,lt to depict, and it is no -onder that lon" devotional sermons s,ch as 4halyaBs paean appear as ,ninterr,pted passa"es of te(t. 0n one man,script 2arathi )adala does shothe creation of )aya 2ita, al!eit not in a vis,ally self+e(planatory form C/i",re G9D, and the ill,sory deer is repeated emphatically -ith the t-o heads that mi"ht serve as an em!lem for ill,sion. Eonetheless, flippin" thro,"h the ill,strations of this te(t, one -o,ld not ",ess it is a partic,larly philosophical or devotional version of the story of 3ama. Eor do all of 2arathi )adalaBs pict,res tally -ith -hat the te(t says. /or e(ample in his ima"e of the seven sal trees done in 8ecem!er 1%91, the knotted serpent m,st !e dra-n from some separate ill,stration of a sar!a-(andha and has no partic,lar place in the dhyatma Ramayana[*] acco,nt. 0n short, 2arathi )adala seems to have paid scant attention to the -ords he repeatedly copied. Ahe impact of his pict,res is fairly ,niform, more so than is that of t-o anonymo,s ill,strators of the same te(t. 6e is more likely than the other t-o to omit actions that mi"ht seem central to the storyJ s,ch as @aksmana:;< c,ttin" off 2,rpanakhaBs:;< nose Ca!sent in !oth 1%91 versionsD or Jatay,Bs:;< !attle -ith 3avana:;< Ca!sent in !oth 1%91 versions and in 1%91D. When action is depicted, the effect is rather static. /or e(ample, 3ama merely confronts the ma"ic deer, and in the one case -hen he shoots it, the t-o stand s7,arely and a horiHontal arro- connects them C/i",re G1D. )any scenes consist of several fi",res confrontin" each other in a ro-. Eor does a sense of action emer"e from s,ccessive pict,res that incl,de the same fi",re in a different pose. 2ettin"s are rarely ela!orated ,nless they are an essential part of the event, as in the !,ildin" of the !rid"e to @anka:;< . )any symmetrical

compositions center on 3ama, correspondin" to partic,lar sit,ations !,t emphasiHin" their iconic character. 4nd there are many =frame= scenes in -hich -e see the narrator of the story, "enerally 2iva and Parvati. 2,ch compositions prod,ce an effect like that of storytellin" that a!o,nds in repetitions, so that the content is easily assimilated. While plot development and action are not stressed, the res,lt is a le"itimate form of oral narrative. 0 m,st also "rant that all 0 have said applies less f,lly to 2arathi )adalaBs man,script of Jan,ary 1%91 than to his other -orks. 6ere settin"s are more ela!orated and compositions more varied, -ith fesimple series of standin" fi",res. 2ome scenes are memora!le, s,ch as the m,tilated and disheveled 2,rpanakha:;< kneelin" !efore her distra,"ht !rother 3avana:;< , framed !y t-isted trees C/i",re G%D. We do not kno- the precise circ,mstances ,nder -hich 2arathi )adala prod,ced this man,script, the patron or the price that mi"ht have enco,ra"ed a "reater concern -ith individ,al ima"es. Ahere seems no reason to look to some ' 11# ' !iolo"ical frame-ork of the artistBs development for an e(planation, for !oth earlier and later -orks fall into the more repetitive type. Perhaps the folklorist concerned -ith constant variations in oral traditions that have m,ltiple e(istence or the m,sicolo"ist concerned -ith performance traditions s,ch as 0ndiaBs, -here improvisation is mandatory, co,ld provide a !etter frame-ork than the art historian for s,ch diversity 4t any rate, 2arathi )adala does emer"e as a villa"e storyteller, m,ch like the itinerant performer of r,ral *rissa today.

Sara'hi 9adala !a'nai,As D-r&a And Han-mana S'-'is

Ahis prolific artist -as !y no means limited to a sin"le te(t. Ahe stutis to 8,r"a and 6an,mana, -hile !ased on 3amayana:;< themes, do not present a coherent version of the plotline, nor do they incl,de the metaphysical ,nderpinnin"s of the dhyatma Ramayana[*] . 4 "eneric devotee sho-n -orshipin" 6an,mana in the final ill,stration is conceiva!ly to !e read as 2arathi )adala himself, for the last verse of the te(t leads directly into the colophon, -hich !e"s ind,l"ence for any mistakes !y the scri!e+ ill,strator. Ahe pace of ill,stration in this man,script is entirely re",lar, -ith pict,res on !oth sides of every pa"e. Ahis may !e partly e(plained !y the !revity of the te(t, -ith t-o stutis com!ined as they are in one !othi . )any ill,strations are necessary to !rin" it ,p to the standard thickness of a !ook, in this case thirty+three folios. 2imilarly, the red,ced n,m!er of ill,strations in some dhyatma Ramayanas[*] , especially to-ard the end, may have to do -ith the c,m!ersomeness of the !othi !,ndle itself, partic,larly -hen the dimensions of each leaf are small, so that many leaves are re7,ired to cover the te(t. 2ome details in the ill,strations of the stutis !ear o,t 2arathi )adalaBs a-areness of the verses he had copied, for instance the depiction of 6an,manaBs tail endin" in a serpent head C/i",re %6D. 4t the same time, stock motifs are added that are not called for !y the te(t, s,ch as the t-o+headed deer C/i",re %1D. Ahe serpent+-eapon -ith -hich 0ndra5ita enthralls 3ama and @aksmana:;< appears in the air as the familiar sar!a-(andha of the episode of the seven sal trees, -hich makes less sense here than -o,ld a composition in -hich the knot enveloped the !rothers C/i",re %#D. Ahis ima"e is not easily read in connection -ith the ne(t three pict,res, in -hich 3ama and @aksmana:;< pray, standin" !efore 8,r"a, and are s,!se7,ently felled !y a n,m!er of act,al serpents C/i",re %9D. 0n short, the artist !orro-s ima"ery from other kinds of narratives in an all,sive -ay, -itho,t attemptin" to adapt it to the partic,lar action of this story

Ahe compositions of these pict,res are as repetitive and static as in any of 2arathi )adalaBs -ork. 0n the many scenes of the "oddess or monkey -ith -orshipers, s,ch effects are entirely appropriate to the repetitive verses of the te(t itself. 2cenes of confrontation, s,ch as the serpents en",lfin" the !rothers, are presented concl,sively C/i",re %9DJ this is not the indeterminate, tra"ic str,""le of the @aocoWn. /i",res tend to simple vertical or horiHontal positions. 2,ch principles also "overn 2arathi )adalaBs other -orks, s,ch as the lyric poetry of the Dasa!oi or the devotional ima"es of the rtatrana[*] 3hautisa .:1G< Ah,s despite the ' 119 ' improvisational character of his partic,lar ima"es, he -as remarka!ly consistent in overall effect. 4s a storyteller he sho-ed an enth,siasm and simplicity that -o,ld not ta( the a,dience.

The Ramalila./0
Ahe ,nass,min" man,script of the Ramalila[*] composed !y >rishna Chandra 3a5endra m,st !e considered !riefly here as compara!le to the -ork of 2arathi )adala Patnaik C/i",res %&, %%D. @ike 2arathi )adalaBs shorter !ooks, this one is ill,strated prof,sely and -ith re",larity, for a sin"le pict,re occ,rs on each side of every leaf that s,rvives. Ahe ,nkno-n artist appears to follo- the idiosyncrasies of this partic,lar te(t, for e(ample in s,!stit,tin" Eava",O5ara for Jatay,:;< as the creat,re that attempts to stop 3avana:;< C/i",re %&D. Ahe compositions, simple and -ith minimal settin"s, are similar to those of 2arathi )adala. Eone are as am!itio,s as some parts of his dhyatma Ramayana[*] of Jan,ary 1%91. Eor are they 7,ite as repetitive as most of his -ork. Ahe fi",re dra-in" is sli"htly more adept and the poses sli"htly more varied. Eonetheless s,ch a -ork sho-s -hat may have !een the most common pattern of man,script ill,strationFmotivated !y a desire to t,rn o,t ill,strated -orks rapidly. Ahese m,st have !een accepta!le if they reprod,ced the desired te(t and enlivened that -ith pict,res. B,t no sin"le pict,re seems to have ca,"ht the attention of the artist for lon" or to have !een desi"ned for the vie-er reader to lin"er over. 4ltho,"h >rishna Chandra 3a5endraBs te(t -as ,tiliHed in performances, the ill,strations of this man,script have no more Cand no lessD to do -ith act,al 3amalila:;< enactments than do other ima"es ,nder disc,ssion.

Sa'r-&hnaAs Vaidehisa Vilasas./0

Upendra BhaO5aBs lon", demandin" poem, filled -ith ver!al conceits, is not the sort of te(t one mi"ht offhand e(pect to !e depicted. 0n fact s,ch ornate %a'yas in "eneral and his -ork in partic,lar -ere more commonly ill,strated in *rissa than -ere many strai"htfor-ard pieces of -ritin", perhaps reflectin" !oth the "eneral pop,larity of UpendraBs -ork and the predilections of partic,lar artists. A-o artists preferred to -ork on the *aidehisa *ilasa[*] over other te(ts. Ahe t-o differ radically in -hat they make of this complicated literary -ork. 2atr,"hna, a karana:;< of northern *rissa, -orkin" early in the nineteenth cent,ry, -as apparently ,ni7,e in the -ay he or"aniHed his pict,res. Ahey fre7,ently overlap several folios, s,rro,nd irre",lar carto,ches in -hich the te(t floats, and are oriented so that the entire man,script m,st !e t,rned perpendic,lar to the normal direction of readin". ?ach novel characteristic has its o-n effect in narrative terms. Ahe ,se of 5oined leaves to e(tend the composition !eyond a sin"le narro- palm frond ena!led later artists to make comple( iconic scenes in -hich a lar"e n,m!er of fi",res "ather aro,nd a deity and

little or no te(t is incl,ded. Ahe e(tended hei"ht of s,ch pict,res provides a !reak from the restricted format that had enco,ra"ed repetitive ro-s of fi",res or se7,ences of action. 0ndeed 2atr,"hna also created many lar"e iconic scenes that stand o,t as =sho-stoppers=F ' 11G ' emphatic, co,rtly moments in the story s,ch as 3ama and 2ita on )o,nt Chitrak,ta:;< , 3amaBs "rief in the rainy season, 2itaBs captivity in @anka:;< , or the final coronation CPlates 6, %J /i",re 1$1D. 6is ,se of color adds to the !road resem!lance !et-een s,ch compositions and the hieratic paintin"s of the chitra%ara , altho,"h there is no partic,lar connection in fi",re style. Iet 2atr,"hnaBs -ork is not consistently static to the e(tent that 2arathi )adalaBs -as. Ahe Baripada version of Aadaki:;< l,n"es across five folios, d-arfin" the !rothers and creatin" -onder a!o,t the o,tcome CPlate #D. 0n many scenes a river -inds across several leaves to create an ,n,s,ally developed landscape, in the same -ay that Upendra BhaO5a ,ses the settin" as a mirror and foil to h,man action. Ahere are several strikin"ly dia"onal compositions C/i",re 9$D. )oreover, the device of orientin" some scenes perpendic,lar to the normal -ay of holdin" the leaf prod,ces variety, comple(ity, and at times conf,sionFthe last s,rely deli!erate in some of the final !attles, -here it is hard to pick o,t individ,al participants in the melee CPlate &D. 0n "eneral the shiftin" orientation of vario,s parts of the man,script creates an effect analo"o,s to the ill,sion that is one of the poemBs concerns. 0n the same -ay, the vivid ima"e of )aya 2ita in the fire ,nderscores this theme CPlate GD. Ahe dispersed man,script of the same te(t disc,ssed a!ove as an earlier -ork !y 2atr,"hna lacks s,ch effects, at least in the pa"es so far located. 0f my historical hypothesis is correct, the artist -o,ld seem to have achieved this !old and deli!erate chaos in his mat,rity Ahe prominence of color as -ell as the sheer -ealth of ima"es makes the Baripada *aidehisa *ilasa[*] e(ceptional amon" *rissaBs man,scripts in the -ay the pict,res tell the story. Ahis effect is clearly not achieved at the e(pense of the te(t, as 0 have already s,""ested. Ahe floatin" carto,ches of -ritin" play a more inte"ral physical role in the impact of the !ook than does the ,s,al format of separate panels that can !e read independent of the pict,res Cor vice versaD. 0n Plate 6 they f,nction ,ncannily as clo,ds or mist. Aheir content, -hich of co,rse m,st !e "rasped !y holdin" the leaves perpendic,lar to the pict,reBs orientation, is more effective in linkin" sky and earth than it -o,ld !e if the -ritin" iss,ed from the mo,ths of the actors like the !alloons in a comic strip.:16< 0n /i",re 99, a line of commentary rises o,t of 4halyaBs rock. 0 find it hard to ima"ine the prod,ction of s,ch a man,script !y the normal proced,re of completin" the te(t first -ith !lanks for the pict,res that are e(ec,ted in a second =campai"n= for the !lank spaces here are clearly desi"ned -ith specific compositions in mind, -hich mi"ht -ell !e for"otten after a lapse of several months. 0t is diffic,lt to assess today the f,ll impact of this man,script, many of -hose leaves are o,t of se7,ence. ?ven ori"inally, it m,st have !een diffic,lt to read the te(t on 5oined leaves, -hich seems to re7,ire that one scr,tiniHe the front and !ack in se7,ence, altho,"h the pict,res compel one to look at one "ro,p to"ether -itho,t t,rnin" them over. *n the one hand, this may !e vie-ed as an e(periment, perhaps as an ,ns,ccessf,l one, for no other artist took ,p the same format for a f,ll man,script. @ater e(amples employ 5oined leaves as a coda to a conventional man,script C/i",re GGD or as a sin"le one+ sided pict,re -ith a !rief te(t, composed of only a fe- leaves.:1&< 2atr,"hnaBs o-n ,se of the ad5ective 'icha%sana[*] , =in"enio,s= to descri!e himself, may !e a more positive -ay of presentin" the same phenomenon of novelty. 4t the very least, his -ork demonstrates that even

' 116 ' the seemin"ly conservative "enre of palm+leaf man,scripts co,ld tolerate e(periment. *n the other hand, one mi"ht vie- the demandin" nat,re of this -ork as a deli!erate p,HHle, analo"o,s to Upendra BhaO5aBs poem. Ahe a,dience -as challen"ed to read the (andha CknotD in the same -ay that 3ama -as challen"ed to strai"hten o,t the seven sal trees. Ahe a,dience -as yet f,rther challen"ed to follo- this man,script, to fi",re o,t -hich -ay to hold it and -hich side of the leaves to look at ne(t.:1%< 0t -orked like a complicated ana"rammatic cross-ord p,HHle, in -hich a literary passa"e is rearran"ed and can !e reconstr,cted !y solvin" partial cl,es and !y a !roader familiarity -ith the !ack"ro,nd te(t. 0f narrative is conceived e(cl,sively in terms of action, this -ork sho-s inconsistent narrativity and -o,ld fr,strate hasty attention to plot. Iet if narrative is a tale told to an a,dience, this -ork m,st have !een effective in involvin" the vie-er in its rich and s,!tle ima"ery

9i+hha !a'a=oshiAs Vaidehisa Vilasas./0

Ahis same te(t seems to have e(ercised an even "reater attraction for the !rahman )ichha Pata5oshi, -ho -orked in so,thern *rissa in the first third of the t-entieth cent,ry. Ahe description !y >,lamani 8as 7,oted in Chapter 1 mentioned the ill,stratorBs pleas,re in sho-in" an ill,strated copy of the *aidehisa *ilasa[*] that he had made and in chantin" its verses, s,""estin" that he !oth depicted and performed his story. )oreover, parts of ei"ht versions of this te(t !y )ichha Pata5oshi s,rvive, and it appears that he kept previo,s copies -ith him, so that his pict,res -ere consistent over time. Ahe other t-o kno-n -orks !y this artist, !atas[*] on 5oined leaves depictin" the P,rl temple, -ere far less am!itio,s than the ill,strated *aidehisa *ilasas[*] that he man,fact,red prolifically )ichha Pata5oshiBs pict,res for each copy of this te(t -ere copio,s. 6is !ooks -ere lar"e in scale, !ein" amon" the thickest and lon"est *rissan man,scripts, as if he felt none of the restrictions that may have led 2arathi )adala Patnaik to red,ce the n,m!er of ill,strations to-ard the end of most of his -orks to keep them mana"ea!le. 0n fact )ichhaBs pace of ill,stration is consistent in each -ork, and his later copies "re- pro"ressively lon"er as he e(panded the n,m!er of pict,res for some episodes.:19< Ahere are more pict,res in proportion to the amo,nt of te(t than even in 2atr,"hnaBs hi"hly pictorial -ork, to 5,d"e from the n,m!er of scenes devoted to each event.:1$< M *ne has the impression that this Hesty ill,strator sa- no physical or artistic reasons to limit the n,m!er of pict,res he co,ld incl,de. )ichha certainly did not str,""le a"ainst the constraints of the palm+leaf format !,t rather -elcomed them at a time -hen printed !ooks m,st have formed an alternative, even in a traditional villa"e like Bal,keshvarp,r. Ahere is no diffic,lty in follo-in" his story, -hich proceeds re",larly from left to ri"ht, front to !ack of every folio. /lash!acks are not distin",ishedFfor e(ample 4halyaBs tale of sin, -hich follo-s her li!eration from the c,rse that follo-ed it C/i",res 1$9, 1$GDFfor these may !e ass,med to !e familiar to the a,dience. Ahe pict,res present events strai"htfor-ardly in terms that -o,ld make sense to people in r,ral *rissa d,rin" the early decades of this cent,ry 4 detail s,ch as the stretcher on ' 11& ' -hich 3avana:;< is carried a-ay is not so m,ch an anachronism as a lo"ical sol,tion to the pro!lem of transportin" the !ody C/i",re 1#%D. Aop hats and violins appear already in the 19$1 man,script. 0n case the ima"es themselves are not clear, they are s,pplemented !y the scri!eBs o-n chatty captions, -hich differ from Upendra BhaO5aBs te(t in their collo7,ial lan",a"e and even in the ,se of more modern script forms. Ahese captions float ,nframed -ithin the pict,res, -hereas the te(t forms a co,nterpoint of more re",lar panels demarcated !y small decorative !orders.:11<

4s the e(amination of individ,al scenes demonstrates, )ichha Pata5oshi seemed f,lly to follo- the meanin" of his favorite poem. Ahere are virt,ally no discrepancies !et-een pict,res and te(t, altho,"h details may !e em!roidered, s,ch as the s7,irrel at the !,ildin" of the !rid"e to @anka:;< C/i",re 11$D. 0n canto 19, a ="arland of -ordplay= C4ama%as D devoted to the charms of )o,nt Chitrak,ta:;< , the artist does not attempt to render the poetBs -ordplay !,t does present t-o tender actions of 3amaF markin" 2itaBs !ro- -ith ocher C/i",re 1$&D and shootin" the cro- that attacked her. Ahe ima"e of )aya 2ita leavin" her tr,e co,nterpart in the fire is emphasiHed !y the !old, dark form of the flames, if not !y the scale of the main actors as in 2atr,"hnaBs pict,re Ccompare /i",res 91 and 1$9D. Ahere is "enerally a sense of Hany "ood h,mor rather than solemnity in )ichha Pata5oshiBs fi",res. *ne ima"ines him repeatin" his favorite tale -ith ",sto, a-are of the literary comple(ity of the -ritten te(t !,t optin" for a "ood story in his o-n vis,al tellin". 0 cannot help seein" the difference !et-een these t-o versions of the *aidehisa *ilasa[*] as a matter of personal temperament, for there is no ,niform re"ional or period style in the small part of .an5am 8istrict that prod,ced 3a"h,nath Pr,sti, 2arathi )adala Patnaik, and )ichha Pata5oshi in 7,ick s,ccession. 4t the most, 2atr,"hnaBs remarka!le ori"inality mi"ht !e ascri!ed to his havin" -orked in isolation at a time and in an area -here there -ere fe- other palm+leaf ill,strators.

Fo-r Versions o( 'he a)an*a)a'i./0

Upendra BhaO5aBs second and yet more fre7,ently ill,strated -ork provides a partic,larly neat sit,ation in -hich to consider vario,s pictorial strate"ies for presentin" the same literary story. 0n the first place, the 3amayana:;< is told here -ith virt,osity !,t s,ccinctness, and the reader can easily cons,lt my relatively pedestrian ?n"lish translation in 4ppendi( # to "et a sense of the -ords. 0n the second place, -e have fo,r ample, distinct, interestin", and fairly -ell+preserved sets of pict,res of the &a'anya'ati[*] , -hose narrative choices can !e seen at a "lance in the ta!le in 4ppendi( 1. 4t the o,tset, -e m,st recall that this 3amayana:;< is em!edded in a lon"er and less familiar tale. Ahe ma"ic performance descri!ed has a f,nction in the lon"er plot, servin" to aro,se the love of the heroine, -ho identifies the hero -ith 3ama and herself -ith 2ita. )oreover, the presentation of the -ell+kno-n epic as an ephemeral and ill,sory performance serves as a commentary ,pon the very nat,re of that story. We m,st also remem!er, in o,r enth,siasm for this s,!5ect, that it -as not mandatory that this !rief episode !e lavishly ill,strated. 0t -as not ' 11% ' depicted at all in some man,scripts of the &a'anya'ati[*] , and in others it -as red,ced to a sin"le form,laic scene of 3amaBs coronation C/i",re 19$D. *ne remarka!le artist -hose attention -as ca,"ht !y this s,!plot -as Bala!hadra Pathy, -orkin" in Jalantara at the so,thern e(treme of *rissan c,lt,re. 6e devoted more folios to the 3amayana:;< than did any other ill,strator, ela!oratin" ,pon the terse te(t of the &a'anya'ati[*] yet not p,rs,in" most of its ver!al conceits. /or e(ample, in the line =6e made short -ork of the monkey Csara(ha D -ith an arro- Csara D,= the central p,n and the speed of 3amaBs action are not depicted. Iet the death and the monkeyBs reaction are prolon"ed over several folios Cof -hich /i",re 169 is only the lastD -ith events not spelled o,t !y the poet. Pathy indeed seems to !e completely carried a-ay !y the episode of 6an,manaBs visit to @anka:;< , -hich fi",res in the te(t only -ith the sin"le line =Ao "et ne-s of his -ife he C3amaD sent a messen"er.= 0t is tantaliHin" that the man,script ceases at this point, so one -ill never kno- ho- or even if Pathy ret,rned to the s,!stance of the poem. 4t least -e can say -ith ass,rance that this episode -as emphasiHed in the conte(t of his "enerally e(pansive treatment of the

3amayana:;< . Ahe p,ppet+like character of fi",res in this -ork has already !een mentioned, altho,"h no one -o,ld ar",e that the prolific scenes are literal transcriptions of shado- theater as -e kno- it today in 4sia. Ahe e(a""erated poses have a "enerally theatrical effect, similar to that of many 0ndian dramatic forms in -hich "est,re and movement s,rpass facial e(pression in conveyin" emotion. 0f 2arathi )adala Patnaik and )ichha Pata5oshi !ear comparison -ith oral storytellers, Pathy orchestrates his pa"es like the director of a drama, and it is temptin" to search for connections -ith the "enre of Prahlada Eataka:;< , -hich ori"inated in his home to-n, Jalantara. Ahe massed fi",res that enlar"e and comment ,pon some scenes C/i",re 1&#, ri"htD form a chor,s. 4ltho,"h the chor,s as an instit,tion is not part of the 0ndian theatrical tradition, this vis,al device is compara!le to the "ro,p of gaya%as , or sin"ers, -ho repeat the lines read !y the chief chanter in the 3amalilas:;< of *rissa. *ne distinctive aspect of PathyBs narrative forms is certainly pictorial or perhaps !roadly literary and not !orro-ed from the relatively simple sta"in" of 0ndian theater. )ore than any of o,r artists, he ,ses settin" inventively to reflect or enlar"e ,pon the h,man sit,ation. Ah,s he "ives ,s three vivid scenes of )o,nt )alyavan in the rainy season, vi"nettes devoid of h,man fi",res, in -hich the nat,ral elements are not only appropriate Cfro"s and a rain!o- in Plate 1$D, !,t also independently e(pressive of 3amaBs sorro-. P,lses of li"htnin" dart and -ri""le like livin" or"anisms a"ainst the !lack sky. 8otted lines of rain s,""est tears and ra"e, partic,larly -hen they cross C/i",res 1&$, 1&1D. Ahese scenes come as close as those of the most s,!tle Pahari paintin" to evokin" the %aruna[*] rasa !y means of landscape, a phenomenon akin to the pathetic fallacy of Western 3omanticism. Ah,s -hile the artist does not choose to ill,strate the poetBs ver!al tropes literally, he createsJ his o-n vis,al metaphors that have a compara!le effect. Ahere is also artf,l variety in the scenes, -hich incl,de starkly ordered !,ildin"s C/i",re 161D, the tan"led thicket in -hich the ma"ic deer moves C/i",re 169D, and the immense confla"ration in @anka:;< C/i",re 1&9D. 0n "eneral, PathyBs version of this story is ener"etic, emotional, at times over-ro,"ht, and -earin" for its a,dience. ' 119 ' Ahe anonymo,s artist of the 8ispersed &a'anya'ati[*] pro!a!ly devoted at most ten folios to the 3amayana:;< se7,ence Cas opposed to PathyBs more than si(tyD and ill,strated only events mentioned in the poetic te(t. Ah,s the pace of narration here is rapid+fire. Ahis version is nonetheless idiosyncratic for reasons that "o !eyond the accident of pa"es missin" today. *n the ei"ht folios 0 have located, there are several ,ne(pected omissions. Ahe 5,mp from the !irth of the princes to the killin" of Aadaki:;< , occ,rrin" on a sin"le side of a pa"e, omits only one incident mentioned in the te(t !,t leads the vie-er s,ddenly from 3ama as a !a!y to the f,ll+"ro-n hero C/i",re 19#D. *n the ne(t+to+last s,rvivin" folio, depictions of .ar,da:;< , >,m!hakarna:;< , and all fi"htin" are omitted C/i",res 1G#, 1G9D.:11< )ost amaHin" is the 5,mp from the enco,nter -ith Paras,rama to that -ith Bharata, side !y side on a sin"le leaf C/i",re 19&D, omittin" any e(plicit ima"e of the !anishment, -hich one mi"ht take to !e a critical t,rnin" point in the plot. Ahere are also several alterations of the se7,ence of events presented in the &a'anya'ati[*] , lar"ely prolepses, or flash+for-ards. Ahe t-o most strikin" cases are the inversion of 2itaBs kidnap -ith the 2a!ariBs "ift C/i",re 199D, and that of @avanyavatiBs:;< final o!servation -ith 3amaBs coronation C/i",re 1G6D. 0n this assertion, 0 ass,me that the pict,res are intended to !e read from left to ri"ht like the -ritin", as is tr,e "enerally in man,script ill,strations. 0n earlier 0ndian sc,lpt,re, ho-ever, -e have seen inconsistent directionality Csee Chapter #D. 0t is pro!a!le that this artist -as his o-n scri!e and hence literate, therefore predisposed to compose his -ork from left to ri"ht. B,t perhaps o,r e(pectation of consistency is at fa,lt. What alternatives are there to sayin" he acted entirely on the !asis

of -himN 0n all these narrative s,rprises, 0 discern several principles at -ork, of -hich the last e(ample may e(emplify the simplestFa choice to =fore"ro,nd= the episode sho-n first. *!vio,sly @avanyavati:;< is -atchin" the coronation -hile "ivin" her final interpretationJ placin" her first may simply !rin" ,s !ack emphatically to the primary plotline of the poem. Ahis interpretation does not contradict o,r readin" of the opposite side of the same leaf, -here 2itaBs test is sho-n first, to the left, as the remarka!le event that 3ama -atches.:1#< 4 second principle that may enter into the s,rprisin" omissions is that of deli!erate pairin" on a sin"le pa"e, to make a point of similarity, contrast, or another connection that ima"es convey more s,!tly than -ords. Ah,s the 5,mp from the infant 3ama to his killin" Aadaki:;< makes the point that he -as precocio,s. Ahe enco,nters -ith Paras,rama and Bharata are compara!le cases of s,!mission to 3amaBs virt,e !y a potential opponent. Ahe inversion and pairin" of 2ita -ith the 2a!ari ,nderscore the piety of !oth -omen, -ho "ave "enero,sly to stran"ers, -ith 7,ite different res,lts. 2imilarly on t-o sides of a sin"le folio -e move from Aadaki:;< to 4halya C!oth c,rsed, one evil, one virt,o,sD and from 3avana:;< !ein" -ell advised !y )andodari to the heroes ensnared !y serpents. What is important is not the precise point of each comparison, -hich m,st remain con5ect,ral, !,t rather that some s,ch comparison -o,ld e(plain the selection and placement of events. 0n one case, -e have noted an insertion not fo,nd in any ver!al acco,nt of the story 0 kno-: KalmikiBs presence as an actor in 8asarathaBs sacrifice C/i",re 191D. Whether or not this scene is the invention of this partic,lar ill,strator, his treatment of the sa"e seems p,rposef,lFpaired -ith the kin" at the center of the ' 11$ ' folio, presentin" the sacred porrid"e dramatically 5,st a!ove the strin"+hole, and emphasiHed !y the -ay the second sa"e, 3isyasrin"a:;< , t,rns to look at him. *n the final leaf of the 3amayana:;< se7,ence a sa"e+like fi",re appears to the left of center, !,t this is s,rely the ma"ician talkin" to the kin" of 2imhala at the end of the performance. 0n !oth cases a narrator of the tale is "rat,ito,sly !ro,"ht into the tellin", callin" attention to the fictive stat,s of this tellin" of the sacred tale. 0n each scene the folio !e"ins on the left -ith a small, dem,re female fi",re -ho o!serves the scene and mediates !et-een the male narrator and his story.:19< 0n "eneral the "oal of this artist seems to !e interpretative: he does not -ish to tell the story, ass,min" its familiarity to his a,dience, !,t rather aspires to ,se it inventively. 4nd his ,se reflects his vis,al medi,m, as the comparisons a!ove s,""est. 0n the same -ay, he em!roiders many scenes -ith nat,ral details that are appropriate !,t do not necessarily all,de to other events. 27,irrels clim! the seven sal trees as -ell as the !rid"e to @anka:;< . Ahere are never more than t-o events on a pa"e in this section of the man,script, and space s,rro,nds the lar"e fi",res, "ivin" the scenes a certain mythic "rande,r. :1G< Ahere is a "eneral alternation !et-een scenes of action, -ith stron" dia"onals, and more sedentary episodes, -hich, ho-ever, are not stock ta!lea,( !,t rather em!roidered -ith delicate and varied detail. Ahe ele"ant dra-in" and composition of this man,script may e(plain -hy it has often !een selected as the acme of *rissan man,script ill,stration. Ahis 5,d"ment, -hile perhaps ,nfair to other ill,strators -ho had other "oals, reflects the independence of this artist from his te(t and his "reat accomplishment as a draftsman. Ahe ill,strator of the 3o,nd &a'anya'ati[*] , also anonymo,s, provides an e(treme contrast -ith the artist of the dispersed set. 6ere t-elve pa"es are ,sed to tell the story, and these !ear all ten stanHas of the te(t, ,nlike the dispersed set, -here this portion of te(t pres,ma!ly occ,rred on a previo,s folio.

Ah,s in an e7,ally restricted space, this third artist -orked in almost every event mentioned in the te(t. :16< Eo selection occ,rred here, and only one minor inversion of eventsF2itaBs test occ,rrin" to the left of Ki!hisanaBs:;< coronation, for -hich 0 see no partic,lar e(planation C/i",res #G, #6D. Ahe seven sal trees precede the liftin" of 8,nd,!hiBs !ones C/i",re 16D as in the &a'anya'ati[*] itself, a reversal of the standard se7,ence of these e(ploits even in Upendra BhaO5aBs other poetry and ,nlike other ill,strated versions of this te(t. Ahe only episode incl,ded here that does not appear in the te(t is the minor and ,!i7,ito,s addition of the s7,irrel at the !,ildin" of the !rid"e to @anka:;< C/i",re 19D. 0n short, this -as an ,n,s,ally literal ill,strator. Ahe pace of his pict,res is consistent, -ith t-o to fo,r scenes on a pa"e. Ah,s the e(ceptional sin"le ima"e of 3avanaBs:;< death in isolation stands o,t climactically and effectively, !y 4ristotelian standards. Ahe 3amayana:;< se7,ence as a -hole is emphasiHed in the man,script, not as in the dispersed set !y the mythic 7,ality of its ima"es, !,t rather !y their snappier pace, for else-here there are ,s,ally one or at most t-o scenes per pa"e, -ith lon"er passa"es of te(t. Ahe small scenes of the 3amayana:;< se7,ence are separated !y frames at the !e"innin", !,t those disappear after the e(ile, acceleratin" the speed of the action. While in "eneral one can find a vis,al contin,ity !et-een the -ritin" of most te(ts and accompanyin" ima"es e(ec,ted !y the same artist, there is partic,lar ' 111 ' harmony !et-een the ro,nded hand of this scri!e and his dra-in" of the fi",res. 0ndivid,al pa"es are neatly composed, for instance the framin" of KisvamitraBs calm sacrifice !y the slayin" of frenHied demons on either side C/i",res 6, &D. 2taccato !ein"s s,rro,nd the kidnap of 2ita C/i",re 19D. ?ach part is pleasin", !,t no detail is em!roidered at the e(pense of clarity. Ahe maker of this man,script certainly -orked -ith "reat artistryJ 0 -o,ld characteriHe him as the optim,m =ill,strator.= Ah,s he seems devoted to his te(t, as -as )ichha Pata5oshi to the *aidehisa *ilasa[*] . 6is interest, even more than )ichhaBs lay in the plot rather than in Upendra BhaO5aBs -ordplay. 6e -as also perhaps more adept as a craftsmanJ !,t in preferrin" not to let any distinctive slant in interpretation intr,de, he also dispensed -ith the -himsy that "ives )ichhaBs -ork its charm. /inally 3a"h,nath Pr,sti, -orkin" near 2arathi )adala Patnaik in central .an5am 8istrict in the last t-o decades of the nineteenth cent,ry, made the &a'anya'ati[*] his masterpiece. Ahis vol,me -as lon"er and more prof,sely ill,strated than any he prod,ced. Ahe 3amayana:;< portion, comprisin" eleven or t-elve folios, is as dense -ith pict,res as any -e have seen.:1&< 4mon" the events mentioned in Upendra BhaO5aBs poem, only the rain in @omapadaBs kin"dom and 3isyasrin"aBs:;< marria"e are not depicted. Ahese omissions are -orth mentionin" !eca,se so many episodes not in the &a'anya'ati[*] te(t are incl,ded. 0n fact Pr,sti sho-s e(traordinary independence of the te(t, altho,"h his motivations are different from those of Bala!hadra Pathy or from those of the artist of the dispersed man,script. 4 si"nificant factor in Pr,stiBs ima"es -as the model of B,",da, ro,"hly #$ kilometers a-ay. *,r sec,rity in datin" !oth the ill,strator and the -all paintin"s, as -ell as the esteem in -hich the Kiranchi:;< Earayana:;< Aemple contin,es to !e held, makes ,n,s,ally convincin" the s,""estion that this partic,lar mon,ment directly infl,enced him in some instances. *ne strikin" case is the ima"e of 3ama and @aksmana:;< !indin" ,p their locks of hair as they !e"in their e(ile C/i",re 1%#D. Ahis incident, mentioned in the *aidehisa *ilasa[*] and not in the &a'anya'ati[*] , is depicted at B,",da C/i",re 1$1, tier 9, leftD and in )ichha Pata5oshiBs first copy of the *aidehisa *ilasa[*] C/i",re 1$6D. :1%< Pr,sti sho-ed the t-o !rothers in poses very similar to those at B,",da. 6e did not, ho-ever,

simply reprod,ce the entire scene !,t spread it o,t to accommodate the palm+leaf format, shiftin" 2ita to the left so that she introd,ces the "ro,p, as in the m,ral, -hich -as read from ri"ht to left in this tier. Pr,stiBs &a'anya'ati[*] seems also to !orro- from several lar"e and vivid compositions set on hilltops at B,",da. Pr,sti is a!le to present the scene of the lovers on )o,nt Chitrak,ta:;< and BharataBs visit in the sli"htly ,n,s,al se7,ence in -hich they occ,r in this poem -hile retainin" the composition of the m,ral, -hich -as read from ri"ht to left !e"innin" -ith Bharata, the se7,ence of the *aidehisa *ilasa[*] Ccompare /i",res 1%#, 1$GD. Pr,sti condenses this hill into a sin"le dome and only once depicts 3ama, sho-n markin" 2itaBs !ro- -ith ocher in precisely the same pose as at B,",da. Ah,s @aksmana:;< alone receives Bharata in the man,script, holdin" an arro- that s,""ests his initial alarm at the approachin" party. 6ere a"ain -e see a skillf,l adaptation of the almost s7,are m,ral composition to the narro-, horiHontal palm frond. Pr,sti also incl,des the incident of the croCmentioned in the &a'anya'ati[*] D, omits the three mothers, and converts the small ele+ ' 111 ' phant from the !ottom of the -all into a more inte"ral part of the co,rtly procession and hence of the story Pr,stiBs second scene set on a hill depicts the !rothersB meetin" -ith 'anaras on )o,nt )alyavan, to"ether -ith the end of the !rid"e to @anka:;< , pres,ma!ly )ahendra"iri C/i",re 1%9D. Ahe former scene is some-hat indeterminate as a moment in the storyJ its presence is e(plained !y its mirrorin" a composition at B,",da that is also paired -ith the !,ildin" of the !rid"e. 6ere the later artist has reversed the se7,ence of B,",da, -hich -as vie-ed in circ,mam!,lation from ri"ht to left. 4t the same time he retains the direction of movement on the !rid"e to-ard the left, a point of irrationality that perhaps -o,ld tro,!le only the most pedantic vie-er. Pr,stiBs third hill scene follo-s the B,",da paintin"s most precisely, presentin" pro!lems in interpretation and s,""estin" that the later artist -as as p,HHled as -e are a!o,t the precise meanin" of events to the ri"ht Ccompare /i",re 19$, Plate 11D. T,estions arise !eca,se the artist here reprod,ces the m,ral composition, -hich places this episode after the scene of c,ttin" 3avanaBs:;< ,m!rellas and hence pres,ma!ly too late in the plot for @aksmanaBs:;< threat to the monkeys to make sense. 0 kno- of no version in -hich @aksmana:;< -o,ld strai"hten an arro- proffered !y Jam!avan d,rin" the I,ddha >anda:;< .:19< 0n the scene to the left, Pr,sti e(tends the m,ralBs dramatic central "ro,pin" across the narro- format of the pa"e, there!y renderin" the fallin" ,m!rellas more vivid than at B,",da. 2ome scenes in the ),ndamarai man,script are clearly not !orro-ed from B,",da. Eor are they mentioned in the &a'anya'ati[*] itself, altho,"h they occ,r in other te(ts, -hich may acco,nt for Pr,stiBs incl,sion of them. /or e(ample, the three 2a!aras in /i",re 1%1 are e(plained if -e remem!er that in the *aidehisa *ilasa[*] .,ha, -hom the e(iles meet at this point, is called .,hasa!ara.:#$< Ahe pair of vases la!eled !urna[*] %um(ha in /i",re 1%1 may all,de to the lon" metaphor in that same te(t that compares >aikeyi to a milkmaid, 4yodhya to a pot, and the peace of the city to milk that is ch,rned C1&.#1D. Ahis conceit is implicit in the -ordplay of the &a'anya'ati[*] , )anthara+manthana Cliterally, her ch,rnin"D, altho,"h that poem does not mention a pot in partic,lar. 4 similar vase, flanked !y a,spicio,s fish Ca common eno,"h motif in -eddin" paintin"s in r,ral *rissaD had appeared in Pr,stiBs ill,strated divination cards, the /rasna 3hudamani[*] .:#1< M Possi!ly the appeal of the crisp em!lem s,pplemented the artistBs admiration for Upendra BhaO5aBs metaphor. A-o more =added events= present sli"htly "reater pro!lems. Eo version of the death of Aadaki:;< incl,des Bharata alon" -ith 3ama and @aksmana:;< C/i",re 1&&D. Perhaps Pr,sti dre- on some lost oral tradition, or perhaps he invented this variant himself. 6is scene of monkeys r,nnin" over the roof

of the palace in @anka:;< is another interpolation, -hose rationale in terms of desi"n has !een s,""ested in Chapter # C/i",re 191D. 6ere it is also possi!le that he incorporated some ima"e of 6an,manaBs escapades from the 2,ndara >anda:;< , other-ise a!sent here. 0n t-o places -e can !e s,re this inventive ill,strator departed from the simple narrative se7,ence of any version of the story to compose his pa"es artf,lly, -itho,t direct dependence ,pon the B,",da model. *ne is the kidnap of 2ita, -here 0 have ar",ed that lo"ic of place takes precedence over that of time, so that scenes at the t-o ends of the leaf occ,r on either side of 2itaBs h,t C/i",re 1%&D. ' 11# ' Ahe second e(ample is KalinBs death, -here 3ama and the fi"htin" monkeys frame the dyin" Kalin, the res,lt inserted !et-een t-o components in the action C/i",re 1%9, leftD. *ne can ima"ine Pr,sti reasonin", =0t is so clear what happened in each case that 0 can thro- chronolo"ical ca,tion to the -inds.= 4nd yet 0 m,st confess that of all versions of the 3amayana:;< , 0 have "reatest diffic,lty follo-in" and remem!erin" Pr,stiBs. Ahis may !e partly a res,lt of his very inventiveness, as he "ave the story net-ists. 0t is also the res,lt of his comple(ity as an artist and the several distinct principles that ,nderlie his -ork. 6e m,st have admired the B,",da paintin"s and copied many of their dramatic compositions and rich details. B,t he also adapted the model to the narro- format of the palm leaf, normally read from left to ri"ht. 6e f,rther enriched the vis,al detail and devised his o-n vivid forms. )oreover, he presented the narrative inventively, so that neither the story nor the ima"es -ere repetitive. Ahe story is told in fits and starts, !,t at the same time no static iconic intr,sion interr,pts the plot. Ahis entire portion is denser, less em!roidered -ith clever contemporary to,ches, and less realistically descriptive than his ill,strations for the &a'anya'ati[*] story proper. *nce a"ain this performance is set off from the poem in -hich it is em!edded. Ao s,m it ,p simply, Pr,sti seems to have !een impressed !y the ele"ant paintin"s of B,",da !,t to have adapted their model 7,ite freely to his o-n vis,al and narrative re7,irements. *n the -hole, the fo,r versions of this te(t considered here all set the 3amayana:;< se7,ence apart from the rest of the story and emphasiHe its role !y vario,s formal means. 0n all, the pace of narration picks ,p as the rate of ill,stration increases vis+X+vis the condensed te(t. Ahe artist of the 3o,nd &a'anya'ati[*] follo-ed the plot of the te(t most faithf,lly and conveys -ith clarity every part of the action act,ally mentioned. Bala!hadra Pathy -as moved !y narrative ",sto to "o !eyond Upendra BhaO5aBs -ords and is perhaps most captivated !y the moods of the story, -hich his pict,res convey. Ahe artist of the 8ispersed &a'anya'ati[*] felt yet more independence from the te(t, selectin" and rearran"in" the events to create ne- points !y vis,al means. 3a"h,nath Pr,sti -as perhaps most independent of his te(t in this section, captivated !y an effective vis,al model as -ell as !y his o-n perception of the pro!lems of the palm+leaf form.

The 2rahma Rama*ana./0

*,r last man,script is the least narrative literary -ork considered here in the sense of presentin" a se7,ence of actions. Ahis !y no means leads to a lack of ima"es, for it is prof,sely ill,strated. *f 1#1 pa"es, 6# !ear pict,res -ith no te(t. While 1# !ear te(t alone, on many of these the amo,nt of -ritin" is small, occasionally a sin"le line s,rro,nded !y empty space and ornate end+!orders. Ahe desi"ner -as clearly concerned -ith the vis,al ele"ance of every pa"e. Beca,se the standard story of the 3amayana:;< is confined to folios 11 to 16, one mi"ht re"ard this portion, like the &a'anya'ati[*] acco,nt, as a caps,le version of the entire epic, al!eit tr,ncated.

Unlike the versions of Upendra BhaO5aBs poem that -e have 5,st considered, ho-ever, this portion of the story does not partic,larly stand o,t in the man,script. Ahe artist of the .rahma Ramayana[*] resem!les that of the 3o,nd &a'anya'ati[*] in his fidelity to his te(t, -hich is ill,strated verse ' 119 ' !y verse, a simple phrase s,ch as =6e li!erated the distressed 4halya from the c,rse of .a,tama,= !ein" fleshed o,t -ith an effective ima"e of 3ama e(tendin" his foot to-ard a s7,are rock follo-ed !y a -orshipin" -oman C/i",re 196D. Ahe en,merative series of events in the verses is compara!le to the discrete, a!r,ptly separated pict,res. Ahe "eneral nat,re of the forms and their import, ho-ever, are perhaps as close to those of Bala!hadra Pathy as to any -ork -e have seen. Ah,s the fi",res are styliHed, if less radically so than PathyBs, dra-n -ith ass,rance and not repetitive. ?lements of settin" are detailed and related in desi"n to the h,man action, altho,"h not 7,ite in PathyBs e(pressive manner. /or e(ample the tan"led arro-s of fi"htin" in /i",re 19G and the flo-ers sho-erin" ,pon the -eddin" in /i",re 19& convey distinct dramatic sit,ations. *ther devotional parts of this man,script may ,se settin" -ith even "reater inventiveness. Ao the ri"ht in /i",re 199, the panel spri""ed and s,rro,nded !y small plants forms an el,sively ha,ntin" ima"e of BrahmaBs "arden, appropriate eno,"h !,t not descri!ed in the act,al verses. Ahe ne(t+to+last folio !ears one of the most charmin" and decorative landscapes in *rissan man,script ill,stration C/i",re 199D. Possi!ly this is a risin" s,n, appropriate to the sacrifice performed !y the !rahmans to the ri"ht, or possi!ly the s,n is settin" to indicate that the .rahma Ramayana[*] is complete Csama!ta D.:#1< 0n any case the reference is o!sc,re and the ima"e itself ha,ntin". Ahe !,lk of this -ork is !roadly similar to the 0ita 0o'inda in e(pressin" devotion to .od in the ",ise of a romantic relation !et-een sa%his and lover. Ah,s as -ith many ill,strated versions of JayadevaBs poem, -e see a series of scenes of the hero -ith one or more devotees in amoro,s sit,ations. Kariations are small and s,!tle !,t deli!erate, and most scenes are caref,lly composed. Clearly plot is irrelevant to the artist, altho,"h these ima"es do revolve aro,nd the literary sentiment of @ove Csringara[*] rasa D. While not strictly narrative in Western ,sa"e, these pict,res develop the emotional element that is present in many 0ndian stories.

Ja&anna'h 9aha5a'raAs !ain'ed Se'

A,rnin" to the !ata[*] tradition, -e !e"in -ith the set of seventy+five paintin"s made !y a livin" artist as most strai"htfor-ard in storytellin" C/i",res 11#+G1D. Ahis set -as to some e(tent desi"ned as a !ook, to !e seen se7,entially -ith te(t pro!a!ly appearin" !elo- and certainly clearly form,lated in the mind of the painter. Iet it differs from a palm+leaf man,script in the -ay the pict,re has primacy, dominatin" every pa"e, so that only one ima"e is visi!le at a time. )oreover, the =te(t= -as the creation of the artist, on the !asis of oral and theatrical versions of the 3amayana:;< . Ja"annath )ahapatra -as indeed the narrator of this tale, like any villa"e storyteller. Ahis painter -as not especially inde!ted to B,",da, altho,"h that -as in some sense part of his professional herita"e. Eor have 0 fo,nd any other partic,lar e(tended "ro,p of ima"es from -hich he !orro-ed. Kisn,:;< 4nantasayana:;< and the coronation of Prima -ere common eno,"h s,!5ects for the chitra%ara , and his compositions resem!le previo,s versions of these s,!5ects painted on -alls. :##<

' 11G ' Certainly he -orked -ithin the vis,al lan",a"e of his tradition. *n the -hole, ho-ever, he invented this set for a specific patron, 6alina Qealey, -ho -as "enerally interested in the story and !ro,"ht in a professor from Bh,!anes-ar for ",idance, !,t -ho ,ltimately seems to have "iven Ja"annath )ahapatra carte !lanche.:#9< 0 -o,ld ,r"e that this sit,ation not !e ,nderstood as ,ni7,e to the t-entieth cent,ry !,t rather as a circ,mstance that mi"ht have e(isted at times in the past. ?ven the =lo-ly= artisan -as a!le to devise his o-n narrative and vis,al strate"y. 0n addition to the selection of some ,n,s,al parts of the !road cycle to ill,strate C)ahiravana:;< , the Uttara >anda:;< D, as already disc,ssed, the pace of this set of paintin"s is its most strikin" narrative feat,re. *ften t-o or more scenes ill,strate -hat mi"ht !e tho,"ht of as one episode, sometimes an episode that even the palm+leaf ill,strators, less constricted in space, sho-ed -ithin a sin"le frame. Ah,s the !irth of the fo,r sons occ,pies three 7,ite similar pict,res. >,m!hakarnaBs:;< -akin" and his death are separated. 3amaBs decision to hold an 4svamedha takes place in t-o scenes of no "reat distinction in terms of ima"e or plot. *n the -hole one senses more =stretchin"= of the story at the !e"innin" C-hen the planner perhaps -orried ho- he -o,ld fill seventy+five framesD and at the end C-hen he fo,nd himself left -ith thirteen frames for the Uttara >anda:;< D, -hereas in the middle he chose to omit the shootin" of the seven sal trees. 0n short, his spatial constraints -ere a !it like the time constraints of an oral performer -ho m,st fill an a"reed+,pon period !,t not "o !eyond. 0n the treatment of individ,al scenes, there often seems to !e a deli!erate alternation !et-een the static and the active. Ahis resem!les 0ndian drama, -hich traditionally incl,des nonactive se7,ences that develop the mood !,t not the plot. 2ome scenes are symmetrically composed like the ta!lea,( of the theatrical tradition of 4han%i[*] , to !e savored and even -orshiped in iconic form, rather than played for action C/i",res 11#, 19$, 199, 199, 1G$+G1D. 4t the same time the static does not dominate, and the artist is clearly motivated !y a desire to achieve vis,al variety as -ell as to "et si"nificant parts of the story across. /inally, it is interestin" that some part of the a,dience did not re"ard the se7,ence of events as an ,naltera!le ca,sal chain. Ahe C,ttack p,!lication of the same seventy+five episodes !e"ins -ith 4nantasayana:;< , as a standard frame, -hereas Ja"annath )ahapatra had lo"ically placed this episode after 3isyasrin"aBs:;< sacrifice, -hen Kisn,Bs:;< decision to !e !orn as 3ama -as !ro,"ht a!o,t. @ike-ise, his placement of 2itaBs !irth !efore 3amaBs is tr,e to the *riya tradition, -hereas the C,ttack a,thors follo-ed the more "enerally accepta!le 0ndian pattern, in -hich the !ride is yo,n"er. We see ho- this freedom of attit,de to-ard plot, characteristic of 0ndia, arises from m,ltiple versions of one story and from the a!sence of the comp,lsive reasonin" !ost hoc# ergo !ro!ter hoc .

The !arla,hem-ndi !la*in& Cards

2e7,ence is yet more pro!lematic in the set of playin" cards made in Parlakhem,ndi !efore 191%, -hich !elon"s to the professional chitra%ara tradition in the techni7,e !y -hich it -as painted and in its "eneral appearance. Iet the version of the story clearly has little to do -ith that of Ja"annath )ahapatra, lackin" ' 116 ' for e(ample the )ahiravana:;< episode and the entire Uttara >anda:;< . 0ts ei"hty+ei"ht n,m!ered cards cover the story ,p to 2itaBs !anishment, to -hich the 3a"h,ra5p,r set devoted si(ty+three scenes. 2ince there is no =stretchin"= of a sin"le episode over several pict,res, s,!stantially more events are incl,ded in the Parlakhem,ndi set. Eor does the specific narrative selection of this set partic,larly

resem!le that of the man,script of Bala!hadra Pathy, -hich -as pro!a!ly prod,ced G$ kilometers a-ay Ahere -as no so,th *rissan consens,s. T,a story, this version follo-s a -idely shared o,tline that cannot !e specifically traced to any -ritten te(t, -ith some idiosyncratic to,chesFthe names of demons 6an,mana enco,nters on his visit to @anka:;< CChhaya and .rama 8eviD, or the -ay he is seated !efore 3avana:;< on somethin" that may com!ine coiled tail and serpent C/i",re 166D, as disc,ssed in the precedin" chapter. Ah,s it seems that the painter of these cards dre- and perhaps em!roidered ,pon a local oral version of the 3amayana:;< in presentin" his version of the story. Ahe ima"es themselves are remarka!ly varied and dramatically effective, considerin" their small circ,lar format, to -hich the compositions are neatly ad5,sted. 3avana:;< , -ith one eye in each of his ten faces, resem!les a sinister !eetle C/i",re 166D. 6an,manaBs e(,!erant tail -inds like a vine aro,nd demons in an ,n,s,ally heraldic version of the !,rnin"J of @anka:;< , s,ita!le to the small card, -here rectilinear architect,re -o,ld -ork a"ainst the ro,nd format C/i",re 16&D. Parts of some scenes are tilted to s,""est on-ard pro"ress a"ainst o!stacles, as -ell as to accommodate the ro,nd format C/i",res 169, 16GD. While some motifs are -idely shared in the professional paintin" tradition, 0 am str,ck !y many ,ni7,e sol,tions in these cards. Ahe se7,ence of episodes seems to proceed in chronolo"ical order, from card one thro,"h card ten of the s,ccessive s,itsFe(cept for the end of the second s,it. Ahere, after 8asarathaBs death -e find on card ten the la!el, =2ri 3ama, havin" !een "iven the t,r!an :i.e. cro-ned< sits on the throne -ith 2ita in his lap= C/i",re 16%D. Ahe pict,re is a standard version of the coronation, incl,din" monkeys, -hich one -o,ld e(pect to concl,de the 3amayana:;< . Ahe third s,it !e"ins -ith fo,r scenes that -o,ld in standard se7,ence precede the coronationFthe revival of @aksmana:;< , the fi"ht !et-een 3ama and 3avana:;< , the coronation of Ki!hisana:;< , and 2itaBs test !y fire. Ahe story then res,mes -ith a second scene of Bharadva5aBs ashram and proceeds m more accepted order. Ahe final card of the ei"hth s,it sho-s 6an,mana carryin" the mo,ntain, and s,!se7,ent events already sho-n in the second and third s,its are not repeated. A-o e(planations present themselves. *n the one hand, this se7,ence mi"ht represent some accidental circ,mstance or miscalc,lation on the part of the artist that -e cannot precisely reconstr,ct. *n the other hand, it may constit,te a deli!erate prolepsis, perhaps a prediction made in Bharadva5aBs ashram Chence the e(ceptional repetition of this sceneD of the heroBs ,ltimate f,t,re. Ahe coronation also forms a vis,al parallel to the scene of 3ama and 2ita in the same pose on )o,nt Chitrak,ta:;< , alone e(cept for @aksmana:;< and one ,nidentified fi",re in a chariot. 0n either case, this ,n,s,al se7,ence m,st also !e ,nderstood in vie- of the act,al ,se of these pict,res as playin" cards. 0n fact, as the cards -ere sh,ffled and ,sed, the story -o,ld not normally !e seen in se7,ence. *ne need not disc,ss the ' 11& ' intricacies of the *rissan "ame to ima"ine -ild con5,nctions of parts of the plot in the co,rse of ordinary play. 0nevita!ly the narrative str,ct,re here -o,ld !e more fl,id than in other te(ts or sets of ima"es, and it may !e a simple matter of convenience that most of the deck is in chronolo"ical order: the artist -o,ld have -orked this -ay to !e s,re of "ettin" all the ma5or events in. Ahe arran"ement of these ima"es -as in part determined !y the ,ser, makin" them like comp,ter hyperte(t or childrenBs !ooks that offer alternative plots, descri!ed as =make yo,r o-n story.= Ahis is literally a playf,l version of the sacred tale ,sed to em!ellish the afternoon hand of cards, no do,!t "lossed -ith -isecracks on the part of the players.

ar&e !a'as./0
Ahe traditional thia (adhia[*] , or detailed plan, of the Ja"annatha Aemple incl,ded one scene from the 3amayana:;< in the ,pper ri"ht corner, often the final fi"ht -ith 3avana:;< C/i",res 116, 11&D. 0n s,ch !atas[*] , scenes from the life of >risna:;< sometimes flanked the temple in vertical ro-s C/i",re 116D, and these also occ,rred in a circle in the type kno-n as >risnaBs:;< Birthday pict,res.:#G< /rom s,ch so,rces, paintin"s devoted to tellin" an e(tended story in m,ltiple panels have !ecome partic,larly pop,lar in recent years. Perhaps the circ,lar format of the small panels can !e attri!,ted to the model of playin" cards as -ell. 0 have selected fo,r e(amples, admittedly at random amon" the -ide n,m!er prod,ced today, to demonstrate diversity of patterns of or"aniHation CPlate 11, /i",res 1G#, 1G9, and 1%9 in 4ppendi( GD.:#6< M *ne feat,re shared !y all the modern story !atas[*] of the 3amayana:;< 0 have seen is the placement of the coronation in the center. Ahis may seem nat,ral eno,"h as the a,spicio,s concl,sion, especially if the Uttara >anda:;< is omitted Cas it is not in the last t-o e(amplesD. Ahe re",lar e(ec,tion of -eddin" paintin"s on the -alls of ho,ses !y the chitra%aras and the centrality of this s,!5ect there C/i",re 161D may have made it partic,larly appropriate as the foc,s of the !ata[*] . 0t -as the most prominent iconic form for 3ama. 4 !ata[*] , !y virt,e of its ori"in as a pict,re sold to the pil"rim and as a replacement ima"e made for the P,rl Aemple, is conceived of as a stand+in for the murti , literally the =!ody,= of a ma5or divinity. 4s 4ppendi( G indicates, the selection of events is not consistent amon" the lar"e e(amples, nor does it correspond to Ja"annath )ahapatraBs set. 4mon" the episodes on -hich there is complete consens,s, some may seem nat,ral choices: 3amaBs !irth, his enco,nters -ith Aadaki:;< and 4halya, the "olden deer, Jatay,Bs:;< attack, 6an,mana and 2ita in the asoka "rove, and 3amaBs final fi"ht -ith 3avana:;< . )ahiravana:;< and 8,r"a appear in the lar"er 8anda 2ahi paintin", in the -ork of Bhikari )aharana, and in Ja"annath )ahapatraBs set. Ahe incl,sion of these events, -hich -ere not in the mainstream of *rissan te(ts or man,script ill,strations, may reflect the 2ahi Jatra tradition of near!y P,ri. Ahe 3a"h,ra5p,r !ata[*] -ith t-enty+one small scenes C/i",re 1%94D and the 8anda 2ahi one -ith t-enty+ t-o C/i",re 1%9BD treat events thro,"h 6an,manaBs visit to @anka:;< at a fairly consistent pace, !,t !oth compress the concl,sion into t-o or three !attles.:#&< Ahe se7,ence of scenes follo-s some "eneral principles. ?vents ,s,ally proceed clock-ise, -hether or"aniHed in a circle or in a s7,are.:#%< Ahe !e"innin" of ' 11% ' the se7,ence is on the lo-er left in /i",re 1%9C and 1%98, !,t on the ,pper left in /i",re 1%94. Kertical panels are apparently read do-n-ard. Ahe "reatest inconsistency in se7,ence occ,rs in the m,ltiple vertical ro-s, -hich pro"ress in-ard to-ard the coronation in different -ays in /i",re 1%9C and 1%98. 4 paintin" s,ch as that in /i",re 1%9B is comple( and sophisticated in the -ay it reconciles chronolo"y -ith placement on the canvas. 8espite some shared principles, each !ata[*] differs some-hat. 2,rely -e may entertain the possi!ility of s,ch pl,ral patterns in the past.

2-&-da Wall !ain'in&s

/inally -e ret,rn to the oldest cycle of paintin"s of the 3amayana:;< , possi!ly contemporary -ith the earliest palm+leaf ill,strations as -ell, for it is clearly dated in the 1%1$s. Eo te(t accompanies the B,",da m,rals, nor does my analysis s,""est fidelity to one -ritten version. 0t is temptin" to connect this cycle -ith Upendra BhaO5a, a mem!er of the family of the !,ilder of the KiraOchi Earayana:;<

Aemple. While many scenes resem!le the acco,nt in the *aidehisa *ilasa[*] , some do not. Ah,s the distinctive ima"e of the seven sal trees knotted !y a serpent is a!sent C/i",re 1$#, centerD, and the B,",da version of @aksmana:;< strai"htenin" his arro- o,tside >iskindha:;< is e(plained neither !y that poem nor !y the &a'anya'ati[*] CPlate 11D. 0n "eneral -e may s,rmise !oth that the artists kneUpendra BhaO5aBs -orks alon" -ith additional te(ts and oral tales and that they may have introd,ced their o-n interpretations in -ays -e can never precisely reconstr,ct. )oreover, dama"e to some of the paintin"s creates diffic,lties in interpretation. 6ere, in fact, -e m,st proceed !ack-ard to ,nderstand these ima"es in li"ht of the "reater certainty, or at least lesser ,ncertainty, of more recent man,scripts and paintin"s. 4nother complication most strikin" at B,",da amon" all o,r e(amples is the likelihood that the artist or artists -orked on one -all at a time -itho,t an over+archin" plan in mind from the !e"innin". Possi!ly a plan -as altered on an ad hoc !asis as the paintin" proceeded, -hich is not to imply that the res,lt -as therefore less s,ccessf,l. 0n fact one mi"ht ar",e that it -as more creative to make ad5,stments -hile the -ork -as in pro"ress. We cannot !e certain that the paintin" -as e(ec,ted in the se7,ence of circ,mam!,lation, and it remains possi!le that several parts -ere ,nder -ay sim,ltaneo,sly, -orked on !y different painters. Ah,s -alls 4, B, C, and pres,ma!ly @ follo- a pattern of depictin" many incidents sparely to create a r,nnin" narrative. Ahe effect of each re"ister is similar to that of a palm leaf, and it is conceiva!le that the painters -orked from an ill,strated man,script. 0f so, ho-ever, they did not follo- it slavishly, Ahe vertical se7,ence on the first three -alls moves lo"ically eno,"h from !ottom to top, top to !ottom, then a"ain !ottom to top. Iet the horiHontal movement is irre",lar on -all 4, the most comple( of the first three. Wall B does follo- a !o,strophedon co,rse, and C has only one incident per tier. /rom this se7,ence one mi"ht ded,ce that the comple(ity of 4 -as re"arded as e(cessive. 0f -all @ -ere preserved, it -o,ld confirm or deny this hypothesis. 4t least -e can say that -hile -orkin" on -all 4, the desi"ner did not take it as his primary task to present the story clearly, as if from scratch. 0ndeed, !eca,se the vie-er -o,ld s,rely have !een pres,med to ' 119 ' have some familiarity -ith the 3amayana:;< , the artist -as cast in the role of someone retellin" a -ell+ kno-n story creatively, to entertain and please his a,dience. Wails 8 thro,"h > make simple se7,ential readin" yet more diffic,lt. Ah,s the scenes at the top of 8 and ? take place in the section of the story covered on -all 4 and mi"ht conceiva!ly have !een omitted there -ith s,ch emphatic treatment in mind. Wall / follo-s after the events of C, and the scenes at the !ottom of 8 and ? follo- that, precedin" -all .. Ahis is the point at -hich improvisation may have taken place, and any precise e(planation for chan"es in plan is spec,lative. Eonetheless, some "eneral motivations seem to !e at -ork. Perhaps the most nat,ral e(planation for the lar"e scenes is that they are iconic, as opposed to the precedin" narrative portions. 0n fact, only one of the act,al ima"es here corresponds to a type standard in ima"es of -orship, and that is relatively minor in its placement hereF6an,mana -ith )o,nt .andhamadana C/i",re 111D. 0n the other scenes 3ama is no lar"er than other actors and is sometimes entirely a!sent CPlate 11D. Ah,s the term =iconic= is not entirely appropriate. 4n alternative literary concern is apparent, ho-ever: that of mood, or rasa , as opposed to plot. Ah,s the first lar"e scene, BharataBs visit C/i",re 1$9D, is played for sentiment, mainly pathos, rather than as a simple statement of reli"io,s devotion, -hich -o,ld !e implicit in the -orship of 3amaBs shoes. 6ere one feels the sorro- of the co,rt, incl,din" the -ido-ed 7,eens, !ereft of ornament. Bharata confronts

his !rother as an e7,al h,man !ein", his h,m!ly h,nched pose contrastin" -ith 3amaBs ener"etic e!,llience despite his modest circ,mstances. Ahis is hi"h drama in the 0ndian tradition, and even tho,"h the scene lacks physical action, it is packed -ith emotion that tells a story Ahe nei"h!orin" scene on )o,nt Chitrak,ta:;< com!ines pathos -ith romance, as 3ama decoro,sly yet tenderly to,ches 2itaBs !ro- -ith red earth !eca,se he lacks the red lead that a princess co,ld e(pect to ,se as ornament C/i",re 1$6, topD. Ahe isolation of the fi",res ,nderscores not only the intimacy of the moment !,t also their impoverished sit,ation. Ahe demotion of the !,ildin" of the !rid"e to @anka:;< , often re"arded as a pivotal event, to the position of a footnote on this -all s,""ests the "reater interest in more emotional episodes on the part of this desi"ner. Ahe ne(t t-o ma5or scenes on -alls / and . lead ,s to-ard the heroic sentiment. @aksmana:;< strai"htenin" his arro- evokes compassion a"ain, that the !rother of the heroic 3ama sho,ld !e i"nored !y a mere monkey CPlate 11D. Ahe c,ttin" of the ,m!rellas is 3amaBs first ma5or h,miliation of 3avana:;< , as opposed to the !,ildin" of the !rid"e, -hich forms a ma5or t,rnin" point in military strate"y C/i",res 1$%, 1$9D. Ki!hisanaBs:;< dramatic "estic,lation and the forlornly fl,tterin" ,m!rellas ,nderscore the tri,mph inherent in this episode. 4n element of h,mor is -oven in as monkeys accompany the heroic event on a r,ral type of dr,m !elo-. Ahe pace of !attle 7,ickens in smaller scenes of the fi"ht -ith >,m!hakarna:;< and 0ndra5ita, laced -ith arro-s C/i",re 111D. Ahen the epic confrontation !et-een 3ama and 3avana:;< occ,pies the ma(im,m area of any of the 3amayana:;< scenes, its ori"inal impact only dimly "limpsed today !eca,se of the m,ch dam+ ' 1#$ ' a"ed condition of the so,th -all C/i",re 11#D. 4nd yet this vivid tri,mph of the heroic forces did not concl,de the se7,ence, for it -as follo-ed !y the smaller scenes of -all @, -hich, -hatever their content, mi"ht seem anticlimactic. Ahis se7,ence serves to remind ,s that the str,ct,re of the paintin"s, ho-ever dramatic, did not follo- an 4ristotelian pattern, str,ct,red !y norms of ,nity. Ahis is the -orld of rasa , or sentiment, in -hich the "oal is emotional richness, a linked se7,ence of moods. Iet s,rely. vis,al "oals -ere also felt. Ahe selection of fo,r events set on hills for the ma5or scenes of -alls 8 thro,"h . is partly a matter of composition and !alanced appearance. Ahe form of a mo,ntain -o,ld have interr,pted the rapid se7,ence of scenes on the earlier -alls, hence the omission of these events there.:#9< 6ere the hill connects the entire -all despite the presence of an architect,ral niche in the center. Ahe small nat,ral to,ches -orked into the !ase of the hills, visi!le !eca,se they are placed close to eye level, provide a chance for the artist to sho- off his refinement and invention in a -ay less appropriate in the re"isters of the initial -alls, -hich imply ,niform scale all the -ay to the top. *n -all 4, KisvamitraBs sacrifice, 2itaBs -eddin", and an ,ne(plained scene set in a shrine are ali"ned, s,""estin" a relationship of three sacred events C/i",re 1$1D. Ahis connection sho-s an appreciation of the vis,al properties of ima"es, makin" comparison !et-een the three ceremonial fires possi!le in the same -ay the artist of the 8ispersed &a'anya'ati[*] man,script compared 2ita and the 2a!ari. )oreover, a vertical series of architect,ral forms connects the three horiHontal tiers in the same -ay that the flames of 3isyasrin"aBs:;< and KisvamitraBs sacrifices connect the lo-er t-o tiers. Ahe res,lt is not a ti"htly constr,cted ,nified composition !,t rather vario,s chains that link the -all in pieces, lest it dissolve into a mere series of ,nrelated re"isters. 0n short, -e may vie- the desi"ner at B,",da as an inventive storyteller, -hose medi,m, of co,rse, -as pict,res rather than -ords. Ahe effectiveness of individ,al ima"es as ele"ant pieces of desi"n is !orne o,t !y the impact they had on s,!se7,ent artists. Ah,s the -all paintin" of )anikarnika 2ahi in

P,ri C/i",re 11GD and the -eddin" !o( of Bha"avata )aharana C/i",res 1G%+61D demonstrate the e(emplary. stat,s of the B,",da m,rals. 4nd at least one palm+leaf ill,strator, 3a"h,nath Pr,sti, seems to have ,sed these compositions as a point of depart,re for ill,strations in a 7,ite different "enre. )any strate"ies are at -ork in *rissan narrative pict,res, -hich !e"in -ith different versions of the story and follo- these versions -ith different de"rees of fidelity. 2ome present action as clearly as possi!le, creatin" a se7,ence of events that may !e read as ca,sally linked. 2ome take that familiar action for "ranted and -eave aro,nd it a commentary in philosophical or emotional terms. Both story and commentary may !e lon"+-inded, em!roidered, and all,sive or terse and direct. ' 1#1 '

% Wh*>
We have considered the history or story !ehind the ima"es, as -ell as the disco,rse or manner of tellin", !oth in the treatment of individ,al events and in the se7,ential effect of pict,res. Ahese concerns do not e(ha,st the topic of storytellin", ho-ever. 4s the a,thor Urs,la @e .,in once p,t the 7,estion to a "ro,p of scholars analyHin" narrativeF 0t -as a dark and stormy ni"ht and Bri"ham al+3ashid sat aro,nd the campfire -ith his -ife -ho -as tellin" him a story in order to keep her head on her sho,lders, and this is the story she told: Ahe histoire is the -hat and the discours is the ho!,t -hat 0 -ant to kno-, Bri"ham, is le !our6uoi . Why are -e sittin" here aro,nd the campfireN:1< =Why= in7,ires after the motivatin" force !ehind the story. @ike any 7,estion, this one has different meanin"s dependin" ,pon its form,lation and emphasis. *ne may ask, -hat does the ra(ian 8ights represent for a,diences from 6ar,n al+3ashid to the presentN Ah,s =Why -as the story of Rama depicted as it -asN= calls attention to the impact of those same ima"es ,pon other people, and partic,larly to the meanin" of this tale in *rissa. *n the other hand, one mi"ht in7,ire, -hy did 2cheheraHade prolon" her tale for 1,$$1 ni"htsN 2imilarly, =Why -as the story of 3ama depicted as it -as (y the artists of Orissa N= calls attention to the practical prod,ction of ima"es. 0n the third place, =Why= may s,rreptitio,sly in7,ire a!o,t the s,ccess of the entire enterprise. Was it -orth sittin" aro,nd this partic,lar campfireN 8id they spin a "ood yarn, or -hatever they -ere tryin" to doN:1<

Wha' Does I' All 9ean>

*ne e(pectation invoked in vario,s symposia that have !een devoted to the "reat epic of 3ama is a demonstration of the -ide appeal of the heroic divinity. 0 have, ' 1#1 ' frankly, taken that appeal for "ranted. 0nherently, as -hat semiotics terms an inde(, each copy of the

3amayana:;< and scholarly st,dy of the s,!5ect constit,tes a si"n of the "odBs po-er. Ahis !ook does not d-ell ,pon ,niversal elements or make pan+0ndian comparisonsJ systematically !eca,se either co,rse -o,ld !ecome ,nmana"ea!le and -o,ld detract from caref,l consideration of the *riya forms. Ahere remain many interestin", -ide+reachin" pro!lems, s,ch as the "eneral "ro-th of the Uttara >anda:;< in -ritten te(ts at the same time that it lan",ished in the hands of ill,strators. Ao e(plore that convincin"ly -o,ld re7,ire another !ook. 0n partic,lar, the contemporary ima"es most relevant for comparison are those of the ei"hteenth cent,ry and later, a period that demands f,rther -ork on ,nst,died art in many re"ions. 6ere 0 have paid attention to e(ceptional motifs, common in *rissa !,t occasionally fo,nd else-here, s,ch as the t-o+ headed deer or the snake linkin" the seven sal trees. 0n !oth cases, a shared form took on different content in *rissa, hence its partic,lar si"nificance and prominence there. .iven that -e are concerned -ith the meanin" of ima"es of the epic in one re"ion, -hat "eneral concl,sions can -e dra-N 4n o!vio,s one is that events are p,t into a local conte(t. Ahe 3amayana:;< is conceived as set in *rissa itself and is not rele"ated to a historical past. Ahis is in fact so common in the 0ndian vis,al and reli"io,s tradition that it hardly re7,ires comment: the past is inevita!lyB interactive -ith the present and is identified -ith the -orld aro,nd ,s. 0t is no s,rprise that for *riyas !oth )ahendra"iri and @anka:;< sho,ld appear as local places or that occasional ima"es of Ja"annatha, the s,preme re"ional divinity, sho,ld !e -orked into a seemin"ly ,nrelated reli"io,s conte(t. Ahe ethnic mi( of *rissa is reflected in a more ,ne(pected and hence interestin" -ay in the participation of tri!al characters in the royal story to -hich they mi"ht !e considered mar"inal. )any a,thors and artists in *rissa "ive partic,lar play to the story of the 2a!ari, descri!in" her nonstandard !ehavior in !itin" into the fr,it she offers 3ama and 3amaBs acceptance of this act as a si"n of her devotion. Ahe prevalence of tri!al s,!5ects, m,sic, and dance in the 3amalila:;< of 8asapalla may !e ascri!ed to the deli!erate pacification of the >honds early in the nineteenth cent,ry -hen the performance !e"an. 2,rely this sit,ation -as not pec,liar to that small state. 4ccommodation of indi"eno,s forest d-ellers is common thro,"ho,t *rissan history. ?ven the ma5or re"ional c,lt of Ja"annatha constit,tes an early e(ample in sli"htly different formFa tri!al "od identified -ith a mem!er of the mainstream 6ind, pantheon.:#< Ahe role of peoples from the interior hilly re"ions as a threat to the more settled coast and the sheer n,m!er of adi'asis Cliterally, a!ori"inalsD in the pop,lation of *rissa s,rely contri!,ted to the prominence of tri!al elements -ithin the 3amayana:;< there and also lay !ehind the stress ,pon the portions of the story that take place in the forest. Ahe 'anaras , forest animals, are emphasiHed here. 6an,mana is of co,rse a -idespread epitome for devotion thro,"ho,t 0ndian c,lt,re, !,t the -ay he takes over the story in Bala!hadra PathyBs &a'anya'ati[*] man,script is e(ceptional. 0n many pict,res -e have considered, as -ell as in *riya te(ts, 3ama is treated as an o!5ect of devotion compara!le to >risna:;< . Ahis c,rrent is most strikin" in the .rahma Ramayana[*] , -hich at first "lance mi"ht !e taken for a 0ita 0o'inda . 0t is implicit in the dhyatma Ramayana[*] , -hose ill,strators like-ise ackno-led"e ' 1## ' the po-er of 3amaBs "race in savin" those he sla,"hters. Ahe s7,irrelBs part in !,ildin" the !rid"e to @anka:;< is a partic,lar case in -hich devotion is re-arded !y a !oon, and the s7,irrel is often -orked into ima"es -hether or not it is e(plicitly mentioned in the te(t they ill,strate. Ahe episode of the co-herds, depicted in man,scripts of the *aidehisa *ilasa[*] , !oth connects the t-o avatars directly and evokes >risna:;< vis,ally -ith ima"es of co-s.

.ha%ti themes a!o,nd thro,"ho,t north 0ndia in the ei"hteenth and nineteenth cent,ries. Partic,larly in eastern 0ndia, -ith the impact of Ben"ali Kaishnavism, it is nat,ral that art sho,ld treat 3ama as an o!5ect of emotional devotion. 0n the ei"hteenth cent,ry, a -ealthy Ben"ali introd,ced in the P,ri Aemple a 3a"h,nath Kesa, in -hich @ord Ja"annatha -as dressed as 3ama, one of his manifold ",ises of the rit,al year.:9< Ahat practice -as a!andoned, altho,"h the painters occasionally still depict this 'esa Cdressin" of the "odD. Ahe point is not that the c,lt of >risna:;< has replaced or dominated that of 3ama !,t rather that the t-o r,n parallel.:G< M Ultimately it is ,nrealistic to try to compare their -ei"ht and importance. Ahey are compati!le, -hether @ord Ja"annatha is invoked as prel,de to 3amaBs story C/i",res 61, &1D or 3amaBs victory is made pendant to an ima"e of the P,ri Aemple C/i",res 116, 11&D. )a( ),ller termed this lon"+standin" 0ndian acceptance of different "ods ,nder different circ,mstances henotheism, a concept ,sef,l to the Westerner -ho sees only the stark alternatives of a monotheistic .od and a fra"mented, polytheistic pantheon of competitive divinities. *ne ma5or theme in the 3amayana:;< as told and depicted in *rissa is present in other re"ions !,t is developed -ith partic,lar consistency here. Ahis is an over+archin" concern -ith the ill,sory nat,re of the empirical -orld.:6< 4rtists fre7,ently emphasiHed vis,al em!lems of this ill,sion more than in other re"ions -here the same te(t, the dhyatma Ramayana[*] -ith its Kedanta ideolo"y, may also !e ill,strated. Eonetheless, as -e have seen, the most prolific *rissan ill,strator of that te(t, 2arathi )adala Patnaik, did not partic,larly d-ell ,pon ill,sion in his pict,res. 2ome vivid vis,al motifs themselves are central to this partic,lar interpretation of the epic as a -hole. Ahe t-o+headed deer catches o,r eye as an em!lem of ill,sion. What are the implications of this ima"eN Ahe "olden deer -as part of a trick that enticed 3ama a-ay from 2ita. Ao endo- it -ith an e(tra head is, in the -ords of livin" painters, to emphasiHe that it is no ordinary deer. Ahe t-o+ness of the heads implies d,plicity, yet that interpretation may in fact lead ,s to e(onerate )aricha for ass,min" this form and ena!lin" the divine story to ,nfold. Ahe ima"es also !ear o,t the charm of the creat,re, -hich in the first place captivated 2ita and -hich !oth p,HHles and am,ses ,s. Ah,s the deer reminds ,s in a playf,l -ay of ,ncertainty and the diffic,lty of makin" 5,d"ments. Ahis is tr,e of the motif as it appears in *rissa, -hereas in .,5arat the same form implies primarily rapid movement, also appropriate to the deer !,t less specifically evocative of maya . Ahe hidin" of 2ita in the fire -hile )aya 2ita -as kidnapped is an e7,ally comple(, -ei"hty em!lem. 0n the first place, for the intended a,dience, familiar -ith the story in advance, it is reass,rin" to find that the real heroine is safe, her p,rity protected from contact -ith 3avana:;< . 6er safety ,nderc,ts the plot only if -e impose e(pectations that the story sho,ld constit,te p,re tra"edy 0n the sec+ ' 1#9 ' ond place, this event !,ilds drama, implyin" that somethin" disastro,s is a!o,t to happen, conveyed !y the pict,re of the tr,e 2ita in the flames or !y the enacted concealment of !oth forms !ehind a "hostly veil in the 8asapalla 3amalila:;< . 0t is a vivid and omino,s moment as depicted !y !oth 2atr,"hna and )ichha Pata5oshi C/i",res 91, 1$9D. 0n the third place, this partic,lar ima"e evokes -hat the informed a,dience kno-s -ill occ,r a"ain later, 2itaBs immersion in fire as a test of her virt,e. Ahe implications of this test -ere not necessarily those felt !y a vie-er led to e(pect the Uttara >anda:;< and her re5ection !y 3ama. Eor -ere they those felt in the late t-entieth cent,ry !y vie-ers -ho think of the yet more omino,s spectacle of do-ry !,rnin"s. B,t the event is part of a repeatin" pattern, a cycle in -hich do,!ts are raised yet -e are reass,red that the story -ill all t,rn o,t all ri"ht. 0 cannot resist reflectin" on a compara!le piece of literat,re, ?,ripidesB Helen , tho,"h -ith no implication of any historical relationship !et-een .reek drama and m,ch later medieval 0ndian

literat,re. 4t the risk of essentialiHin" !oth Western and 0ndian traditions, -e may see a neat contrast !et-een the recast versions of the Iliad and the 3amayana:;< . 0n !oth epics a -oman is the ca,se of -ar. 0n !oth recastin"s, -e discover that an ill,sion -as in fact kidnappedJ hence the real -oman is freed of the ",ilt of promisc,ity Ca char"e more 5,stified in 6elenBs case than in 2itaBsD. 0n !oth versions an o!sessive "emination Cdo,!lin"D ,ltimately calls attention to the a,thorBs o-n craft and hence to the self+refle(ive identity !et-een his -ritin" and his s,!5ect matter.:&< B,t ?,ripidesB ill,sion is a thin" of the past and he foc,ses ,pon the arran"ements !y -hich )enela,s and 6elen escaped from ?"ypt, -here she had in fact !een kidnapped. Ahe .reek play has not challen"ed 6omerBs version of events, -hereas at least in *rissa the versions of the dhyatma Ramayana[*] and *aidehisa *ilasa[*] predominate. ?,ripides retains a tension !et-een the "ood and !ad effects of deception, -hereas in the 0ndian tradition maya is fr,itf,l and distin",ished from mere moha , or conf,sion. 0n fact in the *riya masterpiece of Upendra BhaO5a and in the 3amalila:;< of 8asapalla, the motif of the phantom 2ita is presented po-erf,lly and the do,!lin" lo"ically clears her name from final s,spicion. 2o in *rissa maya itself has many different implications in different instances or in a sin"le instance. Ahe pilin" ,p of s,ch references is to make the entire story into a complicated "ame. Ahe (andhas , or p,HHles, that appear in man,scripts as part of the sal tree episode or 0ndra5itaBs snake+arro- provide a similar p,HHlement and testin". 0n the !atachitra[*] ima"es of the )ahiravana:;< episode, it is si"nificant that -e see, not 5,st the conflictin" po-ers of demon and "oddess !,t rather a series of tricks: 6an,manaBs tail+fort Csee p. #$D, the dis",ises )ahiravana:;< ass,med to sneak in, and finally the r,se that ena!les >ali to slay him C/i",res 1#9, 19$D. 4ll of this co,ld !e e(plicated !oth in terms of philosophical relativism, of the kind ver!aliHed !y Kedanta, and in terms of -it or aesthetic -himsy. When -e ask, =What does the story of 3ama mean in *rissaN= the pl,ral meanin"s are themselves an ans-er: there is no sin"le meanin". Ahe partic,lar t-ists "iven to the story here and the stress -ith -hich some parts are presented, vis,ally as -ell as ver!ally, make va",eness, ,ncertainty, and ,ltimately maya a central theme. *ne artistic implication of this theme is an acceptance of many meanin"s in a sin"le story, -hich may yield a different interpretation in the mo,th of each ne' 1#G ' teller. Ahe &a'anya'ati[*] itself presents the story of 3ama as a performance p,t on !y a ma"ician, -hich !oth "ives it a kind of dramatic -ei"ht and at the same time emphasiHes the notional nat,re of this partic,lar version of the story. Ahe phenomenon of the 3amalila:;< , in -hich a story is performed afresh each year !y actors -ho ass,me their parts and remain familiar citiHens of the to-n, adds another layer to the fa!ric of retellin". Ahe artist -ho repeats familiar themes, himself prod,cin" many ill,strated man,scripts of a sin"le te(t or many !atas[*] for sale in the !aHaar is partic,larly akin to a performer, !e it actor or raconte,r. Ah,s the iterative, non+,ni7,e nat,re of the 0ndian ima"e, as opposed to the concept of a masterpiece that is s,i "eneris often maintained in the West, accommodates the theme of maya . ),ltiple meanin"s also res,lt from m,ltiple readin"s of a sin"le ima"e. Ahe artistBs readin" may not constit,te the ,ltimate a,thority, yet at the same time it is not to !e ne"lected. *ther fi",res ",idin" prod,ction can !e ima"ined, the director of a play or the ra4-!andit -ho intervened -ith the artist in some miniat,re paintin". Iet even the director of *rissan 3amalilas:;< is hardly in control of every detail of the improvisatory sta"in", nor is he more than one of several a,thorities a!o,t the interpretation of events. 0n !oth professional paintin" and man,script ill,stration, -e may admit the possi!ility that some ",ide may have intervened. B,t in act,al cases in -hich a learned man has !een cons,lted, it is not clear that his opinion -as partic,larly decisive: the Utkal University professor

involved in the selection of incidents for Ja"annath )ahapatraBs set of paintin"s Csee p. 6GD, or 2. E. 3a5",r,Bs interpretation of the t-o+headed deer Csee p. 91D. Ahere is also the a,dienceFas diverse as society in "eneralF-hich has !een descri!ed as achievin" many different desires from the ima"e, itself a kind of !oon+"rantin" 4laddinBs lamp or, to invoke an 0ndian ima"e, a -ishin" co- C>amadhen,D.:%< )y o-n st,dy does not e(plicitly p,rs,e different readin"s of a sin"le pict,re, altho,"h their possi!ility m,st al-ays !e admitted. Ahe m,ltiple vis,aliHations of a sin"le -ritten te(t, for e(ample the pithy story of 3ama in Upendra BhaO5aBs &a'anya'ati[*] ill,strated in fo,r discordant -ays, may remind ,s of the 3ashomon nat,re of all interpretation. 4nd for a motif s,ch as the t-o+headed deer, s,rely -e may accept a n,m!er of different form,lations of the meanin" as correct, -hile re5ectin" a fe-. Ah,s the .,5arati notion of movement is not applica!le in *rissa. Ahe diverse ima"es of *rissa, taken as a -hole, present the familiar story -ith an overarchin" consistency. *n the one hand, the tale is filled -ith reli"io,s si"nificance. Ahe characters are moral models, altho,"h specific actions even !y the hero may !e called into 7,estion. 6,man emotion and divine stat,s are constantly in !alance. Ahis story, different in its ori"in, !ecomes part of !road devotional c,rrents of (ha%ti and specifically of the re"ional c,lt of Ja"annatha. *n the other hand, this remains a story told -ith sophisticated relativism. Ara"edy and moral val,es are !oth ill,sory. Ahe action is a knot to !e ,ntied, a p,HHle to -hich different sol,tions are possi!le. Ahis is not merely a re!,s to !e decoded !y the kno-in" vie-er, confirmin" his or her o-n intellect,al skill. Ahis is a p,HHle to !e felt. 4t this point it mi"ht !e temptin" to present t-o contradictory themes, the reli"io,s and the aesthetic sec,lar, as conscio,sly inter-oven. 6ere 0 m,st !alk. ' 1#6 ' Ao pro5ect s,ch a dialo"ic str,ct,re on *rissan tho,"ht and ima"e makin" is to ass,me a d,alistic antithesis !et-een the t-o spheres that 0 do not reco"niHe in the 0ndian tradition. Ahe polyphonic model, so fashiona!le these days in the West thanks to )ikhail Bakhtin, does not seem f,lly appropriate to a c,lt,re -hose m,sic itself kno-s no harmony. 3ather -e mi"ht think of the analo"y of conc,rrent rhythms, follo-ed !y different instr,ments and ,ltimately resolved on a sin"le !eat. What one seeks is an ima"e that does 5,stice to the comple(ity and yet coherence of m,ltiple themes that are in the end not separate and hence not played a"ainst one another. Ah,s the devotional character of the .rahma Ramayana[*] is on a contin,,m -ith the aesthetic character of the *aidehisa *ilasa[*] . 4s is "enerally tr,e in 2o,th 4sian c,lt,re, the e(tremes are not ,nmediated. /inally, this do,!le f,nction of clarifyin" divinity and presentin" the rich matri( of maya is as actively f,lfilled !y certain vis,al ima"es as it is !y -ords. 0n Kedanta philosophy, the metaphor of a rope mistaken for a snake is f,ndamental to ver!al ar",ment.:9< *,r central ima"e itself has !een invoked !y ?d-ard 8imock alon" -ith a poem !y the Ben"ali a,thor Ji!anananda 8as to convey the m,ltiple nat,re of the -orld as a -hole. 0n that poetBs eyes the Bentinck 2treet section of Calc,tta is at least t-o realities: it is f,ll of Ben"ali !,sinessmen !y day, and s-armin" -ith -hores and forei"n sailors !y ni"ht. 0t is not the chan"e from day to ni"ht that makes the difference, altho,"h it seems so to o,r e(perience, for !oth Calc,ttas are present all the time. 0t is like the famo,s *rissi paintin" of the deer, one head "raHin", the other starin" fearf,lly !ack-ards. A-o+headed deer are not in o,r e(perience.:1$< Ahe pict,re says it all. 4t least for this st,dy, concerned -ith se7,ences of ima"es, meanin" m,st !e

accepted as residin" there Cand ded,ced !y attemptin" to see these ima"es in appropriate -aysD, rather than so,"ht in o,tside ver!al a,thority

Wha' E45lains The Ar'is'sA Choi+es>

0ss,es of ho- artists -ork have !een central in the present st,dy, for 0 feel an ,r"ent need to address the circ,mstances of prod,ction in 0ndian art, -hich have !een too readily ne"lected or shro,ded in mystical o!sc,rantism. @et ,s revie- ho- the chitra%ara and the scri!e proceeded -hen they set a!o,t tellin" 3amaBs story Ahe painter -as limited !y the dimensions and hence the price of his !ata[*] . 6e pres,ma!ly had vis,al models, some immediately !efore him in the form of sketch!ooks, some -ithin the !road tradition of his comm,nity. Iet he had considera!le lee-ay in the selection of scenes, m pacin", and in interpretation. Ahe ill,strator of man,scripts, on the other hand, -o,ld seem to have had his partic,lar te(t as a !rief. Iet he -as a!le to interpret that te(t in a variety of -ays, to -ork a"ainst it, and to depart from it. 6is =te(t= in fact -as a com!ination of the -ords of the man,script -ith many other versions that he kne- !oth in -ritten and in oral form. Both artists made comple( choices at a preliminary sta"eFthe ,nderdra-in" of the !ata[*] or the copyin" of the man,script te(t -ith !lanks left for pict,res. 2ome, s,ch, as )ichha Pata5oshi or Ja"annath )ahapatra, follo-ed an initial template -ith consistency. *thers, s,ch as 3a"h,nath Pr,sti, 2arathi ' 1#& ' )adala Patnaik, or the B,",da painters, seem to have improvised alon" the -ay. 2atr,"hna prided himself on in"en,ity, -hich in fact the ,ni7,eness of his ima"es !ears o,t. 0n all this -ork, the artists f,nctioned as narrators themselves. 4mid the panoply of effects, can -e discern overall patterns that e(plain ho- vario,s artists -orked in tellin" the 3ama storyN Caste mi"ht seem to !e an o!vio,s candidate as a ",idin" cate"ory in 0ndia. 0n man,script ill,stration, 0 have repeatedly indicated that there is no overall association of style or narrative approach -ith the comm,nity of the maker. 2atr,"hna and 2arathi )adala Patnaik, !oth karanas:;< , have little in common. Eor do the !rahmans Bala!hadra Pathy and )ichha Pata5oshi share vis,al or concept,al concerns. Ahere remains, ho-ever, a ",lf !et-een the hereditary artisans -ho painted !atas[*] and the vario,s people of other castes -ho en"raved palm leaves. 0t "oes deeper than the physical difference !et-een the t-o media, for the pict,res prod,ced today on 5oined palm leaves are more akin to painted !atas[*] than to earlier palm+leaf ill,strations. *ne kind of ima"e -orks in con5,nction -ith -ritten -ords -hile the other does not. )oreover, there is a f,ndamental difference in the f,nction and proced,res of the makers. Cases of !orro-in" !y man,script ill,strators s,ch as 3a"h,nath Pr,sti from the -ork of painters at B,",da do not invalidate the concl,sion that on the -hole the chitra%ara -as more clearly part of a hereditary pictorial tradition. Eonetheless, 0 -o,ld contend that in t-o partic,lar instances the professional painter told his story -ith as m,ch freedom and deli!eration as the scri!e ill,strator. *ne case, the B,",da m,rals, is reconstr,cted from the ima"es themselves, !oth in their chronolo"ical se7,ence, -hich does not folloany standard version of the 3amayana:;< , and in their treatment of ,n,s,al events. Eota!ly the scene of @aksmana:;< strai"htenin" his arro- !efore >iskindha:;< CPlate 11D is "iven an emphasis that is not e(plained !y previo,s ima"es that s,rvive C/i",re 1%GD. 4 second case, Ja"annath )ahapatraBs set made in 19G9, is reconstr,cted from the painterBs o-n memory, -hich of co,rse is open to 7,estion. *,r analysis of !oth is indeed hypothetical. )oreover, each itself !ecame a model for later artists and th,s the t-o are e(ceptional -ithin a tradition -here copyin" often played a role. 0t seems fair to say

that the position of the chitra%ara -as not inevita!ly more passive than that of the scri!e+ill,strator, altho,"h that -as often the case. Ahere -as a contin,,m !et-een the t-o, and 0 have avoided distin",ishin" the t-o as professional and non+professional, for some scri!e+ill,strators s,rely depended ,pon their pict,re !ooks for their livelihood. Aoday ill,strators are re"arded as artisans, as opposed to the literati -ho composed poetry. B,t in the past Bra5natha Bada5ena:;< C!y !irth a scri!e, or karana:;< D and Jad,mani )ahapatra Ca painter, or chitra%ara D -ere !oth -riter and artisan. 4 second candidate as a !asis for artistic variety is re"ion or s,!re"ion. 6ere a"ain, 0 am str,ck !y the pl,rality of approaches at play conc,rrently -ithin the tiny area occ,pied !y 3a"h,nath Pr,sti and )ichha Pata5oshi, -ho mi"ht -ell have kno-n each other. Ahere -as clearly no =central .an5am school= of palm+leaf man,scripts. Ahe chitra%ara -o,ld seem some-hat more localiHed in his linea"e. .eneral distinctions of dra-in" and techni7,e are visi!le !et-een the !atas[*] of P,rl and of Parlakhem,ndi, altho,"h mem!ers of these painter comm,nities also traveled and intermarried -ith families from other to-ns. 4s for the version of ' 1#% ' the 3amayana:;< presented !y these t-o schools, Ja"annath )ahapatraBs set and the Parlakhem,ndi playin" cards are !oth ori"inal in overall or"aniHation. ?ach has some idiosyncratic t-ists of plot, -hich may !e ascri!ed to local folklore and performances, for instance )ahiravana:;< and 8,r"a, kno-n to the 3a"h,ra5p,r painters from the 2ahi Jatra of P,ri. Iet re"ional style does not constit,te a si"nificant difference in storytellin" !et-een the t-o. Chronolo"ical development is a favorite concern of the art historian. 6ence 0 have taken pains in Chapter 1 to indicate dates -hen these are kno-n. 4"ain, 0 fail to see a !road pattern in either pictorial tradition d,rin" the relatively !rief period considered. 4t most one mi"ht ar",e that pan+0ndian themes have !ecome more common amon" paintin"s of the last decade, in lar"e part as the res,lt of the pop,lar media, -hich make A,lsi 8asBs version readily availa!le. Iet that process "oes !ack several cent,ries in the 8anda Jatra of 4s,reshvar descri!ed in Chapter 1. Pan+0ndian c,rrents need not, moreover, override characteristically *riya themes as -ell, nota!ly the t-o+headed deer. 0 am reminded of the sit,ation at 8asapalla in 199$, -hen a cro-d "athered on the 3amalila:;< sta"e aro,nd a television set at 1$:$$ P.). , -atchin" cassettes of the pop,lar television 3amayana:;< series, -hich had already !een vie-ed many times in the to-n after its initial !roadcast in 19%&+%%. Iet 0 fo,nd no instance in -hich the s,!se7,ent 3amalila:;< performance revealed the impact of that series, !y comparison -ith -hat 1 had seen in 19%#, !efore the series -as made. Ahe t-o versions -ere !oth accepta!le.:11< /inally, the 0ndian tradition of narrative str,ct,re provides a ,nifyin" frame-ork that itself enco,ra"es diversity of effect. Ahis str,ct,re o!vio,sly differs from Western literary norms. 4s 0 indicated in Chapter G, 0 ,se the term =narrative= to refer to the proced,re of tellin" a story, rather than to a partic,lar literary or artistic "enre. Ahe primacy of oral traditions may have accommodated a ram!lin", disc,rsive form as opposed to one em!odyin" 4ristotelian ,nities. 2tr,ct,re often centers ,pon mood, or rasa , distilled emotion that is evoked in the a,dience. Ahe standard list of nine moods permits variety rather than "ivin" consistently privile"ed stat,s to one sentiment. Ah,s the 3amayana:;< is ,s,ally identified -ith pathos, %aru,a , and that is indeed the emotion evoked in many ma5or ima"es, !e"innin" -ith the dramatic forest scenes at B,",da. Iet the *riya poet Upendra BhaO5a co,ld stress the erotic, sringara[*] , and set this off !y means of the comic, hasya . 0ll,strators s,ch as )ichha Pata5oshi follo-ed this lead. Ahe epic also lends itself to the mood of -onder, ad(huta , -hich an artist like 2atr,"hna chose to stress. 4nd the heroic, 'ira , dominates the vivid scenes of !attle as -ell as 3amaBs final coronation. Ahe comple( ima"es of the 8ispersed &a'anya'ati[*] evade neat

classification accordin" to the ma5or moods, and yet each has comple( emotional content. Ah,s sentiment, ascri!ed to the characters depicted and comm,nicated in an a!stract form to the vie-er, provides the "overnin" str,ct,re. 2entiment does not re7,ire action, hence the accepta!ility of static scenes. 2entiment m,st !e developed, hence m,ch direct repetition at the e(pense of climactic str,ct,re. 2entiment may !e intense, at the risk of -hat the West calls sentimentality. 0n s,ch emotional concerns -e have a "eneral code -hose "oal is not to convey information or ca,sal se7,ence. ' 1#9 ' What then of the diverse forms that the pictorial story takesN 3oland Barthes dispara"es references to the storytellerBs =art, talent, or "eni,sFall mythical forms of chance.= Iet he -rites feelin"ly of diverse stories: Ahere is, of co,rse, a freedom of narrative C5,st as there is a freedom for every speaker -ith re"ard to his or her lan",a"eD, !,t this freedom is limited, literally hemmed in : !et-een the po-erf,l code of lan",a"e :langue < and the po-erf,l code of narrative a hollo- is set ,p Fthe sentence. . .. =-hat happens= is lan",a"e alone, the advent,re of lan",a"e.:11< Ahe advent,re of pict,res -o,ld seem to res,lt in a similar -ay, one of its sides defined either !y the vis,al lan",a"e of the professional !ata[*] tradition or !y that of the palm+leaf !ook. Ultimately -e may reco"niHe a variety of approaches that !efit individ,al circ,mstances. *n the one hand, there is the temperament of the artist himself, -ho chose a rasa and devised the means to realiHe it. *n the other hand, the res,lt had to !e accepta!le to an immediate patron or potential !,yer. Both 3a"h,nath Pr,sti and Ja"annath )ahapatra seem to have called the shots initially and to have !een content -ith their ,ltimate compensation, -hich -as never princely 0t seems to me important to re"ard the creators of ima"es in 0ndia as people rather than as p,ppets of a tradition. Aheir sense of individ,ality may not have !een a Western one, !,t their choices cannot !e predicted in detail from their social, re"ional, historical, or intellect,al tradition, altho,"h each of these contri!,ted to the code -ithin -hich they -orked. Ahis may !e the most ori"inal and controversial aspect of the present st,dy *!vio,sly the deck is some-hat stacked !y my choice of palm+leaf ill,strations as a topic, for ,n,s,ally lar"e n,m!ers of individ,al artists are identifia!le here. B,t 0 see the same sense of distinctive temperament in anonymo,s ill,strations s,ch as the 8ispersed and 3o,nd &a'anya'atis[*] , in the ,nsi"ned !atas[*] , and ,ltimately thro,"ho,t traditional ima"e makin" in 2o,th 4sia. Ahis position contradicts received opinion "oin" !ack to Coomaras-amy, -ho stressed the s,!ordination of selfhood on the part of the 0ndian artist. Ahat vie-point co,ld !e traced to lo"ocentric !rahmanical te(ts that present !,ildin"s and ima"es as the "ross material co,nterpart to a p,rer realm of ideas. 2,ch an intellect,al herita"e leads the modern st,dent of 0ndian art to foc,s ,pon cases in -hich ima"es do correspond neatly to ver!al constr,cts and ,pon -idely shared vis,al traditions. 4s 0 have lect,red a!o,t this material to vario,s a,diences, 0 have noticed most p,HHlement over 2atr,"hna, not only !eca,se of his remarka!le ima"es !,t also !eca,se of the epithet he chooses for himself. *icha%sana[*] , or =in"enio,s= "oes a"ainst the "rain of o,r e(pectations for 0ndian art. Iet there it is in -ritin". 0t is hi"h time that -e "rant the maker of the ima"e more respect, let ,s hope -itho,t makin" him so,nd like an 0ndian version of Kan .o"h. Ahis !rin"s ,s to another 7,estion that com!ines the last t-o. 6o- is a vis,al artist to depict ill,sionN 4rt is itself a form of ill,sion, !,t that does not mean that representation per se need 7,estion its o-n reality.:1#< 0n those Western traditions that have sharply distin",ished the real and the ,nreal, it may !e a discrepancy in the ,se of an ill,sionistic system of representation that calls attention to somethin" other than apparent reality Cas in 2,rrealist paintin"sD or to the artificiality

' 19$ ' of representation itself Cas in the -ork of ). C. ?scherD. We cannot simply e7,ate -ith s,ch positions, ho-ever, any depart,re from the norms of ill,sionistic representation familiar to ,s.:19< 4 -orldvie- that fre7,ently asserts the ill,sory nat,re of all phenomena seems to have a more complicated task, for in that vie- discrepancy from familiar ill,sionistic standards is impossi!le. 0n 0ndia, ),"hal paintin" provides several fascinatin" cases in -hich s,ch ideas, dra-n from 6ind, patterns of tho,"ht, -ere depicted ,sin" the relatively ill,sionistic pictorial technolo"y of co,rt st,dios that fed ,pon Western, Persian, and 0ndian traditions sim,ltaneo,sly Ah,s it is ironic that o,r only ill,strated copy of the 9oga'asistha[*] , a ma5or -ork of Kedanta philosophy comprisin" para!les em!edded in a dialo",e !et-een 3ama and the sa"e Kasistha:;< is a ),"hal man,script, apparently made in 4.8. 16$1 for Prince 2alim, -ho -as soon to !ecome ?mperor Jahan"ir.:1G< 6ere it co,ld !e ar",ed that the painters have addressed the central theme of ill,sion !y depictin" real and ,nreal events in the same =realistic= style.:16< M 0t co,ld also !e ar",ed that they did not address that theme in the -ritten te(t at all, choosin" rather to tell a "ood Cthat is, movin"D story 0n principle it seems important to entertain this possi!ility -hen movin" from philosophical disc,ssion to pict,res. We need not take the con"r,ence of te(t and ima"e for "ranted, -hich is one reason for my tedio,s concern -ith partic,lars in Chapter 9.:1&< M 6ind,+B,ddhist art in 0ndia spoke a different lan",a"e. Ahro,"ho,t its lon" history, there are co,ntless ima"es -hose readin" forms a kind of "ame. 4n early *rissan e(ample sho-s fo,r !odies in acro!atic poses sharin" a sin"le head, set into frothy folia"e that itself t,rns into t-o monster heads C/i",re 1%&D. Perhaps visitors to the temple in Bh,!anes-ar -ho sa- this -ork in the nineteenth cent,ry, like those today, had their attention called to this part of the carvin" as =a -onder.= 0t -o,ld !e tendentio,s to identify s,ch a s,!ordinate part of the decor as an ima"e of maya . Ahis decorative !and and other passa"es else-here do, ho-ever, assert the in"en,ity of the sc,lptor and remind the vie-er that ima"es in "eneral are artificial constr,cts. 4s the temple cicerone asks today, =Which !ody does the head !elon" toN= Ahe (andhas , or p,HHles, that appear in 3amayana:;< man,scripts as part of the sal tree episode or 0ndra5itaBs serpent+arro- like-ise constit,te tests in iconic form for the vie-er. 4nother motif in later *rissan art that carries a similar si"nificance is the Eava",O5ara, or ninefold !east, a form ass,med !y >risna:;< to test his devotee 4r5,na, -ho -as a!le to reco"niHe this c,riosity as the "od himself. 0ma"es of this creat,re occ,r in paintin"s from the 6imalayan princely states and of so,th 0ndia.:1%< Iet the only -ritten version of the story so far fo,nd occ,rs in 2arala 8asaBs fifteenth+ cent,ry *riya "aha(harata . Ahis creat,re is partic,larly prominent in *rissaJ -itness its incl,sion in place of Jatay,:;< in >rishna Chandra 3a5endraBs Ramalila[*] C/i",re %&D and in the -eddin" paintin"s of 8anda 2ahi C/i",re 161D. 0ll,sion is a,spicio,s.

Was I' S-++ess(-l>

Ultimately yet another 7,estion is encoded in =-hy=: =What is the ima"e attemptin" to accomplish, -hich in t,rn ena!les ,s to assess its s,ccessN= 4s the ' 191 ' introd,ction s,""ested, this st,dy !e"an -ith a desire to 7,estion the standards !y -hich isolated leaves from se7,ential man,scripts had !een 5,d"ed. Ahey are not individ,al, framed pict,res, altho,"h occasionally they may serve that end today. Ahere is partic,lar dan"er in formalist appreciation,

,nconcerned -ith the partic,lar content of the ima"e, -hich this st,dy has attempted to redress. Ahe cycles considered here are "ro,ps of ima"es intended to !e seen in se7,ence. Ahis se7,ence tells a story and or constit,tes a commentary ,pon a familiar story. 0n fact the self+s,fficient ima"e in isolation may effectively p,nct,ate the entire cycle, like the 4han%i[*] ta!lea, in folk theater, !,t too many sho-stoppers -o,ld impede the sho- as a -hole. 6ere a"ain the paintin" tradition -orks differently from the man,script, and it seems important to reco"niHe the diverse or"aniHation of each. Ahe traditional lar"e !ata[*] and the -all paintin"s of B,",da are "enerally too comple( to !e seen as a -hole, and hence overall composition is not necessarily relevant to their s,ccess. Ahe -ay in -hich they are read is 7,ite varied, as /i",re 1$$ and the analysis of B,",da s,""est. Ah,s richness or variety may !e as important as clarity. 4t the same time, the -all paintin"s incl,de some ima"es that slo- the pace of storytellin". @ike-ise !atas[*] normally incl,de the Ja"annatha ima"e in the center as a porta!le o!5ect of -orship, compati!le -ith the narrative and carto"raphic f,nctions of the paintin" as a -hole. 6ence the cate"ory of iconic ta!lea, can !e accepted as an appropriate part of the pict,re, rather than condemned as an impediment to storytellin". 0t is important to accept these ,ne(pected aesthetic standards and to remem!er the -ide ran"e of refinement in the e(ec,tion of the chitra%aras7 -ork, lest -e s,cc,m! to the ass,mption that their paintin" is inferior as a -hole to other kinds of ima"es. 0 find it pla,si!le that 3a"h,nath Pr,sti, a very "ifted ill,strator, mi"ht have learned from the m,rals of B,",da, -hich he admired. A,rnin" to palm+leaf ima"es alone, !y -hat standards are -e to assess 7,alityN Ultimately -e m,st vie- artists s,ch as )ichha Pata5oshi or even 2arathi )adala Patnaik as more than inept draftsmen. 0f the former is more s,ccessf,l, this may !e a matter of the richness and density -ith -hich his pict,res add another layer to Upendra BhaO5aBs poem. 0n 2arathi )adalaBs -ork, the pict,res do not seem to tell a p,rposef,l story or to develop any coherent version of their content. 6o-ever hard 0 try, 0 often fail to -ork o,t a rationale for them either as isolated ima"es or as se7,ential art. Iet his copio,s -orks m,st have appealed to some patrons in late nineteenth+cent,ry .an5am 8istrict, and he cannot !e dismissed. 0n eval,atin" 3a"h,nath Pr,sti and )ichha Pata5oshi, -e can fort,nately compare o,r assessment -ith those of people -ho recall them today and -ith -ritten acco,nts !y 7,asi+contemporaries. 6ere conflictin" standards -o,ld lead to t-o different assessments. Pr,stiBs -ork stands o,t !y virt,e of its rich, ele"ant, and ass,red desi"n and draftsmanship. 0t is harder to follo- his story, altho,"h sometimes -e can see narrative inventiveness and a density of meanin" compara!le to his pictorial 7,alities. )ichha Pata5oshi e(cels in narrative enth,siasm, reconcilin" vis,ally the 7,alities of h,mor and sens,o,sness com!ined in Upendra BhaO5aBs poetry. Aoday in their home villa"es, !oth are remem!ered -armly. 4 kind of a-e s,rro,nds Pr,stiBs name, no do,!t enhanced !y the n,m!er of visitors from afar -ho have in7,ired a!o,t him and come to photo"raph his -orks preserved in ' 191 ' ),ndamarai. 6e is also kno-n, ho-ever, as Ul, Chakra, !est translated =maverick,= and is descri!ed as a h,m!le person -hose inspired -ork -as remarka!le.:19< )ichha Pata5oshi evokes, "ood+h,mored am,sement and respect rather than a-e. Eone of his -ork s,rvives in Bal,keshvarp,r. )ovin" !ack half a cent,ry, -e have a record that the "reat *riya m,sicolo"ist >alicharan Patnaik ,sed ",ile to ac7,ire Pr,stiBs ill,strated 3a"amala in 19#6. 6e -rote, =)y 8harakot stay -as tr,ly a divine !lessin". . .. :0n the -orship room of a female relative of Pr,sti, 0< discovered the ill,strated raga-chitra man,script. 0 cannot e(press in -ords my happiness then.=:1$< 0n 191% the distin",ished scholar >,lamani 8as visited Bal,keshvarp,r, -ritin" enth,siastically of the !rahman ill,strator -hom

he met, identifia!le -ith )ichha Pata5oshi, and of his =,ncommon love for the art he ac7,ired !y himself and for BhaO5aBs poetry,= -hich he san" -hile sho-in" the pict,res.:11< M Ahese passa"es mi"ht !e analyHed to confirm my o-n aesthetic preference for the -ork of 3a"h,nath Pr,sti, 7,a physical o!5ect. B,t it is more si"nificant that !oth artists -ere admired and taken serio,sly as h,man !ein"s. Ao compare their stat,re is perhaps ,nnecessary. 0n the end are -e left -ith complete relativism and the e7,ality of all ima"esN 0 -o,ld resist this as moha , or conf,sion, as opposed to fr,itf,l maya , or ill,sion. 2,rely 2arathi )adalaBs -ork or that of yet more inept draftsmen and storytellers is not s,ccessf,l !y its o-n standards, even tho,"h the sanctity of the palm+leaf medi,m may lead to the s,rvival of many e(amples of his -ork. While the livin" chitra%aras today find aesthetic 5,d"ments diffic,lt and at times are shy a!o,t e(pressin" them, they do make them spontaneo,sly, and not merely from self+interest. Ah,s my concl,sion is not entirely relativistic, that any set of ima"es m,st necessarily !e re"arded as s,ccessf,l, !,t rather that many alternative interpretations and radically different artistic means to these ends may also have their rationale. *,r e(perience is enriched !y tryin" to follo- s,ch diverse pictorial storytellers, different from each other and perhaps from ,s. ' 19# '

A55endi4 #
' 199 '

Adh*a'ma Rama*ana:; < 0ll,strations: 2e7,ence from 2,rpanakhaBs:;< 4ttack to the 8eath of Kalin C),ltiple (Bs indicate m,ltiple ill,stratio +'ent Orissa 2tate "useum :; 2arathi "adala /atnai% ;:<= 89 /u(lic &i(rary 2arathi "adala /atnai% 1an. ;:>; .harany 3ollection 2arathi "adala /atnai% Dec. ;:>; )t%al )ni'. &i(rary 2arathi "adala /atnai% ;>?@ 8ational "useum# 8ew Delhi <=.=AB anon .

. 3 a

3ama meets 2,rpanakha:;< @aksmana:;< Y 2,rpanakha:;< 2,rpanakha:;< denosed >hara Y 8,sana:;<

2,rpanakha:;< Y ( 3avana:;< 3avana:;< Y )aricha 3ama Y )aya 2ita (

( CY deerD

Cmissing !!. D

Ccontinued on neDt !ageE ' 19G ' Ccontinued from !re'ious !ageE +'ent Orissa 2tate "useum :; 2arathi "adala /atnai% ;:<= 89 /u(lic &i(rary 2arathi "adala /atnai% 1an. ;:>; .harany 3ollection 2arathi "adala /atnai% Dec. ;:>; )t%al )ni'. &i(rary 2arathi "adala /atnai% ;>?@ 8ational "useum# 8ew Delhi <=.=AB anon .

. 3 a

3ama Y deer 3avana:;< , hill, monkey 2ita Y @aksmana:;< 2ita Y ascetic

((

( C3avana:;< tenheaded

3ama, deer 3ama, @aksmana:;< 3et,rn to empty ( h,t

( (

3ama -ith dead ( deer Jatay,:;< meets ( 3ama (

( >a!andha 2a!ari 6an,mana appears as man ( ( ( ( CY 2itaD (

( ( ( ( (

( 6an,mana lifts !rothers ( (

Ccontinued on neDt !ageE ' 196 ' Adh*a'ma Rama*ana./0 0ll,strations, continued +'ent Orissa 2tate "useum :; 2arathi "adala /atnai% ;:<= 89 /u(lic &i(rary 2arathi "adala /atnai% 1an. ;:>; .harany 3ollection 2arathi "adala /atnai% Dec. ;:>; )t%al )ni'. &i(rary 2arathi "adala /atnai% ;>?@ 8ational "useum# 8ew Delhi <=.=AB anon .

. 3 a

2,"riva Y !rothers 2,"riva Y Aara & sal trees Y head of

((

((

( ( ( (

8,nd,!hi Kalin Y 2,"riva ( fi"ht 2,"riva "arlanded Kalin Y Aara 3ama shoots Kalin Aara mo,rns Kalin ( ( ( ( C; !. missing D (

( (

' 19& '

A55endi4 8
Ill-s'ra'ions o( Rama*ana:;<in Fo-r 9an-s+ri5's o( U5endra 2haC=aAsLavanyavati:*<DN-m:er o( sides o( (olio de)o'ed 'o ea+h s+eneE +'ent Cin !arentheses F not in teDt D Dis!ersed 8" :?.;@<B .ala(hadra /athy 1 1 11 1 "undamarai Raghunath /rusti 19 11 19 8" <@.;=BGI HRound =

@avanyavati:;< and )a"ician @omapada 3isyasrin"a:;< Y Jarata 2acrifice, 3ain )arria"e to 2anta 11

11 19 19 19

8asaratha Y 3isyasrin"a:;< in cart 2acrifice, distri!,tion of rice from sacrifice 9 !irths CBoys playD KisvamitraBs re7,est Aadaki:;< killed CKisvamitraBs sacrificeD 2,!ah, killed Y )aricha knocked o,t 4halya li!erated CKisvamitraBs sacrificeD Boatman -ashes feet Breakin" 2ivaBs !oCcontinued on neDt !ageE 11 11 1 11 1

19

19

19

11

11

# 1 1 11

19

11

11 19 19 19 19 11

11

19

11

11 11

1#

19

1# 1 1#

19 11

' 19% ' U5endra 2haC=aAsLavanyavati[*] , continued +'ent Cin !arentheses F not in Dis!ersed teDt D 8" :?.;@<B .ala(hadra /athy 6 1 "undamarai Raghunath /rusti 1 1 8" <@.;=BGI HRound =

)arria"e to 2ita Paras,rama

11 11

11 19

Preparation for coronation CBrahma sends Earada to 3amaD C3ama Y 2ita play "ameD )anthara CP,rna:;< k,m!haD 8epart,re Chitrak,ta:;< C8asarathaBs deathD CBharata Y 7,eensD CroBharataBs visit C?(iles -ith sa"esD Kiradha killed 4tri "ives Brahmastra C3ama meets Kisvamitra Y discipleD 2,rpanakha:;< denosed >hara et al. killed C2,rpanakha:;< Y 3avana:;< D 11 11 11

9 1

19

19

19 1 19 19 9 1 1 1 11 G 1 1 l11 1# 1# 1# 1# 19 19 19 1# 1# 1 11 11 19 19 11

missin" folioN 1 Z 1 1

11 11

11 19

C3avana:;< Y )arichaD )a"ic deer >idnap 4ttack of Jatay,:;< 2ita in asoka "rove 3ama ret,rns to h,t Jatay,:;< dies >a!anda killed 2a!ariBs "ift Co-herd 3ama Y sa"es Ccontinued on neDt !ageE 11 11

1 111 # 11 1 11 11 1 1# 1# 11 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 11 11 11 missin" folio 19 19 19

+'ent Cin !arentheses F not in teDt D

Dis!ersed

' 199 ' 8" :?.;@<B .ala(hadra /athy 11

"undamarai Raghunath /rusti

8" <@.;=BGI HRound =

Chakravaka !ird 2,"riva meets 3ama 2al trees 8,nd,!hiBs skeleton 1 11 11

19 19 11 19

1 1 Z

8eath of Kalin C3ama leaves monkeysD )t. )alyavanta in rains Cock cro-ned C@aksmana:;< "oes to 2,"rivaD )essen"er sent Brid"e

11

9 1 1

1#

19

19 1# 19

11

1 1 16

19 1# 11

end of man,script

2ie"e of @anka:;< , ,m!rellas c,t C@aksmana:;< strai"htens arro-D .ar,da:;< Y Ea"asara Battle >,m!hakarna:;< killed 6an,mana Y .andhamadana 3ama kills 3avana:;< Ki!hisana:;< cro-ned 1

1#

11

1#

11 1 11 11 missin" folios 11 1 1 1 1 Cfollo-s 2ita testD 1 11 11

2itaBs test 3et,rn in P,spaka:;< chariot

Coronation of 3ama @avanyavatiBs:;< ill,sion

11 11

11 1

' 1G$ '

A55endi4 <
Transla'ion o( Lavanyavati[*] 7 2oo, #B7 Rama*ana./0 E5isode DN-m:ers a' le(' indi+a'e )ersesE
magician# s%illed in tantra# has come from -arnata[*] . The %ing of 2imhala has him !erform the Ramayana[*] so that 3handra(hanu can see &a'anya'ati[*] and the !erformance in turn has a magic: effect u!on her . C19D Ahe princessBs face adorns the lar"e !alcony. With her are only her dear companions. 2he -ith the sens,o,s "ait of an elephant makes this plan her o-n. 4s she -atches 3amaBs story, her desire -ill !e filled. Ahe ma"ician says, Close yo,r eyes. 4nd -hen they are sh,t, he prod,ces this -orld of ill,sion Cmaya D. :4t this point the -ordplay !ecomes denser, -ith p,ns, internal rhymes, and all,sions Csome indicated !elo-D.< C1$D /eelin" his hair erect Clomadgama D at @omapadaBs insti"ation, 3isyasrin"a:;< -as aro,sed !y Jarata. 6e prod,ced rain C'rsti[*] D in that landJ the kin" -as pleased Ctusti[*] D. .iven 2anta as a -ife C%anta D, he performed the divine -orship. 8asaratha, in order to f,lfill his lon"in" Cmanoratha D, Went seated in a chariot Cratha D, to"ether -ith the sa"e. C11D Kisn,:;< manifested himself in the charmin" Ccharu D rice of the sacrifice Ccharu D. >a,salya, >aikeyi, and 2,mitra ate it and conceived. 3ama the handsome Ca(hirama D, Bharata devoted to !liss Csu(harata D, @aksmana:;< -ith a,spicio,s si"ns Csula%sana[*] D, and 2atr,"hna -ere !orn. 0n order to protect his sacrifice, Kisvamitra came and took them. 0n the forest, they dispatched Aadaki:;< to the land of 8eath. C11D Ahe lon"+armed Csu(ahu D 3ama str,ck do-n 2,!ah,. )aricha he sent to the sky and to "lory, !y means of an arro-. ' 1G1 ' *n the road, he made a stone happy !y t,rnin" it into a -oman.

6e -ho is affectionate to devotees Cdasas D had his feet -ashed !y a fisherman Cdasa D. Breakin" the !o- of 2iva C>handaparas,:;< D in t-o pieces C%handa[*] D, 4nd accomplishin" marria"e -ith 2ita, he van7,ished the pride of the kin"s. C1#D @ike a th,nder!olt, he pierced the mo,ntain C(hrigu[*] D of Paras,rama CBhri",pati:;< D. 6is father formed the -ish to perform his coronation. Beca,se of )antharaBs machinations Cmanthana D, takin" his -ife and yo,n"er !rother, 6e roamed happily on the -ondro,s C'ichitra D Chitrak,ta:;< . 6e ca,sed the eyes of cro-s to s7,int. Bharata, consoled, left the mo,ntain -ith enli"htenment. C19D Ahe hero -ith his -eapon C'irayudha D !ro,"ht Kiradha to death. Ahey "ot spotless clothin" and the Brahmastra :from 4tri Y 4nas,ya<. 6e !ro,"ht adornment Cmandi[*] D to the 8andaka:;< forest as -ell as p,nishment Cdandi[*] D to 2,rpanakha:;< . T,ickly C%hara D he c,t off the heads Csira D of >hara, 8,sana:;< , and Arisira. By means of the play Cra,ga D of a "olden deer Csaranga[*] D, the kin" of @anka:;< Aook moon+faced 2ita from her leafy cotta"e. C1GD *n the -ay he killed a !ird C%haga D -ith his s-ord C%hadga[*] D. 2ita d-elt in the asoka "rove -ith sorro- Cso%a D. Eot seein" the lovely one Csumu%hi D in the h,t, 3ama -as hit -ith "rief Cmahadu%hi D. Who can meas,re Cma!a D the host C%ala!a D of his sorro-s C'ila!aE N Ahe !ird reported Csandesa D that she had "one to the land Cdesa D of demons. Ca,"ht C(andana D !y >a!anda, 3ama killed that o"re. C16D Ahe 2a!ari, !y her "ift of fr,it, "ot the fr,it of release. 8rinkin" milk from the !est C'ara D co-herd C'arara4ara D, he f,lfilled his -ish. 3ama ca,sed desire to arise in the mind of the sa"es. 0n Pampa @ake he -as the ca,se of sorro- Cso%a D to the >oka !ird. 3ama, descendent of the 2,n C)itraD, !ecame friends Cmitra D -ith 2,"riva, son of the 2,n C)itraD. 6e pierced the sal trees and h,rled 8,nd,!hiBs !ones -itho,t effort. C1&D Ahe monkey kin" Csa%hamrigara4a[*] D -as stron" as ten million lions Cmrigara4a[*] D, B,t he -as 7,ickly destroyed !y an arro- Csara D in the form of a 2ara!ha. 6avin" made his camp on )o,nt )alyavanta, 3a"h,vira lived in separation thro,"ho,t the rainy season. 6e "ave the cock a cro-n on the crest of the hill. .ettin" Cla(hi D ne-s of his -ife C'alla(hi D, he sent a messen"er. ' 1G1 ' C1%D Eala !ecame noted for !,ildin" a !rid"e -ith !o,lders in the -ater. 2,rro,ndin" @anka:;< , they !ro,"ht terror to the race of demons. .ar,da:;< CKisaD removed their fear of the serpent C'isadhara[*] D arro-. 0n the !attle co,ntless troops -ere tro,nced. .hatakarna:;< left his !ody Cghatatyaga[*] D and his h,"e corpse -as destroyed. 0ndra5ita -as killed after the Brahmastra -as ,sed. C19D 6an,mana playf,lly -ent to .andhamadana. Bharata "ot ne-s of this, and @aksmana:;< -as saved. >in" 3amachandra, takin" the serpent+arro-,

/illed ,p the !elly+meas,re Can%a!eti[*] inside 3avana:;< C@ankapati:;< D. Ahe calm Ca(hisana[*] D Ki!hisana:;< a -as cro-ned. Kaidehi -as p,rified in the fire like "old. C#$D 0n P,spaka:;< Chariot, he -ent thro,"h the sky C!us%a[*] D -ith his army Ahe mi"hty -arrior Cyoddha'ara D !ecame kin" of 4yodhya. While he th,s made the "reat cele!ration of the coronation, Ahe moon+faced @avanyavati:;< sa- completely different thin"s. Chandra!han, stood in front of 3ama, @ike the !ea,ty of >andarpa CKisvaket,D in front of Kisn,:;< CKisvam!araD. When the princess had heard all this, she said, 0 need no other "room than this. ' 1G# '

A55endi4 ?
!ain'in&s o( Rama Themes in Ja&anna'ha Tem5le7 !-ri DAs re+orded :* Sri !-rna Chandra 9ishra7 !-riF see Fi&-re 8GGE
1. Eatamandir:;< a. 3ama and 2ita standin" Ceast -allD !. Paras,rama !o-s to 3ama, -ith @aksmana:;< , 2ita, 8asaratha Ctrian"le on -allD c. 4halya seated on rock at 3amaBs feet Cceilin"D d. 6an,mana tears open chest to reveal 3ama C-est -all, so,th endD e. 3amaBs coronation Ctrian"le on -est -all, north endD f. 2a!ari feeds 3ama and @aksmana:;< Cnorth -allD ". 3elief of 2ita and 6an,mana, female demons paintedJ to ri"ht, 3ama and @aksmana:;< "et the ne-s Cnorth-est pillarD h. PaOcam,kha 6an,mana 1. 3ama Aemple a. 3ama, 2ita, @aksmana:;< -ith t-o+headed deer Cnorth -allD #. .opap,ra Aemple a. 4rdharamasita+3ama to vie-erBs ri"ht C-all of verandaD 9. Charidham Aemple a. 3ama, @aksmana:;< , and monkeys esta!lish 3amesvara Aemple, and 3avana:;< -orships there C-est -allD G. Paschima 8-ara 6an,mana Aemple a. )onkey m,sicians Ceast -all, !ottomD !. 2ita "arlands 3ama Ca!ove aD

c. 2ita "oes to Patala CtopD 6. Aemple of @aksmi+Earayana:;< a. Battle of 3ama and 3avana:;< Cnorth -allD &. @aksmi:;< Aemple a. 3amaBs marria"e Ceast -allD ! and c. Coronation of 3ama Cnorth -all and north side of passa"eD ' 1G9 ' %. Bhadrinath Aemple a. Battle !et-een 3ama arid 3avana:;< Ceast -allD 9. Ja"annatha Kaidik 2iksanasthano:;< a. 3ama and 2ita seated Cnorth -allD 1$. Pratihara Ei5o"a, -ith coronation of 3ama ' 1GG '

A55endi4 B
' 1G6 ' is' o( Rama*ana:;<S+enes in !a'as:;<and Rela'ed Se's o( !ain'in&s D2old(a+e n-m:ers are (i&-re re(eren+esF m-l'i5le 4As indi+a'e m-l'i5le ill-s'ra'ionsE 1agannath "aha!atra set 1agannath of <= "aha!atra list of AI 1. 3isyasrin"a:;< Y Jarata C88< D ( /arla%hemundi :: cards Cs,it 1, [ 1D

Raghura4!ur pata:;< Danda 2ahi pata: CPlate !# Jigure!"#AE CJigures!$%& !"#

1. 3isyasrin"a:;< , 8asaratha, @omapada #. 3isyasrin"aBs:;< sacrifice (

( Cs,it 1, [ 1D

# 7,eens take rice

from sacrifice 9. Prayer to Kisn,:;< C[1 in >an,n"oD; G. 2itaBs !irth C[1 in >an,n"oD; 6. 3amaBs !irth &. BharataBs !irth 4ll 9 !irths %. Birth of @aksmana:;< Y 2atr,"hna Ccontinued on neDt !ageE ' 1G& ' Ccontinued from !re'ious !ageE 1agannath "aha!atra set 1agannath of <= "aha!atra list of AI /arla%hemundi :: cards ( C\ &, %D ( C\ &, %D (

Raghura4!ur pata:;< Danda 2ahi pata: CPlate !# Jigure!"#AE CJigures!$%& !"#

9. Eamin" of the sons 1$. Kisvamitra -ith 3ama Y @aksmana:;< 11. 2layin" of Aadaki:;< C88? D 11. @i!eration of 4halya C88B D

( ( ( (

Kisvamitra Y 8as

1#. Boatman -ashes 3amaBs feet C88% D

3ama crosses .an"a 19. 3ama !reaks 2ivaBs !o( (

2ita "arlands 3ama )arria"e 1G. 3ama Y Paras,rama 16. Preparation for the coronation 1&. >aikeyi Y 8asaratha ( 1%. 3ama Y 8asaratha Ccontinued on neDt !ageE ' 1G% ' Rama*ana./0 S+enes inPatas[*] , continued 1agannath "aha!atra set of <= 19. Ahe depart,re 1agannath "aha!atra list of AI ( 3ama crosses 3iver 2aray, 3ama meets .,ha 2a!ara Cs,it 1, [6D 1$. Ahe ashram of Bharadva5a (( Cs,its 1, [&J #, [GD /arla%hemundi :: cards ( (

2ita "arlands 3ama

2ita "arlands 3am

Raghura4!ur pata:;< Danda 2ahi pata: CPlate !# Jigure!"#AE CJigures!$%& !"# ( (

Charms of Chitrak,ta:;< Cs,it 1, [%D 11. 8asarathaBs death ( Cs,it 1, [9D s,it 1, [1$ 3amaBs coronation s,it #, [1 6an, !rin"s medicine Ccontinued on neDt !ageE ' 1G9 ' Ccontinued from !re'ious !ageE 1agannath "aha!atra set of <= 1agannath "aha!atra list of AI /arla%hemundi :: cards [# @aksmana:;< cro-ns Ki!hisana:;< [9 4"ni "ives 2ita to 3ama [G 3ama Y 2ita in forest [6 6an, meets Bharata in Eandi"ram 11. BharataBs visit C88H D ( (( Cs,it #, [&, [9D [% )others meet !rothers s,it 9, [1 2ita Y the cro-

Raghura4!ur pata:;< Danda 2ahi pata: CPlate !# Jigure!"#AE CJigures!$%& !"#

[1 3ama meets 4"asti [# 3ama kills Kiradha 1#. 2ita offers pinda:;< for 8asaratha C88G D ( (

19. @aksmana:;< denoses ( 2,rpanakha:;< C88$ D

3ama fi"hts >hara, 8,sana:;< , Arisiras 1G. 2,rpanakha:;< !efore 3avana:;< 16. 2hootin" the ma"ic deer C8<I D Ccontinued on neDt !ageE ' 16$ ' Rama*ana./0 S+enes inPatas[*] , continued 1agannath "aha!atra set of <= 1agannath "aha!atra list of AI /arla%hemundi :: cards ( ( ( 3avana:;< -ith )aricha ( ( (

Raghura4!ur pata:;< Danda 2ahi pata: CPlate !# Jigure!"#AE CJigures!$%& !"# ( ( ( (

1&. >idnap of 2ita C8<# D ( 1%. 4ttack of Jatay,:;< C8<8 D (

2ita drops her ornaments 3ama faints at 2itaBs loss

2ita in the asoka "rove 19. 8eath of Jatay,:;< ( ( 2a!ari "ives a man"o #$. 3ama meets the monkeys ( ( ( ( (

& al trees #1 8eath of Kalin C8<< D #1. Coronation of 2,"riva ( ( ( (

3ama on )t. )alyavanta @aksmana:;< -akes 2,"riva ##. 3ama sends monkeys ( to search (

)onkeys search Ccontinued on neDt !ageE ' 161 ' Ccontinued from !re'ious !ageE 1agannath "aha!atra set of <= #9. )onkeys carried !y 2ampati 1agannath "aha!atra list of AI /arla%hemundi :: cards

Raghura4!ur pata:;< Danda 2ahi pata: CPlate !# Jigure!"#AE CJigures!$%& !"#

#G. 6an,mana Y the -oman 2,rasa #6. 6an,mana Y @anka:;< 8evi #&. 6an,mana sees 3avana:;< Y his -ives #%. 3avana:;< threatens 2ita #9. 6an,mana Y 2ita 9$. 6an,mana kills 4ksaya:;< 91. 0ndra5ita !inds 6an,mana C8<? D 91. 6an,mana !efore 3avana:;<

( Cthe -oman 2indh,kaD (

( Cthe -oman ChhayaD (

9#. B,rnin" of @anka:;< C8<B D

6an, re5oins other monkeys 6an, "ives 3ama 2itaBs rin" 3ama "oes to ocean 99. Ki!hisana:;< defects ( ( ( C!efore 6an,mana in @anka:;<

*cean prays to

3ama Ccontinued on neDt !ageE ' 161 ' Rama*ana./0 S+enes inPatas[*] , continued 1agannath "aha!atra set 1agannath of <= "aha!atra list of AI 9G. Crossin" to @anka:;< ( C8<% D /arla%hemundi :: cards (

Raghura4!ur pata:;< Danda 2ahi pata: CPlate !# Jigure!"#AE CJigures!$%& !"# (

3avana:;< sees 3ama 96. 3ama in camp 9&. 4n"adaBs:;< em!assy C8<H D 9%. Battle ( (

( 3avana:;< sho-s 2ita false head of 3ama Battle Cs,it &, [1$D

99. 0ndra5ita shoots 3ama Y @aksmana:;< -ith na"a pasa G$. .ar,da:;< resc,es G1. >,m!hakarna:;< a-akened

( Cs,it %, [#D

( C@aksmana:;< onlyD

( Cs,it %, [1D

G1. >,m!hakarna:;< killed

( Cs,it %, [1D

G#. Aaranisena:;< killed

( Cs,it %, [9D

Bharata shoots pellets 3avana:;< sho-s maya to 3ama Ccontinued on neDt !ageE ' 16# ' Ccontinued from !re'ious !ageE 1agannath "aha!atra set 1agannath of <= "aha!atra list of AI G9. @aksmana:;< kills 0ndra5ita GG. 3avana:;< shoots @aksmana:;< 6an,mana kills >alanemi G6. 6an,mana !rin"s )t. .andhamadana C8<G D 6an,mana meets Bharata -hile carryin" mo,ntain Cevents from s,its 1 Y #, a!oveD ( /arla%hemundi :: cards ( 3ama kills >hara

Raghura4!ur pata:;< Danda 2ahi pata: CPlate !# Jigure!"#AE CJigures!$%& !"#

G&. )ahiravana:;< at 6an,manaBs tail+fort C8<$ D G%. )ahiravana:;< !o-s to 8,r"a C8?I D G9. 3ama offers his eye to ( 8,r"a in "ratit,de C8?# D

6$. 3ama fi"hts 3avana:;< C8?8 D

61. 2itaBs test C8?< D 61. 3amaBs coronation C8?? D 6#. 3ama !anishes 2ita Ccontinued on neDt !ageE

( Cs,it #, [9D ( Cs,it 1, [1$D( ( CcenterD ( CcenterD

' 169 ' Rama*ana./0 S+enes inPatas[*] , continued 1agannath "aha!atra set of <= 1agannath "aha!atra list of AI /arla%hemundi :: cards CRaghura4!ur pata:;< CPlate !# Jigures!"#AE

Danda 2ahi Pata: CJigures!$%& !"#

6G. 2ita -ith Kalmiki 66.@ava Y >,sa sho-n to Kalmiki C8?B D 6&. 3ama declares asvamedha 6%. 2atr,"hna Y the horse 69. @ava Y >,sa defeat 2atr,"hna C8?% D &$. @ava Y >,sa defeat @aksmana:;< Y Bharata C8?H7 D

&1.@ava Y >,sa defeat 3ama C8?G D &1. 2ita Y her sons C8?$ D &#. 3ama re,nited -ith his sons C8BI D &9. 2ita descends into the earth C8B# D &G. 3ama Y 2ita re,nited in heaven C8B8 D
;

/or >an,n"o, see Chapter 1, te(t at n. 1$$.

' 16G '

No'es
In'rod-+'ion
1. J. Williams, BB2arnath .,pta 2teles.= )y =/rom the /ifth to the A-entieth Cent,ry and Back,= moreover, s,""ests a rationale for -hat mi"ht !e called ethno+art history. 1. 4nother dimension of the pro!lem is the diverse placement of the pict,re: displayed on the -all Crare, !,t not ,nkno-n, in 3a5asthan or in *rissaDJ collected -ith ,nrelated pict,res in an al!,m Ca ),"hal tradition that flo,rished in the later 3a5p,t conte(tDJ and as part of a !ook or n,m!ered se7,ence of pict,res Cthe case for the Rasi%a!riya and for *rissan ill,strated man,scriptsD. #. /or a l,cid analysis from the vie-point of the maker, see W. ?isner, 3omics and 2e6uential rt . Ahe 4mar Chitra >atha comics of 0ndia, -hich deal -ith a -ide ran"e of traditional myth, literat,re, and history, deserve a compara!le acco,nt of their o-n. 9. 4. >. 3aman,5an, =Ahree 6,ndred 3amayanas:;< ,= 96. G. /or e(ample, E. .oodman, =A-isted AalesJ or, 2tory, 2t,dy, and 2ymphony.= Ahere is m,ch scholarly -ritin" a!o,t narration in ancient and early Christian art. Beca,se s,ch -orks raise do,!ly comple( 7,estions a!o,t applyin" !oth ver!al and pictorial models from the West to 0ndian forms, 0 shall not all,de to them, preferrin" to make my o-n mistakes. 6. Ahis is in "eneral the stance of Kidya 8ehe5ia, -ho concl,des her systematic acco,nt of this topic in early B,ddhist sc,lpt,re as follo-s: =45antaBs narrative net-orks m,st have re7,ired a competent BreaderB in order to f,nction in the manner in -hich they -ere intended= C=*n )odes of Kis,al Earration in ?arly B,ddhist 4rt,= #91D.

&. 3. Barthes, =0ntrod,ction to the 2tr,ct,ral 4nalysis of Earratives,= 1G%+G9. %. Barthes, =0ntrod,ction,= 1G1. Iet in distin",ishin" artic,lation Cof separate ,nitsD from inte"ration C"atherin" these =into ,nits of a higher rank=D he reverts to an 4ristotelian hierarchy 4rt historians may recall a compara!le distinction !et-een additive and or"anic treatments of the h,man !ody, a distinction that like-ise accepts the form,la of 4thens or of 3enaissance /lorence as s,perior to all alternatives. 0n "eneral Barthes str,""les a"ainst the -ei"ht of Western narratolo"ical Cand aesthetic and historicalD ass,mptions in an instr,ctive manner. 9. Barthes, =0ntrod,ction,= 1G1+G#, -here he refers to =the storytellerBs Cthe a,thorBsD art, talent, or "eni,sFall mythical forms of chance=J and 19#+9G. 1$. .. .enette, 8arrati'e Discourse: n +ssay in "ethod J see also his 8arrati'e Discourse Re'isited . 11. ). Bal, 8arratology , 1$1+19J cf. .enette, 8arrati'e Discourse Re'isited , &1+&%.

# The S'or*
1. P. 3ichman, "any Ramayanas[*] J 3. Ahapar, =Ahe 3amayana 2yndrome.= 1. 0 find 2ahooBs -ork more helpf,l than other s,rveys of this kind in 6indi and *riya. #. B,lke ackno-led"es his de!t to >. C. 2ahoo, his st,dent, for *riya references C1#%+9# in the #rd editionD. 9. W. @. 2mith foc,ses ,pon Balarama:;< 8asa and Kisvanatha >h,ntia:;< for *rissa, dismissin" Upendra BhaO5a as very diffic,lt C#9D. 6is entire frame-ork seems to privile"e Kalmiki as canonical. Eonetheless this -ork incl,des inval,a!le references to =apocryphal= vernac,lar variants in eastern 0ndia. G. 4. >. 3aman,5an descri!es this role as faithf,l or iconic C=Ahree 6,ndred 3amayanas:;< ,= 99D. 0 shall not ,se the semiotic terminolo"y of Charles 2anders Pierce !eca,se =iconic= has s,ch diver"ent connotations in common ,sa"e. 6. Ahese dates, and some alternatives, are co"ently presented !y 3o!ert .oldman in his introd,ction to vol. 1 of the: Princeton University Press translation of Kalmiki. &. Kalmiki, Ramayana[*] , ed. .. 6. Bhatt. %. Ahe eastern recension is most easily accessi!le in the te(t and 0talian translation of .aspare .orresio. 9. /or a f,ller disc,ssion of the theory of ei"ht Cor nineD rasas and the distinction !et-een this kind of a!stracted sentiment and (ha'a , or act,al h,man emotion, see 8. 6. 6. 0n"alls, n nthology of 2ans%rit 3ourt /oetry , 1#+1&. 1$. W. @. 2mith, Ramayana[*] Traditions in +astern India , especially chap. #. 2mithBs ar",ment for the *riya reflects his foc,s ,pon Balarama:;< 8asa, and 2mithBs s,mmary of KalmikiBs str,ct,re incl,des precisely those events ,pon -hich the eastern vernac,lar versions do a"ree, omittin" others. 11. 4t least t-enty+five appear ,nder the title 4rsa:;< CR 3isi:;< D 3amayana:;< in the *rissa 2tate ),se,m: >. )ahapatra, Descri!ti'e 3atalogue of 2ans%rit "anuscri!ts of Orissa , #:6+1G. *ne, catalo",e no. 1#, -as sent to Baroda for the compilation of the critical edition of KalmikiBs 3amayana:;< . Ahe term 4rsa:;< 3amayana:;< may also desi"nate translations of Kalmiki into *riya. 11. B. C. )aH,mdar, Ty!ical 2elections from Oriya &iterature , 1:((iii. 0t has !een ar",ed, ho-ever, on the !asis of passa"es that are directly translated from the 2anskrit, that Balarama:;< 8asa m,st act,ally have kno-n Kalmiki in -ritten form: >. C. 2ahoo, =0ndian 3ama @iterat,re and Ja"amohan

3amayana,= 1&6. 1#. P. @,t"endorf, =3amayan: Ahe Kideo.= @,t"endorf stresses the relationship to the Ramcharitmanas of A,lsi 8as !,t disc,sses -ays in -hich the serial departed from it as it !oth dre- ,pon diverse traditions and remained em!edded in concerns of the 19%$s. 19. P. C. Ba"chi, 0ntrod,ction to dhyatmaramayanam[*] , &6. Cf. >. B,lke, Ram%atha , 166+6&J /. Whalin", The Rise of the Religious 2ignificance of Rama , 11# Cdenyin" the tradition that 3amananda came from the so,thDJ J. @. Brockin"ton, Righteous Rama: The +'olution of an +!ic , 1G1+G&J B. @. Bai5 Eath, The dhyatma Ramayana Caltho,"h this translation is not al-ays acc,rate, !eca,se of its accessi!ility my te(t citations follo- its n,m!erin" systemD. 1G. >. B,lke, Ram%atha , ch. 11. 16. .. 2. .h,rye, Indian 2adhus , 1&1+&9. Whalin", Rise of the Religious 2ignificance of Rama , 1&&. While the dhyatma Ramayana[*] has !een ascri!ed to 3amananda, the fo,nder of the sect, this attri!,tion is open to 7,estion. ?vidence a!o,t the 3amanandins is conflictin"J for instance, they are said to follo- a 7,alified d,alism, altho,"h the dhyatma is ,na!ashedly monastic C.h,rye, 16GD. 1&. /. Whalin", Rise of the Religious 2ignificance of Rama , 11&, and chaps. 19 and 16 in "eneral. 1%. P. C. Ba"chi, 0ntrod,ction, 6$. 19. /. Whalin", Rise of the Religious 2ignificance of Rama , 19%. 1$. >. C. 2ahoo, =*riya 3ama @iterat,re,= 1&G+&6. 0 have -orked from the 2harada Press translation of .opalaBs translation of the dhyatma Ramayana[*] , p,!lished in Berhamp,r, n.d. 11. Ahe ill,strated one, from the 8asavatara )atha:;< near Ja5p,r, C,ttack 8istrict, is disc,ssed !eloin Chapter 1. 4 second, from )adh,p,r, also C,ttack 8istrict, is in the *rissa 2tate ),se,m, Bh,!anes-ar, no. P 1%14: >. )ahapatra, Descri!ti'e 3atalogue , #:#%. 11. Ahe only copy 0 have seen is in the @i!rary of the City Palace, Jaip,r C3a5asthanD. .. E. Bah,ra, &iterary Heritage of the Rulers of m(er and 1ai!ur , 6G Cno. 1&6&D. Ahis .rahma Ramayana[*] , like the ill,strated *riya copy, comprises only five !ooks Cn,m!ered 1# to 1&D, altho,"h B,lkeBs acco,nt s,""ests that more complete man,scripts m,st e(ist. 1#. >. B,lke, Ram%atha , 1&%+&9. 19. @,t"endorf disc,sses this reli"io,s movement, kno-n as rasi% sadhana , makin" clear that the form devoted to 3ama is not derivative from the more familiar >risna:;< form C=Ahe 2ecret @ife of 3amcandra,= 119+1%D. 1G. ). )ansinha, History of Oriya &iterature , G$+69. 0 conc,r -ith >. C. 2ahoo C=*riya 3ama @iterat,re,= #1+#6D in re5ectin" the *ilan%a Ramayana[*] as a -ork of the same a,thor. 0n the case of !oth 2arala and Balarama:;< 8asa, 0 make no pretense of havin" read the entire -ork in *riya. 16. /or e(ample, 8asaratha is c,rsed !y the divine co- in the same -ay that 8ilipa -as >alidasaBs Raghu'amsa[*] CW. @. 2mith, Ramayana[*] Traditions in +astern India , 1$D. 1&. C. 8as, 0lim!se into Oriya &iterature , 6G. 1%. ). )ansinha, History of Oriya &iterature , 61+6#. 19. 2mith, Ramayana[*] Traditions in +astern India , G6 Caltho,"h 2arala descri!es the demon as meditatin" in an anthill, not a mo,nd of earth as 2mith saysD. 0 cannot share 2mithBs ass,mption of direct infl,ence from the Jain /aumacariyam , as opposed to shared oral so,rces. #$. >. B,lke, Ram%atha 1#%+#9.

#1. W. @. 2mith, Ramayana[*] Traditions in +astern India , #%+9$. #1. B. C. )aH,mdar, Ty!ical 2elections from Oriya &iterature , 1:((iii. ##. >. C. 2ahoo, =0ndian 3ama @iterat,re,= 1&6. Ahe tellers CBrahma, 2iva, Ja"annatha, and KalmikiD are not identical -ith A,lsi 8asBs. Cf. Philip @,t"endorf, =Ahe Kie- from the .hats.= #9. 2ahoo, =*riya 3ama @iterat,re,= 9#, and =0ndian 3ama @iterat,re,= 1&6+&%. 0n "eneral 2ahoo stresses the pl,rality of so,rces synthesiHed !y Balarama:;< 8asa. #G. >. B,lke, Ram%atha , 191. W. @. 2mith, Ramayana[*] Traditions in +astern India , 111, 11G. /or e(ample, the c,rse of the Phal", 3iver for the rapacio,s !ehavior of the .aya !rahmans Can antiesta!lishmentarian themeD occ,rs in Ben"ali -ritten te(ts. Ahe 2a!ariBs "ift of fr,it she has tasted and the assistance of a s7,irrel or mo,se in !,ildin" the !rid"e to @anka:;< are fo,nd in Ael,", folklore. #6. ). )ansinha, History of Oriya &iterature , 96. #&. W. @. 2mith, Ramayana[*] Traditions in +astern India , 16&. #%. >. C. 2ahoo, =*riya 3ama @iterat,re,= 6&+&$J >. B,lke, Ram%atha , 1#9+9$. #9. @.8. 0nstit,te C4hmeda!adD )s. 1$, disc,ssed !elo- in Chapter 1. 9$. Eilam!ara 8asa, si(teenth cent,ryJ )ahesvara 8asa, mid+seventeenth cent,ry W. @. 2mith, Ramayana[*] Traditions in +astern India , ##. 91. >. C. 2ahoo, =*riya 3ama @iterat,re,= #6. W. @. 2mith, Ramayana[*] Traditions in +astern India , 191+99. Ahis episode had occ,rred in the 2anskrit d(huta Ramayana[*] . 91. >. C. 2ahoo, =*riya 3ama @iterat,re,= 16&. 9#. Ahe head7,arters of .h,msar -as called 3,sselkonda from 1%#& ,ntil after 0ndiaBs independence, -hen it -as renamed Bhan5ana"ar. 3oyal families titled BhaO5a "o !ack to the fo,rth cent,ry 4.8. 99. >. C. 2ahoo, =*riya 3ama @iterat,re,= 1#%+#9. 9G. 2mith "ives UpendraBs dates as 16&$ to 1&1$, a year that seems too early for his death C Ramayana[*] Traditions in +astern India , ##D. >edarnath )ahapatra s,""ests that he lived ,ntil 1&G# C -hurudha Itihasa D, as does 8andapani Behera C Jreedom "o'ement in the 2tate of 0humsar in Orissa , 6D. UpendraBs claims to have ,ndertaken tantric practices to o!tain poetic po-er need not !e taken at face val,e C). )ansinha, History of Oriya &iterature , 116D. )ansinha presents a "enerally positive vie- of the poetBs -ork, -hereas B. C. )aH,mdar is !roadly damnin" C Ty!ical 2elections from Oriya &iterature , 1:(vi+((vD. 96. ). )ansinha, History of Oriya &iterature , 11%. 9&. 0 have fo,nd no correspondence !et-een this story and vario,s 2anskrit tales in -hich the names @avanyavati:;< and Chandra!han, appear. 9%. Ahe performer is called an indra4ala%a , ,s,ally translated =ma"ician,= altho,"h the ill,stration in 3a"h,nath Pr,stiBs man,script of the &a'anya'ati[*] , -hich 0 disc,ss later in Chapters #+G, sho-s a tro,pe of people C/i",re 19#D, perhaps somethin" like the .,5arati (ha'ai , -hich consists of con5,rin" and other entertainments, incl,din" folk drama. 99. B. C. )aH,mdar, Ty!ical 2elections from Oriya &iterature , 1:(ii. 2ahoo, =*riya 3ama @iterat,re,= 1G%+61. 2mith, Ramayana[*] Traditions in +astern India , #9. G$. W. @. 2mith, Ramayana[*] Traditions in +astern India , 19%+G1.

G1. 8aniel 6. 6. 0n"alls ori"inated this translation Ca propos of >risnalila:;< D, the implicit p,n C=5est=D referrin" to the literal meanin" of lila , =sport.= G1. 8ashahra desi"nates the tenth day of the !ri"ht half of the l,nar month of 4svina. 3amanavami is the ninth clay of the !ri"ht half of the l,nar month of Chaitra. 4 life of Chaitanya s,""ests that in the si(teenth cent,ry 3amalila:;< took place in P,rl at 8ashahra time CE. 6ein, "iracle /lays of "athura , 1$9+1$D. G#. >. C. 2ahoo mentions him in =*riya 3ama @iterat,re.= 0n 19%# 0 -as told that Kikrama Earendra -as from .h,msar. Ahe te(t on paper no- in ,se -as copied from a palm+leaf man,script a!o,t t-enty years a"o. G9. E. Bisoi, Dasa!alla Itihasa Cin *riyaD, 1$. Ahe temple !ears a pla7,e that dates its consecration to 8ecem!er 1#, 19$#. /rom 1%%9 to 1%%6 the *riya -riter /akirmohan 2enapati -as di-an of 8asapalla, and his a,to!io"raphy says that most of the r,ral pop,lation of the state -as >hond or >haira, i.e. a!ori"inals C "y Times and I , %1D. GG. /or the ori"in of this &a%smana-re%ha[*] in a minor -ork !y A,lsi 8as and its propa"ation as part of restrictions p,t on -omen, see U. Chakravarti, =Ahe 8evelopment of the 2ita )yth: 4 Case 2t,dy of Women in )yth and @iterat,re,= 2amya 2ha%ti 1, no. 1 C19%#D, &#. G6. @ocal le"end has it that the headman of Bisipada 16$ years a"o had seen the 8asapalla 3amalila:;< and -ished to em,late that. 3ama came to the !rahman Janardana 8asa, -ho a"reed to -rite a te(t and re7,ired that he !e allo-ed to meditate for t-enty days ,ninterr,pted in a temple near the to-n. 4t the end of that time, the villa"ers fo,nd that he had vanished, leavin" a completed man,script. G&. Ahis canopy -as made !y a visitin" artisan from Pipli, the ),slim appli7,L center !et-een Bh,!anes-ar and P,ri. Ahe canopy m,st already have !een old in 191#, the date of repair em!roidered on it. Concernin" the Pipli tradition in "eneral, see B. C. )ohanty, !!li6uK 3raft of Orissa . G%. 2ee Chapter 1 for the story of Ja"annath )ahapatra of the !ata[*] tradition. Kaisya 2adasiva may have lived in the later ei"hteenth cent,ry C>. C. 2ahoo, =*riya 3ama @iterat,re,= 191+9#DJ his te(t is -idely availa!le today. G9. 0n no *rissan version have 0 seen the systematic conversion of an entire to-n into the landscape of the play that characteriHes the peripatetic 3amalila:;< of 3amna"ar in Uttar Pradesh. Cf. 2. Bonnemaison and C. )acy, =Ahe 3am@ila in 3amna"ar.= Ah,s in 8asapalla, the sta"e serves as Chitrak,ta:;< ,ntil 3ama leaves to shoot the ill,sionary deer, -hen s,ddenly a,dience and actors move to a spot #$$ meters a-ay and the h,t is relocated. 4fter this, @anka:;< is "enerally located G$$ meters f,rther do-n the road, altho,"h some action in @anka:;< also takes place on the ori"inal sta"e. 6$. Ahis 3amalila:;< !e"ins on 4ksaya:;< Airtha, the third day of the l,nar month of Kaisakh Cfollo-in" ChaitraD, a si"nificant moment in the Ja"annatha rit,al calendar. )y so,rce for this information is P,rna Chandra )ishra of P,rl. 61. )y so,rce for this information is the late lamented 8hiren 8ash of Bh,!anes-ar. 61. Ahe man,script in the Eational ),se,m, Ee- 8elhi, is disc,ssed in Chapter 1. Cf. >. C. 2ahoo, =*riya 3ama @iterat,re,= 16&. 6#. )y so,rce for this information is 3a"h,nath Pani"rahi of Chikiti, -ho had himself acted ,nder the ",idance of his father, a ma5or sin"er C gaya%a D and e(ponent of the tradition, in -hich the last kin"Bs son also took part. Ahe paper man,script in ,se in the 19G$s, preserved !y 3a"h,nath Pani"rahi, appears to !e a version of >rishna Chandra 3a5endraBs te(t, simplified !y a later r,ler. 4fter the 3amalila:;< ceased, Jatra tro,pes contin,ed to perform occasionally in Chikiti.

69. 0 visited this villa"e on 4pril 19, 199$, and my information comes from several local people, -ho said that the performance ,sed to !e !ased on Kaisya 2adasiva, Kikrama Earendra, and 4nan"a Earendra Canother nineteenth+cent,ry a,thorD. Ahe patrons -ere local >handayats, !,t there -as no royal family. 0n 8asapalla, the 6an,mana mask is like-ise kept in the )ahavir shrine and -orshiped. 6G. Ahe Aemple ?ndo-ment Board kindly allo-ed me to check their sched,le of performances, -hich "oes !ack to 19&&. 2ome variation mi"ht !e e(plained !y -eather, altho,"h in 199$ in the event of rain they read the te(t -hile cancelin" the enactment, stickin" to sched,le. )oreover, Ah,rsday is an ina,spicio,s day and performance -as often, !,t not consistently, s,spended then, spreadin" the entire 3amalila:;< over a lon"er period. 66. 2,ch variations occ,rred !oth in 8asapalla, as doc,mented !y records, and in Bisipada, -here in 19%# 0 sa- the !reakin" of 2ivaBs !o- com!ined -ith 3amaBs marria"e, -hereas in 199$ the first event had taken place on the previo,s ni"ht and the marria"e led directly to the enco,nter -ith Paras,rama. 6&. 0n the printed pro"ram, BharataBs visit -as listed for the seventh ni"ht, !,t this -as said to !e a mistake. 2ome s,ch variations may res,lt from the direct readin" of the te(t !y the gaya%as , -ho literally have the last -ord, -hereas the pro"ram is the -ork of the temple administrator. Ahis division need not imply disa"reementJ it may rather indicate an accepted diversity of f,nction. 6%. Ahe kidnappin" m,st occ,r on the f,ll moon of Chaitra, a re7,irement in 8anda:;< Jatra as -ell. 69. >illin" the rhino is in fact a ma5or event in Bisipada, -here it occ,rs on tire main sta"e, rather than in procession. .ania, near 8asapalla, !orro-ed Kikrama EarendraBs te(t !,t does not perform this event. Ahe rhino itself is pro!a!ly not the key to the incident. 4ltho,"h rhinos have not !een fo,nd in *rissa for at least a cent,ry, people still speak of rhino meat as a precio,s s,!stance s,ita!le for sraddha . Ahose early dharmasastra te(ts that permit the cons,mption of meat mention that the ancestors are partic,larly "ratified !y the offerin" of rhino flesh: P K. >ane, History of Dharmasatra , 9:911. Cf. J. Ba,tHe, =Ahe Pro!lem of the >had"a:;< .= &$. @. 6ess, =3am @ila: Ahe 4,dience ?(perience.= 3. 2chechner, .etween Theatre and nthro!ology , chap. 9, =3amalila of 3amna"ar.= @,t"endorf makes clear the variety of performances in the Banaras area, demonstratin" that the smaller ones are not merely scaled+do-n versions of 3amna"ar C The &ife of a TeDt , chap. GD. &1. )aya 2ita m,st !e played !y a !rahman in 8asapalla, th,s intensifyin" 3avanaBs:;< sin, that he kidnaps a !rahman -oman. Ahe narro- sta"e in this portion of the performance reminds me of Prahlada Eataka:;< , the drama of EarasimhaBs victory over 6iranyakasip,, -hich flo,rished in .an5am 8istrict, -here the innocent victim Prahlad paces ,p and do-n in a similar passa"e-ay in the midst of the cro-d. &1. Ahe effort of hoistin" the ima"e involves a lar"e n,m!er of yo,ths and carpenters and is part of the -hole drama of 3amalila:;< . Ahe effi"y is not s,pposed to !e raised !efore d,skJ one year -hen it -as raised earlier in the day to accommodate a visit !y the chief minister, it fell over. &#. )y information is dependent ,pon the late 8hiren 8ash of Bh,!anes-ar C-ho kindly told me a!o,t the form initiallyD and ,pon *mshankar 2aran"i of 4s,reshvar, -hich 0 visited d,rin" the daytime. 0 have not act,ally seen the evenin" performance, nor has anythin" !een -ritten a!o,t it. &9. E. 6ein, The "iracle /lays of "athura , 1&+#$J P. @,t"endorf, The &ife of a TeDt , 1G6+G&. &G. Ahere are thirty masks for rent today, accordin" to the temple a,thorities. Ahe vo- !e"ins -ith the kidnap of 2ita on the f,ll+moon day, -hen 6an,manaBs services !ecome necessary. &6. 8. ),khopadhyay, =2ahi Iatra.= ),khopadhyay s,""ests that 2ahi Jatra is linked to many of

Ja"annathaBs 'esas , or festive ornaments, thro,"ho,t the year, altho,"h his s,""estion is not !orne o,t !y my o-n o!servation in P,ri. 0t is diffic,lt to "et a clear acco,nt of the performance from the temple priests, for they are not centrally involved. )y impression is that 2ahi Jatra varies considera!ly from year to year, its form determined in part !y the initiative of the sahis and a%hadas[*] themselves. Ahe performances are related to the military skills of the to-n, in the past fostered !y the P,rl Aemple for its o-n defenseJ hence the prominence of Ea"a -arriors. &&. Ahe repertoire here has !een shaped !y cosmopolitan royal dancers and patrons, infl,enced !y Uday 2hankar and Javanese tro,pes that visited Calc,tta. 0 am ,na!le to see any partic,lar connection !et-een 2eraikela or Baripada Chha, as they s,rvive today and one ill,strated man,script prod,ced in this area, the Baripada *aidehisa *ilasa[*] of 2atr,"hna, disc,ssed in Chapter 1. /or e(ample, in 2eraikela Chha,, 3isyasrin"aBs:;< mask consists of a h,man head -ith the asceticBs hair t-isted ,p-ard to form a conical knot that va",ely resem!les a hornJ 2atr,"hna depicts the sa"e -ith the f,ll head of a t-o+horned !l,e antelope. &%. 8. 8ash, 1atra , 1#+1G, and /ala Itihasa /ala , an in"enio,s history of Pala in Pala+style *riya verse. &9. J. Pani, Ra'ana 3hhaya . Ahe late p,ppet master >athinanda 8as preserved a set of p,ppets from the )aha!harata, altho,"h the e7,ation of the entire "enre -ith the name =3avanaBs:;< 2hado-= s,""ests the centrality of the 3amayana:;< . 0 sa- performances in 19%1 and 19%#. %$. J. Pani, Ra'ana 3hhaya , 11+#1, provides a detailed s,mmary of the episodes correlated -ith the te(t. Pani notes that the Uttara >anda:;< ,sed to !e performed, altho,"h it is not today %1. E. >. 2ah,, state editor, .alangir District 0aLeteer , 99#+96. Ahere are other shrines to @ankesvari:;< in the re"ion, for e(ample a lar"er temple at 2am!alp,r. While one may not accept the historical identification of 2onep,r -ith an act,al @anka:;< in the epic, this theory points to an interestin" cl,ster of local !eliefs. %1. P. 3ichman, =?. K. 3amasamiBs 3eadin" of the Ramayana[*] .=

8 Two !i+'orial Tradi'ions

1. /or a f,ll acco,nt of attit,des associated -ith this seemin"ly archaic form and of the process of !ookmakin", see J. P. 8as, 3hitra-!othi , chaps. 1 and G. 0ncised man,scripts, "enerally -itho,t pict,res, -ere made thro,"ho,t so,th 0ndia, altho,"h at least one ill,strated fifteenth+cent,ry dhyatma Ramayana[*] is kno-n Cpersonal comm,nication, 2o!ha )enon, 8ept. of 4rt 6istory, )... University, BarodaD. Ahe ill,strated man,scripts of Bali C0ndonesiaD are en"raved -ith a knife rather than the pointed styl,s ,sed in *rissa. 1. 0t is possi!le that another person added pi"ment to the palm+leaf pict,res, altho,"h sometimes the scri!e ill,strator himself did so, as in the case of Bala!hadra Pathy, disc,ssed on pa"e GG CJ. Williams, =Je-els from Jalantara=D. #. John BeamsBs statement that not one man in a h,ndred -as literate in *rissa C 3om!arati'e 0rammar of the "odem ryan &anguages of India , 1:%9D is an assessment of a!ility to -rite ortho"raphically and "rammatically correct Ci.e. standardD *riyaJ Beams did not consider the nat,re of a vernac,lar lan",a"e in an a"e !efore printed tools provided standards for ,niformity *riya, moreover, interfaced -ith other lan",a"es on all three sides of *rissa. 2,rely the a,dience of readers -as fairly -ide, ho-ever varied their a!ility to -rite. 9. Ahe 19#6 acco,nt of ho- 3a"h,nath Pr,stiBs ill,strated 3a"amala CE.B.: not a sacred te(tD -as kept !y his heirs vividly descri!es this smearin" -ith sandal paste: >alicharan Patnaik, -um(hara 3ha%a ,

1G%+G9J J. P. 8as and J. Williams, /alm-&eaf "iniatures , 6. G. Cf. J. Williams and J. P. 8as, =3a"h,natha Pr,sti:;< : 4n *riya 4rtist,= plates 19+#1 Ca -ork !y an artist most of -hose oe,vre fared !etterD. 6. J. P. 8as, 3hitra-!othi , chap. 9. Unill,strated man,scripts -ere made for 3s 1.1G, in e(chan"e for a -indo- frame, or for rates s,ch as an anna C1 16 of a r,peeD per chapter. Bra5anatha Bada5ena:;< asked the 3a5a of 8henkanal for 3s 1$$ for an ill,strated -ork. J. P. 8as and J. Williams, /alm-&eaf "iniatures , %. &. J. P. 8as, 3hitra-!othi , #6, 9%+99J J. P. 8as and J. Williams, /alm-&eaf "iniatures , 11. %. = Ti%am[*] !uttali%an'itam[*] 'ilili%hitam[*] 2rigitago'inda .= Ahis man,script is the -ork of 8hanan5aya:;< , disc,ssed later in this chapter in connection -ith its date. J. P. 8as, 3hitra!othi , #%. 9. J. Williams, =Je-els from Jalantara= Cthe -ork of Bala!hadra Pathy disc,ssed !elo-D. 1$. P. >. )ishra, The .haga'ata /urana[*] J J. P. 8as, 3hitra-!othi , 91. Ahe colophon concl,des, =? pothi astama:;< navama charita pitt,la mo kama. .hanasyama 5e p,tra mora ta, lekha p,s+taka aksara:;< .= 11. *ther karana:;< ill,strators incl,ded .. B. Pattanayaka and Chakradhara )ohanty. 2ee 2. Pani, Illustrated /almleaf "anuscri!ts of Orissa , %1+%#. 11. *rissa 2tate ),se,m ?(t. 166J J. P. @osty, The rt of the .oo% in India , 1#&J 2. C. Welch, India , 61J 2. Pani, Illustrated /almleaf "anuscri!ts , 19+11JJ. P. 8as, 3hitra-!othi , #%J J. P. 8as and J. Williams, /alm-&eaf "iniatures , 9$. Ahat the a%sara[*] a occ,rs only in the archaic form in this -ork does not r,le o,t a late date !,t makes it less pro!a!le. Ahe a%sara[*] a occ,rs in its modern form in the Radha%risna[*] -eli man,script, British @i!rary *r. 11611, -hich appears to !e another -ork of 8hanan5aya:;< , as @osty has pointed o,t Cloc. cit.D. Ahe ,se of s,ch an a a"ain is impro!a!le !,t not impossi!le in the late seventeenth cent,ry. 1#. *rissa 2tate ),se,m ?(t. 96, no- ren,m!ered ?(t. ##9. >. Katsyayan, =Ahe 0ll,strated )an,scripts of the .ita+.ovinda from *rissa,= 1&9, plate CK000a. Ahe older form of a occ,rs in the te(t here, !,t the modern one occ,rs in the colophon. 19. 6is an%a[*] 9 CR year #D is also "iven as the date -hen the man,script -as completed. Ahe sole 6arikrisna:;< 8eva of >h,rda r,led from 1&1G or 1&16 ,ntil 1&1$. Ahis entire colophon remains pro!lematic and may possi!ly !e a later addition to the te(t. 1G. 8. P. .hosh, =?astern 2chool of )ediaeval 0ndian Paintin" CAhirteenth+?i"hteenth Cent,ry 4.8. D,= fi",res 11G+1&, ##$+#6. Ahese paintin"s on -ood are also ,ndated. 16. 2ee note 1$ a!ove. Ahe colophon has !een read as the t-enty+third re"nal year Cnineteenth act,al yearD and e7,ated -ith Eovem!er 1$, 1&99: 2. Pattanayak, .ra4anatha 0rantha'ali[*] , viii. Ahis information is repeated !y J. P. 8as C 3hitra-!othi , 91D, !y P. >. )ishra C The .haga'ata /urana[*] , 11D, and !y J. P. 8as and J. Williams C /alm-&eaf "iniatures , 9$D. 0n 1&9G the seventh day of the dark fortni"ht of >arttika !e"an on Wednesday, as the colophon saysJ !,t in 1&99, the date Pattanayak "ives, it did not Ccf. @. 8. 2-amikann, Pillai, n Indian +!hemeris , 6:#9#, 9$1D. 0n any case 1&99 is not the t-enty+third re"nal year of any >h,rda r,ler, and Bra5anatha is ,s,ally said to have died in 1&9%. 1&. Ahe former is in fact kno-n as a %arani[*] formJ it is ,sed e(cl,sively in the archaic scri!al script employed on paper. 1%. )ishra, The .haga'ata /urana[*] . 0 am inde!ted to 8r. J. P. 8as for patiently checkin" my o!servations a!o,t hand-ritin" and for disc,ssin" these iss,es -ith me.

19. Ahe =modern= a also occ,rs in a Radha%risna[*] -eli CBritish @i!rary *r. 11611D, -hich has !een ascri!ed to the same 8hanan5aya:;< on the !asis of style CJ. P. @osty, The rt of the .oo% in India , 1#&D. 1$. 2. >ramrisch, =Ahe 6,ndred Kerses of 4mar, 0ll,strated,= 116. Cf. 2. )ahapatra and 8. Pattanayak, marusata%am , 1. >ramrisch is to !e appla,ded for reco"niHin" the interest of this entire s,!5ect. 0t is small -onder that for lack of a local frame-ork in -hich to place the man,script, she resorted to a pan+0ndian one. 11. J. P. 8as, 3hitra-!othi , #&. 0n addition to the fo,r man,scripts disc,ssed here, at least one more dhyatma Ramayana[*] !y 2arathi )adala has !een partially p,!lished in Bansidar )ohantyBs Odiya[*] 2ahityara Itihasa , 1966. 11. *rissa 2tate ),se,m ?(t. %1, 1#6 folios, #&.G ] 9.1 cm. Ahe nineteenth an%a[*] is e7,ivalent to the si(teenth year. Ah,s !eca,se the rei"n of 8ivyasimha 000 of >h,rda !e"an in 4.8. 1%G9, this is the same as sam'atsara Chere indicatin" Christian yearD 1%&G, -hen the solar date, l,nar date, and day of the -eek also conc,r. 2ana C),slim or 6e"ira era, addin" G9#D 11%9 CR 4.8. 1%&&D appears to !e miscalc,lated. 1#. 2pencer Collection, 0ndian )s. 19, 196 folios, 19 ] 9 cm. Ahe colophon "ives the dates sam'at 1%91, fasli 119% CR 4.8. 1%91D, 2aka year 1%11 CR 4.8. 1%%9 9$D, an%a[*] 11 of ),k,nda 8eva of >h,rda Cthe !e"innin" of -hose rei"n is often taken as 1%%$D, and an%a[*] G1 of @aksminarayana:;< 8eva of Badakhem,ndi. 19. Ahe C. @. Bharany copy has 1%1 folios, 16.G ] 9.G cm. Ahe colophon "ives the dates 1#$1 fasli CR 1%99, pres,ma!ly -ron"D, sam'atsara 1%91, 8ecem!er 1, Wednesday Cthe last t-o conc,rrin" in 1%91D, ei"hth day of the !ri"ht half of )ar"asira Cnot conc,rrin" -ith 8ecem!er 1 or Wednesday in either 1%91 or 1%99D, fifty+second an%a[*] of @aksminarayana:;< 8eva of Badakhem,ndi. 1G. *@ 111, %% folios Cthe last n,m!ered 1GGD, #& ] 9.G cm. Ahis colophon reads = sam'at 1991 :-hich appears to !e a slip of the pen for 1%91<, thirteenth an%a[*] :R eleventh year< of >ripamayadeva:;< :of Badakhem,ndi<, the first of >,m!ha, the fo,rth day of the !ri"ht half of )a"ha, A,esday.= >ripamayadeva:;< apparently came to the throne in 1%91 Cafter 8ecem!er 1D. 0n 19$1 the first day of the solar month >,m!ha -as indeed the fo,rth day of the l,nar month )a"ha, !,t this -as a Wednesday 6ere, as in most of 2arathi )adalaBs colophons, there seems to !e conf,sion a!o,t some part of the comple( datin" systemJ s,ch conf,sion occ,rs more consistently in his -ork than in that of any other scri!e 0 have enco,ntered. 16. Eational ),se,m &G.G#6, G# folios, ## ] 9.G cm. 1&. C. @. Bharany, 1#& folios, #6.G ] 9 cm. Ahis version is more sparsely ill,strated than any other dhyatma Ramayana[*] 0 have seen. 1%. Ahirteen folios preserved, ori"inal pa"ination 1%9+1$1 C-hich -as not the end of the te(tD, demonstratin" that the earlier !ooks -ere also incl,dedJ 16.# ] 9 cm. 19. @.8. 0nstit,te )s. 1$ Cc,rrently catalo",ed as dhyatma Ramayana[*] , 4.8. 1&$#D, #9 folios, 19 ] 9 cm. #$. Eational ),se,m &G.GG6, G% folios Cthe last of -hich is pa"inated 6$D, #9.G ] 9.G cm. #1. Ahis man,script has 1%1 folios, 1%.G ] #.% cm. Ahe J,!el @i!rary in Baripada recorded that this man,script -as collected in >,amara C)ay,r!han5 8istrictD !y Padmasri Padmananda 4charya in the 19#$s. 0t -as mentioned !y >la,s /ischer in his article =*rissan 4rt in the ?vol,tion of Postmediaeval 0ndian C,lt,re,= 1&. 0t is no- in the *rissa 2tate ),se,m in Bh,!anes-ar.

#1. Ahe closest parallel 0 kno- is the Q,rich man,script of the Rasi%a Hara'ali , -here in t-o cases a !and of folia"e frames a ro,nded section of te(t C?. /ischer and 8. Pathy, Die /erlen%ette dem 0elie(ten , #9D. ##. J. P. 8as and J. Williams, /alm-&eaf "iniatures , plate &6. #9. 2am'at here m,st indicate the ),slim or fasli era, !e"innin" in G9#. Ahe nineteenth an%a[*] is e7,ivalent to year 16, and 3amachandra 8eva 000 of >h,rda came to the throne in 1%1&. 6ere the colophon dates referrin" to t-o different eras can !e reconciled, ,nlike 2arathi )adala PatnaikBs. #G. Ahe 3iet!er" folios are #9 ] 9.9 cm. Cas are the Kictoria and 4l!ert and the Ee- 8elhi leavesD. 3. 2kelton, Indian "iniatures from the Jifteenth to 8ineteenth 3enturies , 1#+1G, plate G. ?. /ischer, 2. )ahapatra, 8. Pathy, Orissa , 19G. #6. Ahe Kictoria and 4l!ert leaf is ,np,!lished. *ne side !ears te(t aloneJ the other depicts 3ama and 2ita in Panchavati and the enco,nter -ith the cro-. #&. Ahe Ee- 8elhi leaves are ,np,!lishedJ folios are n,m!ered 11 C3avana:;< and "odsD, 66 Cmy /i",re 1$$D, and 1$9 C!attle !et-een monkey and ra%sasa[*] in chariotD. #%. Ahe poem has 11$ folios, 1&.G ] 9.1 cm. Ahe name >arana:;< 2atr,"hna is le"i!le on the final leaf. #9. >. 8as, -a'isur4a 0rantha'ali[*] , 9. 0 am inde!ted to 8r. J. P. 8as for this reference and for inval,a!le assistance in readin" the colophons. 9$. Ahe first *aidehisa *ilasa[*] !y )ichha Pata5oshi has 11G folios, 9$.G ] G.G cm. Ahe artist is identified as )ichha, son of >rishna )ishra 2harma. 0n one place sam'atsara 191 appears, and in another Christian ?ra 11$1 is -ritten. 0 -o,ld ded,ce that )ichha -as yo,n" at this point Cnot yet "iven the title Pata5oshiD, hence mistakes in the fi",res for -hich he -as responsi!le. Ahe date also incl,des an%a[*] 19 CR year 1$D of ),k,nda 8eva of >h,rda, -hich mi"ht !e anytime !et-een 4.8. 1%96 Cco,ntin" from 1%&6, his act,al accessionD and 19$% Cco,ntin" from 1%%%, his fatherBs deathD. 91. )ichha Pata5oshiBs second -ork has 1G1 folios preserved Cori"inally 19G accordin" to the pa"ination of colophon folioD, 91.6 ] 9.6 cm. Ahins man,script -as ac7,ired from the historian >edarnath )ahapatra in Bh,!anes-ar. Ahe 1911 date, definitely in )ichha Pata5oshiBs o-n hand-ritin" on the final folio, says that the !atha[*] Cliterally =readin"=D of the !ook -as finished then. 4fter-ard, a sli"htly different hand has -ritten =the inscri!in" : le%ha < -as completed on the t-elfth day of the dark half of )ar"asira, 1919.= Possi!ly this indicates that the ill,strations of the man,script took over three years to complete. 91. 4s,tosh ),se,m )s. G, #$1 folios preserved Cthe ma5or man,script had 1%#, accordin" to the pa"ination of the colophonD, #9 ] 9.G cm. 9#. ?. /ischer, 2. )ahapatra, and 8. Pathy, Orissa , 1G$. *ne -onders -hether these and the interpolated leaves in the more: complete copies mi"ht not come from the same copies. )y s,""estion that these represent ei"ht different versions comes from some d,plication of the same events in vario,s se7,ences, as -ell as a comparison of the rate of narration as indicated !y the pa"ination. /or e(ample folio 11& in the 4s,tosh 191%+1% man,script sho-s 3ama and @aksmana:;< -ith >a!andha, -hereas an interpolated pa"e 11& sho-s 3ama, @aksmana:;< , and 2ita -ith Kiradha, an event covered a!o,t 1& pa"es previo,sly in the main se7,enceJ th,s this interpolated set -o,ld pres,ma!ly have !een s,!stantially lon"er than 1%# pa"es. 99. *ne is Bh,!anes-ar, *rissa 2tate ),se,m, ?(t. 1#, 11 5oined folios, meas,rin" G1 ] #1.G cm. as a -hole. Ahe second, sli"htly smaller, is in the 4s,tosh ),se,m and is composed of ten 5oined leaves. Eotes on !oth descri!e them as !atas[*] made !y )ichha Pata5oshi of Bal,keshvarp,rJ they are: dated

only !y month. 9G. 0n all these -orks, there is consistency thro,"ho,t the man,script in the ,se of pi"ment as -ell as in fi",re style and composition. Ah,s 0 -o,ld infer that they -ere painted as part of the ori"inal prod,ction of the man,script, perhaps !y a sin"le maker, rather than considera!ly later, and hence that the resem!lance is not merely adventitio,s. A-o of these -orks are erotic te(ts, and in the remainder many erotic scenes appear, perhaps as the forte of this artist or "ro,p of artists. *ne 3hausathi[*] Rati .andha is in the *rissa 2tate ),se,m CJ. P. 8as, 3hitra-!othi , 9#J 2. Pani, Illustrated /almleaf "anuscri!ts of Orissa , 6#D, and a second erotic te(t is in the collection of 2achi 3a,troy in C,ttack. 4 3hitra%a'ya .andhodaya is in the *rissa 2tate ),se,m C*@ G#$J J. P. 8as, 3hitra-!othi , %#+%9J 2. Pani, Illustrated /almleaf "anuscri!ts , 61+69D. 96. Ahat ill,strated here in /i",re 19$ Eational ),se,m &1.1$9, meas,res 1G.G !y 9.1G cm. British @i!rary *r. 1#&1$ meas,res #G.G !y #.G cm. 0n !oth cases the man,scripts are complete, and it is clear that the scri!e chose to leave no space for pict,res. 9&. 4ll meas,re ca. 91 ] 9.G cm. Eo pa"ination is preservedJ 0 ass,me that only one folio from the 3amayana:;< se7,ence C2,rpanakha:;< , the ma"ic deerD is missin", altho,"h it is possi!le that more have !een lost. 0n addition to the 3amayana:;< se7,ence disc,ssed here, folios from other parts of this man,script are fo,nd in the follo-in" collections: Eational ),se,m, Ee- 8elhi Poonam Bakli-al, Ee- 8elhi Ja"dish and >amala )ittal ),se,m, 6ydera!ad ),se,m f^r 0ndische >,nst, Berlin 0 G6&G, no. 1#$a, ! C?. Waldschmidt and 3. @. Waldschmidt, Indische "alerei , 196D British ),se,m, @ondon, 196#+11+11 )etropolitan ),se,m of 4rt, Ee- Iork, 19&9.11$ ?d-in Binney #rd, 2an 8ie"o, G# E, * .eor"e Bickford Collection, Cleveland C2. CH,ma, Indian rt from the 0eorge + .ic%ford 3ollection , no. 1#1D 4nonymo,s private collection C2. C. Welch, Indian Drawings and /ainted 2%etches , #$+ #1D ?lveh5em ),se,m, )adison, Wisconsin CP. Chandra, Indian "iniature /ainting in the 3ollection of +arnest 3. and 1ane Merner Matson , 1$+11J J. P. 8as and J. Williams, /alm&eaf "iniatures , color plate @D 9%. 2ome leaves lack any pi"ment. Ahe "reat diversity of transparent -ashes and intense, opa7,e colors s,""ests that at least some pi"ment may have !een added lon" after the man,script -as made. 99. /or a disc,ssion of previo,s darin" Cand confirmation of an early nineteenth+cent,ry positionD, see ?. /ischer and 8. Pathy, Die /erlen%ette dem 0elie(ten , G#+G9. G$. Eational ),se,m %$.11&6, 19& folios, ## ] 9.G cm. Ahis &a'anya'ati[*] -as ac7,ired from the collection of 2achi 3a,troy of C,ttack. G1. @.8. 0nstit,te )s. 1G, 1% folios, 1%.G ] 9.G cm. J. Williams, BBJe-els from Jalantara.= 2ince -ritin" this article, 0 have fo,nd another Kaishnava -ork !y the artist in the ?lveh5em ),se,m, )adison, Wisconsin C66.1#.#D.

G1. Eational ),se,m &1.1$%, #1 folios, 16 ] 9 cm. Ahe British ),se,m has a folio from this same man,script C196%+11+$9D, as does the Chandi"arh ),se,m. Ahe )sa(hilasa[*] is firmer in dra-in" and -ritin" than the &a'anya'ati[*] or the 0ita 0o'inda , and the facial type is sli"htly less elon"ated, s,""estin" that this may !e an early -ork !y the arrest, -hose s,!se7,ent dra-in" is yet more fancif,l and darin". /olios 11v and 1Gr sho- the distinctive treatment of a storm, altho,"h -itho,t the dia"onal lines for some ",sts of rain in Plate 1$ Cin this !ookD, -hich seems to me an advance in dynamism. G#. 0 am "ratef,l to 8r. John ?mi"h of the 8epartment of Aheatre 4rts at Bro-n University for this information. 2ee 8. 8ash, 1atra: The /eo!le7s Theatre of Orissa , 16+1&. G9. 8r. 8inanath Pathy informs me that Pathy is a very rare !rahman name in *rissa, and that only one family of that name s,rvives in 8i"pahandi and t-o in Bhadrak. *ne mi"ht infer that the artist -as !ro,"ht from the o,tside to the co,rt of Jalantara. GG. /or ill,strations of comparative material, see ?. 3ay, =8oc,mentation for Paithan:;< Paintin"s,= and K. 2tache+3osen, =*n the 2hado- Aheatre in 0ndia.= G6. 0n later Javanese temple reliefs, often descri!ed as in a =-ayan"= style, the interstices !et-een fi",res are similarly filled in !y nat,ral and even a!stract forms that have no direct co,nterpart in the shado- theater of 0ndonesia. G&. J. )ittal, ndhra /aintings of the Ramayana , e.". fi",re 1# Cthe seven sal trees, -ith no serpentD. 6ere royal fi",res consistently -ear tall so,thern+style cro-ns, a!sent in *rissa "enerally and in Bala!hadra PathyBs -ork in partic,lar. G%. J. Williams and J. P. 8as, =3a"h,natha Pr,sti:;< : 4n *riya 4rtist=J J. P. 8as and J. Williams, /alm&eaf "iniatures . 4n additional -ork, a copy of the rtatrana[*] 3hautisa recently discovered in 8i"pahandi, has !een p,!lished !y ?. /ischer and 8. Pathy, Die /erlen%ette dem 0elie(ten , GG+G6. G9. /olios of this &a'anya'ati[*] meas,re #1.G ] 9.G cm. 4ll remain in the 2,!,ddhi ho,se in ),ndamarai, e(cept for t-o in the Bharat >ala Bhavan, Karanasi C1$91& and 1$91%, /i",res 1%9+91 hereD, and ten in the 3iet!er" ),se,m, Q,rich C3. 2kelton, Indian "iniatures from the Jifteenth to 8ineteenth 3enturies , 1G+1%D. 2ince the ori"inal pa"ination is clear, -e can !e certain that folio &9 is missin". 6$. J. Williams and J. P. 8as, =3a"h,natha Pr,sti:;< = 1#%+#9J J. P. 8as and J. Williams, /alm-&eaf "iniatures , #1+#%. 61. Eational ),se,m &1.16G, 0+00, %$ folios, ##.G ] 9 cm. Western pa"ination has !een added alon" -ith the m,se,mBs ac7,isition n,m!er, visi!le at the left in my /i",res 1+9$. Ahe ne- n,m!ers are o,t of se7,ence and in many cases o!literate the ori"inal pa"ination, -hich 0 have reconstr,cted from those cases -here it is visi!le. /ort,nately there is no 7,estion a!o,t the act,al se7,ence of folios, for the verse n,m!ers are clearly visi!le in the te(t. 61. Ahat colophon is part of Eational ),se,m &1.16G, 000+0K, 9% folios, #G.# ] 9 cm. Ahe date is 1#$G 2ala:;< , or 4.8. 1%9%. Ahis second man,script lacks the 3amayana:;< portion. Ahe eyes of its fi",res open -ide, -ith a dot for the p,pil isolated in the center. 6#. Ahis -ork, 66 folios, 9 ] 1& cm., !elon"s to the 8asavatara )atha:;< of Ja5p,r s,!division. 0 am inde!ted to 3. P. 8as of Bh,!anes-ar for sho-in" it to me and ena!lin" me to photo"raph it. 4 notation in the te(t s,""ests that it -as made !y sa%hi , -hich in the conte(t of *isnu-(ha%ti[*] implies a "eneric devotee rather than a female companion. CWilliams and 8as, =3a"h,natha Pr,sti:;< ,= 1#&, plate 9%.D 69. 2. Pani, Illustrated /almleaf "anuscri!ts , #1+#%J J. P. 8as, 3hitra-!othi , &1, 1$1.

6G. Ahe most acc,rate acco,nt of the 3a"h,ra5p,r proced,res is J. P. 8as, /url /aintings , chap. %. 2ee also ?. /ischer, 2. )ahapatra, and 8. Pathy, Orissa , 1#1+#G C,sin" playin" cards as an e(ampleDJ and B. C. )ohanty, /atachitras of Orissa , 11+1G. )y description here is in the past tense !eca,se the proced,res today are rarely follo-ed e(actly as 0 descri!e them. /or e(ample, !aHaar pi"ments are ,sed e(cept to demonstrate the older proced,res to visitorsJ lac is rarely applied, and -hen it is, it takes the form of commercial shellac. 66. J. P. 8as, /uri /aintings , #6+#9, plates #+6, color plates 1+#J B. C. )ohanty, /atachitras of Orissa , 6, plates 1+9J ?. /ischer, 2. )ahapatra, and 8. Pathy, Orissa , 11$+1#. 6&. Ahese ima"es follo- more "eneral r,les for ima"e makin" not pec,liar to Ja"annatha, -ho appears here as a standard divinity Ahe frontal vie- of the heads follo-s patterns for depictin" iconic deities that do not apply to the lesser fi",res ,s,ally sho-n in profile in !atachitras[*] . J. P. 8as, /uri /aintings , %1+%#. 6%. J. P. 8as, /url /aintings , #6. 69. J. Williams, =)arria"e Paintin"s in 2o,th and Central *rissa.= &$. J. P. 8as, /url /aintings , GG. &1. 8. Pathy, "ural /aintings in Orissa , &+%J Pathy dra-s on present oral tradition of the painters. Ahe techni7,e appears to resem!le the fine plasterin" -ith "ro,nd shells kno-n as gotai[*] in 3a5asthan. &1. J. Williams, =4 Painted 3a"amala from *rissa.= &#. Ahe chitra%aras7 contri!,tions to the Ja"annatha Aemple incl,ded paintin" parts of the carts !,ilt each year for 3atha Iatra. &9. 0n the 19G$s, most painters -ere -orkin" as a"ric,lt,ral la!orers and masons CJ. P 8as, /uri /aintings , %%D. &G. J. P. 8as, /uri /aintings , plates 1#, 19, 16. &6. J. Williams, =CriticiHin" and ?val,atin" the Kis,al 4rts in 0ndia: 4 Preliminary ?(ample,= 1$. &&. J. Williams, =4 Painted 3a"amala from *rissa,= fi",re 1$. &%. Ja"annath )ahapatra of 3a"h,ra5p,r has a lar"e note!ook that incl,des 11$ ima"esJ he made it ro,"hly thirty years a"o. 4nother made in 191% !y >end,ri )ahapatra of Eaya"arh is in the hands of his nephe-, Udayanath )ahapatra. &9. J. P. 8as, /url /aintings , G1. %$. Ahe acco,nt 0 present here is doc,mented in the records of the KiraOchi Earayana:;< )atha:;< itself and is also fo,nd in A. C. 3ath, 0humsar Itihasa , #6+#%. KiraOchi Cor KiriOchi, as it occ,rs in other parts of 0ndiaD is an epithet of Brahma. /or a systematic disc,ssion of the B,",da m,rals, see 8. Pathy, "ural /aintings in Orissa . %1. J. P. 8as, /uri /aintings , chap. 9. Cf. fi",re #1 there and sa"es at B,",da s,ch as Kisvamitra or Paras,rama C/i",re 1$& hereD. %1. 8. Pathy, "ural /aintings in Orissa , %1. %#. Ahat convention appears in the elephant+h,ntin" frieHes on the !ase of the 2,n Aemple at >onarak and in one ill,stration of the maru 2ata%a C2. )ahapatra and 8. Pattanayak, marusata%am , verse 91D. Ahis resem!les the Jain "aha!urana[*] painted at Palam in 1G9$ C>. >handalavala and ). Chandra, 8ew Documents of Indian /ainting F a Rea!!raisal , &9D.

%9. J. P. @osty, -rishna , plate 1J 2. CH,ma, Indian rt from the 0eorge /. .ic%ford 3ollection , plate 11G. %G. ?. /ischer, 2. )ahapatra, and 8. Pathy, Orissa , fi",res 9G6, 969, G&%+%9J 8. Pathy, "ural /aintings in Orissa , plates 1#+1%. %6. ?. /ischer, 2. )ahapatra, and 8. Pathy, Orissa , fi",res 9G&+G%, G%G+9$J 8. Pathy, "ural /aintings in Orissa , plates 1&+#&. %&. J. P 8as, /uri /aintings , G9, plates 9+1$. 8. Pathy, "ural /aintings in Orissa , %6, plates #9+91. 4n inscription reads 2am['at] ;A@A , -hich Pathy ascri!es to the 2aka era CR 4.8. 19$$D, altho,"h that seems ,nlikelyJ possi!ly the 2ana or ),slim era is intended CR 4.8. 1916D. Pathy also reports recent repaintin". 0n his plate 9$, the mo,ntains to the left are m,ch more re",lar than those of B,",da. %%. .. E. Bah,ra and C. 2in"h, "a!s and /lans from -a!ardwara CJaip,rD, no. 16$. 0t remains 7,estiona!le -hether the royal -orshiper depicted is )an 2in"h of Jaip,r, -ho had r,led a cent,ry !efore the paintin" -as collected !y the 3a5asthani !rahman )anikram Pali-al. 4 !ata[*] of Ja"annath dated 16&$ in the Kictoria and 4l!ert appears to me to !e entirely the -ork of Eepali artists. %9. J. Williams, =/rom the /ifth to the A-entieth Cent,ry and Back,= fi",re &. British ),se,m 199$+&+ 1#, $1G1, #1.9 ] G% cm. 0t -as not incl,ded in )oorBs !ook of 1%1$, The Hindu /antheon . Eo catalo",e of his o-n collection is preserved, and it remains possi!le that some other mem!er of the family added it later. 9$. J. P. 8as, /uri /aintings , plate 1&. 91. Boston, ),se,m of /ree 4rts 1G.G1G, "iven to the m,se,m in 191G. 91. ). 4rcher, Indian /o!ular /ainting in the India Office &i(rary , 11#JJ. P. 8as, /uri /aintings , 1&1. *ver the past fifteen years, 0 have fo,nd that painters rarely keep e(amples of old, completed -ork in their possession. 9#. Bi!liothS7,e Eationale 1$91, 1&$ ] 1G$ cm. @. /eer, =0ntrod,ction d, Eo,vea, Catalo",e,= #&1 Cinformation that the collection -as presented in 1%99D, #&9 Cdescription of this ima"e, -hose ori"inal provenance /eer did not kno-D. Ahe ima"e is reprod,ced in color in 2. .ole, Indian "a!s and /lans , plate 1#. 99. British ),se,m 1%%$+#$#, c. 6G ] #G cm. Ahe reverse !ears the initials of 4. /ranks, keeper of *riental 4nti7,ities, -ho retired in 1%96. 9G. 2ee J. P. 8as, /uri /aintings , 11$+11. *ther !atas[*] incl,de 3amaBs p,rs,it of the ma"ic deer or the c,ttin" of 3avanaBs:;< ,m!rellas in the ,pper ri"ht comer. 96. J. P. 8as, /uri /aintings , chap. &. 9&. J. P. 8as, /uri /aintings , plate 11 Cthe .anesa:;< D. 6alina Qealey herself m,st have played a ma5or role in the a-ard, and her taste may !e discerned in the pale, "rayish palette of this pict,re, -hich is e(ceptional even for Ja"annath )ahapatraBs -ork. Ahe refinement, ho-ever Cfor e(ample in the middle !order composed of ratsD, is not ne- or e(ceptionalFcf. the Bi!liothS7,e Eationale nineteenth+cent,ry paintin" C/i",re 116D. 9%. Ja"annath )ahapatraBs note!ooks contain an ,nill,strated list of thirty+fo,r 3amayana:;< s,!5ects, all of -hich are incl,ded in the final set of seventy+five. Ahe Uttara >anda:;< is entirely a!sent in the list. 0t is not clear -hether this list "oes !ack to !efore QealeyBs days or is a s,!se7,ent condensed version of the lar"e set. 99. 0 have !een ,na!le to locate this set in 8elhi. /i",re 11$ is a photo of a photo that Ja"annath

)ahapatra had kept. 1$$. >. C. >ar, 2. >. 8as, and >. 2. 2ah,, Ramayana in Ordisi /ata /ainting , Ja"annath )ahapatraBs role is not mentioned in this !ook. 0n 19%9 he claimed that his paintin"s had !een directly p,!lished, altho,"h 0 am inclined to !elieve his acco,nt from 19%1 that they -ere copied. 1$1. 0 paid 3s 1,$$$ for the entire set of seventy+five. Ja"annath )ahapatra said that Qealey -as to have paid 3s 1,$$$ for her set Cthe deposit -as 1$$D and that 2,!as 8e paid the same amo,nt on !ehalf of the 6andicrafts Board. 0 am a-are that these fi",res may have !een cited to 5,stify the price my research assistant ne"otiated for me. Ahe 19%1+%# set -as s,rely in part the -ork of Ja"annath )ahapatraBs assistants, -hom 0 occasionally sa- at -ork on it. 8ina!andh, )aharana of 3a"h,ra5p,r claimed that he had e(ec,ted some of the initial scenes in 19%1. @ess than half of the set -as completed in early 19%#, -hen the approachin" marria"e of Ja"annath )ahapatraBs da,"hter may have provided an incentive for its prompt completion C-hich meant final paymentDJ the master himself -as th,s involved more to-ard the end. Ahe style is remarka!ly ,niform thro,"ho,t, demonstratin" the =7,ality control= of -orkshop prod,ction. 1$1. Ahis 19%# set -as !ased more directly ,pon the 19G9 Qealey sketches. *nly one photo of the nomissin" 196G scene of this partic,lar event C/i",re 11$D -as in Ja"annath )ahapatraBs hands. 1$#. J. P. 8as, /uri /aintings , &#J B. C. )ohanty, /atachitras of Orissa , plate 1#. 1$9. )y doc,mentation of the last, -hich -as !ein" painted d,rin" my visit, is lar"ely ver!al C!acked ,p !y !ad photo"raphsD. 1$G. 6ere 0 have in mind partic,larly 3a"h,nath Pr,sti, three of -hose -orks have similar yellocovers -ith delicate floral desi"ns. CJ. P. 8as and J. Williams, /alm-&eaf "iniatures , plate BD. ?ven here it is possi!le that the similarity res,lts from contin,ed colla!oration !et-een the ill,strator and a sin"le professional painter. 1$6. Ahe cover C/i",re 1G&D and a second cover that !elon"s to a paper man,script are in the *rissa 2tate ),se,m, Bh,!anes-ar. Ahe palm+leaf &a'anya'ati[*] in the British @i!rary, *r. 1#&1$, in -hich, parado(ically, the te(t se7,ence of the 3ama story is not ill,strated, !ears on its covers simple scenes of the !endin" of 2ivaBs !o-, the release of 4halya, 2ita "arlandin" 3ama, and the coronation. 1$&. Bha"avata )aharana -as the elder !rother of Banamali )aharana of 3a"h,ra5p,r. Ahis !o( -as ,nder consideration !y the p,rchase committee of the Eational ),se,m in Ee- 8elhi in 19%1 as an older o!5ect. When 0 sho-ed the photos in 3a"h,ra5p,r, there -as a consens,s that it -as Bha"avata )aharanaBs -ork, and he conc,rred himself that he had made it a!o,t ten years !efore. 1$%. J. P. 8as, /uri /aintings , G$+G1, 16#J J. Williams, =Ahe ?m!assy.= Both these disc,ssions treat the paintin"s of Eaya"arh, 3anp,r, and 0tamati as -ithin the mainstream of *rissan style, in part !eca,se of their refinement, a vie-point 0 -o,ld no- 7,estion. 0t -o,ld seem that more o!5ects -ere made for co,rtly patrons in Eaya"arh than else-here. Ahis is the home area of Jad,mani, the chitra%ara poet and -it -ho served the ra4as of Eaya"arh and 3anp,r. 1$9. B. C. )ohanty, /atachitras of Orissa , &. 0 kno- of only one e(ample of a !ata[*] proper from 2onep,rJ the painter -ho o-ned it said it -as ro,"hly forty years old, an ,np,!lished -eddin" scene in a private collection, fo,nd tied aro,nd a post in the artistBs ho,se. Unlike P,ri !atas[*] , it has no painted !ack"ro,nd. Ahe fi",re style is a lar"e version of the playin" cards disc,ssed !elo-. 11$. B. C. )ohanty, /atachitras of Orissa , 11J 3. von @eyden, 0an4ifa: The /laying 3ards of India , 1$%. 111. 2. )ahapatra and 8. Pattanayak, marusata%am , verse #1. Ahis detail mi"ht s,""est that this

el,sive man,script -as made in -estern *rissa. 111. ?. /ischer, 2. )ahapatra, and 8. Pathy, Orissa , fi",re G99. Ahe cycle -as in the 3adhakantha )atha:;< , -hich -as -hite-ashed in 19%1. 11#. Kictoria and 4l!ert 02 96+196#, 9.G cm. diameter. 3. von @eyden, 0an4ifa , 1$1+#, color plate 9. Ahe Kictoria and 4l!ert ),se,m records that this set of cards -as donated in 191% !y 3ev. 6. W. Pike, a retired Baptist missionary. Ahe cards sho- no si"ns of -ear, and 0 see no reason to assi"n a nineteenth+cent,ry date to the set. 119. Ahe difference !et-een P,n and Parlakhem,ndi paintin" is visi!le if one compares photo"raphs of the process of -ork on playin" cards Coften relatively coarsely paintedD in 3a"h,ra5p,r -ith similar photo"raphs of the process of makin" a Parlakhem,ndi -all paintin" C?. /ischer, 2. )ahapatra, and 8. Pathy, Orissa , fi",res G16+1& and 61$+G#D. 0n the playin" cards the !ack"ro,nd is painted first, opa7,e areas of color are filled in, and delicate o,tline is added only as a final sta"e. 0n Parlakhem,ndi -all paintin"s, some initial -ork is linear and sketchy, no !ack"ro,nd is provided, and more time is spent on lively o,tlines. 11G. 6ere as in Parlakhem,ndi 0 intervie-ed several chitra%aras a!o,t their "enealo"ies, the nat,re of their -ork, and icono"raphic details. .opinatha )ahapatra -as one of the most informative in Jeypore. 116. J. P. 8as, /uri /aintings , plate 9%. 11&. ?. /isher, 2. )ahapatra, and 8. Pathy, Orissa , fi",res G%G+9#. )y information a!o,t dates comes from 4panna )ahapatra, mentioned !elo-, as -ell as a second local chitra%ara . 11%. ). )ansinha, History of Oriya &iterature , 1#$+#1.

< Orissan S+-l5'-re o( Rama*ana/ Themes

1. >. C. Pani"rahi, rchaeological Remains at .hu(aneswar , 1%J possi!ly latter half of the si(th cent,ryJ K. C8ehe5ia, +arly 2tone Tem!les of Orissa , 1%#:6G$+%$J A. ?. 8onaldson, Hindu Tem!le rt of Orissa , 1:#1: late si(th cent,ry Ahe scenes in 7,estion are reprod,ced in 8onaldson Cfi",re 19D and in 8. 8esai, =Earration of the 3amayana ?pisodeFKali+KadhaFin 0ndian 2c,lpt,re,= plate 9$. 1. 0nconsistency of direction is visi!le on the .reat 2t,pa at 2anchi, -here most lintels read from left to ri"ht, !,t a fe- in reverse Ce.". the Kessantara Jataka on the Eorth .ateD. 0n some architect,ral frieHes, the direction of circ,mam!,lation may e(plain the readin" of reliefs from ri"ht to left, !,t this does not e(plain the inconsistency at 2anchi. 0n tiered panels, !o,strophedon or"aniHation Ce.". some 2arnath .,pta steles, or the epic frieHes of the >ailasanatha at ?lloraD may respond to the efficiency of eye movement !ack and forth. #. >. C. Pani"rahi, rchaeological Remains at .hu(aneswar , 69: a co"nate mem!er of the Paras,ramesvara "ro,pJ 2. C. 8e, =2varna Jales-ar, *ne of the ?arly Aemples of Bh,!anes-ar=: same period as 2atr,"hnesvara, late si(th cent,ryJ K. 8ehe5ia, +arly 2tone Tem!les of Orissa , %%: formative "ro,p, seventh cent,ryJ A. ?. 8onaldson, Hindu Tem!le rt of Orissa , 1:9#+G$, fi",res 11+G6: first decade of the seventh cent,ry. 9. A. E. 3amachandran, =Ahe -iratar4uniyam[*] or 4r5,naBs Penance in 0ndian 4rt,= 11+16J ).+4. @,tHker, =Ahe Cele!ration of 4r5,naFthe >iratar5,niya and the 4r5,na-i-aha in 2o,th and 2o,theast 4sian 4rt,= #%+91. 0 conc,r -ith 3amachandran in readin" this section from left to ri"ht. G. Ahe case for a!asa'ya , or co,nterclock-ise, circ,mam!,lation as part of the Pas,pata rit,al has !een made !y C. 8. Collins, The Iconogra!hy and Ritual of 2i'a at +le!hanta , 1#6. 8evan"ana 8esai has s,""ested an occasional form of -orship involvin" co,nterclock-ise movement ,p to the -ater

ch,te on the north side of the shrine, follo-ed !y ret,rn to the east, clock-ise movement, and final co,nterclock-ise movement: =Placement and 2i"nificance of ?rotic 2c,lpt,res at >ha5,raho,= 19%. Ahe early Chola temple at P,O5ai com!ines clock-ise se7,ence Cnorth and so,th -allsD and co,nterclock-ise se7,ence C-est and part of so,th -allsD in its reliefs: 8. A. 2anford, +arly Tem!les .earing Ramayana[*] Relief 3ycles in the 3hola rea: 3om!arati'e 2tudy , 191. 6. .Lrard .enette connects prolepsis, relatively rare in Western narrative, -ith predestination C 8arrati'e Discourse , 6&D. 0n the present case, one mi"ht e(pect 3amaBs victory over 3avana:;< , rather than one of his d,!io,s deeds, to fi",re first !y philosophical or reli"io,s lo"ic. &. /lash!acks occ,r, for instance in the Uttara >anda:;< of Kalmiki or in the )ttararamacarita of Bhava!h,ti Cthe retellin" of the entire story seen painted on the -allD, !,t not, as far as 0 kno-, in reverse se7,ence or invertin" the order of !ooks # and 9. 3eversed+se7,ence narration does occ,r in 0ndonesian shado-+p,ppet theater and mi"ht !e fo,nd in some performance or oral tradition in 0ndia also. %. >ramrisch, )n%nown India , plate ##. 9. Ahis section is clearly visi!le in A. ?. 8onaldson, Hindu Tem!le rt of Orissa , vol. #, fi",re 91G6. 6is e(cellent plate sho-s the 2varna5alesvara:;< as it e(isted !efore 19&9, and my older photos confirm that placement. Ahe present restoration has moved this section from the corner to the central facet, or raha portion of the -all C-here no frieHe e(isted ori"inallyD, and one stone -ith three monkeys has !een shifted to the left end of the flankin" anuraha , visi!le at left in /i",re 1&9 C!ottomD. 1$. 8. 8esai, =Earration of the 3amayana ?pisodeFKali+KadhaFin 0ndian 2c,lpt,re,= %1. 11. A. ?. 8onaldson, Hindu Tem!le rt of Orissa , vol. #, fi",res 916$+61. 11. K. 8ehe5ia, +arly 2tone Tem!les of Orissa , 116+1$, 1%G: formative phase B, 6%$ to &G$ C-hich seems very earlyDJ A. ?. 8onaldson, Hindu Tem!le rt of Orissa , 1:166, fi",res #69+9$$: late ninth cent,ry 1#. 8onaldson identifies one scene from the east end of the so,th side of the porch as 2ita, 3ama, and @aksmana:;< , pres,ma!ly !eca,se t-o male fi",res hold !o-s C Hindu Tem!le rt of Orissa , #:1916, fi",re 91&1D. 0 find it diffic,lt to identify the remainder of this contin,o,s frieHe Ce.". three .anesas:;< side !y sideD -ith the 3amayana:;< . 2ome fi",res -ith tails may indeed represent monkeys. Perhaps one lar"e fi",re attacked !y monkeys represents >,m!hakarna:;< , in -hich case another lar"e reclinin" fi",re to the left may represent the "iantBs a-akenin" C8onaldson, fi",re 91&1D. 3amayana:;< or not, this seems to ill,strate an ,nfamiliar story. 19. 8. )itra, =/o,r @ittle+>no-n >hakara Aemples of *rissa=: !et-een the Paras,ramesvara and the ),ktesvaraJ K. 8ehe5ia, +arly 2tone Tem!les of Orissa , 11G+1%: advanced transitional phase, ,p to %G$J A. ?. 8onaldson, Hindu Tem!le rt of Orissa , 1:1&9+%1, fi",res 69#+&1#: first 7,arter of the tenth cent,ry 1G. 4. Boner and 2. 3ath 2arma, 2il!a /ra%asa , ((iv. 8onaldson notes the role of erotic ima"ery else-here on the temple C Hindu Tem!le rt of Orissa , 1:1%$+%1D. 16. 8onaldson identifies 3ama and @aksmana:;< seated on the "ro,nd, altho,"h these sli"htly corp,lent fi",res -itho,t !o-s at the left of my /i",re 1%1 C!ottomD may represent 3avana:;< and )aricha C Hindu Tem!le rt of Orissa , #:1916, fi",re 91&&D. Ao the ri"ht @aksmana:;< may appear t-ice, seated, conversin" -ith 2ita. 1&. 0n a caref,l e(amination -ith !inoc,lars on the spot, 0 sa- no h,man aspect in these trees, mentioned !y 8. 8esai C=Earration of the 3amayana ?pisodeFKali+Kadha,= %#DJ cf. 8onaldson C

Hindu Tem!le rt of Orissa , #:191&, fi",re 91%$. 1%. 8onaldson s,""ests that repeated scenes of a monkey conversin" -ith a h,man in front of a small !,ildin" -ith a fla" C Hindu Tem!le rt of Orissa , #:191&, fi",re 91%1D represent the monkeys reportin" !ack to 3ama the res,lts of their fr,itless search. 0t seems e7,ally possi!le that these are 6an,manaBs e(ploits in @anka:;< . 19. Cf. the disc,ssion of the 2onep,r @anka:;< Podi:;< and the 4s,reshvar 8anda:;< Jatra in Chapter 1. 4mon" later ill,strations, Bala!hadra PathyBs &a'anya'ati[*] , in partic,lar, picks ,p this thread. Eot all ima"es of monkeys invoke the 3amayana:;< F-itness PaOchatantra ill,strations on the ),ktesvara Aemple C>. C. Pani"rahi, rchaeological Remains at .hu(aneswar , fi",re &#D. 1$. Ahere are detached panels representin" 3ama, @aksmana:;< , and 6an,mana from 2,klesvara. /rieHes on the 2isiresvara at Bh,!anes-ar and the PaOcha Pandava:;< at .anesvarp,r Ct-o archers -ith monkeysD may represent the 3amayana:;< , altho,"h no f,ll identification of partic,lar scenes has !een proposed CA. ?. 8onaldson, Hindu Tem!le rt of Orissa , #:1169, fi",res 91&G+&6D. 11. 8. )itra, -onara% , 6&. 0t is diffic,lt to identify this as 3amaBs marria"e per se, for of co,rse monkeys -ere not yet associated -ith him at that point in his life. 11. Pani"rahi identifies one fi",re as Ki!hisana:;< , !,t to me it appears to !e the cro-ned 2,"riva C rchaeological Remains at .hu(aneswar , %6, fi",re 1#&D. 1#. Ahese elements occ,r in a tenth+cent,ry ima"e from Ben,sa"ar -hose: details are clearer CA. ?. 8onaldson, Hindu Tem!le rt of Orissa , vol. #, fi",re #&%9D. 0t is temptin" to s,""est an identity for these fi",res appropriate to the .andhamadana incident, perhaps the demon >alanemi and the -oman+ crocodile -ho attempt to destroy 6an,mana in the dhyatma Ramayana[*] and many *riya versions. Iet the "eneraliHed ,se of this iconic type makes it e7,ally possi!le that these are simply "eneric opponents. *,tside *rissa separate male and female fi",res may appear ,nder each foot: >. C. 4ryan and 2. 4ryan, Hanuman in rt and "ythology , plates 1, G1, G6, G&, G9, 61, 6#. 19. A. ?. 8onaldson, Hindu Tem!le rt of Orissa , 1:&16, and #:1#&1, fi",re #&%l. Ahe a!sence of 2ita r,les o,t identification as the coronation. 1G. Ahis relief is ro,"hly a meter s7,are. 2imilarly refined -ood carvin"s from. Eaya"arh have !een p,!lished in ?. /ischer, 2. )ahapatra, and 8. Pathy, Orissa , 1$G+6J see also J. P. 8as, /uri /aintings , plate 11. Ahose carvin"s -ere preserved !y a descendant of chitra%aras , -ho said they -ere made !y his ancestors a!o,t 1G$ years a"o. 16. 4 scene of 3avana:;< in his chariot from Ja5p,r appears to me to have !een made at least as late as the seventeenth cent,ry CA. ?. 8onaldson, Hindu Tem!le rt of Orissa , vol. #, fi",re #&%#D. 3amaBs coronation occ,pies the lintel of a -ooden door, pro!a!ly nineteenth cent,ry, that recently appeared on the Ee- Iork art market C 2othe(y7s Indian and 2outheast sian rt , Ee- Iork, J,ne 1., 1991, 1&&D.

? The !i+'-res@S+ene :* S+ene

1. 3. P. .oldman, ed., The Ramayana[*] of *almi%i , 1.&G.1#9+G&. 1. B. @. Bai5 Eath, The dhyatma Ramayana , 9. #. 2arala 8asaBs "aha(harata makes 3isyasrin"a:;< the son of a demoness and makes the co,rtesan Jarata the mother of his child. 0n Balarama:;< 8asaBs 1agamohana Ramayana[*] , he is the son of a celestial a!saras and 0ris -ife, 2anta, the da,"hter of 8asaratha, as in many *riya versions Capparently !ased on some recensions of KalmikiD. 6ere the sed,ction and the !oat 5o,rney are descri!ed at len"th. C>. C. 2ahoo, =*riya 3ama @iterat,re,= 11#+1GD.

0n the 3amalila:;< performances 0 kno-, 3isyasrin"a:;< appears as a sa"e, his 4ata[*] mu%uta[*] s,""estin" a sin"le hornJ !,t his dalliance -ith the co,rtesans is not prolon"ed, perhaps !eca,se this is a prel,de to the act,al !irth, -hich m,st take place on 3amanavami itself, the first ni"ht of the entire cycle. /or this event 0 -o,ld not s,""est that performances o,t-ei"hed the ornate literary tradition in ",idin" many artists. 9. 0n this relationship, most *riya te(ts follo- the Ben"ali recension of Kalmiki as opposed to other recensions, -here 2anta is the da,"hter of 3ompada Cor @ompadaD. G. /. 4. )ar"lin, Mi'es of the 0od--ing . )ar"lin presents the 3isyasrin"a:;< story as e(plainin" the ne(,s !et-een a,spicio,sness and political stat,s Cpp. 1$$+1$1D. 6. 0n >an,n"oBs version, p,!lished in 19&&, the !oat does not have a s-an pro- and the fi",res are asymmetrically arran"ed C>. C. >ar, 2. >. 8as, and >. 2. 2ah,, Ramayana in Ordisi /ata /ainting , fi",re #D. Ahis event follo-s 2itaBs !irth in the p,!lished form, as it does in the *aidehisa *ilasa[*] , -hereas in Ja"annath )ahapatraBs sets it occ,rs first. &. Ahe !oat of the 'esyas is more f,lly descri!ed in the 2anskrit )aha!harata and in most *riya te(ts than in KalmikiBs 3amayana:;< . %. Ahe 19$1 man,script devotes G 1 1 folios C1#a thro,"h 1%aD to this se7,ence. /rom the 1919 version, folios 1G Csho-in" the 'esyas7 arrivalD and 1& are preserved in the 3iet!er" ),se,m, Q,rich. /olio 1$v Cin 8elhiD depicts 8asarathaBs sacrifice, -hich s,""ests a total of si( pa"es for the -hole episode. Ahe 1916 version devotes 1$ 1 1 pa"es to the same events. 9. 3. P. .oldman, The Ramayana[*] of *almi%i , 1:&G. 1$. Balarama:;< 8asa, 1agamohana Ramayana[*] , 1:1. 11. >. C. 2ahoo, =*riya 3ama @iterat,re,= 111. 11. B. J. Bai5 Eath, dhyatma Ramayana , 19J Upendra BhaO5a, *aidehisa *ilasa[*] , 6, 9#. 0n *riya the name "enerally appears as Aadaki:;< , altho,"h Aataka:;< or Aadaka:;< Coften transcri!ed AarakaD appear in 2anskritJ her "enealo"y and previo,s history vary in each acco,nt. *ne interestin" addition !y Balarama:;< 8asa to Kalmiki Calso fo,nd in the *aidehisa *ilasa[*] , in >ritti!asaBs Ben"ali, and in folk tales of the BirhorsD is that Kisvamitra ,r"ed 3ama to take a road aro,nd the "rove of the demoness, a s,""estion the hero re5ected CW. @. 2mith, Ramayana[*] Traditions in +astern India , 1&9D. )ichha Pata5oshi faithf,lly ill,strates this interestin" variation, -hich serves to emphasiHe 3amaBs divine mission, in his versions of the *aidehisa *ilasa[*] . 1#. 0n Kalmiki t-enty+one chapters intervene !et-een these t-o events. 0n the dhyatma Ramayana[*] , the *aidehisa *ilasa[*] , and the &a'anya'ati[*] the defeat of 2,!ah, and )aricha is !riefly mentioned as a lead+in to the 4halya episode C *aidehisa *ilasa[*] , canto : chhanda < &D. 0n KalmikiBs version, 4halya is rendered invisi!le rather than t,rned into stone C1.9&.19D. 19. Ahe episode of the !oatman, a!sent in Kalmiki, is -idely kno-n from the Ramcharitmanas , -here, ho-ever, it occ,rs after 3amaBs e(ile in the ne(t vol,me of the story Ahe emphasis ,pon (ha%ti appears in many late versions. 1G. ?.". 8eo"arh, si(th cent,ry C). 2. Kats, The 0u!ta Tem!le at Deogarh , plate _KaF 4halyaDJ Kir,paksa Aemple, Pattadakal C6. Co,sins, 3halu%yan rchitecture of the -anarese Districts , plate _@0K, ,pper leftFAadaki:;< and 4halyaDJ Ea"eshvara Aemple, >,m!hakonam and other early Cola reliefs C8. A. 2anford, +arly Tem!les , &9D. 16. Ahe !ranchin" lines on the lim!s may derive from striped clothin" commonly -orn !y demons Ccf. /i",re 1%9, topD. Ahe spotted face and sari va",ely resem!le Persian conventions for di's , !y this time

-idely adopted for ra%sasas[*] in 3a5p,t paintin". 1&. Ahe .rahma Ramayana[*] itself simply says, =6e released the fallen 4halya from the c,rse of .a,tama= Cverse 69D. 4r5,na 8asaBs Rama *i(ha the first *riya %a'ya version of the 3amayana:;< , pro!a!ly si(teenth+cent,ry and not -idely pop,lar later, descri!es 4halya as t,rned into a s7,are stone C>. C. 2ahoo, =*riya 3ama @iterat,re,= 1G1D. 1%. Ahe te(t on this folio Cthe reverse of the leafD comprises verses 1$ to 16 of the seventh chhanda , -hich descri!es the charms of the forest. Pres,ma!ly the te(t of the 4halya episode follo-ed on the ne(t leaf, not preserved in Q,rich. 3. 2kelton, Indian "iniatures , 19, identifies o,r /i",re 9 as folio #r. 19. 0 am deeply inde!ted to )rs. 2,resvari )ishra C3eader in 2anskrit, P,ri WomenBs Colle"eD for decipherin" this verse after 0 and other *riya friends had "iven ,p on it. 1$. Ahe 19$1 man,script in >o!a devotes a!o,t fo,r folios to this se7,ence. Ahe 1919 version in Ee8elhi covers it in seven pa"es Cincl,din" scenes of other demons killed after Aadaki:;< D, -hereas the 1916 version in Calc,tta devotes nine pa"es to it. Ahe "eneral selection of scenes is similarJ for instance a f,ll pa"e of ,nill,strated te(t precedes the episode of the !oatman in all. Ahe dis",ise of 0ndra as a cat, fo,nd in the /adma /urana[*] and in P,n5a!i folktales as -ell as in Upendra BhaO5aBs -ork, may derive from the 2anskritic term for cat, mar4ara , -hich may also imply =paramo,r= C>. C. 2ahoo, =*riya 3ama @iterat,re,= 1GGD. 11. 2ome versions of >ritti!asa:;< incl,de Bharata and 2atr,"hna in KisvamitraBs e(pedition, !,t they are eliminated in the incident of alternative ro,tes mentioned a!ove in note 11 CW. @. 2mith, Ramayana[*] Traditions in +astern India , 1&9D. Ahe la!el in /i",re 1&& spells his name Bharatha, as does that in /i",re 1%#, ri"ht, the standard visit of Bharata to 3ama. 11. 4ccordin" to 4. >. 3aman,5an, there is an implicit relationship !et-een 4halya and Aadaki:;< in >ampanBs:;< Aamil version of the epic C=Ahree 6,ndred 3amayanas:;< ,= #1D. 1#. 2. 0. Pollock, The Ramayana[*] of *almi%i , 1:69+&#. 19. 2. 0. Pollock, The Ramayana[*] of *almi%i , 1:9%&+%9J Kalmiki, Ramayana[*] , ed. .. 6. Bhatt, 1, 4ppendi( 1, 16. 0n Balarama:;< 8asa, 2ita, marked -ith ocher, clasps 3ama, leavin" a red mark, -hich makes them !oth la,"h. 4ll the cro-s are !linded, !,t 2ita pers,ades 3ama to restore their si"ht on the condition that they remain s7,int+eyed C>. C. 2ahoo, =*riya 3ama @iterat,re,= #11+1#D. 1G. Cantos 1% and 19. Ahe poet introd,ces the latter as =a "arland of 4ama%as ,= a "enerally ,ntranslata!le trope in -hich one -ord is repeated -ith different meanin". 0n Kalmiki and the dhyatma Ramayana[*] , BharataBs visit is follo-ed more or less directly !y the e(ilesB visit to yet another ill,strio,s sa"e, 4tri, and his p,re -ife, 4nas,ya. 16. Ahe -all forms a contin,o,s composition !ehind the niche, !roadly similar to Pr,stiBs desi"n in /i",re 1%#. Conceiva!ly the central niche -as a later addition, altho,"h this spec,lation is not !orne o,t !y details of paintin" or constr,ction. 1&. Ahere are fo,r in *rissa 2tate ),se,m ?(t. %1. 0n the remainder only three are preserved, !,t pa"es are missin" in each, and in "eneral 2arathi )adala Patnaik incl,des a pict,re on each pa"e. Ahe scenes are not al-ays the same. 1%. Ahe *aidehisa *ilasa[*] reads simply, =6e -orshipped the kin"s shoes.= 0n the Baripada man,script 0 am ,na!le to locate the se7,ence of BharataBs visit. 19. Kictoria and 4l!ert 02 19+196& seems also to ill,strate the shootin" of the cro-. #$. )ichha Pata5oshiBs 19$1 *aidehisa *ilasa[*] also depicts 3ama and @aksmanaBs:;< transformation, altho,"h there the !rothers stand -hile tyin" their hair C/i",re 1$6D. Ahis scene, as -ell as the relative

ela!oration of architect,re in this early -ork, leads me to -onder -hether as a yo,th )ichha -as not a-are of Pr,stiBs -ork. #1. 6e concl,des that he -ill "ain !oth mo%sa[*] and the ease of dyin" earlier than 3avana:;< : =4s -hen heat dries ,p a pond, first the fish and then the crocodile die.=C *aidehisa *ilasa[*] , 19.1GD. #1. >athleen ?rndl descri!es 2,rpanakhaBs:;< role in "eneral: in the dhyatma Ramayana[*] as the o!5ect of a prank !y the !rothers, else-here as 2itaBs dark alter e"o C=Ahe ),tilation of 2,rpanakha:;< =D. ##. Jatay,:;< s-allo-in" 3avanaBs:;< chariot is a re",lar scene in Ben"ali paintin"s CJ. Williams, =Jatay, the Kaliant K,lt,re=D. #9. >. C. 2ahoo, =*riya 3ama @iterat,re,= #%#+%&, s,""estin" an ori"in in folklore. #G. >. C. 2ahoo, =*riya 3ama @iterat,re,= #&&+&9, s,""estin" parallels in the folklore of the >ols. Cf. @. 6ess, =Ahe Poet, the People,= 19&. #6. 0n this section, 0 m,st confess partic,lar ,ncertainty a!o,t my identification of the scenes la!eled Cin /i",re 1$$D 2,rpanakha:;< denosed !y @aksmana:;< , 2,rpanakha:;< !efore 3avana:;< , @aksmana:;< and 2ita, and the !l,e fi",re and -oman at the !ottom of -all B. #&. ?.". J. P. 8as, /uri /aintings , color plate 1# Con the mid+ri"ht ed"eD. /or recent independent versions of the scene, see J, Williams, =CriticiHin" and ?val,atin",= fi",res 19+11 Cplates 1G and 16 there are reversed, altho,"h the captions are in the correct orderD. #%. 2ee 4ppendi( 1. Ahe creation. of )aya 2ita mi"ht -ell occ,r on missin" leaves in 2arathi )adalaBs Bharany and Utkal University man,scripts. 0t is definitely a!sent, ho-ever, in the t-o dhyatma Ramayana[*] man,scripts not !y himFEational ),se,m &G.G#6 and the second copy in the Bharany collection. #9. Ahe fi",res in /i",re G9 are la!eled from the left, 2ita, 3amachandra, 3amachandra C-ith no e(planation for his chan"e of cost,meD, and )aya 2ita. 9$. 2ee 4ppendi( 1. /r,it appears in *rissa 2tate ),se,m ?(t. %1 and Eational ),se,m &G.G#6, altho,"h it is impossi!le to tell if it has tooth marks Cnot mentioned in the dhyatma Ramayana[*] itselfD. Ahe less fre7,ent ima"es of >a!andha al-ays sho- him -ith e(tremely lon" arms that stretch horiHontally across the scene, s,""estin" some shared pictorial tradition not fo,nd at B,",da or kno-n to the ill,strators of other te(ts. 91. J. P. 8as, /uri /aintings , 1#G. Ahis is the only -ritten e(planation for Eava",n5ara:;< 0 kno-, altho,"h similar ima"es occ,r o,tside *rissa. 91. 2atr,"hna depicted the 3aslila:;< similarly in his ill,strated .ra4a .ihara . 9#. 0n even the version of Pr,sti, often inde!ted to B,",da, -e see a fo,r+-heeled ratha C/i",re 1%&D. Ahe form of P,spaka:;< Kimana in the reliefs of @oro 85on""ran" in Java a millenni,m earlier sho-s a similar head !elo-, not necessarily indicatin" any vis,al contin,ity CW. 2t,tterheim, Rama-&egenden , vol. 1, plate #GD. 99. Ahe form standard on !ats , -ith a lar"e+headed Jatay,:;< holdin" the chariot in his open !eak, also occ,rs in the 1&&G Ramcharitmanas made in )idnapore 8istrict CE. .os-ami, 3atalogue of /aintings of the sutosh "useum "s. of the Ramacaritamanasa , plate _0K!J J. Williams, BBJatay, the Kaliant K,lt,re=D. 9G. Ahe 2a!ariBs cost,me, !lo,seless, -ith the sari over her ri"ht sho,lder, is reserved in this man,script for servants and may indicate h,m!le, if not necessarily tri!al, stat,s.

96. Cf. his empty rooms in ill,stratin" the 2angita Damodara C>. Patnaik, Raga-citra , #%, 91D. 9&. 3avana:;< o!serves !oth these scenes in the form of an ascetic, as he does in Pr,stiBs version C/i",re 1%6, far leftD. While this is a conceiva!le t-ist, 0 kno- of no te(t that mentions his presence. 9%. J. Williams, =/rom the /ifth to the A-entieth Cent,ry and Back,= fi",re &. 0t is also interestin" that the =centa,r= pattern, -ith the torso of )aricha emer"in" from the sho,lders of the deer, does not, as far as 0 kno-, occ,r in later *rissan ima"es, altho,"h it is common in Ben"al in terra+cottas on temples, in the 1&&G Ramcharitmanas made in )idnapore CE. .os-ami, 3atalogue , plate _0KaD, and in the !ats of itinerant entertainers C2. >ramrisch, )n%nown India , plate ___000D. 99. E. C. )ehta and )oti Chandra, The 0olden Jlute , plate 1 Ca pa"e from a .alago!alastuti , fifteenth cent,ryDJ J. ). Eanavati, ). P. Kora, and ). 4. 8haky, The +m(roideries and .eadwor% of -utch and 2aurashtra , 9#, plates #6, 1$9, middle Ctraditional em!roidery and !ead-orkDJ ?. /ischer, J. Jain, 6. 2hah, Tem!eltNcher fNr die "uttergottinnen in Indien , fi",re 1G$, no. 19. 0n 3a5asthan the motif occ,rs in late, ro,"h -all paintin"s C*rchha, 2hekhavatiD and in the !adhs[*] ,sed in villa"e performances, !,t 0 have not discovered it in co,rtly miniat,res. Ahe t-o+headed deer is also Cmore rarelyD associated -ith a "oddess, in .,5arat C?. /ischer, J. Jain, and 6. 2hah, Tem!eltNcher , 1##D and in the terra+cottas made at )olela in -estern 3a5asthan. G$. 0 -o,ld interpret the motif here as a form of doodlin", for this artist "rat,ito,sly inserted other small animals in the same -ay. 2everal three+headed deer appear as decoration Calon" -ith one+ and t-o+headed formsD in the -all paintin"s of 2hekhavati. Ahe discovery of this ,ne(pected detail in the C. @. Bharany man,script and my reaction to it call to mind *"den EashBs immortal poem =Ahe @ama= C I Mouldn7t Ha'e "issed It: 2elected /oems of Ogden 8ash :Boston: @ittle, Bro-n, 19&G<, 16D. G1. Kana Parva, verses ##6+91 in the edition of the *rissa .overnment 8epartment of C,lt,re CBh,!anes-ar, 19&9D. G1. 2ri Ramalila[*] , 6#, in -hich the deer is simply descri!ed as covered -ith "old and t-o+headed. G#. 0n the e(ample from 8asapalla, one head is removed -hen Prima ret,rns -ith the corpse, =makin" it easier to carry.= Ahis ,ni7,e case in *rissa co,ld !e reconciled -ith the .,5arati e(planation disc,ssed !elo-, that the second head s,""ests the action of the live deer only Bisipada and 4marap,ra in .an5am also retain a t-o+headed -ooden deer -ith !oth heads fi(ed in place CJ. Williams, =/rom the /ifth to the A-entieth Cent,ry and Back,= fi",re 9D. 0n .ania and Belpada today the deer is played !y a h,man actor -itho,t mask. 0n the Jeypore area actors -ear a mask in the form of a hat -ith t-o tiny deer heads on top, like antennae. *ne of these on display in the 0ndian ),se,m, Calc,tta, is ill,strated in Indian rchaeology ;><:-<> F a Re'iew , plate @0K, c Cmistakenly la!eled =Chha, maskBBD. G9. J. ). Eanavati, ). P Kora, and ). 4. 8haky, +m(roideries and .eadwor% , 9#. .,5arati !lock+print te(tile makers of the kind disc,ssed in ?. /ischer, J. Jain, and 6. 2hah C Tem!eltNcher D have "iven me a similar e(planation, conflatin" the scene of 3ama -ith another story that involves seven sisters and a deer that looks !ack. Ahe !adh[*] painters of Bhil-ara and 2hahap,ra in 3a5asthan, ho-ever, e(plain the t-o heads as sho-in" the deerBs e(traordinary maya nat,re. GG. Tala[*] CpalmD trees are mentioned in the Ben"ali and north-est recensions of the Kalmiki and are depicted in sc,lpt,re in preference to the decid,o,s sala[*] CKalmiki, Ramayana[*] , ed. .. 6. Bhatt, vol. 9, chap. 11, verse 9&D. *nly one *riya version, the ei"hteenth+cent,ry Rama -risna[*] -eli%allol of Arip,rari 8as, refers to talas[*] C>. C. 2ahoo, =*riya 3ama @iterat,re,= 9$6D. Beca,se salas[*] appear in all the te(ts and in most ima"es considered here, 1 ,se sal. G6. Balarama:;< 8asa, 1agamohana Ramayana[*] , >iskindha:;< >anda:;< , &$. G&. >. B,lke, Ram%atha , #rd ed., 9&1. 0n the nanda Ramayana[*] the snake has an adversarial

relationship to Kalin and is ,ncoiled !y @aksmana:;< . G%. 8. 8esai, =Earration of the 3amayana ?pisode,= %9, fi",res 9&+99. Ahe ima"e of a serpent appears as early as @oro 85on""ran" Ctenth cent,ryD in Java, and the serpent is mentioned in some 2o,theast 4sian te(ts s,ch as the 2eri Ramayana . G9. Upendra composed a collection of s,ch verses, 3hitra-%a'ya .andhodaya . CJ. P. 8as, 3hitra!othi , %1+%9D. Ahese remain pop,lar today, and 0 have heard stories that the last "eneration of *riyas ,sed (andhas in -ritin" affectionate private letters. 0t is to !e ,nderscored that the (andha appears even in ,nill,strated man,scripts of the *aidehisa *ilasa[*] as -ell as in modern printed te(ts. 3hitra%a'ya did, admittedly, e(ist in other vernac,lars, from Aamil to .,5arati, as -ell as in 2anskrit: >. Jha, Jigurati'e /oetry in 2ans%rit &iterature . 6$. Ahe Ben"ali and north-estern recensions of Kalmiki provide so,rces for AaraBs c,rse C>. C. 2ahoo, =*riya 3ama @iterat,re,= 919D. *riya 3amalilas:;< ma(imiHe AaraBs role as advisor and ,nderscore her c,rse -ith emphatic m,sic. 61. Ahat the composition resem!les 6oysala reliefs rather than earlier *rissan ones need not !e ,sed to infer specific connection -ith thirteenth+cent,ry >arnataka. 61. 2arathi )adala PatnaikBs 1%&G man,script C*rissa 2tate ),se,m ?(t. %1D, does not ill,strate this event at all. Ahe 1%91 version CUtkal University @i!raryD is missin" a folio here. 6#. 3ama specifically says, =)onkeys are ,s,ally considered ,"ly, !,t this one s,rpasses the nymph 3am!ha in !ea,ty= C *aidehisa *ilasa[*] 1%.199+G$D. Ahe 5,m!led condition of the Baripada man,script makes it impossi!le to !e s,re -hether 2atr,"hna ill,strated her c,rse or not. 69. Ahe cock on the left is mentioned in the &a'anya'ati[*] after the rainy season and !efore 3ama "ets ne-s of his -ife Csee 4ppendi( #, no. 1&D. A-o monkeys in /i",re 1%9 are identified !y la!els as minor follo-ers of 2,"riva. 6G. Ahe initial meetin" -ith 2,"riva, -hich occ,pies a f,ll folio C/i",re 1G$D incl,des the ,ne(plained fi",re of Jam!avan Cla!eled 3sim,kha:;< D to the ri"ht of @aksmana:;< . Co,ld this also !e a reinterpretation of the scene at B,",da of @aksmana:;< strai"htenin" the arro- CPlate 11D, as 0 have s,""ested in the te(t for Pr,stiBs version of )o,nt )alyavan in /i",re 1%9N 66. /or another scene of rain in PathyBs -ork, see J. Williams, =Je-els from Jalantara,= plate &. 6&. 0n this leap, 6an,mana enco,nters the mo,ntain )ainaka and the demonesses 2,rasa and 2in"hika CKalmiki G.1D. 6%. *aidehisa *ilasa[*] canto #6. 69. *ne mi"ht e(pect to find this portion amon" the !adly dama"ed paintin"s, !,t 0 see no likely candidates. *n the front -all C@ in /i",re 1$$D, local tradition identifies one scene of fi",res !eside a h,t as the visit to Bharadva5aBs hermita"e, -hich occ,rs soon after the e(ile in !ook 1 of the epic. Ahe occ,rrence of this portion in the final position is p,HHlin", !,t virt,ally all possi!le identifications pose that diffic,lty 0 find no ima"es of 3avana:;< , a sine 7,a non if this -all depicted !ook G. &$. Ahe *rissa 2tate ),se,m copy, ?(t. %1, incl,ded fifteen pict,res in the 2,ndara >anda:;< . Both the Ee- Iork P,!lic @i!rary and the Utkal University copies incl,ded si( pict,res, and missin" folios may acco,nt for more in each case. 4n ,ntracea!le copy, some ill,strations from -hich -ere reprod,ced in Bansidhar )ohantyBs History of Oriya &iterature C19&&D, incl,ded at least five pict,res in this section. Ahe dhyatma Ramayana[*] ill,strated !y another artist CEational ),se,m &G.G#6D as -ell as the ill,strated Ramalila[*] of >rishna Chandra 3a5endra CEational ),se,m &G.GG6D !oth lack their later portions and hence cannot !e disc,ssed from this point on.

&1. 0 have !een ,na!le to locate this se7,ence in the *aidehisa *ilasa[*] !y 2atr,"hna from Baripada. &1. *ne -o,ld, ho-ever, e(pect that Pathy copied the entire te(t leavin" !lank spaces for pict,res !efore he -ent !ack to e(ec,te the ill,strations, a proced,re doc,mented !y the colophon of his 0ita 0o'inda no- in the @.8. 0nstit,te in 4hmeda!ad CJ. Williams, =Je-els from Jalantara=D. &#. >.>. 6andi7,i, /ra'arasena7s 2etu(andha5 3. Basak, /ra'arasena7s Ra'ana'ahamaha%a'yam[*] . Ahis event does not fi",re vividly in *riya 3amalilas:;< , -here today it is more likely to !e chanted alone than to !e enacted. &9. B. @. Bai5 Eath, dhyatma Ramayana , I,ddha >anda:;< chap. 9, line 1. &G. dhyatma Ramayana[*] , trans. .opala, 1&#. &6. >. B,lke, Ram%atha , G96+9&. Ahe e(istence of this story in Aamil and Ben"ali s,""ests its ,!i7,ity 0slam preserves a similar tale that cats -ith stripes on their heads have !een !lessed !y ),hammad. &&. *aidehisa *ilasa[*] 9$.#9+#%. EalaBs c,rse is also present in Balarama:;< 8asa. &%. Ahis co,plet is a p,n and can also !e translated, =@ovely herds of horses came and -entJ shady -omen lost their fear :i.e. -ere protected !y the noiseN<.= &9. Ahis is not tr,e of the 8ispersed &a'anya'ati[*] C/i",re 1G#D, -here, ho-ever, one other folio mi"ht read from ri"ht to left. C/i",re 199D. 0n !oth of 2arathi )adala PatnaikBs 1%91 man,scripts, t-o monkeys are movin" to the left, altho,"h the placement of 3ama and @aksmana:;< as -ell as the 2iva shrine -o,ld s,""est movement to the ri"ht C/i",res 69, &1D. %$. 6e creates an ill,sionary head of the hero in at least some versions of the te(t C>. B,lke, Ram%atha , GG1D, a case in -hich the theme of maya Cperhaps moha D "oes !ack to the 2anskrit. %1. dhyatma Ramayana[*] 6.G.99. 0n the so,thern recension of Kalmiki, 3ama assists 2,"riva !y shootin" 3avanaBs:;< sin"le ,m!rella C>. B,lke, Ram%atha , GG9D. %1. >. C. 2ahoo, =*riya 3ama @iterat,re,= 9%&+%% C 1agamohana Ramayana[*] 6.G&+6$D. %#. >. C. 2ahoo, =*riya 3ama @iterat,re,= 99$. Ahis variant appears to !e pec,liar to *rissa, altho,"h the same term is ,sed for m,shroom and ,m!rella in other lan",a"es also C chhattra or a close variantD. %9. *aidehisa *ilasa[*] 91.1#. %G. J. ? @osty, -rishna , plate %#. /or the >anchi+>averi story, see J. P 8as, /uri /aintings , 11$. %6. Ahe la!el says =0ndra5ita !o,nd 6an, -ith the naga-!asa :hence the snake a!ove< and !ro,"ht him to 3avana:;< .= *ne mi"ht read the coils !eneath as part of the snake. 0 am not a-are of s,ch a te(t,al variant at this point in the story 0n the non+*rissan e(amples mentioned here, snakes are not involved. Possi!ly the Parlakhem,ndi card sho-s a conflation of the t-o incidents. %&. J. )ittal, ndhra /aintings of the Ramayana , plate ##J 6. Co,sins, 3halu%yan rchitecture of the -anarese Districts , plate _@K0, ,pper left. %%. Ahe ,se of the monkeyBs tail as a seat fi",res in the 3amalila:;< of 8asapalla !,t is apparently not enacted -ith m,ch dramatic effect. %9. Ahis may !e an interpolation, accordin" to >. B,lke C Ram%atha , GG%D. 9$. dhyatma Ramayana[*] 6.G.6G+&9 and 6.6.1+6.&.#&. 0t is clear that the initial directive to pick ,p the entire mo,ntain is !orro-ed from the s,!se7,ent episode, in -hich this action is e(plained !y 6an,manaBs ina!ility to locate the her!s. >,m!hakarnaBs:;< death follo-s !oth episodes in this version. 91. W. @. 2mith, Ramayana[*] Traditions in +astern India , 1%1+%#. Ahe >alanemi episode also occ,rs

in the Ben"ali recension of Kalmiki C.. .orresio, Ramayana , 6.%1, 91+9%D. 91. W. @. 2mith, Ramayana[*] Traditions in +astern India , 19G+G1. 9#. Ahis form in -hich the .ar,da:;< is lar"ely h,man, -ith -in"s, leathered arms, and a snake raisin" its hood a!ove a cro-n, occ,rs often in !atas[*] . 99. Kalmiki 6.&9. 9G. Conceiva!ly the hero is Bharata shootin" at 6an,mana, !,t the demons do shoot at him, in -hich case this scene -o,ld seem to represent the death of >,m!hakarna:;< . 96. *ne e(ception is the early Chola temple at P,llaman"aiJ see 8. 2anford, =)iniat,re 3elief 2c,lpt,res at the P,llaman"ai 2iva Aemple.= 9&. 0n Kaisya 2adasivaBs Ramalila[*] , the te(t does incl,de an Uttara >anda:;< . 9%. 2ee Chapter 1, note %&, for the evidence a!o,t their date. Ahis is the only 3amayana:;< s,!5ect there. Ahe small fi",res in the ,pper left are pres,ma!ly the seven sa"es, -hose presence -o,ld !e "enerally appropriate at s,ch an a,spicio,s event. 99. J. Williams, =)arria"e Paintin"s in 2o,th and Central *rissa.= Ahe coronation is more likely to !e replaced !y the -eddin" of 3ama in so,thern .an5am 8istrict. 0n the P,rl area, s,!5ects s,ch as the Eava",O5ara and ",ardians visi!le in /i",re 161 indicate that not all themes are precisely linked to marria"e. 1$$. Ja"annath )ahapatraBs version of 2itaBs ordeal does not act,ally depict flames !,t rather piled -ood and a rain of flo-ers C/i",re 19#D. Possi!ly even in the 19G$s in *rissa, -here sati -as not in practice, there -as rel,ctance to enco,ra"e -ido-+!,rnin", evoked !y an ima"e of a -oman -ithin a fire. 0n the recent television version of the 3amayana:;< , this -as an e(plicit concern. 1$1. 0n the p,!lished set, e(ec,ted !y Bi!h,ti >an,n"o, 6an,mana is the only monkey, and he has five hillocks -rapped in his lon" tail C>. C. >ar, 2. >. 8as, and >. 2. 2ah,, Ramayana in Ordisi /ata /ainting , no. &1D. 0n the verse accompanyin" the p,!lication, 6an,mana and Jam!avan are mentioned Cin *riya and 6indi as -ell as ?n"lishD, -hich is not the case for the version Ja"annath )ahapatra has s,pplied as his =te(t.= 0n all versions, this verse centers on @avaBs hittin" 3ama -ith an arro-, ca,sin" him to s-oon. 1$1. 0n the Bi!h,ti >an,n"o p,!lication, this fi",re is more clearly in a dancin" pose C>. C. >ar, 2. >. 8as, and >, 2. 2ah,, Ramayana in Ordisi /ata /ainting , no. &GD. 0n his version of the verses a!saras are not mentioned, altho,"h they are in Ja"annath )ahapatraBs. 1$#. 0n /i",res G9 C1%&GD, 6% C8ecem!er 1%91D, and %6 C1%99D the e(tra sets radiate from the main arms, -hereas in /i",res G% and 6G CJan,ary 1%91D and &9 C19$1D they are attached to the torso. Ahe reader is reminded of the evidence in Chapter 1 that these are indeed one artistBs -ork. 1$9. 2ince -hat s,rvives is folios 1%9 thro,"h 1$$, -e may pres,me that the earlier sections -ere as amply ill,strated as in 2arathi )adalaBs copies. 0n !oth /i",res %$ and %1 details of the te(t, s,ch as @aksmanaBs:;< transformation into the serpent 2esa:;< are omitted. 0t -o,ld !e interestin" to kno- hothis !ook has !een separated from the rest of the man,script and -hether the selection reflects some 7,estionin" of its contents. 1$G. Ahe 19$1 man,script in >o!a devotes one leaf to the coronation per se and a separate one to festivities that are sho-n !elo- the throne in /i",re 11#, incl,din" m,sic, s-ordplay, and the !urna[*] ghata[*] -ith fish. 1$6. 0t is possi!le that a previo,s pa"e is missin", -hich mi"ht have incl,ded the death of 3avana:;< .

0t is e7,ally possi!le that the artist of the 8ispersed &a'anya'ati[*] , often ,nconventional in his narrative choices, omitted that seemin"ly central event.

B Narra'i)e S'ra'e&ies
1. *i'arana[*] and 'arnnana[*] are the entries ,nder =narration= in standard ?n"lish+to+*riya dictionaries. Both come from 'arna[*] meanin" f,ndamentally =coverin"= or =color.= Ahe same set of meanin"s e(ists in 2anskrit and other 0ndo+?,ropean north 0ndian lan",a"es. Ahe term %athana , =tellin",BB also e(ists Csee the s,!se7,ent disc,ssion of %atha , =tale,= in the te(tD !,t is less commonly ,sed to name an a!stract process. 1. .. @,kacs, =Earrate or 8escri!e.= 0 m,st confess my rel,ctance to see =description= and =narration= as m,t,ally e(cl,sive !inary opposites, even in ?n"lish. 4s AHvetan Aodorov p,t it, =8escription alone is not eno,"h to constit,te a narrativeJ narrative for its part does not e(cl,de description, ho-ever= C 0enres in Discourse , 1%D. #. -atha also means =speech,= -hich incl,des other forms in addition to narration of a story Eor can story and narrative !e e(actly e7,ated in ?n"lish. 4s .erald Prince p,ts it, =4ltho,"h any story is a narrative, not any narrative is a story= C 8arratology , 1&$ n. %D. 9. =4!le to !e carried !y artic,lated lan",a"e, spoken or -ritten, fi(ed or movin" ima"es, "est,res, and the ordered. mi(t,re of all these s,!stancesJ narrative is present in myth, le"end, fa!le, tale, novella, epic, history, tra"edy, drama, comedy, mime, paintin" Cthink of CarpaccioBs 2aint )rsula D, stained+ "lass -indo-s, cinema, comics, ne-s item, conversation= C3. Barthes, =0ntrod,ction to the 2tr,ct,ral 4nalysis of Earratives,= 1G1D. Ahere is some slippa"e !et-een =narrative= and the /rench term = recit[*] ,BB more easily e7,ated -ith a "enre. G. P. @,t"endorf, =Ahe Kie- from the .hats,= and &ife of a TeDt , 1%+19. 6. 4ristotle in the /oetics Cchap. 6D defines si( parts of tra"edy Cplot, characters, lan",a"e, tho,"ht, spectacle, and melodyD and devotes five chapters to plot, -ith only one chapter to the characters and even less than a chapter to the remainin" parts. Aho,"ht -o,ld ,s,ally !e considered a non+narrative element, and spectacle and melody may characteriHe the theater more than other narrative forms of literat,re. &. 4. B. >eith, The 2ans%rit Drama , 1&&. %. 2ee Chapter 1, note 9. 9. Ah,s Upendra Bhan5a is depicted at the !e"innin" of )ichha Pata5oshiBs *aidehisa *ilasa[*] , alon" -ith other poets -ho had created their versions of the same story. 0n the north 0ndian ill,strations of the ranya%a[*] /ar'an of the )aha!harata, >in" Janame5ayaBs sa"e, Kaisampayana appears fre7,ently at the top of a lar"er pict,re C>. >handalavala and )oti Chandra, Illustrated H ranya%a[*] /ar'an =D. Cf. .. Prince, 8arratology , 1G+16 Con m,ltiple narratorsDJ and ). Bal, 8arratology , 19# Con the related form of em!edded te(ts, common in the Eear ?ast as -ell as 2o,th 4siaD. 1$. The *ishnudharmottara[*] C/art III D, trans. 2. >ramrisch, G9+6$J 4. >. Coomaras-amy, =3eactions to 4rt in 0ndia.= 11. ). BalBs terminolo"y for ver!al narrative may !e one -ay of form,latin" this distinction: =fa!,la,= the act,al series of eventsJ =story,= the fa!,la presented in a certain mannerJ and =te(t,= a story told !y a narrator C 8arratology , GD. ?ven for an entirely ver!al sit,ation, 0 find this model ,nnecessarily comple(. We kno- the fa!,la and story only from the te(t, and they remain o,r o-n artifact. Why not stop thereN

11. *ne nota!le e(ception is the ima"e of Bharata -orshipin" 3amaBs footprints -ithin a circle, and even here Bharata appears alone in the second -ork of 1%91. 1#. 0t is likely that he -orked from an ,nill,strated man,script, !,t 0 have frankly not checked the consistency of his te(ts to !e certain of this. 19. 2imple statistics of the n,m!er of pict,res do not make this point, for pa"es are missin" in some cases Calmost the -hole second half of the last t-o -orksD. )oreover, the physical dimensions of the leaves may affect the ratio of te(t to ima"e. 6ence the need to refer to 4ppendi( 1 to verify my assertions. 1G. Cf. J. P. 8as, 3hitra-!othi , #&J J. ? 8as and J. Williams, /alm-&eaf "iniatures , &9. 16. Ahe carto,ches a!ove 3ama and @aksmana :;< do not contain their -ords or tho,"hts, nor does there seem to !e a specific rationale in the placement of other verses in the scene. 1&. J. P. 8as, 3hitra-!othi , 91, 91, G6. 1%. Ahe ar",ment that the character of this man,script corresponds to that of the *aidehisa *ilasa[*] itself is !orne o,t !y my "eneral impression that 2atr,"hnaBs ill,strations of a rather different te(t, the .ra4a .ihara !elon"in" to the 6istory 8epartment of Utkal University, create a "reater sense of order. Ahat -ork a-aits caref,l st,dy, ho-ever. 19. Beca,se there is remarka!le consistency in )ichha Pata5oshiBs choices, altho,"h s,!ordinate parts of the principal scenes are added, 0 have omitted a chart comparin" his ma5or man,scripts like the one in 4ppendi( 1 for 2arathi )adala Patnaik. 1$. 0 !elieve that this proportion of pict,res to te(t holds even in the case of his 19$1 copy, -hich had 11% folios ori"inally, vers,s 2atr,"hnaBs Baripada -ork of 1%1 folios, for )ichha Pata5oshiBs -as 91.6 cm lon" -hereas 2atr,"hnaBs -as only 1%.G. 2ome of 2atr,"hnaBs m,ltifolio pict,res o!vio,sly devoted more space to a sin"le ima"e than did any of )ichhaBs. Ahe t-o artistsB hand-ritin" -as similar in scale, a factor in the physical !,lk of te(t. *f the 1G1 s,rvivin" folios in the 1911 !othi , only five sides comprise te(t alone, -hich is an ,n,s,ally lo- proportion. 11. 2ome man,scripts, s,ch as 2atr,"hnaBs, lack s,ch captions, and in others the captions are fe-er and shorter. )ost scri!es, s,ch as 2arathi )adala Patnaik and 3a"h,nath Pr,sti, !e"an each caption =Ahis is . . . :e.". 3amachandra<=J )ichha Pata5oshi, ho-ever, la,nched directly into a descriptive sentence. 11. Perhaps a !attle may have occ,rred on a missin" s,!se7,ent leaf, -hich mi"ht have incl,ded the death of 3avana:;< and Ki!hisanaBs:;< coronation. 0t remains e7,ally possi!le that these too -ere omitted, for -itho,t pa"ination this man,script is hard to reconstr,ct. @ike-ise my ass,mption that the enco,nters -ith 2,rpanakha:;< and the "olden deer -ere present on a missin" folio is !ased on my o-n ca,sal preconceptions. 1#. 4nother possi!le e(planation is that the more a,spicio,s episode occ,rs to the ri"ht. Ahis is contradicted in /i",re 1G# !y the placement of 3avana:;< to the ri"ht of the !,ildin" of the !rid"e. 19. 0 have toyed -ith the possi!ility that -e sho,ld re"ard these fi",res as -hat .erard .enette has termed =focaliHers,= the so,rce of the vision presented, distin",ished from the narrator C 8arrati'e Discourse , 1%9D. 0n "eneral 0ndian literat,re and art seem to me to sho- -hat .enette terms =Hero localiHation,= lar"ely as a res,lt of the conscio,s impersonality of the arts. 0n the present sit,ation, 0 see no reason to re"ard @avanyavati:;< as more focal or critical than the vario,s male narrators to the interpretive, s,!5ective nat,re of the entire acco,nt. Ahe artist of this man,script -as darin" and sophisticated in his narrative choices, !,t he -orked -ithin a classical 0ndian tradition. 1G. 6ence a relatively small n,m!er of episodes is depicted in this -ork. Ahis is not the case -ith the

depiction of the &a'anya'ati[*] proper in this same man,script. 16. Ahe one e(ception is 3isyasrin"aBs:;< marria"e to 2anta. 1&. Ahe first pa"e is n,m!ered &1 and the last preserved is %1. 2,rely one and pro!a!ly t-o more pa"es follo-ed the .andhamadana incident. 6ere as in the 8ispersed &a'anya'ati[*] , no te(t is inter-oven -ith the pict,res. Possi!ly it -as concentrated at the !e"innin" or the end, a s,""estion 0 cannot verify Whether the te(t -as present or omitted, in !oth man,scripts the pict,res seem to have a kind of independence, -ith no immediately accompanyin" verses. 1%. 0n the Ee- 8elhi copy of )ichha Pata5oshi this portion of folios is missin"J 2atr,"hnaBs Baripada man,script seems to lack this scene, !,t its 5,m!led condition makes it diffic,lt to !e certain. *ther scenes paired in Pr,stiBs &a'anya'ati[*] that immediately resem!le B,",da are the !attles -ith >,m!hakarna:;< and 0ndra5ita C/i",res 191, !ottomJ 191, topD, -hich resem!le the !adly preserved m,rals at the top of -all 6 C/i",re 111D. 2,ch dense !arra"es of arro-s do, ho-ever, occ,r in other man,scripts and cannot !e ,sed as prima facie evidence for the direct impact of B,",da Ccf. 2. Pani, Illustrated /almleaf "anuscri!ts of Orissa , 9&D. 19. Conceiva!ly the B,",da artist, -ho -as not entirely consistent in chronolo"ical se7,ence, intended this scene to follo- the c,ttin" of the ,m!rellas, in -hich case B,",da is e7,ally hard to e(plain te(t,ally 0t is -orth notin" that Pr,sti adds more monkeys to the e(treme ri"ht, !,t -ith no s,""estion of 2,"rivaBs palace. *ne additional scene pro!a!ly !orro-ed from B,",da !,t pro!lematic in meanin" is 3amaBs meetin" -ith Kisvamitra and a p,pil in /i",re 1%9. 0 kno- of no direct te(t,al reference for this, altho,"h there are many "eneral all,sions to ascetics on )o,nt Chitrak,ta:;< that -o,ld make it possi!le. Ahe compara!le scene at B,",da incl,des only a tall !l,e ascetic and a yo,th, their hands raised in respect C/i",re 1$9D. 6ere the identification is made possi!le only !y Pr,stiBs neatly la!eled version of the same pair. #$. *aidehisa *ilasa[*] 1&.#G+#6. .,ha is of co,rse a!sent from the !rief version of the &a'anya'ati[*] . Bala!hadra Pathy sho-s .,ha as a !oatman !y a river. 2arala 8asa "enerically identifies many forest d-ellers as 2a!aras, as does the 3amalila:;< of 8asapalla. #1. Ee- Iork P,!lic @i!rary, 2pencer Collection ms. 11, folio 1G. )ichha Pata5oshi also -orked the motif into the final coronation of 3ama C/i",re 11#D. #1. Ahe te(t reads: =Ahe person -ho hears the 3asotsava:;< of 3a"hav+2ita !ecomes a devotee of 6ari and "ets a place near him. Ahe seventeenth chapter of the Brahma 3amayana:;< is complete here. Ahis chapter concerns the desires of mat,re C !urna[*] D "irls in the 3amakrida:;< . . . .= Conceiva!ly the or! is in fact a f,ll C !urna[*] D moon. Ahe *riyas 0 have cons,lted are e7,ally p,HHled !y this ima"e. ##. 4nantasayana:;< appears in a related form in the nineteenth+cent,ry -all paintin"s of 8harakot. ?. /ischer, 2. )ahapatra, and 8. Pathy, Orissa: -unst und -ultur , fi",re GG6. /or the coronation, see Chapter 9, =Ahe Concl,sion.= #9. 4dmittedly, 0 cannot !e certain that either )rs. Qealey or the professor did not dictate the incl,sion or omission of some partic,lar event 5,st !eca,se the artist does not recall that. 4t least -e can !e s,re m,ch -as left ,p to him and that he has internaliHed the choices that -ere made. #G. J. P. 8as, /uri /aintings , fi",re #. #6. 4ll -ere in the process of !ein" painted, and my ,nderstandin" of s,!5ects and order is inde!ted to my conversations -ith the painters as they -orked. Ahe very lar"e !ata[*] at 8anda 2ahi represented in /i",re 1%98 -as sold ,ne(pectedlyJ hence the a!sence of a photo here.

#&. Ahe omission of 6an,mana -ith )o,nt .andhamadana Ce(cept possi!ly in the lar"e 8anda 2ahi -ork, only partially paintedD is p,HHlin". Perhaps this ima"e is hardly tho,"ht of as narrative at all, havin" !ecome the most common form of ima"e of the monkey alone in small !atas[*] . #%. Ahe fo,r corner events in /i",re 1%9B seem to read co,nterclock-ise, altho,"h it is hard to !e s,re a!o,t them. 0n any case, they are not clearly in any se7,ence, servin" to lead from the ti"ht order of the central circle to the final !attles at top and !ottom. #9. 4s 0 s,""est in Chapter #, one small hill occ,rs at the top of -all 4, in a position -here the most likely s,!5ect is 3ama and 2ita on )o,nt Chitrak,ta:;< . Conceiva!ly the artists at this partic,lar point sa- the s,ita!ility of lar"er scenes set on mo,ntains, in -hich the settin" co,ld !e developed.

% Wh*>
1. U. >. @e .,in, =0t -as a 8ark and 2tormy Ei"ht,= p. 1%%. 1. 4fter -ritin" this chapter, 0 discover that these three 7,estions correspond to C. 2. PierceBs division of the field of semiotic in7,iry into three parts: semantic Csym!olicD, syntactic Cconcerned -ith the prod,ction of meanin"D, and pra"matic Cconcerned -ith efficacyD. ). Bal and E. Bryson, =2emiotics and 4rt 6istory,= 1%9. #. 4. ?schmann, >. 6ermann, and .. C. Aripathi, The 3ult of 1agannath5 6. >,lke, =B>satriyaiHation:;< B and 2ocial Chan"e in Post+)edieval *rissa.= 9. >. C. 2ahoo, =*riya 3ama @iterat,re,= 1$. G. Philip @,t"endorf makes clear that the rasi% sadhana centered on 3ama sho,ld not !e vie-ed as derivative from that of >risna:;< C=Ahe 2ecret @ife of 3amcandra,= 11%+#$D. 6. 2t,dies of this potent theme in 0ndian tho,"ht in "eneral incl,de P. 8. 8evanandan, The 3once!t of "aya J 3. ? .oldman, =Ahe 2erpent and the 3ope on 2ta"e=J and W. *B/laherty, Dreams# Illusion# and Other Realities . &. ?. 8o-lin", = !ate# gon , and @iterary 2elf+3efle(ivity in ?,ripidesB Helen .= %. 4. >. Coomaras-amy, =3eactions to 4rt in 0ndia,= 1$%J J. Williams, =2iva and the C,lt of Ja"annatha: 0cono"raphy and 4m!i",ity,= deals -ith am!i",ity lar"ely in terms of m,ltiple interpretations !y the a,dience. /or 0ndian ima"es it is more diffic,lt than for te(ts C-ith commentariesD to fi( the response of the =act,al= a,dience. 0 m,st reaffirm my conviction that some interpretations may !e -ron", altho,"h many may !e ri"ht. 9. 3o!ert .oldman provocatively e(plores the e(tension of the philosophical clichL to the theater and to ordinary social disco,rse in =Ahe 2erpent and the 3ope on 2ta"e.= 1$. ?. C. 8imock, =4 Aheolo"y of the 3ep,lsive,= 19G. 11. Philip @,t"endorf like-ise 7,estions claims that the television series has =p,t paid to 3amlilas= or homo"eniHed the diverse 3amayana:;< traditions of 0ndia as a -hole C=3amayan: Ahe Kideo,= 166+&$D. 11. 3. Barthes, =0ntrod,ction to the 2tr,ct,ral 4nalysis of Earratives,= 1G#, 19#+9G. 1#. Ahe -ritin"s of ?rnst .om!rich, s,ch as rt and Illusion CEe- Iork: Bollin"en /o,ndation, 196$D, deal -ith the psycholo"y of representation -ith a sophisticated a-areness of the comple(ity of the constr,cted systems of ill,sionism and -ays in -hich the !eholder resolves am!i",ities. 19. Ahe passa"e from ?d-ard 8imock 7,oted in the te(t Csee note 1$D moves from the ima"e of a t-o+ headed deer to a Picasso paintin" of a -oman -ith t-o eyes on one side of her head as somethin" not

in o,r e(perience. 0 am not convinced that Picasso -as assertin" m,ltiple realities. 1G. ). C. Beach, +arly "ughal /ainting , 1#9. 16. Wendy *B/laherty does not really consider the pict,res serio,sly, !,t she s,""ests this interpretation in "eneral C Dreams# Illusion# and Other Realities , 1%$+%1D. 1&. 4 !etter candidate than Jahan"irBs 9oga'asistha[*] mi"ht !e a -ell+kno-n paintin" in the /reer .allery, -hich incl,des a note that it represents a dream e(perienced !y the emperor in a -ell of li"ht. C3. ?ttin"ha,sen, /aintings of the 2ultans and +m!erors of India , plate 11.D Jahan"ir em!races a dimin,tive 2hah 4!!as of Persia, -ith -hom he -as at -ar -hen this -ork -as painted and -hom he never met. Com!ined -ith the metic,lo,s representation of s,rface detail that characteriHes paintin" of this period, there are vario,s feat,res that resist direct readin" as vis,al phenomena. Ahe r,lers stand ,pon a lion and a lam! nestled a"ainst a "lo!e that reveals the 2afavid and ),"hal empires. 4 lar"e em!lematic "old disc shines in the !ack"ro,nd. 6ere, as -ith 2alvador 8al`Bs limp -atches or alle"orical ?liHa!ethan paintin"s, one is enco,ra"ed to read the ima"e as potent or s,per+real, -hich is not to say that other ),"hal paintin" consistently follo-s ?,ropean ill,sionistic conventions. 0n this case, =dream= m,st !e e7,ated -ith vision, not -ith ill,sion, ho-ever. 1%. ?. 0sacco, 4. @. 8allapiccola, et al., -rishna the Di'ine &o'er , plate 1&GJ ?. )oor, The Hindu /antheon , plate 9#J J. P. 8as, /uri /aintings , 1#G+#6. Ahe motif resem!les -hat has !een called a chimera in -estern 0ndia, !oth fi",res challen"in" the !eholderBs a!ility to identify them. 19. J. P. 8as and J. Williams, /alm-&eaf "iniatures , 9. 1$. >. >. Patnaik, -um(hara 3ha%a , 1G%+G9. Ahe passa"e is 7,oted in f,ll in J. P. 8as and J. Williams, /alm-&eaf "iniatures , 6. 11. 2ee p. G1. *ne mi"ht -ish that 8as and Patnaik had recorded act,al prices of man,scripts, !,t the interpersonal and ne"otiated nat,re of s,ch transactions in a villa"e -o,ld make the ,se of s,ch information pro!lematic.

'igures
/i",re 99. 4 !rahman readin" from a palm+leaf man,script CParlakhem,ndi, 19%1D. Photo"raph !y a,thor.

/i",re G$. 2arathi )adala Patnaik, 4dhyatma 3amayana:;< Cco,rtesy *rissa 2tate ),se,m, dated 1%&GD. 4halya li!erated, f. %r.

/i",re G1. 2arathi )adala Patnaik, 4dhyatma 3amayana:;< C*2), 1%&GD. )a"ic deer, f. 91v.

/i",re G1. 2arathi )adala Patnaik, 4dhyatma 3amayana:;< C*2), 1%&GD. 6an,mana in @anka:;< , f. &Gv.

/i",re G#. 2arathi )adala Patnaik, 4dhyatma 3amayana:;< C*2), 1%&GD. 6an,mana !rin"in" mo,ntain, f. 91v.

/i",re GG. 2arathi )adala Patnaik, 4dhyatma 3amayana:;< C*2), 1%&GD: Ca!ove and oppositeD Coronation of 3ama, last three folios.

/i",re G9. 2arathi )adala Patnaik, 4dhyatma 3amayana:;< C*2), 1%&GD. 3avana:;< and 3ama, f. 96v.

/i",re G6. 2arathi )adala Patnaik, 4dhyatma 3amayana:;< Cco,rtesy Ee- Iork P,!lic @i!rary, 2pencer Collection, 4stor, @eno( and Ailden /o,ndations, dated 1%91D. 4halya, f. 9r.

/i",re G&. 2arathi )adala Patnaik, 4dhyatma 3amayana:;< CEIP@, 1%91D. Bharata -ith 3amaBs footprints, f. ##r.

/i",re G%. 2arathi )adala Patnaik, 4dhyatma 3amayana:;< CEIP@, 1%91D. 2,rpanakha:;< !efore 3avana:;< , f. 91r.

/i",re G9. 2arathi )adala Patnaik, 4dhyatma 3amayana:;< CEIP@, 1%91D. Creation of )aya 2ita, f. 91r.

/i",re 6$. 2arathi )adala Patnaik, 4dhyatma 3amayana:;< CEIP@, 1%91D. )a"ic deer, f. 9Gr.

/i",re 61. 2arathi )adala Patnaik, 4dhyatma 3amayana:;< CEIP@, 1%91D. 2even trees, f. G1v.

/i",re 61. 2arathi )adala Patnaik, 4dhyatma 3amayana:;< CEIP@, 1%91D. Ja"annatha Aemple, f. %$v.

/i",re 6#. 2arathi )adala Patnaik, 4dhyatma 3amayana:;< CEIP@, 1%91D. 2iva shrine at 3amesvaram, f. %1r.

/i",re 69. 2arathi )adala Patnaik, 4dhyatma 3amayana:;< CEIP@, 1%91D. B,ildin" the !rid"e, f. %%v.

/i",re 6G. 2arathi )adala Patnaik, 4dhyatma 3amayana:;< CEIP@, 1%91D. 3avana:;< and @aksmana:;< , f. 91v.

/i",re 66. 2arathi )adala Patnaik, 4dhyatma 3amayana:;< CEIP@, 1%91D. 6an,mana and >alanemi, f. 9#v.

/i",re 6&. 2arathi )adala Patnaik, 4dhyatma 3amayana:;< CEIP@, 1%91D. 2itaBs test, f. 1$&v.

/i",re 6%. 2arathi )adala Patnaik, 4dhyatma 3amayana:;< CC. @. Bharany Collection, Ee- 8elhi, dated 1%91D. )a"ic deer, f. 69v.

/i",re 69. 2arathi )adala Patnaik, 4dhyatma 3amayana:;< CBharany Col., 1%91D. 2even trees, f. &&r.

/i",re &$. 2arathi )adala Patnaik, 4dhyatma 3amayana:;< CBharany Col., 1%91D. 0ndra5ita, serpent+arro-, and 6an,mana, f. 1$9v.

/i",re &1. 2arathi )adala Patnaik, 4dhyatma 3amayana:;< CBharany Col., 1%91D. B,ildin" the !rid"e, f. 11%v.

/i",re &1. 2arathi )adala Patnaik, 4dhyatma 3amayana:;< Cco,rtesy Utkal University @i!rary, dated 19$1D. Ja"annatha, f. 1$1v.

/i",re &#. 2arathi )adala Patnaik, 4dhyatma 3amayana:;< CUU@, 19$1D. B,ildin" the !rid"e, f. 111v.

/i",re &9. 2arathi )adala Patnaik, 4dhyatma 3amayana:;< CUU@, 19$1D. 3ama and 3avana:;< , f. 1#$v.

/i",re &G. 4dhyatma 3amayana:;< , anon: Cco,rtesy Eational ),se,m, Ee- 8elhi, no. &G.G#6D. Bharata -ith 3amaBs footprints, f. 9Gr.

/i",re &6. 4dhyatma 3amayana:;< CE) &G.G#6D. )a"ic deer, f. G$r.

/i",re &&. 4dhyatma 3amayana:;< CE) &G.G#6D. 2even trees, f. 61r.

/i",re &%. 4dhyatma 3amayana:;< , anon. CC. @. Bharany Collection, Ee- 8elhiD. Bharata -ith 3amaBs footprints, f. G1r.

/i",re &9. 4dhyatma 3amayana:;< CBharany Col.D. Ahree+ headed deer as mar"inalia, f. 9Gr.

/i",re %$. 4dhyatma 3amayana:;< , Uttara >anda:;< , anon. Cprivate collection, Ee8elhiD. 3ama and >aladeva, f. 19Gr.

/i",re %1. 4dhyatma 3amayana:;< , Uttara >anda:;< Cpc, E8D. Kisn,:;< and @aksmi:;< in Kaik,ntha:;< f. 1$$r.

/i",re %1. 2arathi )adala Patnaik, 8,r"a 2t,ti Cco,rtesy of @.8. 0nstit,te of 0ndolo"y, 4hmeda!ad, dated 1%99D. )a"ic deer, f. 1#r.

/i",re %#. 2arathi )adala Patnaik, 8,r"a 2t,ti C@80, 1%99D. 0ndra5ita, serpent+ arro-, 3ama and @aksmana:;< f. 16r.

/i",re %9.

2arathi )adala Patnaik, 8,r"a 2t,ti C@80, 1%99D. 8,r"a resc,es 3ama and @aksmana:;< , f. 19r.

/i",re %G. 2arathi )adala Patnaik, 6an,mana 2t,ti C@80, 1%99D. 6an,mana carryin" mo,ntain, f. 19r.

/i",re %6. 2arathi )adala Patnaik, 6an,mana 2t,ti C@80, 1%99D. 6an,mana !efore 3avana:;< , f. #$v.

/i",re %&. 3amalila:;< , anon. Cco,rtesy Eational ),se,m, Ee- 8elhi, no. &G.GG6D. 3avana:;< fi"htin" Eava",O5ara, f. G%r.

/i",re %%. 3amalila:;< CE) &G.GG6D. @aksmana:;< meets 3ama -ith !ody of ma"ic deer, f. G9v.

/i",re %9. 2atr,"hna, Kaidehisa Kilasa:;< CJ,!el @i!rary, Baripada, dated 1%##D. 3isyasrin"a:;< and co,rtesans.

/i",re 9$. 2atr,"hna, Kaidehisa Kilasa:;< CBaripada, 1%##D. Boatman -ashes 3amaBs feet.

/i",re 91. 2atr,"hna, Kaidehisa Kilasa:;< CBaripada, 1%##D. 3ama shoots the cro-.

/i",re 91. 2atr,"hna, Kaidehisa Kilasa:;< CBaripada, 1%##D.

2ita in fire, )aya 2ita, 3avana:;< as !e""ar Cdetail of Plate GD.

/i",re 9#. 2atr,"hna, Kaidehisa Kilasa:;< CBaripada, 1%##D. 3ama and the ma"ic deer.

/i",re 99. 2atr,"hna, Kaidehisa Kilasa:;< CBaripada, 1%##D. 3ama, @aksmana:;< , and the co-herds.

/i",re 9G. 2atr,"hna, Kaidehisa Kilasa:;< CBaripada, 1%##D. 2even trees.

/i",re 96. 2atr,"hna, Kaidehisa Kilasa:;< CBaripada, 1%##D. Kalin and 2,"riva fi"ht.

/i",re 9&. 2atr,"hna, Kaidehisa Kilasa:;< CBaripada, 1%##D. B,ildin" the !rid"e.

/i",re 99. 2atr,"hna, Kaidehisa Kilasa:;< no. 1 C),se,m 3iet!er", Q,rich 3K0 1199D. 4halya li!erated.

/i",re 1$$. 2atr,"hna, Kaidehisa Kilasa:;< no. 1 Cprivate collection, Ee8elhiD. 2even trees.

/i",re 1$1. 2atr,"hna, Kaidehisa Kilasa:;< no. 1 C),se,m 3iet!er", Q,rich 3K0 1199D. Coronation of 3ama, ff. 1G9+1G6r.

/i",re 9%. 2atr,"hna, Kaidehisa Kilasa:;< CBaripada, 1%##D. Battle.

/i",re 1$1. )ichha Pata5oshi, Kaidehisa Kilasa:;< Cco,rtesy 2hri )ahavir Jain 4radhana >endra, >o!a, dated 19$1D. 3isyasrin"a:;< !rin"s rains, f. 1%r.

/i",re 1$#. )ichha Pata5oshi, Kaidehisa Kilasa:;< C)J4>, 19$1D. AadakiBs:;< apotheosis, f. 19r.

/i",re 1$9. )ichha Pata5oshi, Kaidehisa Kilasa:;< C)J4>, 19$1D. 4halya li!erated, f. #1r.

/i",re 1$G. )ichha Pata5oshi, Kaidehisa Kilasa:;< C)J4>, 19$1D. 4halya -ith 0ndra, .a,tamaBs ret,rn, f. ##r.

/i",re 1$6. )ichha Pata5oshi, Kaidehisa Kilasa:;< C)J4>, 19$1D. 3ama and @aksmana:;< !ind ,p their hair in e(ile, f. 69r.

/i",re 1$&. )ichha Pata5oshi, Kaidehisa Kilasa:;< C)J4>, 19$1D. Ahe ocher mark.

/i",re 1$%. )ichha Pata5oshi, Kaidehisa Kilasa:;< C)J4>, 19$1D. 3avana:;< and )aricha, 3avanaBs:;< !ath.

/i",re 1$9. )ichha Pata5oshi, Kaidehisa Kilasa:;< C)J4>, 19$1D. 2ita in fire, )aya 2ita, 3avana:;< .

/i",re 11$. )ichha Pata5oshi, Kaidehisa Kilasa:;< C)J4>, 19$1D. 2even trees.

/i",re 111. )ichha Pata5oshi, Kaidehisa Kilasa:;< C)J4>, 19$1D. Chakra !andha.

/i",re 111. )ichha Pata5oshi, Kaidehisa Kilasa:;< C)J4>, 19$1D. 6an,mana -ith mo,ntain enco,nters Bharata, f. 1%6r.

/i",re 11#. )ichha Pata5oshi, Kaidehisa Kilasa:;< Cprivate collection, Ee- 8elhi, dated 1919D. 3isyasrin"a:;< !rin"s rains, f. 1%r.

/i",re 119. )ichha Pata5oshi, Kaidehisa Kilasa:;< Cpc, E8, 1919D. 4halya li!erated, f. 19v.

/i",re 11G. )ichha Pata5oshi, Kaidehisa Kilasa:;< Cpc, E8, 1919D. BharataBs visit, f. 69r.

/i",re 116. )ichha Pata5oshi, Kaidehisa Kilasa:;< Cpc, E8, 1919D. )a"ic deer, f. %1,v.

/i",re 11&. )ichha Pata5oshi, Kaidehisa Kilasa:;< Cpc, E8, 1919D. Jatay,:;< attempts to stop 3avana:;< , f. %9r.

/i",re 11%. )ichha Pata5oshi, Kaidehisa Kilasa:;< Cpc, E8, 1919D. )eetin" -ith 2a!ari, f. 9$r.

/i",re 119. )ichha Pata5oshi, Kaidehisa Kilasa:;< Cpc, E8, 1919D. 2even trees, f. 11&r.

/i",re 11$. )ichha Pata5oshi, Kaidehisa Kilasa:;< Cpc, E8, 1919D. B,ildin" the !rid"e, f. 196r.

/i",re 111. )ichha Pata5oshi, Kaidehisa Kilasa:;< Cpc, E8, 1919D. 2hootin" 3avanaBs:;< ,m!rellas, f. 1G1r.

/i",re 111. )ichha Pata5oshi, Kaidehisa Kilasa:;< Cpc, E8, 1919D. 2itaBs test.

/i",re 11#. )ichha Pata5oshi, Kaidehisa Kilasa:;< Cpc, E8, 1919D. Coronation of 3ama, left half, f. 119r.

/i",re 119. )ichha Pata5oshi, Kaidehisa Kilasa:;< Cpc, E8, 1919D. Coronation of 3ama, ri"ht half, f. 119r.

/i",re 11G. )ichha Pata5oshi, Kaidehisa Kilasa:;< Cco,rtesy 4s,tosh ),se,m, Calc,tta, dated 1916D. 3isyasrin"a:;< and the co,rtesans, f. 16v.

/i",re 116. )ichha Pata5oshi, Kaidehisa Kilasa:;< C4s,tosh, 1916D. 3ains are !ro,"ht, f. 1%r.

/i",re 11&. )ichha Pata5oshi, Kaidehisa Kilasa:;< C4s,tosh, 1916D. 4halya li!erated, f. 9&v.

/i",re 11%. )ichha Pata5oshi, Kaidehisa Kilasa:;< C4s,tosh, 1916D. )a"ic deer appears, f. 11$r.

/i",re 119. )ichha Pata5oshi, Kaidehisa Kilasa:;< C4s,tosh, 1916D. 3ama, @aksmana:;< , and the co-herds, f. 11%r.

/i",re 1#$. )ichha Pata5oshi, Kaidehisa Kilasa:;< C4s,tosh, 1916D. 2even trees, f. 11&r.

/i",re 1#1. )ichha Pata5oshi, Kaidehisa Kilasa:;< C4s,tosh, 1916D. Kalin and 2,"riva fi"ht, f. 1#$v.

/i",re 1#1. )ichha Pata5oshi, Kaidehisa Kilasa:;< C4s,tosh, 1916D. 8eath of Kalin, f. 1#$v.

/i",re 1##.

)ichha Pata5oshi, Kaidehisa Kilasa:;< C4s,tosh, 1916D. AaraBs c,rse, f. 1#1v.

/i",re 1#9. )ichha Pata5oshi, Kaidehisa Kilasa:;< C4s,tosh, 1916D. 6an,mana in @anka:;< , f. 1&$v.

/i",re 1#G. )ichha Pata5oshi, Kaidehisa Kilasa:;< C4s,tosh, 1916D. Consternation in @anka:;< , f. 1&$v.

/i",re 1#6. )ichha Pata5oshi, Kaidehisa Kilasa:;< C4s,tosh, 1916D. 4n"adaBs:;< em!assy, f. 1$#r.

/i",re 1#&. )ichha Pata5oshi, Kaidehisa Kilasa:;< C4s,tosh, 1916D. 6an,mana at >alanemiBs ashram, f. 111v.

/i",re 1#%. )ichha Pata5oshi, Kaidehisa Kilasa:;< C4s,tosh, 1916D. 3avanaBs:;< corpse, f. 191v.

/i",re 1#9. )ichha Pata5oshi, Kaidehisa Kilasa:;< C4s,tosh, 1916D. 3ama and 2ita ret,rn to 4yodhya, f. 1G$r.

/i",re 19$. @avanyavati:;< Cco,rtesy Eational ),se,m, Ee- 8elhi, no. &1.1$9D, f. #6v: CtopD >in" of 2inhalaJ f. #&v: Ca!oveD Coronation of 3ama.

/i",re 191. 8ispersed @avanyavati:;< Cprivate collection, United 2tatesD.

3isyasrin"a:;< meets and marries 2anta.

/i",re 191. 8ispersed @avanyavati:;< Cprivate collection, U2D. 8asarathaBs sacrifice.

/i",re 19#. 8ispersed @avanyavati:;< Cco,rtesy Eational ),se,m, Ee- 8elhi, no. 61.616/ rD. Birth of sons to 8asarathaJ Aadaki:;< . Photo Eational ),se,m.

/i",re 199. 8ispersed @avanyavati:;< CE) 61.616/ vD: CtopD 3ama shoots 2,!ah,J Ca!oveD )aricha.

/i",re 19G. 8ispersed @avanyavati:;< CE) 61.616C rD: CtopD 4halyaJ Ca!oveD Boatman.

/i",re 196. 8ispersed @avanyavati:;< CE) 61.616C vD: CtopD 3ama !ends 2ivaBs !o-J Ca!oveD marries 2ita.

/i",re 19&. 8ispersed @avanyavati:;< CJean and /rancis )arshall Collection, 2an /rancisco rD: CtopD Paras,ramaJ Ca!oveD BharataBs visit.

/i",re 19%. 8ispersed @avanyavati:;< C)arshall Col. vD. 3ama meets Kiradha, 4tri and 4nas,ya.

/i",re 199. 8ispersed @avanyavati:;< Cco,rtesy Eational ),se,m, Ee- 8elhi, no. 6#.116 19 rD: CtopD 2a!ariJ Ca!oveD >idnap.

/i",re 1G$. 8ispersed @avanyavati:;< CE) 6#.116 19 vD: CtopD 3ama, @aksmana:;< , and Ca!oveD monkeys.

/i",re 1G1. 8ispersed @avanyavati:;< CE) 6#.116 1 rD: CtopD 8,nd,!hiBs !oneJ Ca!oveD 2even trees.

/i",re 1G1. 8ispersed @avanyavati:;< CE) 6#.116 1 vD: CtopD 8eath of KalinJ Ca!oveD )o,nt )alyavan.

/i",re 1G#. 8ispersed @avanyavati:;< CE) 6#.116 16 rD: CtopD B,ildin" the !rid"eJ Ca!oveD 3avana:;< in @anka:;< .

/i",re 1G9. 8ispersed @avanyavati:;< CE) 6#.116 16 vD: CtopD 3ama and @aksmana:;< shot !y 0ndra5itaJ Ca!oveD 6an,mana !rin"in" mo,ntain.

/i",re 1GG. 8ispersed @avanyavati:;< Cco,rtesy Birla 4cademy of 4rt and C,lt,re, no. 4196 rD: Ctop and a!oveD 2itaBs test. Photo Birla 4cademy.

/i",re 1G6. 8ispersed @avanyavati:;< CBirla 4caderny 4196 vD: Ctop and a!oveD @avanyavati:;< -atches coronation of 3ama. Photo Birla 4cademy.

/i",re 1G&. Bala!hadra Pathy, @avanyavati:;< Cco,rtesy Eational ),se,m of 0ndia, Ee- 8elhi, no. %$.11&6D. 3isyasrin"a:;< and co,rtesans, f. 1#%r.

/i",re 1G%.

Bala!hadra Pathy, @avanyavati:;< CE) %$.11&6D. Aadaki:;< , f. 19#v.

/i",re 1G9. Bala!hadra Pathy, @avanyavati:;< CE) %$.11&6D. 4halya li!erated, f. 199r.

/i",re 16$. Bala!hadra Pathy, @avanyavati:;< CE) %$.11&6D. BharataBs party approaches Chitrak,ta:;< , f. 1G1v.

/i",re 161. Bala!hadra Pathy, @avanyavati:;< CE) %$.11&6D. Bharata -orships 3amaBs sandals, f. 1G9v.

/i",re 161. Bala!hadra Pathy, @avanyavati:;< CE) %$.11&6D. @aksmana:;< denoses 2,rpanakha:;< , f. 161r.

/i",re 16#. Bala!hadra Pathy, @avanyavati:;< CE) %$.11&6D. 3avana:;< -atches @aksmana:;< , 2ita, and 3ama, f. 16Gr.

/i",re 169. Bala!hadra Pathy, @avanyavati:;< CE) %$.11&6D. 3ama chases ma"ic deer, f. 16Gv.

/i",re 16G. Bala!hadra Pathy, @avanyavati:;< CE) %$.11&6D. 3ama shoots ma"ic deer, f. 166r.

/i",re 166. Bala!hadra Pathy, @avanyavati:;< CE) %$.11&6D. Jatay,:;< attempts to stop 3avana:;< , f. 166v.

/i",re 16&. Bala!hadra Pathy, @avanyavati:;< CE) %$.11&6D. 3ama, @aksmana:;< , and the co-herds, f. 16%r.

/i",re 16%. Bala!hadra Pathy, @avanyavati:;< CE) %$.11&6D. 8,nd,!hiBs !ones, 2even trees, f. 169v.

/i",re 169. Bala!hadra Pathy, @avanyavati:;< CE) %$.11&6D. KalinBs cremation, f. 1&1r.

/i",res 1&$, 1&1. Bala!hadra Pathy, @avanyavati:;< CE) %$.11&6D, f. 1&#v: Ctop and a!oveD 3ains on )o,nt )alyavan.

/i",re 1&1. Bala!hadra Pathy, @avanyavati:;< CE) %$.11&6D. 6an,mana in @anka:;< , f. 1%Gr.

/i",re 1&#. Bala!hadra Pathy, @avanyavati:;< CE) %$.11&6D. 6an,mana in @anka:;< , f. 1%$v.

/i",re 1&9. Bala!hadra Pathy, @avanyavati:;< CE) %$.11&6D. 6an,mana sets fire to @anka:;< , f. 1$$v.

/i",re 1&G. 3a"h,nath Pr,sti, @avanyavati:;< Cprivate collection, ),ndamaraiD. 3isyasrin"a:;< !ro,"ht to @omapada, f. &1r.

/i",re 1&6. 3a"h,nath Pr,sti, @avanyavati:;< Cpc, )D. 3isyasrin"a:;< and Jarata, !ro,"ht to 4yodhya, sacrifice, !irth of 8asarathaBs sons, f. &1v.

/i",re 1&&. 3a"h,nath Pr,sti, @avanyavati:;< Cpc, )D. Aadaki:;< J KisvamitraBs sacrifice, 3ama shoots )aricha, f. &#r.

/i",re 1&%. 3a"h,nath Pr,sti, @avanyavati:;< Cpc, )D. 4halyaBs li!eration, Boatman, 3ama !ends 2ivaBs !o-, f. &#v.

/i",re 1&9. 3a"h,nath Pr,sti, @avanyavati:;< Cpc, )D. 3amaBs marria"e, f. &9r.

/i",re 1%$. 3a"h,nath Pr,sti, @avanyavati:;< Cpc, )D. )eetin" -ith Paras,rama, f. &9v.

/i",re 1%1. 3a"h,nath Pr,sti, @avanyavati:;< Cpc, )D. Preparations for 3amaBs coronation, )anthara and >aikeyi, f. &Gr.

/i",re 1%1. 3a"h,nath Pr,sti @avanyavati:;< Cpc, )D. >aikeyi and 8asaratha, 2ita and 3amaJ 3ama meets 2a!aras, f. &Gv.

/i",re 1%#. 3a"h,nath Pr,sti, @avanyavati:;< Cpc, )D. 3ama !inds ,p hair, the ocher mark, BharataBs visit, f. &6r.

/i",re 1%9. 3a"h,nath Pr,sti, @avanyavati:;< Cpc, )D. Kiradha, 4tri, and 4nas,ya, Kisvamitra and disciple meet 3ama, f. &6v.

/i",re 1%G. 3a"h,nath Pr,sti, @avanyavati:;< Cpc, )D. 2,rpanakha:;< denosed, fi"ht -ith >hara and 8,sana:;< , f. &&r.

/i",re 1%6. 3a"h,nath Pr,sti, @avanyavati:;< Cpc, )D. Ahe ma"ic deer, f. &&v.

/i",re 1%&. 3a"h,nath Pr,sti, @avanyavati:;< Cpc, )D. Jatay,:;< attempts to stop 3avana:;< , >idnap, 3ama and @aksmana:;< ret,rn -ith dead deer, f. &%r.

/i",re 1%%. 3a"h,nath Pr,sti, @avanyavati:;< Cpc, )D. 2ita in @anka:;< , 3ama finds empty h,t, meets Jatay,:;< , f. &%v.

/i",re 1%9. 3a"h,nath Pr,sti, @avanyavati:;< Cco,rtesy Bharat >ala Bhavan, Banaras, no. 1$91&D. KalinBs death, 3ama and vanaras, !,ildin" the !rid"e, f. %$r.

/i",re 19$. 3a"h,nath Pr,sti, @avanyavati:;< CB>B 1$91&D. 3avanaBs:;< ,m!rellas c,t, @aksmana:;< and Jam!avan, f. %$v.

/i",re 191. 3a"h,nath Pr,sti, @avanyavati:;< CB>B 1$91%D. 2ie"e of @anka:;< , f. %1r.

/i",re 191. 3a"h,nath Pr,sti, @avanyavati:;< CB>B 1$91%D. 0ndra5ita in !attle,

6an,mana !rin"s mo,ntain to 3ama, f. %1v.

/i",re 19#. 3a"h,nath Pr,sti, @avanyavati:;< Cprivate collection, ),ndamaraiD. Performers re-arded, f. %#r.

/i",re 199. Brahma 3amayana:;< C)atha:;< collectionD. BrahmaBs "arden, f. 6v.

/i",re 19G. Brahma 3amayana:;< . Aadaki:;< , f. 1#r.

/i",re 196. Brahma 3amayana:;< . 4halya CdetailD, f. 1#v.

/i",re 19&. Brahma 3amayana:;< . 3amaBs marria"e, f. 11r.

/i",re 19%. Brahma 3amayana:;< . 3amakrida:;< Csport of 3amaD, f. 96r.

/i",re 199. Brahma 3amayana:;< . /inal sacrifice, f. 6Gv.

Wall 4 Cfrom !ottom to topD tier 1 Cri"ht to leftD 3isyasrin"aBs:;< sacrifice 3isyasrin"a:;< Y 8asaratha 8asaratha Y # 7,eens 9 !irths tier 1 Cleft to ri"htD 9 sons in s-in"s

8asaratha Y Kisvamitra Kisvamitra takes 3ama Y @aksmana:;< KisvamitraBs sacrifice 3ama Y Aadaki:;< 3ama Y 4halya tier # Cleft to ri"htD Boatman -ashes feet 3ama Y @aksmana:;< disem!ark 2ita "arlands 3ama )arria"e lF'i'aha )arria"e 1Fma44u sa4ya Chands 5oinedD Paras,rama Y 8asarathaN Paras,rama Y 3ama tier 9 Cri"ht to leftD )anthara Y >aikeyi 3ama Y 2ita in shrineN 3ama, 2ita, @aksmana:;< , # mothers ChariotF3amaBs e(ile 2ita, 3ama Y @aksmana:;< -ind hair as ascetics 3ama, @aksmana:;< , Y sa"eN tier G Cri"ht to leftD 3ama Y 2ita, @aksmana:;< -ith !o3ama, 2ita, @aksmana:;< on Chitrak,ta:;< 2,rpanakha:;< denosed !y @aksmana:;< J 3ama Y 2itaN 2,rpanakha:;< !efore 3avana:;< N Wall B Cfrom top to !ottomD tier 1 Cleft to ri"htD 8eer 3ama shoots )aricha in h,man form @aksmana:;< Y 2itaN tier 1 Cri"ht to leftD 2ita in h,t, 3avana:;< as !e""ar 3ama, @aksmana:;< , Y dead deer 3avana:;< , 2ita CkidnappedD, Y Jatay,:;< tier # Cleft to ri"htD 3ama Y 1 !l,e fi",res C>,m!has,ra Y >a!andaND 3ama, @aksmana:;< , Y co-herd tier 9 Bl,e fi",re Y -oman C2a!ariND, room Wall C Cfrom top to !ottomD 6an,mana meets 3ama 8,nd,!hiBs !ones & sal trees 8eath of Kalin

Wall 8 top: BharataBs visit !ottom: 3ama, @aksmana:;< , Y monkeys Wall ? top: Chitrak,ta:;< J 3ama marks 2ita -ith ocher !ottom: B,ildin" the !rid"e to @anka:;< Wall / top: Jam!havanJ @aksmana:;< strai"htens arro- on -ay to >iskindha:;< !ottom: Bl,e ascetic Y yo,th CKisvamitra and discipleD Wall .: 3ama, @aksmana:;< , Ki!hisana:;< , monkeys, c,ttin" ,m!rellas of 3avana:;< Wall 6 top, ri"ht: Battle -ith 0ndra5itaN charioteer vs. archer !ottom, ri"ht: 6an,mana -ith .andhamadanaJ .ar,da:;< -ith snake top, leftJ 8eath of >,m!hakarna:;< N !i" -hite fi",re !ottom, left: Kisn,:;< , t-ice Wall > CtopD: Battle !et-een 3ama Cri"htD Y 3avana:;< CleftD Wall @: Kisit to Bharadva5aBs ashramN 4triBs ashram o,t of se7,enceN /i",re 1$$. B,",da, Kiranchi:;< Earayana:;< Aemple, plan sho-in" location C4+@D of 3amayana:;< paintin"s.

/i",re 1$1. B,",da m,ral, -all 4 Ca!ove and opposite, top of pa"eD. /rom 2acrifice !y 3isyasrin"a:;< to 3amaBs e(ile Cread !ottom to topD.

/i",re 1$1. B,",da m,ral, -all B CoppositeJ read top to !ottomD. )a"ic deerJ >idnap, Jatay,:;< , 3ama, @aksmana:;< , and dead deerJ 3ama enco,nterin" >a!andha, co-herdsJ 2a!ari.

/i",re 1$#. B,",da m,ral, -all C. 8,nd,!hiBs !ones, 2even trees, 8eath of Kalin.

/i",re 1$9. B,",da m,ral, -all 8. BharataBs visit.

/i",re 1$G. B,",da m,ral, -alls 8+?, "eneral vie-. BharataBs visit, 3ama and monkeys, *cher mark, B,ildin" the !rid"e.

/i",re 1$6. B,",da m,ral, -all ?. *cher mark, B,ildin" the !rid"e.

/i",re 1$&. B,",da m,ral, -all ., top. C,ttin" 3avanaBs:;< ,m!rellas CleftD.

/i",re 1$%. B,",da m,ral, -all ., top ri"ht. Ki!hisana:;< points to 3avana:;< .

/i",re 1$9. B,",da m,ral, -all /, top. Kisvamitna and disciple.

/i",re 11$. B,",da m,ral, -all 6, !ottom. .ar,da:;< .

/i",re 111. B,",da m,ral, -all 6, !ottom. 6an,mana.

/i",re 111. B,",da m,ral, -all 6, left, top. Battle -ith >,m!hakarna:;< .

/i",re 11#.

B,",da m,ral, -all >. Battle !et-een 3avana:;< and 3ama.

/i",re 119. ),ral in .an"amata )atha:;< , P,ri. Coronation of 3ama. Photo: 4rchaeolo"ical 2,rvey of 0ndia.

/i",re 11G. ),ral in Ja"annatha Aemple, )anikarnika 2ahi, P,rl. C,ttin" 3avanaBs:;< ,m!rellas.

/i",re 116. Pata:;< paintin" Cco,rtesy of Bi!liothS7,e EationaleD. )ap of P,ri, confrontation !et-een 3ama and 3avana:;< in ,pper ri"ht. Photo Bi!liothS7,e Eationale.

/i",re 11&. Pata:;< paintin" Cco,rtesy of British ),se,mD. )ap of P,ri, confrontation !et-een 3ama and 3avana:;< in ,pper ri"ht. Photo British ),se,m.

/i",re 11%. Ja"annath )ahapatra, 19G9, ,nfinished set CartistBs collectionD. Crossin" to @anka:;< .

/i",re 119. Ja"annath )ahapatra, 19G9, ,nfinished set CartistBs col.D. @ava and >,sa fi"ht Bharata and @aksmana:;< .

/i",re 11$. Ja"annath )ahapatra, 196G. Battle !et-een 3avana:;< and 3ama.

/i",re 111. Bi!h,ti >an,n"o, 19&&. Crossin" to @anka:;< .

/i",re 111. Bi!h,ti >an,n"o, 19&&. Battle !et-een 3avana:;< and 3ama.

/i",re 11#. Ja"annath )ahapatra, 19%1+%# Ca,thorBs collectionD, no. l, 3isyasrin"a:;< and the co,rtesans.

/i",re 119. Ja"annath )ahapatra, 19%1+%#, no. 11. Aadaki:;< .

/i",re 11G. Ja"annath )ahapatra, 19%1+%#, no. 11. 4halya li!erated.

/i",re 116. Ja"annath )ahapatra, 19%1+%#, no. 1#. Ahe !oatman.

/i",re 11&. Ja"annath )ahapatra, 19%1+%#, no. 11. BharataBs visit.

/i",re 11%. Ja"annath )ahapatra, 19%1+%#, no. 1#. 8asarathaBs hands receive pinda:;< at .aya.

/i",re 119. Ja"annath )ahapatra, 19%1+%#, no. 19. 2,rpanakha:;< denosed.

/i",re 1#$. Ja"annath )ahapatra, 19%1+%#, no. 16. Ahe ma"ic deer.

/i",re 1#1. Ja"annath )ahapatra, 19%1+%#, no. 1&. Ahe kidnap.

/i",re 1#1. Ja"annath )ahapatra, 19%1+%#, no. 1%. Jatay,:;< attempts to stop 3avana:;< .

/i",re 1##. Ja"annath )ahapatra, 19%1+%#, no. #1. 8eath of Kalin.

/i",re 1#9. Ja"annath )ahapatra, 19%1+%#, no. 91. 6an,mana shot !y serpent+arro-.

/i",re 1#G. Ja"annath )ahapatra, 19%1+%#, no. 9#. 6an,mana sets fire to @anka:;< .

/i",re 1#6. Ja"annath )ahapatra, 19%1+%#, no. 9G. Crossin" to @anka:;< .

/i",re 1#&. Ja"annath )ahapatra, 19%1+%#, no. 9&. 4n"adaBs:;< em!assy

/i",re 1#%. Ja"annath )ahapatra, 19%1+%#, no. G6. 6an,mana -ith mo,ntain.

/i",re 1#9. Ja"annath )ahapatra, 19%1+%#, no. G&. )ahiravana:;< kidnaps 3ama and @aksmana:;< .

/i",re 19$. Ja"annath )ahapatra, 19%1+%#, no. G%. )ahiravana:;< !o-s to 8,r"a.

/i",re 191. Ja"annath )ahapatra, 19%1+%#, no. G9. 3ama -orships 8,r"a.

/i",re 191. Ja"annath )ahapatra, 19%1+%#, no. 6$. 3avana:;< fi"hts 3ama.

/i",re 19#. Ja"annath )ahapatra, 19%1+%#, no. 61. 2itaBs test.

/i",re 199. Ja"annath )ahapatra, 19%1+%#, no. 61. Coronation of 3ama.

/i",re 19G. Ja"annath )ahapatra, 19%1+%#, no. 66. 2itaBs sons sho-n to Kalmiki.

/i",re 196. Ja"annath )ahapatra, 19%1+%#, no. 69. @ava and >,sa fi"ht 2atr,"hna.

/i",re 19&. Ja"annath )ahapatra, 19%1+%#, no. &$. @ava and >,sa fi"ht Bharata and @aksmana:;< .

/i",re 19%. Ja"annath )ahapatra, 19%1+%#, no. &1. @ava and >,sa fi"ht 3ama.

/i",re 199. Ja"annath )ahapatra, 19%1+%#, no. &1. @ava and >,sa comfort 2ita.

/i",re 1G$. Ja"annath )ahapatra, 19%1+%#, no. &#. 3ama holds his sons.

/i",re 1G1. Ja"annath )ahapatra, 19%1+%#, no. &9. 2ita re5oins mother earth.

/i",re 1G1. Ja"annath )ahapatra, 19%1+%#, no. &G. 3ama cro-ns his sons.

/i",re 1G#. Unfinished 3amayana:;< pata:;< , 8anda 2ahi, 19%#.

/i",re 1GG. Banamali )aharana, 19%1. Pata:;< of Bharata shootin" 6an,mana.

/i",res 1G9 a+d Ctop of pa"e, opposite and a!oveD. Bhikari )aharana, 19%#. Pata:;< of 3amaBs story in seventy+five scenes.

/i",re 1G6. Bha"avata )aharana, 19%#. Pata:;< of BharataBs visit.

/i",re 1G&. Book cover Cco,rtesy of *rissa 2tate ),se,mD. Coronation of 3ama.

/i",re 1G%. Bha"avata )aharana, -ooden !o(, 19&$s. 3isyasrin"a:;< and co,rtesans.

/i",re 1G9. Bha"avata )aharana, -ooden !o(. )eetin" -ith Paras,rama.

/i",re 16$. Bha"avata )aharana, -ooden !o(. BharataBs visit.

/i",re 161. Bha"avata )aharana, -ooden !o(. C,ttin" 3avanaBs:;< ,m!rellas.

/i",re 161. Wall paintin", Coronation of 3ama, !y Pan, )aharana, 19G$s, 8anda 2ahi.

/i",re 16#. 2onep,r 3amayana:;< playin" cards: 0ndra5ita s,it, kin"J @aksmana:;< s,it, ministerJ 2,"riva s,it, oneJ 6an,mana s,it, five.

/i",re 169. Parlakhem,ndi, playin" card Cco,rtesy of Kictoria and 4l!ert ),se,m, @ondonD. 3ama shoots >hara, 8,sana:;< , and Arisiras.

/i",re 16G. Parlakhem,ndi, playin" card CKY4D. 3ama faints at not seein" 2ita.

/i",re 166. Parlakhem,ndi, playin" card CKY4D. 4fter tyin" ,p 6an,mana, 0ndra5ita !rin"s him to 3avana:;< .

/i",re 16&. Parlakhem,ndi, playin" card CKY4D. 6an,mana sets fire to @anka:;< .

/i",re 16%. Parlakhem,ndi, playin" card CKY4D. Coronation of 3ama.

/i",re 169. Jeypore, pata:;< c. 19$$ C*rissa 2tate ),se,mD. )arria"e of 3ama and his !rothers.

/i",re 1&$. 4panna )ahapatra, Chikiti, 19%1, pata:;< . Coronation of 3ama.

/i",re 1&1. 4panna )ahapatra, Chikiti, 19%%, pata:;< . C,ttin" of 3avanaBs:;< ,m!rellas.

/i",re 1&1. 2atr,"hnesvara Aemple, Bh,!anes-ar, dentils. 8eath of Kalin.

1 3ama, @aksmana:;< , Y 2ita see the deer 1 3ama h,nts the deer # )aricha 9 Prima Y @aksmana:;< G Jatay,:;< Y 3avana:;<

6 3ama, 2,"riva, Y other monkeys & 3ama, @aksmana:;< , and 6an,mana % 3ama shoots the sal trees 9 3ama shoots Kalin 1$ KalinBs death /i",re 1&#. 2varna5alesvara:;< Aemple, Bh,!anes-ar. Plan sho-in" ori"inal placement of 3amayana:;< reliefs.

/i",re 1&9. 2varna5alesvara:;< Aemple, Bh,!anes-ar. Kie- of north frieHe, 19%& Ctop sho-s 6 on /i",re 1&#, no- movedJ !ottom sho-s G to 1D.

/i",re 1&G. 2varna5alesvara:;< Aemple, Bh,!anes-ar, north -all. 8etail of ma"ic deer episode Ctop: )aricha emer"in" from deerD.

/i",re 1&6. 2varna5alesvara:;< Aemple, Bh,!anes-ar, -est -all. 3ama shoots trees, 8eath of Kalin.

/i",re 1&&. 2imhanatha Aemple. Plan sho-in" placement of 3amayana:;< reliefs.

/i",re 1&%. 2imhanatha Aemple, frieHe over -est central niche. 8eath of Kalin.

/i",re 1&9. 2imhanatha Aemple, frieHe at top of -est -all. Battle for @anka:;< Csee p. &#D.

1 3ama, @aksmana:;< , Y 2,rpanakha:;< N % 3ama, @aksmana:;< , Y Jatay,:;<

1 2,rpanakha:;< flees @aksmana:;< # 3avana:;< Y )aricha 9 3ama Y the ma"ic deer G @aksmana:;< Y 2itaN 6 )aricha, 3ama, Y @aksmana:;< & 3avana:;< Y Jatay,:;<

9 Kalin Y 8,nd,!hi 1$ 3ama, @aksmana:;< , Y 2,"riva 11 2even sal trees 11 8eath of Kalin 1# 2cenes of @anka:;< N

/i",re 1%$. Karahi Aemple, Cha,rasi. Plan sho-in" placement of 3amayana:;< reliefs.

/i",re 1%1. Karahi Aemple, Cha,rasi, frieHe on east -all of porch. 2,rpanakha:;< , )a"ic deer.

/i",re 1%1. Karahi Aemple, Cha,rasi, frieHe on north -all of porch. )arichaBs death, Jatay,:;< confronts 3avana:;< and meets 3ama, Kalin kills 8,nd,!hi, 3ama shoots trees, 8eath of Kalin.

/i",re 1%#. Karahi Aemple, Cha,rasi, frieHes on so,th -all of porch. Belo-, ,nidentified scenes -ith monkeysJ a!ove, !,ildin" of !rid"e to @anka:;< CND.

/i",re 1%9. Compo,nd of .a,ri Aemple, Bh,!anes-ar. 6an,mana.

/i",re 1%G. 2omanatha Aemple, Kishn,p,r, -indo- screen. 3ama flanked !y monkeysJ !elo-, @aksmana:;< strai"htenin" his arro-.

/i",re 1%6. 8harakot Palace, -ooden -indo- screen. Coronation of 3ama.

/i",re 1%&. ),ktesvara Aemple, Bh,!anes-ar. /oliate carvin" on so,th -all.

/i",re 1%%. P,rl, Ja"annatha Aemple. Plan sho-in" placement of 3amayana:;< paintin"s Csee 4ppendi( 9D.

/i",re 1%9. Earrative patas:;< of 3amayana:;< themes, dia"rams Csee 4ppendi( GDJ n,m!ers on dia"rams indicate se7,ence in -hich scenes are to !e read. ' 19G '

2i:lio&ra5h*
!rimar* Te4's
CAhe *riya a,thors are listed in alpha!etical order !y first name, the name !y -hich they are commonly kno-n.D dhyatma Ramayana[*] . Aranslated Cfrom 2anskritD into *riya !y .opala Aelen"a. Behramp,r: 2harada Press, 19&G. 4nan"a:;< Earendra. 2ri Ramalila[*] . C,ttack: *rissa Ja"annath Company, 19&%. Balarama:;< 8asa. 1agamohana Ramayana[*] CDandi[*] Ramayana[*] D. ?dited !y Aareshvar Cha,dh,ry and Banamali Bishvala. 9 vols. C,ttack: 8harma"rantha 2tore, n.d. Upendra BhaO5a. &a'anya'ati[*] . ?dited !y 3an5it 2in"h. C,ttack: 8,r"a Press, 19&&. FFF.*aidehisa *ilasa[*] . ?dited !y .a,rik,mar Brahma. C,ttack: *rissa .overnment Press, 19&9 Cvol. 1, chapters 1+1& onlyD. FFF. *aidehisa *ilasa[*] . ?dited !y 3an5it 2in"h. 9 vols. C,ttack: *rissa Ja"annath Company, 19&G+%#. Kaisya 2adasiva2ri Ramalila[*] . C,ttack: 8harma"rantha 2tore, n.d. Kalmiki. Ramayana[*] . Chief editor .. 6. Bhatt. & vols. Baroda: *riental 0nstit,te, 196$+&G.

Kisvanatha >h,ntia:;< . *ichitra Ramayana[*] C.isi Ramayana[*] D. C,ttack: 8harma"rantha 2tore, n.d.

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3onsort: Radha and the 0oddesses of India , edited !y John 2tratton 6a-ley and 8onna )arie W,lff, 1%9+1$#. 8elhi: )otilal Banarsidass, 19%9. 8onaldson, Ahomas ?. Hindu Tem!le rt of Orissa . # vols. @eiden: Brill, 19%G+%&. 8o-lin", ?ric. = !ate# gon , and @iterary 2elf+3efle(ivity in ?,ripidesB Helen.H 0n 3a(inet of the "uses: +ssays on 3lassical and 3om!arati'e &iterature in Honor of Thomas 0. Rosenmeyer , edited !y ). .riffith and 8. )astronarde. Berkeley: 2cholars Press, 199$. ?isner, Will. 3omics and 2e6uential rt . Aamarac, /la.: Poorho,se Press, 19%G. ?rndl, >athleen ). =Ahe ),tilation of 2,rpanakha:;< .= 0n "any Ramayanas[*] , edited !y Pa,la 3ichman, 6&+%%. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991. ?schmann, 4nncharlott, 6ermann >,lke, and .aya Charan Aripathi. The 3ult of 1agannath and the Regional Tradition of Orissa . Ee- 8elhi: )anohar, 19&%. ?ttin"ha,sen, 3ichard. /aintings of the 2ultans and +m!erors of India in merican 3ollections . Bom!ay: @alit >ala 4kademi, 1961. /akirmohan 2enapati. "y Times and I . Aranslated !y John Bo,lton. Bh,!anes-ar: *rissa 2ahitya 4kademi, 19%G. /eer, @Lon. =0ntrod,ction d, Eo,vea, Catalo",e des )on,ments )alais+Javanais de la Bi!liothS7,e Eational,= Re'ue des .i(liothP6ues % C1%9%D, #&1+%$. /ischer, ?!erhard, and 8inanath Pathy, Die /erlen%ette dem 0elie(ten . 3iet!er" 2erie no. G. Q,rich: ),se,m 3iet!er", 199$. /ischer, ?!erhard, Jyotindra Jain, 6ak, 2hah. Tem!eltNcher fNr die "uttergottinnen in Indien . Q,rich: ),se,m 3iet!er", 19%1. /ischer, ?!erhard, 2itakant )ahapatra, and 8inanath Pathy. Orissa: -unst und -ultur in 8ordostIndien . Q,rich: ),se,m 3iet!er", 19%$. ' 19% ' /ischer, >la,s. =*rissan 4rt in the ?vol,tion of Postmediaeval 0ndian C,lt,re.= Orissa Historical Research 1ournal #, no. 1 C19G9D, 1&. .enette, .Lrard. 8arrati'e Discourse: n +ssay in "ethod . Aranslated !y Jane ?. @e-in. 0thaca, EeIork: Cornell University Press, 19%$. FFF. 8arrati'e Discourse Re'isited . Aranslated !y Jane ?. @e-in. 0thaca, Ee- Iork: Cornell University Press, 19%%. .hosh, 8. ? =?astern 2chool of )ediaeval 0ndian Paintin" CAhirteenth+?i"hteenth Cent,ry 4.8. D.= 0n 3hha'i 0olden 1u(ilee *olume , edited !y 4nand >rishna, 91+1$#. Banaras: Bharat >ala Bhavan, 19&1. .h,rye, .. 2. Indian 2adhus . 1nd ed. Bom!ay: Pop,lar Prakashan, 1969. .oldman, 3o!ert ? =Ahe 2erpent and the 3ope on 2ta"e: Pop,lar, @iterary, anti Philosophical 3epresentations of 3eality in Araditional 0ndia.= 1ournal of Indian /hiloso!hy 19, no. 9 C8ecem!er 19%6D, #99+69. .oldman, 3o!ert P., ed. The Ramayana[*] of *almi%i: n +!ic of ncient India . Kol. 1, .ala%anda[*] , annotation !y 3. P .oldman and 2. J. 2,therland. Princeton, Ee- Jersey: Princeton

University Press, 19%9. .ole, 2,san. Indian "a!s and /lans# from +arliest Times to the d'ent of +uro!ean 2ur'eys . Ee8elhi: )anohar, 19%9. .oodman, Eelson. =A-isted AalesJ or, 2tory, 2t,dy, and 2ymphony.= 0n On 8arrati'e , edited !y W. J. A. )itchell, 99+11G. Chica"o: University of Chica"o Press, 19%1. .orresio, .aspare. Ramayana# !oema sanscrito di *almici . & vols. Paris: 2tamperia 0mperiale, 1%9#+ 9%. .os-ami, Eiran5an. 3atalogue of /aintings of the sutosh "useum "s. of the Ramacaritamanasa . Calc,tta: 4s,tosh ),se,m, 19%1. 6andi7,i, >. >. /ra'arasena7s 2etu(andha . 4hmeda!ad: Prakrit Ae(t 2ociety, 19&6. 6ein, Eorvin. The "iracle /lays of "athura . Ee- 6aven, Connectic,t: Iale University Press, 19&1. 6ess, @inda. =Ahe Poet, the People, and the Western 2cholar: 0nfl,ence of a 2acred 8rama and Ae(t on 2ocial Kal,es in Eorth 0ndia.= Theatre 1ournal 9$, no. 1 C19%%D, 1#6+G#. FFF. =3am @ila: Ahe 4,dience ?(perience.= 0n .ha%ti in 3urrent Research# ;><>-;>:@ , edited !y )onika Ahiel+6orstmann, 1&1+99. Berlin: 8ietrich 3eimer, 19%#. 0n"alls, 8aniel 6. 6. n nthology# of 2ans%rit 3ourt /oetry: *idha%ara7s H2u(hasitaratna%osa[*] .= Cam!rid"e: 6arvard University Press, 196G. 0sacco, ?nrico, 4. @. 8allapiccola, et al. -rishna the Di'ine &o'er . @ondon: 2erindia P,!lications, and Boston: 8avid 3. .odine, 19%1. Jha, >alanath. Jigurati'e /oetry in 2ans%rit &iterature . 8elhi: )otilal Banarsidass, 19&G. >ane, Pand,ran" Kaman. History of Dharmasastra . G vols. 1nd ed. Poona: Bhandarkar *riental 3esearch 0nstit,te, 196%+&&. >ar, >r,shna Chandra, 2,rendra >,mar 8as, and >,mari 2hantilata 2ah,. Ramayana in Ordisi /ata /ainting . C,ttack: Panchali P,!lications, 19&&. >eith, 4. Berriedale. The 2ans%rit Drama . 3eprint. @ondon: *(ford University Press, 1969. >handalavala, >arl, and )oti Chandra. n Illustrated H ranya%a[*] /ar'anH of the siatic 2ociety of .om(ay . Bom!ay: 4siatic 2ociety of Bom!ay, 19&9. ' 199 ' FFF. 8ew Documents of Indian /ainting Fa Rea!!raisal . Bom!ay: Prince of Wales ),se,m, 1969. >ramrisch, 2tella. =Ahe 6,ndred Kerses of 4mar, 0ll,strated= 1ournal of the Indian 2ociety of Oriental rt % C199$D, 116+9$. FFF. )n%nown India: Ritual rt in Tri(e and *illage . Philadelphia: Philadelphia ),se,m of 4rt, 196%. >,lke, 6ermann. =B>satriyaiHation:;< B and 2ocial Chan"e in Post+)edieval *rissa.= 0n 0erman 2cholars on India , 1:196+G9. Ee- 8elhi: Eachiketa P,!lications, 19&6. @e .,in, Urs,la >. =0t Was a 8ark and 2tormy Ei"htJ or, Why 4re We 6,ddlin" a!o,t the CampfireN= 0n On 8arrati'e , edited !y W. J. A. )itchell, 1%&+9G. Chica"o: University of Chica"o Press, 19%1.

@eyden, 3,dolf von. 0an4ifa: The /laying 3ards of India. @ondon: Kictoria and 4l!ert ),se,m, 19%$. @osty, Jeremiah P The rt of the .oo% in India. @ondon: British @i!rary, 19%1. FFF. -rishna: Hindu *ision of 0od . @ondon: British @i!rary, 19%$. @,kacs, .eor". =Earrate or 8escri!e.= 0n Mriter and 3ritic and Other +ssays , edited and translated !y 4rth,r 8. >ahn. Ee- Iork: .rosset and 8,nlap, 19&$. @,t"endorf, Philip. The &ife of a TeDt: /erforming the Ramcaritmanas of Tulsidas . Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991. FFF. =3amayan: Ahe Kideo.= Drama Re'iew #9, no. 1 C2,mmer 199$D, 11&+&6. FFF. =Ahe 2ecret @ife of 3amcandra of 4yodhya= 0n "any Ramayanas[*] , edited !y Pa,la 3ichman, 11&+#9. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991. FFF. =Ahe Kie- from the .hats: Araditional ?(e"esis of a 6ind, ?pic.= 1ournal of sian 2tudies 9% C19%9D, 1&1+%%. @,tHker, )ary+4nn. =Ahe Cele!ration of 4r5,naFthe >iratar5,niya and the 4r5,na-i-aha in 2o,th and 2o,theast 4sian 4rt.= Ph.8. dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 19%#. )ahapatra, >edarnath, compiler. Descri!ti'e 3atalogue of 2ans%rit "anuscri!ts of Orissa in the 3ollection of the Orissa 2tate "useum# .hu(aneswar . vol. #, /urana[*] "anuscri!ts . Bh,!anes-ar: 2,perintendant, 3esearch and ),se,m, *rissa, 1961. FFF. -hurudha Itihasa . 1nd ed. C,ttack: .ranthamandir, 19%9. )ahapatra, 2itakant, and 8,khishyam Pattanayak. marusata%am . Bh,!anes-ar: *rissa @alit >ala 4kademi, 19%9. )ansinha, )ayadhar. History of Oriya &iterature . Ee- 8elhi: 2ahitya 4kademi, 1961. )ar"lin, /rLdLri7,e 4pffel. Mi'es of the 0od--ing . Ee- 8elhi: *(ford University Press, 19%G. )aH,mdar, B. C. Ty!ical 2elections from Oriya &iterature . % vols. Calc,tta: Calc,tta University Press, 1911+1G. )ehta, E. C., and )oti Chandra. The 0olden Jlute: Indian /ainting and /oetry . Ee- 8elhi: @alit >ala 4kademi, 1961. )ishra, ? >. The .haga'ata /urana[*] : n Illustrated Oriya /almleaf "anuscri!t# /arts *III-IQ . Ee- 8elhi: 4!hinav P,!lications, 19%&. )itra, 8e!ala. =/o,r @ittle+>no-n >hakara Aemples of *rissa.= 1ournal of the siatic 2ociety of .engal 1 C196$D, 1+1#. ' 1$$ ' FFF. -onara% . Ee- 8elhi: 4rchaeolo"ical 2,rvey of 0ndia, 196%. )ittal, Ja"dish. ndhra /aintings of the Ramayana . 6ydera!ad: 4ndhra Pradesh @alit >ala 4kademi, 1969. )ohanty, Bi5oy Chandra. !!li6uK 3raft of Orissa . 4hmeda!ad: Calico ),se,m of Ae(tiles, 19%$. FFF. /atachitras of Orissa . 4hmeda!ad: Calico ),se,m of Ae(tiles, 19%$. )oor, ?d-ard. The Hindu /antheon . @ondon, 1%1$.

),khopadhyay, 8,r"hadas. =2ahi Iatra= 0n &esser -nown Jorms of /erforming rts in India# "inimaD: 2!ecial 8um(er B&6, 119+1#. Ee- 8elhi, 19&6, Eanavail, J. )., ). P. Kora, and ). 4. 8haky The +m(roideries and .eadwor% of -utch and 2aurashtra . Baroda: 8epartment of 4rchaeolo"y, .,5arat 2tate, 1966. *B/laherty, Wendy Dreams# Illusion# and Other Realities . Chica"o: University of Chica"o Press, 19%9. Pani, Ji-an. Ra'ana 3hhaya . Ee- 8elhi: 2an"eet Eatak 4kademi, n.d. Pani, 2,!as. Illustrated /almleaf "anuscri!ts of Orissa . Bh,!anes-ar: *rissa 2tate ),se,m, 19%9. Pani"rahi, >rishna Chandra. rchaeological Remains at .hu(aneswar . Bom!ay: *rient @on"+man, 1961. Patnaik, >a!ichandra >aticharan. -um(hara 3ha%a . C,ttack, 19&G. FFF. Raga-citra . C,ttack: *disi >ala Prakash, 1966. Pattanayak, 2,dhakar. .ra4anatha 0rantha'ali[*] . Bh,!anes-ar: *rissa 2ahitya 4kademi, 19&G. Pathy, 8inanath. "ural /aintings in Orissa . Bh,!anes-ar: *rissa @alit >ala 4kademi, 19%1. Pillai, @. 8. 2-amikann,. n Indian +!hemeris , vol. 6. 3eprint. Ee- 8elhi: 4"ain >ala Prakashan, 19%1. Pollock, 2heldon 0., trans. and intro. The Ramayana[*] of *almi%i: n +!ic of ncient India . Kol. 1, yodhya%anda[*] . Princeton, Ee- Jersey: Princeton University Press, 19%6. FFF. The Ramayana[*] of *almi%i: n +!ic of ncient India . Kol. #, ranya%anda[*] . Princeton, Ee- Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1991. Prince, .erald. 8arratology# The Jorm and Junctioning of 8arrati'e . Berlin: )o,ton, 19%1. 3amachandran, A. E. =Ahe -iratar4uniyam[*] or B4r5,naBs PenanceB in 0ndian 4rt,= 1ournal of the Indian 2ociety of Oriental rt 1% C19G$+G1D, 1+111. 3aman,5an, 4. >. =Ahree 6,ndred Ramayanas[*] .= 0n "any Ramayanas[*] , edited !y Pa,la 3ich+ man, #+99. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991. 3ath, Aarini Charan. 0humsar Itihasa . C,ttack: Utkal 2ahitya Press, 191#. 3ay, ?va. =8oc,mentation for Paithan:;< Paintin"s.= rti(us siae 9$ C19&%D, 1#9+%1. 3ichman, Pa,la. =?. K. 3amasamiBs 3eadin" of the Ramayana[*] .= 0n "any Ramayanas[*] , edited !y Pa,la 3ichman, 1&G+1$1. Berkeley: University of California Press, l991. 3ichman, Pa,la, ed. "any Ramayanas[*] : The Di'ersity of a 8arrati'e Tradition in 2outh sia . Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991. 2ahoo, >. C. =0ndian 3ama @iterat,re and Ja"amohan 3amayana.= 0n Ramayana Traditions and 8ational 3ultures in sia , edited !y 8. 3. 2inha and 2. 2ahai, 1&G+&%. @,ckno-: 8irectorate of C,lt,ral 4ffairs, .overnment of Uttar Pradesh, 19%9. ' 1$1 ' FFF. =*riya 3ama @iterat,re= Ph.8. dissertation, 3anchi University, 196G. 2ah,, E. >., state editor. .alangir District 0aLetteer . C,ttack: *rissa .overnment Press, 196%. 2anford, 8avid Aheron. =?arly Aemples Bearin" 3amayana:;< 3elief Cycles in the Chola 4rea: 4

Comparative 2t,dy.= Ph.8. dissertation, UC@4, 19&9. FFF. =)iniat,re 3elief 2c,lpt,res at the P,llaman"ai 2iva Aemple, -ith 2pecial 3eference to the 3amayana 2e7,ence.= 0n -usuman4ali: 8ew Inter!retation of Indian rt and 3ulture , edited !y ). 2. Ea"ara5a 3ao, 1&&+%&. 8elhi: 4"am >ala Prakashan, 19%&. 2chechner, 3ichard. .etween Theatre and nthro!ology . Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 19%G. 2kelton, 3o!ert. Indian "iniatures from the Jifteenth to 8ineteenth 3enturies . Kenice: )eri PoHHi, 1961. 2mith, W. @. Ramayana[*] Traditions in +astern India . 2tockholm: 8ept. of 0ndolo"y, University. of 2tockholm, 19%%. 2tache+3osen, Kalentia. =*n the 2hado- Aheatre in 0ndia= 0n 0erman 2cholars on India , edited !y the C,lt,ral 8epartment of the ?m!assy. of the /ederal 3ep,!lic of .ermany, 1:1&6+%G. Bom!ay.: Eachiketa P,!lications, 19&#. 2t,tterheim, Willem. Rama-&egenden und Rama-Reliefs in Indonesien . 1 vols. ),nich. .eor" )^ller, 191G. Ahapar, 3omila. =Ahe 3amayana 2yndrome.= 2eminar #G# CJan,ary 19%9D, &1+&G. Aodorov, AHvetan. 0enres in Discourse . Aranslated !y Catherine Porter. Cam!rid"e: Cam!rid"e University Press, 199$. Kats, )adho 2ar,p. The 0u!ta Tem!le at Deogarh: "emoirs of the rchaeological 2ur'ey of India , vol. &$. Ee- 8elhi: 420, 19G9. Katsyayan, >apila. =Ahe 0ll,strated )an,scripts of the .ita+.ovinda from *rissa.= 0n "adhu: Recent Researches in Indian rchaeology and rt History# 2hri ". 8. Desh!ande Jestschrift , edited !y ). 2. Ea"ara5a 3ao. Ee- 8elhi: 4"ain >ala Prakashan, 19%1. The *ishnudharmottara[*] C/art III D. Aranslated !y 2tella >ramrisch. Calc,tta: Calc,tta University Press, 191%. The *isnudharmottara-/urana[*] # Translation of the Third -handa[*] . Aranslated !y Priya!ala 2hah. Baroda: .aek-ad *riental 2eries no. 1#&, 1961. Waldman, )arilyn 3o!inson. =Ahe *ther-ise Unnote-orthy Iear &11: 4 3eply to 6ayden White= 0n On 8arrati'e , edited !y W. J. A. )itchell, 19$+9%. Chica"o: University of Chica"o Press, 19%1. Waldschmidt, ?rnst, and 3ose @enore Waldschmidt. Indische "alerei . 0n Indien und 2Ndostasien# /ro!ylaen -unstgeschichte , vol. 16, edited !y 6. 6artel and J. 4,!oyer. Berlin: Propylaen Kerla", 19&1. Welch, 2t,art Cary. India: rt and 3ulture# ;A??-;>?? . Ee- Iork: )etropolitan ),se,m of 4rt, 19%G. FFF. Indian Drawings and /ainted 2%etches . Ee- Iork: 4sia 2ociety, 19&6. Whalin", /rank. The Rise of the Religious 2ignificance of Rama . Ee- 8elhi: )otilal Banarsidass, 19%$. Williams, Joanna. =CriticiHin" and ?val,atin" the Kis,al 4rts in 0ndia: 4 Preliminary ?(ample.= 1ournal of sian 2tudies 9& C19%%D, #+1%. FFF. =Ahe ?m!assyFan *rissan Paintin" in the 4s,tosh ),se,m= 0n Indian rt and

' 1$1 ' 3onnoisseurshi!: +ssays in Honour of Douglas .arrett , edited !y John .,y, 19$+9%. 4hmeda!ad: )apin, 199G. FFF. =/rom the /ifth to the A-entieth Cent,ry and Back= 3ollege rt 1ournal 99, no. 9 CWinter 199$D, #6#+69. FFF. =Jatay, the Kaliant K,lt,re in the Kernac,lar 4rt of ?astern 0ndia.= 0n The 2tory of Rama in rt and 3ulture , edited !y K. 8ehe5ia, 11&+16. Bom!ay: )ar", 1999. FFF. =Je-els from Jalantara: *rissan 0ll,strated )an,scripts !y Bala!hadra Pathy.= 0n Indian /ainting: +ssays in Honour of -arl -handala'ala , edited !y B. E. .os-amy, 969+&9. Ee- 8elhi: @alit >ala 4kademi, 199G. FFF. =)arria"e Paintin"s in 2o,th and Central *rissa= 1ournal of the Orissa Research 2ociety # C19%GD, 9+9. FFF. =4 Painted 3a"amala from *rissa= &alit -ala 1# C19%%D, 19+19. FFF. =2iva and the C,ll: of Ja"annatha: 0cono"raphy and 4m!i",ity.= 0n Discourses on 2i'a , edited !y )ichael W. )eister, 19%+#11. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 19%9. Williams, Joanna, and Ja"annath Prasad 8as, =3a"h,natha Pr,sti:;< : 4n *riya 4rtist.= rti(us siae 9% C19%&D, 1#1+G9. ' 1$# '

Inde4
C)ost *riya a,thors and artists are listed in alpha!etical order !y first name, the name !y -hich they are commonly kno-n.D

A
dhyatma Ramayana[*] , 11 , 19 +1G, 16 , 1& , 9% +G$, G1 , &G , &% , &9 +%$, %1 , %1 , %# , %9 , %6 , %& , 91 , 9# , 9& , 99 +1$$, 1$1 +1, 1$9 , 1$9 , 1#1 , 1## , 1#9 , 16& n. 16 C. @. Bharany C,np,!lishedD, 99 , 9$ , 111 , fi"s. &%+&9 Eational ),se,m, Ee- 8elhi, 99 , 111 , fi"s. &G+&& private collection, Ee- 8elhi, Cfra"mentaryD, G$ , fi"s. %$+%1 of 2arathi )adala Paitnak, 9& , 9% +99, G1 , G# +G9, %1 , %G , %% , 99 , 96 , 9% , 99 +1$$, 1$# , 1$G +6, 111 +1#, 119 , 1## Bh,!anes-ar, 99 , fi"s. G$+GG C. @. Bharany, 99 , fi"s. 6%+&1 Ee- Iork P,!lic @i!rary, 99 , fi"s. G6+6& Utkal University @i!rary, 99 , G$ , fi"s. &1+&9 adi'asis Ca!ori"inalsD, 1#1 4halya, & , 1G , #9 , %1 +%9, 111 , 11G , 116 , 119 , 119 , 11& , 1%# n. 1#, fi"s. %, G$, G6, 99, 1$9, 1$G,

119, 11&, 19G, 1G9, 1&%, 196, 11G 45it 2inha, 1G maru 2ata%a , 9% , 6& analepsis. 2ee flash!ack nanda Ramayana[*] , 91 4nan"a:;< Earendra, 169 n. 69 4nanta )aharana. 2ee )aharana, 4nanta 4nantasayana:;< , 119 , 11G , 191 n. ## 4nanta Kas,deva Aemple, Bh,!anes-ar, &G 4ndhra, 1 , #9 , GG , G6 , 6# , 6& , 1$$ ngada[*] /adi[*] , 1% , 1$$ 4n"adaBs:;< mission, 99 , 1$$ , 1$1 , fi"s. 1#6, 1#& 4ranya:;< >anda:;< , 11 +1#, 1% 4ristotle, 9 , 1$9 , 11$ , 11$ , 1#$ , 1#% , 16G n. %, 19$ n. 6 4r5,na, &1 , &1 rtatrana[*] 3hautisa , 11# 4s,reshvar, #6 , #& , 1#% , pl. 1 4yodhya >anda:;< , % +11, 11 , 1% , 19

2
Bah,da:;< Jatra 2ee Cart /estival, P,ri Bakhtin, )ikhail, 1#6 Bala >anda:;< , & +%, 1% Balarama:;< 8asa, 1# , 16 +1&, 19 J 1agamohana Ramayana[*] , 11 , 16 , 1& , 19 , #$ , %9 , %& , 91 , 9# , 96 , 9& , 1$$ , 1$1 , 1$9 , 166 nn. 9, 1$, 11, 16& n. 1G, 1%1 n. #, 1%# n. 11 Bal,keshvarp,r, G1 , G# , 116 , 191 (andha , 91 , 99 , 1$# , 111 , 11# , 116 , 1#9 , 19$ , 1%6 n. G9 Baripada. 2ee Upendra BhaO5a, *aidehisa *ilasa[*] , of 2atr,"hna Barthes, 3oland, G +6, 1#9 , 16G nn. %, 9 Battle for @anka:;< , 16 , &# , 1$1 +#, 11G , 11& , 119 +#$, fi"s. #$, 1&9 ' 1$9 ' Belpada. 2ee 3amalila:;< , other performance sites Banaras, 19 , #G . 2ee also 3amalila:;< , Banaras

Ben"al, 1 , 16 , #$ , 1#6 3amayana:;< ima"es in, &1 , %9 , 1%9 n. ## 3amayana:;< stories in, 11 , 19 , 16 , 1& , #$ , %& , %9 , 16& n. #:G, 1%1 n. 9 Kaishnavism in, 1## .haga'adgita , 1G , %9 Bha"avata )aharana. 2ee )aharana, Bha"avata .haga'ata /urana[*] , 96 , 9& , 9% (ha%ti , 1#G , 1%# n. 19 and 6an,mana, #% , &G , 9# , 96 , 1$1 , 1$# , 1$6 , 1#1 and >rishna, 19 , 1G +16, 1#1 +## and 3ama, 19 , 1G , 16 , %& , 1#1 +##, 16& n. 19, 19# n. G and Kisn,:;< , 1&6 n. 6# Bhan5ana"ar. 2ee .h,msar Bharata shoots 6an,mana, 1$1 , fi". 1GG BharataBs visit, 11 , %9 +%6, 119 , 111 , 119 , pl. 9, fi"s. 1G, G&, &G, &%, 11G, 19&, 16$, 161, 1%#, 1$9, 1$G, 11&, 1G6, 16$ Bi!h,ti >an,n"o. 2ee >an,n"o, Bi!h,ti Bisipada. 2ee 3amalila:;< , Bisipada Blake, William, G1 .rahma Ramayana[*] , 1G , 16 , G& +G%, %$ , %1 , 11# +19, 1#1 , 1#6 !rahman. 2ee caste .rahma'ai'arta /urana[*] , 19 .ra4a .ihara , G1 , 19$ n. 1% Bra5anatha Bada5ena:;< , 96 , 9& , 9% , 69 , 1#& .rihat%osala[*] -anda[*] , 1G B,",da, KiraOchi Earayana:;< m,rals, G6 , 61 +69, 66 , 69 , &6 , &9 , %1 , %1 , %9 +%G, %6 , %& +%%, %9 , 91 +9#.99, 9G , 96 , 9% , 99 , 1$$ , 1$1 , 1$1 , 1$# +9, 1$G . 111+1#, 11% +#$, 1#& , 191 , 191 n. 19, pl. 11, fi"s. 1$$+11# !,ildin" the !rid"e to @anka:;< , 16 , 1G , 19 , &9 , 9& +99, 111 , 111 , 119 , fi"s. 19, 69, &1, 9&, 11$, 1G#, 1%9, 1$G, 1$6, 1%#J the s7,irrelBs role, 9& +99, 11& , 11$ , 1## , 16& n. #G, 1%& n. &6 B,lke, >., 11 B,rnin" of @anka:;< , 16 , #G , 91 , 96 +9&, 99 , 11% , 116 , fi"s. 1&9, 1#G, 16&

C
cards

Parlakhem,ndi, 6& +6%, 96 , 1$$ , 11G +1&, 1#& , 1#% , 1&9 n. 119, 1%% n. %6, fi"s. 169+6% 2onep,r, 6& , fi". 16# Cart /estival, P,rl, 1& , #6 , G% , G9 , 1&& n. &# caste, 16 , 96 , 1#& !rahman, 96 , 1#& karana:;< , 16 , 96 , 1#& 2ee also chitrakara, r,pakara Chaitanya, 16 Chaitanya )atha:;< , P,ri, 6% Cha,rasi, Karahi Aemple, &# +&9, &G , fi"s. 1%$+%# Chha,, #% +#9, 1&$ n. && Chikiti, ## , 6% +69, 1$$ , 1$G chitra%ara , 96 , G1 , G& , G% +69, &6 ,, &% , &9 , %1 , %9 , %G , %% , 91 , 9# , 1$$ , 1$1 , 1$1 , 1$G , 1$% , 11G , 119 , 11G , 11& , 1#6 +#&, 191 , 191 , 1&& n. &# comics, G , 11G , 16G n. # Coomaras-amy, 4nanda, 69 , 1#9

D
8anda:;< Jatra, #6 +#%, 1#% , 1&$ n. 6%, 1%1 n. 19, pl. 1 8anda 2ahi, 6$ , 61 , 66 , 11& , 19$ , 191 nn. #6, #& Dandi[*] Ramayana[*] . 2ee Balarama:;< 8asa, 1agamohana Ramayana[*] 8asakathia:;< , #9 8asapalla. 2ee 3amalila:;< , 8asapalla 8asaratha death of, 11 , %9 , 116 sacrifice of, & , #9 , &% +%1, 119 +1$, fi"s. 191, 1&6 8asavatara )atha:;< , G& 8ashahra, 1& , #$ , 16% n. G1 8esia Eata:;< , #1 de'adasi , &9 8hanan5aya:;< , 96 , 9& , 9% 8hanan5aya:;< Bhan5a, 61 8hanan5aya:;< C3a5aD, 1% 8harakot, 6# , &6 , 1$G , 191 , fi". 1%6 8imock, ?d-ard, 1#6

8irection, of readin" ima"es, &1 , &9 , 99 , 119 , 11& +19, 1%$ nn. 1, G, 1%% n. &9 8,nd,!hi, 19 , &9 , 91 , 9# , 99 , 9G , 11$ , fi"s. 1G1, 16%, 1$#, 1%1 ' 1$G ' 8,r"a, 1& , #% , 6& , 1$1 , 1$# , 11# , 11& , 1#% , fi"s. %9, 19$, 191 Durga 2tuti , 1& , 99 , G$ , %$ , %% , 1$# , 111 , 11# +19

E
?kalavya, 16 ellipsis, %$ , %# ?,ripides, Helen , 1#9

F
film, 9 , G flash!ack, 6 , &1 +&1, &9 , %$ , 116 , 1%$ n. & flash+for-ard, 6 , &1 , 9$ , 9G , 119 , 116 , 1%$ n. 6 focaliHers, 191 n. 19

;
gada4ata[*] kin"doms, 61 , 6& .anesa:;< , #% , 6G .an"amata )atha:;< , P,rl, 6# , 1$9 , fi". 119 .ania. 2ee 3amalila:;< , .ania gan4ifa. 2ee cards, 2onep,r .ar,da:;< resc,es 3ama and @aksmana:;< , 1& , 1$1 +#, 119 , fi"s. #$, 11$ .a,ri 6andicrafts Centre, Bh,!anes-ar, 6$ .a,ri Aemple, Bh,!anes-ar, &G , 1$1 , fi". 1%9 gaya%as , #9 , 11% , 169 n. 6& .enette, .Lrard, 6 , 1%$ n. 6, 191 n. 19 .h,msar, 1% , 61 .hyanasyama Bada5ena:;< , 96 , 9& 0ita 0o'inda#1G , 9G , 96 , 9& , 9% , G1 , GG , 119 , 1#1 , 1%& n. &1 .opa!hand,, 1% .opala Aelen"a, 1G .otip,a:;< , #$ , #%

.,5arati, 9G , G# (ha'ai , 16% n. 9% interpretations of t-o+headed deer, 9$ , 1## , 1#G , 1%6 n. G9

H
ha%im , G% 6an,mana emphasis on, #G , #% , 9# , &G , 96 , 1#1 . 2ee also (ha%ti , and 6an,mana e(ploits of, in @anka:;< , 16 , #G , 91 , 9G +9&, 1$$ , 11% , 116 , 11& , fi"s. 1%, G1, 1#9, 1&1, 1&#, 1#9, 166 isolated ima"es, ## , &G meets 3ama, 19 , 91 , fi". 1G and )o,nt .andhamadana, 16 , 1& , &# , &G , 9G , 1$1 +9, 1$G , 116 , 119 , 1%& n. 6&, 1%% n. 9$, 191 n. #&, fi"s. ##, G#, %G, 111, 1G9, 191, 1#% Hanumana 2tuti , 1& , 99 , G$ , %$ , 1$# , 11# +19, fi"s. %G+%6

I
iconic ta!lea,. 2ee 4han%i[*] 0ndra5ita capt,res 6an,mana, 16 , 96 , fi". &$ -o,nds @aksmana:;< , 16 , 1& , 1$1 +9, 11# , 119 , 1#9 , 19$ , fi"s. #1, %#, 1G9 0tamati, 6$ , 69

J
Jad,mani )ahapatra, 69 , 1#& 1agamohana Ramayana[*] . 2ee Balarama 8asa, 1agamohana Ramayana[*] Ja"annath )ahapatra. 2ee )ahapatra, Ja"annath Ja"annatha ima"es of, G% +G9, 69 , 9% , 1#1 , 1## , 191 in 3ama te(ts, 1G , 16 , 1& , 1% , 9& -orship of, 16 , #9 , 1#1 , 1## , 1#G , 1&$ n. &6 Ja"annatha Aemple, P,ri, G9 , G% , 61 , 69 , 69 , %% , 116 , 11& , 1## , 1G# , 1G9 , 1&$ n. &6, 1&& n. &#, fi". 1%% Ja"annatha Aemple, )anikarnika 2ahi, P,ri, 6# , 1$$ , 1#$ , fi". 11G Ja"annatha Aemples, in fe,datory states, #6 , 61 , 6# , 6& , 6% Jalantara, GG , 9& , 11%

Jam!avan, 9# , 9G , 1$1 , 111 , fi". 19$ Janardana 8asa, #1 , 169 n. G6 Jatay,Bs:;< death, 1# , &9 , %6 , fi". 11 Jatay,:;< fi"hts 3avana:;< , 1# , #6 , &9 , %6 +%9, 111 , 119 , 11& , fi"s. 19, 11&, 166, 1%&, 1$1, 1#1, 1%1 Jatra, #1 , 6G , 169 n. 6# Jeypore, 6% 4han%i[*] , #6 +#&, 6# , &6 , 1$G , 11G , 191 ' 1$6 '

3
>a!andha, 19 , %& , fi"s. 11, 1$1 >alanemi, 1& , 1$1 , 1$# , fi"s. 66, 1#& >alicharan Patnaik, 191 >anchi+>averi, 69 , 1$$ %andas[*] , & , 11 >an,n"o, Bi!h,ti, 6G +66 karana:;< . 2ee caste, karana:;< %atha , 1$% , 1%9 nn. 1, # %a'ya , 1% , 119 >hara 8,sana:;< , 11 , &9 , %6 , fi"s. 1%G, 169 >honds, #1 , #9 , 1#1 , 16% n. G9 >iskindha:;< >anda:;< , 19 +16, 1% , 91 >onarak, 2,n Aemple, 9% , &G , 1$G >ripasindh, Pattanayaka:;< , G1 >risna:;< , 16 , #% , %9 , %& , 1## (ha%ti , 19 , 1G +16, 1#1 +## Birthday paintin"s, 66 , 11& and go!is , 19 , 1G +16, G& 3aslila:;< , %% -all paintin"s, 6% >rishna Chandra 8eo Bhan5, #1 , #9 >rishna Chandra:;< 3a5endra, ## , G$ , %% , 119 , 19$ , 169 n. 6# >ritti!asa:;< , 19

>,lamani 8as, G1 , G# , 116 , 191 >,m!hakarna:;< , 16 , 1$1 , 1$# , 119 , 11G , 119 , 1%% n. 9$, fi"s. #1, 111 -urma /urana[*] , 19

@aksmana:;< strai"htens the arro-, &6 , && , 9# , 9G , 111 , 11% , 119 , 1#& , pl. 11, fi". 1%G @anka:;< Podi:;< , 9$ +9#, 6& , 96 , 1%1 n. 19, fi"s. 9&+9% @ankesvari:;< shrine, 2onep,r, 6& @ava >,sa, 11 , 11 , 1$9 , fi"s. 119, 19G+G$, 1G1 &a'anya'ati[*] . 2ee Upendra Bhan5a, &a'anya'ati[*] @omapada, &% , &9 , %$ , 111

9
ma"ic deer, 16 , #G , 9$ , 99 , &1 , &9 , %6 +91, 1$$ , 11# , 11% , 11& , 1#G , 1#% , 1%G n. 99, fi"s. 1%, 99, G1, 6$, 6%, &6, &9, %1, 116, 11%, 1%6, 1$1, 1#$, 1&G, 1%1 )aricha emer"es, 11 , &1 , &9 m,lti+headedness of, 9$ +91, 1## , 1%G n. G$, 1%6 nn. G1+G9 3ama h,nts, 11 , &1 , %6 , %& , %% , 9$ , 111 , 1&% n. 9G, pl. 9, fi"s. 96, %%, 9#, 169+6G, 1%& "aha(harata , &1 . 2ee also 2arala8asa, "aha(harata "ahanata%a[*] , 91 , 99 , 1$$ )ahapatra, 4panna, 69 , 1$$ )ahapatra, 8asharathi, 6$ )ahapatra, Ja"annath, 6$ , 6G , 69 , 1$# , 119 +1G, 1#& , 1#9 , 1&& n. &%J 3amayana:;< ill,strations, 6G +66, %1 , %G , %% , 9# , 9% , 1$$ , 1$1 , 1$1 +#, 1$G , 119 +1G, 11& , 1#G , 1#6 , 1#& , 1#% , 1&% nn. 9%, 1$1 )ahapatra, >end,ri, 1&& n. &% )ahapatra, 2ridhar, 1$1 )aharana, 4nanta 6$ , 66 )aharana, Bha"avata, 66 , &9 , %G , 1$$ , 1#$ , 1&9 n. 1$& )aharana, Bhikari, 66 , 11& )aharana, Pan,, 6G , 66 )ahavir Aemple, 8asapalla, #1 , 16% n. G9 )ahendra"iri, 99 , 1#1 )ahiravana:;< , #$ , #% , 1$1 , 1$6 , 11G , 116 , 11& , 1#9 , 1#% , fi"s. 9G, 1#9+9$ )ar"lin, /rLdLri7,e 4., &9 , 1%1 n. G

)aricha, 11 , 1G , #9 , &1 , &9 , %6 +%&, %9 , 9$ , 91 , 1## , fi"s. &, 1$%, 199, 1&&, 1%1 masks, #1 , #1 , ## , #G , G6 , 6% , fi". 91 )ath,ra C.an5am districtD, 61 maya Cill,sionD, 19 , 1G , 19 , %1 ., %1 , %9 , %& , 1## , 1#9 +#G, 1#6 , 19$ , 191 , 1%6 n. G9, 1%% n. %$. 2ee also ma"ic deer and )aya 2ita maya mriga[*] . 2ee ma"ic deer "aya "riga CfilmD, 9 )aya 2ita, 19 , 19 , #G +#6, %& +91, 1$9 , 1$6 , 111 , 11G , 11& , 1## , 1&$ n. &1, 1%9 n. #%, pl. G, fi"s. G9, 91, 1$9 )ichha Pata5oshi, 96 , 9& , 9% , G1 D+G9, 69 , %9 , 116 , 11% , 111 , 1#6 , 1#& , 1#% , 191 , 1&9 nn. 9$, 91, 1%9 n. 11, 19$ n. 9. 2ee also Upendra BhaO5a, *aidehisa *ilasa[*] , of )ichha Pata5oshi moha , 1#9 , 191 )ohanty, Brinda!an, #1 )oor, ?d-ard, 69 )o,nt Chitrak,ta:;< , 11 , #G , %9 +%6, 9% , 1$$ , 11G , 11& , 111 , 116 , 119 , fi". 1# )o,nt )alyavan C3amaBs "riefD 19 , 1& , GG , %& , 91 , 99 , 9G , 99 , 1$$ , 11G , 11% , 111 , pls. 6, 1$ , fi"s. 1&, 1G1, 1&$+&1 ' 1$& ' ),"hal paintin", 1 , 19$ , 16G n. 1, 19# n. 1& ),ndamarai, G6 , 111 , 191 . 2ee also Upendra BhaO5a, &a'anya'ati[*] , of Pr,sti, 3a"h,nath

N
Eala, 9& , 99 narrator, 6 , 1& , %$ , 1$9 , 11$ , 111 , 111 , 11$ , 119 , 1#& , 19$ n. 9 Earasimha 8eva, &G Earayana 8eo Bhan5, #1 Eava",O5ara, %% , 119 , 19$ , fi". %& Eaya"arh, 6&

O
*da"aon, 3ama Aemple, ## *dasa, #9 *dissi:;< dance, #%

!
Paitan paintin", G6 !ala , 1% , #9 !a,cha sa%has , 16 Paras,rama, % , #9 , %6 , 119 , fi"s. 11, 19&, 1%$, 1G9 Parlakhem,ndi. 2ee cards, Parlakhem,ndi and -all paintin"s Parvati, 1G , 1& , 111 !ata[*] , G& , G% +69, 96 , 11$ , 1#& , 1&6 n. 6G, 1&& n. &1 !atachitra[*] , G% , 11$ pathos. 2ee rasa# %aru,a Pathy, Bala!hadra, GG +G6, 6# , 9& , 11% , 11# , 119 , 1#& , 1&G n. G1, 1%1 n. 19, 1%& n. &1. 2ee also Upendra BhaO5a, &a'anya'ati[*] , of Pathy, Bala!hadra patrona"e, 9G , G6 , G% , G9 , 61 , 6% , &G , %G , 9# , 9& , 1$% , 111 , 11G , 1#9 , 191 /aumacariyam , 16& n. 19 performance. 2ee individ,al forms pil"rima"e paintin", 96 , G% , 6$ , 69 , 66 , 6% , 11& !othi , 99 Pralada Eataka:;< , GG , G6 , 11% /rasna 3hudamani[*] , 111 prolepsis. 2ee flash+for-ard Pr,sti, 3a"h,nath, 9G , 96 , 9& , G9 , G6 +G&, 1$1 , 1$# +9, 11& , 111 +1#, 1#$ , 1#6 +#&, 1#9 , 191 +91, 1&1 n. 9, 1&9 n. 1$G. 2ee also Upendra BhaO5a, &a'anya'ati[*] , of Pr,sti, 3a"h,nath P,llaman"ai Aemple, 1%% n. 96 P,ri Aemple. 2ee Ja"annatha Aemple, P,ri P,spaka:;< Kimana, 11 , #1 , #1 , 1$$ , 1$6 , fi". 91

R
3a"amala, G9 , 191 , 1&1 n. 9 3a"h,nath Kesa, 1## Raghunatha *ilasa[*] , 1% 3a"h,ra5p,r, 6$ +61, 6G , 66 , 6% , 69 , 1$1 , 16 , 11& , 1#% 3a5",r,, 2. E., 91 , 1#G ra4-!andit , 1$% , 1#G 3ama ascends to heaven as Kisn,:;< , 11 , 1$G

!ends !o- to -in 2ita, & +%, fi"s. 9, 96, 1&% !irth of, & , 19 , &% , 119 , 11G , 11& , fi"s. 9, 19# and the !oatman, %1 +%9, 1%# n 19, fi"s. %, 9$, 19G, 1&%, 116 coronation of, 1& , 6# , 66 , &6 , && , $9+G, 1$6 , 1$& , 11G , 11% , 119 , 119 , 116 , 11& , 1#% , 1%% n. 99, 1%9 n. 1$G, fi"s. #&+9$, GG, 1$1, 11#+19, 19$, 1G6, 119, 199, 1G&, 161, 16%, 1&$, 1%6 e(ile of, 11 , 61 , 119 , fi"s. 1#, 1$1 shoots cro-, %9 , %G , %6 , 11& , 111 , 1%9 n. 19, fi"s. 19, 91 shoots thro,"h seven trees, 19 , &1 , &9 , 91 +9G, 96 , 111 , 11# , 11& , 11$ , 11G , 11% , 1#1 , 1#9 , fi"s. 16, 61, 69, &&, 9G, 1$$, 11$, 119, 1#$, 1G1, 16%, 1$#, 1&6, 1%1 and 2itaBs marria"e, 1G , 6% , %6 , 1#$ , fi"s. 1$, 196, 1&9, 19&, 169. 2ee the proper names of characters for other events and the snake, 91 , 99 , 9G , 1#1 3ama+!hakti. 2ee (ha%ti Ramagita , 1G Ramalila[*] Cte(tD, Janardana 8asa, #1 , 169 n. G6 >rishna Chandra 3a5endra, ## , G$ , %% , 119 , 19$ Kaisya 2adasiva, #1 , 6G , 9$ , 1%% n. 9& Kikrama Earendra, #$ , #1 , #1 Kisvanatha >h,ntia:;< , #$ ' 1$% ' 3amalila:;< CperformanceD, #$ +#6, #% , #9 , G6 , 9$ , 1$9 , 1$G , 1$6 , 11% , 1#G , 1%1 n. # 4mrap,ra, ## , fi". 91 Banaras C3amna"arD, #G Bisipada, #1 +#1, ## , #9 +#G, 96 , 169 n. G6, 1&$ n. 69 8asapalla, #1 , #1 , ## +#6, %1 , 9# , 1$$ , 1$9 , 1#1 , 1#9 , 1#% , 169 nn. G6, G9, 6G, 66, 1&$ n. 69, 1%% n. %%, fi"s. 91, 9#+99 .ania, #1 , 1&$ n. 69 *ther performance sites, #1 , ## , 16% n. G1, 169 n. G9 3amanandin, 19 , 1G , 16& nn. 16, 1& 3amanavami, #$ , #1 , ## , #6 , #% , #9 , 16% n. G1, 1%1 n. # 3aman,5an, 4. >., G , 166 n. G 3ama Aaraka )antra, 1% Ramayana[*] . 2ee Kalmiki

Ramcharitmanas. 2ee A,lsi 8as 3amna"ar. 2ee 3amalila:;< , Benares rasa CmoodD, 1# , 1$9 +1$, 119 , 1#$ , 1#% , 1#9 , 166 n. 9 ad(uta Ca-eD, 1$9 , 1#% hasya CcomicD, G# , &9 , 1#% %aru,a CpatheticD, 1# , &9 , %6 , 9G , 1$9 , 11% , 119 , 1#% sringara[*] CeroticD, 1% , &9 , 119 , 119 , 1#% 'ira CheroicD, 119 , 1#% , rasa CdanceD, 16 3atha Iatra. 2ee Cart /estival, P,ri 3avana !attles -ith 3ama, 69 , 6G +66, 1$6 , 116 , 11& , 119 +#$, fi"s. G9, &9, 11#, 116, 11&, 11$, 111, 191 death of, 1& , 16 , 1% , 19 , 1$6 , 11$ , fi". #9 tells 2ita that 3ama is dead, 99 , 1%% n. %$ ,m!rellas are severed, 1& , 1$$ +1$1, 111 , 119 , 1&% n. 9G, fi"s. 111, 19$, 1$%+9, 11G, 161 3avana:;< Chhaya, #9 +9$, G6 , fi". 96 3ay, 2atya5it, 9 +G 3isyasrin"a:;< , & , 16 , &9 +%1, 111 , 11G , 1#$ , 1%1 n. #, pl. 1, fi"s. 1+1, %9, 1$1, 11#, 11G, 191, 1G&, 1&G+&6, 1$1, 11#, 1G% ru!a%ara , G9 , &6 3,sselkonda. 2ee .h,msar

S
2a!ara, 16 , #9 , 111 , fi"s. 9#, 1%1 2a!ari, #9 , %& , %% , %9 , 9$ , 119 , 1#$ , 1#1 , 1%G n. 9G, 191 n. #$, fi"s. 1#, 11%, 199, 1$1 2ahi Jatra, #% , 1$1 , 11& , 1#% , 1&$ n. &6, pl. 1, fi". 9G 2ahoo, >. C., 11 2akta, 1G , #$ , &# , &G 2arala 8asa, 1# , 16 J "aha(harata , 16 , #$ , %1 , %% , 9$ , 1$$ , 19$ , 16& n. 1G, 1%1 n. # 2arathi )adala Paitnak, 96 , 9& , 9% +99, G$ , G1 , G# , 111 +19, 11G , 116 , 11& , 11% , 111 , 1## , 191 +91. 2ee also dhyatma Ramayana[*] # Hanumana 2tuti and Durga 2tuti sar!a-(andha , 111 , 11# 2atr,"hna, 9& , G1 , %9 , 119 +16, 1#& , 1#% , 1#9 , 1&1 n. &&, 19$ n. 1%. 2ee also .ra4a .ihara and Upendra BhaO5a, *aidehisa *ilasa[*] , of 2atr,"hna

2atr,"hnesvara Aemple, Bh,!anes-ar, &$ +&1, fi". 1&1 2hado- p,ppets. 2ee 3avana Chhaya 2imhanatha Aemple, 2imhanatha 0sland, &1 +&#, &9 , && , 1%1 n. 1#, fi"s, 1&&+&9 2ita !anishment of, 11 , 11 , 1$9 , 116 !irth of, 19 , 11G captivity of, in @anka:;< , 16 , :#9, %9 , 9G +96, 11G , fi"s. 1$, 1%% kidnap of, 11 , 19 , 1G , #1 , #9 , #G +#6, #9 , &1 , %6 +91, 119 , 111 , 111 , fi"s. 19, 199, 1%&, 1$1, 1#1 ocher mark of, %9 +%6, 11& , 111 , 119 , 1%9 n. 19, fi"s. 1$&, 1%#, 1$G+6 ret,rns into the earth, 11 , 1$9 , 1$G , fi". 1G1 test of, !y fire, 1& , 1$9 , 1$G ,, 1$6 , 11G , 119 , 11$ , 116 , 1## , 1#9 , 1%9 n. 1$$, pl. G, fi"s. #G, 6&, 91, 1$9, 111, 1GG, 19# 2iva, % , 1G , 16 , &1 , &# , &G , 9& , 9% , 1$9 , 111 2mith, W. @, 11 , 166 nn. 9, 1$ 2omanatha Aemple, Kishn,p,r, &G , &6 , 9# , fi". 1%G 2onep,r, 9$ +9#, 6& , 96 , fi"s. 9&+9% 2,"riva, 19 , &1 , &6 , 99 fi"hts 3avana, 16 , 99 fi"hts Kalin, 19 , &1 , 91 , 99 , 9G ' 1$9 ' 2,ndara >anda:;< , 16 , 1& , 19 , 96 , 111 , 1%6 n.&$, 1%& n. 69 2,rpanakha:;< , 16 , &9 , 1%9 n. #1, fi". 1%1 is denosed 11, %6 , 9$ , 111 , fi"s. 1&, 161, 1%G, 119 "oes to her !rothers, 11 , 111 , fi". G% meets 3ama and @aksmana:;< , 11 , &9 , %& in 3amalila:;< performances, #1 , #G , #% 2,vela 6ill, 99 +1$1 2varna5alesvara:;< Aemple, Bh,!anes-ar, &1 +&#, &9 , &6 +&&, fi"s. 1&#+&6

T
Aadaki:;< , & , 1# , 1G , %1 +%9, 11G , 119 , 111 , 11& , 1%# n. 11, pl. #, fi"s. 6, 1$#, 19#, 1G%, 1&&, 19G, 119 AaraBs c,rse, 91 , 99 , 1%6 nn. 6$, 6#, fi". 1## televised 3amayana:;< , 9 , 1# , 1#% , 166 n. 11, 1%9 n. 1$$, 19# n. 11

Ael,",, 1G , G6 , 6% , 1G& n. #G Ti%a[*] Ramayana[*] , 1& tri!al s,!5ects, 16 , #9 , %& , 1#1 . 2ee also adi'asis , 2a!ara, and 2a!ari A,lsi 8as, Ramcharitmanas , 19 , 1& , #$ , #& , &G , &% , 91 , 1$9 , 1#% , 166 n. 11, 1%# n. 19

U
Upendra BhaO5a, 1# , 1% +19, G$ , 61 , &# , &9 , %$ , %1 , %9 , %6 , %& , 91 , 99 , 96 , 11% , 1#% , 191 , 191 , 1G# , 166 n. 9, 16% n. 9G, 19$ n. 9 &a'anya'ati[*] , 19 , G9 +G&, %9 , %6 , 9G , 96 , 99 , 1$1 , 1$# , 1$6 +&, 111 , 11& +1#, 11% , 1#G , 19& +99, 1G$ +G1 British @i!rary, G9 8ispersed man,script, G9 +GG, G6 +G&, %$ , %1 , %# , %6 , %9 +9$, 9G , 99 , 1$# , 1$6 , 1$& , 119 +1$, 111 , 11# , 1#$ , 1#% , 1#9 , 1%9 n. 1$6, pl. 9, fi"s. 191+G6 of Pathy, Bala!hadra CEational ),se,m, Ee- 8elhiD, G9 , GG +G6, %$ , %1 , %# , %6 , 9$ , 91 , 9G , 9& , 99 , 1$6 , 1$& , 11% , 119 , 11# , 119 , 116 , 1#1 , 1%1 n. 19 of Pr,sti, 3a"h,nath C),ndamaraiD, 96 , 9& , G6 +G&, %$ , %1 , %# +%9, %6 , %9 , 9# , 99 +9G, 99 , 1$1 , 1$# +9, 1$6 +&, 111 +1#, 1#6 , 16% n. 9%, 1%G n. 9# 3o,nd man,script, G& , %$ , %1 , %# , %6 , %9 , 9G , 99 , 1$# , 1$6 , 1$& , 11$ +11, 11# , 1#9 *aidehisa *ilasa[*] , 11 , 1% +19, #$ , #% , G$ +G9, 69 , &% +&9, %1 , %9 , %& , 9$ , 91 , 99 , 9G , 96 , 9& +9%, 1$$ , 1$1 , 1$1 , 1$9 , 111 , 119 +1&, 111 , 111 , 11% , 1## , 1#9 , 1#6 of )ichha Pata5oshi, 96 , 9& , G1 , %# , %G , %9 , 99 , 96 +9&, 99 , 1$1 , 1$# , 1$6 , 116 +1&, 111 , 1#9 , 1#6 , 1#% 4s,tosh ),se,m, Calc,tta University, %$ , %1 , fi"s. 11G+#9 )ahavir Jain 4radhana >endra, >o!a, .,5arat, G# , GG , fi"s. 1$1+11, 111 private collection, Ee- 8el+hi, G# , fi"s. 11#+19 3eit!er" ),se,m, Q,rich, G# of 2atr,"hna, %G , %% , %9 , 99 , 1$6 , 119 +16, 11& , 1#9 , 1#& , 1#% , 19$ n. 1% Eo. 1 CBaripadaD, 9& , G1 +G1, %$ , %1 +%#, 9% +99, 1$# , 11G , 1&$ n. &&, pls. #+%, fi"s. %9+9% Eo. 1 CdispersedD, G1 , %G , 99 , 11G )sa(hilasa[*] , GG , 1&G n. G1 Uttara >anda:;< , 11 , 1& , 1% , 9$ , G$ , 1$9 +6, 11G , 116 , 11& , 1#1 , 1#9 , 1%$ n. &, 1%% n. 9&

V
*aidehisa *ilasa[*] . 2ee Upendra BhaO5a, *aidehisa *ilasa[*] Kaisya 2adasiva, #1 , 6G , 9$ , 169 n. 69 KalinBs death, 19 , 1# , #9 , &$ +&#, &9 , && , 91 +9G, 11# , fi"s. 16, 96, 1#1+#1, 1G1, 169, 1%9, 1$#, 1##, 1&1, 1&6, 1&%, 1%1

Kalmiki, 3amayana:;< , 11 +19, 1& , 1% +19, #$ , &% , &9 , %9 , %6 +%&, 91 , 9G +96, 9& , 99 , 1$1 , 1$1 , 1$# , 1$9 , 166 nn. 9, 1$, 1%$ n. &, 1%1 n. #, 1%# n. 1# ' 11$ ' Kalimki, in the story, 11 , 1& , %$ , %G , 1$9 , 119 , fi". 19G Karahi Aemple, Cha,rasi. 2ee Cha,rasi, Karahi Aemple Kedanta, 19 , 1G , 111 , 1## , 1#9 , 1#6 , 19$ 'esa , 1## 'esyas , &% +&9 Ki!hisanaBs:;< coronation, 1& , 1$9 , 1$6 , 11$ , 116 , fi". #6 *ichitra Ramayana[*] . 2ee Kisvanatha >h,ntia:;< ,*ichitra Ramayana[*] Kikrama Earendra, #$ , #1 , #1 , #9 , 1$9 , 16% n. G#, 169 n. 69 *ilan%a Ramayana[*] , 1& , 16& n. 1G Kipra @aksmidhar:;< 8asa, 1% . 1$$ Kiradha CKiray,dhaD, #9 , %6 , fi"s. 1G, 19%, 1%9 KiraOichi Earayana:;< . 2ee B,",da Kisn,:;< (ha%ti , 1&6 n. 6# as Chakra+!andha, 99 , fi". 111 ima"es of, 1$1 as Paras,rama, % as 3ama, & , 11 , 19 , &G , %1 , 11G Kishn,p,r, &G , &6 , 9# KisvamitraBs sacrifice, #9 , %$ , 111 , 1#$ , fi". 1&& Kisvamitra enlists aid of 3ama and @aksmana:;< , & , %1 , fi". G Kisvanatha >h,ntia:;< , *ichitra Ramayana[*] , 19 +#$, #% , 9$ , 9# , 166 n. 9

W
-all paintin"s ho,se, G9 , 66 , 6% , 1$G , 111 , 11& , 19$ , 1&9 n. 119 temple, 6& , 6% , 119 , 1#$ , 191 n. ##. 2ee also B,",da -eddin" !o(, G9 , 66 , &9 , %G , 1$$ , 1#$ , 1&9 n. 1$&, fi"s. 1G%+61

Y
I,ddha >anda:;< , 16 +11, 11 , 1G , 1& , 19 , 9% , 99 , 1$1 , 1$9 , 111

J
Qealey, 6alina, 6G , 66 , 96 , 11G , 1&% n. 9%, 191 n. #9
Preferred Citation: Williams, Joanna. The Two-Headed Deer: Illustrations of the Ramayana in Orissa. Berkeley: University of California Press, c1996 1996. http: ark.cdli!.or" ark: 1#$#$ ft6%&$$&#m