Karl Marx

Wage Labour and Capital

Written: December 1847; Source: Wage Labour and Capital, the original 1891 pamphlet;; Fir t !ubli hed: "eue #heini che $eitung, %pril &'8 and 11, 1849; (ran cription)*ar+up: $odiac and ,rian ,aggin ; !roo-ed and corrected b. %le+ ,lain, /001, *ar+ 2arri , /01033

Introduction to Karl Marxs Wage Labour and Capital (Engels)

(hi pamphlet -ir t appeared in the -orm o- a erie o- leading article in the Neue Rheinische Zeitung, beginning on %pril 4th, 18493 (he te4t i made up o- -rom lecture deli5ered b. *ar4 be-ore the 6erman Wor+ingmen7 Club o- ,ru el in 18473 (he erie 8a ne5er completed3 (he promi e 9to be continued,: at the end o- the editorial in "umber /19 o- the ne8 paper, remained un-ul-illed in con e;uence o- the precipitou e5ent o- that time: the in5a ion o2ungar. b. the #u ian <( ari t troop in5aded 2ungar. in 1849 to +eep the %u trian 2ap burg d.na t. in po8er=, and the upri ing in Dre den, > erlohn, ?lber-eld, the !alatinate, and in ,aden <Spontaneou upri ing in 6erman. in *a.'@ul. 1849, upporting the >mperial Con titution 8hich 8ere cru hed in mid'@ul.=, 8hich led to the uppre ion o- the paper on *a. 19th, 18493 %nd among the paper le-t b. *ar4 no manu cript o- an. continuation o- the e article ha been -ound3 9Wage'Labour and Capital: ha appeared a an independent publication in e5eral edition , the la t o- 8hich 8a i ued b. the S8i Co'operati5e !rinting % ociation, in 2ottingen'$urich, in 18843 2itherto, the e5eral edition ha5e contained the e4act 8ording o- the original article 3 ,ut ince at lea t 10,000 copie o- the pre ent edition are to be circulated a a propaganda tract, the ;ue tion nece aril. -orced it el- upon me, 8ould *ar4 him el-, under the e circum tance, ha5e appro5ed o- an unaltered literal reproduction o- the originalA *ar4, in the 740 , had not .et completed hi critici m o- political econom.3 (hi 8a not done until to8ard the end o- the -i-tie 3 Con e;uentl., uch o- hi 8riting a 8ere publi hed be-ore the -ir t in tallment o- hi Criti;ue o- !olitical ?conom. 8a -ini hed, de5iate in ome point -rom tho e 8ritten a-ter 18&9, and contain e4pre ion and 8hole entence 8hich, 5ie8ed -rom the tandpoint o- hi later 8riting , appear ine4act, and e5en incorrect3 "o8, it goe 8ithout a.ing that in ordinar. edition , intended -or the public in general, thi earlier tandpoint, a a part o- the intellectual de5elopment o- the author, ha it place; that the author a 8ell a the public, ha an indi putable right to an unaltered reprint o- the e older 8riting 3 >n uch a ca e, > 8ould not ha5e dreamed o- changing a ingle 8ord in it3 ,ut it i other8i e 8hen the edition i de tined almo t e4clu i5el. -or the purpo e o- propaganda3 >n uch a ca e, *ar4 him el- 8ould un;ue tionabl. ha5e brought the old 8or+, dating -rom 1849, into harmon. 8ith hi ne8 point o- 5ie8, and > -eel ure that > am acting in hi pirit 8hen > in ert in thi edition the -e8 change and addition 8hich are nece ar. in order to attain thi obBect in all e ential point3 (here-ore, > a. to the reader at once: thi pamphlet i not a *ar4 8rote it in 1849, but appro4imatel. a *ar4 8ould ha5e 8ritten it in 18913 *oreo5er, o man. copie o- the original te4t are in circulation, that the e 8ill u--ice until > can publi h it again unaltered in a complete edition o- *ar47 8or+ , to appear at ome -uture time3 *. alteration centre about one point3 %ccording to the original reading, the 8or+er ell hi labour -or 8age , 8hich he recei5e -rom the capitali t; according to the pre ent te4t, he ell hi labour-power3 %nd -or thi change, > mu t render an e4planation: to the 8or+er , in order that the. ma. under tand that 8e are not ;uibbling or 8ord'Buggling, but are dealing here 8ith one othe mo t important point in the 8hole range o- political econom.; to the bourgeoi , in order that

the. ma. con5ince them el5e ho8 greatl. the uneducated 8or+er , 8ho can be ea il. made to gra p the mo t di--icult economic anal. e , e4cel our uperciliou 9cultured: -ol+, -or 8hom uch tic+li h problem remain in oluble their 8hole li-e long3 Cla ical political econom. 1 borro8ed -rom the indu trial practice the current notion o- the manu-acturer, that he bu. and pa. -or the labour o- hi emplo.ee 3 (hi conception had been ;uite er5iceable -or the bu ine purpo e o- the manu-acturer, hi boo++eeping and price calculation3 ,ut nai5el. carried o5er into political econom., it there produced trul. 8onder-ul error and con-u ion 3 !olitical econom. -ind it an e tabli hed -act that the price o- all commoditie , among them the price o- the commodit. 8hich it call 9labour,: continuall. change; that the. ri e and -all in con e;uence o- the mo t di5er e circum tance , 8hich o-ten ha5e no connection 8hat oe5er 8ith the production o- the commoditie them el5e , o that price appear to be determined, a a rule, b. pure chance3 % oon, there-ore, a political econom. tepped -orth a a cience, it 8a one oit -ir t ta + to earch -or the la8 that hid it el- behind thi chance, 8hich apparentl. determined the price o- commoditie , and 8hich in realit. controlled thi 5er. chance3 %mong the price ocommoditie , -luctuating and o cillating, no8 up8ard, no8 do8n8ard, the -i4ed central point 8a earched -or around 8hich the e -luctuation and o cillation 8ere ta+ing place3 >n hort, tarting -rom the price o- commoditie , political econom. ought -or the 5alue o- commoditie a the regulating la8, b. mean o- 8hich all price -luctuation could be e4plained, and to 8hich the. could all be reduced in the la t re ort3 %nd o, cla ical political econom. -ound that the 5alue o- a commodit. 8a determined b. the labour incorporated in it and re;ui ite to it production3 With thi e4planation, it 8a ati -ied3 %nd 8e, too, ma., -or the pre ent, top at thi point3 ,ut, to a5oid mi conception , > 8ill remind the reader that toda. thi e4planation ha become 8holl. inade;uate3 *ar4 8a the -ir t to in5e tigate thoroughl. into the 5alue'-orming ;ualit. o- labour and to di co5er that not all labour 8hich i apparentl., or e5en reall., nece ar. to the production o- a commodit., impart under all circum tance to thi commodit. a magnitude o- 5alue corre ponding to the ;uantit. o- labour u ed up3 >-, there-ore, 8e a. toda. in hort, 8ith economi t li+e #icardo, that the 5alue o- a commodit. i determined b. the labour nece ar. to it production, 8e al8a. impl. the re er5ation and re triction made b. *ar43 (hu much -or our pre ent purpo e; -urther in-ormation can be -ound in *ar47 Critique of Political Economy, 8hich appeared in 18&9, and in the -ir t 5olume o- Capital3 ,ut, a oon a the economi t applied thi determination o- 5alue b. labour to the commodit. 9labour:, the. -ell -rom one contradiction into another3 2o8 i the 5alue o- 9labour: determinedA ,. the nece ar. labour embodied in it3 ,ut ho8 much labour i embodied in the labour o- a labourer o- a da. a 8ee+, a month, a .ear3 >- labour i the mea ure o- all 5alue , 8e can e4pre the 95alue o- labour: onl. in labour3 ,ut 8e +no8 ab olutel. nothing about the 5alue o- an hour7 labour, i- all that 8e +no8 about it i that it i e;ual to one hour7 labour3 So, thereb., 8e ha5e not ad5anced one hair7 breadth nearer our goal; 8e are con tantl. turning about in a circle3 Cla ical economic , there-ore, e a.ed another turn3 >t aid: the 5alue o- a commodit. i e;ual to it co t o- production3 ,ut, 8hat i the co t o- production o- 9labour:A >n order to an 8er thi ;ue tion, the economi t are -orced to train logic Bu t a little3 >n tead o- in5e tigating the co t oproduction o- labour it el-, 8hich, un-ortunatel., cannot be a certained, the. no8 in5e tigate the
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9,. cla ical political econom., > under tand that econom. 8hich, ince the time o- W3 !ett., ha in5e tigated the real relation o- production in bourgeoi ociet., in contradi tinction to 5ulgar econom., 8hich deal 8ith appearance onl., ruminate 8ithout cea ing on the material long ince pro5ided b. cienti-ic econom., and there ee+ plau ible e4planation o- the mo t obtru i5e phenomena -or bourgeoi dail. u e, but -or the re t con-ine it el- to . tematiDing in a pedantic 8a., and proclaiming -or e5erla ting truth , trite idea held b. the el-'complacent bourgeoi ie 8ith regard to their o8n 8orld, to them the be t o- all po ible 8orld 3: <*ar4, Capital, Eolume >, p3 9C=

co t o- production o- the labourer3 %nd thi latter can be a certained3 >t change according to time and circum tance , but -or a gi5en condition o- ociet., in a gi5en localit., and in a gi5en branch o- production, it, too, i gi5en, at lea t 8ithin ;uite narro8 limit 3 We li5e toda. under the regime o- capitali t production, under 8hich a large and teadil. gro8ing cla o- the population can li5e onl. on the condition that it 8or+ -or the o8ner o- the mean o- production F tool , machine , ra8 material , and mean o- ub i tence F in return -or 8age 3 Gn the ba i o- thi mode oproduction, the labourer7 co t o- production con i t o- the um o- the mean o- ub i tence Hor their price in mone.I 8hich on the a5erage are re;ui ite to enable him to 8or+, to maintain in him thi capacit. -or 8or+, and to replace him at hi departure, b. rea on o- age, ic+ne , or death, 8ith another labourer F that i to a., to propagate the 8or+ing cla in re;uired number 3 Let u a ume that the mone. price o- the e mean o- ub i tence a5erage C hilling a da.3 Gur labourer get , there-ore, a dail. 8age o- C hilling -rom hi emplo.er3 For thi , the capitali t let him 8or+, a., 1/ hour a da.3 Gur capitali t, moreo5er, calculate ome8hat in the -ollo8ing -a hion: Let u a ume that our labourer Ha machini tI ha to ma+e a part o- a machine 8hich he -ini he in one da.3 (he ra8 material Hiron and bra in the nece ar. prepared -ormI co t /0 hilling 3 (he con umption o- coal b. the team'engine, the 8ear'and'tear o- thi engine it el-, othe turning'lathe, and o- the other tool 8ith 8hich our labourer 8or+ , repre ent, -or one da. and one labourer, a 5alue o- 1 hilling3 (he 8age -or one da. are, according to our a umption, C hilling 3 (hi ma+e a total o- /4 hilling -or our piece o- a machine3 ,ut, the capitali t calculate that, on an a5erage, he 8ill recei5e -or it a price o- /7 hilling -rom hi cu tomer , or C hilling o5er and abo5e hi outla.3a Whence do the. C hilling poc+eted b. the capitali t comeA %ccording to the a ertion ocla ical political econom., commoditie are in the long run old at their 5alue , that i , the. are old at price 8hich corre pond to the nece ar. ;uantitie o- labour contained in them3 (he a5erage price o- our part o- a machine F /7 hilling F 8ould there-ore e;ual it 5alue, i3e3, e;ual the amount o- labour embodied in it3 ,ut, o- the e /7 hilling , /1 hilling 8ere 5alue 8ere 5alue alread. e4i ting be-ore the machini t began to 8or+; /0 hilling 8ere contained in the ra8 material, 1 hilling in the -uel con umed during the 8or+ and in the machine and tool u ed in the proce and reduced in their e--icienc. to the 5alue o- thi amount3 (here remain 1 hilling , 8hich ha5e been added to the 5alue o- the ra8 material3 ,ut, according to the uppo ition o- our economi t , them el5e , the e 1 hilling can ari e onl. -rom the labour added to the ra8 material b. the labourer3 2i 1/ hour 7 labour ha created, according to thi , a ne8 5alue o- 1 hilling 3 (here-ore, the 5alue o- hi 1/ hour 7 labour 8ould be e;ui5alent to 1 hilling 3 So 8e ha5e at la t di co5ered 8hat the 95alue o- labour: i 3 92old on thereJ: crie our machini t3 9Si4 hilling A ,ut > ha5e recei5ed onl. C hilling J *. capitali t 8ear high and da. that the 5alue o- m. 1/ hour 7 labour i no more than C hilling , and i- > 8ere to demand 1, he7d laugh at me3 What +ind o- a tor. i thatA: >- be-ore thi 8e got 8ith our 5alue o- labour into a 5iciou circle, 8e no8 urel. ha5e dri5en traight into an in oluble contradiction3 We earched -or the 5alue o- labour, and 8e -ound more than 8e can u e3 For the labourer, the 5alue o- the 1/ hour 7 labour i C hilling ; -or the capitali t, it i 1 hilling , o- 8hich he pa. the 8or+ingman C hilling a 8age , and poc+et the remaining C hilling him el-3 %ccording to thi , labour ha not one but t8o 5alue , and, moreo5er, t8o 5er. di--erent 5alue J % oon a 8e reduce the 5alue , no8 e4pre ed in mone., to labour'time, the contradiction become e5en more ab urd3 ,. the 1/ hour 7 labour, a ne8 5alue o- 1 hilling i created3 (here-ore, in 1 hour , the ne8 5alue created e;ual C hilling F the amount 8hich the labourer recei5e -or 1/ hour 7 labour3 For 1/ hour 7 labour, the 8or+ingman recei5e , a an e;ui5alent, the product o- 1 hour 7 labour3 We are, thu , -orced to one o- t8o conclu ion : either labour ha

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t8o 5alue , one o- 8hich i t8ice a large a the other, or 1/ e;ual 1J >n both ca e , 8e get pure ab urditie 3 (urn and t8i t a 8e ma., 8e 8ill not get out o- thi contradiction a long a 8e pea+ o- the bu.ing and elling o- 9labour: and o- the 95alue o- labour3: %nd Bu t o it happened to the political economi t 3 (he la t o-- hoot o- cla ical political econom. F the #icardian chool F 8a largel. 8rec+ed on the in olubilit. o- thi contradiction3 Cla ical political econom. had run it el- into a blind alle.3 (he man 8ho di co5ered the 8a. out o- thi blind alle. 8a Karl *ar43 What the economi t had con idered a the co t o- production o- 9labour: 8a reall. the co t oproduction, not o- 9labour,: but o- the li5ing labourer him el-3 %nd 8hat thi labourer old to the capitali t 8a not hi labour3 9So oon a hi labour reall. begin ,: a. *ar4, 9it cea e to belong to him, and there-ore can no longer be old b. him3: %t the mo t, he could ell hi future labour F i3e3, a ume the obligation o- e4ecuting a certain piece o- 8or+ in a certain time3 ,ut, in thi 8a., he doe not ell labour H8hich 8ould -ir t ha5e to be per-ormedI, but not -or a tipulated pa.ment he place hi labour'po8er at the di po al othe capitali t -or a certain time Hin ca e o- time'8age I, or -or the per-ormance o- a certain ta + Hin ca e o- piece'8age I3 2e hire out or ell hi labour-power3 ,ut thi labour'po8er ha gro8n up 8ith hi per on and i in eparable -rom it3 >t co t o- production, there-ore, coincide 8ith hi o8n co t o- production; 8hat the economi t called the co t o- production o- labour i reall. the co t o- production o- the labourer, and there8ith o- hi labour'po8er3 %nd, thu , 8e can al o go bac+ -rom the co t o- production o- labour'po8er to the 5alue o- labour'po8er, and determine the ;uantit. o- ocial labour that i re;uired -or the production o- a labour'po8er o- a gi5en ;uantit., a *ar4 ha done in the chapter on 9(he ,u.ing and Selling o- Labour !o8er3: <Capital, Eolume >= "o8 8hat ta+e place a-ter the 8or+er ha old hi labour'po8er, i3e3, a-ter he ha placed hi labour'po8er at the di po al o- the capitali t -or tipulated'8age F 8hether time'8age or piece' 8age A (he capitali t ta+e the labourer into hi 8or+ hop or -actor., 8here all the article re;uired -or the 8or+ can be -ound F ra8 material , au4iliar. material Hcoal, d.e tu-- , etc3I, tool , and machine 3 2ere, the 8or+er begin to 8or+3 2i dail. 8age are, a abo5e, C hilling , and it ma+e no di--erence 8hether he earn them a da.'8age or piece'8age 3 We again a ume that in 1/ hour the 8or+er add b. hi labour a ne8 5alue o- 1 hilling to the 5alue o- the ra8 material con umed, 8hich ne8 5alue the capitali t realiDe b. the ale o- the -ini hed piece o8or+3 Gut o- thi ne8 5alue, he pa. the 8or+er hi C hilling , and the remaining C hilling he +eep -or him el-3 >-, no8, the labourer create in 1/ hour a 5alue o- 1 hilling, in 1 hour he create a 5alue o- C hilling 3 Con e;uentl., a-ter 8or+ing 1 hour -or the capitali t, the labourer ha returned to him the e;ui5alent o- the C hilling recei5ed a 8age 3 %-ter 1 hour 7 8or+, both are ;uit , neither one o8ing a penn. to the other3 92old on thereJ: no8 crie out the capitali t3 9> ha5e hired the labourer -or a 8hole da., -or 1/ hour 3 ,ut 1 hour are onl. hal-'a'da.3 So 8or+ along li5el. there until the other 1 hour are at an end F onl. then 8ill 8e be e5en3: %nd, in -act, the labourer ha to ubmit to the condition o- the contract upon 8hich he entered o- 9hi o8n -ree 8ill:, and according to 8hich he bound him elto 8or+ 1/ 8hole hour -or a product o- labour 8hich co t onl. 1 hour 7 labour3 Similarl. 8ith piece'8age 3 Let u uppo e that in 1/ hour our 8or+er ma+e 1/ commoditie 3 ?ach o- the e co t a hilling in ra8 material and 8ear'and'tear, and i old -or /3& hilling 3 Gn

our -ormer a umption, the capitali t gi5e the labourer 3/& o- a hilling -or each piece, 8hich ma+e a total o- C hilling -or 1/ piece 3 (o earn thi , the 8or+er re;uire 1/ hour 3 (he capitali t recei5e C0 hilling -or the 1/ piece ; deducting /4 hilling -or ra8 material and 8ear'and'tear, there remain 1 hilling , o- 8hich he pa. C hilling in 8age and poc+et the remaining C3 @u t a be-oreJ 2ere, al o, the 8or+er labour 1 hour -or him el- F i3e3, to replace hi 8age Hhal-'an'hour in each o- the 1/ hour I, and 1 hour -or the capitali t3 (he roc+ upon 8hich the be t economi t 8ere tranded, a long a the. tarted out -rom the 5alue o- labour, 5ani he a oon a 8e ma+e our tarting'point the 5alue o- labour-power3 Labour'po8er i , in our pre ent'da. capitali t ociet., a commodit. li+e e5er. other commodit., but .et a 5er. peculiar commodit.3 >t ha , namel., the peculiarit. o- being a 5alue'creating -orce, the ource o- 5alue, and, moreo5er, 8hen properl. treated, the ource o- more 5alue than it po e e it el-3 >n the pre ent tate o- production, human labour'po8er not onl. produce in a da. a greater 5alue than it it el- po e e and co t ; but 8ith each ne8 cienti-ic di co5er., 8ith each ne8 technical in5ention, there al o ri e the urplu o- it dail. production o5er it dail. co t, 8hile a a con e;uence there dimini he that part o- the 8or+ing'da. in 8hich the labourer produce the e;ui5alent o- hi da.7 8age , and, on the other hand, lengthen that part o- the 8or+ing'da. in 8hich he mu t pre ent labour grati to the capitali t3 %nd thi i the economic con titution o- our entire modern ociet.: the 8or+ing cla alone produce all 5alue 3 For 5alue i onl. another e4pre ion -or labour, that e4pre ion, namel., b. 8hich i de ignated, in our capitali t ociet. o- toda., the amount o- ociall. nece ar. labour embodied in a particular commodit.3 ,ut, the e 5alue produced b. the 8or+er do not belong to the 8or+er 3 (he. belong to the o8ner o- the ra8 material , machine , tool , and mone., 8hich enable them to bu. the labour'po8er o- the 8or+ing cla 3 2ence, the 8or+ing cla get bac+ onl. a part o- the entire ma o- product produced b. it3 %nd, a 8e ha5e Bu t een, the other portion, 8hich the capitali t cla retain , and 8hich it ha to hare, at mo t, onl. 8ith the landlord cla , i increa ing 8ith e5er. ne8 di co5er. and in5ention, 8hile the hare 8hich -all to the 8or+ing cla Hper capitaI ri e but little and 5er. lo8l., or not at all, and under certain condition it ma. e5en -all3 ,ut, the e di co5erie and in5ention 8hich upplant one another 8ith e5er'increa ing peed, thi producti5ene o- human labour 8hich increa e -rom da. to da. to unheard'o- proportion , at la t gi5e ri e to a con-lict, in 8hich pre ent capitali tic econom. mu t go to ruin3 Gn the one hand, immea urable 8ealth and a uper-luidit. o- product 8ith 8hich the bu.er cannot cope3 Gn the other hand, the great ma o- ociet. proletarianiDed, tran -ormed into 8age'labourer , and thereb. di abled -rom appropriating to them el5e that uper-luidit. o- product 3 (he plitting up o- ociet. into a mall cla , immoderatel. rich, and a large cla o- 8age'labourer de5oid o- all propert., bring it about that thi ociet. mother in it o8n uper-luidit., 8hile the great maBorit. o- it member are carcel., or not at all, protected -rom e4treme 8ant3 (hi condition become e5er. da. more ab urd and more unnece ar.3 >t must be gotten rid o-; it can be gotten rid o-3 % ne8 ocial order i po ible, in 8hich the cla di--erence o- toda. 8ill ha5e di appeared, and in 8hich F perhap a-ter a hort tran ition period, 8hich, though ome8hat de-icient in other re pect , 8ill in an. ca e be 5er. u e-ul morall. F there 8ill be the mean oli-e, o- the enBo.ment o- li-e, and o- the de5elopment and acti5it. o- all bodil. and mental -acultie , through the . tematic u e and -urther de5elopment o- the enormou producti5e po8er o- ociet., 8hich e4i t 8ith u e5en no8, 8ith e;ual obligation upon all to 8or+3 %nd that the 8or+er are gro8ing e5er more determined to achie5e thi ne8 ocial order 8ill be pro5en on both ide o- the ocean on thi da8ning *a. Da., and on Sunda., *a. Crd3 <?ngel i re-erring to the *a. Da. celebration o- 1891=

FREDERIC EN!E"# "on$on% &pril '(% )*+),

Preliminary
From 5ariou ;uarter 8e ha5e been reproached -or neglecting to portra. the economic condition 8hich -orm the material ba i o- the pre ent truggle bet8een cla e and nation 3 With et purpo e 8e ha5e hitherto touched upon the e condition onl. 8hen the. -orced them el5e upon the ur-ace o- the political con-lict 3 >t 8a nece ar., be.ond e5er.thing el e, to -ollo8 the de5elopment o- the cla truggle in the hi tor. o- our o8n da., and to pro5e empiricall., b. the actual and dail. ne8l. created hi torical material, that 8ith the ubBugation o- the 8or+ing cla , accompli hed in the da. o- Februar. and *arch, 1848, the opponent o- that cla F the bourgeoi republican in France, and the bourgeoi and pea ant cla e 8ho 8ere -ighting -eudal ab oluti m throughout the 8hole continent o?urope F 8ere imultaneou l. con;uered; that the 5ictor. o- the 9moderate republic: in France ounded at the ame time the -all o- the nation 8hich had re ponded to the Februar. re5olution 8ith heroic 8ar o- independence; and -inall. that, b. the 5ictor. o5er the re5olutionar. 8or+ingmen, ?urope -ell bac+ into it old double la5er., into the ?ngli h'#u ian la5er.3 (he @une con-lict in !ari , the -all o- Eienna, the tragi'comed. in ,erlin in "o5ember 1848, the de perate e--ort o- !oland, >tal., and 2ungar., the tar5ation o- >reland into ubmi ion F the e 8ere the chie- e5ent in 8hich the ?uropean cla truggle bet8een the bourgeoi ie and the 8or+ing cla 8a ummed up, and -rom 8hich 8e pro5ed that e5er. re5olutionar. upri ing, ho8e5er remote -rom the cla truggle it obBect might appear, mu t o- nece it. -ail until the re5olutionar. 8or+ing cla hall ha5e con;uered; F that e5er. ocial re-orm mu t remain a Ltopia until the proletarian re5olution and the -eudali tic counter're5olution ha5e been pitted again t each other in a 8orld'8ide 8ar3 >n our pre entation, a in realit., ,elgium and S8itDerland 8ere tragicomic caricaturi h genre picture in the great hi toric tableau; the one the model State o- the bourgeoi monarch., the other the model State o- the bourgeoi republic; both o- them, State that -latter them el5e to be Bu t a -ree -rom the cla truggle a -rom the ?uropean re5olution3 ,ut no8, a-ter our reader ha5e een the cla truggle o- the .ear 1848 de5elop into colo al political proportion , it i time to e4amine more clo el. the economic condition them el5e upon 8hich i -ounded the e4i tence o- the capitali t cla and it cla rule, a 8ell a the la5er. othe 8or+er 3 We hall pre ent the ubBect in three great di5i ion : (he #elation o- Wage'Labour to Capital, the Sla5er. o- the Wor+er, the #ule o- the Capitali t3 (he >ne5itable #uin o- the *iddle Cla e <pett.'bourgeoi = and the o'called Common <pea ant = under the pre ent . tem3 (he Commercial SubBugation and ?4ploitation o- the ,ourgeoi cla e o- the 5ariou ?uropean nation b. the De pot o- the World *ar+et F ?ngland3 We hall ee+ to portra. thi a impl. and popularl. a po ible, and hall not pre uppo e a +no8ledge o- e5en the mo t elementar. notion o- political econom.3 We 8i h to be under tood b. the 8or+er 3 %nd, moreo5er, there pre5ail in 6erman. the mo t remar+able ignorance and con-u ion o- idea in regard to the imple t economic relation , -rom the patented de-ender oe4i ting condition , do8n to the ociali t 8onder'8or+er and the unrecogniDed political

geniu e , in 8hich di5ided 6erman. i e5en richer than in duodecimo princeling 3 We there-ore proceed to the con ideration o- the -ir t problem3

What are Wages !o" are they #etermined

>- e5eral 8or+men 8ere to be a +ed: 92o8 much 8age do .ou getA:, one 8ould repl., 9> get t8o hilling a da.:, and o on3 %ccording to the di--erent branche o- indu tr. in 8hich the. are emplo.ed, the. 8ould mention di--erent um o- mone. that the. recei5e -rom their re pecti5e emplo.er -or the completion o- a certain ta +; -or e4ample, -or 8ea5ing a .ard o- linen, or -or etting a page o- t.pe3 De pite the 5ariet. o- their tatement , the. 8ould all agree upon one point: that 8age are the amount o- mone. 8hich the capitali t pa. -or a certain period o- 8or+ or -or a certain amount o- 8or+3 Con e;uentl., it appear that the capitali t bu. their labour 8ith mone., and that -or mone. the. ell him their labour3 ,ut thi i merel. an illu ion3 What the. actuall. ell to the capitali t -or mone. i their labour'po8er3 (hi labour'po8er the capitali t bu. -or a da., a 8ee+, a month, etc3 %nd a-ter he ha bought it, he u e it up b. letting the 8or+er labour during the tipulated time3 With the ame amount o- mone. 8ith 8hich the capitali t ha bought their labour'po8er H-or e4ample, 8ith t8o hilling I he could ha5e bought a certain amount o- ugar or o- an. other commodit.3 (he t8o hilling 8ith 8hich he bought /0 pound o- ugar i the price o- the /0 pound o- ugar3 (he t8o hilling 8ith 8hich he bought 1/ hour M u e o- labour'po8er, i the price o- 1/ hour M labour3 Labour'po8er, then, i a commodit., no more, no le o than i the ugar3 (he -ir t i mea ured b. the cloc+, the other b. the cale 3 (heir commodit., labour'po8er, the 8or+er e4change -or the commodit. o- the capitali t, -or mone., and, moreo5er, thi e4change ta+e place at a certain ratio3 So much mone. -or o long a u e o- labour'po8er3 For 1/ hour M 8ea5ing, t8o hilling 3 %nd the e t8o hilling , do the. not repre ent all the other commoditie 8hich > can bu. -or t8o hilling A (here-ore, actuall., the 8or+er ha e4changed hi commodit., labour'po8er, -or commoditie o- all +ind , and, moreo5er, at a certain ratio3 ,. gi5ing him t8o hilling , the capitali t ha gi5en him o much meat, o much clothing, o much 8ood, light, etc3, in e4change -or hi da.M 8or+3 (he t8o hilling there-ore e4pre the relation in 8hich labour'po8er i e4changed -or other commoditie , the e4change'5alue o- labour'po8er3 (he e4change 5alue o- a commodit. e timated in mone. i called it price3 Wage there-ore are onl. a pecial name -or the price o- labour'po8er, and are u uall. called the price o- labour; it i the pecial name -or the price o- thi peculiar commodit., 8hich ha no other repo itor. than human -le h and blood3 Let u ta+e an. 8or+er; -or e4ample, a 8ea5er3 (he capitali t upplie him 8ith the loom and .arn3 (he 8ea5er applie him el- to 8or+, and the .arn i turned into cloth3 (he capitali t ta+e po e ion o- the cloth and ell it -or /0 hilling , -or e4ample3 "o8 are the 8age o- the 8ea5er a hare o- the cloth, o- the /0 hilling , o- the product o- the 8or+A ,. no mean 3 Long be-ore the cloth i old, perhap long be-ore it i -ull. 8o5en, the 8ea5er ha recei5ed hi 8age 3 (he capitali t, then, doe not pa. hi 8age out o- the mone. 8hich he 8ill obtain -rom the cloth, but out o- mone. alread. on hand3 @u t a little a loom and .arn are the product o- the 8ea5er to 8hom the. are upplied b. the emplo.er, Bu t o little are the commoditie 8hich he recei5e in e4change -or hi commodit. F labour'po8er F hi product3 >t i po ible that the emplo.er -ound

no purcha er at all -or the cloth3 >t i po ible that he did not get e5en the amount o- the 8age b. it ale3 >t i po ible that he ell it 5er. pro-itabl. in proportion to the 8ea5erM 8age 3 ,ut all that doe not concern the 8ea5er3 With a part o- hi e4i ting 8ealth, o- hi capital, the capitali t bu. the labour'po8er o- the 8ea5er in e4actl. the ame manner a , 8ith another part o- hi 8ealth, he ha bought the ra8 material F the .arn F and the in trument o- labour F the loom3 %-ter he ha made the e purcha e , and among them belong the labour'po8er nece ar. to the production o- the cloth he produce onl. 8ith ra8 material and in trument o- labour belonging to him3 For our good 8ea5er, too, i one o- the in trument o- labour, and being in thi re pect on a par 8ith the loom, he ha no more hare in the product Hthe clothI, or in the price o- the product, than the loom it el- ha 3 Wage , there-ore, are not a hare o- the 8or+er in the commoditie produced b. him el-3 Wage are that part o- alread. e4i ting commoditie 8ith 8hich the capitali t bu. a certain amount oproducti5e labour'po8er3 Con e;uentl., labour'po8er i a commodit. 8hich it po e or, the 8age'8or+er, ell to the capitali t3 Wh. doe he ell itA >t i in order to li5e3 ,ut the putting o- labour'po8er into action F i3e3, the 8or+ F i the acti5e e4pre ion o- the labourerM o8n li-e3 %nd thi li-e acti5it. he ell to another per on in order to ecure the nece ar. mean o- li-e3 2i li-e'acti5it., there-ore, i but a mean o- ecuring hi o8n e4i tence3 2e 8or+ that he ma. +eep ali5e3 2e doe not count the labour it el- a a part o- hi li-e; it i rather a acri-ice o- hi li-e3 >t i a commodit. that he ha auctioned o-- to another3 (he product ohi acti5it., there-ore, i not the aim o- hi acti5it.3 What he produce -or him el- i not the il+ that he 8ea5e , not the gold that he dra8 up the mining ha-t, not the palace that he build 3 What he produce -or him el- i 8age ; and the il+, the gold, and the palace are re ol5ed -or him into a certain ;uantit. o- nece arie o- li-e, perhap into a cotton Bac+et, into copper coin , and into a ba ement d8elling3 %nd the labourer 8ho -or 1/ hour long, 8ea5e , pin , bore , turn , build , ho5el , brea+ tone, carrie hod , and o on F i thi 1/ hour M 8ea5ing, pinning, boring, turning, building, ho5elling, tone'brea+ing, regarded b. him a a mani-e tation o- li-e, a li-eA Nuite the contrar.3 Li-e -or him begin 8here thi acti5it. cea e , at the table, at the ta5ern, in bed3 (he 1/ hour M 8or+, on the other hand, ha no meaning -or him a 8ea5ing, pinning, boring, and o on, but onl. a earning , 8hich enable him to it do8n at a table, to ta+e hi eat in the ta5ern, and to lie do8n in a bed3 >- the il+'8ormM obBect in pinning 8ere to prolong it e4i tence a caterpillar, it 8ould be a per-ect e4ample o- a 8age'8or+er3 Labour'po8er 8a not al8a. a commodit. Hmerchandi eI3 Labour 8a not al8a. 8age'labour, i3e3, -ree labour3 (he la5e did not ell hi labour'po8er to the la5e'o8ner, an. more than the o4 ell hi labour to the -armer3 (he la5e, together 8ith hi labour'po8er, 8a old to hi o8ner once -or all3 2e i a commodit. that can pa -rom the hand o- one o8ner to that o- another3 2e him el- i a commodit., but hi labour'po8er i not hi commodit.3 (he er- ell onl. a portion o- hi labour'po8er3 >t i not he 8ho recei5e 8age -rom the o8ner o- the land; it i rather the o8ner o- the land 8ho recei5e a tribute -rom him3 (he er- belong to the oil, and to the lord othe oil he bring it -ruit3 (he -ree labourer, on the other hand, ell hi 5er. el-, and that b. -raction 3 2e auction o-- eight, 10, 1/, 1& hour o- hi li-e, one da. li+e the ne4t, to the highe t bidder, to the o8ner o- ra8 material , tool , and the mean o- li-e F i3e3, to the capitali t3 (he labourer belong neither to an o8ner nor to the oil, but eight, 10, 1/, 1& hour o- hi dail. li-e belong to 8hom oe5er bu. them3 (he 8or+er lea5e the capitali t, to 8hom he ha old him el-, a o-ten a he choo e , and the capitali t di charge him a o-ten a he ee -it, a oon a he no longer get an. u e, or not the re;uired u e, out o- him3 ,ut the 8or+er, 8ho e onl. ource oincome i the ale o- hi labour'po8er, cannot lea5e the 8hole cla o- bu.er , i3e3, the capitali t cla , unle he gi5e up hi o8n e4i tence3 2e doe not belong to thi or that capitali t, but to the capitali t cla ; and it i -or him to -ind hi man F i3e3, to -ind a bu.er in thi capitali t cla 3

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,e-ore entering more clo el. upon the relation o- capital to 8age'labour, 8e hall pre ent brie-l. the mo t general condition 8hich come into con ideration in the determination o- 8age 3 Wage , a 8e ha5e een, are the price o- a certain commodit., labour'po8er3 Wage , there-ore, are determined b. the ame la8 that determine the price o- e5er. other commodit.3 (he ;ue tion then i , 2o8 i the price o- a commodit. determinedA

$y "hat is the price o% a commodity determined

,. the competition bet8een bu.er and eller , b. the relation o- the demand to the uppl., o- the call to the o--er3 (he competition b. 8hich the price o- a commodit. i determined i three-old3 (he ame commodit. i o--ered -or ale b. 5ariou eller 3 Whoe5er ell commoditie o- the ame ;ualit. mo t cheapl., i ure to dri5e the other eller -rom the -ield and to ecure the greate t mar+et -or him el-3 (he eller there-ore -ight among them el5e -or the ale , -or the mar+et3 ?ach one o- them 8i he to ell, and to ell a much a po ible, and i- po ible to ell alone, to the e4clu ion o- all other eller 3 ?ach one ell cheaper than the other3 (hu there ta+e place a competition among the eller 8hich -orce do8n the price o- the commoditie o--ered b. them3 ,ut there i al o a competition among the bu.er ; thi upon it ide cau e the price o- the pro--ered commoditie to ri e3 Finall., there i competition bet8een the bu.er and the eller : the e 8i h to purcha e a cheapl. a po ible, tho e to ell a dearl. a po ible3 (he re ult o- thi competition bet8een bu.er and eller 8ill depend upon the relation bet8een the t8o abo5e'mentioned camp o- competitor F i3e3, upon 8hether the competition in the arm. o- eller i tronger3 >ndu tr. lead t8o great armie into the -ield again t each other, and each o- the e again i engaged in a battle among it o8n troop in it o8n ran+ 3 (he arm. among 8ho e troop there i le -ighting, carrie o-- the 5ictor. o5er the oppo ing ho t3 Let u uppo e that there are 100 bale o- cotton in the mar+et and at the ame time purcha er -or 1,000 bale o- cotton3 >n thi ca e, the demand i 10 time greater than the uppl.3 Competition among the bu.er , then, 8ill be 5er. trong; each o- them trie to get hold o- one bale, i- po ible, o- the 8hole 100 bale 3 (hi e4ample i no arbitrar. uppo ition3 >n the hi tor. o- commerce 8e ha5e e4perienced period o- carcit. o- cotton, 8hen ome capitali t united together and ought to bu. up not 100 bale , but the 8hole cotton uppl. o- the 8orld3 >n the gi5en ca e, then, one bu.er ee+ to dri5e the other -rom the -ield b. o--ering a relati5el. higher price -or the bale ocotton3 (he cotton eller , 8ho percei5e the troop o- the enem. in the mo t 5iolent contention among them el5e , and 8ho there-ore are -ull. a ured o- the ale o- their 8hole 100 bale , 8ill be8are o- pulling one anotherM hair in order to -orce do8n the price o- cotton at the 5er. moment in 8hich their opponent race 8ith one another to cre8 it up high3 So, all o- a udden, peace reign in the arm. o- eller 3 (he. tand oppo ed to the bu.er li+e one man, -old their arm in philo ophic contentment and their claim 8ould -ind no limit did not the o--er o- e5en the mo t importunate o- bu.er ha5e a 5er. de-inite limit3 >-, then, the uppl. o- a commodit. i le than the demand -or it, competition among the eller i 5er. light, or there ma. be none at all among them3 >n the ame proportion in 8hich thi competition decrea e , the competition among the bu.er increa e 3 #e ult: a more or le con iderable ri e in the price o- commoditie 3

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>t i 8ell +no8n that the oppo ite ca e, 8ith the oppo ite re ult, happen more -re;uentl.3 6reat e4ce o- uppl. o5er demand; de perate competition among the eller , and a lac+ o- bu.er ; -orced ale o- commoditie at ridiculou l. lo8 price 3 ,ut 8hat i a ri e, and 8hat a -all o- price A What i a high and 8hat a lo8 priceA % grain o- and i high 8hen e4amined through a micro cope, and a to8er i lo8 8hen compared 8ith a mountain3 %nd i- the price i determined b. the relation o- uppl. and demand, b. 8hat i the relation o- uppl. and demand determinedA Let u turn to the -ir t 8orth. citiDen 8e meet3 2e 8ill not he itate one moment, but, li+e %le4ander the 6reat, 8ill cut thi metaph. ical +not 8ith hi multiplication table3 2e 8ill a. to u : 9>- the production o- the commoditie 8hich > ell ha co t me 100 pound , and out o- the ale o- the e good > ma+e 110 pound F 8ithin the .ear, .ou under tand F thatM an hone t, ound, rea onable pro-it3 ,ut i- in the e4change > recei5e 1/0 or 1C0 pound , thatM a higher pro-it; and i> hould get a much a /00 pound , that 8ould be an e4traordinar., and enormou pro-it3: What i it, then, that er5e thi citiDen a the tandard o- hi pro-itA (he co t o- the production o- hi commoditie 3 >- in e4change -or the e good he recei5e a ;uantit. o- other good 8ho e production ha co t le , he ha lo t3 >- he recei5e in e4change -or hi good a ;uantit. o- other good 8ho e production ha co t more, he ha gained3 %nd he rec+on the -alling or ri ing o- the pro-it according to the degree at 8hich the e4change 5alue o- hi good tand , 8hether abo5e or belo8 hi Dero F the co t o- production3 We ha5e een ho8 the changing relation o- uppl. and demand cau e no8 a ri e, no8 a -all oprice ; no8 high, no8 lo8 price 3 >- the price o- a commodit. ri e con iderabl. o8ing to a -ailing uppl. or a di proportionatel. gro8ing demand, then the price o- ome other commodit. mu t ha5e -allen in proportion; -or o- cour e the price o- a commodit. onl. e4pre e in mone. the proportion in 8hich other commoditie 8ill be gi5en in e4change -or it3 >-, -or e4ample, the price o- a .ard o- il+ ri e -rom t8o to three hilling , the price o- il5er ha -allen in relation to the il+, and in the ame 8a. the price o- all other commoditie 8ho e price ha5e remained tationar. ha5e -allen in relation to the price o- il+3 % large ;uantit. o- them mu t be gi5en in e4change in order to obtain the ame amount o- il+3 "o8, 8hat 8ill be the con e;uence o- a ri e in the price o- a particular commodit.A % ma o- capital 8ill be thro8n into the pro perou branch o- indu tr., and thi immigration o- capital into the pro5ince o- the -a5ored indu tr. 8ill continue until it .ield no more than the cu tomar. pro-it , or, rather until the price o- it product , o8ning to o5erproduction, in+ belo8 the co t o- production3 Con5er el.: i- the price o- a commodit. -all belo8 it co t o- production, then capital 8ill be 8ithdra8n -rom the production o- thi commodit.3 ?4cept in the ca e o- a branch o- indu tr. 8hich ha become ob olete and i there-ore doomed to di appear, the production o- uch a commodit. Hthat i , it uppl.I, 8ill, o8ning to thi -light o- capital, continue to decrea e until it corre pond to the demand, and the price o- the commodit. ri e again to the le5el o- it co t oproduction; or, rather, until the uppl. ha -allen belo8 the demand and it price ha ri en abo5e it co t o- production, -or the current price o- a commodit. i al8a. either abo5e or belo8 it co t o- production3 We ee ho8 capital continuall. emigrate out o- the pro5ince o- one indu tr. and immigrate into that o- another3 (he high price produce an e4ce i5e immigration, and the lo8 price an e4ce i5e emigration3 We could ho8, -rom another point o- 5ie8, ho8 not onl. the uppl., but al o the demand, i determined b. the co t o- production3 ,ut thi 8ould lead u too -ar a8a. -rom our ubBect3 We ha5e Bu t een ho8 the -luctuation o- uppl. and demand al8a. bring the price o- a commodit. bac+ to it co t o- production3 (he actual price o- a commodit., indeed, tand al8a. abo5e or belo8 the co t o- production; but the ri e and -all reciprocall. balance each other, o

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that, 8ithin a certain period o- time, i- the ebb and -lo8 o- the indu tr. are rec+oned up together, the commoditie 8ill be e4changed -or one another in accordance 8ith their co t oproduction3 (heir price i thu determined b. their co t o- production3 (he determination o- price b. the co t o- production i not to be under tood in the en e o- the bourgeoi economi t 3 (he economi t a. that the a5erage price o- commoditie e;ual the co t o- production: that i the la83 (he anarchic mo5ement, in 8hich the ri e i compen ated -or b. a -all and the -all b. a ri e, the. regard a an accident3 We might Bu t a 8ell con ider the -luctuation a the la8, and the determination o- the price b. co t o- production a an accident F a i , in -act, done b. certain other economi t 3 ,ut it i preci el. the e -luctuation 8hich, 5ie8ed more clo el., carr. the mo t -right-ul de5a tation in their train, and, li+e an earth;ua+e, cau e bourgeoi ociet. to ha+e to it 5er. -oundation F it i preci el. the e -luctuation that -orce the price to con-orm to the co t o- production3 >n the totalit. o- thi di orderl. mo5ement i to be -ound it order3 >n the total cour e o- thi indu trial anarch., in thi circular mo5ement, competition balance , a it 8ere, the one e4tra5agance b. the other3 We thu ee that the price o- a commodit. i indeed determined b. it co t o- production, but in uch a manner that the period in 8hich the price o- the e commoditie ri e abo5e the co t oproduction are balanced b. the period in 8hich it in+ belo8 the co t o- production, and 5ice 5er a3 G- cour e thi doe not hold good -or a ingle gi5en product o- an indu tr., but onl. -or that branch o- indu tr.3 So al o it doe not hold good -or an indi5idual manu-acturer, but onl. -or the 8hole cla o- manu-acturer 3 (he determination o- price b. co t o- production i tantamount to the determination o- price b. the labour'time re;ui ite to the production o- a commodit., -or the co t o- production con i t , -ir t o- ra8 material and 8ear and tear o- tool , etc3, i3e3, o- indu trial product 8ho e production ha co t a certain number o- 8or+'da. , 8hich there-ore repre ent a certain amount o- labour' time, and, econdl., o- direct labour, 8hich i al o mea ured b. it duration3

$y "hat are "ages determined

"o8, the ame general la8 8hich regulate the price o- commoditie in general, naturall. regulate 8age , or the price o- labour'po8er3 Wage 8ill no8 ri e, no8 -all, according to the relation o- uppl. and demand, according a competition hape it el- bet8een the bu.er olabour'po8er, the capitali t , and the eller o- labour'po8er, the 8or+er 3 (he -luctuation o8age corre pond to the -luctuation in the price o- commoditie in general3 ,ut 8ithin the limit o- the e -luctuation the price o- labour'po8er 8ill be determined b. the co t o- production, b. the labour'time nece ar. -or production o- thi commodit.: labour'po8er3 What, then, i the co t o- production o- labour'po8erA >t i the co t re;uired -or the maintenance o- the labourer a a labourer, and -or hi education and training a a labourer3 (here-ore, the horter the time re;uired -or training up to a particular ort o- 8or+, the maller i the co t o- production o- the 8or+er, the lo8er i the price o- hi labour'po8er, hi 8age 3 >n tho e branche o- indu tr. in 8hich hardl. an. period o- apprentice hip i nece ar. and the mere bodil. e4i tence o- the 8or+er i u--icient, the co t o- hi production i limited almo t e4clu i5el. to the commoditie nece ar. -or +eeping him in 8or+ing condition3 (he price o- hi 8or+ 8ill there-ore be determined b. the price o- the nece ar. mean o- ub i tence3 2ere, ho8e5er, there enter another con ideration3 (he manu-acturer 8ho calculate hi co t oproduction and, in accordance 8ith it, the price o- the product, ta+e into account the 8ear and

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tear o- the in trument o- labour3 >- a machine co t him, -or e4ample, 1,000 hilling , and thi machine i u ed up in 10 .ear , he add 100 hilling annuall. to the price o- the commoditie , in order to be able a-ter 10 .ear to replace the 8orn'out machine 8ith a ne8 one3 >n the ame manner, the co t o- production o- imple labour'po8er mu t include the co t o- propagation, b. mean o- 8hich the race o- 8or+er i enabled to multipl. it el-, and to replace 8orn'out 8or+er 8ith ne8 one 3 (he 8ear and tear o- the 8or+er, there-ore, i calculated in the ame manner a the 8ear and tear o- the machine3 (hu , the co t o- production o- imple labour'po8er amount to the co t o- the e4i tence and propagation o- the 8or+er3 (he price o- thi co t o- e4i tence and propagation con titute 8age 3 (he 8age thu determined are called the minimum o- 8age 3 (hi minimum 8age, li+e the determination o- the price o- commoditie in general b. co t o- production, doe not hold good -or the ingle indi5idual, but onl. -or the race3 >ndi5idual 8or+er , indeed, million o- 8or+er , do not recei5e enough to be able to e4i t and to propagate them el5e ; but the 8age o- the 8hole 8or+ing cla adBu t them el5e , 8ithin the limit o- their -luctuation , to thi minimum3 "o8 that 8e ha5e come to an under tanding in regard to the mo t general la8 8hich go5ern 8age , a 8ell a the price o- e5er. other commodit., 8e can e4amine our ubBect more particularl.3

&he 'ature and (ro"th o% Capital

Capital con i t o- ra8 material , in trument o- labour, and mean o- ub i tence o- all +ind , 8hich are emplo.ed in producing ne8 ra8 material , ne8 in trument , and ne8 mean oub i tence3 %ll the e component o- capital are created b. labour, product o- labour, accumulated labour3 %ccumulated labour that er5e a a mean to ne8 production i capital3 So a. the economi t 3 What i a "egro la5eA % man o- the blac+ race3 (he one e4planation i 8orth. o- the other3 % "egro i a "egro3 Gnl. under certain condition doe he become a la5e3 % cotton' pinning machine i a machine -or pinning cotton3 Gnl. under certain condition doe it become capital3 (orn a8a. -rom the e condition , it i a little capital a gold i it el- mone., or ugar i the price o- ugar3 >n the proce o- production, human being 8or+ not onl. upon nature, but al o upon one another3 (he. produce onl. b. 8or+ing together in a peci-ied manner and reciprocall. e4changing their acti5itie 3 >n order to produce, the. enter into de-inite connection and relation to one another, and onl. 8ithin the e ocial connection and relation doe their in-luence upon nature operate F i3e3, doe production ta+e place3 (he e ocial relation bet8een the producer , and the condition under 8hich the. e4change their acti5itie and hare in the total act o- production, 8ill naturall. 5ar. according to the character othe mean o- production3 With the di co5er o- a ne8 in trument o- 8ar-are, the -irearm, the 8hole internal organiDation o- the arm. 8a nece aril. altered, the relation 8ithin 8hich indi5idual compo e an arm. and can 8or+ a an arm. 8ere tran -ormed, and the relation o- di--erent armie to another 8a li+e8i e changed3 We thu ee that the ocial relation 8ithin 8hich indi5idual produce, the ocial relation oproduction, are altered, tran -ormed, 8ith the change and de5elopment o- the material mean oproduction, o- the -orce o- production3 (he relation o- production in their totalit. con titute 8hat i called the ocial relation , ociet., and, moreo5er, a ociet. at a de-inite tage o- hi torical

14

de5elopment, a ociet. 8ith peculiar, di tincti5e characteri tic 3 %ncient ociet., -eudal ociet., bourgeoi Hor capitali tI ociet., are uch totalitie o- relation o- production, each o- 8hich denote a particular tage o- de5elopment in the hi tor. o- man+ind3 Capital al o i a ocial relation o- production3 >t i a bourgeoi relation o- production, a relation oproduction o- bourgeoi ociet.3 (he mean o- ub i tence, the in trument o- labour, the ra8 material , o- 8hich capital con i t F ha5e the. not been produced and accumulated under gi5en ocial condition , 8ithin de-inite pecial relation A %re the. not emplo.ed -or ne8 production, under gi5en pecial condition , 8ithin de-inite ocial relation A %nd doe not Bu t the de-inite ocial character tamp the product 8hich er5e -or ne8 production a capitalA Capital con i t not onl. o- mean o- ub i tence, in trument o- labour, and ra8 material , not onl. a material product ; it con i t Bu t a much o- e4change 5alue 3 %ll product o- 8hich it con i t are commoditie 3 Capital, con e;uentl., i not onl. a um o- material product , it i a um o- commoditie , o- e4change 5alue , o- ocial magnitude 3 Capital remain the ame 8hether 8e put cotton in the place o- 8ool, rice in the place o- 8heat, team hip in the place o- railroad , pro5ided onl. that the cotton, the rice, the team hip F the bod. o- capital F ha5e the ame e4change 5alue, the ame price, a the 8ool, the 8heat, the railroad , in 8hich it 8a pre5iou l. embodied3 (he bodil. -orm o- capital ma. tran -orm it el- continuall., 8hile capital doe not u--er the lea t alteration3 ,ut though e5er. capital i a um o- commoditie F i3e3, o- e4change 5alue F it doe not -ollo8 that e5er. um o- commoditie , o- e4change 5alue , i capital3 ?5er. um o- e4change 5alue i an e4change 5alue3 ?ach particular e4change 5alue i a um oe4change 5alue 3 For e4ample: a hou e 8orth 1,000 pound i an e4change 5alue o- 1,000 pound : a piece o- paper 8orth one penn. i a um o- e4change 5alue o- 100 1)100th o- a penn.3 !roduct 8hich are e4changeable -or other are commoditie 3 (he de-inite proportion in 8hich the. are e4changeable -orm their e4change 5alue, or, e4pre ed in mone., their price3 (he ;uantit. o- the e product can ha5e no e--ect on their character a commoditie , a repre enting an e4change 5alue , a ha5ing a certain price3 Whether a tree be large or mall, it remain a tree3 Whether 8e e4change iron in penn.8eight or in hundred8eight , -or other product , doe thi alter it character: it being a commodit., or e4change 5alueA %ccording to the ;uantit., it i a commodit. o- greater or o- le er 5alue, o- higher or o- lo8er price3 2o8 then doe a um o- commoditie , o- e4change 5alue , become capitalA (hereb., that a an independent ocial po8er F i3e3, a the po8er o- a part o- ociet. F it pre er5e it el- and multiplie b. e4change 8ith direct, li5ing labour'po8er3 (he e4i tence o- a cla 8hich po e e nothing but the abilit. to 8or+ i a nece ar. pre uppo ition o- capital3 >t i onl. the dominion o- pa t, accumulated, materialiDed labour o5er immediate li5ing labour that tamp the accumulated labour 8ith the character o- capital3 Capital doe not con i t in the -act that accumulated labour er5e li5ing labour a a mean -or ne8 production3 >t con i t in the -act that li5ing labour er5e accumulated labour a the mean o- pre er5ing and multipl.ing it e4change 5alue3

)elation o% Wage*Labour to Capital

What i it that ta+e place in the e4change bet8een the capitali t and the 8age'labourerA

1&

(he labourer recei5e mean o- ub i tence in e4change -or hi labour'po8er; the capitali t recei5e , in e4change -or hi mean o- ub i tence, labour, the producti5e acti5it. o- the labourer, the creati5e -orce b. 8hich the 8or+er not onl. replace 8hat he con ume , but al o gi5e to the accumulated labour a greater 5alue than it pre5iou l. po e ed3 (he labourer get -rom the capitali t a portion o- the e4i ting mean o- ub i tence3 For 8hat purpo e do the e mean oub i tence er5e himA For immediate con umption3 ,ut a oon a > con ume mean oub i tence, the. are irre5ocabl. lo t to me, unle > emplo. the time during 8hich the e mean u tain m. li-e in producing ne8 mean o- ub i tence, in creating b. m. labour ne8 5alue in place o- the 5alue lo t in con umption3 ,ut it i Bu t thi noble reproducti5e po8er that the labourer urrender to the capitali t in e4change -or mean o- ub i tence recei5ed3 Con e;uentl., he ha lo t it -or him el-3 Let u ta+e an e4ample3 For one hilling a labourer 8or+ all da. long in the -ield o- a -armer, to 8hom he thu ecure a return o- t8o hilling 3 (he -armer not onl. recei5e the replaced 5alue 8hich he ha gi5en to the da. labourer, he ha doubled it3 (here-ore, he ha con umed the one hilling that he ga5e to the da. labourer in a -ruit-ul, producti5e manner3 For the one hilling he ha bought the labour'po8er o- the da.'labourer, 8hich create product o- the oil o- t8ice the 5alue, and out o- one hilling ma+e t8o3 (he da.'labourer, on the contrar., recei5e in the place o- hi producti5e -orce, 8ho e re ult he ha Bu t urrendered to the -armer, one hilling, 8hich he e4change -or mean o- ub i tence, 8hich he con ume more or le ;uic+l.3 (he one hilling ha there-ore been con umed in a double manner F reproducti5el. -or the capitali t, -or it ha been e4changed -or labour'po8er, 8hich brought -orth t8o hilling ; unproducti5el. -or the 8or+er, -or it ha been e4changed -or mean o- ub i tence 8hich are lo t -or e5er, and 8ho e 5alue he can obtain again onl. b. repeating the ame e4change 8ith the -armer3 Capital there-ore pre uppo e 8age'labour; 8age'labour pre uppo e capital3 (he. condition each other; each bring the other into e4i tence3 Doe a 8or+er in a cotton -actor. produce onl. cottonA "o3 2e produce capital3 2e produce 5alue 8hich er5e ane8 to command hi 8or+ and to create b. mean o- it ne8 5alue 3 Capital can multipl. it el- onl. b. e4changing it el- -or labour'po8er, b. calling 8age'labour into li-e3 (he labour'po8er o- the 8age'labourer can e4change it el- -or capital onl. b. increa ing capital, b. trengthening that 5er. po8er 8ho e la5e it i 3 >ncrea e o- capital, there-ore, i increa e o- the proletariat, i3e3, o- the 8or+ing cla 3 %nd o, the bourgeoi ie and it economi t maintain that the intere t o- the capitali t and o- the labourer i the ame3 %nd in -act, o the. areJ (he 8or+er peri he i- capital doe not +eep him bu .3 Capital peri he i- it doe not e4ploit labour'po8er, 8hich, in order to e4ploit, it mu t bu.3 (he more ;uic+l. the capital de tined -or production F the producti5e capital F increa e , the more pro perou indu tr. i , the more the bourgeoi ie enriche it el-, the better bu ine get , o man. more 8or+er doe the capitali t need, o much the dearer doe the 8or+er ell him el-3 (he -a te t po ible gro8th o- producti5e capital i , there-ore, the indi pen able condition -or a tolerable li-e to the labourer3 ,ut 8hat i gro8th o- producti5e capitalA 6ro8th o- the po8er o- accumulated labour o5er li5ing labour; gro8th o- the rule o- the bourgeoi ie o5er the 8or+ing cla 3 When 8age'labour produce the alien 8ealth dominating it, the po8er ho tile to it, capital, there -lo8 bac+ to it it mean oemplo.ment F i3e3, it mean o- ub i tence, under the condition that it again become a part ocapital, that i become again the le5er 8hereb. capital i to be -orced into an accelerated e4pan i5e mo5ement3 (o a. that the intere t o- capital and the intere t o- the 8or+er are identical, igni-ie onl. thi : that capital and 8age'labour are t8o ide o- one and the ame relation3 (he one condition the other in the ame 8a. that the u urer and the borro8er condition each other3

11

% long a the 8age'labourer remain a 8age'labourer, hi lot i dependent upon capital3 (hat i 8hat the boa ted communit. o- intere t bet8een 8or+er and capitali t amount to3 >- capital gro8 , the ma o- 8age'labour gro8 , the number o- 8age'8or+er increa e ; in a 8ord, the 8a. o- capital e4tend o5er a greater ma o- indi5idual 3 Let u uppo e the mo t -a5orable ca e: i- producti5e capital gro8 , the demand -or labour gro8 3 >t there-ore increa e the price o- labour'po8er, 8age 3 % hou e ma. be large or mall; a long a the neighboring hou e are li+e8i e mall, it ati -ie all ocial re;uirement -or a re idence3 ,ut let there ari e ne4t to the little hou e a palace, and the little hou e hrin+ to a hut3 (he little hou e no8 ma+e it clear that it inmate ha no ocial po ition at all to maintain, or but a 5er. in igni-icant one; and ho8e5er high it ma. hoot up in the cour e o- ci5iliDation, i- the neighboring palace ri e in e;ual or e5en in greater mea ure, the occupant o- the relati5el. little hou e 8ill al8a. -ind him el- more uncom-ortable, more di ati -ied, more cramped 8ithin hi -our 8all 3 %n appreciable ri e in 8age pre uppo e a rapid gro8th o- producti5e capital3 #apid gro8th oproducti5e capital call -orth Bu t a rapid a gro8th o- 8ealth, o- lu4ur., o- ocial need and ocial plea ure 3 (here-ore, although the plea ure o- the labourer ha5e increa ed, the ocial grati-ication 8hich the. a--ord ha -allen in compari on 8ith the increa ed plea ure o- the capitali t, 8hich are inacce ible to the 8or+er, in compari on 8ith the tage o- de5elopment oociet. in general3 Gur 8ant and plea ure ha5e their origin in ociet.; 8e there-ore mea ure them in relation to ociet.; 8e do not mea ure them in relation to the obBect 8hich er5e -or their grati-ication3 Since the. are o- a ocial nature, the. are o- a relati5e nature3 ,ut 8age are not at all determined merel. b. the um o- commoditie -or 8hich the. ma. be e4changed3 Gther -actor enter into the problem3 What the 8or+er directl. recei5e -or their labour'po8er i a certain um o- mone.3 %re 8age determined merel. b. thi mone. priceA >n the 11th centur., the gold and il5er circulation in ?urope increa ed in con e;uence o- the di co5er. o- richer and more ea il. 8or+ed mine in %merica3 (he 5alue o- gold and il5er, there-ore, -ell in relation to other commoditie 3 (he 8or+er recei5ed the ame amount o- coined il5er -or their labour'po8er a be-ore3 (he mone. price o- their 8or+ remained the ame, and .et their 8age had -allen, -or in e4change -or the ame amount o- il5er the. obtained a maller amount o- other commoditie 3 (hi 8a one o- the circum tance 8hich -urthered the gro8th ocapital, the ri e o- the bourgeoi ie, in the 18th centur.3 Let u ta+e another ca e3 >n the 8inter o- 1847, in con e;uence o- bad har5e t, the mo t indi pen able mean o- ub i tence F grain , meat, butter, chee e, etc3 F ro e greatl. in price3 Let u uppo e that the 8or+er till recei5ed the ame um o- mone. -or their labour'po8er a be-ore3 Did not their 8age -allA (o be ure3 For the ame mone. the. recei5ed in e4change le bread, meat, etc3 (heir 8age -ell, not becau e the 5alue o- il5er 8a le , but becau e the 5alue o- the mean o- ub i tence had increa ed3 Finall., let u uppo e that the mone. price o- labour'po8er remained the ame, 8hile all agricultural and manu-actured commoditie had -allen in price becau e o- the emplo.ment o- ne8 machine , o- -a5orable ea on , etc3 For the ame mone. the 8or+er could no8 bu. more commoditie o- all +ind 3 (heir 8age ha5e there-ore ri en, Bu t becau e their mone. 5alue ha not changed3 (he mone. price o- labour'po8er, the nominal 8age , do not there-ore coincide 8ith the actual or real 8age F i3e3, 8ith the amount o- commoditie 8hich are actuall. gi5en in e4change -or the 8age 3 >- then 8e pea+ o- a ri e or -all o- 8age , 8e ha5e to +eep in mind not onl. the mone. price o- labour'po8er, the nominal 8age , but al o the real 8age 3

17

,ut neither the nominal 8age F i3e3, the amount o- mone. -or 8hich the labourer ell him el- to the capitali t F nor the real 8age F i3e3, the amount o- commoditie 8hich he can bu. -or thi mone. F e4hau t the relation 8hich are comprehended in the term 8age 3 Wage are determined abo5e all b. their relation to the gain, the pro-it, o- the capitali t3 >n other 8ord , 8age are a proportionate, relati5e ;uantit.3 #eal 8age e4pre the price o- labour'po8er in relation to the price o- commoditie ; relati5e 8age , on the other hand, e4pre the hare o- immediate labour in the 5alue ne8l. created b. it, in relation to the hare o- it 8hich -all to accumulated labour, to capital3

&he (eneral La" that #etermines the )ise and +all o% Wages and Pro%its
We ha5e aid: 9Wage are not a hare o- the 8or+er in the commoditie produced b. him3 Wage are that part o- alread. e4i ting commoditie 8ith 8hich the capitali t bu. a certain amount oproducti5e labour'po8er3: ,ut the capitali t mu t replace the e 8age out o- the price -or 8hich he ell the product made b. the 8or+er; he mu t o replace it that, a a rule, there remain to him a urplu abo5e the co t o- production e4pended b. him, that i , he mu t get a pro-it3 (he elling price o- the commoditie produced b. the 8or+er i di5ided, -rom the point o- 5ie8 othe capitali t, into three part : Fir t, the replacement o- the price o- the ra8 material ad5anced b. him, in addition to the replacement o- the 8ear and tear o- the tool , machine , and other in trument o- labour li+e8i e ad5anced b. him; Second, the replacement o- the 8age ad5anced; and (hird, the urplu le-to5er F i3e3, the pro-it o- the capitali t3 While the -ir t part merel. replace pre5iou l. e4i ting 5alue , it i e5ident that the replacement o- the 8age and the urplu Hthe pro-it o- capitalI are a a 8hole ta+en out o- the ne8 5alue, 8hich i produced b. the labour o- the 8or+er and added to the ra8 material 3 %nd in thi en e 8e can 5ie8 8age a 8ell a pro-it, -or the purpo e o- comparing them 8ith each other, a hare in the product o- the 8or+er3 #eal 8age ma. remain the ame, the. ma. e5en ri e, ne5erthele the relati5e 8age ma. -all3 Let u uppo e, -or in tance, that all mean o- ub i tence ha5e -allen /)Crd in price, 8hile the da.M 8age ha5e -allen but 1)Crd F -or e4ample, -rom three to t8o hilling 3 %lthough the 8or+er can no8 get a greater amount o- commoditie 8ith the e t8o hilling than he -ormerl. did 8ith three hilling , .et hi 8age ha5e decrea ed in proportion to the gain o- the capitali t3 (he pro-it o- the capitali t F the manu-acturerM -or in tance F ha increa ed one hilling, 8hich mean that -or a maller amount o- e4change 5alue , 8hich he pa. to the 8or+er, the latter mu t produce a greater amount o- e4change 5alue than be-ore3 (he hare o- capital in proportion to the hare olabour ha ri en3 (he di tribution o- ocial 8ealth bet8een capital and labour ha become till more une;ual3 (he capitali t command a greater amount o- labour 8ith the ame capital3 (he po8er o- the capitali t cla o5er the 8or+ing cla ha gro8n, the ocial po ition o- the 8or+er ha become 8or e, ha been -orced do8n till another degree belo8 that o- the capitali t3 What, then, i the general la8 that determine the ri e and -all o- 8age and pro-it in their reciprocal relationA

18

(he. tand in in5er e proportion to each other3 (he hare o- Hpro-itI increa e in the ame proportion in 8hich the hare o- labour H8age I -all , and 5ice 5er a3 !ro-it ri e in the ame degree in 8hich 8age -all; it -all in the ame degree in 8hich 8age ri e3 >t might perhap be argued that the capitali t cla can gain b. an ad5antageou e4change o- hi product 8ith other capitali t , b. a ri e in the demand -or hi commoditie , 8hether in con e;uence o- the opening up o- ne8 mar+et , or in con e;uence o- temporaril. increa ed demand in the old mar+et, and o on; that the pro-it o- the capitali t, there-ore, ma. be multiplied b. ta+ing ad5antage o- other capitali t , independentl. o- the ri e and -all o- 8age , o- the e4change 5alue o- labour'po8er; or that the pro-it o- the capitali t ma. al o ri e through impro5ement in the in trument o- labour, ne8 application o- the -orce o- nature, and o on3 ,ut in the -ir t place it mu t be admitted that the re ult remain the ame, although brought about in an oppo ite manner3 !ro-it, indeed, ha not ri en becau e 8age ha5e -allen, but 8age ha5e -allen becau e pro-it ha ri en3 With the ame amount o- another manM labour the capitali t ha bought a larger amount o- e4change 5alue 8ithout ha5ing paid more -or the labour on that account F i3e3, the 8or+ i paid -or le in proportion to the net gain 8hich it .ield to the capitali t3 >n the econd place, it mu t be borne in mind that, de pite the -luctuation in the price ocommoditie , the a5erage price o- e5er. commodit., the proportion in 8hich it e4change -or other commoditie , i determined b. it co t o- production3 (he act o- o5erreaching and ta+ing ad5antage o- one another 8ithin the capitali t ran+ nece aril. e;ualiDe them el5e 3 (he impro5ement o- machiner., the ne8 application o- the -orce o- nature in the er5ice oproduction, ma+e it po ible to produce in a gi5en period o- time, 8ith the ame amount o- labour and capital, a larger amount o- product , but in no 8i e a larger amount o- e4change 5alue 3 >- b. the u e o- the pinning'machine > can -urni h t8ice a much .arn in an hour a be-ore it in5ention F -or in tance, 100 pound in tead o- &0 pound F in the long run > recei5e bac+, in e4change -or thi 100 pound no more commoditie than > did be-ore -or &0; becau e the co t oproduction ha -allen b. 1)/, or becau e > can -urni h double the product at the ame co t3 Finall., in 8hat oe5er proportion the capitali t cla , 8hether o- one countr. or o- the entire 8orld'mar+et, di tribute the net re5enue o- production among them el5e , the total amount o- thi net re5enue al8a. con i t e4clu i5el. o- the amount b. 8hich accumulated labour ha been increa ed -rom the proceed o- direct labour3 (hi 8hole amount, there-ore, gro8 in the ame proportion in 8hich labour augment capital F i3e3, in the ame proportion in 8hich pro-it ri e a compared 8ith 8age 3

&he Interests o% Capital and Wage*Labour are diametrically opposed, E%%ect o% gro"th o% producti-e Capital on Wages
We thu ee that, e5en i- 8e +eep our el5e 8ithin the relation o- capital and 8age'labour, the intere t o- capital and the intere t o- 8age'labour are diametricall. oppo ed to each other3

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% rapid gro8th o- capital i .non.mou 8ith a rapid gro8th o- pro-it 3 !ro-it can gro8 rapidl. onl. 8hen the price o- labour F the relati5e 8age F decrea e Bu t a rapidl.3 #elati5e 8age ma. -all, although real 8age ri e imultaneou l. 8ith nominal 8age , 8ith the mone. 5alue olabour, pro5ided onl. that the real 8age doe not ri e in the ame proportion a the pro-it3 >-, -or in tance, in good bu ine .ear 8age ri e & per cent, 8hile pro-it ri e C0 per cent, the proportional, the relati5e 8age ha not increa ed, but decrea ed3 >-, there-ore, the income o- the 8or+er increa ed 8ith the rapid gro8th o- capital, there i at the ame time a 8idening o- the ocial cha m that di5ide the 8or+er -rom the capitali t, and increa e in the po8er o- capital o5er labour, a greater dependence o- labour upon capital3 (o a. that 9the 8or+er ha an intere t in the rapid gro8th o- capital:, mean onl. thi : that the more peedil. the 8or+er augment the 8ealth o- the capitali t, the larger 8ill be the crumb 8hich -all to him, the greater 8ill be the number o- 8or+er than can be called into e4i tence, the more can the ma o- la5e dependent upon capital be increa ed3 We ha5e thu een that e5en the mo t -a5orable ituation -or the 8or+ing cla , namel., the mo t rapid gro8th o- capital, ho8e5er much it ma. impro5e the material li-e o- the 8or+er, doe not aboli h the antagoni m bet8een hi intere t and the intere t o- the capitali t3 !ro-it and 8age remain a be-ore, in in5er e proportion3 >- capital gro8 rapidl., 8age ma. ri e, but the pro-it o- capital ri e di proportionatel. -a ter3 (he material po ition o- the 8or+er ha impro5ed, but at the co t o- hi ocial po ition3 (he ocial cha m that eparate him -rom the capitali t ha 8idened3 Finall., to a. that 9the mo t -a5orable condition -or 8age'labour i the -a te t po ible gro8th oproducti5e capital:, i the ame a to a.: the ;uic+er the 8or+ing cla multiplie and augment the po8er inimical to it F the 8ealth o- another 8hich lord o5er that cla F the more -a5orable 8ill be the condition under 8hich it 8ill be permitted to toil ane8 at the multiplication obourgeoi 8ealth, at the enlargement o- the po8er o- capital, content thu to -orge -or it el- the golden chain b. 8hich the bourgeoi ie drag it in it train3 6ro8th o- producti5e capital and ri e o- 8age , are the. reall. o indi olubl. united a the bourgeoi economi t maintainA We mu t not belie5e their mere 8ord 3 We dare not belie5e them e5en 8hen the. claim that the -atter capital i the more 8ill it la5e be pampered3 (he bourgeoi ie i too much enlightened, it +eep it account much too care-ull., to hare the preBudice o- the -eudal lord, 8ho ma+e an o tentatiou di pla. o- the magni-icence o- hi retinue3 (he condition o- e4i tence o- the bourgeoi ie compel it to attend care-ull. to it boo++eeping3 We mu t there-ore e4amine more clo el. into the -ollo8ing ;ue tion:

In what manner does the growth of productive capital affect wages?

>- a a 8hole, the producti5e capital o- bourgeoi ociet. gro8 , there ta+e place a more man.' ided accumulation o- labour3 (he indi5idual capital increa e in number and in magnitude3 (he multiplication o- indi5idual capital increa e the competition among capitali t 3 (he increa ing magnitude o- increa ing capital pro5ide the mean o- leading more po8er-ul armie o- 8or+er 8ith more gigantic in trument o- 8ar upon the indu trial battle-ield3 (he one capitali t can dri5e the other -rom the -ield and carr. o-- hi capital onl. b. elling more cheapl.3 >n order to ell more cheapl. 8ithout ruining him el-, he mu t produce more cheapl. F i3e3, increa e the producti5e -orce o- labour a much a po ible3 ,ut the producti5e -orce o- labour i increa ed abo5e all b. a greater di5i ion o- labour and b. a more general introduction and con tant impro5ement o- machiner.3 (he larger the arm. o8or+er among 8hom the labour i ubdi5ided, the more gigantic the cale upon 8hich

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machiner. i introduced, the more in proportion doe the co t o- production decrea e, the more -ruit-ul i the labour3 %nd o there ari e among the capitali t a uni5er al ri5alr. -or the increa e o- the di5i ion o- labour and o- machiner. and -or their e4ploitation upon the greate t po ible cale3 >-, no8, b. a greater di5i ion o- labour, b. the application and impro5ement o- ne8 machine , b. a more ad5antageou e4ploitation o- the -orce o- nature on a larger cale, a capitali t ha -ound the mean o- producing 8ith the ame amount o- labour H8hether it be direct or accumulated labourI a larger amount o- product o- commoditie than hi competitor F i-, -or in tance, he can produce a 8hole .ard o- linen in the ame labour'time in 8hich hi competitor 8ea5e hal-'a' .ard F ho8 8ill thi capitali t actA 2e could +eep on elling hal-'a'.ard o- linen at old mar+et price; but thi 8ould not ha5e the e--ect o- dri5ing hi opponent -rom the -ield and enlarging hi o8n mar+et3 ,ut hi need o- a mar+et ha increa ed in the ame mea ure in 8hich hi producti5e po8er ha e4tended3 (he more po8er-ul and co tl. mean o- production that he ha called into e4i tence enable him, it i true, to ell hi 8are more cheapl., but the. compel him at the ame time to ell more 8are , to get control o- a 5er. much greater mar+et -or hi commoditie ; con e;uentl., thi capitali t 8ill ell hi hal-'.ard o- linen more cheapl. than hi competitor 3 ,ut the capitali t 8ill not ell the 8hole .ard o cheapl. a hi competitor ell the hal-'.ard, although the production o- the 8hole .ard co t him no more than doe that o- the hal-'.ard to the other 3 Gther8i e, he 8ould ma+e no e4tra pro-it, and 8ould get bac+ in e4change onl. the co t o- production3 2e might obtain a greater income -rom ha5ing et in motion a larger capital, but not -rom ha5ing made a greater pro-it on hi capital than the other 3 *oreo5er, he attain the obBect he i aiming at i- he price hi good onl. a mall percentage lo8er than hi competitor 3 2e dri5e them o-- the -ield, he 8re t -rom them at lea t part o- their mar+et, b. under elling them3 %nd -inall., let u remember that the current price al8a. tand either abo5e or belo8 the co t oproduction, according a the ale o- a commodit. ta+e place in the -a5orable or un-a5orable period o- the indu tr.3 %ccording a the mar+et price o- the .ard o- linen tand abo5e or belo8 it -ormer co t o- production, 8ill the percentage 5ar. at 8hich the capitali t 8ho ha made u e othe ne8 and more -aith-ul mean o- production ell abo5e hi real co t o- production3 ,ut the pri5ilege o- our capitali t i not o- long duration3 Gther competing capitali t introduce the ame machine , the ame di5i ion o- labour, and introduce them upon the ame or e5en upon a greater cale3 %nd -inall. thi introduction become o uni5er al that the price o- the linen i lo8ered not onl. belo8 it old, but e5en belo8 it ne8 co t o- production3 (he capitali t there-ore -ind them el5e , in their mutual relation , in the ame ituation in 8hich the. 8ere be-ore the introduction o- the ne8 mean o- production; and i- the. are b. the e mean enabled to o--er double the product at the old price, the. are no8 -orced to -urni h double the product -or le than the old price3 2a5ing arri5ed at the ne8 point, the ne8 co t o- production, the battle -or upremac. in the mar+et ha to be -ought out ane83 6i5en more di5i ion o- labour and more machiner., and there re ult a greater cale upon 8hich di5i ion o- labour and machiner. are e4ploited3 %nd competition again bring the ame reaction again t thi re ult3

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E%%ect o% Capitalist Competition on the Capitalist Class the Middle Class and the Wor.ing Class
We thu ee ho8 the method o- production and the mean o- production are con tantl. enlarged, re5olutioniDed, ho8 di5i ion o- labour nece aril. dra8 a-ter it greater di5i ion o- labour, the emplo.ment o- machiner. greater emplo.ment o- machiner., 8or+ upon a large cale 8or+ upon a till greater cale3 (hi i the la8 that continuall. thro8 capitali t production out o- it old rut and compel capital to train e5er more the producti5e -orce o- labour -or the 5er. rea on that it ha alread. trained them F the la8 that grant it no re pite, and con tantl. hout in it ear: *archJ marchJ (hi i no other la8 than that 8hich, 8ithin the periodical -luctuation ocommerce, nece aril. adBu t the price o- a commodit. to it co t o- production3 "o matter ho8 po8er-ul the mean o- production 8hich a capitali t ma. bring into the -ield, competition 8ill ma+e their adoption general; and -rom the moment that the. ha5e been generall. adopted, the ole re ult o- the greater producti5ene o- hi capital 8ill be that he mu t -urni h at the ame price, 10, /0, 100 time a much a be-ore3 ,ut ince he mu t -ind a mar+et -or, perhap , 1,000 time a much, in order to out8eigh the lo8er elling price b. the greater ;uantit. o- the ale; ince no8 a more e4ten i5e ale i nece ar. not onl. to gain a greater pro-it, but al o in order to replace the co t o- production Hthe in trument o- production it el- gro8 al8a. more co tl., a 8e ha5e eenI, and ince thi more e4ten i5e ale ha become a ;ue tion o- li-e and death not onl. -or him, but al o -or hi ri5al , the old truggle mu t begin again, and it i all the more 5iolent the more po8er-ul the mean o- production alread. in5ented are3 (he di5i ion olabour and the application o- machiner. 8ill there-ore ta+e a -re h tart, and upon an e5en greater cale3 Whate5er be the po8er o- the mean o- production 8hich are emplo.ed, competition ee+ to rob capital o- the golden -ruit o- thi po8er b. reducing the price o- commoditie to the co t oproduction; in the ame mea ure in 8hich production i cheapened ' i3e3, in the ame mea ure in 8hich more can be produced 8ith the ame amount o- labour F it compel b. a la8 8hich i irre i tible a till greater cheapening o- production, the ale o- e5er greater ma e o- product -or maller price 3 (hu the capitali t 8ill ha5e gained nothing more b. hi e--ort than the obligation to -urni h a greater product in the ame labour'time; in a 8ord, more di--icult condition -or the pro-itable emplo.ment o- hi capital3 While competition, there-ore, con tantl. pur ue him 8ith it la8 o- the co t o- production and turn again t him el- e5er. 8eapon that he -orge again t hi ri5al , the capitali t continuall. ee+ to get the be t o- competition b. re tle l. introducing -urther ubdi5i ion o- labour and ne8 machine , 8hich, though more e4pen i5e, enable him to produce more cheapl., in tead o- 8aiting until the ne8 machine hall ha5e been rendered ob olete b. competition3 >- 8e no8 concei5e thi -e5eri h agitation a it operate in the mar+et o- the 8hole 8orld, 8e hall be in a po ition to comprehend ho8 the gro8th, accumulation, and concentration o- capital bring in their train an e5er more detailed ubdi5i ion o- labour, an e5er greater impro5ement oold machine , and a con tant application o- ne8 machine F a proce 8hich goe on uninterruptedl., 8ith -e5eri h ha te, and upon an e5er more gigantic cale3 ,ut 8hat e--ect do the e condition , 8hich are in eparable -rom the gro8th o- producti5e capital, ha5e upon the determination o- 8age A

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(he greater di5i ion o- labour enable one labourer to accompli h the 8or+ o- -i5e, 10, or /0 labourer ; it there-ore increa e competition among the labourer -i5e-old, ten-old, or t8ent.-old3 (he labourer compete not onl. b. elling them el5e one cheaper than the other, but al o b. one doing the 8or+ o- -i5e, 10, or /0; and the. are -orced to compete in thi manner b. the di5i ion olabour, 8hich i introduced and teadil. impro5ed b. capital3 Furthermore, to the ame degree in 8hich the di5i ion o- labour increa e , i the labour impli-ied3 (he pecial +ill o- the labourer become 8orthle 3 2e become tran -ormed into a imple monotonou -orce o- production, 8ith neither ph. ical nor mental ela ticit.3 2i 8or+ become acce ible to all; there-ore competitor pre upon him -rom all ide 3 *oreo5er, it mu t be remembered that the more imple, the more ea il. learned the 8or+ i , o much the le i it co t to production, the e4pen e o- it ac;ui ition, and o much the lo8er mu t the 8age in+ F -or, li+e the price o- an. other commodit., the. are determined b. the co t o- production3 (here-ore, in the ame manner in 8hich labour become more un ati -actor., more repul i5e, do competition increa e and 8age decrea e3 (he labourer ee+ to maintain the total o- hi 8age -or a gi5en time b. per-orming more labour, either b. 8or+ing a great number o- hour , or b. accompli hing more in the ame number ohour 3 (hu , urged on b. 8ant, he him el- multiplie the di a trou e--ect o- di5i ion o- labour3 (he re ult i : the more he 8or+ , the le 8age he recei5e 3 %nd -or thi imple rea on: the more he 8or+ , the more he compete again t hi -ello8 8or+men, the more he compel them to compete again t him, and to o--er them el5e on the ame 8retched condition a he doe ; o that, in the la t anal. i , he compete again t him el- a a member o- the 8or+ing cla 3 *achiner. produce the ame e--ect , but upon a much larger cale3 >t upplant +illed labourer b. un +illed, men b. 8omen, adult b. children; 8here ne8l. introduced, it thro8 8or+er upon the treet in great ma e ; and a it become more highl. de5eloped and more producti5e it di card them in additional though maller number 3 We ha5e ha til. +etched in broad outline the indu trial 8ar o- capitali t among them el5e 3 (hi 8ar ha the peculiarit. that the battle in it are 8on le b. recruiting than b. di charging the arm. o- 8or+er 3 (he general Hthe capitali t I 5ie 8ith one another a to 8ho can di charge the greate t number o- indu trial oldier 3 (he economi t tell u , to be ure, that tho e labourer 8ho ha5e been rendered uper-luou b. machiner. -ind ne8 5enue o- emplo.ment3 (he. dare not a ert directl. that the ame labourer that ha5e been di charged -ind ituation in ne8 branche o- labour3 Fact cr. out too loudl. again t thi lie3 Strictl. pea+ing, the. onl. maintain that ne8 mean o- emplo.ment 8ill be -ound -or other ection o- the 8or+ing cla ; -or e4ample, -or that portion o- the .oung generation o- labourer 8ho 8ere about to enter upon that branch o- indu tr. 8hich had Bu t been aboli hed3 G- cour e, thi i a great ati -action to the di abled labourer 3 (here 8ill be no lac+ o-re h e4ploitable blood and mu cle -or the *e r 3 Capitali t F the dead ma. bur. their dead3 (hi con olation eem to be intended more -or the com-ort o- the capitali t them el5e than their labourer 3 >- the 8hole cla o- the 8age'labourer 8ere to be annihilated b. machiner., ho8 terrible that 8ould be -or capital, 8hich, 8ithout 8age'labour, cea e to be capitalJ ,ut e5en i- 8e a ume that all 8ho are directl. -orced out o- emplo.ment b. machiner., a 8ell a all o- the ri ing generation 8ho 8ere 8aiting -or a chance o- emplo.ment in the ame branch o- indu tr., do actuall. -ind ome ne8 emplo.ment F are 8e to belie5e that thi ne8 emplo.ment 8ill pa. a high 8age a did the one the. ha5e lo tA >- it did, it 8ould be in contradiction to the la8 o- political econom.3 We ha5e een ho8 modern indu tr. al8a. tend to the ub titution othe impler and more ubordinate emplo.ment -or the higher and more comple4 one 3 2o8, then, could a ma o- 8or+er thro8n out o- one branch o- indu tr. b. machiner. -ind re-uge in another branch, unle the. 8ere to be paid more poorl.A

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%n e4ception to the la8 ha been adduced, namel., the 8or+er 8ho are emplo.ed in the manu-acture o- machiner. it el-3 % oon a there i in indu tr. a greater demand -or and a greater con umption o- machiner., it i aid that the number o- machine mu t nece aril. increa e; con e;uentl., al o, the manu-acture o- machine ; con e;uentl., al o, the emplo.ment o8or+er in machine manu-acture; and the 8or+er emplo.ed in thi branch o- indu tr. are +illed, e5en educated, 8or+er 3 Since the .ear 1840 thi a ertion, 8hich e5en be-ore that date 8a onl. hal-'true, ha lo t all emblance o- truth; -or the mo t di5er e machine are no8 applied to the manu-acture o- the machine them el5e on ;uite a e4ten i5e a cale a in the manu-acture o- cotton .arn, and the labourer emplo.ed in machine -actorie can but pla. the role o- 5er. tupid machine along ide o- the highl. ingeniou machine 3 ,ut in place o- the man 8ho ha been di mi ed b. the machine, the -actor. ma. emplo., perhap , three children and one 8omanJ %nd mu t not the 8age o- the man ha5e pre5iou l. u--iced -or the three children and one 8omanA *u t not the minimum 8age ha5e u--iced -or the pre er5ation and propagation o- the raceA What, then, do the e belo5ed bourgeoi phra e pro5eA "othing more than that no8 -our time a man. 8or+er M li5e are u ed up a there 8ere pre5iou l., in order to obtain the li5elihood o- one 8or+ing -amil.3 (o um up: the more producti5e capital gro8 , the more it e4tend the di5i ion o- labour and the application o- machiner.; the more the di5i ion o- labour and the application o- machiner. e4tend, the more doe competition e4tend among the 8or+er , the more do their 8age hrin+ together3 >n addition, the 8or+ing cla i al o recruited -rom the higher trata o- ociet.; a ma o- mall bu ine men and o- people li5ing upon the intere t o- their capital i precipitated into the ran+ o- the 8or+ing cla , and the. 8ill ha5e nothing el e to do than to tretch out their arm along ide o- the arm o- the 8or+er 3 (hu the -ore t o- out tretched arm , begging -or 8or+, gro8 e5er thic+er, 8hile the arm them el5e gro8 e5er. leaner3 >t i e5ident that the mall manu-acturer cannot ur5i5e in a truggle in 8hich the -ir t condition o- ucce i production upon an e5er greater cale3 >t i e5ident that the mall manu-acturer and thereb. increa ing the number o- candidate -or the proletariat F all thi re;uire no -urther elucidation3 Finall., in the ame mea ure in 8hich the capitali t are compelled, b. the mo5ement de cribed abo5e, to e4ploit the alread. e4i ting gigantic mean o- production on an e5er'increa ing cale, and -or thi purpo e to et in motion all the main pring o- credit, in the ame mea ure do the. increa e the indu trial earth;ua+e , in the mid t o- 8hich the commercial 8orld can pre er5e it el- onl. b. acri-icing a portion o- it 8ealth, it product , and e5en it -orce o- production, to the god o- the lo8er 8orld F in hort, the cri e increa e3 (he. become more -re;uent and more 5iolent, i- -or no other rea on, than -or thi alone, that in the ame mea ure in 8hich the ma oproduct gro8 , and there-ore the need -or e4ten i5e mar+et , in the ame mea ure doe the 8orld mar+et hrin+ e5er more, and e5er -e8er mar+et remain to be e4ploited, ince e5er. pre5iou cri i ha ubBected to the commerce o- the 8orld a hitherto uncon;uered or but uper-iciall. e4ploited mar+et3 ,ut capital not onl. li5e upon labour3 Li+e a ma ter, at once di tingui hed and barbarou , it drag 8ith it into it gra5e the corp e o- it la5e , 8hole hecatomb o- 8or+er , 8ho peri h in the cri e 3 We thu ee that i- capital gro8 rapidl., competition among the 8or+er gro8 8ith e5en greater rapidit. F i3e3, the mean o- emplo.ment and ub i tence -or the 8or+ing cla decrea e in proportion e5en more rapidl.; but, thi not8ith tanding, the rapid gro8th o- capital i the mo t -a5orable condition -or 8age'labour3

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