EE2092 Theory of Electricity, May 2011 J R Lucas Page 1 of 84

Course Outline
UEE 2092 Theory of Electricity
B.Sc. Engineering Degree
Semester 2/3 2011
Credits: 2
Lecturer: Prof. J. Rohan Lucas
Lectures: 2 hours per week.
Duration: 14 weeks
Assignments/Tests: In-class
EE2092 Theory of Electricity, May 2011 J R Lucas Page 2 of 84

Web site
- Department
http://www.elect.mrt.ac.lk
- Notes
http://www.elect.mrt.ac.lk/pdf_notes.htm
- Past Question Papers & Answers
http://www.elect.mrt.ac.lk/pdf_qpapers.htm
EE2092 Theory of Electricity, May 2011 J R Lucas Page 3 of 84

Learning Objectives
To develop electrical analysis tools.
To provide a foundation in electrical
fundamentals through network theorems.
To apply dc and ac principles to solve circuits.
To apply matrix analysis to solve circuits
To analyse circuits and waveforms.
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Outline Syllabus

1. Fundamentals (6 hrs)
Review of electric circuits.
Circuit Transient Analysis
Differential equation solution
Review of AC theory.
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2. Coupled circuits & Dependent sources (4 hrs)
Series and parallel resonance.
Electromagnetic coupling in circuits
Mutual inductance
Analysis of coupled circuits
Transformer as a coupled circuit.
Dependent sources
solving circuits with dependent sources.
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3. Network theorems (4 hrs)
Superposition theorem,
Thevenin's theorem,
Norton's theorem,
Millmans theorem,
Reciprocity theorem,
Maximum power transfer theorem,
Nodal-mesh transformation theorem
Compensation theorem.
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4. Matrix Analysis (4 hrs)
Network topology
Nodal and mesh analysis.
Two-port theory
Impedance parameters,
admittance parameters,
hybrid parameters
ABCD parameters.
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5. Three-phase Analysis (6 hrs)
Introduction to Three Phase
Analysis of three phase balanced circuits.
Single line equivalent circuits.
Analysis of three phase unbalanced circuits.
Symmetrical component Analysis.


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6. Non-sinusoidal waveforms (4 hrs)
Periodic Waveforms
Waveform parameters: mean, rms, peak,
rectified average etc.
Power, power factor
Harmonics, Fourier analysis.
Non-Periodic Waveforms
Laplace transform
Transient analysis using Laplace transform.
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Learning Outcomes
At the end of this module you should be able to
1. solve coupled circuits involving mutual impedance
2. solve circuits with dependant sources
3. analyse the resonance of circuits
4. solve circuits using network theorems
5. apply matrix analysis to solve large circuits
6. solve three phase circuits: balanced and unbalanced
7. analyse periodic waveforms: harmonics content
8. analyse circuits with non-sinusoidal sources
9. obtain Laplace transforms and analyse transients.
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Continuous Assessment

30% of overall mark for module
At least 35% of allocated mark required to be
considered for a grade point
Components of Continuous Assessment
unannounced in-class tests (around 7)
attendance at lectures
tutorials/assignments may be given
EE2092 Theory of Electricity, May 2011 J R Lucas Page 12 of 84
End of Semester Assessment
70% of overall mark for module
at least 40% of allocated marks required to be
considered for a grade point
closed book examination of duration 2 hours
all questions must be answered
will usually consist of 5 questions
questions not necessarily of equal weightage
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Recommended Texts
Electric Circuits, E.A.Edminster, Schaum
Outline Series, McGraw Hill
Theory and Problems of Basic Electrical
Engineering, D P Kothari, I J Kothari, Prentice
Hall of India, New Delhi
Electrical Engineering Fundamentals, Vincent
Del Toro, Prentice Hall of India, New Delhi
EE2092 Theory of Electricity, May 2011 J R Lucas Page 14 of 84
1. Fundamentals
1.1. Review of electric circuits
Resistance (unit: ohm, O; letter symbol: R, r)

v = R i, i = G v
p(t) = v(t) . i(t) = R . i
2
(t) = G . v
2
(t)
w(t) = } v(t) . i(t).dt = } R . i
2
(t). dt = } G. v
2
(t).dt
R R
Figure 1 Circuit symbols for Resistance
(a)
(b) (c)
i(t)
v(t)
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I nductance (unit: henry, H;letter symbol: L , l )



v = Lp i, i = v/Lp
Current through inductor cannot change suddenly.
p(t) = v(t) . i(t)
w(t) =} v(t).i(t).dt =
}
dt i
dt
di
L
= }L.i.di = L.i
2

L
L
Figure 2 Circuit symbols for Inductance
(a)
(b) (c)
i(t)
v(t)
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Capacitance (unit: farad, F; letter symbol: C , c )




v = (1/Cp) i, i = Cp v
Voltage across capacitor cannot change suddenly.
p(t) = v(t) . i(t)
w(t)=}v(t).i(t).dt =
}
dt
dt
dv
C v
= } C.v.dv = C.V
2

C
C
Figure 3 Circuit symbols for Capacitance
(a) (b)
i(t)
v(t)
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I mpedance and Admittance
v = Z(p) i , i = Y(p) v
where Z(p) impedance operator,
Y(p) admittance operator.
Impedances and Admittances
either linear or non-linear

Figure (a) Linear System
Figure (b) Non-Linear System
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Active Circuit Elements
component capable of producing energy
sources of energy (or sources)
o voltage sources
o current sources.

Producing energy
non-electrical energy electrical energy
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1.2. Natural Behaviour of R-L-C Circuits
Does not depend on the external forcing functions
Depends on internal properties of the system.
Give a pendulum an initial swing, let go
behaviour depends on natural frequency
if we push at some other rate, behaviour
would also depend on forcing frequency.
To determine the natural behaviour
forcing function must not have its own
specific frequency
o step function, impulse function.
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Unit Step Function H(t)
similar to a staircase step
H(t) = 0, t < 0

H(t) = 1, t > 0

Unit I mpulse Function o(t)
o(t) = 0 , t < 0
o(t) = , t = 0
o(t) = 0 , t > 0
Unit Step

H(t)

1

t

Unit Impulse

o(t)


t

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Some properties of Unit Impulse o(t)
Area under curve is unity.
}

= 1 ) ( dt t o
, which gives
}
+

=
0
0
1 ) ( dt t o

Also

}

= ) 0 ( ) ( ) ( f dt t t f o

and
}

= ) ( ) ( ) ( t o t f dt t t f

t=0

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Transient Analysis
Particular integral steady state solution
Complementary function transient solution
Series R-L circuit
With step excitation
e
s
(t) = E.H(t)
governing behaviour is

) ( ) ( t H E t e i R
dt
di
L
s
= = +

Particular integral E/R
Complementary function L p i + R i = 0
R
L
e
s
(t)
i(t)
Series R-L circuit
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Solution has the form

R
E
e A t i
t
L
R
+ =

. ) (

A is obtained from initial conditions
At t = 0, i = 0
R
E
A =

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
t
L
R
e
R
E
t i 1 ) (

Unit impulse derivative of unit step
Response to unit impulse
derivative of response to unit step
t

i(t)
Step Response
e
s
(t)
t

E

e
s
(t)
t

E
t

d e
s
(t)
dt
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With impulse excitation e(t) = E.o(t)
Complementary function is same as before.
Particular integral is now different and equal to 0.

0 . ) ( + =
t
L
R
e A t i

New A is obtained from new initial conditions.

t
L
R
e
L
E
t i

= ) (

Or from derivative of unit step response as

t
L
R
t
L
R
e
L
E
e
R
E
dt
d
t i

=
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
= 1 ) (

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Additional Problems on Circuit Transients
Example 1: Simple R C circuit supplied from step voltage
Continuing from earlier solution,
voltage drops across each element is obtained as

|
|
.
|

\
|
= =
t
L
R
R
e E t i R t v 1 ) ( . ) (
and
t
L
R
L
e E
dt
t i d
L t v

= = .
) (
. ) (





V
L
(
t
)
time
V
R
(
t
)
time
E
E
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Example 2 Simple R C circuit supplied from step voltage
(switch closed onto a battery)
Governing differential equation is
e(t) = R . i(t) +
For complementary function,
, giving p = 1/RC

No current through capacitor at steady state.
particular solution steady state solution i(t) = 0
solution is in the form
t
RC
e A t i
1
0 ) (

+ =

R
C
E
) (
.
1
) ( . ) (
1
t i
p C
t i R dt t i
C
+ =
}
0
1
= +
p C
R
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Constant A can be obtained from initial conditions:
Voltage across a capacitor cannot change suddenly
at t=0, v
c
(t) = 0, v
R
(t) = E and i(t) = E/R

0
1

=
RC
e A
R
E
giving A = E/R.

t
RC
e
R
E
t i
1
) (

=

Voltage drops across elements can now be obtained using
Ohms law.
Sketches of voltage and current can now be done as
earlier.
EE2092 Theory of Electricity, May 2011 J R Lucas Page 28 of 84

Example 3 R C circuit supplied from a step voltage
source, but with C initially charged to V
o
Governing differential equation
o
V dt t i
C
t i R t e + + =
}
) (
1
) ( . ) (

o
V i
p C
i R + + =
.
1
.

Complementary function remains same as earlier
except that the value of constant will be different.
The particular solution would again be zero.
R
C
E
V
o
EE2092 Theory of Electricity, May 2011 J R Lucas Page 29 of 84
since voltage across capacitor cannot change suddenly
At t=0, v
c
(t) = V
o
.
v
R
(t) = E V
o
and i(t) = (E V
o
)/R
0
1

=

RC
o
e A
R
V E
giving
R
V E
A
o

=

t
RC
o
e
R
V E
t i
1
) (

=

voltage across
( )
t
RC
o C
e V E E t v
1
) (

=

v
C
(
t
)
time

E
V
o
EE2092 Theory of Electricity, May 2011 J R Lucas Page 30 of 84
Example 4 R L C circuit supplied from a step voltage

) (
.
1
) ( . . ) ( .
) (
1 ) (
) ( . ) (
t i
p C
t i p L t i R
dt t i
C t d
t i d
L t i R t e
+ + =
+ + =
}


) (
1
) ( . . ) ( . . ) ( .
2
t i
C
t i p L t i p R t e p + + =

Complementary function is
R.p + L.p
2
+ 1/C = 0
Solution of equation can have real or complex roots
dependant on the values of components.
R
L
E
C
i(t)
EE2092 Theory of Electricity, May 2011 J R Lucas Page 31 of 84
(a) R = 480 O, L = 0.4 H, C = 2.5 F, E = 120 V
complementary function is
0.4 p
2
+ 480 p + 410
5
= 0 or p
2
+ 1200 p + 10
6
= 0
giving
800 600 10 600 600
6 2
j p = =

Particular solution would be i(t)=0 at t=
giving a solution of the form
A.e
-600t
.e
j800t
+ B.e
-600t
.e
-j

800t
,
or C.e
-600t
.cos(800t+ u)
EE2092 Theory of Electricity, May 2011 J R Lucas Page 32 of 84
Using initial conditions [2 energy storing elements]
at t=0, i(t) = 0 and v
C
(t) = 0
0 = C.e
-6000
.cos(8000+u)
gives u = 90
o
as C cannot be zero [trivial solution]
giving the solution i(t) = C. e
-600t
.sin 800t
Also since i(0)=0, v
R
(0) = 0.
v
L
(0) = 120 = giving at t=0
giving C = 300/800 = 0.375
t d
i d
4 . 0 300 =
t d
i d
| | 300 0 800 cos 800 . 0 800 sin . 600 .
0 600 0 600
= + =

e e C
t d
i d
EE2092 Theory of Electricity, May 2011 J R Lucas Page 33 of 84
i(t) = 0.375 e
-600t
.sin 800t A
Using Ohms law,
v
R
(t) = 480 i(t) = 180 e
-600t
.sin 800t V
v
L
(t) = 0.4 p.i(t) = 90 e
-600t
.sin 800t + 120 e
-600t
.cos 800t V
v
C
(t) = 120 - 90 e
-600t
.sin 800t - 120 e
-600t
.cos 800t V





i(t) V
c
(t)
-0.04
-0.02
0
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.1
0.12
0.14
0.16
0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01
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(b) R = 800 O, L = 0.4 H, C = 2.5 F, E = 120 V
complementary function is
0.4 p
2
+ 800 p + 410
5
= 0 or p
2
+ 2000 p + 10
6
= 0
giving (p +1000)
2
= 0 or p = 1000 (repeated roots)
In this case the solution is of the form
i(t) = A.t e
-1000t
+ 0
At t=0, i(t) = 0, [automatically satisfied]
and di(t)/dt = 300
300 . 0 1000
0 1000 0 1000
= =

e A e A
dt
di
giving A = 300
i(t) = 300 t e
-1000t
A
0
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.1
0.12
0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01
i(t)
EE2092 Theory of Electricity, May 2011 J R Lucas Page 35 of 84
(c) R = 1000 O, L = 0.4 H, C = 2.5 F, E = 120 V
complementary function is
0.4 p
2
+1000 p +410
5
= 0 or p
2
+ 2500 p + 10
6
= 0
giving (p +500)(p+2000) = 0 or p = 500 or 2000
In this case the solution is of the form
i(t) = A e
-500t
+ B e
-2000t

At t=0, i(t) = 0 = A + B
At t=0, v
C
(t) = 0 ,
gives di(t)/dt = 300.
i.e. 500A 2000B = 300,
gives A = 0.2 = B
i(t) = 0.2 (e
-500t
e
-2000t
) A
0
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.06
0.07
0.08
0.09
0.1
0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01
i(t)
EE2092 Theory of Electricity, May 2011 J R Lucas Page 36 of 84
1.3. Review of AC theory






Sinusoidal waveform has equation
v(t) = V
m
sin(e t + | )
Period is T. Angular frequency e = 2t/T
Mean value = 0
v(t)
t
T
T
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Average Value (rectified)
Average of full-wave rectified waveform

average value for sinusoidal wave = (2/t) A
m
v
rect
(t)
t
T
T
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Effective value





Effective value = rms value

Rms value for sinusoidal wave = A
m
/\2
rms value is always specified for ac waveforms.
}
+
=
T t
t
eff
o
o
dt t a
T
A ) (
1
2
v
2
(t)
t
T
T
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Form Factor and Peak Factor
Form Factor = rms value/average value
= 1.1107 1.111 for sinusoidal
Peak Factor = peak value/rms value
= \2 = 1.4142 for sinusoidal
EE2092 Theory of Electricity, May 2011 J R Lucas Page 40 of 84
Phasor Representation of Sinusoids
e
ju
= cos u + j sin u or e
jet
= cos et + j sin et





Sinusoidal waveform is the projection, on a particular
direction, of the complex exponential e
jet
.
a(t)
t
T
A
m
sine t
et
e
O
O
P
X
EE2092 Theory of Electricity, May 2011 J R Lucas Page 41 of 84





A reference direction is chosen, usually horizontal.


R
P
|
0
A
m

a(t)
t
T
A
m
sin (e t+|)
e
t
e
0
0
R
X
P
|
Rotating Phasor
diagram
R
P
|
0
A
m

reference direction
|
0
A=A
m

\2
Phasor diagram

A
y

A
x

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Usual to draw Phasor diagram using rms value A,
rather than with the peak value A
m
.
The phasor A is characterised by its magnitude A
and its phase angle |.
Polar co-ordinates of phasor A written as AZ|.
Cartesian co-ordinates A
x
and A
y
of phasor A, usually
written A = A
x
+ j A
y
.
EE2092 Theory of Electricity, May 2011 J R Lucas Page 43 of 84
Phase difference

Consider A
m
sin (e t+|
1
) and B
m
sin (e t+|
2
) as shown
Can be represented by rotating phasors A
m
e
j(et+|
1
)
and
B
m
e
j (et+|
2
)
with peak amplitudes A
m
and B
m
,
Or on normal phasor diagram with complex A and B
with polar co-ordinates AZ|
1
and BZ|
2
.
|
1

O
|
2

y(t)
e t
A
m
sin (e t+|
1
)
B
m
sin (e t+|
2
)
eT
|
2
|
1

|
2
|
1

A
m


B
m

e
EE2092 Theory of Electricity, May 2011 J R Lucas Page 44 of 84
Example 1
Find the addition and subtraction of the 2 complex
numbers given by 10Z30
o
and 25Z 48
o
.
Addition = 10 Z30
o
+ 25 Z48
o

= 10(0.8660 + j0.5000) + 25(0.6691 + j0.7431)
= (8.660 + 16.728) + j (5.000 + 18.577)
= 25.388 + j 23.577 = 34.647 Z 42.9
o

Subtraction = 10Z30
o
25Z48
o

= (8.660 16.728) + j (5.000 18.577)
= 8.068 j 13.577 = 15.793Z239.3
o
EE2092 Theory of Electricity, May 2011 J R Lucas Page 45 of 84
Example 2
Find the multiplication and the division of the two
complex numbers given by 10Z30
o
and 25 Z48
o
.
Multiplication = 10 Z30
o
* 25Z48
o
= 250 Z78
o

Division = 10 Z30
o
25Z48
o
= 0.4 Z18
o
EE2092 Theory of Electricity, May 2011 J R Lucas Page 46 of 84
Currents and voltages in simple circuit elements
(1) Resistor





for a sinusoid,
Let i(t) = I
m
cos (et+u) or Real part of [I
m
e
(jet+u)
]
v(t) = Real [R.I
m
e
(jet+u)
] = Real [V
m
. e
(jet+u)
|
or v(t)= R . I
m
cos(et+u) = V
m
cos (et+u )
R
v (t)
i (t)
v(t) = R .i(t)
O
e t
V
m
cos e t
I
m
cos e t
eT
EE2092 Theory of Electricity, May 2011 J R Lucas Page 47 of 84
V
m
= R.I
m

and V
m
/\2 = R.I
m
/\2
i.e. V = R . I
Note: V and I are rms values
of voltage and current.
no phase angle change has occurred in the resistor.
Note also that power dissipated in resistor R is
R . I
2
= V . I
V
I
O
Phasor diagram
R
V
I
EE2092 Theory of Electricity, May 2011 J R Lucas Page 48 of 84
0
e t
V
m
sin e t
I
m
cos e t
eT
t/2
(2) Inductor




Let i(t) = I
m
cos (et+u) or Real part of [ I
m
e
(jet+u)
]
v(t) = Real [L.
d
dt
I
m
e
(jet+u)
]
= Real [L. je. I
m
e
j(et+u)
] = Real [j V
m
e
j(et+u)
]
L
v (t)
i (t)
dt
t i d
L t v
) (
) ( =
EE2092 Theory of Electricity, May 2011 J R Lucas Page 49 of 84
or v(t) = L.I
m
cos (e t+u) = L.e.I
m
sin (et+u)
= L.e.I
m
cos (et+u+t/2)
= V
m
cos (et+u+t/2)
V
m
= eL.I
m

and V
m
/\2 = eL.I
m
/\2 V
rms
= eL.I
rms

Voltage waveform leads current waveform by 90
o
or t/2 radians
or current waveform lags voltage waveform by 90
o
for the inductor.
V = jeL.I or V = eL.IZ90
o

Impedance Z is thus defined as j eL.
V = Z.I corresponds to the generalised form of Ohms Law.
Power dissipation in a pure inductor is zero.
Energy is only stored but product V . I is not zero.
j eL
V
I
dt
d
EE2092 Theory of Electricity, May 2011 J R Lucas Page 50 of 84
(3) Capacitor




Let i(t) = I
m
cos (et+u) or Real part of [ I
m
e
j(et+u)
]
v(t) = Real [
}
+
= dt e I
C
v
t j
m
.
1
) ( u e
]
= Real [
1
C j . e
. I
m
e
(jet+u)
] = Real [
1
j
V
m
e
(jet+u)
]

C
v (t)
i (t)
0
e t
V
m
sin e t
I
m
cos e t
eT
t/2
}
= dt i
C
v .
1
EE2092 Theory of Electricity, May 2011 J R Lucas Page 51 of 84
or v(t) =
1
C
I t dt
m
cos( ). e u +
}
=
1
Ce
.I
m
sin (et+u)
=
1
Ce
.I
m
cos (et+ut/2) =V
m
cos (et+ut/2)
V
m
=
1
e C
.I
m
and V
m
/\2 =
1
e C
.I
m
/\2
i.e. V
rms
=
1
e C
.I
rms

Voltage waveform lags current waveform by 90
o
or t/2 radians or the
current waveform leads the voltage waveform by 90
o
for a capacitor.
Thus V =
1
j C e
.I or V =
1
e C
.IZ90
o
Impedance Z =
1
j C e
, and V = Z . I
Power dissipation in a pure capacitor is zero, but product V.I not zero.
1
j C e

V
I
V
I
O
Phasor diagram
EE2092 Theory of Electricity, May 2011 J R Lucas Page 52 of 84
Impedance and Admittance in an a.c. circuit
Impedance Z is a complex quantity.
Relates complex rms voltage to complex rms current.
V = Z . I
Admittance Y is inverse of impedance Z.
I = Y . V
In cartesian form
Z = R + j X and Y = G + j B
Real part of Z is resistive, usually denoted by R,
Imaginary part of Z is called a reactance denoted by X.
Z
Y
1
=
EE2092 Theory of Electricity, May 2011 J R Lucas Page 53 of 84
A pure inductor and a pure capacitor has a reactance
only and not a resistive part, while a pure resistor has
only a resistive part and not a reactive part.
Z = R + j 0 for a resistor,
Z = 0 + jeL for an inductor,
and Z = = 0 j for a capacitor.

Real part of Y is a conductance, denoted by G,
Imaginary part of Y is a susceptance, denoted by B.
C e
1
C je
1
EE2092 Theory of Electricity, May 2011 J R Lucas Page 54 of 84
Relationships between components of Z and of Y
G j B Y
Z R j X
R j X
R X
+ = = =
+
=

+
1 1
2 2

so that
G
R
R X
B
X
R X
=
+
=

+
2 2 2 2
, and


It must be remembered that, in a complex circuit, G
does not correspond to the inverse of the resistance R,
but its effective value is influenced by X as well.
EE2092 Theory of Electricity, May 2011 J R Lucas Page 55 of 84
|
V
V
L

V
R

I
Phasor diagram
V
L

Simple Series Circuits
R-L series circuit
Consider I as reference
V
R
= R.I, V
L
= jeL.I,
and V = V
R
+ V
L
= (R + jeL).I
so that total series impedance is
Z = R + jeL
Phasor diagram has been drawn with I as reference.
[i.e. I is drawn along the x-axis direction].
V
R
is in phase with I, V
L
is leading I by 90
o
.
By phasor addition, V = V
R
+ V
L
.
R
jeL
I
V
R

V
L

V
EE2092 Theory of Electricity, May 2011 J R Lucas Page 56 of 84
If V is taken as reference,
I is seen to lag voltage by the
same angle | that the voltage
was leading the current earlier.
In R-L circuit, current I lags voltage
V by an angle less than 90
o
and the
circuit is said to be inductive.
Note: Power dissipation can only
occur in the resistive part of the
circuit and is equal to R.I

2
.
This is not equal to product V . I for the circuit.
Phasor diagram
V
V
C

V
R

I
|
|
Phasor diagram
V
V
L

V
R

I
EE2092 Theory of Electricity, May 2011 J R Lucas Page 57 of 84
R-C series circuit
V
R
= R.I, V
C
=
1
j C e
. I
and V = V
R
+ V
C

V = (R +
C je
1
).I
so that Z = R +
1
j C e

Phasor diagram has been drawn with V as reference.
In R-C circuit, current I leads voltage V by an angle less than
90
o
and the circuit is said to be capacitive.
Power dissipation can only occur in the resistive part of the
circuit and is equal to R.I
2
, not equal to product V . I.
R
1
j C e

I
V
R

V
C

V
|
V
V
C

V
R

I
EE2092 Theory of Electricity, May 2011 J R Lucas Page 58 of 84
L-C series circuit
V
L
= jeL.I,
V
C
=
1
j C e
.I = j
1
e C

and V = V
L
+ V
C

V = (jeL +
1
j C e
).I
so that total series impedance
is Z = jeL +
1
j C e
= jeL j
1
e C

Total impedance is purely reactive, and all voltages in
the circuit are inphase but perpendicular to current I.
Phasor diagram
V
V
C

V
L

I
or
V
C

V
L

I
V
1
j C e


jeL
I
V
C

V
L

V
EE2092 Theory of Electricity, May 2011 J R Lucas Page 59 of 84
Resultant voltage corresponds to algebraic difference
of voltages V
L
and V
C
and direction could be either up
or down depending on which voltage is more.
When eL =
1
e C
, total impedance of circuit is zero.
Circuit current I, for a given V, would be very large
(only limited by the internal impedance of the source).
This condition is known as series resonance.
In L-C circuit, current either lags or leads the voltage
by an angle equal to 90
o
and the resultant circuit is
either purely inductive or capacitive.
No power dissipation can occur in the circuit and but the
product V . I for the circuit is non zero.
EE2092 Theory of Electricity, May 2011 J R Lucas Page 60 of 84
R-L-C series circuit



V
R
= R.I, V
L
= jeL.I, V
C
=
1
j C e
. I
and V = V
R
+V
L
+ V
C

V = (R + jeL +
1
j C e
).I
so that the total series impedance is
Z = R +jeL +
1
j C e
= R + j(eL
1
e C
)
R
jeL
I
V
R

V
L

V
1
j C e


V
C

EE2092 Theory of Electricity, May 2011 J R Lucas Page 61 of 84
Z R L
C
= +
|
\

|
.
|
2
2
1
e
e

Magnitude has a minimum value at eL =
1
e C

This is the series resonance condition.
In an R-L-C circuit, the current can either lag or lead
the voltage, and the phase angle difference between
the current and the voltage can vary between 90
o

and resultant circuit is either inductive or capacitive.
Note that the power dissipation can only occur in the
resistance in the circuit and is equal to R . I
2
and that
this is not equal to product V . I for the circuit.
EE2092 Theory of Electricity, May 2011 J R Lucas Page 62 of 84
Simple Parallel Circuits
R-L parallel Circuit
Consider V as reference
V = R.I
R
,
V = jeL.I
L
,
and I = I
R
+ I
L


I
V
R
V
j L
= +
e

total shunt admittance =
1 1
R j L
+
e

Phasor diagram
|
I
I
L

I
R
V
I
L

R
jeL
I
R

V
I
L

I
EE2092 Theory of Electricity, May 2011 J R Lucas Page 63 of 84
R-C parallel Circuit
Consider V as reference
V = R.I
R
,
I
C
= jeC.V,
and I = I
R
+ I
L


I
V
R
V j C = + . e

total shunt admittance =
1
R
j C + e


Phasor diagram
|
I
I
C

I
R

V
I
C

R
1
j C e

I
R

V
I
C

I
EE2092 Theory of Electricity, May 2011 J R Lucas Page 64 of 84
R-L-C parallel Circuit
Consider V as reference
V = R.I
R
, V = jeL.I
L
, I
C
= jeC.V

and I = I
R
+ I
L
+ I
C


I
V
R
V
j L
V j C = + +
e
e .

total shunt admittance
=
1 1
R j L
j C + +
e
e

Shunt resonance will occur when
1
e
e
L
C =
giving minimum value of shunt admittance.
R
1
j C e

I
R

V
I
L

I
I
C

jeL
Phasor diagram
|
I
I
L
+I
C

I
R

V
I
C

I
L

EE2092 Theory of Electricity, May 2011 J R Lucas Page 65 of 84
Power
In an a.c. circuit,
power loss occurs only in resistive parts of circuit
in general power loss is not equal to product V . I
purely inductive parts and purely capacitive parts of
a circuit do not have any power loss.
To account for this apparent discrepancy,
define product V . I as apparent power S of circuit.
Apparent power has the unit volt-ampere (VA).
watt (W) is used only for active power P of circuit.
EE2092 Theory of Electricity, May 2011 J R Lucas Page 66 of 84
apparent power S = V . I
Since a difference exists between apparent power
and the active power, we define a new term reactive
power Q for the reactance X.
Instantaneous value of power is given by
p(t) = v(t) . i(t)
If v(t) = V
m
cos e t and i(t) = I
m
cos (e t |),
where voltage has been taken as reference and the current
lags voltage by a phase angle |. Then
p(t) = V
m
cos e t . I
m
cos (e t |)
= V
m
I
m
.. 2 cos e t . cos (e t |)
= V
m
I
m
[cos (2e t |) + cos ||
EE2092 Theory of Electricity, May 2011 J R Lucas Page 67 of 84





Waveform of power p(t) has a sinusoidally varying
component and a constant component.
Average value of power (active power) P would be
given by the constant value V
m
I
m
cos |.
P = V
m
I
m
cos | =
| cos .
2
.
2
m m
I V
= V . I cos |
i(t)
current lagging voltage by angle | inphase quadrature
V
m
I
m
cos |
p(t)
t
T
v(t)
t
p(t)
p(t)
EE2092 Theory of Electricity, May 2011 J R Lucas Page 68 of 84
Power Factor
Power Factor = active power/apparent power
For sinusoidal quantities, equal to term cos | .
For a resistor, | = 0
o
so that P = V . I
For an inductor, | = 90
o
lagging, so that P = 0
For an capacitor, | = 90
o
leading, so that P = 0
For combinations of resistor, inductor and capacitor,
P lies between V. I and 0
For inductor or capacitor, V. I exists although P = 0.
EE2092 Theory of Electricity, May 2011 J R Lucas Page 69 of 84
Reactive Power
Defined as product of voltage and current components
which are quadrature (90
o
out of phase).
reactive power Q = V. I sin |
For L and C, | = 90
o
, reactive power Q = V. I
Unlike inphase, where same direction means positive,
with quadrature, there is no natural positive direction.
Usual to define
Inductive reactive power when current lagging voltage
Capacitive reactive power when current leading voltage.
Inductive reactive power and capacitive reactive
power have opposite signs.
EE2092 Theory of Electricity, May 2011 J R Lucas Page 70 of 84
Power factor correction
Although reactive power does not consume any
energy, it reduces the power factor below unity.
When power factor is below unity,
for same power transfer P the current
required becomes larger and the
power losses in the circuit becomes
still larger (power loss I
2
).
Thus supply authorities encourage industries to
improve their power factors to be close to unity.
P
1
Q
1
|
1
EE2092 Theory of Electricity, May 2011 J R Lucas Page 71 of 84
P
1
Q
1
|
1
Q
c
Q
2
|
2
For a load
lagging power factor cos |
1

active power P
1
, reactive power Q
1

If power factor is improved to a new value,
cos |
2
( >cos |
1
)
leading reactive power Q
c
must be added.
usually done by using capacitors.
With pure capacitors, active power is unchanged at P
1
,
assuming supply voltage remains unchanged.
Thus new reactive power Q
2
= Q
1
Q
c

EE2092 Theory of Electricity, May 2011 J R Lucas Page 72 of 84
What is known is P
1
, cos |
1
and cos |
2
.
Thus Q
1
= P
1
tan |
1
and Q
2
= P
1
tan |
2

so that Q
c
= Q
1
Q
2
= P
1
tan |
1
P
1
tan |
2

Reactive power supplied by a capacitor is dependant
on its capacitance C and the voltage across it V.
Thus Q
c
= P
1
tan |
1
P
2
tan |
2
= V
2
.Y = V
2
.C e
The value of C can be determined.
EE2092 Theory of Electricity, May 2011 J R Lucas Page 73 of 84
R
e
i
C

r
L
i
r

v
r
i
L

i
C
v
C

v
L
v
R
Impedance, Admittance and Transfer functions
Each element is either governed by a constant,
differentiation or integration.
Bilateral linear circuit governed by
differential equation.
written using Kirchoffs
current and voltage laws,
and Ohms Law
with differential operator
p =

dt
d
EE2092 Theory of Electricity, May 2011 J R Lucas Page 74 of 84
To find relationship between e(t) and i
r
(t).
e(t) = v
r
(t) + v
C
(t) v
R
(t), v
r
(t) = v
L
(t)
i(t) = i
r
(t) + i
L
(t) = i
C
(t)
v
r
(t) = r . i
r
(t), v
L
(t) = L p . i
L
(t), C p .v
C
(t) = i
c
(t)
eliminate other variables
L p . i
L
(t) = r . i
r
(t)
L p . i(t) = L p .[ i
r
(t) + i
L
(t)] = (Lp + r ). i
r
(t)
e(t) = r . i
r
(t) + v
C
(t) + R . i(t)
i.e. C p . e(t) = C p . r . i
r
(t) + i(t) + C p . R . i(t)
L p . C p . e(t) = L p . C p . r . i
r
(t) + (1 + C p . R) . i
r
(t)
i.e. L.C.p
2
. e(t) = [L.C. p
2
.r + 1 + C p . R] . i
r
(t)
EE2092 Theory of Electricity, May 2011 J R Lucas Page 75 of 84
This is a differential equation involving terms up to the
second derivative of both e(t) and i
r
(t) of the form
f
1
(p). e(t) = f
2
(p). i
r
(t)
or e(t) = Z
r
(p). i
r
(t)
Z
r
(p) impedance transfer function of differential operator p
In a similar way
any current and any voltage would be related by an
admittance transfer function of differential operator p
any two voltages or any two currents would be related by
a transfer gain of the differential operator p
In the case of sinsusoidal a.c., the differential operator p will
be replaced using the relationship p = je.
EE2092 Theory of Electricity, May 2011 J R Lucas Page 76 of 84
Example 3
Determine mean value, average
value, peak value, rms value,
form factor and peak factor.
Solution
Mean value


[This result could have been written by inspection considering areas].
Average value =
6
5
] 5 [
6
)] ) ( ( 2 [
1
3
1
2
1
3
2
2
1
E
T
T
E
T E T E
T
= =

Peak value = 2E
2E

0

T

2T

3T

E

} }
= =
T T
dt
T
t
E
T
dt t f
T
0 0
).
3
2 (
1
). (
1
2
)
2
3
2 ( )
2
3
2 (
2
0
2
E
T
T
T
T
E
T
t
t
T
E
T
t
= = =
=
EE2092 Theory of Electricity, May 2011 J R Lucas Page 77 of 84
rms value =
} }
=
T T
dt
T
t
E
T
dt t f
T
0
2 2
0
2
. )
3
2 (
1
). (
1


T
t
T
T
t
T
E
0
3
2
)
3
(
3
1
)
3
2 (
=
=

E
E
= = ] 8 1 [
9
) (
2

form factor =
2 . 1
5
6
6 / 5
= =
E
E

peak factor =
2
2
=
E
E

EE2092 Theory of Electricity, May 2011 J R Lucas Page 78 of 84
Example 4
A certain 50 Hz, alternating
voltage source has an internal
emf of 250 V and an internal
inductance of 31.83 mH.
If the terminal voltage is to be
maintained at 230 V,
determine the value of the maximum power that can
be delivered to a load (R + jX) and the values of
R and X under these conditions.
Draw also the phasor diagram showing the voltages
and currents in the circuit under these conditions.
31.83 mH

250 V

EE2092 Theory of Electricity, May 2011 J R Lucas Page 79 of 84
Solution
at 50 Hz, x
s
= jeL = j 2t5031.8310
-3
= j 10.00 O
Current I = jX R j + + 10
250
, | V | = 230 V
active power P = | I |
2
R =
R
X R

+ + ] ) 10 ( [
250
2 2
2
,
voltage V = (R+jX) . I



R+jX

If we simply differentiate and obtain the condition for maximum power,

0 , 0 =
c
c
=
c
c
X
P
and
R
P
, we can show that these give the conditions
[R
2
+ (X + 10)
2
].1 R.2R = 0 and (X + 10) = 0 or X = 10 O and R = 0
Then P = , V =
This obviously is not the required solution.
EE2092 Theory of Electricity, May 2011 J R Lucas Page 80 of 84
| V |
2
= 230
2
= (R
2
+X
2
). | I |
2
=
] ) 10 ( [
250
) (
2 2
2
2 2
+ +
+
X R
X R

R
2
+ (X + 10)
2
= 1.185 R
2
+ 1.1815 X
2

i.e. 20 X + 10
2
= 0.1815 (R
2
+ X
2
)
or R
2
+ X
2
= 5.5104 (10
2
+ 20X)
Differentiate for maximum power keeping voltage constraint
i.e. P =
R
X

+ ] 20 10 [ 5104 . 6
250
2
2


, 0 =
dR
dP
gives the condition
(20X+100).1 R.20.
0 =
dR
dX
or X+5 = R
dR
dX

EE2092 Theory of Electricity, May 2011 J R Lucas Page 81 of 84
also 20
dR
dX
+ 0 = 0.1815(2R + 2X
dR
dX
)
so that 20(X+5) = 0.363R
2
+0.363X(X+5)
i.e. 20X + 100 = 0.363R
2
+0.363X
2
+1.815X
0.363(R
2
+ X
2
) = 18.185X + 100
but 20 X + 100 = 0.1815 (R
2
+ X
2
) = (9.0925X+50)
i.e. 10.9075X = 50
X = 4.584 O
giving R = 4.983 O
Substitution gives
P
max
= 5750 W,
j10 O

250 V

4.983-j4.584 O

EE2092 Theory of Electricity, May 2011 J R Lucas Page 82 of 84
I= 33.97A

- 47.38
o
42.61
o
E=250V

V
R
=169.3 V

V
C
=155.7V

V
L
=339.7V

under given condition
I =
416 . 5 983 . 4
250
584 . 4 983 . 4 10
250
j j j +
=
+

i.e. I =
o
38 . 47 360 . 7
250
Z
= 33.97Z-47.38
o
A
terminal voltage at source (load voltage)
= 33.97Z-47.38
o
6.771Z-42.61
o
= 230.0Z-90
o
V
voltage across resistive part of load
= 4.98333.97Z-47.38
o
= 169.3Z-47.38
o
V
voltage across capacitive part
= 4.584Z-90
o
33.97Z-47.38
o

= 155.7Z-137.38
o

EE2092 Theory of Electricity, May 2011 J R Lucas Page 83 of 84
Example 5
If the load is purely resistive, what
would be its value for power transfer at
230 V ? and what is the Power ?
If parallel capacitance is connected
with load to achieve maximum power,
what is the value of R, C and P
max
.
Solution
eL = 2t5031.8310
-3
= 10 O
250 = \(R
2
+ 10
2
)I, 230 = RI
230\(R
2
+ 10
2
) = 250R R
2
+ 10
2
= 1.1815R
2

i.e. R = 23.47 O, P = 230
2
/23.47 = 2.253 kW
31.83 mH

250 V, 50 Hz

Load

EE2092 Theory of Electricity, May 2011 J R Lucas Page 84 of 84
The solution of example 4 can be used, except that we
need to find the parallel equivalent of the load.
G + j B =
o
j
38 . 47 360 . 7
1
584 . 4 983 . 4
1
Z
=

= 0.092+j0.1000
effective value of resistance = 1/0.0920 = 10.87 O
parallel capacitance = B/e = 0.1000/(2t50) = 318.3 F
maximum power = 230
2
/10.87 = 4.867 kW